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2,700 | Brownian_motion | This article is about the physical phenomenon; for the stochastic process, see Wiener process. For the sports team, see Brownian Motion (Ultimate). For the mobility model, see Random walk. Three different views of Brownian motion, with 32 steps, 256 steps, and 2048 steps denoted by progressively lighter colors. A single realization of three-dimensional Brownian motion for times 0 ≤ t ≤ 2. Brownian motion (named after the Scottish botanist Robert Brown) is the seemingly random movement of particles suspended in a fluid (i.e. a liquid or gas) or the mathematical model used to describe such random movements, often called a particle theory. The mathematical model of Brownian motion has several real-world applications. An often quoted example is stock market fluctuations. Brownian motion is among the simplest of the continuous-time stochastic (or random) processes, and it is a limit of both simpler and more complicated stochastic processes (see random walk and Donsker's theorem). This universality is closely related to the universality of the normal distribution. In both cases, it is often mathematical convenience rather than the accuracy of the models that motivates their use. History Reproduced from the book of Perrin, Les Atomes, three tracings of the motion of colloidal particles of radius 0.53µm, as seen under the microscope, are displayed. Successive positions every 30 seconds are joined by straight line segments (the mesh size is 3.2µm). The Roman Lucretius's scientific poem On the Nature of Things (c. 60 BC) has a remarkable description of Brownian motion of dust particles. He uses this as a proof of the existence of atoms: "Observe what happens when sunbeams are admitted into a building and shed light on its shadowy places. You will see a multitude of tiny particles mingling in a multitude of ways... their dancing is an actual indication of underlying movements of matter that are hidden from our sight... It originates with the atoms which move of themselves [i.e. spontaneously]. Then those small compound bodies that are least removed from the impetus of the atoms are set in motion by the impact of their invisible blows and in turn cannon against slightly larger bodies. So the movement mounts up from the atoms and gradually emerges to the level of our senses, so that those bodies are in motion that we see in sunbeams, moved by blows that remain invisible." Although the mingling motion of dust particles is caused largely by air currents, the glittering, tumbling motion of small dust particles is, indeed, caused chiefly by true Brownian dynamics. Jan Ingenhousz had described the irregular motion of coal dust particles on the surface of alcohol in 1785. Nevertheless Brownian motion is traditionally regarded as discovered by the botanist Robert Brown in 1827. It is believed that Brown was studying pollen particles floating in water under the microscope. He then observed minute particles within the vacuoles of the pollen grains executing a jittery motion. By repeating the experiment with particles of dust, he was able to rule out that the motion was due to pollen particles being 'alive', although the origin of the motion was yet to be explained. The first person to describe the mathematics behind Brownian motion was Thorvald N. Thiele in 1880 in a paper on the method of least squares. This was followed independently by Louis Bachelier in 1900 in his PhD thesis "The theory of speculation", in which he presented a stochastic analysis of the stock and option markets. However, it was Albert Einstein's (in his 1905 paper) and Marian Smoluchowski's (1906) independent research of the problem that brought the solution to the attention of physicists, and presented it as a way to indirectly confirm the existence of atoms and molecules. Intuitive metaphor Consider a large balloon of 10 meters in diameter. Imagine this large balloon in a football stadium. The balloon is so large that it lies on top of many members of the crowd. Because they are excited, these fans hit the balloon at different times and in different directions with the motions being completely random. In the end, the balloon is pushed in random directions, so it should not move on average. Consider now the force exerted at a certain time. We might have 20 supporters pushing right, and 21 other supporters pushing left, where each supporter is exerting equivalent amounts of force. In this case, the forces exerted from the left side and the right side are imbalanced in favor of the left side; the balloon will move slightly to the left. This type of imbalance exists at all times, and it causes random motion of the balloon. If we look at this situation from far above, so that we cannot see the supporters, we see the large balloon as a small object animated by erratic movement. Considering Brown's pollen particle moving randomly in water: we know that a water molecule is about 0.1 by 0.2 nm in size, whereas a pollen particle is roughly 25 µm in diameter, some 250,000 times larger. So the pollen particle may be likened to the balloon, and the water molecules to the fans except that in this case the balloon is surrounded by fans. The Brownian motion of a particle in a liquid is thus due to the instantaneous imbalance in the combined forces exerted by collisions of the particle with the much smaller liquid molecules (which are in random thermal motion) surrounding it. An animation of the Brownian motion concept is available as a Java applet. Modelling using differential equations The equations governing Brownian motion relate slightly differently to each of the two definitions of Brownian motion given at the start of this article. Mathematical In mathematics, the Wiener process is a continuous-time stochastic process named in honor of Norbert Wiener. It is one of the best known Lévy processes (càdlàg stochastic processes with stationary independent increments) and occurs frequently in pure and applied mathematics, economics and physics. The Wiener process is characterized by three facts: is almost surely continuous has independent increments with distribution (for ). denotes the normal distribution with expected value μ and variance σ2. The condition that it has independent increments means that if then and are independent random variables. An alternative characterization of the Wiener process is the so-called Lévy characterization that says that the Wiener process is an almost surely continuous martingale with and quadratic variation . A third characterization is that the Wiener process has a spectral representation as a sine series whose coefficients are independent random variables. This representation can be obtained using the Karhunen-Loève theorem. The Wiener process can be constructed as the scaling limit of a random walk, or other discrete-time stochastic processes with stationary independent increments. This is known as Donsker's theorem. Like the random walk, the Wiener process is recurrent in one or two dimensions (meaning that it returns almost surely to any fixed neighborhood of the origin infinitely often) whereas it is not recurrent in dimensions three and higher. Unlike the random walk, it is scale invariant. The time evolution of the position of the Brownian particle itself can be described approximately by a Langevin equation, an equation which involves a random force field representing the effect of the thermal fluctuations of the solvent on the Brownian particle. On long timescales, the mathematical Brownian motion is well described by a Langevin equation. On small timescales, inertial effects are prevalent in the Langevin equation. However the mathematical brownian motion is exempt of such inertial effects. Note that inertial effects have to be considered in the Langevin equation, otherwise the equation becomes singular, so that simply removing the inertia term from this equation would not yield an exact description, but rather a singular behavior in which the particle doesn't move at all. Physical Brownian theory The diffusion equation yields an approximation of the time evolution of the probability density function associated to the position of the particle undergoing a Brownian movement under the physical definition. The approximation is valid on short timescales (see Langevin equation for details). The time evolution of the position of the Brownian particle itself is best described using Langevin equation, an equation which involves a random force field representing the effect of the thermal fluctuations of the solvent on the particle. The displacement of a particle undergoing Brownian motion is obtained by solving the diffusion equation under appropriate boundary conditions and finding the rms of the solution. This shows that the displacement varies as the square root of the time (not linearly), which explains why previous experimental results concerning the velocity of Brownian particles gave nonsensical results. A linear time dependence was incorrectly assumed. The Lévy characterization The French mathematician Paul Lévy proved the following theorem, which gives a necessary and sufficient condition for a continuous Rn-valued stochastic process X to actually be n-dimensional Brownian motion. Hence, Lévy's condition can actually be used an alternative definition of Brownian motion. Let X = (X1, ..., Xn) be a continuous stochastic process on a probability space (Ω, Σ, P) taking values in Rn. Then the following are equivalent: X is a Brownian motion with respect to P, i.e. the law of X with respect to P is the same as the law of an n-dimensional Brownian motion, i.e. the push-forward measure X∗(P) is classical Wiener measure on C0([0, +∞); Rn). both X is a martingale with respect to P (and its own natural filtration); and for all 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n, Xi(t)Xj(t) −δijt is a martingale with respect to P (and its own natural filtration), where δij denotes the Kronecker delta. Brownian motion on a Riemannian manifold The characteristic operator of a Brownian motion is ½ times the Laplace-Beltrami operator. Here it is the Laplace-Beltrami operator on a 2-sphere. The infinitesimal generator (and hence characteristic operator) of a Brownian motion on Rn is easily calculated to be ½Δ, where Δ denotes the Laplace operator. This observation is useful in defining Brownian motion on an m-dimensional Riemannian manifold (M, g): a Brownian motion on M is defined to be a diffusion on M whose characteristic operator in local coordinates xi, 1 ≤ i ≤ m, is given by ½ΔLB, where ΔLB is the Laplace-Beltrami operator given in local coordinates by where [gij] = [gij]−1 in the sense of the inverse of a square matrix. See also Brownian bridge: a Brownian motion that is required to "bridge" specified values at specified times Brownian dynamics Brownian motor Brownian ratchet Brownian tree Rotational Brownian motion Complex system Diffusion equation Itō diffusion: a generalization of Brownian motion Langevin equation Local time (mathematics) Osmosis Red noise, also known as brown noise (Martin Gardner proposed this name for sound generated with random intervals. It is a pun on Brownian motion and white noise.) Schramm–Loewner evolution Surface diffusion – a type of constrained Brownian motion. Tyndall effect: physical chemistry phenomenon where particles are involved; used to differentiate between the different types of mixtures. Ultramicroscope References Brown, Robert, "A brief account of microscopical observations made in the months of June, July and August, 1827, on the particles contained in the pollen of plants; and on the general existence of active molecules in organic and inorganic bodies." Phil. Mag. 4, 161-173, 1828. (PDF version of original paper including a subsequent defense by Brown of his original observations, Additional remarks on active molecules.) Einstein, A. "Investigations on the Theory of Brownian Movement". New York: Dover, 1956. ISBN 0-486-60304-0 Theile, T. N. Danish version: "Om Anvendelse af mindste Kvadraters Methode i nogle Tilfælde, hvor en Komplikation af visse Slags uensartede tilfældige Fejlkilder giver Fejlene en ‘systematisk’ Karakter". French version: "Sur la compensation de quelques erreurs quasi-systématiques par la méthodes de moindre carrés" published simultaneously in Vidensk. Selsk. Skr. 5. Rk., naturvid. og mat. Afd., 12:381–408, 1880. Nelson, Edward, Dynamical Theories of Brownian Motion (1967) (PDF version of this out-of-print book, from the author's webpage.) Ruben D. Cohen (1986) "Self Similarity in Brownian Motion and Other Ergodic Phenomena", Journal of Chemical Education 63, pp. 933-934 J. Perrin, "Mouvement brownien et réalité moléculaire". Ann. Chim. Phys. 8ième série 18, 5-114 (1909). See also Perrin's book "Les Atomes" (1914). Lucretius, 'On The Nature of Things.', translated by William Ellery Leonard. (on-line version, from Project Gutenberg. see the heading 'Atomic Motions'; this translation differs slightly from the one quoted). External links A page describing Brownian motion. 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2,701 | Transport_in_Hungary | Railways Keleti Railway Station, Budapest Total: 7,606 km Broad gauge: 36 km gauge Standard gauge: 7,394 km gauge (2,270 km electrified; 1,236 km double track) narrow gauge: 176 km gauge (1998) Note: Hungary and Austria jointly manage the cross-border standard-gauge railway between Győr–Sopron–Ebenfurt (GySEV/ROeEE), a distance of about 101 km in Hungary and 65 km in Austria. In Budapest, the three main railway stations are the Eastern (Keleti), Western (Nyugati) and Southern (Déli), with other outlying stations like Kelenföld. Of the three, the Southern is the most modern but the Eastern and the Western are more decorative and architecturally interesting. Other important railway stations countrywide include Szolnok (the most important railway intersection outside Budapest), Tiszai Railway Station in Miskolc and the stations of Pécs, Győr, Szeged and Székesfehérvár. The only city with an underground railway system is Budapest with its Metro. In Budapest there is also a suburban rail service in and around the city, operated under the name HÉV. Motorways M7 motorway in Hungary Motorways () : M0 - M1 - M2 - M15 - M3 - M30 - M35 - M5 - M6 - M7 - M70 Total: 188,490 km Paved: 81,950 km (including 1013 km of motorways, 2007) Unpaved: 106,523 km (1998 est.) New motorway sections are being added to the existing network, that already connects many major economically important cities to the Capital City. Motorway information (English) Waterways 1,373 km permanently navigable (1997) Ports and harbors The most important port is Budapest, the capital. Other important ones include Dunaújváros and Baja. Merchant marine Total: 2 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling / Ships by type: cargo ship 2 (1999 est.) Pipelines Crude oil 1,204 km Natural gas 4,387 km (1991) Airports Ferihegy Airport There are 43-45 airports in Hungary, including smaller, unpaved ones too. (1999 est.) The five international ones are Budapest-Ferihegy, Debrecen Airport, Sármellék Airport (also called FlyBalaton for its proximity to Lake Balaton, Hungary's number one tourist attraction), Győr-Pér and Pécs-Pogány. MALÉV Hungarian Airlines operates flights to over 60, mostly European cities. Airports with paved runways Total: 16 Over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 8 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 1 Under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) Airports with unpaved runways Total: 27 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 914 to 1,523 m: 12 Under 914 m: 7 (1999 est.) Heliports Siemens Desiro in Esztergom Stadler Flirt in Budapest Eastern Railway Station 5 (1999 est.) Transport in cities Transport companies of cities BKV (Budapest) (buses, trams, trolley buses and metro) DKV (Debrecen) (trams & trolley buses only; buses belong to Hajdú Volán) MVK Zrt. (Miskolc) (buses and trams) SzKT (Szeged) (trams & trolley buses only; buses belong to Tisza Volán) PK Rt. (Pécs) (buses) KT Rt. (Kaposvár) (buses) In the rest of the cities and towns local transport is provided by Volán companies that also provide intercity bus lines. Trams and Light Rail The busiest traditional city tram line in the world is still route 4/6 in Budapest, Hungary, where 50-meter long trains run at 60 to 90 second intervals at peak time and are usually packed with people. A part of this route is the same as where electric trams made their world first run in 1887. Budapest has recently ordered 40 Siemens Combino Supra low floor trams. Trams began carrying the passengers on the 1 July 2006 but during the first weeks there were many technical difficulties. Cities with tram lines Budapest (since November 28, 1887) Miskolc (since July 10, 1897) Szeged (since October 1, 1908) Debrecen (since March 16, 1911) Cities with former tram lines Szombathely (1897–1974) Sopron (1900–1923) Nyíregyháza (1905–1969) Pécs (1913 – August 31, 1960) There were some towns, where narrow gauge railways were used as tram lines or interurban lines (for example: Sárospatak, Sátoraljaújhely, Békéscsaba, Békés, Cegléd). These lines were closed in the 1970s. See also Hungary Hungarian State Railways List of airports in Hungary List of motorways in Hungary Suburban railway lines in Budapest External links Public Transport and Railways in Hungary Transport briefing on Hungary Starts Here | Transport_in_Hungary |@lemmatized railway:13 keleti:2 station:7 budapest:13 total:6 km:15 broad:1 gauge:8 standard:2 electrify:1 double:1 track:1 narrow:2 note:1 hungary:11 austria:2 jointly:1 manage:1 cross:1 border:1 győr:3 sopron:2 ebenfurt:1 gysev:1 roeee:1 distance:1 three:2 main:1 eastern:3 western:2 nyugati:1 southern:2 déli:1 outlying:1 like:1 kelenföld:1 modern:1 decorative:1 architecturally:1 interesting:1 important:5 countrywide:1 include:4 szolnok:1 intersection:1 outside:1 tiszai:1 miskolc:3 pécs:4 szeged:3 székesfehérvár:1 city:11 underground:1 system:1 metro:2 also:4 suburban:2 rail:2 service:1 around:1 operate:2 name:1 hév:1 motorway:7 pave:1 unpaved:3 est:6 new:1 section:1 add:1 exist:1 network:1 already:1 connect:1 many:2 major:1 economically:1 capital:2 information:1 english:1 waterways:1 permanently:1 navigable:1 port:2 harbor:1 one:4 dunaújváros:1 baja:1 merchant:1 marine:1 ship:3 volume:1 type:1 cargo:1 pipeline:1 crude:1 oil:1 natural:1 gas:1 airports:1 ferihegy:2 airport:7 small:1 five:1 international:1 debrecen:3 sármellék:1 call:1 flybalaton:1 proximity:1 lake:1 balaton:1 number:1 tourist:1 attraction:1 pér:1 pogány:1 malév:1 hungarian:2 airline:1 flight:1 mostly:1 european:1 paved:1 runway:2 heliport:1 siemens:2 desiro:1 esztergom:1 stadler:1 flirt:1 transport:5 company:2 bkv:1 bus:10 tram:10 trolley:3 dkv:1 trams:2 belong:2 hajdú:1 volán:3 mvk:1 zrt:1 szkt:1 tisza:1 pk:1 rt:2 kt:1 kaposvár:1 rest:1 town:2 local:1 provide:2 intercity:1 line:8 light:1 busy:1 traditional:1 world:2 still:1 route:2 meter:1 long:1 train:1 run:2 second:1 interval:1 peak:1 time:1 usually:1 pack:1 people:1 part:1 electric:1 make:1 first:2 recently:1 order:1 combino:1 supra:1 low:1 floor:1 begin:1 carry:1 passenger:1 july:2 week:1 technical:1 difficulty:1 since:4 november:1 october:1 march:1 former:1 szombathely:1 nyíregyháza:1 august:1 use:1 interurban:1 example:1 sárospatak:1 sátoraljaújhely:1 békéscsaba:1 békés:1 cegléd:1 close:1 see:1 state:1 list:2 external:1 link:1 public:1 brief:1 start:1 |@bigram km_electrify:1 narrow_gauge:2 gauge_railway:2 unpaved_km:1 waterways_km:1 merchant_marine:1 pipeline_crude:1 crude_oil:1 lake_balaton:1 tourist_attraction:1 airport_paved:1 paved_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 est_heliport:1 trolley_bus:3 intercity_bus:1 budapest_hungary:1 external_link:1 |
2,702 | Latveria | A rendition of the fictional nation of Latveria (in green) and its capital Doomstadt. Symkaria borders along the south. Latveria is a fictional nation in the Marvel Universe of the Marvel Comics comic book publishing company, primarily defined in the Fantastic Four comic books. The name of the fictional Latveria is similar to that of the real nation Latvia, which is in Northern Europe. It is an isolated European country ruled by the supervillain Doctor Doom, supposedly located in the Banat region. It is surrounded by the Carpathians, and also borders the fictional Symkaria (home of Silver Sable) to the south. Publication history Latveria first appeared in Fantastic Four Annual #2, published in 1964. Victor von Doom is the ruler of Latveria. Though he has been dethroned a number of times, Victor has inevitably managed to return to the throne of his country within a matter of months. Victor also has a council who obey him entirely. In Fantastic Four #536 in 2006, he killed his own Prime Minister for claiming control of Latveria in his absence, and threatened to kill two other ministers if they failed to find the landing spot of Thor's hammer. Doctor Doom's style of rule can best be described as an absolute monarchy, as it was revealed that there is no parliament, and one minister boasted "Doctor Doom decides everything. His slightest whim is Latverian law!" History Latveria under the Fantastic Four Due to Doom's constant activities that drive him away from Latveria, the monarch is often absent. After Doom's descent into Hell, the nation became a target for conquest by the neighboring countries. This forces Reed Richards to seize control of the country, attempting to pry the populace out from under the thumb of Doom, while at the same time disarming all of Doom's weaponry and technology, so if he ever returned, he would come back to absolutely nothing. In the process, Richards relocated Doom from Hell into a pocket dimension of his own design, and although Doom used his consciousness-switching abilities to escape, the death of his host body seemingly caused him to die as well, and the Fantastic Four pulled out of the country. Recently, Doctor Doom has returned from Hell, and has retaken the reins of Latveria. He is however keeping his return a secret as of now, ruling via a puppet Prime Minister. Doctor Doom also uses robotic versions of himself to keep the peace while he's away. Series of Takeovers After the Fantastic Four left, the United States attempted to fill the void left by Doom by establishing a democracy for the nation. The Countess Lucia von Bardas was elected as Prime Minister. However, when it was revealed that von Bardas was employing the Tinkerer to use Doom's technology to arm various tech-based villains in America, S.H.I.E.L.D. Commander Nick Fury took action. During Secret War, Fury and a number of superheroes invaded Latveria without permission of the US Government and attempted to assassinate von Bardas. While von Bardas survived, she was horribly disfigured and sought to destroy Fury and the heroes responsible. She was killed by S.H.I.E.L.D. Agent Daisy Johnson while trying to blow up New York with the armor of the various villains she employed. Statistics The common geographic description of Latveria places it as a small nation, around the area where Hungary, Romania and Serbia (Vojvodina) meet in real life. To its south in the Marvel universe is the nation of Symkaria, which is depicted as a benevolent constitutional monarchy in contrast to the dictatorship to its north. The capital city of Latveria is Doomstadt, formerly Hassenstadt (German for "Hatetown"), renamed when Doom seized power, located just north of the Kline River. The administrative center is Castle Doom. Population: 500,000 (This is an approximation since the government of Latveria has not allowed an outside census in over 20 years) Type of Government: Dictatorship (Victor von Doom prefers to call this an "enforced monarchy") Languages: German, Hungarian, English, Latverian (local dialect, derivative of Hungarian), Romany. Ethnic Groups: Mixed European stock, Roma Major Business Centers: None Currency: Latverian Franc Public Holidays: Doom's Day, Christmas, New Year (Note: Doom's Day is an eclectic holiday, celebrated whenever Doom declares it. It is different from Doomsday) Airports: The only airport for the country, Doomsport, lies on the southern outskirts of Doomstadt. It maintains two runways and a modern terminal, but flights into and out of Doomsport are quite limited. Demographics The population consists of mixed European stock and Gypsies, in whose welfare von Doom takes a particular interest. Law enforcement Because it lacks a native superhero populace, Latveria relies largely on Dooms' robot sentinels called Doombots to keep law and order. One of the few known Latverian superhumans is Dreadknight, whom Doom himself created by punishing Dreadknight's alter ego for hoarding an idea from him. Other versions Marvel 1602 In the Marvel 1602 storyline, Latveria is ruled by Count Otto von Doom, also known as Otto The Handsome. It is inhabited by mythical beings, and Latveria experiments on intricate clockwork devices, one of which was used to kill Queen Elizabeth I of England. The native language appears to be a close resemblance to modern German. Marvel 2099 In the alternate future called "Marvel 2099", various power struggles over the fate of Latveria end with most of the country destroyed by nanites. Marvel Zombies In the Marvel Zombies storyline, Latveria is one of the last few outposts of humanity, as Doctor Doom gathers up the fittest and most fertile of its survivors in order to send them off to other dimensions. An army of super-zombies lay siege to Doom's castle and eventually break inside. Despite this and the loss of Doom himself, all the Latverian citizens successfully escape. Ultimate Marvel Latveria was introduced as a bankrupt peasant nation, but thanks to Doctor Doom it was made the ninth richest country on Earth. The townsfolk wear Doom's dragon tattoos as backup, the tattoos being far more than they seem, should anything ever happen to him. Where this Latveria lies is unclear but there are Belgian Flags on display in the background in the one picture displayed of Latveria. Other media Film In the Fantastic Four film, Latveria is mentioned initially in reference to Victor Von Doom's past and is described as "the old country", possibly indicating his birth there. After "The End" has appeared, Von Doom's incarcerated body is shown on board a ship bound for Latveria. Also during the scene where he first dons his trademark metal mask, a plaque can be seen declaring it as a gift to Doom from the people of Latveria. In the sequel, Doom is reawakened in his castle by the Silver Surfer's passage through Latveria. Video Games In Spider-Man: The Game, a billboard can be seen in the first level advertising tourism in Latvania, a misspelling of Latveria. Latveria is referred to in the Spider-Man 2 video game when J. Jonah Jameson says that a Latverian diplomat is landing at the United Nations building by helicopter, although circumstances force the player to miss sighting any such diplomat. In the Ultimate Spider-Man game, the Beetle was reported to have ducked into the Latverian Embassy after evading Spider-Man. In the special edition of the game, the player can look at concept art that shows what happens to Beetle after his confrontation with Spider-Man. He flies into the embassy and walks up to a throne, kneels down, and presents the Sandman vial to Doctor Doom in some plot to develop super-soldiers for Latveria. Later on in the game, the Green Goblin is later seen escaping from the Latverian Embassy. In Marvel: Ultimate Alliance, Castle Doom in Latveria is a level. If the player asks about Latveria to Vision, he also mentions that there is barely any crime there since his robots are always patrolling the country. The Latverian Embassy is featured in The Incredible Hulk video game. Latveria will be featured in the upcoming Marvel Ultimate Alliance 2: Fusion. External links Latveria at Marvel.com Article on History of Latveria | Latveria |@lemmatized rendition:1 fictional:4 nation:9 latveria:33 green:2 capital:2 doomstadt:3 symkaria:3 border:2 along:1 south:3 marvel:13 universe:2 comic:3 book:2 publishing:1 company:1 primarily:1 define:1 fantastic:7 four:7 name:1 similar:1 real:2 latvia:1 northern:1 europe:1 isolated:1 european:3 country:10 rule:4 supervillain:1 doctor:8 doom:35 supposedly:1 locate:2 banat:1 region:1 surround:1 carpathians:1 also:6 home:1 silver:2 sable:1 publication:1 history:3 first:3 appear:3 annual:1 publish:1 victor:5 von:10 ruler:1 though:1 dethrone:1 number:2 time:2 inevitably:1 manage:1 return:4 throne:2 within:1 matter:1 month:1 council:1 obey:1 entirely:1 kill:4 prime:3 minister:5 claim:1 control:2 absence:1 threaten:1 two:2 fail:1 find:1 land:2 spot:1 thor:1 hammer:1 style:1 best:1 describe:2 absolute:1 monarchy:3 reveal:2 parliament:1 one:5 boast:1 decide:1 everything:1 slight:1 whim:1 latverian:9 law:3 due:1 constant:1 activity:1 drive:1 away:2 monarch:1 often:1 absent:1 descent:1 hell:3 become:1 target:1 conquest:1 neighboring:1 force:2 reed:1 richards:2 seize:2 attempt:3 pry:1 populace:2 thumb:1 disarm:1 weaponry:1 technology:2 ever:2 would:1 come:1 back:1 absolutely:1 nothing:1 process:1 relocate:1 pocket:1 dimension:2 design:1 although:2 use:4 consciousness:1 switch:1 ability:1 escape:3 death:1 host:1 body:2 seemingly:1 cause:1 die:1 well:1 pull:1 recently:1 retake:1 rein:1 however:2 keep:3 secret:2 via:1 puppet:1 robotic:1 version:2 peace:1 series:1 takeover:1 left:1 united:2 state:1 fill:1 void:1 leave:1 establish:1 democracy:1 countess:1 lucia:1 bardas:4 elect:1 employ:2 tinkerer:1 arm:1 various:3 tech:1 base:1 villain:2 america:1 h:2 e:2 l:2 commander:1 nick:1 fury:3 take:2 action:1 war:1 superheroes:1 invade:1 without:1 permission:1 u:1 government:3 assassinate:1 survive:1 horribly:1 disfigure:1 seek:1 destroy:2 hero:1 responsible:1 agent:1 daisy:1 johnson:1 try:1 blow:1 new:2 york:1 armor:1 statistic:1 common:1 geographic:1 description:1 place:1 small:1 around:1 area:1 hungary:1 romania:1 serbia:1 vojvodina:1 meet:1 life:1 depict:1 benevolent:1 constitutional:1 contrast:1 dictatorship:2 north:2 city:1 formerly:1 hassenstadt:1 german:3 hatetown:1 rename:1 power:2 kline:1 river:1 administrative:1 center:2 castle:4 population:2 approximation:1 since:2 allow:1 outside:1 census:1 year:2 type:1 prefers:1 call:3 enforce:1 language:2 hungarian:2 english:1 local:1 dialect:1 derivative:1 romany:1 ethnic:1 group:1 mixed:2 stock:2 rom:1 major:1 business:1 none:1 currency:1 franc:1 public:1 holiday:2 day:2 christmas:1 note:1 eclectic:1 celebrate:1 whenever:1 declare:2 different:1 doomsday:1 airports:1 airport:1 doomsport:2 lie:2 southern:1 outskirt:1 maintain:1 runway:1 modern:2 terminal:1 flight:1 quite:1 limited:1 demographic:1 consist:1 gypsy:1 whose:1 welfare:1 particular:1 interest:1 enforcement:1 lack:1 native:2 superhero:1 relies:1 largely:1 robot:2 sentinel:1 doombots:1 order:2 known:1 superhumans:1 dreadknight:2 create:1 punish:1 alter:1 ego:1 hoard:1 idea:1 storyline:2 count:1 otto:2 know:1 handsome:1 inhabit:1 mythical:1 experiment:1 intricate:1 clockwork:1 device:1 queen:1 elizabeth:1 england:1 close:1 resemblance:1 alternate:1 future:1 struggle:1 fate:1 end:2 nanites:1 zombie:3 last:1 outpost:1 humanity:1 gather:1 fit:1 fertile:1 survivor:1 send:1 army:1 super:2 lay:1 siege:1 eventually:1 break:1 inside:1 despite:1 loss:1 citizen:1 successfully:1 ultimate:4 introduce:1 bankrupt:1 peasant:1 thanks:1 make:1 ninth:1 rich:1 earth:1 townsfolk:1 wear:1 dragon:1 tattoo:2 backup:1 far:1 seem:1 anything:1 happen:2 unclear:1 belgian:1 flag:1 display:1 background:1 picture:1 displayed:1 medium:1 film:2 mention:2 initially:1 reference:1 past:1 old:1 possibly:1 indicate:1 birth:1 incarcerate:1 show:2 board:1 ship:1 bound:1 scene:1 trademark:1 metal:1 mask:1 plaque:1 see:3 gift:1 people:1 sequel:1 reawaken:1 surfer:1 passage:1 video:3 game:7 spider:5 man:5 billboard:1 level:2 advertising:1 tourism:1 latvania:1 misspelling:1 refer:1 j:1 jonah:1 jameson:1 say:1 diplomat:2 building:1 helicopter:1 circumstance:1 player:3 miss:1 sight:1 beetle:2 report:1 duck:1 embassy:4 evade:1 special:1 edition:1 look:1 concept:1 art:1 confrontation:1 fly:1 walk:1 kneel:1 present:1 sandman:1 vial:1 plot:1 develop:1 soldier:1 later:2 goblin:1 alliance:2 ask:1 vision:1 barely:1 crime:1 always:1 patrol:1 feature:2 incredible:1 hulk:1 upcoming:1 fusion:1 external:1 link:1 com:1 article:1 |@bigram marvel_universe:2 marvel_comic:1 prime_minister:3 thor_hammer:1 reed_richards:1 nick_fury:1 constitutional_monarchy:1 alter_ego:1 queen_elizabeth:1 marvel_zombie:2 silver_surfer:1 spider_man:5 green_goblin:1 incredible_hulk:1 external_link:1 |
2,703 | Capcom | is a leading international developer and publisher of video games headquartered in Osaka, Japan. It was founded in 1979 as Japan Capsule Computers, a company devoted to the manufacturing and distribution of electronic game machines. In 2008, Capcom was one of the fifty largest software companies in the world. Software Top 100: "The World's Largest Software Companies" In the 12 months ended March 31, 2009, it has reported an increase in sales of 10.6 percent to 91,878 million yen ($924 million/£615 million), while net income rose 3.3 percent to 8,063 million yen ($81.1 million/£53.4 million). History According to Capcom, "the name CAPCOM is an abbreviation of CAPsule COM'''puter. This was a phrase symbolic of an internal company objective to create a new gaming experience that would exceed that of rival personal computers which had also been increasing in popularity during the same period". Over the years, Capcom has created some of the biggest and longest running franchises in video gaming history. The company released their first arcade game in 1984, Vulgus. Their early games were mostly arcade games such as the scrolling shooter 1942. In the late 1980s, Yoshiki Okamoto joined the company from Konami. In 1987, Capcom released the game Street Fighter. Also in 1987, the company released the platformer Mega Man (Rockman in Japan) for the Nintendo Entertainment System.Final Fight, a beat 'em up, was released in 1989. In 1991, Okamoto's Street Fighter II was released in the arcades.Breath of Fire, Capcom's first major foray into the RPG genre, was released in 1994 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System.Resident Evil (Biohazard in Japan), a successful survival horror, was released on the PlayStation in 1996. Two Capcom development houses, Clover Studio and Flagship have created successful titles in recent years, including the Viewtiful Joe series and Ōkami. In 2002, a movie based on the series entitled Resident Evil was released, which did well enough financially to warrant a sequel (Resident Evil: Apocalypse) in 2004. A third movie, Resident Evil: Extinction was released on September 21, 2007, and led the box office in first place. Capcom also teamed up with Microsoft to make the successful Dead Rising in 2006, which was a popular zombie survival and adventure game and timed exclusive for the Xbox 360. However, in 2009, the Wii version Dead Rising: Chop Till You Drop hit the market, and Dead Rising 2 is announced for both the 360 and the PS3. Beside developing games under its own brand, Capcom also developed the arcade, Dreamcast and PS2 versions of its Mobile Suit Gundam third person shoot em ups for Banpresto and also distribute many games including the Grand Theft Auto series for the Japanese market. As of mid-2007, Capcom teamed up with Valve Corporation to release games through Valve's Steam content delivery system, being the first Japanese company to do so. At present, only three games are available, those being Onimusha 3, Devil May Cry 3 Special Edition, and Lost Planet. Capcom develops products for all age groups and supports the programs and guidelines established by the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB). Capcom's "E" rated games for Everyone (content suitable for persons 6 and older) include the Mega Man franchise of games. Capcom's "T" rated games for Teens (content suitable for persons 13 and older) include the Street Fighter, Breath of Fire and DarkStalkers franchise of products. Capcom's "M" rated games for mature audiences (content suitable for persons 17 and older) include the Resident Evil, Devil May Cry and Onimusha series of products. Mascot Capcom's original mascot, Captain Commando, is a superhero who wears a futuristic armor of unknown origin. His name forms the word Capcom when the first syllables of both words are combined as a portmanteau, a method of abbreviation popular in Japan. He originally appeared in the early Capcom Famicom/NES game Section Z (the arcade version of Section Z has similar gameplay, but it is not clear that the hero is the same person). Along with that, he appeared in the manuals and the back covers of Capcom's early NES games to thank players for purchasing them. He also appeared in the self named beat 'em up game, Captain Commando, in 1991. He later appeared in Marvel vs. Capcom and Marvel vs. Capcom 2, in which he is often considered to be an excessively powerful character. In Marvel vs. Capcom, he still serves as a mascot, regularly shouting "Capcom!" during fights and relaying Capcom-themed messages after winning. He displays the ability to quickly change from regular clothing, including a cowboy hat, into his armor, suggesting a secret identity. Captain Commando's storyline is not connected to that of Commando and Bionic Commando, despite the similar name. Mega Man has superseded Captain Commando as Capcom's official mascot, primarily because of the immense popularity of the Mega Man series. Also, Ryu of the Street Fighter series is one of the more prominent Capcom characters and is not only the face of Capcom's fighting games, but is generally associated with the fighting genre. Yashichi The Yashichi The Yashichi is an item found in many Capcom video games. It often restores the player's health or acts as a bonus point item. The symbol is an orange circle decorated with a stylised white cross that resembles a pinwheel. The item appeared first in 1984, in Capcom's first title, Vulgus, as an enemy (it was also featured in Capcom's fifth title, Exed Exes, in a similar role). It also appeared in Mega Man (Rockman in Japan) as an item which fully restored health and weapon energy. Since then, it has been featured in many other games in a far more benign role. Capcom Production Studios Each Capcom Production Studio is the developer behind Capcom's games. The studios are divided into different sections and named after numbers, except for the now defunct independent Clover Studio and Flagship. Subsidiaries and related corporations Capcom Entertainment, Inc. Capcom USA, Inc. was established in California as the official North American subsidiary of Capcom in August 1985. Capcom Asia Co., Ltd. was established in Hong Kong as the official Asian subsidiary of Capcom in July 1993. Capcom Eurosoft Ltd. was established in United Kingdom as the official European subsidiary of Capcom in July 1998. KOKO Capcom Asia Co., Ltd. the official South Korean subsidiary of Capcom in July 2001. CE Europe Ltd. was established in London in November 2002. CEG Interactive Entertainment GmbH was established in Germany in February 2003. Capcom Interactive Canada is a division of Capcom and their focus is developing games for mobile platforms. Capcom Charbo Co., Ltd. manages the rental, maintenance and lease of electronic game machines. Captron Co., Ltd. manages the rent, lease and operation of real estate properties. Suleputer was established to market and distribute games and related merchandising (books, music, anime, etc.) in Asia. Their current name is a conjunction of Capsule Computer. Nude Maker Co., Ltd. is the development studio that made the Clock Tower 1 and 2 games on the PlayStation and Xbox and Steel Battalion only available on the Xbox. Partners Nintendo Australia Pty Ltd, the Australian subsidiary of Nintendo Co., Ltd., is the main distributor for the majority of Capcom's products in Australia for Nintendo Consoles and the source Capcom's products from the UK. Rockstar North Capcom publishes and distributes Grand Theft Auto in Japan. Ubisoft Australia Ltd distributes some of Capcom's products in Australia. Red Ant Enterprises Pty Ltd distributes Capcom's lower end games in Australia. Former subsidiaries Capcom Studio 8, Inc. was established as the R&D division of Capcom USA, Inc. in June 1995. The studio was closed in 2006. This studio is known for making the Maximo series (Maximo: Ghosts to Glory and Maximo vs. Army of Zin) and Final Fight: Streetwise. Flagship Co., Ltd. was the development studio that made Onimusha and the Zelda games on the Game Boy Color and Game Boy Advance. Its final game release was Kirby: Squeak Squad in 2006. It was absorbed into Capcom's main studio in June 2007. Clover Studio Co., Ltd. was a development studio based in Osaka. It was founded in July 2004, and was dissolved in March 2007. They created the Viewtiful Joe series, as well as Ōkami and God Hand. It was absorbed back into Capcom's main studio in June 2007, however several members left the studio to form Platinum Games. The remaining members worked next on Umbrella Chronicles. Spin-off companies Platinum Games is a new studio composed of former Clover Studio employees. It was formerly known as SEEDS. It is not part of Capcom and they have a publishing agreement with Sega and Electronic Arts. Arika was formed in 1996 by former Capcom employees. The name of the company is the reverse of the name of the company's founder, Akira Nishitani, who (along with Akiman) created Street Fighter II. However, they continue to work with Capcom, as indicated by its first game series, the Street Fighter EX series. New properties of their own are Everblue and Endless Ocean. Nickel City is a chain of video arcades once owned by Capcom where the machines ran on nickels or on free play. It was sold in 2004 and continues to operate under independent ownership. Influence in general media Capcom's games and characters therein have been featured in a number of anime, cartoons, and theatrical movies, some of which include: The company mascot, Mega Man, played a supporting role in a Nintendo inspired TV-show Captain N: The Game Master and has later been featured in three separate cartoons: Mega Man produced by Ruby-Spears, and the two anime series MegaMan NT Warrior and Mega Man Star Force. He also starred in three OVAs originally released in Japan in 1993, released later on DVD in North America, and the NT Warrior anime series spawned a 48-minute feature film (only in Japan) entitled Rockman EXE: The Program of Light and Dark, Mega Man's first ever appearance on the big-screen. Street Fighter II has also been a popular source for films, anime, and cartoons. A popular anime adaptation was made, followed by a live action adaptation, both in 1994. Shortly afterwards, two different animated series, a Japanese series and an American series were produced in 1995 as well as a second animated feature. A new live action movie, Street Fighter: The Legend of Chun-Li, was released in early 2009. The fighting game Darkstalkers was made into two animated adaptations, in Japan and in the United States. Another fighting game, Power Stone, saw an anime adaptation. So far the most successful series of films has been based on Capcom's popular survivor horror series Resident Evil. The first film was received well at the box office, earning $102 million worldwide. Its VHS and DVD sales were even stronger leading Screen Gems and Sony to make a sequel, which also proved to be a financial success. The third part Resident Evil: Extinction was released in 2007. An anime series based on Viewtiful Joe was made in 2004. It consists of 52 episodes and is based loosely around the first and second games. It features new characters, such as Captain Blue Jr. and Sprocket, who were later introduced into the GameCube and PSP game, Viewtiful Joe: Red Hot Rumble. Viewtiful Joe the anime series used to air on Kids' WB! but was cancelled shortly before the network changed to The CW. An anime based on the series Devil May Cry aired in Japan for 12 episodes. It was handled by Madhouse. Three films based upon the Capcom franchises Devil May Cry, Clock Tower, and Biohazard (Resident Evil) are currently in production. A manga version of the courtroom drama action series Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney is being produced in Japan. See also List of Capcom games List of Japanese companies References "CAPCOM: Corporate Profile: Capcom Group." December 27, 2004. Retrieved on March 6, 2006. "CAPCOM: Corporate Profile: Corporate History." Retrieved on June 20, 2005. "CAPCOM: Financial Information." Retrieved on June 20, 2005. External links Capcom Global MobyGame's entry on Capcom Capcom-Central.com - Capcom games Capcom Database Wiki MobileGamesDB profile on MGDB (Open mobile game database) | Capcom |@lemmatized lead:3 international:1 developer:2 publisher:1 video:4 game:44 headquarter:1 osaka:2 japan:12 found:2 capsule:3 computer:3 company:13 devote:1 manufacturing:1 distribution:1 electronic:3 machine:3 capcom:70 one:2 fifty:1 large:2 software:4 world:2 top:1 month:1 end:2 march:3 report:1 increase:2 sale:2 percent:2 million:7 yen:2 net:1 income:1 rise:2 history:3 accord:1 name:8 abbreviation:2 com:2 puter:1 phrase:1 symbolic:1 internal:1 objective:1 create:5 new:5 gaming:1 experience:1 would:1 exceed:1 rival:1 personal:1 also:13 popularity:2 period:1 year:2 big:2 long:1 run:2 franchise:4 release:15 first:11 arcade:6 vulgus:2 early:4 mostly:1 scrolling:1 shooter:1 late:1 yoshiki:1 okamoto:2 join:1 konami:1 street:8 fighter:8 platformer:1 mega:9 man:9 rockman:3 nintendo:6 entertainment:5 system:3 final:3 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2,704 | Entropy_(information_theory) | In information theory, entropy is a measure of the uncertainty associated with a random variable. The term by itself in this context usually refers to the Shannon entropy, which quantifies, in the sense of an expected value, the information contained in a message, usually in units such as bits. Equivalently, the Shannon entropy is a measure of the average information content one is missing when one does not know the value of the random variable. The concept was introduced by Claude E. Shannon in his 1948 paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication". Shannon's entropy represents an absolute limit on the best possible lossless compression of any communication, under certain constraints: treating messages to be encoded as a sequence of independent and identically-distributed random variables, Shannon's source coding theorem shows that, in the limit, the average length of the shortest possible representation to encode the messages in a given alphabet is their entropy divided by the logarithm of the number of symbols in the target alphabet. A fair coin has an entropy of one bit. However, if the coin is not fair, then the uncertainty is lower (if asked to bet on the next outcome, we would bet preferentially on the most frequent result), and thus the Shannon entropy is lower. Mathematically, a coin flip is an example of a Bernoulli trial, and its entropy is given by the binary entropy function. A long string of repeating characters has an entropy rate of 0, since every character is predictable. The entropy rate of English text is between 1.0 and 1.5 bits per letter, Schneier, B: Applied Cryptography, Second edition, page 234. John Wiley and Sons. or as low as 0.6 to 1.3 bits per letter, according to estimates by Shannon based on human experiments. Shannon, Claude E.: Prediction and entropy of printed English, The Bell System Technical Journal, 30:50-64, January 1951. Definition The entropy H of a discrete random variable X with possible values {x1, …, xn} is Here E is the expected value function, and I(X) is the information content or self-information of X. I(X) is itself a random variable. If p denotes the probability mass function of X then the entropy can explicitly be written as where b is the base of the logarithm used. Common values of b are 2, Euler's number e, and 10, and the unit of entropy is bit for b = 2, nat for b = e, and dit (or digit) for b = 10. Schneider, T.D, Information theory primer with an appendix on logarithms, National Cancer Institute, 14 Apr 2007. In the case of pi = 0 for some i, the value of the corresponding summand 0 logb 0 is taken to be 0, which is consistent with the limit Characterization Shannon entropy is characterized by a small number of criteria, listed below. Any definition of entropy satisfying these assumptions has the form where K is a constant corresponding to a choice of measurement units. In the following, and . Continuity The measure should be continuous, so that changing the values of the probabilities by a very small amount should only change the entropy by a small amount. Symmetry The measure should be unchanged if the outcomes xi are re-ordered. etc. Maximum The measure should be maximal if all the outcomes are equally likely (uncertainty is highest when all possible events are equiprobable). For equiprobable events the entropy should increase with the number of outcomes. Additivity The amount of entropy should be independent of how the process is regarded as being divided into parts. This last functional relationship characterizes the entropy of a system with sub-systems. It demands that the entropy of a system can be calculated from the entropies of its sub-systems if the interactions between the sub-systems are known. Given an ensemble of n uniformly distributed elements that are divided into k boxes (sub-systems) with b1, b2, … , bk elements each, the entropy of the whole ensemble should be equal to the sum of the entropy of the system of boxes and the individual entropies of the boxes, each weighted with the probability of being in that particular box. For positive integers bi where b1 + … + bk = n, Choosing k = n, b1 = … = bn = 1 this implies that the entropy of a certain outcome is zero: Entropy explained For a random variable with outcomes , the Shannon entropy, a measure of uncertainty (see further below) and denoted by , is defined as {| style="width:100%" border="0" |- | style="width:95%" | | style= | (1) |} where is the probability mass function of outcome . To understand the meaning of Eq. (1), let's first consider a set of possible outcomes (events) , with equal probability . An example would be a fair die with values, from to . The uncertainty for such set of outcomes is defined by {| style="width:100%" border="0" |- | style="width:95%" | | style= | (2) |} The logarithm is used so to provide the additivity characteristic for independent uncertainty. For example, consider appending to each value of the first die the value of a second die, which has possible outcomes . There are thus possible outcomes . The uncertainty for such set of outcomes is then {| style="width:100%" border="0" |- | style="width:95%" | | style= | (3) |} Thus the uncertainty of playing with two dice is obtained by adding the uncertainty of the second die to the uncertainty of the first die . Now return to the case of playing with one die only (the first one). Since the probability of each event is , we can write In the case of a non-uniform probability mass function (or density in the case of continuous random variables), we let {| style="width:100%" border="0" |- | style="width:95%" | | style= | (4) |} which is also called a surprisal; the lower the probability , i.e. , the higher the uncertainty or the surprise, i.e. , for the outcome . The average uncertainty , with being the average operator, is obtained by {| style="width:100%" border="0" |- | style="width:95%" | | style= | (5) |} and is used as the definition of the entropy in Eq. (1). The above also explained why information entropy and information uncertainty can be used interchangeably. Example Entropy of a Coin toss as a function of the probability of it coming up heads Consider tossing a coin with known, not necessarily fair, probabilities of coming up heads or tails. The entropy of the unknown result of the next toss of the coin is maximized if the coin is fair (that is, if heads and tails both have equal probability 1/2). This is the situation of maximum uncertainty as it is most difficult to predict the outcome of the next toss; the result of each toss of the coin delivers a full 1 bit of information. However, if we know the coin is not fair, but comes up heads or tails with probabilities p and q, then there is less uncertainty. Every time it is tossed, one side is more likely to come up than the other. The reduced uncertainty is quantified in a lower entropy: on average each toss of the coin delivers less than a full 1 bit of information. The extreme case is that of a double-headed coin which never comes up tails. Then there is no uncertainty. The entropy is zero: each toss of the coin delivers no information. Further properties The Shannon entropy satisfies the following properties: Adding or removing an event with probability zero does not contribute to the entropy: . It can be confirmed using the Jensen inequality that . This maximal entropy of is effectively attained by a source alphabet having a uniform probability distribution: uncertainty is maximal when all possible events are equiprobable. Aspects Relationship to thermodynamic entropy The inspiration for adopting the word entropy in information theory came from the close resemblance between Shannon's formula and very similar known formulae from thermodynamics. In statistical thermodynamics the most general formula for the thermodynamic entropy S of a thermodynamic system is the Gibbs entropy, where kB is the Boltzmann constant. The Gibbs entropy was defined by J. Willard Gibbs in 1878 after earlier work by Boltzmann (1872). Compare: Boltzmann, Ludwig (1896, 1898). Vorlesungen über Gastheorie : 2 Volumes - Leipzig 1895/98 UB: O 5262-6. English version: Lectures on gas theory. Translated by Stephen G. Brush (1964) Berkeley: University of California Press; (1995) New York: Dover ISBN 0-486-68455-5 The Gibbs entropy translates over almost unchanged into the world of quantum physics to give the von Neumann entropy, introduced by John von Neumann in 1927, where ρ is the density matrix of the quantum mechanical system. At an everyday practical level the links between information entropy and thermodynamic entropy are not close. Physicists and chemists are apt to be more interested in changes in entropy as a system spontaneously evolves away from its initial conditions, in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics, rather than an unchanging probability distribution. And, as the numerical smallness of Boltzmann's constant kB indicates, the changes in S / kB for even minute amounts of substances in chemical and physical processes represent amounts of entropy which are so large as to be right off the scale compared to anything seen in data compression or signal processing. But, at a multidisciplinary level, connections can be made between thermodynamic and informational entropy, although it took many years in the development of the theories of statistical mechanics and information theory to make the relationship fully apparent. In fact, in the view of Jaynes (1957), thermodynamics should be seen as an application of Shannon's information theory: the thermodynamic entropy is interpreted as being an estimate of the amount of further Shannon information needed to define the detailed microscopic state of the system, that remains uncommunicated by a description solely in terms of the macroscopic variables of classical thermodynamics. For example, adding heat to a system increases its thermodynamic entropy because it increases the number of possible microscopic states that it could be in, thus making any complete state description longer. (See article: maximum entropy thermodynamics). Maxwell's demon can (hypothetically) reduce the thermodynamic entropy of a system by using information about the states of individual molecules; but, as Landauer (from 1961) and co-workers have shown, to function the demon himself must increase thermodynamic entropy in the process, by at least the amount of Shannon information he proposes to first acquire and store; and so the total entropy does not decrease (which resolves the paradox). Entropy as information content Entropy is defined in the context of a probabilistic model. Independent fair coin flips have an entropy of 1 bit per flip. A source that always generates a long string of B's has an entropy of 0, since the next character will always be a 'B'. The entropy rate of a data source means the average number of bits per symbol needed to encode it. Shannon's experiments with human predictors show an information rate of between 0.6 and 1.3 bits per character, depending on the experimental setup; the PPM compression algorithm can achieve a compression ratio of 1.5 bits per character. From the preceding example, note the following points: The amount of entropy is not always an integer number of bits. Many data bits may not convey information. For example, data structures often store information redundantly, or have identical sections regardless of the information in the data structure. Shannon's definition of entropy, when applied to an information source, can determine the minimum channel capacity required to reliably transmit the source as encoded binary digits. The formula can be derived by calculating the mathematical expectation of the amount of information contained in a digit from the information source. See also Shannon-Hartley theorem. Shannon's entropy measures the information contained in a message as opposed to the portion of the message that is determined (or predictable). Examples of the latter include redundancy in language structure or statistical properties relating to the occurrence frequencies of letter or word pairs, triplets etc. See Markov chain. Data compression Entropy effectively bounds the performance of the strongest lossless (or nearly lossless) compression possible, which can be realized in theory by using the typical set or in practice using Huffman, Lempel-Ziv or arithmetic coding. The performance of existing data compression algorithms is often used as a rough estimate of the entropy of a block of data. T. Schürmann and P. Grassberger, Entropy Estimation of Symbol Sequences, CHAOS,Vol. 6, No. 3 (1996) 414-427 T. Schürmann, Bias Analysis in Entropy Estimation J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 37 (2004) L295-L301. Limitations of entropy as information content There are a number of entropy-related concepts that mathematically quantify information content in some way: the self-information of an individual message or symbol taken from a given probability distribution, the entropy of a given probability distribution of messages or symbols, and the entropy rate of a stochastic process. (The "rate of self-information" can also be defined for a particular sequence of messages or symbols generated by a given stochastic process: this will always be equal to the entropy rate in the case of a stationary process.) Other quantities of information are also used to compare or relate different sources of information. It is important not to confuse the above concepts. Oftentimes it is only clear from context which one is meant. For example, when someone says that the "entropy" of the English language is about 1.5 bits per character, he/she is actually modelling the English language as a stochastic process and talking about its entropy rate. Although entropy is often used as a characterization of the information content of a data source, this information content is not absolute: it depends crucially on the probabilistic model. A source that always generates the same symbol has an entropy rate of 0, but the definition of what a symbol is depends on the alphabet. Consider a source that produces the string ABABABABAB... in which A is always followed by B and vice versa. If the probabilistic model considers individual letters as independent, the entropy rate of the sequence is 1 bit per character. But if the sequence is considered as "AB AB AB AB AB..." with symbols as two-character blocks, then the entropy rate is 0 bits per character. However, if we use very large blocks, then the estimate of per-character entropy rate may become artificially low. This is because in reality, the probability distribution of the sequence is not knowable exactly; it is only an estimate. For example, suppose one considers the text of every book ever published as a sequence, with each symbol being the text of a complete book. If there are N published books, and each book is only published once, the estimate of the probability of each book is 1/N, and the entropy (in bits) is -log2 1/N. As a practical code, this corresponds to assigning each book a unique identifier and using it in place of the text of the book whenever one wants to refer to the book. This is enormously useful for talking about books, but it is not so useful for characterizing the information content of an individual book, or of language in general: it is not possible to reconstruct the book from its identifier without knowing the probability distribution, that is, the complete text of all the books. The key idea is that the complexity of the probabilistic model must be considered. Kolmogorov complexity is a theoretical generalization of this idea that allows the consideration of the information content of a sequence independent of any particular probability model; it considers the shortest program for a universal computer that outputs the sequence. A code that achieves the entropy rate of a sequence for a given model, plus the codebook (i.e. the probabilistic model), is one such program, but it may not be the shortest. For example, the Fibonacci sequence is 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ... . Treating the sequence as a message and each number as a symbol, there are almost as many symbols as there are characters in the message, giving an entropy of approximately log2(n). So the first 128 symbols of the Fibonacci sequence has an entropy of approximately 7 bits/symbol. However, the sequence can be expressed using a formula [F(n) = F(n-1) + F(n-2) for n={3,4,5,...}, F(1)=1, F(2)=1] and this formula has a much lower entropy and applies to any length of the Fibonacci sequence. Data as a Markov process A common way to define entropy for text is based on the Markov model of text. For an order-0 source (each character is selected independent of the last characters), the binary entropy is: where pi is the probability of i. For a first-order Markov source (one in which the probability of selecting a character is dependent only on the immediately preceding character), the entropy rate is: where i is a state (certain preceding characters) and is the probability of given as the previous character. For a second order Markov source, the entropy rate is b-ary entropy In general the b-ary entropy of a source = (S,P) with source alphabet S = {a1, …, an} and discrete probability distribution P = {p1, …, pn} where pi is the probability of ai (say pi = p(ai)) is defined by: Note: the b in "b-ary entropy" is the number of different symbols of the "ideal alphabet" which is being used as the standard yardstick to measure source alphabets. In information theory, two symbols are necessary and sufficient for an alphabet to be able to encode information, therefore the default is to let b = 2 ("binary entropy"). Thus, the entropy of the source alphabet, with its given empiric probability distribution, is a number equal to the number (possibly fractional) of symbols of the "ideal alphabet", with an optimal probability distribution, necessary to encode for each symbol of the source alphabet. Also note that "optimal probability distribution" here means a uniform distribution: a source alphabet with n symbols has the highest possible entropy (for an alphabet with n symbols) when the probability distribution of the alphabet is uniform. This optimal entropy turns out to be . Efficiency A source alphabet encountered in practice should be found to have a probability distribution which is less than optimal. If the source alphabet has n symbols, then it can be compared to an "optimized alphabet" with n symbols, whose probability distribution is uniform. The ratio of the entropy of the source alphabet with the entropy of its optimized version is the efficiency of the source alphabet, which can be expressed as a percentage. This implies that the efficiency of a source alphabet with n symbols can be defined simply as being equal to its n-ary entropy. See also Redundancy (information theory). Extending discrete entropy to the continuous case: differential entropy The Shannon entropy is restricted to random variables taking discrete values. The formula where f denotes a probability density function on the real line, is analogous to the Shannon entropy and could thus be viewed as an extension of the Shannon entropy to the domain of real numbers. A precursor of the continuous entropy given in (*) is the expression for the functional in the H-theorem of Boltzmann. Formula (*) is usually referred to as the continuous entropy, or differential entropy. Although the analogy between both functions is suggestive, the following question must be set: is the differential entropy a valid extension of the Shannon discrete entropy? Differential entropy lacks a number of properties that the Shanno discrete entropy has – it can even be negative – and thus corrections have been suggested, notably limiting density of discrete points. To answer this question, we must establish a connection between the two functions: We wish to obtain a generally finite measure as the bin size goes to zero. In the discrete case, the bin size is the (implicit) width of each of the n (finite or infinite) bins whose probabilities are denoted by pn. As we generalize to the continuous domain, we must make this width explicit. To do this, start with a continuous function f discretized as shown in the figure. As the figure indicates, by the mean-value theorem there exists a value xi in each bin such that and thus the integral of the function f can be approximated (in the Riemannian sense) by where this limit and "bin size goes to zero" are equivalent. We will denote and expanding the logarithm, we have As , we have and so But note that as , therefore we need a special definition of the differential or continuous entropy: which is, as said before, referred to as the differential entropy. This means that the differential entropy is not a limit of the Shannon entropy for . It turns out as a result that, unlike the Shannon entropy, the differential entropy is not in general a good measure of uncertainty or information. For example, the differential entropy can be negative; also it is not invariant under continuous co-ordinate transformations. Another useful measure of entropy for the continuous case is the relative entropy of a distribution, defined as the Kullback-Leibler divergence from the distribution to a reference measure m(x), The relative entropy carries over directly from discrete to continuous distributions, and is invariant under co-ordinate reparametrisations. References See also Binary entropy function – the entropy of a Bernoulli trial with probability of success p Conditional entropy Differential entropy Entropy (arrow of time) Entropy Estimation Entropy power inequality Entropy rate Cross entropy – is a measure of the average number of bits needed to identify an event from a set of possibilities between two probability distributions Entropy encoding - a coding scheme that assigns codes to symbols so as to match code lengths with the probabilities of the symbols. Fisher information Hamming distance Joint entropy – is the measure how much entropy is contained in a joint system of two random variables. Kolmogorov complexity Kolmogorov-Sinai entropy in dynamical systems Levenshtein distance Limiting density of discrete points - encompassing discrete distibutions Mutual information Negentropy Perplexity Qualitative variation – other measures of statistical dispersion for nominal distributions Quantum relative entropy – a measure of distinguishability between two quantum states. Rényi entropy – a generalisation of Shannon entropy; it is one of a family of functionals for quantifying the diversity, uncertainty or randomness of a system. Theil index External links Information is not entropy, information is not uncertainty ! - a discussion of the use of the terms "information" and "entropy". I'm Confused: How Could Information Equal Entropy? - a similar discussion on the bionet.info-theory FAQ. Description of information entropy from "Tools for Thought" by Howard Rheingold A java applet representing Shannon's Experiment to Calculate the Entropy of English Image Segmentation using 2D Multistage Entropy Slides on information gain and entropy CertainKey's password strength meter, which includes entropy (in bits) as a mathematical criterion of sufficient randomness | Entropy_(information_theory) |@lemmatized information:49 theory:12 entropy:145 measure:16 uncertainty:21 associate:1 random:9 variable:10 term:3 context:3 usually:3 refer:4 shannon:27 quantify:4 sense:2 expected:2 value:13 contain:4 message:10 unit:3 bit:20 equivalently:1 average:7 content:9 one:12 miss:1 know:6 concept:3 introduce:2 claude:2 e:8 paper:1 mathematical:3 communication:2 represent:3 absolute:2 limit:7 best:1 possible:12 lossless:3 compression:7 certain:3 constraint:1 treating:1 encode:6 sequence:15 independent:7 identically:1 distributed:2 source:25 cod:1 theorem:4 show:4 length:3 short:3 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2,705 | K._Eric_Drexler | Eric Drexler in 2007 Kim Eric Drexler (born April 25, 1955 in Oakland, California) is an American engineer best known for popularizing the potential of molecular nanotechnology (MNT), from the 1970s and 1980s. His 1991 doctoral thesis at MIT was revised and published as the book "Nanosystems Molecular Machinery Manufacturing and Computation" (1992), which received the Association of American Publishers award for Best Computer Science Book of 1992. He also coined the term grey goo. Life and work K. Eric Drexler was very strongly influenced by ideas on Limits to Growth in the early 1970s. His response in his first year at Massachusetts Institute of Technology was to seek out someone who was working on extraterrestrial resources. He found Dr. Gerard K. O'Neill of Princeton University, a physicist famous for a strong focus on particle accelerators and his landmark work on the concepts of space colonization. Drexler was involved in NASA summer studies in 1975 and 1976. Besides working summers for O'Neill building mass driver prototypes, he delivered papers at the first three Space Manufacturing conferences at Princeton. The 1977 and 1979 papers were co-authored with Keith Henson, and patents were issued on both subjects, vapor phase fabrication and space radiators. Drexler participated in NASA summer studies on space colonies in 1975 and 1976. He fabricated metal films a few tens of nanometers thick on a wax support to demonstrate the potentials of high performance solar sails. He was active in space politics, helping the L5 Society defeat the Moon Treaty in 1980. During the late 1970s, he began to develop ideas about molecular nanotechnology (MNT). In 1979, Drexler encountered Richard Feynman's provocative 1959 talk There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom. The term nanotechnology was coined by the Tokyo Science University Professor Norio Taniguchi in 1974 to describe the precision manufacture of materials with nanometer tolerances, and was unknowingly appropriated by Drexler in his 1986 book Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology to describe what later became known as molecular nanotechnology (MNT). In that book, he proposed the idea of a nanoscale "assembler" which would be able to build a copy of itself and of other items of arbitrary complexity. He also first published the term "grey goo" to describe what might happen if a hypothetical self-replicating molecular nanotechnology went out of control. Drexler holds three degrees from MIT . He received his S.B. in Interdisciplinary Sciences in 1977 and his S.M. in 1979 in Astro/Aerospace Engineering with a Master's thesis titled "Design of a High Performance Solar Sail System,." In 1991 he earned a Ph.D. under the auspices of the MIT Media Lab (formally, the Media Arts and Sciences Section, School of Architecture and Planning). His Ph.D. work was the first doctoral degree on the topic of molecular nanotechnology and (after some editing) his thesis, "Molecular Machinery and Manufacturing with Applications to Computation," was published as "Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing and Computation" (1992), which received the Association of American Publishers award for Best Computer Science Book of 1992. Drexler and Christine Peterson, at that time husband and wife, founded the Foresight Institute in 1986 with the mission of "Preparing for nanotechnology.” Drexler and Peterson ended their 21-year marriage in 2002. Drexler is no longer a member of the Foresight Institute. In August 2005 Drexler joined Nanorex, a molecular engineering software company based in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, to serve as the company's Chief Technical Advisor. Nanorex's nanoENGINEER-1 software was reportedly able to simulate a hypothetical differential gear design in "a snap". According to Nanorex's web site, an open source molecular design program is currently slated for release in Fall 2007. In 2006, Drexler married Rosa Wang, a former investment banker who works with Ashoka: Innovators for the Public on improving the social capital markets. Controversy Drexler's work on nanotechnology was criticized as naive by Nobel Prize winner Richard Smalley in a 2001 Scientific American article. Smalley first argued that "fat fingers" made MNT impossible. He later argued that nanomachines would have to resemble chemical enzymes more than Drexler's assemblers and could only work in water. Drexler maintained that both were straw man arguments, and in the case of enzymes, Prof. Klibanov wrote in 1994, "...using an enzyme in organic solvents eliminates several obstacles. . . " ) Drexler had difficulty in getting Smalley to respond, but in December 2003, Chemical and Engineering news carried a 4 part debate. One of the barriers to achieving molecular nanotechnology is the lack of an efficient way to create machines on a molecular/atomic scale. One of Drexler's early ideas was an "assembler," a nanomachine that would comprise an arm and a computer that could be programmed to build more nanomachines. If an assembler could be built, it might then build a copy of itself, and thus potentially be useful for efficient mass production of nanomachines. But the lack of a way to first build an assembler remains the sine qua non obstacle to achieving this vision. A second difficulty in reaching molecular nanotechnology is design. Hand design of a gear or bearing at the level of atoms is a grueling task. While Drexler, Merkle and others have created a few designs of simple parts, no comprehensive design effort for anything approaching the complexity of a Model T Ford has been attempted. A third difficulty in achieving molecular technology is separating successful trials from failures, and elucidating the failure mechanisms of the failures. Unlike Darwinian evolution, which proceeds by random variations in ensembles of organisms combined with deterministic reproduction/extinction as a selection process to achieve great complexity after billions of years (a set of mechanisms that Richard Dawkins has referred to as a "blind watchmaker"), deliberate design and building of nanoscale mechanisms requires a means other than reproduction/extinction to winnow successes from failures. Such means are difficult to provide (and presently non-existent) for anything other than small assemblages of atoms viewable by an AFM or STM. Thus, even in the latest report A Matter of Size: Triennial Review of the National Nanotechnology Initiative put out by the National Academies Press in December 2006, (roughly twenty years after Engines of Creation was published) no clear way forward toward molecular nanotechnology is seen, as per the conclusion on page 108 of that report: "Although theoretical calculations can be made today, the eventually attainable range of chemical reaction cycles, error rates, speed of operation, and thermodynamic efficiencies of such bottom-up manufacturing systems cannot be reliably predicted at this time. Thus, the eventually attainable perfection and complexity of manufactured products, while they can be calculated in theory, cannot be predicted with confidence. Finally, the optimum research paths that might lead to systems which greatly exceed the thermodynamic efficiencies and other capabilities of biological systems cannot be reliably predicted at this time. Research funding that is based on the ability of investigators to produce experimental demonstrations that link to abstract models and guide long-term vision is most appropriate to achieve this goal." Books by Eric Drexler Engines of Creation (1986) Available online at e-drexler.com Available online in Russian as МАШИНЫ СОЗДАНИЯ: Грядущая эра нанотехнологии Available online in Chinese as 创造的发动机 Available online in Italian as MOTORI DI CREAZIONE: L’era prossima della nanotecnologia Unbounding the Future (1991; with Chris Peterson and Gayle Pergamit) (ISBN 0-688-12573-5) Available online at Unbounding the Future: the Nanotechnology Revolution Nanosystems Molecular Machinery Manufacturing and Computation (1992) Sample chapters and a table of contents are available online at e.drexler.com Engines of Creation 2.0: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology - Updated and Expanded, K. Eric Drexler, 647 pages, (February 2007) - illustrated pdf edition, free download Books and articles about Eric Drexler Great Mambo Chicken and the Transhuman Condition by Ed Regis. ISBN 0-201-56751-2 Nano: The Emerging Science of Nanotechnology by Ed Regis. ISBN 0-316-73852-2 "The Creator": Interview with Eric Drexler by Michael Berry "The Incredible Shrinking World of Eric Drexler": Red Herring Interview by Anthony B. Perkins August 1, 1995 "The Incredible Shrinking Man: K. Eric Drexler was the godfather of nanotechnology. But the MIT prodigy who dreamed up molecular machines was shoved aside by big science - and now he's an industry outcast." Ed Regis, Wired Magazine, Issue 12.10, October 2004 In science fiction Drexler is mentioned in the science fiction book The Diamond Age as one of the heroes of a future world where nanotechnology is ubiquitous. In the science fiction novel Newton's Wake by Ken Macleod a 'drexler' is a nanotech assembler of pretty much anything that can fit in the volume of the particular machine - socks to starships. Drexler is also mentioned in the science fiction book Decipher by Stel Pavlou, his book is mentioned as one of the starting points of the nanomachine construction, as well as giving a better understanding of the way carbon 60 was to be applied. James Rollins references Drexler's Engines of Creation in his novel Excavation, using his theory of a molecular machine in two sections as a possible explanation for the mysterious "Substance Z" in the story. See also Foresight Institute (Drexler is no longer with Foresight Institute) Robert Freitas - Nanomedicine advocate Ralph Merkle - nanotechnologist Richard Feynman - physicist Gerard O'Neill - space advocate External links e-drexler.com, Drexler's own web site, includes: Biography Publications Technology Roadmap for Productive Nanosystems Who's Who in the Nanospace | K._Eric_Drexler |@lemmatized eric:9 drexler:34 kim:1 bear:1 april:1 oakland:1 california:1 american:4 engineer:1 best:3 know:2 popularize:1 potential:2 molecular:18 nanotechnology:18 mnt:4 doctoral:2 thesis:3 mit:4 revise:1 publish:4 book:10 nanosystems:4 machinery:4 manufacturing:5 computation:4 receive:3 association:2 publisher:2 award:2 computer:3 science:11 also:4 coin:2 term:4 grey:2 goo:2 life:1 work:8 k:4 strongly:1 influence:1 idea:4 limit:1 growth:1 early:2 response:1 first:6 year:4 massachusetts:1 institute:5 technology:3 seek:1 someone:1 extraterrestrial:1 resource:1 find:1 dr:1 gerard:2 neill:3 princeton:2 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2,706 | Michael_Moorcock | Michael John Moorcock (born 18 December 1939, in London) is an English writer primarily of science fiction and fantasy who has also published a number of literary novels. Moorcock has mentioned The Gods of Mars by Edgar Rice Burroughs, The Apple Cart by George Bernard Shaw and The Constable of St. Nicholas by Edward Lester Arnold as the first three books which captured his imagination. Thoughts \ Interviews \ People Online Chat with Michael Moorcock He became editor of Tarzan Adventures in 1956, at the age of sixteen, and later moved on to edit Sexton Blake Library. As editor of the controversial British science fiction magazine New Worlds, from May 1964 until March 1971 and then again from 1976 to 1996, Moorcock fostered the development of the science fiction "New Wave" in the UK and indirectly in the United States. His serialization of Norman Spinrad's Bug Jack Barron was notorious for causing British MPs to condemn in Parliament the Arts Council's funding of the magazine. During this time, he occasionally wrote under the pseudonym of "James Colvin," a "house pseudonym" used by other critics on New Worlds. A spoof obituary of Colvin appeared in New Worlds #197 (January 1970), written by "William Barclay" (another Moorcock pseudonym). Moorcock, indeed, makes much use of the initials "JC", and not entirely coincidentally these are also the initials of Jesus Christ (as well as that of John Carter, Edgar Rice Burroughs' main character in The Gods of Mars), the subject of his 1967 Nebula award-winning novella Behold the Man, which tells the story of Karl Glogauer, a time-traveller who takes on the role of Christ. They are also the initials of various "Eternal Champion" Moorcock characters such as Jerry Cornelius, Jerry Cornell and Jherek Carnelian. In more recent years, Moorcock has taken to using "Warwick Colvin, Jr." as yet another pseudonym, particularly in his "Second Ether" fiction. Moorcock's introduction to his experimental novel Breakfast in the Ruins referring to the fiction as the text of a manuscript found after the "late" author's death was a literary device taken literally by some readers. Biography Michael Moorcock was born in London in 1939 and the landscape of London, particularly the area of Notting Hill Gate and Ladbroke Grove, is an important influence in many of his novels (cf. the Cornelius novels). Moorcock is the former husband of Hilary Bailey. He is also the former husband of Jill Riches, the illustrator, who later become Robert Calvert's wife. Riches did cover illustrations for some of Moorcock's books. Moorcock was a member of the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA), a loose-knit group of Heroic Fantasy authors founded in the 1960s, some of whose works were anthologized in Lin Carter's Flashing Swords! anthologies. In 1997, Moorcock was one of the Guests of Honor at the Worldcon in San Antonio, Texas and was Co-Guest of Honor at the 1976 World Fantasy Convention in New York City, NY. http://www.worldfantasy.org/retro.html In the 1990s, Moorcock moved to Texas in the United States. In 2004, he announced plans to spend half the year in Europe, probably eventually settling in France. Moorcock was the subject of two book length works, a monograph and an interview, by Colin Greenland. In 1983, Greenland published The Entropy Exhibition: Michael Moorcock and the British 'New Wave' in Science Fiction. He followed this with Michael Moorcock: Death is No Obstacle, a book length interview in 1992. Works At sixteen in 1957 Moorcock became editor of the Tarzan Adventures. He later edited the Sexton Blake Library and has returned to this era for some of his recent books. He has been writing ever since and has not surprisingly produced a huge volume of work. His first novel was published in 1961. Under his editorship the New Worlds magazine became central to the movement that was to be called the New Wave of Science Fiction. This movement brought a returned emphasis on the effects of technological change on society and the individual, in contrast to “hard science fiction” which concentrates on technological change itself. Many of the stories in this sub-genre may not be immediately recognisable as science fiction. Moorcock’s books are generally linked into a super-cycle by the device of the Eternal Champion. This has all of the heroes being linked by the possession of the same spirit, a kind of meta-hero, whether they know it or not. This heroic spirit is eternally atoning for some vast sin and seeking peace which is embodied by the city of Tanelorn. In the sword and sorcery novels this relationship is stated directly whereas it is only implied in the other novels. Further linking themes are the struggles of humanity to be freed from unthinking superstition and brutality which are personified by various gods and the spirit of the Black Sword (which is fear). A particularly successful linking device in the Jerry Cornelius novels and other later novels is the idea of characters time travelling by an act of will. The nature of time requires that they act within personas appropriate to their current environment to avoid being ejected at random into the time stream. The characters can also travel into alternative worlds that they find/create for themselves (and may be wandering hopelessly in many alternative realities). Moorcock talks about much of his writing in Death is No Obstacle by Colin Greenland, which is basically a book length transcription of interviews with Moorcock about the structures in his writing. Moorcock's most popular works by far have been the "Elric of Melniboné" stories. In these books, Elric is an anti-hero written as a deliberate reversal of what Moorcock saw as clichés commonly found in fantasy adventure novels inspired by the works of J. R. R. Tolkien, and a direct antithesis of Robert E. Howard's Conan the Barbarian. Moorcock has also published a number of pastiches of writers for whom he felt affection as a boy, such as Edgar Rice Burroughs, Leigh Brackett, and Howard himself. All his fantasy adventures have elements of satire and parody while respecting what he considers the essentials of the form. While these are perhaps his best known works in the United States, he came to prominence in the UK as a literary author, (with the Guardian_Fiction_Award in 1977 for the final book in the original Jerry Cornelius Quartet, Condition of Muzak; and Mother London, shortlisted for the Whitbread prize) with books like Behold the Man and The Final Programme being received as non-genre work. Novels and series like the Cornelius Quartet, Mother London, King of the City, the Pyat Quartet and the short story collection London Bone have established him in the eyes of critics such as Iain Sinclair, Peter Ackroyd and Alan Massie in publications such as the [London] Times Literary Supplement and The London Review of Books as a major contemporary literary novelist. In 2008 he was named by as critics panel in The Times as one of the fifty best British novelists since 1945. Also in 2008 the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America named him as a Grandmaster of SF. Virtually all of his stories are part of his overarching "Eternal Champion" theme or oeuvre, with characters (including Elric) moving from one storyline and fictional universe to another, all of them interconnected (though often only in dreams or visions). Moorcock ‘s work is frequently praised as being complex and multilayered. Central to many of his fantasy novels is the concept of an "Eternal Champion," who has potentially multiple identities across multiple dimensions of reality and alternative universes. This cosmology is called the "Multiverse" within his novels and is based on the concept which arose in particle physics in the 1960s and is still a current theory in high energy physics. The "Eternal Champion" is engaged in a constant struggle with not only conventional notions of good and evil, but also in the struggle for balance between Law and Chaos. In a sense this reflects the idea of the "golden mean" as the ideal condition of being (Marcus Aurelius, etc). Many of Moorcock's most successful books follow this theme of promoting a dynamic stability which frees humanity (or thinking beings) from the burdens of superstition, hate and fear. The "black sword", which appears as the eternal champion's ally and/or nemesis in many of the fantasy novels, is explicitly identified as representing fear. The popularity of Elric has overshadowed his many other works, though he has worked a number of the themes of the Elric stories into his other works (the "Hawkmoon" and "Corum" novels, for example) and Elric appears in the Jerry Cornelius and Dancers at the End of Time cycles. His Eternal Champion sequence has been collected in two different editions of omnibus volumes comprising fifteen books containing several books per volume, by Victor Gollancz in the UK and by White Wolf Publishing in the US. In 2003, Universal optioned the rights to the Elric series to be produced by the Weitz brothers. Another of Moorcock's popular creations is Jerry Cornelius (another JC), a kind of hip secret agent of ambiguous sexuality; the same characters featured in each of several Cornelius books. These books were most obviously satirical of modern times, including the Vietnam War, and continue to feature as another variation of the Multiverse theme. The first Jerry Cornelius book, The Final Programme (1968) was made into a feature film. Its story line is essentially identical to two of the Elric stories: The Dreaming City and The Dead Gods' Book. Since 1998, Moorcock has returned to Cornelius in a series of new stories: The Spencer Inheritance, The Camus Connection, Cheering for the Rockets, and Firing the Cathedral, which was concerned with 9/11. All four novellas were included in the 2003 edition of The Lives and Times of Jerry Cornelius. Moorcock's most recent Cornelius story appeared in the journal Nature in May 2006 and was called 'The Visible Men'. Most of Moorcock's earlier work consisted of short stories and relatively brief novels: he has mentioned that "I could write 15,000 words a day and gave myself three days a volume. That's how, for instance, the Hawkmoon books were written." . Over the period of the New Worlds editorship and his publishing of the original fantasy novels Moorcock has maintained an interest in the craft of writing and a continuing interest in the semi-journalistic craft of "pulp" authorship. This is reflected in his development of interlocking cycles which hark back to the origins of fantasy in myth and medieval cycles (see "Wizardry and Wild Romance - Moorcock" & "Death is no obstacle - Collin Greenland" for more commentary). This also provides an implicit link with the episodic origins of literature in newspaper/magazine serials from Trollop and Dickens onwards. None of this should be surprising given Moorcock's background in magazine publishing. Since the 1980s, Moorcock has tended to write longer, more literary 'mainstream' novels, such as Mother London and Byzantium Endures, which have had positive reviews, but he continues to revisit characters from his earlier works, such as Elric, with books like The Dreamthief's Daughter or The Skrayling Tree. With the publication of the third and last book in this series, The White Wolf's Son, he announced that he was 'retiring' from writing heroic fantasy fiction, though he continues to write Elric's adventures as graphic novels with his long-time collaborators Walter Simonson and the late James Cawthorne. Together, they produced the graphic novel, Elric: the Making of a Sorcerer, published by DC Comics in 2007. He has also completed his Colonel Pyat sequence, dealing with the Nazi Holocaust, which began in 1981 with Byzantium Endures, continued through The Laughter of Carthage (1984) and Jerusalem Commands (1992), and now culminates with The Vengeance of Rome (2006). Although Moorcock is mostly known for the books mentioned above, he also wrote several novels and novellas that are set on Earth millions of years in the future; the best known in The Dancers at the End of Time. His award-winning Gloriana, or The Unfulfill'd Queen, is set in an alternate Earth history. Moorcock is prone to revising his existing work, with the result that different editions of a given book may contain significant variations. The changes range from simple retitlings (e.g., the Elric story The Flame Bringers becoming The Caravan of Forgotten Dreams in the 1990s Gollancz/White Wolf omnibus editions) to character name changes (e.g., scout leader "Egan" becoming "Reagan" in the omnibus edition of The War Lord of the Air), major textual alterations (e.g., the addition of several new chapters to The Steel Tsar in the omnibus editions), and even complete restructurings (e.g., the seminal 1966 novella Behold the Man being expanded to full novel length for republication in 1969). Moorcock in music Moorcock collaborated with the British rock band Hawkwind on many occasions: The Hawkwind track "The Black Corridor," for example, included verbatim quotes from Moorcock's novel of the same name, and he worked with the band on their album Warrior on the Edge of Time. Moorcock also penned the lyrics to "Sonic Attack," a Sci-Fi send-up of the public information broadcast, that was part of Hawkwind's Space Ritual set. Hawkwind's album The Chronicle of the Black Sword was largely based on the Elric novels. Moorcock appeared on stage with the band occasionally during the Black Sword tour. His contributions were removed from the original release of the Live Chronicles album, recorded on this tour, due to legal reasons but has subsequently appeared on some double CD versions. He can also be seen performing on the DVD version of Chronicle of the Black Sword. Moorcock also collaborated with former Hawkwind frontman and resident poet, Robert Calvert (who gave the chilling declamation of "Sonic Attack"), on Calvert's albums Lucky Leif and the Longships and Hype. Moorcock has his own music project, which records under the name Michael Moorcock & The Deep Fix. The first album New Worlds Fair was released in 1975. The album included a number of Hawkwind regulars in the credits. A second version of the album Roller Coaster Holiday was issued in 2004. In 2008, The Entropy Tango & Gloriana Demo Sessions was released. These were sessions for planned albums based on two of his novels: "Glorianna" and "The Entropy Tango." The albums were never completed. ("The Deep Fix" was the title story of an obscure collection of short stories by "James Colvin" published in the 1960s. The Deep Fix was also the fictional band fronted by Moorcock's character Jerry Cornelius.) Moorcock wrote the lyrics to three album tracks by the American band Blue Öyster Cult: "Black Blade", referring to the sword Stormbringer in the Elric books, "Veteran of the Psychic Wars" showing us Elric's emotions at a critical point of his story (this song may also refer to the "Warriors at the Edge of Time," which figure heavily in Moorcock's novels about John Daker; at one point his novel "The Dragon in the Sword" they call themselves the "veterans of a thousand psychic wars"), and "The Great Sun Jester", about his friend, the poet Bill Butler, who died of a drug overdose. Moorcock has even performed live with BÖC (in 1987 at the Atlanta, GA Dragon Con Convention) and Hawkwind. Moorcock appeared on five tracks on the Spirits Burning CD "Alien Injection," released in 2008. He is credited with singing lead vocals and playing guitar and mandolin. The performances used on the CD were from the The Entropy Tango & Gloriana Demo Sessions. The first of an audio book series of unabridged Elric novels, with new work read by Moorcock, have recently begun appearing from AudioRealms. The second audiobook in the series - The Sailor on the Seas of Fate - was published in 2007. The Spanish Doom Metal band Dark Moor released their The Fall of Melnibone EP in 2001, which is heavily inspired by the works of Moorcock. Views on fiction writing Moorcock is a fervent supporter of the works of Mervyn Peake, and somewhat dismissive of the works of J. R. R. Tolkien. He met both Tolkien and C. S. Lewis in his teens, and claims to have liked them personally even though he does not admire them on artistic grounds. In Fantasy: The Hundred Best Books (July 1991), however, he and his coauthor James Cawthorn are generous to Tolkien's work. Moorcock criticises works like The Lord of the Rings for their "Merry England" point of view, famously equating Tolkien's novel to Winnie-the-Pooh in his essay "Epic Pooh." He cites Fritz Leiber, an important sword and sorcery pioneer, as an author who writes fantasy that is not escapist and contains meaningful themes. These views can be found in his study of epic fantasy, Wizardry & Wild Romance, which was revised and reissued by MonkeyBrain Books in 2004. Likewise, Moorcock has criticized writers for what he perceives as their political agendas. Among his targets are Robert A. Heinlein and H. P. Lovecraft, both of whom he attacked in a 1978 essay. In that essay, entitled "Starship Stormtroopers," he criticised a range of canonical authors for their production of "authoritarian" fiction, citing Lovecraft for having anti-semitic, misogynistic and extremely racist viewpoints, which he included in his short stories. Moorcock makes no bones about his own anarchist political agenda in his own novels - for example, sympathetically portrayed monarchs in Moorcock's works frequently abdicate or impose exile upon themselves (eg. Elric). King of the City, the Cornelius stories and the Pyat novels all display strong, often explicit, political views. Sharing fictional universes with others Moorcock has allowed a number of other writers to create stories in his fictional Jerry Cornelius universe. Brian Aldiss, M. John Harrison, Norman Spinrad, and James Sallis, among others, have written such stories. In an interview published in The Internet Review of Science Fiction, Moorcock explains the reason for sharing his character: Two short stories by Keith Roberts, "Coranda" and "The Wreck of the Kissing Bitch", are set in the frozen Matto Grosso plateau of Moorcock's 1969 novel, The Ice Schooner. He is a friend and fan of comic book writer Alan Moore, and allowed Moore the use of his own character, Michael Kane of Old Mars, mentioned in Moore's The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume II. The two men appeared to a capacity audience on stage at the Vanbrugh Theatre in London in January 2006 where they discussed Moorcock's work. The Green City from Kane of Old Mars was also referenced in Larry Niven's Rainbow Mars. Moorcock's character Jerry Cornelius will also be appearing in Moore's The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume III: Century. In 2000, Moorcock wrote a 50,000-word outline for a computer game, which was then improved upon and fleshed out by Storm Constantine, resulting in the novel, Silverheart. The story is set in Karadur-Shriltasi, a city at the heart of the Multiverse. A second novel, Dragonskin is currently in preparation, with Constantine as the main writer. Moorcock is currently working on a memoir about his friends Mervyn and Maeve Peake and writing a text for first publication in French to accompany a set of unpublished Peake drawings. His book The Metatemporal Detective was published in 2007. Awards Michael Moorcock has won a number of awards both for individual books and 'lifetime achievement'. 1967 Nebula Award (Novella): Behold the Man 1972 August Derleth Fantasy Award: The Knight of the Swords 1973 August Derleth Fantasy Award: The King of the Swords 1974 British Fantasy Award (Best Short Story): The Jade Man's Eyes 1975 August Derleth Fantasy Award: The Sword and the Stallion 1976 August Derleth Fantasy Award: The Hollow Lands 1977 Guardian Fiction Award: The Condition of Muzak 1978 John W. Campbell Memorial Award: Gloriana 1979 World Fantasy Award (Best Novel): Gloriana 1993 British Fantasy Award (Committee Award) 2000 World Fantasy Award (Lifetime Achievement) 2002 Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame 2004 Prix Utopiales "Grandmaster" Lifetime Achievement Award 2004 Bram Stoker Lifetime Achievement Award 2008 SFWA Grand Master Award Select bibliography The Best of Michael Moorcock (2009) The Elric sequence (1963-1991), including: The Stealer of Souls (1963) Stormbringer (1965, revised 1977) Elric of Melniboné (1972) The Sailor on the Seas of Fate (1976) The Vanishing Tower (1977) Elric At The End Of Time Many other Eternal Champion books including the Hawkmoon and Corum sequences Behold the Man (1966) The Black Corridor (1969) The Ice Schooner (1969) The Chinese Agent (1970) The Russian Intelligence (1980) Michael Moorcock's Multiverse (1999) (graphic novel) The Metatemporal Detective (2007) (collection) A Nomad of the Time Streams: The Warlord of the Air (1971) The Land Leviathan (1974) The Steel Tsar (1981) The Dancers at the End of Time sequence (1972-76) Legends from the End of Time (1976) Gloriana (1978) My Experiences in the Third World War (1980) Mother London (1988) King of the City (2000) The Jerry Cornelius quartet of novels and shorter fiction: The Final Programme (1969) A Cure for Cancer (1971) The English Assassin (1972) The Condition of Muzak (1977) The Cornelius Quartet (Compilation volume) The Adventures of Una Persson and Catherine Cornelius in the 20th Century (1976) The Lives and Times of Jerry Cornelius (1976) The Entropy Tango (1981) The Alchemist's Question (1984) Firing the Cathedral (novella) (2002) The von Bek sequence: The War Hound and the World's Pain (1981) The Brothel in Rosenstrasse (1982) The City in the Autumn Stars (1986) The Between the Wars sequence: Byzantium Endures (1981) The Laughter of Carthage (1984) Jerusalem Commands (1992) The Vengeance of Rome (2006) The Second Ether sequence: Blood: A Southern Fantasy (1994) Fabulous Harbours (1995) The War Amongst The Angels (1996) London Bone (2001) - short stories The Elric/Oona Von Bek sequence: The Dreamthief's Daughter (2001) The Skrayling Tree (2003) The White Wolf's Son (2005) Anthologies edited He has also edited a number of other volumes, including two bringing together examples of invasion literature: Before Armageddon (1975) England Invaded (1977) Non-fiction Wizardry and Wild Romance (1987) Wizardry and Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy (2004) - updated and revised for publication in the US by MonkeyBrain Books Fantasy: The 100 Best Books'' co-written with James Cawthorn (Carroll & Graf 1988) Footnotes External links General Moorcock's Miscellany (formerly Tanelorn, Multiverse.org & Moorcock's Weekly Miscellany) Fantastic Metropolis, co-edited by Michael Moorcock Moorcock Information Node Michael Moorcock pages at RealityEnds Fantastic Fiction Michael Moorcock's Comics Compendium Michael John Moorcock at ComicBookDB.com Full bibliography and review Nonfiction "Epic Pooh," by Michael Moorcock "Starship Stormtroopers," by Michael Moorcock (Internet Archive snapshot from 2002) Also "Starship Stormtroopers" at the Stan Iverson Memorial Archives Michael Moorcock interviews Andrea Dworkin His tribute delivered at the Andrea Dworkin Commemorative Conference, Oxford University, Fri 7 Apr 2006 Interviews Interview with Michael Moorcock at Neth Space Interview with Michael Moorcock on Actusf.com Interview with Michael Moorcock on wotmania.com Corporate Mofo interview "The Bayley-Moorcock Letters, Part I" "The Bayley-Moorcock Letters, Part II" The Internet Review of Science Fiction interview (registration required) 3:AM Magazine interview Science Fiction Weekly interview Interview on The Ballardian | Michael_Moorcock |@lemmatized michael:20 john:6 moorcock:82 born:1 december:1 london:12 english:2 writer:7 primarily:1 science:12 fiction:21 fantasy:26 also:20 publish:9 number:7 literary:6 novel:37 mention:4 god:4 mar:5 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2,707 | Mural | Salle des illustres, ceiling painting, by Jean André Rixens. Le Capitole, Toulouse, France. A mural is any piece of artwork painted directly on a wall, ceiling, or other large permanent surface. History Murals of sorts date to prehistoric times such as the paintings on the Caves of Lascaux in southern France (18.000 BC). Many ancient murals have survived in Egyptian tombs, and in Pompeii. The term became more well-known with the Mexican "muralista" art movement (Diego Rivera, David Siqueiros, or José Orozco). There are many different styles and techniques. The best-known is probably fresco, which uses water-soluble paints with a damp lime wash, a rapid use of the resulting mixture over a large surface, and often in parts (but with a sense of the whole). The colors lighten as they dry. The marouflage method has also been used for millennia. Murals today are painted in a variety of ways, using oil or water-based media. The styles can vary from abstract to trompe-l'œil (a French term for "fool" or "trick the eye"). Today, the beauty of a wall mural has become much more widely available with a technique whereby a painting or photographic image is transferred to poster paper which is then pasted to a wall surface (see wallpaper) to give the effect of either a hand-painted mural or realistic scene. Significance of murals Jataka tales from the Ajanta caves, c. 200 BCE - 600 CE Murals are important in that they bring art into the public sphere. Due to the size, cost, and work involved in creating a mural, muralists must often be commissioned by a sponsor. Often it is the local government or a business, but many murals have been paid for with grants of patronage. For artists, their work gets a wide audience who otherwise might not set foot in an art gallery. A city benefits by the beauty of a work of art. Murals exist where people live and work and they can add to their daily lives. Murals can be a relatively effective tool of social emancipation or achieving a political goal. Murals have sometimes been created against the law, or have been commissioned by local bars and coffeeshops. Often, the visual effects are an enticement to attract public attention to social issues. World-famous murals can be found in Mexico, New York, Philadelphia, Belfast, Derry, Los Angeles, Nicaragua, Cuba and in India. They have functioned as an important means of communication for members of socially, ethnically and racially divided communities in times of conflict. They also proved to be an effective tool in establishing a dialogue and hence solving the cleavage in the long run. State-sponsored public art expressions, particularly murals, are often used by totalitarian regimes as a tool of mass-control and propaganda. However, despite the propagandist character of that works, some of them still have an artistic value. Murals and politics A republican mural by the Bogside Artists in Derry's Bogside, depicting Bernadette Devlin McAliskey. The famous Mexican mural movement in the 1930s brought a new prominence to murals as a social and political tool. Diego Rivera, José Orozco and David Siqueiros were the most famous artists of the movement. During the 1930s and '40s Colombia was in the middle of a dispute between the conservative and liberal parties. Tensions were high due to the strong communist force influence of the Soviet Union. In 1948 the Colombian Government hosted the IX Pan-American Conference to establish the Marshall plan for the Americas. The director of the OEA and the Colombian government commissioned Master Santiago Martinez Delgado, to paint a mural in the Colombian congress building to commemorate the event. Martinez decided to make it about the Cucuta Congress, and painted Bolivar in front of Santander, making liberals upset; so, due to the murder of Jorge Elieser Gaitan the mobs of el bogotazo tried to burn the capitol, but the Colombian Army stopped them. Years later, in the 1980s, with liberals in charge of the congress, they passed a resolution to turn the whole chamber in the Elliptic Room 90 degrees to put the main mural on the side and commissioned Alejandro Obregon to paint a non-partisan mural in the surrealist style. Northern Ireland contains some of the most famous political murals in the world. Many murals serve as a public service announcement of a special interest, notably for political topics such as sex, sexual orientation, religion and intolerance. Almost 2,000 murals have been documented in Northern Ireland since the 1970s. (See Northern Irish murals.) Unique murals The Bardia Mural, photographed in the 1960s, prior to its damage by defacement and the ravages of time. Unique murals are found around the world. An example of such a mural covers a wall in an old building, once a prison, at the top of a cliff in Bardiyah, in Libya. It was painted and signed by the artist on April 1942, weeks before his death on the first day of the First Battle of El Alamein. Known as the Bardia Mural, it was created by English artist, Private John Frederick Brill. The San Bartolo mural The largest indoor mural measures 1,002 m² (9,731 ft²) and was painted by six artists in seven days from February 27, 2005 at Shyam Vatika, Saraswati Estate, Cimmco Tiraha, Gwalior, India. The painting was co-ordinated by a professional mural artist (Aasutosh Panigrahi) and the owners of the place, R P Maheshwary and Ankur Maheshwary. The six artists, led by Aasutosh Panigrahi, broke a previously held Australian record. The previous largest indoor mural measured 727.52 m² (7,830.96 ft²) and was located at Youth Club, Bernie, Tasmania, Australia on 30 June 2004. The art was painted on all interior walls and ceilings of a privately owned auditorium, Shyam Vatika, which is used for banquet purposes. The art was done to break a previously held record. In August 2005 the art was appraised by Guinness World Records as the "World's Largest Indoor Mural". The Indian state Kerala has exclusive murals. These Kerala mural painting are on walls of Hindu temples. They can be dated from 9th century CE. The San Bartolo murals of the Maya civilization in Guatemala, are the oldest and finest example of this art in Mesoamerica and are dated at 300 BCE. Murals in private homes Forest mural in private home, England Many people like to express their individuality by commissioning an artist to paint a mural in their home, this is not an activity exclusively for owners of large houses. A mural artist is only limited by the fee and therefore the time spent on the painting; dictating the level of detail; a simple mural can be added to the smallest of walls. Private commissions can be for dining rooms, bathrooms, living rooms or, as is often the case- children's bedrooms. A child's room can be transformed into the 'fantasy world' of a forest or racing track, encouraging imaginative play and an awareness of art. Murals in advertising A "wallscape" is a large advertisement on or attached to the outside wall of a building. Wallscapes can be painted directly on the wall as a mural, or printed on vinyl and securely attached to the wall in the manner of a billboard. Famous muralists Diego Rivera's mural depicting Mexico's history at the National Palace in Mexico City. Carlos Almaraz Judy Baca Arnold Belkin Thomas Hart Benton Giotto di Bondone Paul Cadmus Eleanor Coen John Steuart Curry Robert Dafford Santiago Martinez Delgado Piero della Francesca Richard Haas Tom LeaKevin Stewart-Magee John Anton Mallin Cro-Magnon Man Andrea Mantegna Knox Martin Peter Max Michelangelo Claude Monet Roberto Montenegro Aarón Piña Mora Juan O'Gorman José Clemente OrozcoDiego Rivera Raphael Conrad Schmitt David Alfaro Siqueiros Frank Stella Rufino Tamayo Titian Alton Tobey Kent Twitchell Leonardo da Vinci Lucia Wiley Robert Wyland Tile Mural Framed Tile Mural A Tile Mural is an arrangement of decorative tiles, that are either dye-sublimated, hand-painted, or kiln-fired and used as a decorative accessory. Tile Murals are traditionally available professionally framed and ready for display, or as loose tiles to install for permanent enjoyment in the home or commercial environment. The subject matter often includes classical fine art from renowned artists, contemporary motifs, sports and holiday themes, and custom images which one can upload from his or her computer. Tile murals have gained wide popularity in recent years, from home décor enthusiasts and interior decorators. Portugal is the country in the world where tile murals are more common. From traditional to modern tile decorations one can find them everywhere - from palaces and churches to shopping centres and the tube. A tile mural can be produced from a variety of tiles, depending on the look that the manufacturer desires to achieve. Most notably, ceramic tile is preferred among many because it is uniform, light-weight, relatively inexpensive and easily procured. Also in high demand is tumbled marble tile, which lends itself to a more distressed, old-fashioned and rustic look. Many prefer tumbled marble for their tile mural over other materials, because of its attractive veining and characteristic fissures which is inherent in natural stone. Others also choose tumbled marble because of its weight; since it is the heaviest of materials used in producing tile murals, it has the highest perceived value. Because today’s homes incorporate so many possibilities when it comes to construction materials, many manufacturers also offer porcelain, glass and travertine tiles. Ceramic tiles are commonly available in 4.25” and 6”. Likewise, tumbled marble tiles also come in 4” and 6” sizes. Many manufacturers offer custom sizes. Overall dimensions for tile murals vary depending on the manufacturer, its resources and the image which is to be transferred. If the image is in vector format, which for example, is typically the case with officially licensed sports logos, a tile mural can be produced in any size with optimal results and no distortion in the mural’s resolution. The size of a tile mural, however, typically depends on the environment in which it will be placed. For instance, a tile mural which will be installed in a kitchen backsplash behind a cooking range usually does not exceed the size of the range itself, normally 36” in width. A gloss finish can be applied to a tile mural which is desired to look vivid, contemporary and new. Gloss finishes usually pick up highlights and reflections. A satin finish is used if a consumer wishes his or her tile mural to look contemporary, without picking up highlights and reflections. Matte finishes are generally applied to tumbled marble tiles in order to retain the weathered effect of the tile mural. Tile murals can be installed almost anywhere, historically however, the kitchen backsplash, bath enclosure, wine cellar, spa and cabana have been favored locations. Installation of a tile mural is relatively simple, though many home and business owners prefer to hire a professional to do the job quickly and seamlessly. The use of sand-less grout has also been integral in preventing a tile mural being scratched during installation. A commercial grade sealer is also recommended during installation. Depending on the application, a tile mural occasionally needs maintenance. The use of a non-abrasive household cleaning agent along with a soft, cotton cloth is preferred to clean it. Any agent which contains abrasive chemicals may permanently damage the tile mural. Tumbled marble tiles require extra precaution because of their high porosity. Applying a sealer once every 24 months is recommended. Deco tiles, also known as accent tiles, are individual tiles which are designed to match and complement the motif of a particular tile mural. These are often installed strategically within the balance of tile in a kitchen backsplash or shower enclosure and to expand the focal point of interest. See also Anamorphosis Bogside Artists Brixton murals Graffiti Marouflage Murals of Kerala, India Propaganda Public art Socialist realism Tiled printing Trompe-l'œil Watermelon House Further reading References External links Descriptions of many murals How to prepare a mural wall and protect the mural Political Wall Murals in Northern Ireland Calpams murals.trompe-l-oeil.info French and European gate of murals: 10 000 pictures and 1100 murals Temple Mural Paintings of Tamilnadu The National Society of Mural Painters (USA; founded 1895) International Index of Modern Muralism Ancient Maya Art Ancient Prehispanic Murals Global Murals Conference 2006 at Prestoungrange Mural Decoration in 1911 Britannica | Mural |@lemmatized salle:1 de:1 illustres:1 ceiling:3 painting:7 jean:1 andré:1 rixens:1 le:2 capitole:1 toulouse:1 france:2 mural:84 piece:1 artwork:1 paint:12 directly:2 wall:12 large:7 permanent:2 surface:3 history:2 sort:1 date:3 prehistoric:1 time:4 cave:2 lascaux:1 southern:1 bc:1 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giotto:1 di:1 bondone:1 paul:1 cadmus:1 eleanor:1 coen:1 steuart:1 curry:1 robert:2 dafford:1 piero:1 della:1 francesca:1 richard:1 haas:1 tom:1 leakevin:1 stewart:1 magee:1 anton:1 mallin:1 cro:1 magnon:1 man:1 andrea:1 mantegna:1 knox:1 martin:1 peter:1 max:1 michelangelo:1 claude:1 monet:1 roberto:1 montenegro:1 aarón:1 piña:1 mora:1 juan:1 gorman:1 clemente:1 orozcodiego:1 raphael:1 conrad:1 schmitt:1 alfaro:1 frank:1 stella:1 rufino:1 tamayo:1 titian:1 alton:1 tobey:1 kent:1 twitchell:1 leonardo:1 da:1 vinci:1 lucia:1 wiley:1 wyland:1 tile:38 frame:2 arrangement:1 decorative:2 dye:1 sublimate:1 kiln:1 fire:1 accessory:1 traditionally:1 professionally:1 ready:1 display:1 loose:1 install:1 enjoyment:1 commercial:2 environment:2 subject:1 matter:1 include:1 classical:1 renowned:1 contemporary:3 motif:2 sport:2 holiday:1 theme:1 custom:2 one:2 upload:1 computer:1 gain:1 popularity:1 recent:1 décor:1 enthusiast:1 decorator:1 portugal:1 country:1 common:1 traditional:1 modern:2 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2,708 | Alexanderplatz | Alexanderplatz from the Fernsehturm: Kaufhof and Berolinahaus in front, Park Inn highrise behind Neighborhoods in Berlin-Mitte: Old Cölln [1] (with Museum Island [1a], Fischer Island [1b]), Altberlin [2] (with Nikolaiviertel [2a]), Friedrichswerder [3], Neukölln am Wasser [4], Dorotheenstadt [5], Friedrichstadt [6], Luisenstadt [7], Stralauer Vorstadt (with Königsstadt) [8], Alexanderplatz Area (Königsstadt and Altberlin) [9], Spandauer Vorstadt [10] (with Scheunenviertel [10a]), Friedrich-Wilhelm-Stadt [11], Oranienburger Vorstadt [12], Rosenthaler Vorstadt [13] is a large public square and transport hub in the Mitte (city centre) district of Berlin, near the river Spree and the Berliner Dom. Berliners often call it simply Alex, referring to a larger neighborhood stretching from Mollstraße in the northeast to Spandauer Straße and the City Hall in the southwest. Originally a cattle market, it was named in honor of a visit of the Russian Emperor Alexander I to Berlin on 25 October 1805. It gained a prominent role in the late 19th century with the construction of the station of the same name and a nearby public market, becoming a major commercial center. Its heyday was in the 1920s, when together with Potsdamer Platz it was at the heart of Berlin's nightlife, inspiring the 1929 novel Berlin Alexanderplatz (see 1920s Berlin) and the two films based thereon, Piel Jutzi's 1931 film and Rainer Werner Fassbinder's 15 1/2 hour second adaptation, released in 1980. The Alexanderplatz has been subject to redevelopment several times in its history, most recently during the 1960s, when it was enlarged as part of the German Democratic Republic's redevelopment of the city center. It is surrounded by several notable structures including the Fernsehturm (TV Tower), the second tallest structure in Europe. Because of its high profile, many newcomers to Berlin mistake the nickname Alex and apply it to the Fernsehturm instead. The Alex also accommodates the Park Inn Berlin and the World Time Clock, a continually rotating installation that shows the time throughout the globe, the 1932 Alexanderhaus and Berolinahaus by Peter Behrens, and Hermann Henselmann's Haus des Lehrers. Following German reunification the Alexanderplatz has undergone a gradual process of change with many of the surrounding buildings being renovated. Despite the construction of a tram line it has retained its socialist character, including the much-graffitied Fountain of Friendship between Peoples (Brunnen der Völkerfreundschaft). In 1993 plans for a major redevelopment including the construction of several skyscrapers were published, but due to a lack of demand it is unlikely these will be constructed. However, beginning with the reconstruction of the department store Kaufhof in 2004, and the biggest underground railway station of Berlin, some buildings will be redesigned and new structures built on the square's south-eastern side. The Alexa shopping mall, with approximately 180 stores opened in Alexanderplatz during 2007 and a large Saturn electronic store is currently being built in Alexanderplatz due to open in 2008. Many historic buildings are located in the area around Alexanderplatz. The traditional seat of city government, the Rotes Rathaus, or Red City Hall, is located nearby, as is the former East German parliament building, the Palast der Republik, demolition of which began in February 2006 and has been completed. The new building for the site has been in planning. http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,594515,00.html Alexanderplatz is also the name of the S-Bahn and U-Bahn stations there. The station features in the opening scenes of the film Flightplan. Image Gallery References External links Alexanderplatz - Overview of the changes | Alexanderplatz |@lemmatized alexanderplatz:10 fernsehturm:3 kaufhof:2 berolinahaus:2 front:1 park:2 inn:2 highrise:1 behind:1 neighborhood:2 berlin:9 mitte:2 old:1 cölln:1 museum:1 island:2 fischer:1 altberlin:2 nikolaiviertel:1 friedrichswerder:1 neukölln:1 wasser:1 dorotheenstadt:1 friedrichstadt:1 luisenstadt:1 stralauer:1 vorstadt:4 königsstadt:2 area:2 spandauer:2 scheunenviertel:1 friedrich:1 wilhelm:1 stadt:1 oranienburger:1 rosenthaler:1 large:3 public:2 square:2 transport:1 hub:1 city:5 centre:1 district:1 near:1 river:1 spree:1 berliner:2 dom:1 often:1 call:1 simply:1 alex:3 refer:1 stretch:1 mollstraße:1 northeast:1 straße:1 hall:2 southwest:1 originally:1 cattle:1 market:2 name:3 honor:1 visit:1 russian:1 emperor:1 alexander:1 october:1 gain:1 prominent:1 role:1 late:1 century:1 construction:3 station:4 nearby:2 become:1 major:2 commercial:1 center:2 heyday:1 together:1 potsdamer:1 platz:1 heart:1 nightlife:1 inspire:1 novel:1 see:1 two:1 film:3 base:1 thereon:1 piel:1 jutzi:1 rainer:1 werner:1 fassbinder:1 hour:1 second:2 adaptation:1 release:1 subject:1 redevelopment:3 several:3 time:3 history:1 recently:1 enlarge:1 part:1 german:3 democratic:1 republic:1 surround:1 notable:1 structure:3 include:3 tv:1 tower:1 tallest:1 europe:1 high:1 profile:1 many:3 newcomer:1 mistake:1 nickname:1 apply:1 instead:1 also:2 accommodate:1 world:1 clock:1 continually:1 rotate:1 installation:1 show:1 throughout:1 globe:1 alexanderhaus:1 peter:1 behrens:1 hermann:1 henselmann:1 haus:1 des:1 lehrers:1 follow:1 reunification:1 undergone:1 gradual:1 process:1 change:2 surrounding:1 building:5 renovate:1 despite:1 tram:1 line:1 retain:1 socialist:1 character:1 much:1 graffitied:1 fountain:1 friendship:1 people:1 brunnen:1 der:2 völkerfreundschaft:1 plan:1 skyscraper:1 publish:1 due:2 lack:1 demand:1 unlikely:1 construct:1 however:1 begin:2 reconstruction:1 department:1 store:3 big:1 underground:1 railway:1 redesign:1 new:2 build:2 south:1 eastern:1 side:1 alexa:1 shopping:1 mall:1 approximately:1 open:2 saturn:1 electronic:1 currently:1 historic:1 locate:2 around:1 traditional:1 seat:1 government:1 rote:1 rathaus:1 red:1 former:1 east:1 parliament:1 palast:1 republik:1 demolition:1 february:1 complete:1 site:1 planning:1 http:1 www:1 spiegel:1 de:1 international:1 germany:1 html:1 bahn:2 u:1 feature:1 opening:1 scene:1 flightplan:1 image:1 gallery:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 overview:1 |@bigram friedrich_wilhelm:1 potsdamer_platz:1 rainer_werner:1 werner_fassbinder:1 peter_behrens:1 shopping_mall:1 der_republik:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
2,709 | Classical_element | Many ancient philosophies used a set of archetypal classical elements to explain patterns in nature. In this context, the word element refers to a substance that is either a chemical compound or a mixture of chemical compounds (as in the Chinese Five Phases), rather than a chemical element of modern physical science. The Greek Classical Elements (Earth, Water, Air, Fire, and Aether) date from pre-Socratic times and persisted throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, deeply influencing European thought and culture. The concept of essentially the same five elements were similarly found in ancient India, where they formed a basis of analysis in both Hinduism and Buddhism. In Hinduism, particularly in an esoteric context, the four states-of-matter describe matter, and a fifth element to describe that which was beyond the material world (non-matter). Similar lists existed in ancient China and Japan. In Buddhism the four great elements, to which two others are sometimes added, are not viewed as substances, but as categories of sensory experience. The modern, scientific states of matter, and also (to a lesser extent) the periodic table of elements and the concept of combustion (fire), can be considered successors of such early models. By contrast the Chinese had a somewhat different series of elements, namely Fire, Earth, Water, Metal and Wood, which were understood as different types of energy in a state of constant interaction and flux with one another, rather than the Western notion of different kinds of material. Hindu, Japanese, and Greek systems The most frequently occouring theory of classical elements, held by the Hindu, Japanese, and Greek systems of thought, is that there are five elements, namely Earth, Water, Air, Fire, and a fifth element known variously as Idea, Void "quintessence" or Aether (the term "quintessence" derives from "quint" meaning "fifth"). In Greek thought the philosopher Aristotle added aether as the quintessence, reasoning that whereas fire, earth, air, and water were earthly and corruptible, since no changes had been perceived in the heavenly regions, the stars cannot be made out of any of the four elements but must be made of a different, unchangeable, heavenly substance. G. E. R. Lloyd, Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of his Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1968, pp. 133-139, ISBN 0-521-09456-9. The Greek five elements are sometimes associated with the five platonic solids. Classical elements in Greece The Greek classical elements are fire (), earth (), air (), and water (). In Greek philosophy, science, and medicine they represent the realms of the cosmos. The ancient Greek word for element (stoicheion) meant "letter (of the alphabet)", the basic unit from which a word is formed. Plato characterizes the elements as being pre-Socratic in origin from a list created by the Sicilian philosopher Empedocles (ca. 450 BC). Empedocles called these the four "roots." Plato seems to have been the first to use the term "element (stoicheion)" in reference to air, fire, earth, and water. Timaeus 48b-c According to Aristotle in his Physics: Four Classical Elements Air is primarily wet and secondarily hot. Fire is primarily hot and secondarily dry. Earth is primarily dry and secondarily cold. Water is primarily cold and secondarily wet. One classic diagram (right) has one square inscribed in the other, with the corners of one being the classical elements, and the corners of the other being the properties. The opposite corner is the opposite of the these properties, "hot - cold" and "dry - wet". Of course, some of these qualities are predicated on a Mediterranean climate; those living further north would be a lot less likely to describe air as being hot, or earth as being dry. According to Galen, these elements were used by Hippocrates in describing the human body with an association with the four humours: yellow bile (fire), black bile (earth), blood (air), and phlegm (water). The concept of the classical elements proved extremely persistent in Europe, lasting through the Middle Ages to the early modern era. Just as the Aristotelian dogma was related to the Greek world view, the idea of classical elements in the Middle Ages composed a large part of the medieval world view. The Roman Catholic Church supported the Aristotelian concept of aether because it supported the Christian view of earthly life as impermanent and heaven as eternal. In Western astrology the concept of the four classical elements has survived from antiquity up until the present. The twelve signs of the zodiac are divided into the four elements: Fire signs are Aries, Leo and Sagittarius, Earth signs are Taurus, Virgo and Capricorn, Air signs are Gemini, Libra and Aquarius, and Water signs are Cancer, Scorpio, and Pisces. Most modern astrologers still view the four classical elements as a critical part of interpreting the astrological chart. In divinatory tarot, the suits of cups, swords, batons, and coins are said to correspond to water, air, fire, and earth respectively. Although these elements are often thought to be the meaning behind the suits in a deck of playing cards, the real symbolism is to that of the four pillars of the economy: church, military, commerce and agriculture. Classical elements in Hinduism The pancha mahabhuta, or "five great elements", of Hinduism are [Shristi] or bhumi (earth), ap or jala (water), agni or tejas (fire), marut or pavan (air or wind), or akasha (aether). Hindus believe that God used akasha to create the other four traditional elements, and that the knowledge of all human experience is imprinted in the akashic records. It is also a religious and spiritual belief by most people that the human body is made up of these five essential elements and according to Hinduism, the human body dissolves into these five elements of nature, thereby balancing the cycle of nature, set in motion by the greater Lord God of this world. Classical elements in early Buddhism In the Pali literature, the mahabhuta ("great elements") or catudhatu ("four elements") are earth, water, fire and air. In early Buddhism, the four elements are a basis for understanding suffering and for liberating oneself from suffering. The earliest Buddhist texts explain that the four primary material elements are the sensory qualities solidity, fluidity, temperature, and mobility; their characterization as earth, water, fire, and air, respectively, is declared an abstraction -- instead of concentrating on the fact of material existence, one observes how a physical thing is sensed, felt, perceived. Dan Lusthaus, "What is and isn't Yogacara." . The Buddha's teaching regarding the four elements is to be understood as the base of all observation of real sensations rather than as a philosophy. The four properties are cohesion (water), solidity or inertia (earth), expansion or vibration (air) and heat or calorific content (fire). He promulgated a categorization of mind and matter as composed of eight types of 'kalapas' of which the four elements are primary and a secondary group of four are color, smell, taste, and nutriment which are derivative from the four primaries. The Buddha's teaching of the four elements does predate Greek teaching of the same four elements. This is possibly explained by the fact that he sent out 60 arahants to the known world to spread his teaching, however it differs in the fact that the Buddha taught that the 4 elements are false and that form is in fact made up of much smaller particles which are constantly changing. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997) renders an extract of Shakyamuni Buddha's (Kayagata-sati Sutta MN 119) from Pali into English, thus: Classical elements in the Seven Chakras In the philosophy of the Seven Chakras there are correspondences to the five elements as shared by both Hinduism and Buddhism as well as two other elements: Sahasrara (Crown): Thought/Space Ajña (Third Eye): Light/Dark Vishuddhi (Throat): Ether/Sound Anahata (Heart): Air Manipura (Navel): Fire Svadhisthana (Sacral): Water Muladhara (Root): Earth Classical elements in Japan Japanese traditions use a set of elements called the (go dai, literally "five great"). These five are earth, water, fire, wind/air, and void. These came from Buddhist beliefs; the classical Chinese elements (, go gyô) are also prominent in Japanese culture, especially to the influential Neo-Confucianists during the Edo period. Earth represented things that were solid. Water represented things that were liquid. Fire represented things that destroyed. Wind/Air represented things that moved. Void represented things not of our everyday life. Classical elements in Bön In Bön or ancient Tibetan philosophy , the five elemental processes of: earth, water, fire, air and space are the essential materials of all existent phenomena or aggregates (ref. Skandha). The elemental processes form the basis of the calendar, astrology, medicine, psychology and are the foundation of the spiritual traditions of shamanism, tantra and Dzogchen. Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche Healing with Form, Energy, and Light, p.1, Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications. ISBN 1559391766 2002 comprehensively states: The names of the elements are analogous to categorised experiential sensations of the natural world. The names are symbolic and key to their inherent qualities and/or modes of action by analogy. In Bön the elemental processes are fundamental metaphors for working with external, internal and secret energetic forces. All five elemental processes in their essential purity are inherent in the mindstream and link the trikaya and are aspects of primordial energy. As Herbert V. Günther Günther, Herbert V. (1996). The Teachings of Padmasambhava, pp. 115-116, Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill. Hardcover 1996 rather unfathomably states: In the above block quote the trikaya is encoded as: dharmakaya "god"; sambhogakaya "temple" and nirmanakaya "house". Classical elements in China Although it is usually translated as 'element' the Chinese word xing literally means something like 'changing states of being', 'permutations' or 'metamorphoses of being'. Wolfram Eberhard, A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols, pg 93, pg 105, pg 309, Routledge and Keegan Paul, London, 1986 In fact Sinologists cannot agree on one single translation. The Chinese conception of 'element' is therefore quite different from the Western one. The Western elements were seen as the basic building blocks of matter. The Chinese, by contrast, were seen as ever changing and moving forces or energies—one translation of xing is simply 'the five changes'. The Wu Xing are chiefly an ancient mnemonic device for systems with five stages; hence the preferred translation of "movements", "phases" or "steps" over "elements". In Taoism there is a similar system of elements, which includes metal and wood, but excludes air, which is replaced with qi, which is a force or energy rather than an element. In Chinese philosophy the universe consists of heaven and earth, heaven being made of qi and earth being made of the five elements (in the Chinese view, the attributes and properties of the Western and Indian Air element are equivalent to that of Wood, where the element of Ether is often seen as a correspondent to Metal). The five major planets are associated with and named after the elements: Venus is Metal, Jupiter is Wood, Mercury is Water, Mars is Fire, and Saturn is Earth. Additionally, the Moon represents Yin, and the Sun represents Yang. Yin, Yang, and the five elements are recurring themes in the I Ching, the oldest of Chinese classical texts which describes an ancient system of cosmology and philosophy. The five elements also play an important part in Chinese astrology and the Chinese form of geomancy known as Feng shui The doctrine of five phases describes two cycles of balance, a generating or creation (生, shēng) cycle and an overcoming or destruction (克/剋, kè) cycle of interactions between the phases. Generating Wood feeds fire; Fire creates earth (ash); Earth bears metal; Metal collects water; Water nourishes wood. Overcoming Wood parts earth; Earth absorbs water; Water quenches fire; Fire melts metal; Metal chops wood. There are also two cycles of imbalance, an overacting cycle (cheng) and an insulting cycle (wu). Elements in Medieval alchemy The elemental system used in medieval alchemy was developed by the Arabian alchemist, Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber). His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five classical elements found in the ancient Greek and Indian traditions (aether, air, earth, fire and water), in addition to two chemical elements representing the metals: sulphur, ‘the stone which burns’, which characterized the principle of combustibility, and mercury, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and salt giving solidity. Strathern, Paul. (2000). Mendeleyev’s Dream – the Quest for the Elements. New York: Berkley Books. This theory became popular among European alchemists after the Latin translations of the 12th century, and was adopted in 1524 by the Swiss alchemist Paracelsus, who reasoned that Aristotle’s four element theory appeared in bodies as Geber’s three principles. Paracelsus saw these principles as fundamental, and justified them by recourse to the description of how wood burns in fire. Mercury included the cohesive principle, so that when it left in smoke the wood fell apart. Smoke represented the volatility (the mercury principle), the heat-giving flames represented flammability (sulphur), and the remnant ash represented solidity (salt). Modern Western approaches The five classical elements are used to the present day by esoteric movements such as neo-paganism, astrology and tarot. Classical elements in sound and music In 1987 composer Robert Steadman wrote a chamber symphony each movement of which musically depicts the characteristics of the ancient Greek elements: fire, water, wind and earth. Rock band Thrice released a four-disc concept album called "The Alchemy Index" in 2007/2008. Each disc contained six tracks representing one of the four classical elements: Fire, Water, Earth, and Air. Metal band Mastodon has released 4 albums based on the four elements. Remission, their first album, was based on fire. Leviathan, the second represented water and was also based on Moby Dick. Their 3rd album, Blood Mountain, represented earth. Their fourth, and most recent, album was called Crack the Skye and represented air. Classical elements in popular culture The classical elements are sometimes used together thematically in modern fantasy, literature, movies, television shows, and comic books. See also Alchemical elements Elemental Phlogiston theory Table of correspondences References External links Different versions of the classical elements Void Element in Chinese Yoga Section on 4 elements in Buddhism 7 elements correspondence to the Hindu/Bhuddhist Chakras & | Classical_element |@lemmatized many:1 ancient:9 philosophy:7 use:8 set:3 archetypal:1 classical:26 element:83 explain:3 pattern:1 nature:3 context:2 word:4 refers:1 substance:3 either:1 chemical:4 compound:2 mixture:1 chinese:13 five:22 phase:4 rather:5 modern:6 physical:2 science:2 greek:12 earth:30 water:27 air:23 fire:29 aether:6 date:1 pre:2 socratic:2 time:1 persist:1 throughout:1 middle:3 age:3 renaissance:1 deeply:1 influence:1 european:2 thought:3 culture:3 concept:7 essentially:1 similarly:1 find:2 india:1 form:6 basis:3 analysis:1 hinduism:6 buddhism:6 particularly:1 esoteric:2 four:25 state:6 matter:6 describe:6 fifth:3 beyond:1 material:5 world:6 non:1 similar:2 list:2 exist:1 china:2 japan:2 great:5 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2,710 | Milton_Friedman | Milton Friedman (July 31, 1912 November 16, 2006) was an American economist, statistician and public intellectual, and a recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. He is best known among scholars for his theoretical and empirical research, especially consumption analysis, monetary history and theory, and for his demonstration of the complexity of stabilization policy. A global public followed his restatement of a political philosophy that insisted on minimizing the role of government in favor of the private sector. As a leader of the Chicago School of economics, based at the University of Chicago, he had a widespread influence in shaping the research agenda of the entire profession. Friedman's many monographs, books, scholarly articles, papers, magazine columns, television programs, videos and lectures cover a broad range of topics in microeconomics, macroeconomics, economic history, and public policy issues. The Economist hailed him as "the most influential economist of the second half of the 20th century…possibly of all of it". According to Milton Friedman—Economist as Public Intellectual, Friedman at the University of Chicago became the first recognized counterrevolution against Keynesianism. Originally a Keynesian supporter of the New Deal and advocate of high taxes, in the 1950s his reinterpretation of the Keynesian consumption function challenged the basic Keynesian model. In the 1960s he promoted an alternative macroeconomic policy called monetarism. He theorized there existed a "natural rate of unemployment" and he argued the central government could not micromanage the economy because people would realize what the government was doing and shift their behavior to neutralize the impact of policies. He rejected the Phillips Curve and predicted that Keynesian policies then in place would cause "stagflation" (high inflation and low growth). Nobel prize winner Paul Krugman explains, "In 1968 in one of the decisive intellectual achievements of postwar economics, Friedman not only showed why the apparent tradeoff embodied in the idea of the Phillips curve was wrong; he also predicted the emergence of combined inflation and high unemployment...dubbed ‘stagflation.” Paul Krugman, [http://books.google.com/books?id=GcmvijkDrEcC&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=friedman+stagflation+krugman+decisive&source=bl&ots=S6Xzh9k7Ed&sig=fhh8I_YV3OWf8qlVl5n3QYxcU4E&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result Peddling Prosperity: Economic Sense and Nonsense in an Age of Diminished Expectations (1995) p 43 online] Friedman's claim that monetary policy could have prevented the Great Depression was an attempt to refute the analysis of Keynes, who argued that monetary policy is ineffective under depression conditions and that fiscal policy — large-scale deficit spending by the government — is needed to fight mass unemployment. Though opposed to the existence of the Federal Reserve, Friedman argued that, given that it does exist, a steady expansion of the money supply was the only wise policy, and he warned against efforts by a treasury or central bank to do otherwise. Influenced by his close friend George Stigler, Friedman opposed government regulation of many types. He once stated that his role in eliminating U.S. conscription was his proudest accomplishment, and his support for school choice led him to found The Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice. Friedman's political philosophy, which he considered classically liberal and libertarian, stressed the advantages of the marketplace and the disadvantages of government intervention and regulation, strongly influencing the outlook of American conservatives and libertarians. In his 1962 book Capitalism and Freedom, Friedman advocated policies such as a volunteer military, freely floating exchange rates, abolition of licensing of doctors, a negative income tax, and education vouchers. Milton Friedman (1912-2006) His books and essays were widely read and even circulated underground behind the Iron Curtain. Friedman's methodological innovations were widely accepted by economists, but his policy prescriptions were highly controversial. Most economists in the 1960s rejected them, but since then they have had a growing international influence (especially in the US and Britain), and in the 21st century have gained wide acceptance among many economists. He thus lived to see some of his laissez-faire ideas embraced by the mainstream, especially during the 1980s. His views of monetary policy, taxation, privatization and deregulation informed the policy of governments around the globe, especially the administrations of Margaret Thatcher in Britain, Ronald Reagan in the US, Brian Mulroney in Canada, Roger Douglas in New Zealand, Davíð Oddsson in Iceland, Augusto Pinochet in Chile, and (after 1989) in many Eastern European countries. Early life Friedman was born on July 31, 1912, in Brooklyn, New York, to recent Jewish immigrants from Beregszász in Hungary (now Berehove, part of Ukraine) both of whom worked as dry goods merchants. Shortly after Milton's birth, the family relocated to Rahway, New Jersey. A gifted student, Friedman graduated from Rahway High School in 1928, shortly before his 16th birthday. Friedman graduated from Rutgers University in New Jersey, where he specialized in Mathematics and initially intended to become an actuary. During his time at Rutgers, Friedman fell under the influence of two economics professors, Arthur F. Burns and Homer Jones, who convinced him that modern Economics could help end the Great Depression. Friedman took graduate work at the University of Chicago, earning an M.A. in 1933. He was strongly influenced by Jacob Viner, Frank Knight, and Henry Simons. It was at Chicago that Friedman met his future wife, economist Rose Director. In 1933–34 he held a fellowship at Columbia University, where he studied statistics with renowned statistician and economist Harold Hotelling. He was back in Chicago for 1934–35, spending the year working as a research assistant for Henry Schultz, who was then working on his highly quantitative and empirical Theory and Measurement of Demand. During this year, Friedman formed what would prove to be lifelong friendships with George Stigler and Wilson Allen Wallis. Public service Friedman was initially unable to find academic employment, so in 1935, he followed his friend W. Allen Wallis to Washington, where Roosevelt's New Deal was "a lifesaver" for many young economists. At this stage, Friedman said that he and his wife "regarded the job-creation programs such as the WPA, CCC, and PWA appropriate responses to the critical situation", but not "the price- and wage-fixing measures of the National Recovery Administration and the Agricultural Adjustment Administration". Foreshadowing his later ideas, he saw price controls as interfering with an essential signaling mechanism to help resources go where they are most valued. Indeed, Friedman later concluded that all government intervention associated with the New Deal was "the wrong cure for the wrong disease", arguing that the money supply should simply have been expanded, instead of contracted. In Monetary History of the United States, he argues that the Great Depression was caused by monetary contraction, which was the consequence of poor policymaking by the Federal reserve and the continuous crises in the banking system. In 1935, he began work at the National Resources Committee, which was then working on a large consumer budget survey. Ideas from this project later became a part of his Theory of the Consumption Function. Friedman moved to the National Bureau of Economic Research in fall 1937 to assist Simon Kuznets in his work on professional income. This work led to their jointly authored Incomes from Independent Professional Practice, which introduced the concepts of permanent and transitory income, a major component of the Permanent Income Hypothesis that Friedman worked out in greater detail in the 1950s. The book hypothesizes that professional licensing artificially restricts the supply of services and raises prices. In 1940, Friedman was appointed an assistant professor teaching Economics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, but encountered antisemitism in the Economics department and decided to return to government service. Friedman spent 1941–43 working on wartime tax policy for the Federal Government, as an advisor to senior officials of the United States Department of the Treasury. As a Treasury spokesman in 1942 he advocated a Keynesian policy of taxation, and during this time he helped to invent the payroll withholding tax system, although he later regretted it. In his autobiography, he comments on "how thoroughly Keynesian I was then". As Friedman grew older he reversed himself; in 2006 he observed, "You know, it's a mystery as to why people think Roosevelt's policies pulled us out of the Depression. The problem was that you had unemployed machines and unemployed people. How do you get them together by forming industrial cartels and keeping prices and wages up?" Academic career Early years In 1943, Friedman joined the Division of War Research at Columbia University (headed by Wilson Allen Wallis and Harold Hotelling), where he spent the rest of the war years working as a mathematical statistician, focusing on problems of weapons design, military tactics, and metallurgical experiments. Then in 1945, Friedman submitted Incomes from Independent Professional Practice (co-authored with Kuznets and completed in 1940) to Columbia as his doctoral dissertation. The university awarded him a Ph.D. in 1946. Friedman spent the 1945–46 academic year teaching at the University of Minnesota (where his friend George Stigler was employed). On February 12, 1945, his son, David D. Friedman was born. University of Chicago University of Chicago In 1946, Friedman accepted an offer to teach economic theory at the University of Chicago (a position opened by departure of his former professor Jacob Viner to Princeton University). Friedman would stay at the University of Chicago for the next 30 years. There he helped build a close-knit intellectual community that produced a number of Nobel Prize winners, known collectively as the Chicago School of Economics. At the same time he moved to the University of Chicago, Arthur Burns, who was then the head of the National Bureau of Economic Research, asked Friedman to rejoin the Bureau's staff. He accepted the invitation, and assumed responsibility for the Bureau's inquiry into the role of money in the business cycle. As a result, he founded the "Workshop in Money and Banking" (the "Chicago Workshop"), which led a revival in monetary studies. During the latter half of the 1940s, Friedman began a collaboration with Anna Schwartz, an economic historian at the Bureau, that would ultimately result in the 1963 publication of a book co-authored by Friedman and Schwartz, A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960. Friedman spent the 1954–55 academic year as a Fulbright Visiting Fellow at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. At the time, the Cambridge economics faculty was deeply divided into a Keynesian majority (including Joan Robinson and Richard Kahn) and a virulently anti-Keynesian minority (headed by Dennis Robertson). Friedman speculates that he was invited to the fellowship because his extreme laissez-faire views were unacceptable to both of the Cambridge factions, a fact that highlights how far out of the mainstream Friedman was in the 1950s. On the other hand his weekly columns for Newsweek magazine (1966-84) were widely read and increasingly influential in political and business circles. CATO, "Letter from Washington," National Review, 19 September 1980, Vol. 32 Issue 19, p 1119 Friedman was an economic adviser to Republican presidential candidate Barry Goldwater in 1964, who lost in a landslide to Lyndon Johnson, a liberal Democrat. Nobel memorial prize and retirement In 1976, Friedman won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences "for his achievements in the fields of consumption analysis, monetary history and theory and for his demonstration of the complexity of stabilization policy". In 1977, at age 65, Friedman retired from the University of Chicago after teaching there for 30 years. He and his wife moved to San Francisco. From 1977 on, he was affiliated with the Hoover Institution at Stanford University. During the same year, Friedman was approached by the Palmer R. Chitester Fund and asked to create a television program presenting his economic and social philosophy. The Friedmans worked on this project for the next three years, and in 1980, the ten-part series, entitled Free to Choose, aired on PBS. The companion book to the series (co-authored by Milton and his wife, Rose Friedman), also entitled Free to Choose, was the bestselling nonfiction book of 1980 and has since been translated into 14 foreign languages. Friedman served as an unofficial adviser to Ronald Reagan during his 1980 presidential campaign, and then served on the President's Economic Policy Advisory Board for the rest of the Reagan Administration. In 1988, he received the National Medal of Science and Reagan honored him with the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Milton Friedman is today known as one of the most influential economists of the 20th century. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Friedman continued to write op-eds and appear in the media. He made several trips to Eastern Europe and to China, where he also advised governments. In Friedman's last email interview in 2006, he said that the greatest threat to the world's economy is "Islamofascism, with terrorism as its weapon". In an in-person interview with Friedman and his wife that same month, he said that he opposed the US invasion of Iraq: "What's really killed the Republican Party isn't spending, it's Iraq. As it happens, I was opposed to going into Iraq from the beginning. I think it was a mistake, for the simple reason that I do not believe the United States of America ought to be involved in aggression." His wife disagreed that it was aggression. However, after a short argument with his wife, he added "But, having said that, once we went in to Iraq, it seems to me very important that we make a success of it." Wall Street Journal, The Romance of Economics, TUNKU VARADARAJAN, Saturday, July 22, 2006 http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110008690 Milton Friedman died at the age of 94 in San Francisco on November 16, 2006. Friedman's son is the philosopher and economist David D. Friedman. Scholarly contributions Economics Friedman was best known for reviving interest in the money supply as a determinant of the nominal value of output, that is, the quantity theory of money. Monetarism is the set of views associated with modern quantity theory. Its origins can be traced back to the 16th-century School of Salamanca or even further but Friedman's contribution is largely responsible for its modern formulation. He co-authored, with Anna Schwartz, A Monetary History of the United States (1963), which sought to examine the role of the money supply and economic activity in U.S. history. A striking conclusion of their research was one regarding the role of money supply fluctuations as contributing to economic fluctuations. Several regression studies with David Meiselman in the 1960s suggested the primacy of the money supply over investment and government spending in determining consumption and output. These challenged a prevailing but largely untested view on their relative importance. Friedman's empirical research and some theory supported the conclusion that the short-run effect of a change in the money supply was primarily on output but that the longer-run effect was primarily on the price level. Friedman was the leading proponent of the monetarist school of economic thought. He maintained that there is a close and stable link between inflation and the money supply, mainly that the phenomenon of inflation is to be regulated by controlling the amount of money poured into the national economy by the Federal Reserve Bank. He famously quipped that deflation can be fought against by "dropping money out of a helicopter". Friedman's arguments were designed to counter popular claims that inflation at the time was the result of increases in the oil price, or increases in wages: as he wrote, Friedman rejected the use of fiscal policy as a tool of demand management; and he held that the government's role in the guidance of the economy should be severely restricted. Friedman wrote extensively on the Great Depression, which he called the Great Contraction, arguing that it had been caused by an ordinary financial shock whose duration and seriousness were greatly increased by the subsequent contraction of the money supply caused by the misguided policies of the directors of the Federal Reserve. Friedman also argued for the cessation of government intervention in currency markets, thereby spawning an enormous literature on the subject, as well as promoting the practice of freely floating exchange rates. Friedman's macroeconomic theories were soon displaced. His close friend George Stigler explained, "As is customary in science, he did not win a full victory, in part because research was directed along different lines by the theory of rational expectations, a newer approach developed by Robert Lucas, also at the University of Chicago." Friedman was also known for his work on the consumption function, the permanent income hypothesis (1957), which Friedman himself referred to as his best scientific work. This work contended that rational consumers would spend a proportional amount of what they perceived to be their permanent income. Windfall gains would mostly be saved. Tax reductions likewise, as rational consumers would predict that taxes would have to rise later to balance public finances. Other important contributions include his critique of the Phillips curve and the concept of the natural rate of unemployment (1968). This critique associated his name, together with that of Edmund Phelps, with the insight that a government that brings about higher inflation cannot permanently reduce unemployment by doing so. Unemployment may be temporarily lower, if the inflation is a surprise, but in the long run unemployment will be determined by the frictions and imperfections in the labour market. Friedman's essay "The Methodology of Positive Economics" (1953) set the epistemological course for his own subsequent research and to a degree that of the Chicago School of Economics. There he argued that economics as science should be free of value judgments for it to be objective. Moreover, a useful economic theory should be judged not by its descriptive realism (hair color, etc.) but by its simplicity and fruitfulness as an engine of prediction. Statistics Although less popularly known for these advances, Friedman was also widely agreed to be a brilliant statistician. One of his most famous contributions to statistics is sequential sampling. "Friedman did statistical work at the Division of War Research at Columbia. He and his colleagues came up with a sampling technique, known as sequential sampling, which became, in the words of The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 'the standard analysis of quality control inspection.' The dictionary adds: 'Like many of Friedman’s contributions, in retrospect it seems remarkably simple and obvious to apply basic economic ideas to quality control; that however is a measure of his genius.'" The Life and Times of Milton Friedman - Remembering the 20th century's most influential libertarian . Another well known statistical procedure he developed is the Friedman test. Other work He was also a key member of the team during World War II that developed a new proximity fuse for anti-aircraft projectiles, which prevented shells from going off unless they were near the object they are meant to destroy. Public policy positions Friedman was in favor of abolishing the Federal Reserve System and replacing it with a mechanical system in nature that would keep the quantity of money going up at a steady rate, issued directly by the government and cutting back on fractional reserve banking powers for the banks. He also supported libertarian policies such as decriminalization of drugs and prostitution. Milton Friedman was a leading proponent of a volunteer military, stating that the draft was "inconsistent with a free society". In Capitalism and Freedom, he argued that conscription is inequitable and arbitrary, preventing young men to shape their lives as they see fit. During the Nixon administration he headed the committee to explore a move towards a paid/volunteer armed force. He would later state that his role in eliminating the conscription in the United States was his proudest accomplishment. Friedman did, however, believe a nation could compel military training as a reserve in case of war time. He served as a member of President Reagan's Economic Policy Advisory Board in 1981. In 1988, he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the National Medal of Science. He said that he was a libertarian philosophically, but a member of the U.S. Republican Party for the sake of "expediency" ("I am a libertarian with a small 'l' and a Republican with a capital 'R.' And I am a Republican with a capital 'R' on grounds of expediency, not on principle.") But, he said, "I think the term classical liberal is also equally applicable. I don't really care very much what I'm called. I'm much more interested in having people thinking about the ideas, rather than the person." , Interview with Peter Jaworski. The Journal, Queen's University, March 15, 2002 – Issue 37, Volume 129 Friedman was supportive of the state provision of some public goods that the market is not seen as being able to provide. However, he argued that many of the services performed by government could be performed better by the private sector. Above all, if some public goods are provided by the state, he believed that they should not be a legal monopoly where private competition is prohibited. For, example, in response to the United States Post Office's legal monopoly on mail, he said Friedman made headlines by proposing a negative income tax to replace the existing welfare system and then opposing the bill to implement it because it merely supplemented the existing system rather than replace it. In 2005, Friedman and more than 500 other economists called for discussions regarding the economic benefits of the legalization of marijuana. Michael Walker of the Fraser Institute and Friedman hosted a series of conferences from 1986 to 1994. The goal was to create a clear definition of economic freedom and a method for measuring it. Eventually this resulted in the first report on worldwide economic freedom, Economic Freedom in the World. This annual report has since provided data for numerous peer-reviewed studies and has influenced policy in several nations. Along with sixteen other distinguished economists he opposed the Copyright Term Extension Act and filed an amicus brief in Eldred v. Ashcroft. He supported the inclusion of the word "no-brainer" in the brief. http://lessig.org/blog/2006/11/only_if_the_word_nobrainer_app.html Friedman argued for stronger basic legal (constitutional) protection of economic rights and freedoms in order to further promote industrial-commercial growth and prosperity and buttress democracy and freedom and the rule of law generally in society. A New British Bill of Rights: The Case For, ISR Online Guides Honors, recognition, and influence Friedman allowed the Cato Institute to use his name for its Milton Friedman Prize for Advancing Liberty in 2001. The award is given out biannually. The Friedman Prize went to the late British economist Peter Bauer in 2002, Peruvian economist Hernando de Soto in 2004, Mart Laar, former Estonian Prime Minister in 2006 and a young Venezuelan student Yon Goicoechea in 2008. His wife Rose, sister of Aaron Director, with whom he founded the Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice, served in the international selection committee. Friedman's son, David D. Friedman, has carried on his tradition of arguing in favor of free markets, but to a further extreme, advocating anarcho-capitalism. Hong Kong Friedman once said "if you want to see capitalism in action, go to Hong Kong". He wrote in 1990 that Hong Kong economy was perhaps the best example of a free market economy. One month before his death, he wrote the article "Hong Kong Wrong - What would Cowperthwaite say?" in the Wall Street Journal, criticizing Donald Tsang, Chief Executive of Hong Kong, for abandoning "positive noninterventionism". Tsang later said he was merely changing the slogan to "big market, small government", where small government is defined as less than 20% of GDP. In a debate between Tsang and Alan Leong, rivals for the position of Chief Executive, Leong brought up the topic and accused Tsang of angering Friedman to death. Chile In 1975, two years after the military coup that toppled the government of Salvador Allende, the economy of Chile experienced a crisis. Friedman accepted the invitation of a private foundation to visit Chile and lecture on principles of economic freedom. He spent five days in Chile. Friedman encapsulated his philosophy in a lecture at La Universidad Católica de Chile, saying: "free markets would undermine political centralization and political control." Friedman also met with the military dictator, President Augusto Pinochet, for 45 minutes during his visit. He did not serve as an advisor to the Chilean government, but did write a letter providing them with a plan to end hyperinflation. Later, Friedman said he believed that market reforms would undermine Pinochet. Chilean graduates of the Chicago School of Economics and its new local chapters had been appointed to key positions in the new government soon after the coup, which allowed them to advise Pinochet on economic policies in accord with the School's economic doctrine. According to his critics, Friedman did not criticize Pinochet's dictatorship at the time, nor the assassinations, illegal imprisonments, torture, or other atrocities that were well-known by then. Later, in Free to Choose, he said the following: "Chile is not a politically free system and I do not condone the political system ... the conditions of the people in the past few years has been getting better and not worse. They would be still better to get rid of the junta and to be able to have a free democratic system." See more under Criticism. Friedman defended his role in Chile on the grounds that, in his opinion, the move towards open market policies not only improved the economic situation in Chile but also contributed to the softening of Pinochet's rule and to the eventual transition to a democratic government in 1990. That idea followed from Capitalism and Freedom, in which he declared that economic freedom is not only desirable in itself but is also a necessary condition for political freedom. He stressed that the lectures he gave in Chile were the same lectures he later gave in China and other socialist states. In the 2000 PBS documentary The Commanding Heights, Friedman continued to argue that criticism over his role in Chile missed his main point that freer markets led to freer people, and that Chile's unfree economy had led to the military government. Friedman suggested that the economic liberalization he advocated led to the end of military rule and a free Chile. Iceland Friedman visited Iceland in the autumn of 1984, met with prominent Icelanders and gave a lecture at the University of Iceland on the Tyranny of the Status Quo. He participated in a lively television debate on August 31, 1984 with leading socialist intellectuals, including Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson, who later became the president of Iceland. When they complained that a fee was charged for attending his lecture at the University and that hitherto, lectures by visiting scholars had been free-of-charge, Friedman replied that previous lectures had not been free-of-charge in a meaningful sense: Lectures always have related costs. What mattered was whether attendees or non-attendees covered those costs. Friedman thought that it was fairer that only those who attended paid. Friedman influenced a group of young intellectuals in the Independence Party, including Davíð Oddsson who became Prime Minister in 1991 and began a radical program of monetary and fiscal stabilization, privatization, tax rate reduction (e.g., lowering the corporate income tax rate from 45% to 18%), definition of exclusive use rights in fisheries, abolition of various government funds for aiding unprofitable enterprises and liberalization of currency transfers and capital markets. The Economic Freedom of the World index of Fraser Institute, a Canadian think tank that espouses free market principles, ranked Iceland as the 53rd freest economy in the world in 1975, and the 9th freest in 2004. In 2008, the Index of Economic Freedom of Heritage Foundation, an American conservative think tank, ranked Iceland's economy as the 14th freest in the world. Davíð Oddsson was Prime Minister for thirteen and a half years, to 2004. The latest Prime Minister, Geir H. Haarde, supported similar policies until the collapse of his government following the failure of all major Icelandic banks during the credit crisis. . Estonia Although Friedman never visited Estonia, his book Free to Choose exercised a great influence on that nation's then 32-year-old prime minister, Mart Laar, who has claimed that it was the only book on economics he had read before taking office. Laar's reforms are often credited with responsibility for transforming Estonia from an impoverished Soviet Republic to the "Baltic Tiger". A prime element of Laar's program was introduction of the flat tax. Laar won the 2006 Milton Friedman Prize for Advancing Liberty, awarded by the Cato Institute. Criticism Friedman has attracted substantial criticism from across the intellectual spectrum. Paul Krugman The Princeton University economist and fellow Nobel laureate Paul Krugman, while regarding Friedman as a "great economist and a great man," criticized him in 2007 by writing: The New York Review of Books, Who Was Milton Friedman?, February 15, 2007 However, William Baumol and Alan Blinder, for example, repudiated this view, writing that "Friedman is surely no anarchist ... He recognizes that any society needs laws, and that legislation and enforcement of the law are proper roles for government in a free society." William Baumol and Alan Blinder, Economics: Principles and Policy, Second Edition, 1982, pp. 807. Friedman himself acknowledged cases where, for instance, government regulation or a public monopoly may be preferred to private monopoly. Friedman, Milton (November 15, 2002). Capitalism and Freedom. University Of Chicago Press. pp. 28–29. He noted numerous areas where he believed government intervention was necessary: Friedman, Milton (November 15, 2002). Capitalism and Freedom. University Of Chicago Press. pp. 34. Orlando Letelier On his work in Chile, Friedman came under criticism from the exiled Chilean Foreign Affairs Minister Orlando Letelier, who attacked Friedman's economic theories. In 1976, Letelier wrote: When Freidman went to receive his Nobel prize in Stockholm, he was met by demonstrations. In an interview on the PBS program Commanding Heights in 2000, Friedman attributed these demonstrations by opponents he recognized from earlier occasions to communists seeking to discredit anyone with even the slightest connection to Pinochet — such as himself — adding that "there was no doubt that there was a concerted effort to tar and feather me". Naomi Klein In her book The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism, the writer Naomi Klein accuses Friedman of being complicit in military coups in countries such as Chile and Indonesia, as well as the invasion of Iraq, that were used as a way to shock the population into accepting unpopular neoliberal policies for the benefit of foreign multinational companies. With regard to Chile, she expanded on Orlando Letelier's criticisms, arguing that repression was necessary to implement Chicago School economic policies there. Naomi Klein, The Shock Doctrine, Metropolitan Books, New York, NY 2007. The libertarian author Johan Norberg published a critical response to Klein's assertions, arguing that she "confuses libertarianism with the quite different concepts of corporatism and neoconservatism" and "she subjects Milton Friedman to one of the most malevolent distortions of a thinker's ideas in recent history." Norberg, Johan. "Defaming Milton Friedman: Naomi Klein's disastrous yet popular polemic against the great free market economist", Reason Magazine. October 2008 C.B. Macpherson The political scientist C.B. Macpherson, in his essay from 1973, "Elegant Tombstones: A Note on Friedman's Freedom,", challenged the assumptions underlying Friedman’s conception of “freedom”. For Macpherson, capitalism was discordant with freedom. For Friedman, freedom is negative and is seen as an absence of constraints or freedom of choice; whereas for Macpherson freedom is positive and is defined as the freedom to develop ones fullest human potential. Macpherson, C.B. "Elegant Tombstones: A Note on Friedman's Freedom." Democratic Theory: Essays in Retrieval. Claredon: Oxford, 1973. Murray Rothbard In 1971, libertarian economist Murray Rothbard wrote a lengthy article for The Individualist which heavily criticized several of Friedman's viewpoints as totalitarian and statist. In particular, Rothbard criticized Friedman's viewpoint that the micro- and macro-spheres are entirely separate, with the government needing to take an active role in the macro-sphere, as false and dangerous, the view that it is beneficial for the government to control currency to maintain constant price levels as bogus and harmful, and the viewpoint that nonpaying beneficiaries of positive externalities created by various services should be taxed to pay producers of that service as an absurd position that opens the door for the most ridiculous forms of totalitarianism. More generally, he criticizes Friedman's efforts to make the government more efficient as highly detrimental to individual liberty, and concludes that "And so, as we examine Milton Friedman’s credentials to be the leader of free-market economics, we arrive at the chilling conclusion that it is difficult to consider him a free-market economist at all." Murray Rothbard, "Milton Friedman Unraveled". Originally printed 1971 in The Individualist. Reprinted in the Journal of Libertarian Studies, Fall 2002. It should be noted, however, that some of Friedman's positions changed since 1971 when this criticism was made, including his stances on governmental control of money. Ebeling, Richard. M., "Monetary Central Planning and the State, Part 27: Milton Friedman's Second Thoughts on the Costs of Paper Money" In a 1995 interview in Reason magazine he said the "difference between me and people like Murray Rothbard is that, though I want to know what my ideal is, I think I also have to be willing to discuss changes that are less than ideal so long as they point me in that direction." He said he actually would "like to abolish the Fed," and points out that when he has written about the Fed it is simply his recommendations of how it should be run if it exists. Brian Doherty, "Best of Both Worlds. Interview with Milton Friedman," Reason Magazine, June 1995 Personal life Friedman died of a heart attack in 2006. http://www.mskousen.com/sknews.php?id=202 He was survived by his wife, Rose Director Friedman, and two children, Janet and David. According to Milton Friedman by Lanny Ebenstein this great man "after an intense burst of childhood piety, rejected religion altogether". See also Works of Milton Friedman List of economists List of notable Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients History of economic thought Notes References Further reading External links PBS interview, profile and video Charlie Rose interview. December 12, 2006. Autobiography at NobelPrize.org Biography at EconLib.org Complete text of Capitalism and Freedom at ditext.com Free to Choose Documentary Milton Friedman: Supply Of Money IDEAS/RePEc The Case for Free Trade by Milton and Rose Friedman Milton Friedman:Why Not a Volunteer Army? 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2,711 | Fricative_consonant | Fricatives are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate, in the case of German , the final consonant of Bach; or the side of the tongue against the molars, in the case of Welsh , appearing twice in the name Llanelli. This turbulent airflow is called frication. A particular subset of fricatives are the sibilants. When forming a sibilant, one still is forcing air through a narrow channel, but in addition the tongue is curled lengthwise to direct the air over the edge of the teeth. English , , , and are examples of this. Two other terms are spirant and strident, but their usage is less standardized. The former can be used synonymously with "fricative", or (as in e.g. Uralic linguistics) to refer to non-sibilant fricatives only. The latter can be used synonymously with "sibilant", but some authors include also labiodental and/or uvular fricatives in the class. Sibilant fricatives voiceless coronal sibilant, as in English set voiced coronal sibilant, as in English zip ejective coronal sibilant voiceless dental sibilant voiced dental sibilant voiceless apical sibilant voiced apical sibilant voiceless postalveolar sibilant (laminal) voiced postalveolar sibilant (laminal) voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant (domed, partially palatalized), as in English sharp voiced palato-alveolar sibilant (domed, partially palatalized), as the s in English vision voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant (laminal, palatalized) voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant (laminal, palatalized) voiceless retroflex sibilant (apical or sub-apical) voiced retroflex sibilant (apical or sub-apical) All sibilants are coronal, but may be dental, alveolar, postalveolar, or palatal (retroflex) within that range. However, at the postalveolar place of articulation the tongue may take several shapes: domed, laminal, or apical, and each of these is given a separate symbol and a separate name. Prototypical retroflexes are sub-apical and palatal, but they are usually written with the same symbol as the apical postalveolars. The alveolars and dentals may also be either apical or laminal, but this difference is indicated with diacritics rather than with separate symbols. Central non-sibilant fricatives voiceless bilabial fricative voiced bilabial fricative voiceless labiodental fricative, as in English fit or fine voiced labiodental fricative, as in English vine voiceless linguolabial fricative voiced linguolabial fricative voiceless dental fricative, as in English thing voiced dental fricative, as in English that Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative Voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative voiceless palatal fricative voiced palatal fricative voiceless velar fricative voiced velar fricative voiceless palatal-velar fricative (articulation disputed) voiceless uvular fricative voiceless pharyngeal fricative voiceless epiglottal fricative Lateral fricatives voiceless coronal lateral fricative voiced coronal lateral fricative or voiceless retroflex lateral fricative (also written []) or voiceless palatal lateral fricative (also []) voiceless velar lateral fricative (also []) The most familiar lateral fricative is the ll of Welsh, as in Lloyd, Llewelyn, and the town of Machynlleth (). Symbols used for both fricatives and approximants voiced uvular fricative voiced pharyngeal fricative voiced epiglottal fricative No language distinguishes voiced fricatives from approximants at these places, so the same symbol is used for both. For the pharyngeals and epiglottals, approximants are more numerous than fricatives. A fricative realization may be specified by adding the uptack to the letters, . Likewise, the downtack may be added to specify an approximant realization, . (The bilabial approximant and dental approximant do not have dedicated symbols either and are transcribed in a similar fashion: . The base letters are however understood to specifically refer to the fricatives.) Pseudo-fricatives voiceless glottal transition, as in English hat breathy-voiced glottal transition In many languages, such as English, the glottal "fricatives" are unaccompanied phonation states of the glottis, without any accompanying manner, fricative or otherwise. However, in languages such as Arabic, they are true fricatives. In addition, is usually called a "voiceless labial-velar fricative", but it is actually an approximant. True doubly-articulated fricatives may not occur in any language; but see voiceless palatal-velar fricative for a putative (and rather controversial) example. Languages See table of consonants for a table of fricatives in English. Ubykh may be the language with the most fricatives (twenty-seven in all), some of which do not have symbols or diacritics in the IPA. This number actually outstrips the number of all consonants in English (which has 24 consonants). By contrast, approximately 8.7% of the world's languages display no phonemic fricatives at all Maddieson, Ian. 2008. Absence of Common Consonants. In: Haspelmath, Martin & Dryer, Matthew S. & Gil, David & Comrie, Bernard (eds.) The World Atlas of Language Structures Online. Munich: Max Planck Digital Library, chapter 18. Available online at http://wals.info/feature/18. Accessed on 2008-09-15. . This is a typical feature of Australian Aboriginal languages, where the few fricatives that exist result from changes to plosives or approximants, but also occurs in some indigenous languages of New Guinea and South America that have especially small numbers of consonants. However, whereas is entirely unknown in indigenous Australian languages, most of the other languages without true fricatives do have in their consonant inventory. Voicing contrasts in fricatives are largely confined to Europe, Africa and Western Asia. Languages of South and East Asia, such as the Dravidian and Austronesian languages, typically do not have such voiced fricatives as and which are very familiar to European speakers. These voiced fricatives are also relatively rare in indigenous languages of the Americas. Overall, voicing contrasts in fricatives are much rarer than in plosives, being found only in about a third of the world's languages as compared to 60 percent for plosive voicing contrasts. Maddieson, Ian. "Voicing in Plosives and Fricatives", in Martin Haspelmath et al. (eds.) The World Atlas of Language Structures, pp. 26–29. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-19-925591-1. About 15 percent of the world's languages, however, have unpaired voiced fricatives, i.e. a voiced fricative without a voiceless counterpart. Two-thirds of these, or 10 percent of all languages, have unpaired voiced fricatives but no voicing contrast between any fricative pair. Maddieson, Ian. Patterns of Sounds. Cambridge University Press, 1984. ISBN 0-521-26536-3. This phenomenon occurs because voiced fricatives have developed from lenition of plosives or fortition of approximants. This phenomenon of unpaired voiced fricatives is scattered throughout the world, but is confined to nonsibilant fricatives with the exception of a couple of languages which have but lack . (Relatedly, several languages have the voiced affricate but lack .) The fricatives which occur most often without a voiceless counterpart are, in order of ratio of unpaired occurrences to total occurrences, , , , and . References See also Apical consonant Laminal consonant List of phonetics topics | Fricative_consonant |@lemmatized fricative:64 consonant:10 produce:1 force:2 air:3 narrow:2 channel:2 make:1 place:3 two:3 articulator:1 close:1 together:1 may:8 low:1 lip:1 upper:1 teeth:2 case:3 back:1 tongue:4 soft:1 palate:1 german:1 final:1 bach:1 side:1 molar:1 welsh:2 appear:1 twice:1 name:2 llanelli:1 turbulent:1 airflow:1 call:2 frication:1 particular:1 subset:1 sibilant:24 form:1 one:1 still:1 addition:2 curl:1 lengthwise:1 direct:1 edge:1 english:13 example:2 term:1 spirant:1 strident:1 usage:1 less:1 standardized:1 former:1 use:4 synonymously:2 e:2 g:1 uralic:1 linguistics:1 refer:2 non:4 fricatives:1 latter:1 author:1 include:1 also:8 labiodental:3 uvular:3 class:1 voiceless:27 coronal:6 set:1 voice:23 zip:1 ejective:1 dental:7 apical:11 postalveolar:4 laminal:7 palato:2 alveolar:6 domed:3 partially:2 palatalize:4 sharp:1 vision:1 alveolo:2 palatal:9 retroflex:4 sub:3 within:1 range:1 however:5 articulation:2 take:1 several:2 shape:1 give:1 separate:3 symbol:7 prototypical:1 retroflexes:1 usually:2 write:2 postalveolars:1 either:2 difference:1 indicate:1 diacritic:2 rather:2 central:1 bilabial:3 fit:1 fine:1 vine:1 linguolabial:2 thing:1 velar:6 dispute:1 pharyngeal:3 epiglottal:2 lateral:7 familiar:2 lloyd:1 llewelyn:1 town:1 machynlleth:1 approximants:5 language:21 distinguish:1 voiced:8 epiglottals:1 numerous:1 realization:2 specify:2 add:2 uptack:1 letter:2 likewise:1 downtack:1 approximant:4 dedicate:1 transcribe:1 similar:1 fashion:1 base:1 understood:1 specifically:1 pseudo:1 glottal:3 transition:2 hat:1 breathy:1 many:1 unaccompanied:1 phonation:1 state:1 glottis:1 without:4 accompany:1 manner:1 otherwise:1 arabic:1 true:3 labial:1 actually:2 doubly:1 articulate:1 occur:4 see:3 putative:1 controversial:1 table:2 ubykh:1 twenty:1 seven:1 ipa:1 number:3 outstrip:1 contrast:5 approximately:1 world:6 display:1 phonemic:1 maddieson:3 ian:3 absence:1 common:1 haspelmath:2 martin:2 dryer:1 matthew:1 gil:1 david:1 comrie:1 bernard:1 eds:2 atlas:2 structure:2 online:2 munich:1 max:1 planck:1 digital:1 library:1 chapter:1 available:1 http:1 wals:1 info:1 feature:2 access:1 typical:1 australian:2 aboriginal:1 exist:1 result:1 change:1 plosive:5 indigenous:3 new:1 guinea:1 south:2 america:2 especially:1 small:1 whereas:1 entirely:1 unknown:1 inventory:1 largely:1 confine:2 europe:1 africa:1 western:1 asia:2 east:1 dravidian:1 austronesian:1 typically:1 european:1 speaker:1 relatively:1 rare:2 overall:1 much:1 find:1 third:2 compare:1 percent:3 voicing:2 et:1 al:1 pp:1 oxford:2 university:2 press:2 isbn:2 unpaired:4 counterpart:2 pair:1 pattern:1 sound:1 cambridge:1 phenomenon:2 develop:1 lenition:1 fortition:1 scatter:1 throughout:1 nonsibilant:1 exception:1 couple:1 lack:2 relatedly:1 affricate:1 often:1 order:1 ratio:1 occurrence:2 total:1 reference:1 list:1 phonetics:1 topic:1 |@bigram uvular_fricative:3 sibilant_fricative:4 fricative_voiceless:12 voiceless_dental:2 voiceless_postalveolar:1 palato_alveolar:2 alveolo_palatal:2 voiceless_retroflex:2 dental_alveolar:1 postalveolar_palatal:1 bilabial_fricative:2 labiodental_fricative:2 dental_fricative:2 voiceless_alveolar:1 voiceless_palatal:4 palatal_fricative:2 voiceless_velar:2 velar_fricative:5 palatal_velar:2 voiceless_pharyngeal:1 pharyngeal_fricative:2 lateral_fricative:7 retroflex_lateral:1 palatal_lateral:1 velar_lateral:1 fricative_approximants:2 voiced_fricative:6 bilabial_approximant:1 voiceless_glottal:1 breathy_voiced:1 glottal_fricative:1 labial_velar:1 diacritic_ipa:1 maddieson_ian:3 max_planck:1 australian_aboriginal:1 plosive_fricative:1 et_al:1 phonetics_topic:1 |
2,712 | Icosidodecahedron | A Hoberman sphere as an icosidodecahedron An icosidodecahedron is a polyhedron with twenty triangular faces and twelve pentagonal faces. An icosidodecahedron has 30 identical vertices, with two triangles and two pentagons meeting at each, and 60 identical edges, each separating a triangle from a pentagon. As such it is one of the Archimedean solids and more particularly, a quasiregular polyhedron. An icosidodecahedron has icosahedral symmetry, and its first stellation is the compound of a dodecahedron and its dual icosahedron, with the vertices of the icosahedron located at the midpoints of the edges of either. Canonical coordinates for the vertices of an icosidodecahedron with unit edges are the cyclic permutations of (0,0,±τ), (±1/2, ±τ/2, ±(1+τ)/2), where τ is the golden ratio, (1+√5)/2. Its dual polyhedron is the rhombic triacontahedron. An icosidodecahedron can be split along several planes to form pentagonal rotundae, which belong among the Johnson solids. In the standard nomenclature used for the Johnson solids, an icosidodecahedron would be called a pentagonal gyrobirotunda. Area and volume The area A and the volume V of the icosidodecahedron of edge length a are: Related polyhedra The icosidodecahedron is a rectified dodecahedron and also a rectified icosahedron, existing as the full-edge truncation between these regular solids. The Icosidodecahedron contains 12 pentagons of the dodecahedron and 20 triangles of the icosahedron: DodecahedronTruncated dodecahedronIcosidodecahedronTruncated icosahedronIcosahedron It is also related to the Johnson solid called a pentagonal orthobirotunda created by two pentagonal rotunda connected as mirror images. (Dissection)Icosidodecahedron(pentagonal gyrobirotunda)Pentagonal orthobirotundaPentagonal rotunda There are also 8 other uniform star polyhedra which share the same vertex arrangement: IcosidodecahedronSmall icosihemidodecahedronSmall dodecahemidodecahedronGreat icosidodecahedronGreat dodecahemidodecahedronGreat icosihemidodecahedronDodecadodecahedronSmall dodecahemicosahedronGreat dodecahemicosahedron See also Cuboctahedron Great truncated icosidodecahedron Icosahedron Rhombicosidodecahedron Truncated icosidodecahedron References (Section 3-9) External links The Uniform Polyhedra Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra | Icosidodecahedron |@lemmatized hoberman:1 sphere:1 icosidodecahedron:13 polyhedron:7 twenty:1 triangular:1 face:2 twelve:1 pentagonal:7 identical:2 vertex:4 two:3 triangle:3 pentagon:3 meeting:1 edge:5 separate:1 one:1 archimedean:1 solid:5 particularly:1 quasiregular:1 icosahedral:1 symmetry:1 first:1 stellation:1 compound:1 dodecahedron:3 dual:2 icosahedron:5 locate:1 midpoint:1 either:1 canonical:1 coordinate:1 unit:1 cyclic:1 permutation:1 τ:4 golden:1 ratio:1 rhombic:1 triacontahedron:1 split:1 along:1 several:1 plane:1 form:1 rotundae:1 belong:1 among:1 johnson:3 standard:1 nomenclature:1 use:1 would:1 call:2 gyrobirotunda:2 area:2 volume:2 v:1 length:1 related:1 rectified:2 also:4 exist:1 full:1 truncation:1 regular:1 contain:1 dodecahedrontruncated:1 dodecahedronicosidodecahedrontruncated:1 icosahedronicosahedron:1 relate:1 orthobirotunda:1 create:1 rotunda:2 connect:1 mirror:1 image:1 dissection:1 orthobirotundapentagonal:1 uniform:2 star:1 share:1 arrangement:1 icosidodecahedronsmall:1 icosihemidodecahedronsmall:1 dodecahemidodecahedrongreat:2 icosidodecahedrongreat:1 icosihemidodecahedrondodecadodecahedronsmall:1 dodecahemicosahedrongreat:1 dodecahemicosahedron:1 see:1 cuboctahedron:1 great:1 truncated:1 rhombicosidodecahedron:1 truncate:1 reference:1 section:1 external:1 link:1 virtual:1 reality:1 polyhedra:1 encyclopedia:1 |@bigram archimedean_solid:1 golden_ratio:1 dual_polyhedron:1 external_link:1 uniform_polyhedron:1 reality_polyhedra:1 polyhedra_encyclopedia:1 |
2,713 | Darwin's_Dangerous_Idea | Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life (1995) is a book by Daniel Dennett which argues that Darwinian processes are the central organizing force that gives rise to complexity. Dennett asserts that natural selection is a blind and algorithmic process which is sufficiently powerful to account for the generation and evolution of life including the ins and outs of human minds and societies. These assertions have generated a great deal of debate and discussion within the scientific community. The book was a finalist for the 1995 National Book Award in non-fiction. The National Book Foundation Background Dennett's previous book was Consciousness Explained (1991). Dennett noted discomfort with Darwinism among not only lay people but even academics, and decided it was time to write a book dealing with the subject. Material in this section is largely drawn from Darwin's Dangerous Idea, preface. Darwin's Dangerous Idea is not meant to be a work of science, but an interdisciplinary book; Dennett admits that he doesn't understand all of the scientific details himself. He goes into a moderate level of detail, but leaves it for the reader to go into greater depth if desired, providing plenty of references to this end. In writing the book, Dennett wanted to "get thinkers in other disciplines to take evolutionary theory seriously, to show them how they have been underestimating it, and to show them why they have been listening to the wrong sirens." To do this he tells a story; one that is mainly original but which includes some material from his previous work. Dennett taught an undergraduate seminar at Tufts University on Darwin and philosophy, which included most of the ideas in the book. He also had the help of fellow staff and other academics, some of which read drafts of the book. These include Richard Dawkins, David Haig, Doug Hofstadter, Nick Humphrey, Ray Jackendoff, Philip Kitcher, Justin Leiber, Ernst Mayr, Steve Pinker and Kim Sterelny. It is dedicated to W. V. O. Quine, "teacher and friend". Darwin's Dangerous Idea, p. 5 Synopsis Part I: Starting in the Middle "Starting in the Middle", Part I of Darwin's Dangerous Idea, gets its name from a quote by Willard Van Orman Quine: "Analyze theory-building how we will, we all must start in the middle. Our conceptual firsts are middle-sized, middle-distance objects, and our introduction to them and to everything comes midway in the cultural evolution of the race." The first chapter "Tell Me Why" is named after a song. Before Charles Darwin, God was seen as the ultimate cause of all design, or the ultimate answer to 'why?' questions. John Locke argued for the primacy of mind before matter, and David Hume, while exposing problems with Locke's view, could not see any alternative. Darwin's Dangerous Idea makes extensive use of cranes as an analogy. Darwin provided just such an alternative: evolution. Besides providing evidence of common descent, he introduced a mechanism to explain it: natural selection. According to Dennett, natural selection is a mindless, mechanical and algorithmic process—Darwin's dangerous idea. The third chapter introduces the concept of "skyhooks" and "cranes" (see below). He suggests that resistance to Darwinism is based on a desire for skyhooks, which do not really exist. According to Dennett, good reductionists explain apparent design without skyhooks; greedy reductionists try to explain it without cranes. Chapter 4 looks at the tree of life, such as how it can be visualized and some crucial events in life's history. The next chapter concerns the possible and the actual, using the 'Library of Mendel' (the space of all logically possible genomes) as a conceptual aid. In the last chapter of part I, Dennett treats human artifacts and culture as a branch of a unified Design Space. Descent or homology can be detected by shared design features that would be unlikely to appear independently. However, there are also "Forced Moves" or "Good Tricks" that will be discovered repeatedly, either by natural selection (see convergent evolution) or human investigation. Part II: Darwinian Thinking in Biology Tree diagram in Origin The first chapter of part II, "Darwinian Thinking in Biology", asserts that life originated without any skyhooks, and the orderly world we know is the result of a blind and undirected shuffle through chaos. The eighth chapter's message is conveyed by its title, "Biology is Engineering"; biology is the study of design, function, construction and operation. However, there are some important differences between biology and engineering. Related to the engineering concept of optimization, the next chapter deals with adaptationism, which Dennett endorses, calling Gould and Lewontin's "refutation" of it an illusion. Dennett thinks adaptationism is, in fact, the best way of uncovering constraints. The tenth chapter, entitled "Bully for Brontosaurus", is an extended critique of Stephen Jay Gould, who Dennett feels has created a distorted view of evolution with his popular writings; his "self-styled revolutions" against adaptationism, gradualism and other orthodox Darwinism all being false alarms. The final chapter of part II dismisses directed mutation, the inheritance of acquired traits and Teilhard's "Omega-point", and insists that other controversies and hypotheses (like the unit of selection and Panspermia) have no dire consequences for orthodox Darwinism. Part III: Mind, Meaning, Mathematics and Morality The frontispiece to Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan, which appears at the beginning of chapter 16 "On the Origin of Morality". "Mind, Meaning, Mathematics and Morality" is the name of Part III, which begins with a quote from Nietzsche. Translated by R. J. Hollingdale. [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982]. Chapter 12, "The Cranes of Culture", discusses cultural evolution. It asserts that the meme has a role to play in our understanding of culture, and that it allows humans, alone among animals, to "transcend" our selfish genes. "Losing Our Minds to Darwin" follows, a chapter about the evolution of brains, minds and language. Dennett criticizes Noam Chomsky's perceived resistance to the evolution of language, its modeling by artificial intelligence, and reverse engineering. The evolution of meaning is then discussed, and Dennett uses a series of thought experiments to persuade the reader that meaning is the product of meangingless, algorithmic processes. Von Kempelen's chess automaton, discussed in chapter 15. Chapter 15 asserts that Gödel's Theorem does not make certain sorts of artificial intelligence impossible. Dennett extends his criticism to Roger Penrose. The subject then moves on to the origin and evolution of morality, beginning with Thomas Hobbes (who Dennett calls "the first sociobiologist") and Friedrich Nietzsche. Translated by Walter Kaufmann [New York: Vintage, 1967]. He concludes that only an evolutionary analysis of ethics makes sense, though he cautions against some varieties of 'greedy ethical reductionism'. Before moving to the next chapter, he discusses some sociobiology controversies. The penultimate chapter, entitled "Redesigning Morality", begins by asking if ethics can be 'naturalized'. Dennett does not believe there is much hope of discovering an algorithm for doing the right thing, but expresses optimism in our ability to design and redesign our approach to moral problems. In "The Future of an Idea", the book's last chapter, Dennett praises biodiversity, including cultural diversity. In closing, he uses Beauty and the Beast as an analogy; although Darwin's idea may seem dangerous, it is actually quite beautiful. Central concepts Design Space Dennett believes there is little or no principled difference between on one hand the naturally generated products of evolution, and on the other the man-made artifacts of human creativity and culture. For this reason he indicates deliberately that the complex fruits of the tree of life are in a very meaningful sense "designed"—even though he does not believe evolution was guided by a higher intelligence. Dennett supports using the notion of memes to better understand cultural evolution. He also believes even human creativity might operate by the Darwinian mechanism. Could there be a Darwinian Account of Human Creativity? This leads him to propose that the "space" describing biological "design" is connected with the space describing human culture and technology. A precise mathematical definition of Design Space is not given in Darwin's Dangerous Idea. Dennett acknowledges this and admits he is offering a philosophical idea rather than a scientific formulation. Reply to Gregory Mulhauser Natural selection as an algorithm Dennett describes natural selection as a substrate-neutral, mindless algorithm for moving through Design Space. Universal acid Dennett writes about the fantasy of a “universal acid” as a liquid that is so corrosive that it would eat through anything that it came into contact with, even a potential container. Such a powerful substance would transform everything it was applied to; leaving something very different in its wake. This is where Dennett draws parallels from the “universal acid” to Darwin’s idea: “it eats through just about every traditional concept, and leaves in its wake a revolutionized world-view, with most of the old landmarks still recognizable, but transformed in fundamental ways.” While there are people who would like to see Darwin’s idea contained within the field of biology, Dennett asserts that this dangerous idea inevitably “leaks” out to transform other fields as well. Skyhooks and cranes Dennett used the term "skyhook" to describe a source of design complexity that did not build on lower, simpler layers—in simple terms, a miracle. In philosophical arguments concerning the reducibility (or otherwise) of the human mind, Dennett's concept pokes fun at the idea of intelligent design emanating from on high, either originating from God, or providing its own grounds in an absurd, Münchhausen-like bootstrapping manner. Dennett also accuses various competing neo-Darwinian ideas of making use of such supposedly unscientific skyhooks in explaining evolution, coming down particularly hard on the ideas of Stephen Jay Gould. Dennett contrasts theories of complexity which require such miracles with those based on "cranes", structures which permit the construction of entities of greater complexity but which are themselves founded solidly "on the ground" of physical science. Reception In the New York Review of Books, John Maynard Smith gave praise for Darwin's Dangerous Idea: "It is therefore a pleasure to meet a philosopher who understands what Darwinism is about, and approves of it. Dennett goes well beyond biology. He sees Darwinism as a corrosive acid, capable of dissolving our earlier belief and forcing a reconsideration of much of sociology and philosophy. Although modestly written, this is not a modest book. Dennett argues that, if we understand Darwin's dangerous idea, we are forced to reject or modify much of our current intellectual baggage…" New York Review of Books: John Maynard Smith "Genes, Memes, & Minds," 1995 In the New York Review of Books, Stephen Jay Gould criticised Darwin's Dangerous Idea for being an "influential but misguided ultra-Darwinian manifesto". "Daniel Dennett devotes the longest chapter in Darwin's Dangerous Idea to an excoriating caricature of my ideas, all in order to bolster his defense of Darwinian fundamentalism. If an argued case can be discerned at all amid the slurs and sneers, it would have to be described as an effort to claim that I have, thanks to some literary skill, tried to raise a few piddling, insignificant, and basically conventional ideas to "revolutionary" status, challenging what he takes to be the true Darwinian scripture. Since Dennett shows so little understanding of evolutionary theory beyond natural selection, his critique of my work amounts to little more than sniping at false targets of his own construction. He never deals with my ideas as such, but proceeds by hint, innuendo, false attribution, and error." Evolution: The Pleasures of Pluralism Gould was also a harsh critic of Dennett's idea of the "universal acid" of natural selection and of his subscription to the idea of memetics. Dennett's response and an exchange between Dennett, Gould, and Robert Wright can be found here. Daniel Dennett "'Darwinian Fundamentalism': An Exchange," 1997 Biologist H. Allen Orr wrote a scathing review emphasizing similar points in the Boston Review, Boston Review:Orr Reviews "Darwin's Dangerous Idea" by Daniel Dennett to which Dennett later responded. Reply to Orr See also Jerry Fodor John Searle References . External links Book review in the Journal of Scientific Exploration. Gould's response to Dennett's "neo-Darwinian orthodoxy" from the New York Review of Books, June 26, 1997. Dennett's response to Michael Rea's criticism. Danny Yee's Book Review of "Darwin's Dangerous Idea" | Darwin's_Dangerous_Idea |@lemmatized darwin:21 dangerous:16 idea:29 evolution:16 meaning:5 life:6 book:18 daniel:4 dennett:42 argue:3 darwinian:11 process:4 central:2 organize:1 force:4 give:3 rise:1 complexity:4 assert:4 natural:8 selection:9 blind:2 algorithmic:3 sufficiently:1 powerful:2 account:2 generation:1 include:5 human:9 mind:8 society:1 assertion:1 generate:1 great:3 deal:4 debate:1 discussion:1 within:2 scientific:4 community:1 finalist:1 national:2 award:1 non:1 fiction:1 foundation:1 background:1 previous:2 consciousness:1 explain:5 note:1 discomfort:1 darwinism:6 among:2 lay:1 people:2 even:4 academic:2 decide:1 time:1 write:5 subject:2 material:2 section:1 largely:1 draw:2 preface:1 mean:1 work:3 science:2 interdisciplinary:1 admit:2 understand:4 detail:2 go:3 moderate:1 level:1 leave:3 reader:2 depth:1 desire:2 provide:3 plenty:1 reference:2 end:1 want:1 get:2 thinker:1 discipline:1 take:2 evolutionary:3 theory:4 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2,714 | Customer_relationship_management | Customer relationship management (CRM) consists of the processes a company uses to track and organize its contacts with its current and prospective customers. CRM software is used to support these processes; information about customers and customer interactions can be entered, stored and accessed by employees in different company departments. Typical CRM goals are to improve services provided to customers, and to use customer contact information for targeted marketing. While the term CRM generally refers to a software-based approach to handling customer relationships, most CRM software vendors stress that a successful CRM effort requires a holistic approach. CRM initiatives often fail because implementation was limited to software installation, without providing the context, support and understanding for employees to learn, and take full advantage of the information systems. CRM can be implemented without major investments in software, but software is often necessary to explore the full benefits of a CRM strategy. Other problems occur when failing to think of sales as the output of a process that itself needs to be studied and taken into account when planning automation . Overview From the outside, customers interacting with a company perceive the business as a single entity, despite often interacting with a number of employees in different roles and departments. CRM is a combination of policies, processes, and strategies implemented by an organization to unify its customer interactions and provide a means to track customer information. It involves the use of technology in attracting new and profitable customers, while forming tighter bonds with existing ones. CRM includes many aspects which relate directly to one another: Front office operations — Direct interaction with customers, e.g. face to face meetings, phone calls, e-mail, online services etc. Back office operations — Operations that ultimately affect the activities of the front office (e.g., billing, maintenance, planning, marketing, advertising, finance, manufacturing, etc.) Business relationships — Interaction with other companies and partners, such as suppliers/vendors and retail outlets/distributors, industry networks (lobbying groups, trade associations). This external network supports front and back office activities. Analysis — Key CRM data can be analyzed in order to plan target-marketing campaigns, conceive business strategies, and judge the success of CRM activities (e.g., market share, number and types of customers, revenue, profitability). Perhaps it is important to note that while most consumers of CRM view it as a software "solution", there is a growing realization in the corporate world that CRM is really a customer-centric strategy for doing business; supported by software. Along these lines, CRM thought leaders like Dick Lee of High Yield Methods define CRM as "CRM adds value to customers in ways that add value back to the company" Interview with Dick Lee at Effective CRM Types/variations of CRM There are several different approaches to CRM, with different software packages focusing on different aspects. In general, Customer Service, Campaign Management and Sales Force Automation form the core of the system (with SFA being the most popular). Operational CRM Operational CRM provides support to "front office" business processes, e.g. to sales, marketing and service staff. Interactions with customers are generally stored in customers' contact histories, and staff can retrieve customer information as necessary. The contact history provides staff members with immediate access to important information on the customer (products owned, prior support calls etc.), eliminating the need to individually obtain this information directly from the customer. Reaching to the customer at right time at right place is preferable. Operational CRM processes customer data for a variety of purposes: Managing campaigns Enterprise Marketing Automation Sales Force Automation Sales Management System Analytical CRM Analytical CRM analyzes customer data for a variety of purposes: Designing and executing targeted marketing campaigns Designing and executing campaigns, e.g. customer acquisition, cross-selling, up-selling Analysing customer behavior in order to make decisions relating to products and services (e.g. pricing, product development) Management information system (e.g. financial forecasting and customer profitability analysis) Analytical CRM generally makes heavy use of data mining and other techniques to produce useful results for decision-making Sales Intelligence CRM Sales Intelligence CRM is similar to Analytical CRM, but is intended as a more direct sales tool. Features include alerts sent to sales staff regarding: Cross-selling/Up-selling/Switch-selling opportunities Customer drift Sales performance Customer trends Customer margins Customer alignment Campaign Management Campaign management combines elements of Operational and Analytical CRM. Campaign management functions include: Target groups formed from the client base according to selected criteria Sending campaign-related material (e.g. on special offers) to selected recipients using various channels (e.g. e-mail, telephone, SMS, post) Tracking, storing, and analyzing campaign statistics, including tracking responses and analyzing trends Collaborative CRM Collaborative CRM covers aspects of a company's dealings with customers that are handled by various departments within a company, such as sales, technical support and marketing. Staff members from different departments can share information collected when interacting with customers. For example, feedback received by customer support agents can provide other staff members with information on the services and features requested by customers. Collaborative CRM's ultimate goal is to use information collected by all departments to improve the quality of services provided by the company. Consumer Relationship CRM Consumer Relationship System (CRS) covers aspects of a company's dealing with customers handled by the Consumer Affairs and Customer Relations contact centers within a company. Representatives handle in-bound contact from anonymous consumers and customers. Early warnings can be issued regarding product issues (e.g. item recalls) and current consumer sentiment can be tracked (voice of the customer). Strategy Several CRM software packages are available, and they vary in their approach to CRM. However, as mentioned above, CRM is not just a technology but rather a comprehensive, customer-centric approach to an organization's philosophy of dealing with its customers. This includes policies and processes, front-of-house customer service, employee training, marketing, systems and information management. Hence, it is important that any CRM implementation considerations stretch beyond technology toward the broader organizational requirements. The objectives of a CRM strategy must consider a company’s specific situation and its customers' needs and expectations. Information gained through CRM initiatives can support the development of marketing strategy by developing the organization's knowledge in areas such as identifying customer segments, improving customer retention, improving product offerings (by better understanding customer needs), and by identifying the organization's most profitable customers. CRM strategies can vary in size, complexity, and scope. Some companies consider a CRM strategy only to focus on the management of a team of salespeople. However, other CRM strategies can cover customer interaction across the entire organization. Many commercial CRM software packages provide features that serve the sales, marketing, event management, project management, and finance industries. From this perspective, CRM has for some time been seen to play an important role in many sales process engineering efforts . Implementation issues Many CRM project "failures" are also related to data quality and availability. Data cleaning is a major issue. If a company's CRM strategy is to track life-cycle revenues, costs, margins, and interactions between individual customers, this must be reflected in all business processes. Data must be extracted from multiple sources (e.g., departmental/divisional databases such as sales, manufacturing, supply chain, logistics, finance, service etc.), which requires an integrated, comprehensive system in place with well-defined structures and high data quality. Data from other systems can be transferred to CRM systems using appropriate interfaces. Because of the company-wide size and scope of many CRM implementations, significant pre-planning is essential for smooth roll-out. This pre-planning involves a technical evaluation of the data available and the technology employed in existing systems. This evaluation is critical to determine the level of effort needed to integrate this data. Equally critical is the human aspect of the implementation. A successful implementation requires an understanding of the expectations and needs of the stakeholders involved. An executive sponsor should also be obtained to provide high-level management representation of the CRM project. An effective tool for identifying technical and human factors before beginning a CRM project is a pre-implementation checklist. Dyche, 2002, Managing Your CRM Project A checklist can help ensure any potential problems are identified early in the process. Privacy and data security System One of the primary functions of CRM software is to collect information about customers. When gathering data as part of a CRM solution, a company must consider the desire for customer privacy and data security, as well as the legislative and cultural norms. Some customers prefer assurances that their data will not be shared with third parties without their prior consent and that safeguards are in place to prevent illegal access by third parties. Market structures The following table lists the top CRM software vendors in 2006-2007 (figures in millions of US dollars) published in a Gartner study. Vendor 2007 Revenue 2007 Share (%) 2006 Revenue 2006 Share (%) '06-'07 Growth (%) Oracle 1,319.8 16.3 1,016.8 15.5 29.8 SAP 2,050.8 25.3 1,681.7 26.6 22.0 Salesforce.com 676.5 8.3 451.7 6.9 49.8 Amdocs 421.0 5.2 365.9 5.6 15.1 Microsoft 332.1 4.1 176.1 2.7 88.6 Others 3,289.1 40.6 2,881.6 43.7 14.1 Total 8,089.3 100 6,573.8 100 23.1 The following table lists the top software vendors for CRM projects completed in 2006 using external consultants and system integrators, according to a 2007 Gartner study. Gartner, Inc. (22 June 2007) Commonly Deployed CRM Application Vendors in 2006 Vendor Percentage of implementations Siebel (Oracle) 41% SAP 8% Epiphany (Infor) 3% Oracle 3% PeopleSoft (Oracle) 2% salesforce.com 2% Amdocs 1% Chordiant 1% Microsoft 1% SAS 1% Others 15% None 22% A 2007 Datamonitor report Datamonitor (22 August 2007). Datamonitor suggests Oracle, SAP likely to remain atop CRM market lists Oracle (including Siebel) and SAP as the top CRM vendors, with Chordiant, Infor, and SalesForce.com as significant, smaller vendors. Examples of customer/consumer relation hotlines & feedback Banking , Insurance , Real estate Fast food , Pharmaceuticals , Pharmacies , Courier services , See also Sales intelligence Business intelligence Consumer Relationship System Customer Experience Customers Customer Intelligence Customer service - contains ISO standards Data mining Database marketing Employee experience management (EEM) Enterprise Feedback Management (EFM) Enterprise relationship management (ERM) Help desk Mystery shopping Predictive analytics Public relations Sales force management system Sales process engineering Support automation Web management system E-crm Notes & References | Customer_relationship_management |@lemmatized customer:57 relationship:7 management:17 crm:61 consist:1 process:11 company:15 use:9 track:5 organize:1 contact:6 current:2 prospective:1 software:14 support:10 information:14 interaction:7 enter:1 store:3 access:3 employee:5 different:6 department:5 typical:1 goal:2 improve:4 service:11 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2,715 | Arlo_Guthrie | Arlo Davy Guthrie (born July 10, 1947) is an American folk singer. Like his father, Woody Guthrie, Arlo often sings songs of protest against social injustice. One of Guthrie's works is "Alice's Restaurant Massacree", a talking blues song that lasts for 18 minutes. Early life Guthrie was born in Brooklyn, New York, the son of folk singer and composer Woody Guthrie and his wife Marjorie Mazia Guthrie, who was a one-time professional dancer with the Martha Graham Company and founder of the Committee to Combat Huntington's Disease, the disease that took Woody's life in 1967. He graduated from the Stockbridge School in Stockbridge, Massachusetts in 1965, and briefly attended Rocky Mountain College. As a singer, songwriter and lifelong political activist, Arlo carries on the legacy of his legendary father. He was awarded the Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience award on September 26, 1992. The Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience Recipients List "Alice's Restaurant" His most famous work is "Alice's Restaurant Massacree", a talking blues song that lasts 18 minutes and 34 seconds in its original recorded version (Guthrie has been known to spin the story out to forty-five minutes in concert). Guthrie has pointed out that this was also the exact length of one of the famous gaps in Richard Nixon's Watergate tapes. The Alice in the song is Alice Brock, who now runs an art gallery Alice Brock in Provincetown, Massachusetts. The song, a bitingly satirical protest against the Vietnam War draft, is based on a true incident. In the song, Guthrie is called up for a draft examination, and rejected as unfit for military service as a result of a criminal record — consisting in its entirety of a single arrest, court appearance, fine and clean-up order for littering and creating a public nuisance on Thanksgiving Day in 1965, when Arlo was eighteen years old. On the DVD commentary for the film, Guthrie states that the events as presented in the song are true to real-life occurrences. For a short period of time after its release in 1967, "Alice's Restaurant" was in frequent rotation on nearly every college and counter-culture radio station in the country. Indeed, it became a symbol of the late '60s and for many it defined an attitude and lifestyle that were lived out across the country in the ensuing years. Many stations across the States have made playing "Alice's Restaurant" a Thanksgiving Day tradition. A 1969 film, directed and co-written by Arthur Penn, was based on the story. In addition to acting in this film, also called Alice's Restaurant, Guthrie has had minor roles in several movies and television series. Guthrie's memorable appearance at the 1969 Woodstock Festival was documented in the Michael Wadleigh film Woodstock. From The Guthrie Family Legacy Tour 2007 Popular and critical reception In 1972 Guthrie made famous Steve Goodman's song "City of New Orleans," a paean to long-distance rail travel. Guthrie's first trip on that train was in December 2005 (when his family joined other musicians on a train trip across the country to raise money for musicians financially devastated by Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita, in the South of the United States). He also had a minor hit with his song "Coming into Los Angeles," which was played at the 1969 Woodstock Festival, and success with "The Motorcycle Song." Guthrie's 1976 album Amigo received a 5-star (highest rating) from Rolling Stone, and may be his best-received work; unfortunately that milestone album is rarely heard today as are Guthrie's earlier Warner Brothers albums — although each boasts compelling folk music accompanied by top-notch musicians including Ry Cooder. Shenandoah In the fall of 1975 during a benefit concert in Massachusetts, Arlo Guthrie performed with his band Shenandoah in public for the first time. They continued to tour and record throughout the 1970s until the early 1990s. Although the band received good reviews, it never gained the popularity that Guthrie did while playing solo. They did play many of Guthrie's most famous songs, which were most requested. By this time, Guthrie had developed his own sound in versions of "talking blues" songs. A number of musicians from a variety of genres have joined Guthrie on stage, including Pete Seeger, David Bromberg, Cyril Neville, Emmylou Harris, Willie Nelson, Judy Collins, Wesley Gray, and others. Acting Though Arlo Guthrie is best known for being a musician, singer, and composer, throughout the years he has also appeared as an actor in films and on television. The film Alice's Restaurant (1969) is his best known role, but he has had small parts in several films and even co-starred in a television drama, Byrds of Paradise. Politics Guthrie endorsed Texas Congressman Ron Paul for the 2008 Republican Party nomination. He said, "I love this guy. Dr. Paul is the only candidate I know of who would have signed the Constitution of the United States had he been there. I'm with him, because he seems to be the only candidate who actually believes it has as much relevance today as it did a couple of hundred years ago. I look forward to the day when we can work out the differences we have with the same revolutionary vision and enthusiasm that is our American legacy." http://blogs.wsj.com/washwire/2008/01/29/group-w-grad-endorses-ron-paul/ Legacy Like his father, Woody Guthrie, Guthrie often sings songs of protest against social injustice. He collaborated with poet Adrian Mitchell to tell the story of Chilean folk singer and activist Víctor Jara in song. He regularly performed with folk legend Pete Seeger - one of his father's longtime partners whom he admires, followed, and learns from in many ways, musically and intellectually. In 1991, Guthrie bought the church that had served as Alice and Ray Brock's former home in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, and converted it to the Guthrie Center, an interfaith meeting place that serves people of all religions. Family Guthrie and his wife Jackie reside in the Town of Washington, Massachusetts. Guthrie's son Abe Guthrie and his daughters Sarah Lee Guthrie and Cathy Guthrie have also become musicians. Annie Guthrie writes songs and performs, and also takes care of family touring details. Sarah Lee performs and records with her husband Johnny Irion. Cathy plays ukulele in Folk Uke, a group she formed with Amy Nelson, the daughter of Willie Nelson. Abe Guthrie was formerly in a folk-rock band called Xavier, and now tours with his father. Abe Guthrie's son, Krishna, is a drummer and toured with Arlo Guthrie on his European tour in 2006 http://visions-of-dylan.blogspot.com/2006/08/arlo-at-vicar-st.html . Arlo Guthrie is a grandfather of Abe's son Krishna and daughter Serena, Annie's son Shiva Das (Mo) and daughter Jacklyn, Sarah Lee's daughters Olivia Nora and Sophia Irion and Cathy's daughter Marjorie Maybelle Midwood. He is third cousin to Canadian composer and musician Jan Randall. Discography Alice's Restaurant (1967) Arlo (1968) Running Down the Road (1969) Alice's Restaurant Soundtrack (1969) Washington County (1970) Hobo's Lullaby (1972) Last of the Brooklyn Cowboys (1973) Arlo Guthrie (1974) Together In Concert (1975) Amigo (1976) The Best of Arlo Guthrie (1977) One Night (1978) Outlasting the Blues (1979) Power Of Love (1981) Precious Friend (1982) Someday (1986) All Over the World (1991) Son of the Wind (1992) 2 Songs (1992) More Together Again (1994) Alice's Restaurant - The Massacree Revisited (1996) Mystic Journey (1996) This Land Is Your Land: An All American Children's Folk Classic (1997) "BanjoMan - a tribute to Derroll Adams" (2002) Live In Sydney (2005) In Times Like These (2007) 32¢ Postage Due (2008) Select filmography Alice's Restaurant (1969) Renaldo and Clara (1978) Baby's Storytime (1989) Roadside Prophets (1992) Notable television guest appearances Beat-Club (episode # 1.52) February 28, 1970 Byrds of Paradise (1994) Relativity December 29, 1996 Renegade in episode: "Top Ten with a Bullet" (episode # 5.14) January 24, 1997 The fourth season of "The Muppet Show". Film and television composer Alice's Restaurant (1969) (song "The Alice's Restaurant Massacree") Woodstock (1970) (song "Coming Into Los Angeles") Clay Pigeon (1971) also known as Trip to Kill (UK) Baby's Storytime (1989) Producer Isn't This a Time! A Tribute Concert for Harold Leventhal (2004) Writer Mooses Come Walking (2004) (Children's Book) Chronicle Books Link Appearances as himself Hylands hörna (episode # 4.4) January 31, 1970 Woodstock (1969) (also known as Woodstock 25th Anniversary Edition and as Woodstock, 3 Days of Peace & Music) The Dick Cavett Show September 8, 1970 Arthur Penn 1922-: Themes and Variants (1970) (TV) The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson playing "Himself" August 17, 1972 The Muppet Show (episode # 4.8) June 19, 1979 The Weavers: Wasn't That a Time (1982) Woody Guthrie: Hard Travelin''' (1984)Farm Aid '87 (1987) (TV)A Vision Shared: A Tribute to Woody Guthrie and Leadbelly (1988)Woodstock: The Lost Performances (1990)Woodstock Diary (1994) (TV)The Kennedy Center Honors: A Celebration of the Performing Arts (1994) (TV)The History of Rock 'N' Roll, Vol. 6 (1995) (TV) (also known as My Generation)This Land Is Your Land: The Animated Kids' Songs of Woody Guthrie (1997)Healthy Kids (1998) (TV series)The Ballad of Ramblin' Jack (2000)Hollywood Rocks the Movies: The Early Years (1955-1970) (2000) (TV)Last Party 2000 (2001) (also known as The Party's Over)Pops Goes the Fourth! (July 4, 2001)NPR's Talk of the Nation radio broadcast (Nov. 14, 2001)St. James Infirmary and The City Of New OrleansSinging in the Shadow: The Children of Rock Royalty (2003)Get Up, Stand Up (2003) (TV series)From Wharf Rats to the Lords of the Docks (2004)Isn't This a Time! A Tribute Concert for Harold Leventhal (2004)1968 with Tom Brokaw (2007)Pete Seeger: The Power of Song (2008) (American Masters PBS TV special) References Lee, Laura, Arlo, Alice & Anglicans: The Lives of a New England Church (Berkshire House Publishers, 2000; W.W. Norton, 2000 paperback ISBN 1-58157-010-4) Massachusetts Foundation for the Humanities' Mass Moments: "Arlo Guthrie Convicted of Littering," November 28, 1965" "Youths Ordered to Clean Up Rubbish Mess": contemporaneous news article reprinted in This is the Arlo Guthrie Songbook'' p. 39 (offline) Footnotes External links Official Website Arlo Guthrie's Rising Son Records Audio from April 2007 interview The Guthrie Center World Music Central "Arlo Guthrie" YouTube video of Alice's Restaurant YouTube video of the Motorcycle Song | Arlo_Guthrie |@lemmatized arlo:17 davy:1 guthrie:48 bear:2 july:2 american:4 folk:8 singer:5 like:3 father:5 woody:7 often:2 sings:2 song:21 protest:3 social:2 injustice:2 one:5 work:4 alice:19 restaurant:14 massacree:4 talk:4 blue:4 last:4 minute:3 early:3 life:4 brooklyn:2 new:4 york:1 son:7 composer:4 wife:2 marjorie:2 mazia:1 time:8 professional:1 dancer:1 martha:1 graham:1 company:1 founder:1 committee:1 combat:1 huntington:1 disease:2 take:2 graduate:1 stockbridge:2 school:1 massachusetts:6 briefly:1 attend:1 rocky:1 mountain:1 college:2 songwriter:1 lifelong:1 political:1 activist:2 carry:1 legacy:4 legendary:1 award:2 peace:3 abbey:2 courage:2 conscience:2 september:2 recipient:1 list:1 famous:4 second:1 original:1 record:5 version:2 know:8 spin:1 story:3 forty:1 five:1 concert:5 point:1 also:10 exact:1 length:1 gap:1 richard:1 nixon:1 watergate:1 tape:1 brock:3 run:2 art:2 gallery:1 provincetown:1 bitingly:1 satirical:1 vietnam:1 war:1 draft:2 base:2 true:2 incident:1 call:3 examination:1 reject:1 unfit:1 military:1 service:1 result:1 criminal:1 consist:1 entirety:1 single:1 arrest:1 court:1 appearance:3 fine:1 clean:2 order:2 litter:2 create:1 public:2 nuisance:1 thanksgiving:2 day:4 eighteen:1 year:5 old:1 dvd:1 commentary:1 film:8 state:4 event:1 present:1 real:1 occurrence:1 short:1 period:1 release:1 frequent:1 rotation:1 nearly:1 every:1 counter:1 culture:1 radio:2 station:2 country:3 indeed:1 become:2 symbol:1 late:1 many:4 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genre:1 stage:1 pete:3 seeger:3 david:1 bromberg:1 cyril:1 neville:1 emmylou:1 harris:1 willie:2 nelson:3 judy:1 collins:1 wesley:1 gray:1 others:1 though:1 appear:1 actor:1 small:1 part:1 even:1 drama:1 byrd:2 paradise:2 politics:1 endorse:2 texas:1 congressman:1 ron:2 paul:3 republican:1 party:3 nomination:1 say:1 love:2 guy:1 dr:1 candidate:2 would:1 sign:1 constitution:1 seem:1 actually:1 believe:1 much:1 relevance:1 couple:1 hundred:1 ago:1 look:1 forward:1 difference:1 revolutionary:1 vision:3 enthusiasm:1 http:2 blog:1 wsj:1 com:2 washwire:1 group:2 w:3 grad:1 collaborate:1 poet:1 adrian:1 mitchell:1 tell:1 chilean:1 víctor:1 jara:1 regularly:1 legend:1 longtime:1 partner:1 admire:1 follow:1 learn:1 way:1 musically:1 intellectually:1 buy:1 church:2 serve:2 ray:1 former:1 home:1 great:1 barrington:1 convert:1 center:3 interfaith:1 meeting:1 place:1 people:1 religion:1 jackie:1 reside:1 town:1 washington:2 abe:4 daughter:6 sarah:3 lee:4 cathy:3 annie:2 performs:2 care:1 detail:1 husband:1 johnny:2 irion:2 ukulele:1 uke:1 form:1 amy:1 formerly:1 rock:4 xavier:1 krishna:2 drummer:1 european:1 dylan:1 blogspot:1 vicar:1 st:2 html:1 grandfather:1 serena:1 shiva:1 da:1 mo:1 jacklyn:1 olivia:1 nora:1 sophia:1 maybelle:1 midwood:1 third:1 cousin:1 canadian:1 jan:1 randall:1 discography:1 road:1 soundtrack:1 county:1 hobo:1 lullaby:1 cowboy:1 together:2 night:1 outlast:1 power:2 precious:1 friend:1 someday:1 world:2 wind:1 revisit:1 mystic:1 journey:1 land:4 child:3 classic:1 banjoman:1 tribute:4 derroll:1 adam:1 sydney:1 postage:1 due:1 select:1 filmography:1 renaldo:1 clara:1 baby:2 storytime:2 roadside:1 prophet:1 notable:1 guest:1 appearances:1 beat:1 club:1 episode:5 february:1 relativity:1 renegade:1 ten:1 bullet:1 january:2 fourth:2 season:1 muppet:2 show:4 clay:1 pigeon:1 kill:1 uk:1 producer:1 harold:2 leventhal:2 writer:1 moo:1 walking:1 book:2 chronicle:1 link:2 hylands:1 hörna:1 anniversary:1 edition:1 dick:1 cavett:1 theme:1 variant:1 tv:9 tonight:1 carson:1 august:1 june:1 weaver:1 hard:1 travelin:1 farm:1 aid:1 share:1 leadbelly:1 lost:1 performance:1 diary:1 kennedy:1 honor:1 celebration:1 performing:1 history:1 n:1 vol:1 generation:1 animated:1 kid:2 healthy:1 ballad:1 ramblin:1 jack:1 hollywood:1 pop:1 go:1 npr:1 nation:1 broadcast:1 nov:1 james:1 infirmary:1 orleanssinging:1 shadow:1 royalty:1 get:1 stand:1 wharf:1 rat:1 lord:1 dock:1 tom:1 brokaw:1 master:1 pbs:1 special:1 reference:1 laura:1 anglican:1 england:1 berkshire:1 house:1 publisher:1 norton:1 paperback:1 isbn:1 foundation:1 humanity:1 mass:1 moment:1 convict:1 november:1 youth:1 rubbish:1 mess:1 contemporaneous:1 news:1 article:1 reprint:1 songbook:1 p:1 offline:1 footnote:1 external:1 official:1 website:1 rise:1 audio:1 april:1 interview:1 central:1 youtube:2 video:2 |@bigram woody_guthrie:6 rocky_mountain:1 singer_songwriter:1 richard_nixon:1 woodstock_festival:2 hurricane_katrina:1 los_angeles:2 roll_stone:1 ry_cooder:1 arlo_guthrie:10 pete_seeger:3 emmylou_harris:1 willie_nelson:2 judy_collins:1 congressman_ron:1 wsj_com:1 blogspot_com:1 clay_pigeon:1 dick_cavett:1 johnny_carson:1 performing_art:1 w_norton:1 external_link:1 |
2,716 | Mafia | Mafia primarily refers to a number of Italian criminal organizations, particularly the Sicilian Mafia and the American Mafia. The term is often applied to other criminal societies as well. Criminal organizations Southern Italy The Camorra in Campania The %27Ndrangheta in Calabria Sacra Corona Unita in Apulia Cosa Nostra in Sicily The Stidda in Sicily Other countries Albanian Mafia Black Mafia Family in the USA Irish Mob in the USA Russian Mafia (Organizatsiya) in Russia Yakuza in Japan Triad society in China Indian Mafia in India Pashtun Mafia in Pakistan Muhajir Mafia in Pakistan Dixie Mafia in the southern USA Le Milieu in France Entertainment Mafia: The City of Lost Heaven, a computer game Mafia 2, a planned sequel Mafia (party game), a party game Mafia!, also known as Jane Austen's Mafia!, a 1998 comedy film Cashmere Mafia, a 2008 television show starring Lucy Liu Music Mafia (album), an album by Black Label Society La Bella Mafia, an album by Lil' Kim Three 6 Mafia, a hip hop group from Memphis, Tennessee Lisa Maffia, British rapper Other The Main Event Mafia (M.E.M.), a Professional wrestling stable Mafia Island, part of Tanzania B.U.G. Mafia or simply Mafia is a Romanian rap group since 1995 MAFFIA, a pejorative name for the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, a UK Government ministry Greenhouse Mafia, a 2006 program on Four Corners about Australia's failure to respond to global warming Memphis Mafia, a group of associates of Elvis Presley from 1954 until he died Scottish mafia, a pejorative term for a group of Scottish politicians supposedly in control of the British Government in the recent Labour administrations Berkeley Mafia, a group of Indonesian economists Lesbian Sex Mafia, a New York City group for the support of alternative culture women Distinguish from mafic, a geological / mineralogical term | Mafia |@lemmatized mafia:28 primarily:1 refer:1 number:1 italian:1 criminal:3 organization:2 particularly:1 sicilian:1 american:1 term:3 often:1 apply:1 society:3 well:1 southern:2 italy:1 camorra:1 campania:1 calabria:1 sacrum:1 corona:1 unita:1 apulia:1 cosa:1 nostra:1 sicily:2 stidda:1 country:1 albanian:1 black:2 family:1 usa:3 irish:1 mob:1 russian:1 organizatsiya:1 russia:1 yakuza:1 japan:1 triad:1 china:1 indian:1 india:1 pashtun:1 pakistan:2 muhajir:1 dixie:1 le:1 milieu:1 france:1 entertainment:1 city:2 lose:1 heaven:1 computer:1 game:3 plan:1 sequel:1 party:2 also:1 know:1 jane:1 austen:1 comedy:1 film:1 cashmere:1 television:1 show:1 star:1 lucy:1 liu:1 music:1 album:3 label:1 la:1 bella:1 lil:1 kim:1 three:1 hip:1 hop:1 group:6 memphis:2 tennessee:1 lisa:1 maffia:2 british:2 rapper:1 main:1 event:1 e:1 professional:1 wrestling:1 stable:1 island:1 part:1 tanzania:1 b:1 u:1 g:1 simply:1 romanian:1 rap:1 since:1 pejorative:2 name:1 ministry:2 agriculture:1 fishery:1 food:1 uk:1 government:2 greenhouse:1 program:1 four:1 corner:1 australia:1 failure:1 respond:1 global:1 warm:1 associate:1 elvis:1 presley:1 die:1 scottish:2 politician:1 supposedly:1 control:1 recent:1 labour:1 administration:1 berkeley:1 indonesian:1 economist:1 lesbian:1 sex:1 new:1 york:1 support:1 alternative:1 culture:1 woman:1 distinguish:1 mafic:1 geological:1 mineralogical:1 |@bigram jane_austen:1 lucy_liu:1 hip_hop:1 memphis_tennessee:1 agriculture_fishery:1 memphis_mafia:1 elvis_presley:1 |
2,717 | Lists_of_office-holders | These are lists of incumbents (individuals holding offices or positions), including heads of states or of subnational entities. A historical discipline, archontology, focuses on the study of past and current incumbents. Current incumbents may also be found in the countries' articles (main article and "Politics of") and the list of national leaders, recent changes in 2007 in politics, and past leaders on State leaders by year and Colonial governors by year. Various articles group lists by title, function or topic: e.g. abdication, assassinated persons, cabinet (government), chancellor, ex-monarchs (20th century), head of government, head of state, lieutenant governor, mayor, military commanders, minister (and ministers by portfolio below), order of precedence, peerage, president, prime minister, Reichstag participants (1792), Secretary of State. Heads of international organizations President of the European Commission United Nations Secretary-General United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees International Monetary Fund Managing Directors Director-General of the World Trade Organization NATO Secretaries General FIFA presidents International Olympic Committee Presidents Heads of state or government Africa Eastern Africa Burundi: Rulers of Burundi Comoros: Rulers of Comoros Sultans on the Comoros Djibouti: Rulers of Djibouti Eritrea: Rulers of Eritrea Ethiopia: Rulers of Ethiopia Kenya: Rulers of Kenya Madagascar: Rulers of Madagascar Monarchs of Madagascar (1787-1897) Colonial Heads of Madagascar List of Presidents of Madagascar Malawi (former Nyasaland, former British Central Africa Protectorate) Heads of State of Malawi Heads of Government of Malawi Colonial Heads of Malawi (Nyasaland) Rulers of Malawi Rulers of Nkamanga Rulers of the Ngoni Dynasty of Jere (Qeko) Rulers of the Ngoni Dynasty of Maseko (Gomani) Mauritius Presidents of Mauritius Governors-General of Mauritius Prime Ministers of Mauritius Mozambique Heads of State of Mozambique Heads of Government of Mozambique Heads of National Resistance Government of Mozambique Colonial Heads of Mozambique Colonial Heads of Delagoa Bay Rwanda Kings of Rwanda Presidents of Rwanda Prime Ministers of Rwanda Seychelles Presidents of Seychelles Somalia Presidents of Somalia Prime Ministers of Somalia Presidents of Somaliland Presidents of Puntland Tanzania Presidents of Tanzania Prime Ministers of Tanzania Presidents of Zanzibar Prime Ministers of Zanzibar Governors-General of Tanganyika Presidents of Tanganyika Sultans of Zanzibar Uganda Governors-General of Uganda Presidents of Uganda Prime Ministers of Uganda Kings of Nkole Kings of Buganda Zambia Presidents of Zambia Zimbabwe Munhumutapa emperors Presidents of Rhodesia Presidents of Zimbabwe Middle Africa Angola Heads of state of Angola (see also: Presidents of Angola with information specific to that post) Heads of government of Angola (see also: Prime Minister of Angola with information specific to that post) List of current Angolan ministers Colonial heads of Angola Heads of state of Democratic People's Republic of Angola Heads of government of Democratic People's Republic of Angola Heads of state of Cabinda Heads of government of Cabinda Colonial and provincial heads of Cabinda Cameroon Heads of state of Cameroon Heads of government of Cameroon Colonial heads of British Cameroon (Cameroons) Heads of government of British Cameroon (Cameroons) Colonial heads of French Cameroon (Cameroun) Heads of government of French Cameroon (Cameroun) Colonial heads of German Cameroon (Kamerun) Colonial heads of Ambas Bay (Victoria Colony) Rulers of Bamoun (Mum) Rulers of Mandara Central African Republic Heads of state of the Central African Republic (and Central African Empire) Heads of government of the Central African Republic (and Central African Empire) Colonial heads of Central Africa (Oubangui-Chari) Chad Heads of state of Chad Heads of government of Chad Colonial heads of Chad Rulers of Baguirmi Rulers of Wada’i Kanem-Bornu emperors, see Kanem-Bornu Empire Congo, Democratic Republic of the (Zaire/'Congo-Kinshasa') Heads of state of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Heads of government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Heads of state of the Congo Free State Colonial heads of Congo Rulers of Katanga Rulers of Kuba Rulers of Luba Rulers of Ruund (Luunda) Rulers of Kasongo Luunda (Yaka) Rulers of Kongo Kongo Rulers of Kongo Congo, Republic of the (Congo-Brazzaville) Heads of state of the Republic of the Congo Heads of government of the Republic of the Congo Colonial heads of French Equatorial Africa Equatorial Guinea Heads of state of Equatorial Guinea Heads of government of Equatorial Guinea Colonial heads of Equatorial Guinea (Fernando Poo/Spanish Guinea) Gabon Heads of State of Gabon Heads of Government of Gabon Colonial Heads of Gabon Rulers of Orungu São Tomé and Príncipe Heads of State of São Tomé and Príncipe Heads of Government of São Tomé and Príncipe Presidents of the Regional Government of Príncipe Colonial Heads of São Tomé and Príncipe Northern Africa Algeria Heads of state of Algeria Heads of government of Algeria (see also: Prime Ministers of Algeria with information specific to that post) Colonial heads of Algeria Colonial heads of Oran Rulers of Kel Ahaggar Rulers of Qusantina (Constantine) Rulers of Tuggurt Mauretania: Kings of Mauretania Numidia: Kings of Numidia Hammadid dynasty Rustamid dynasty Ziyanid dynasty Egypt Rulers of Egypt Heads of government of Egypt Colonial heads of Egypt Pharaohs Egyptian dynasties Bahri dynasty of Egypt Burji dynasty of Egypt Ayyubid dynasty Fatimid Caliphs, see Fatimid Monarchs of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty Libya Heads of State of Libya Heads of Government of Libya Colonial Heads of Libya Colonial Heads of Tripolitania Colonial Heads of Cyrenaica Colonial Heads of Fezzan Cyrene: Kings of Cyrene Morocco Kings of Morocco Heads of Government of Morocco Colonial Heads of French Morocco Colonial Heads of Spanish Morocco Colonial Heads of Ifni Heads of State of Rif Heads of Government of Rif Colonial Heads of Tangier Marinid dynasty Almohad dynasty Almoravid dynasty of Morocco Banu Isam kings Kings of Berghouata Kings of Nekor, see Kingdom of Nekor Sudan (formerly Anglo-Egyptian -) Presidents of Sudan Prime Ministers of Sudan Presidents of Southern Sudan Vice-Presidents of Southern Sudan Kings of Makuria, see Makuria Kings of Sennar, see Kingdom of Sennar Kush Kushite Kings List of Egyptian viceroys of Kush Tunisia Beys of Tunis Presidents of Tunisia Carthage: Kings of Carthage Aghlabid dynasty Hafsid dynasty Zirid dynasty of Tunisia Southern Africa Botswana (former Bechuanaland) Heads of state of Botswana Heads of government of Botswana Colonial heads of Botswana (Bechuanaland) Rulers of baKgatla Rulers of baKwêna Rulers of Balete (baMalete) Rulers of baNgwaketse Rulers of Bangwato (bamaNgwato) Rulers of baRôlông Rulers of baTawana Rulers of baTlôkwa Lesotho Kings of Lesotho Heads of Government of Lesotho Namibia Presidents of Namibia Prime Ministers of Namibia Leaders of Damaraland Leaders of East Caprivi (Lozi) Leaders of Hereroland Leaders of Kavangoland Leaders of Namaland Leaders of Ovamboland Leaders of Rehoboth (Basterland) Leaders of Tswanaland South Africa List of Zulu kings Governors-General of South Africa President of South Africa Prime Ministers of South Africa Heads of State of Bophuthatswana Heads of State of Ciskei Heads of State of Transkei Heads of Government of Transkei Heads of State of Venda Chief Ministers of Gazankulu Chief Ministers of KwaNdebele Chief Ministers of KaNgwane Chief Ministers of KwaZulu Chief Ministers of Lebowa Chief Ministers of QwaQwa Swaziland Kings of Swaziland Heads of Government of Swaziland Western Africa Benin (former Dahomey) Heads of state of Benin Heads of government of Benin Colonial heads of Benin (Dahomey and Porto-Novo) Colonial heads of São João Baptista de Ajudá Rulers of Hogbonu (Ajashe/Porto-Novo) Bariba (Borgu) states Rulers of the Bariba state of Kandi Rulers of the Bariba state of Kwande Rulers of the Bariba state of Nikki Rulers of the Bariba state of Paraku Berba states Rulers of the Berba state of Gwande Ewe states Rulers of the Ewe state of Agwe Fon states Rulers of the Fon state of Alada (Allada) Rulers of the Fon state of Danhome (Agbome) (Dahomey) Rulers of the Fon state of Savi Hweda Gurmanche states Rulers of the Gurmanche state of Jugu (Sugu) Mahi states Rulers of the Mahi state of Fitta Rulers of the Mahi state of Savalu Yoruba states Rulers of the Yoruba state of Dassa Rulers of the Yoruba state of Icha Rulers of the Yoruba state of Ketu Rulers of the Yoruba state of Sabe Burkina Faso (former Upper Volta) Heads of state of Burkina Faso Heads of government of Burkina Faso (see also: Prime Minister of Burkina Faso with information specific to that post) Colonial heads of Burkina Faso (Upper Volta) Mossi States:- Rulers of the Mossi state of Gurunsi Rulers of the Mossi state of Gwiriko Rulers of the Mossi state of Liptako Rulers of the Mossi state of Tenkodogo Rulers of the Mossi state of Wogodogo Rulers of the Mossi state of Yatenga Rulers of the Gurma Mossi state of Bilanga Rulers of the Gurma Mossi state of Bilayanga Rulers of the Gurma Mossi state of Bongandini Rulers of the Gurma Mossi state of Con Rulers of the Gurma Mossi state of Kuala Rulers of the Gurma Mossi state of Macakoali Rulers of the Gurma Mossi state of Nungu Rulers of the Gurma Mossi state of Pama Rulers of the Gurma Mossi state of Piela Cameroon Heads of state of Cameroon Prime Minister and Head of Government of Cameroon Political leaders of Cameroon Cape Verde Heads of state of Cape Verde Heads of government of Cape Verde (see also: Prime Minister of Cape Verde with information specific to that post) Colonial heads of Cape Verde Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) Heads of state of Côte d'Ivoire Heads of government of Côte d'Ivoire Colonial heads of Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) The Gambia Heads of State of The Gambia (see also Governors-General of The Gambia) Heads of Government of The Gambia Colonial Heads of The Gambia Ghana: Rulers of Ghana Emperors of Ghana Guinea Heads of State of Guinea Heads of Government of Guinea Colonial Heads of Guinea Guinea-Bissau Heads of State of Guinea-Bissau Heads of Government of Guinea-Bissau Colonial Heads of Portuguese Guinea Colonial Heads of Bissau Colonial Heads of Cacheu Liberia Presidents of Liberia Agents and Governors of Liberia Colonial Heads of Maryland Colonial Heads of Mississippi Colonial Heads of Port Cresson and Bassa Cove Mali (former French Sudan) Heads of State of Mali Heads of Government of Mali Colonial Heads of Mali Emperors of Mali, see Mali Empire Kings of Mali, see Mansa Songhai emperors, see Songhai Empire Mauritania Heads of State of Mauritania Heads of Government of Mauritania Colonial Heads of Mauritania Niger Heads of State of Niger Heads of Government of Niger Nigeria Governors-General of Nigeria Presidents of Nigeria Heads of State of Biafra List of Sultans of Sokoto Senegal Presidents of Senegal Sierra Leone Governors-General of Sierra Leone Presidents of Sierra Leone Heads of Government of Sierra Leone Togo Heads of State of Togo Heads of Government of Togo Americas Caribbean Antigua and Barbuda Governors-General of Antigua and Barbuda Prime Ministers of Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Governors-General of the Bahamas Heads of Government of the Bahamas Colonial Heads of the Bahamas Barbados Governors-General of Barbados Prime Ministers of Barbados Cuba Presidents of Cuba Premiers of Cuba Colonial Heads of Cuba Dominica Presidents of Dominica Prime Ministers of Dominica Dominican Republic Presidents of the Dominican Republic Grenada Governors-General of Grenada Prime Ministers of Grenada Colonial Heads of Grenada Colonial Heads of the Windward Islands Haiti List of French Governors of Saint-Domingue Presidents of Haiti Jamaica Governors-General of Jamaica Prime Ministers of Jamaica Saint Kitts and Nevis Governors-General of Saint Kitts and Nevis Prime Ministers of Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Governors-General of Saint Lucia Prime Ministers of Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Governors-General of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Prime Ministers of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago Governors-General of Trinidad and Tobago Presidents of Trinidad and Tobago Prime Ministers of Trinidad and Tobago Central America Belize Governors-General of Belize Prime Ministers of Belize Maya rulers of Caracol, see Caracol Costa Rica Presidents of Costa Rica El Salvador Presidents of El Salvador Guatemala Presidents of Guatemala Maya rulers of Tikal, see Tikal Honduras Presidents of Honduras Maya kings of Xukpi, see Copán Nicaragua Presidents of Nicaragua Panama Presidents of Panama North America Canada Office-holders of Canada Mexico Presidents of Mexico Aztec emperors, see Hueyi Tlatoani Maya rulers of Calakmul, see Calakmul Maya rulers of Palenque, see Palenque Maya rulers of Tonina, see Tonina Toltec rulers Viceroys of New Spain United States Office-holders of the United States South America Argentina Presidents of Argentina Bolivia Presidents of Bolivia Brazil Brazilian monarchs Presidents of Brazil Governors of Distrito Federal Governors of Minas Gerais Governors of Rio de Janeiro Mayors of Rio de Janeiro Governors of São Paulo Chile Presidents of Chile Kings of Easter Island Royal Governors of Chile Colombia Presidents of Colombia List of Governors of the Department of Quindío Ecuador Presidents of Ecuador Heads of State of Ecuador Guyana Governors-General of Guyana Presidents of Guyana Prime Ministers of Guyana Uruguay Presidents of Uruguay Paraguay Presidents of Paraguay Peru Presidents of Peru Incan emperors, see Inca Empire Viceroys of Peru Suriname Presidents of Suriname Venezuela Presidents of Venezuela Asia Central Asia Kazakhstan Göktürk kagans Kyrgyzstan Khans of Kara-Khitai, see Kara-Khitan Khanate Tajikistan Presidents of Tajikistan Eastern Asia China & dependencies Chinese sovereigns Table of Chinese monarchs People's Republic of China President of the People's Republic of China Premier of the People's Republic of China Hong Kong Governor of Hong Kong (under British rule, now replaced by Chief Executive) Chief Executive of Hong Kong Macau Governor of Macau (under Portuguese rule, now replaced by Chief Executive) Chief Executive of Macau Republic of China (Taiwan) President of the Republic of China Premier of the Republic of China Governors and Chairpersons of Taiwan, see Taiwan Province Tibet List of imperial ambans in Tibet The Table of Chinese monarchs China List of kings of Tibet China Japan Rulers of Japan (Emperors, Regents, Shoguns and Prime Ministers) Emperors of Japan Prime Minister of Japan Ashikaga shogunate Kamakura shogunate Tokugawa shogunate List of Emperors of Japan Mongolia Grand Khan of Mongolia Prime Minister of Mongolia Korea Rulers of Korea North Korea Presidents of North Korea Premiers of North Korea South Korea Presidents of South Korea Rulers of Korea Taiwan (Republic of China) See China entry above. 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Afghan Transitional Administration personnel Leaders of Afghanistan Heads of Government of Afghanistan Rulers of Kabul Rulers of Herat Rulers of Kandahar Rulers of Peshawar Rulers of Ghazni Ghaznavid emperors, see Ghaznavid Empire Shahi dynasty Bangladesh Presidents of Bangladesh Prime Ministers of Bangladesh Bhutan Kings of Bhutan India President of India Prime Minister of India Governors, Lieutenant Governors and Administrators of Indian States and Union Territories Chief Ministers of Indian States Nepal Kings of Nepal Sri Lanka Presidents of Sri Lanka Prime Ministers of Sri Lanka Western Asia Armenia Kings of Urartu List of Armenian Kings List of Kings of Ani Monarchs of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia Shaddadid dynasty Cyprus Kings of Cyprus Officers of the Kingdom of Cyprus Georgia List of Georgian kings Bagrationi dynasty Emirs of Tbilisi Iran List of kings of Persia Shah of Iran Supreme Leader of Iran President of Iran Prime Minister of Iran Iraq Sumer Kings of Sumer Rulers of Lagash Akkad Kings of Akkad Gutian kings Kings of Assyria Kings of Babylon Rulers of Adiabene Abbasid Caliphs Annazid dynasty Kings of Iraq President of Iraq Prime Ministers of Iraq Civilian Administrator of Iraq Israel Prime Minister of Israel President of Israel Rulers of Israel and Judah Kings of Israel Kings of Judah Kings of Judea High Priests of Israel Crusader States Kings of Jerusalem Vassals of the Kingdom of Jerusalem Princes of Galilee Lords of Toron Counts of Jaffa and Ascalon Lords of Ramla Lords of Ibelin Lords of Oultrejordain Lords of Sidon Officers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem Jordan (formerly Transjordan) Kings of Jordan Rulers of Nabatea Kuwait Emirs of Kuwait Al-Sabah Lebanon Presidents of Lebanon Prime Ministers of Lebanon Kings of Tyre Counts of Tripoli Officers of the County of Tripoli Oman (formerly Muscat (and Oman)) Sultans of Oman Qatar Emirs of Qatar Saudi Arabia Sharif of Mecca Kings of Saudi Arabia Syria Presidents of Syria Prime Ministers of Syria Kings of Syria Rulers of Damascus Zengid dynasty Princes of Antioch Officers of the Principality of Antioch Emirs of Shaizar Ghassanid kings Rulers of Aleppo Hanilgalbat: Kings of Hanilgabat, see Hanilgalbat and Mitanni Kings of Ugarit Turkey List of Hittite kings Kings of Lydia Kings of Arzawa Kings of Bithynia Kings of Cappadocia Attalid Kings of Pergamon Kings of Pontus Kings of Kommagene Kings of Galatia Osroene Byzantine Emperors Latin Emperors of Constantinople Marwanid dynasty Counts of Edessa Seljuk sultans of Rüm List of Sultans of the Ottoman Empire Pretenders of the Ottoman Empire Presidents of Turkey Prime Ministers of Turkey United Arab Emirates Prime Ministers of the United Arab Emirates Yemen Presidents of Yemen Prime Ministers of Yemen Presidents of North Yemen Prime Ministers of North Yemen Presidents of South Yemen Prime Ministers of South Yemen Europe Eastern Europe Belarus List of Belarusian rulers Czech Republic Bohemia Czech lands Rulers of Bohemia (Czech lands) Presidents of the Czech Republic Prime Ministers of the Czech Republic Czechoslovakia List of Prime Ministers of Czechoslovakia List of Presidents of Czechoslovakia Hungary List of Hungarian rulers List of heads of state of Hungary Prime Ministers of Hungary Moldova Presidents of Moldova Prime Ministers of Moldova Poland Polish rulers, Timeline of rulers of Poland Polish Prime Ministers Presidents of Poland Dukes of Silesia Dukes of Mazovia Dukes of Greater Poland Dukes of Leczyca Dukes of Sieradz List of Polish rulers Duchy of Cieszyn Dukes of Pomerania Romania Prime Ministers of Romania Presidents of Romania Romanian European Commissioner Kings of Romania Dacian kings Rulers of Wallachia Rulers of Moldavia Rulers of Transylvania Russia and the Soviet Union List of Russian rulers: early Grand Dukes and Tsars Leaders of the Soviet Union President of the Soviet Union Premier of the Soviet Union President of Russia Prime Minister of Russia Khans of the Golden Horde List of Kazan khans List of Khazar rulers Rulers of Kievan Rus' Grand Prince of Tver Slovakia Historic rulers of Slovakia Presidents of Slovakia Prime Ministers of Slovakia Parliament leaders of Slovakia Ukraine Rulers of Kievan Rus' List of rulers of Halych and Volhynia Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks List of Crimean khans President of Ukraine Prime Minister of Ukraine Northern Europe Denmark Danish monarchs Prime Ministers of Denmark List of dubious Danish kings Faroe Islands Faroese monarchs Prime Ministers of the Faroe Islands Governor of the Faroe Islands Greenland Prime Ministers of Greenland Governors of Greenland Inspectors of Greenland Estonia Estonian rulers Ministers of Defence of Estonia Prime Ministers of Estonia Presidents of Estonia State Elders of Estonia Finland Prime Minister of Finland President of Finland Finnish rulers Provincial Governors of Finland Iceland Presidents of Iceland Prime Ministers of Iceland Icelandic rulers List of lawspeakers, see Lawspeaker Ireland: Rulers of Ireland Latvia Presidents of Latvia Prime Ministers of Latvia Lithuania List of Lithuanian rulers Presidents of Lithuania Prime Ministers of Lithuania Norway Norwegian monarchs Line of succession to the Norwegian Throne Norwegian Prime Ministers Norway List of Norwegian monarchs Kings of Agder, see Sørlandet Kings of Hadeland Kings of Hedmark Kings of Oppland Kings of Sogn Kings of Solør Kings of Toten Kings of Vestfold Kings of Vingulmark Earls of Lade, see Trøndelag Sweden Swedish monarchs Prime Minister of Sweden Swedish Field Marshals County Governors of Sweden Swedish semi-legendary kings Mythological kings of Sweden Kings of Geatland <tr valign=top><td> Blekinge Governors Dalarna Governors Gävleborg Governors Gotland Governors Halland Governors Jämtland Governors Jönköping Governors <td> Kalmar Governors Kronoberg Governors Norrbotten Governors Skåne Governors Stockholm Governors Södermanland Governors Uppsala Governors <td> Värmland Governors Västerbotten Governors Västernorrland Governors Västmanland Governors Västra Götaland Governors Örebro Governors Östergötland Governors United Kingdom: Rulers of the United Kingdom Southern Europe Albania Prime Ministers of Albania Presidents of Albania Monarchs of Albania Andorra Co-Princes of Andorra Bishop of Urgell Bosnia and Herzegovina List of rulers of Bosnia Bulgaria Bulgarian monarchs Presidents of Bulgaria Prime Ministers of Bulgaria Kings of Odrysia Thrace Moesia: Roman governors of Lower Moesia Croatia List of rulers of Croatia Presidents of Croatia Prime Ministers of Croatia Governors and Heads of State of Fiume Heads of State of Krajina Heads of Government of Krajina Greece: Rulers of Greece Italy: Rulers of Italy Kosovo: Presidents of Kosovo Malta Presidents of Malta, 1974-present Prime Ministers of Malta, 1921-1933, 1947-1958, 1962-present Monarchs of Malta, 1090-1798, 1800-1974 Counts of Malta, 1190-1427 Grand Masters of Malta, 1530-1798 Governors and Governors-General of Malta, 1813-1974 Nobility of Malta Montenegro Rulers of Montenegro President of Montenegro Prime Minister of Montenegro Portugal Portuguese monarchs Duke of Braganza Prime Ministers of Portugal Presidents of Portugal List of Portuguese monarchs San Marino Captains Regent of San Marino, 1900-present Captains Regent of San Marino, 1700-1900 Captains Regent of San Marino, 1500-1700 Captains Regent of San Marino, 1243-1500 Serbia Presidents of Serbia Prime Ministers of Serbia Monarchs of Serbia List of Serbian monarchs Princes of Zeta Slovenia Presidents of Slovenia Prime Minister of Slovenia Spain Rulers of Spain Prime Ministers of Spain Vatican City Popes Cardinal Secretary of State Western Europe Austria Rulers of Austria Emperors of Austria Foreign Ministers of Austria-Hungary Ministers-President of Austria Federal Presidents of Austria Chancellors of Austria (Vice Chancellors of Austria) Habsburg Babenberg Margraves, dukes, and archdukes of Austria Dukes of Styria, see Styria (duchy) Dukes of Carinthia, see Carinthia (duchy) Belgium Belgian monarchs Prime Ministers of Belgium Governors of the Habsburg Netherlands Minister-President of the Brussels-Capital Region List of Ministers-President of the Flemish Community List of Ministers-President of the Walloon Region List of Ministers-President of the French Community List of Ministers-President of the German-speaking Community France: Rulers of France Germany: Rulers of Germany Liechtenstein Princes of Liechtenstein Liechtenstein Heads of Government Luxembourg Prime Ministers of Luxembourg Grand Duke of Luxembourg List of Counts and Dukes of Luxembourg Monaco Princes of Monaco Succession to the Monegasque Throne Ministers of State Netherlands Dutch monarchy Prime Ministers of the Netherlands Governors of the Habsburg Netherlands Low Countries (Netherlands, Belgium): Rulers of East Frisia Rulers of Frisia Prince of Orange Duke of Brabant Lords and margraves of Bergen op Zoom Dukes and counts of Guelders Duke of Lower Lorraine Count of Bouillon Count of Flanders Count of Hainaut Count of Holland Counts of Leuven Bishop of Utrecht Marquis of Namur Switzerland Members of the Swiss Federal Council Presidents of the Confederation Heads of the Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports, see Military of Switzerland Heads of the Department of Foreign Affairs: see International relations of Switzerland Heads of the Department of Home Affairs Heads of the Federal Department of Finance Heads of the Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications Heads of the Federal Department of Economic Affairs Heads of the Federal Department of Justice and Police Federal Chancellors of Switzerland Presidents of the Swiss National Council Presidents of the Swiss Council of States Members of the Swiss National Council Members of the Swiss Council of States Chief Justices of the Swiss Supreme Court Presidents of the Swiss Diet (before 1848) Oceania Australasia Australia Monarchs of Australia Governors-General of Australia Cabinet of Australia Prime Ministers of Australia Deputy Prime Ministers of Australia Attornies General of Australia Ministers for Defence Ministers for Foreign Affairs Treasurers of Australia <tr valign=top><td> Premiers of New South Wales Premiers of Queensland Premiers of South Australia Premiers of Tasmania Premiers of Victoria Premier of Western Australia Heads of Government of Norfolk Island Chief Minister of the Northern Territory Chief Minister of the Australian Capital Territory <td> Governors of New South Wales Governors of Queensland Governors of South Australia Governors of Tasmania Governors of Victoria Governor of Western Australia Administrative Heads of Norfolk Island Administrator of the Northern Territory Administrative Heads of Jervis Bay Administrative Heads of Australian Antarctic Territory Administrative Heads of Macquarie Island Cocos Islands King of the Cocos Islands New Zealand Governors-General of New Zealand New Zealand Cabinet Prime Ministers of New Zealand Deputy Prime Ministers of New Zealand Ministers of Finance Ministers of Foreign Affairs Speakers of the House of Representatives Māori Kings and Queens <tr valign=top><td> Mayors of Auckland Mayors of Christchurch Mayors of Dunedin Mayors of Wellington Melanesia Fiji Chairmen of Fiji's Great Council of Chiefs Chief Justice of Fiji Colonial Governors of Fiji Fijian Heads of State Foreign Ministers of Fiji Governors-General of Fiji House of Representatives of Fiji - current membership (2004) Ministers for Fijian Affairs Presidents of Fiji Prime Ministers of Fiji Senate of Fiji - current membership (2004) Speakers of the Fijian House of Representatives Vice-Presidents of Fiji Papua New Guinea Prime Ministers of Papua New Guinea Micronesia Nauru Presidents of Nauru, see Politics of Nauru Polynesia Cook Islands Prime Ministers of the Cook Islands Samoa Samoan Heads of State List of Rulers of Samoa Members of the Council of Deputies of Samoa Prime Ministers of Samoa Chief Justice of Samoa Finance Ministers of Samoa Foreign Affairs Ministers of Samoa Health Ministers of Samoa Education Ministers of Samoa Public Works Ministers of Samoa Fono Aoao Faitulafono o Samoa - current membership (2006) Other lists Ministers by portfolio Defence minister List of ministers of the environment Finance minister Foreign minister List of foreign ministers in 1950 List of foreign ministers in 2002 List of foreign ministers in 2003 List of foreign ministers in 2004 Interior minister Municipal leaders Religious leaders Christian List of current patriarchs List of Patriarchs, Archbishops and Bishops Anglican Communion Archbishop of Canterbury List of Archbishops of Canterbury Anglican Primates Roman Catholic Catholic Popes Grand Masters of the Teutonic Knights Grand Masters of the Knights Templar Grand Masters of the Knights Hospitaller Priors of St John of Jerusalem in England Grand Masters of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword Other denominations General of The Salvation Army Moderator of the United Church of Canada Judaism Chief Rabbis of the United Kingdom Chief Rabbis of Israel Islam Caliphate Shia Imam Buddhist Dalai Lama Panchen Lama Karmapa Shamarpa Sakya Trizin Supreme Patriarch of Thailand Supreme Patriarch of Cambodia Supreme Patriarch of Laos Others Pontifices maximi President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints External links Archontology, by Oleg Schultz Rulers, by B. Schemmel - detailed lists (including regional and religious leaders) from 1700. World Statesmen, by Ben Cahoon | Lists_of_office-holders |@lemmatized list:54 incumbent:3 individual:1 hold:1 office:3 position:1 include:2 head:148 state:96 subnational:1 entity:1 historical:1 discipline:1 archontology:2 focus:1 study:1 past:2 current:7 may:1 also:7 find:1 country:2 article:3 main:1 politics:3 national:4 leader:20 recent:1 change:1 year:2 colonial:50 governor:76 various:1 group:1 title:1 function:1 topic:1 e:1 g:1 abdication:1 assassinated:1 person:1 cabinet:3 government:47 chancellor:4 ex:1 monarch:18 century:1 lieutenant:2 mayor:6 military:2 commander:1 minister:127 portfolio:2 order:1 precedence:1 peerage:1 president:112 prime:85 reichstag:1 participant:1 secretary:4 international:4 organization:2 european:2 commission:1 unite:1 nation:2 general:28 united:9 high:2 commissioner:2 refugee:1 monetary:1 fund:1 managing:1 director:2 world:2 trade:1 nato:1 fifa:1 olympic:1 committee:1 africa:13 eastern:3 burundi:2 ruler:122 comoros:3 sultan:9 djibouti:2 eritrea:2 ethiopia:2 kenya:2 madagascar:5 malawi:5 former:6 nyasaland:2 british:4 central:9 protectorate:1 nkamanga:1 ngoni:2 dynasty:26 jere:1 qeko:1 maseko:1 gomani:1 mauritius:4 mozambique:5 resistance:1 delagoa:1 bay:3 rwanda:4 king:81 seychelles:2 somalia:3 somaliland:1 puntland:1 tanzania:3 zanzibar:3 tanganyika:2 uganda:4 nkole:1 buganda:1 zambia:2 zimbabwe:2 munhumutapa:1 emperor:15 rhodesia:1 middle:1 angola:8 see:44 information:5 specific:5 post:5 angolan:1 democratic:5 people:5 republic:23 cabinda:3 provincial:2 cameroon:14 french:7 cameroun:2 german:2 kamerun:1 ambas:1 victoria:3 colony:1 bamoun:1 mum:1 mandara:1 african:5 empire:10 oubangui:1 chari:1 chad:4 baguirmi:1 wada:1 kanem:2 bornu:2 congo:10 zaire:1 kinshasa:1 free:1 katanga:1 kuba:1 luba:1 ruund:1 luunda:2 kasongo:1 yaka:1 kongo:3 brazzaville:1 equatorial:5 guinea:15 fernando:1 poo:1 spanish:3 gabon:4 orungu:1 são:6 tomé:4 príncipe:5 regional:2 northern:4 algeria:5 oran:1 kel:1 ahaggar:1 qusantina:1 constantine:1 tuggurt:1 mauretania:2 numidia:2 hammadid:1 rustamid:1 ziyanid:1 egypt:6 pharaoh:1 egyptian:3 bahri:1 burji:1 ayyubid:1 fatimid:2 caliph:2 muhammad:1 ali:1 libya:4 tripolitania:1 cyrenaica:1 fezzan:1 cyrene:2 morocco:6 ifni:1 rif:2 tangy:1 marinid:1 almohad:1 almoravid:1 banu:1 isam:1 berghouata:1 nekor:2 kingdom:12 sudan:6 formerly:3 anglo:1 southern:5 vice:3 makuria:2 sennar:2 kush:2 kushite:1 viceroy:3 tunisia:3 bey:1 tunis:1 carthage:2 aghlabid:1 hafsid:1 zirid:1 botswana:4 bechuanaland:2 bakgatla:1 bakwêna:1 balete:1 bamalete:1 bangwaketse:1 bangwato:1 bamangwato:1 barôlông:1 batawana:1 batlôkwa:1 lesotho:3 namibia:3 damaraland:1 east:2 caprivi:1 lozi:1 hereroland:1 kavangoland:1 namaland:1 ovamboland:1 rehoboth:1 basterland:1 tswanaland:1 south:14 zulu:1 bophuthatswana:1 ciskei:1 transkei:2 venda:1 chief:19 gazankulu:1 kwandebele:1 kangwane:1 kwazulu:1 lebowa:1 qwaqwa:1 swaziland:3 western:5 benin:4 dahomey:3 porto:2 novo:2 joão:1 baptista:1 de:3 ajudá:1 hogbonu:1 ajashe:1 bariba:5 borgu:1 kandi:1 kwande:1 nikki:1 paraku:1 berba:2 gwande:1 ewe:2 agwe:1 fon:4 alada:1 allada:1 danhome:1 agbome:1 savi:1 hweda:1 gurmanche:2 jugu:1 sugu:1 mahi:3 fitta:1 savalu:1 yoruba:5 dassa:1 icha:1 ketu:1 sabe:1 burkina:5 faso:5 upper:2 volta:2 mossi:16 gurunsi:1 gwiriko:1 liptako:1 tenkodogo:1 wogodogo:1 yatenga:1 gurma:9 bilanga:1 bilayanga:1 bongandini:1 con:1 kuala:1 macakoali:1 nungu:1 pama:1 piela:1 political:1 cape:5 verde:5 côte:4 ivoire:4 ivory:2 coast:2 gambia:5 ghana:3 bissau:4 portuguese:4 cacheu:1 liberia:3 agent:1 maryland:1 mississippi:1 port:1 cresson:1 bassa:1 cove:1 mali:7 mansa:1 songhai:2 mauritania:4 niger:3 nigeria:3 biafra:1 sokoto:1 senegal:2 sierra:4 leone:4 togo:3 americas:1 caribbean:1 antigua:3 barbuda:3 bahamas:4 barbados:3 cuba:4 premier:11 dominica:3 dominican:2 grenada:4 windward:1 islands:5 haiti:2 saint:11 domingue:1 jamaica:3 kitts:3 nevis:3 lucia:3 vincent:3 grenadine:3 trinidad:4 tobago:4 america:3 belize:3 maya:6 caracol:2 costa:2 rica:2 el:2 salvador:2 guatemala:2 tikal:2 honduras:2 xukpi:1 copán:1 nicaragua:2 panama:2 north:6 canada:3 holder:2 mexico:2 aztec:1 hueyi:1 tlatoani:1 calakmul:2 palenque:2 tonina:2 toltec:1 new:10 spain:4 argentina:2 bolivia:2 brazil:2 brazilian:1 distrito:1 federal:8 mina:1 gerais:1 rio:2 janeiro:2 paulo:1 chile:3 easter:1 island:8 royal:2 colombia:2 department:8 quindío:1 ecuador:3 guyana:4 uruguay:2 paraguay:2 peru:3 incan:1 inca:1 suriname:2 venezuela:2 asia:6 kazakhstan:1 göktürk:1 kagans:1 kyrgyzstan:1 khan:5 kara:2 khitai:1 khitan:1 khanate:1 tajikistan:2 china:11 dependency:1 chinese:3 sovereign:1 table:2 monarchs:3 hong:3 kong:3 rule:2 replace:2 executive:4 macau:3 taiwan:4 chairperson:1 province:1 tibet:3 imperial:1 ambans:1 japan:5 regent:5 shogun:1 ashikaga:1 shogunate:3 kamakura:1 tokugawa:1 mongolia:3 grand:9 korea:8 entry:1 southeastern:1 brunei:2 cambodia:3 khmer:2 indonesia:2 majapahit:1 sailendra:1 srivijaya:1 mataram:2 malaysia:2 yang:1 di:1 pertuan:1 agong:1 malacca:2 sultanate:2 philippine:5 american:1 philippines:1 datus:1 raja:1 sulu:1 history:2 singapore:3 thailand:4 chakri:1 ayutthaya:2 haripunchai:2 lanna:2 sukhothai:2 vietnam:5 vietnamese:1 nguyen:1 ly:1 afghanistan:3 afghan:1 transitional:1 administration:1 personnel:1 kabul:1 herat:1 kandahar:1 peshawar:1 ghazni:1 ghaznavid:2 shahi:1 bangladesh:3 bhutan:2 india:3 administrator:3 indian:2 union:5 territory:5 nepal:2 sri:3 lanka:3 armenia:1 urartu:1 armenian:2 ani:1 cilicia:1 shaddadid:1 cyprus:3 officer:4 georgia:1 georgian:1 bagrationi:1 emir:4 tbilisi:1 iran:5 persia:1 shah:1 supreme:5 iraq:5 sumer:2 lagash:1 akkad:2 gutian:1 assyria:1 babylon:1 adiabene:1 abbasid:1 annazid:1 civilian:1 israel:7 judah:2 judea:1 priest:1 crusader:1 jerusalem:4 vassal:1 prince:8 galilee:1 lord:6 toron:1 count:11 jaffa:1 ascalon:1 ramla:1 ibelin:1 oultrejordain:1 sidon:1 jordan:2 transjordan:1 nabatea:1 kuwait:2 al:1 sabah:1 lebanon:3 tyre:1 tripoli:2 county:2 oman:3 muscat:1 qatar:2 saudi:2 arabia:2 sharif:1 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2,718 | Outline_of_healthcare_science | Health sciences are the group of disciplines of applied science dealing with human and animal health. There are two parts to Health Sciences: the study, research and development of the knowledge of health, and the application of that knowledge to improve health, cure diseases, and understand how humans and animals function. Research builds primarily on the basic sciences of Biology, Chemistry, and Physics as well as social sciences (for example Medical Sociology). Other fields which have made an especially significant contribution to the Health Sciences include Biochemistry, Biotechnology, Engineering, Epidemiology, Genetics, Nursing, Pharmacology, Pharmacy, Public Health, and Medicine. The Health Sciences industry, a multi-billion dollar business, is a subset of the Life Sciences, Medical Care, and Diagnosis industries. The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to health science: Essence of health science Main article: Health science Branches of health science Conventional Western disciplines Athletic training Dentistry Dietetics Epidemiology Exercise physiology Genetic counseling Medical physics Medicine Medical technology Nursing Nutrition Occupational therapy Optometry Osteopathic medicine (Note: Osteopathy, as practiced in most countries other than the USA, is listed under complementary and alternative practices below) Pharmacology Physical therapy (physiotherapy) Psychoanalysis Psychotherapy, including Cognitive therapy Public health Physical education Speech-Language Pathology Surgery, including anaesthesiology Veterinary medicine Complementary and alternative medicine Alternative Medicine Biomedical model Biopsychosocial model Body treatment Complementary medicine Energy medicine Energy (spirituality) Healer Health applications and clinical studies of meditation Holistic health Home remedy Homeopathy Manipulative therapy Manual therapy Medical model Mind-body intervention Nocebo NCCAM Placebo Program for Evaluating Complementary Medicine Rejuvenation (aging) Self-healing Traditional medicine Wellness (alternative medicine) World medical systems Spiritually-based healing Christian Science Faith healing Johrei Maharishi Vedic Medicine Shamanism Traditional medicine and folk medicine Ayurveda Folk medicine Medical herbalism Native American traditional healing Shamanism Traditional Chinese medicine, including acupuncture Traditional Korean medicine History of health science Main article: History of health science History of biology History of medicine History of nutrition History of optometry General health science concepts health - disease - doctor - physician - surgeon - surgery - healing - healer - witch-doctor - hospital - nurse - medication - operation - Public Health - Diagnostic methods physical examination - medical history - auscultation - stethoscope - percussion - medical imaging - X-ray - medical ultrasonography - blood work - Medical specialities by organ system: Cardiology Congenital heart disease ASD, VSD, Aortic coarctation, Tetralogy of Fallot Myocarditis Rheumatic heart disease Coronary heart disease Cardiac arrhythmias Respiratory Pneumonia Bronchitis Tuberculosis Asthma Lung cancer Allergy Gastrointestinal Oesophagus Heartburn Reflux esophagitis Barretts disease Hiatus hernia Cancer of oesophagus Oesophageal pouch Achalasia Stomach Gastric ulcer stomach cancer Helicobacter pylori GERD Mallory-Weiss syndrome Zollinger-Ellison syndrome Small bowel Duodenal atresia ~ Giardiasis ~ Coeliac disease ~ Crohn's disease ~ Intestinal volvulus ~ Lymphoma ~ Meckel's diverticulum ~ Malabsorption ~ Appendix Appendicitis Carcinoid tumour Colon Infective colitis Intestinal volvulus Hirschprung disease Ulcerative colitis Cancer Crohn's disease Diverticulitis Diarrhea Irritable bowel syndrome or IBS Liver Viral hepatitis Nonviral hepatitis Hepatocarcinoma Metastatic tumor Jaundice Liver transplant Gallbladder Gallstones Cholecystitis Gallbladder cancer Endocrine disease Thyroid Thyroiditis Hashimoto thyroididtis, autoimmune thyroid disease Hypothyroidism Graves Disease Thyroid cancer Parathyroid disease Hyperparathyroidism Hypoparathyroidism Pituitary hormones Acromegaly Prolactinoma Pituitary tumours gigantism dwarfism Adrenal cortex Cushing's disease Conn's syndrome Adrenal failure Pancreas Pancreatitis Diabetes Carcinoma of pancreas Cystic fibrosis and the pancreas Obstetrics and Gynaecology Child birth Cesarean section Pre-eclampsia Amniocentesis Chorionic villus biopsy Home birth Premature labour Miscarriage Abortion Abruption Placenta praevia Hydatiform mole Renal Pyelonephritis Glomerulonephritis Polycystic kidney disease Renal carcinoma Renal failure Renal dialysis Test of renal function Kidney stones Urology and Andrology Rheumatology Neurology Cerebral palsy Mental retardation Psychiatry Dermatology Eczema Contact dermatitis Psoriasis Lichen simplex chronicus Seborrhoeic dermatitis Ring worm Tinea Vitiligo Baldness Lichen planus Viral warts Impetigo Seborrheic keratosis Oncology Ophthalmology Palliative care Surgical specialties Neurosurgery Ear nose and throat Ophthalmology Head and neck. Thoracic Abdominal and colo-rectal Orthopaedics Trauma surgery Plastic surgery Diagnostic specialities Radiology Nuclear Medicine Anatomical pathology Forensic Pathology Microbiology Haematology Biochemical pathology Immunology See also Academic health science centre External links Links to Health Professions Websites National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences The US National Library of Medicine | Outline_of_healthcare_science |@lemmatized health:23 science:18 group:1 discipline:2 applied:1 deal:1 human:2 animal:2 two:1 part:1 study:2 research:2 development:1 knowledge:2 application:2 improve:1 cure:1 disease:16 understand:1 function:2 build:1 primarily:1 basic:1 biology:2 chemistry:1 physic:2 well:1 social:1 example:1 medical:11 sociology:1 field:1 make:1 especially:1 significant:1 contribution:1 include:4 biochemistry:1 biotechnology:1 engineering:1 epidemiology:2 genetics:1 nursing:2 pharmacology:2 pharmacy:1 public:3 medicine:20 industry:2 multi:1 billion:1 dollar:1 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2,719 | Heinrich_Hertz | Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (February 22, 1857 – January 1, 1894) was a German physicist who clarified and expanded the electromagnetic theory of light that had been put forth by Maxwell. He was the first to satisfactorily demonstrate the existence of electromagnetic waves by building an apparatus to produce and detect VHF or UHF radio waves. Biography Early years Hertz was born in Hamburg, Germany, into a prosperous and cultured Hanseatic family. His father, Gustav Ferdinand Hertz, was a barrister and later a senator. His mother was the former Anna Elisabeth Pfefferkorn. He had three younger brothers and one younger sister. Koertge, Noretta. (2007). Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. 6, p. 340. While studying at the gymnasium of Hamburg, he showed an aptitude for sciences as well as languages, learning Arabic and Sanskrit. He studied sciences and engineering in the German cities of Dresden, Munich and Berlin, where he studied under Gustav R. Kirchhoff and Hermann von Helmholtz. In 1880, Hertz obtained his PhD from the University of Berlin; and remained for post-doctoral study under Helmholtz. In 1883, Hertz took a post as a lecturer in theoretical physics at the University of Kiel. In 1885, Hertz became a full professor at the University of Karlsruhe where he discovered electromagnetic waves. Meteorology Hertz always had a deep interest in meteorology probably derived from his contacts with Wilhelm von Bezold (who was Hertz's professor in a laboratory course at the Munich Polytechnic in the summer of 1878). Hertz, however, did not contribute much to the field himself except some early articles as an assistant to Helmholtz in Berlin, including research on the evaporation of liquids, a new kind of hygrometer, and a graphical means of determining the properties of moist air when subjected to adiabatic changes. Mulligan, J. F., and H. G. Hertz, "On the energy balance of the Earth," American Journal of Physics, Vol. 65, pp. 36-45. Contact mechanics Memorial of Heinrich Hertz on the campus of the University of Karlsruhe In 1881–1882, Hertz published two articles on what was to become known as the field of contact mechanics. Hertz is well known for his contributions to the field of electrodynamics (see below); however, most papers that look into the fundamental nature of contact cite his two papers as a source for some important ideas. Joseph Valentin Boussinesq published some critically important observations on Hertz's work, nevertheless establishing this work on contact mechanics to be of immense importance. His work basically summarises how two axi-symmetric objects placed in contact will behave under loading, he obtained results based upon the classical theory of elasticity and continuum mechanics. The most significant failure of his theory was the neglect of any nature of adhesion between the two solids, which proves to be important as the materials composing the solids start to assume high elasticity. It was natural to neglect adhesion in that age as there were no experimental methods of testing for it. To develop his theory Hertz used his observation of elliptical Newton's rings formed upon placing a glass sphere upon a lens as the basis of assuming that the pressure exerted by the sphere follows an elliptical distribution. He used the formation of Newton's rings again while validating his theory with experiments in calculating the displacement which the sphere has into the lens. K. L. Johnson, K. Kendall and A. D. Roberts (JKR) used this theory as a basis while calculating the theoretical displacement or indentation depth in the presence of adhesion in their landmark article "Surface energy and contact of elastic solids" published in 1971 in the Proceedings of the Royal Society (A324, 1558, 301-313). Hertz's theory is recovered from their formulation if the adhesion of the materials is assumed to be zero. Similar to this theory, however using different assumptions, B. V. Derjaguin, V. M. Muller and Y. P. Toporov published another theory in 1975, which came to be known as the DMT theory in the research community, which also recovered Hertz's formulations under the assumption of zero adhesion. This DMT theory proved to be rather premature and needed several revisions before it came to be accepted as another material contact theory in addition to the JKR theory. Both the DMT and the JKR theories form the basis of contact mechanics upon which all transition contact models are based and used in material parameter prediction in Nanoindentation and Atomic Force Microscopy. So Hertz's research from his days as a lecturer, preceding his great work on electromagnetism, which he himself considered with his characteristic soberness to be trivial, has come down to the age of nanotechnology. Electromagnetic research Hertz helped establish the photoelectric effect (which was later explained by Albert Einstein) when he noticed that a charged object loses its charge more readily when illuminated by ultraviolet light. In 1887, he made observations of the photoelectric effect and of the production and reception of electromagnetic (EM) waves, published in the journal Annalen der Physik. His receiver consisted of a coil with a spark gap, whereupon a spark would be seen upon detection of EM waves. He placed the apparatus in a darkened box to see the spark better. He observed that the maximum spark length was reduced when in the box. A glass panel placed between the source of EM waves and the receiver absorbed ultraviolet radiation that assisted the electrons in jumping across the gap. 1887 experimental setup of Hertz's apparatus. When removed, the spark length would increase. He observed no decrease in spark length when he substituted quartz for glass, as quartz does not absorb UV radiation. Hertz concluded his months of investigation and reported the results obtained. He did not further pursue investigation of this effect, nor did he make any attempt at explaining how the observed phenomenon was brought about. Earlier in 1886, Hertz developed the Hertz antenna receiver. This is a set of terminals that is not electrically grounded for its operation. He also developed a transmitting type of dipole antenna, which was a center-fed driven element for transmission UHF radio waves. These antennas are the simplest practical antennas from a theoretical point of view. In 1887, Hertz experimented with radio waves in his laboratory. These actions followed Michelson's 1881 experiment (precursor to the 1887 Michelson-Morley experiment) which did not detect the existence of aether drift, Hertz altered the Maxwell's equations to take this view into account for electromagnetism. Hertz used a Ruhmkorff coil-driven spark gap and one meter wire pair as a radiator. Capacity spheres were present at the ends for circuit resonance adjustments. His receiver, a precursor to the dipole antenna, was a simple half-wave dipole antenna for shortwaves. Theoretical results from the 1887 experiment. Through experimentation, he proved that transverse free space electromagnetic waves can travel over some distance. This had been predicted by James Clerk Maxwell and Michael Faraday. With his apparatus configuration, the electric and magnetic fields would radiate away from the wires as traverse waves. Hertz had positioned the oscillator about 12 meters from a zinc reflecting plate to produce standing waves. Each wave was about four meters. Using the ring detector, he recorded how the magnitude and wave's component direction vary. Hertz measured Maxwell's waves and demonstrated that the velocity of radio waves was equal to the velocity of light. The electric field intensity and polarity was also measured by Hertz. (Hertz, 1887, 1888). The Hertzian cone was first described by Hertz as a type of wave-front propagation through various media. His experiments expanded the field of electromagnetic transmission and his apparatus was developed further by others in the history of radio. Hertz also found that radio waves could be transmitted through different types of materials, and were reflected by others, leading in the distant future to radar. Hertz did not realize the practical importance of his experiments. He stated that, "It's of no use whatsoever[...] this is just an experiment that proves Maestro Maxwell was right - we just have these mysterious electromagnetic waves that we cannot see with the naked eye. But they are there." Institute of Chemistry, Hebrew University of Jerusalem: Hertz biography, digitized photographs Asked about the ramifications of his discoveries, Hertz replied, "Nothing, I guess." His discoveries would later be more fully understood by others and be part of the new "wireless age". In bulk, Hertz' experiments explain reflection, refraction, polarization, interference, and velocity of electric waves. In 1892, Hertz began experimenting and demonstrated that cathode rays could penetrate very thin metal foil (such as aluminium). Philipp Lenard, a student of Heinrich Hertz, further researched this "ray effect". He developed a version of the cathode tube and studied the penetration by X-rays of various materials. Philipp Lenard, though, did not realize that he was producing X-rays. Hermann von Helmholtz formulated mathematical equations for X-rays. He postulated a dispersion theory before Röntgen made his discovery and announcement. It was formed on the basis of the electromagnetic theory of light (Wiedmann's Annalen, Vol. XLVIII). However, he did not work with actual X-rays. Death at age 36 In 1892, an infection was diagnosed (after a bout of severe migraines) and Hertz underwent some operations to correct the illness. He died of Wegener's granulomatosis at the age of 36 in Bonn, Germany in 1894, and was buried in Ohlsdorf, Hamburg at the Jewish cemetery. For a photograph of his gravesite, see Hertz's wife, Elizabeth Hertz (maiden name: Elizabeth Doll), did not remarry. Heinrich Hertz left two daughters, Joanna and Mathilde. Subsequently, all three women left Germany in the 1930s to England, after the rise of Adolf Hitler. Charles Susskind interviewed Mathilde Hertz in the 1960s and he later published a book on Heinrich Hertz. Heinrich Hertz's daughters never married and he does not have any descendants, according to the book by Susskind. Legacy His nephew Gustav Ludwig Hertz was a Nobel Prize winner, and Gustav's son Carl Hellmuth Hertz invented medical ultrasonography. The SI unit hertz (Hz) was established in his honor by the IEC in 1930 for frequency, a measurement of the number of times that a repeated event occurs per unit of time (also called "cycles per sec" (cps)). It was adopted by the CGPM (Conférence générale des poids et mesures) in 1964. In 1969 (East Germany), there was cast a Heinrich Hertz memorial medal. The IEEE Heinrich Hertz Medal, established in 1987, is "for outstanding achievements in Hertzian waves [...] presented annually to an individual for achievements which are theoretical or experimental in nature". A crater that lies on the far side of the Moon, just behind the eastern limb, is named in his honor. The Hertz market for radioelectronics products in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia, is named after him. The Heinrich-Hertz-Turm radio telecommunication tower in Hamburg is named after the city's famous son. Nazi revisionism Although Hertz would not have considered himself Jewish, his "Jewish" portrait was removed by the Nazis from its prominent position of honor in Hamburg's City Hall (Rathaus) because of his partly "Jewish ancestry." Hertz was a Lutheran; and although his father’s family had been Jewish, his father had been converted to Catholicism before marrying. The painting has since been returned to public display.Robertson, Struan: Hertz biography Honors Hertz was honored by Japan with the Order of the Sacred Treasure. L'Harmattan: List of recipients of Japanese Order of the Sacred Treasure (in French) See also People Hans Christian Ørsted David Edward Hughes Reginald Aubrey Fessenden Guglielmo Marconi Gustav Ludwig Hertz Hermann von Helmholtz James Clerk Maxwell Nikola Tesla Wilhelm Röntgen Lists and histories Electromagnetism timeline Timeline of mechanics and physics List of physicists Radio history Wireless telegraphy List of people on stamps of Germany List of physics topics Electromagnetic radiation Dipole antenna Microwave Luminiferous aether Other University of Bonn University of Karlsruhe Radio Heinrich-Hertz-Turm German inventors and discoverers Notes References Hertz, H.R. "Ueber sehr schnelle electrische Schwingungen", Annalen der Physik, vol. 267, no. 7, p. 421-448, May 1887. (WILEY InterScience) Hertz, H.R. "Ueber einen Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die electrische Entladung", Annalen der Physik, vol. 267, no. 8, p. 983-1000, June, 1887. (WILEY InterScience) Hertz, H.R. "Ueber die Einwirkung einer geradlinigen electrischen Schwingung auf eine benachbarte Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, vol. 270, no. 5, p. 155-170, March, 1888. (WILEY InterScience) Hertz, H.R. "Ueber die Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der electrodynamischen Wirkungen", Annalen der Physik, vol. 270, no. 7, p. 551-569, May, 1888. (WILEY InterScience) Hertz, Heinrich Rudolph. (1893). Electric waves: being researches on the propagation of electric action with finite velocity through space (translated by David Evans Jones). Ithica, New York: Cornell University Library. 10-ISBN 1-429-74036-1; 13-ISBN 978-1-429-74036-4 IEEE ((Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Global History Network, IEEE History Center: "Heinrich Hertz" (retrieved 27 Jan 2007) Jenkins, John D. "The Discovery of Radio Waves - 1888; Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1847-1894)" (retrieved 27 Jan 2008) Koertge, Noretta. (2007). Dictionary of Scientific Biography. New York: Thomson-Gale. 10-ISBN 0-684-31320-0; 13-ISBN 978-0-684-31320-7 Naughton, Russell. "Heinrich Rudolph (alt: Rudolf) Hertz, Dr : 1857 - 1894" (retrieved 27 Jan 2008) Roberge, Pierre R. "Heinrich Rudolph Hertz, 1857-1894" (retrieved 27 Jan 2008) Robertson, Struan. "Buildings Integral to the Former Life and/or Persecution of Jews in Hamburg" (retrieved 27 Jan 2008) Robertson, Struan. "Heinrich Hertz, 1857-1894" (retrieved 27 Jan 2007) Further reading Appleyard, Rollo. (1930). Pioneers of Electrical Communication". London: Macmillan and Company. [reprinted by Ayer Company Publishers, Manchester, New Hampshire: 10-ISBN 0836-90156-8; 13-ISBN 978-0-836-90156-6 (cloth)] Baird, Davis, R.I.G. Hughes, and Alfred Nordmann, eds. (1998). 'Heinrich Hertz: Classical Physicist, Modern Philosopher. New York: Springer-Verlag. 10-ISBN 0-792-34653-X; 13-ISBN 978-0-792-34653-1 Bodanis, David. (2006). Electric Universe: How Electricity Switched on the Modern World. New York: Three Rivers Press. 10-ISBN 0-307-33598-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-307-33598-2 Buchwald, Jed Z. (1994). The Creation of Scientific Effects : Heinrich Hertz and Electric Waves. Chicago : University of Chicago Press. 10-ISBN 0-226-07887-6; 13-ISBN 978-0-226-07887-8 (cloth) 10-ISBN 0-226-07888-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-226-07888-5 (paper) Bryant, John H. (1988). Heinrich Hertz, the Beginning of Microwaves: Discovery of Electromagnetic Waves and Opening of the Electromagnetic Spectrum by Heinrich Hertz in the Years 1886-1892. New York : IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers). 10-ISBN 0-879-42710-8; 13-ISBN 978-0-879-42710-8 Lodge, Oliver Joseph. (1900). Signalling Across Space without Wires by Electric Waves: Being a Description of the work of Heinrich Hertz and his Successors. [reprinted by Arno Press, New York, 1974. 10-ISBN 0-405-06051-3 Maugis, Daniel. (2000). Contact, Adhesion and Rupture of Elastic Solids. New York: Springer-Verlag. 10-ISBN 3-540-66113-1; 13-ISBN 978-3-54066113-9] Susskind, Charles. (1995).Heinrich Hertz :a Short Life. San Francisco: San Francisco Press. 10-ISBN 0-911-30274-3; 13-ISBN 978-0-911-30274-5 External links Hertzian radiation - better known as radio waves: what it is and how it happens Encyclopedia Britannica'' (1911): Hertz biography Institute of Chemistry, Hebrew University of Jerusalem: Hertz biography, several digitized photographs | Heinrich_Hertz |@lemmatized heinrich:22 rudolf:3 hertz:76 february:1 january:1 german:3 physicist:3 clarify:1 expand:2 electromagnetic:12 theory:16 light:4 put:1 forth:1 maxwell:6 first:2 satisfactorily:1 demonstrate:3 existence:2 wave:27 build:1 apparatus:5 produce:3 detect:2 vhf:1 uhf:2 radio:11 biography:7 early:2 year:2 bear:1 hamburg:6 germany:5 prosperous:1 culture:1 hanseatic:1 family:2 father:3 gustav:5 ferdinand:1 barrister:1 later:4 senator:1 mother:1 former:2 anna:1 elisabeth:1 pfefferkorn:1 three:3 young:2 brother:1 one:2 sister:1 koertge:2 noretta:2 dictionary:2 scientific:3 vol:7 p:6 study:5 gymnasium:1 show:1 aptitude:1 science:2 well:4 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2,720 | Olga_of_Kiev | The monument in Kiev Saint Olga (, also called Olga Prekrasa (Ольга Прекраса), or Olga the Beauty, Old Norse: Helga; born c. 890 died July 11, 969, Kiev) was a ruler of Kievan Rus as regent (945-c. 963) for her son, Svyatoslav. Biography Olga was a Pskov woman of Varangian extraction who married the future Igor of Kiev, arguably in 903. The Primary Chronicle gives 879 as her date of birth, which is rather unlikely, given the fact that her only son was probably born some 65 years after that date. After Igor's death, she ruled Kievan Rus as regent (945-c. 963) for their son, Svyatoslav. At the start of her reign, Olga spent great effort to avenge her husband's death at the hands of the Drevlians, and succeeded in slaughtering many of them and interring some in a ship burial, while still alive. She is reputed to have scalded captives to death and another, probably apocryphal, story tells of how she destroyed a town hostile to her. She asked that each household present her with a dove as a gift, then tied burning papers to the legs of each dove which she then released to fly back to their homes. Each avian incendiary set fire to the thatched roof of their respective home and the town was destroyed. More importantly in the long term, Olga changed the system of tribute gathering (poliudie) in what may be regarded as the first legal reform recorded in Eastern Europe. She was the first Rus ruler to convert to Christianity, either in 945 or in 957. The ceremonies of her formal reception in Constantinople were minutely described by Emperor Constantine VII in his book De Ceremoniis. Following her baptism she took the Christian name Yelena, after the reigning Empress Helena Lekapena. The Slavonic chronicles add apocryphal details to the account of her baptism, such as the story how she charmed and "outwitted" Constantine and how she spurned his matrimonial proposals. In truth, at the time of her baptism, Olga was an old woman, while Constantine had a wife. Olga along with her escort in Constantinople, a miniature from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes. Seven Latin sources document Olga's embassy to Emperor Otto I in 959. The continuation of Regino of Prüm mentions that the envoys requested the Emperor to appoint a bishop and priests for their nation. The chronicler accuses the envoys of lies, commenting that their trick was not exposed until later. Thietmar of Merseburg says that the first archbishop of Magdeburg, Saint Adalbert of Magdeburg, before being promoted to this high rank, was sent by Emperor Otto to the country of the Rus (Rusciae) as a simple bishop but was expelled by pagan allies of Svyatoslav I. The same data is duplicated in the annals of Quedlinburg and Hildesheim, among others. Olga was one of the first people of Rus to be proclaimed a saint, for her efforts to spread the Christian religion in the country. Because of her proselytizing influence, the Orthodox Church calls St. Olga by the honorific Isapóstolos, "Equal to the Apostles". However, she failed to convert Svyatoslav, and it was left to her grandson and pupil Vladimir I to make Christianity the lasting state religion. During her son's prolonged military campaigns, she remained in charge of Kiev, residing in the castle of Vyshgorod together with her grandsons. She died soon after the city's siege by the Pechenegs in 969. extracts of the Primary Chronicle in English translation, University of Oregon Primary Sources - A collection of translated excerpts on Medieval Rus, University of Washington Faculty Web Server (November 6, 2004) See also List of Ukrainian rulers Rulers of Kievan Rus' List of Russian rulers References External links Olga of Kiev - OrthodoxWiki | Olga_of_Kiev |@lemmatized monument:1 kiev:5 saint:3 olga:12 also:2 call:2 prekrasa:1 ольга:1 прекраса:1 beauty:1 old:2 norse:1 helga:1 bear:2 c:3 die:2 july:1 ruler:5 kievan:3 ru:7 regent:2 son:4 svyatoslav:4 biography:1 pskov:1 woman:2 varangian:1 extraction:1 marry:1 future:1 igor:2 arguably:1 primary:3 chronicle:4 give:2 date:2 birth:1 rather:1 unlikely:1 fact:1 probably:2 year:1 death:3 rule:1 start:1 reign:2 spent:1 great:1 effort:2 avenge:1 husband:1 hand:1 drevlians:1 succeed:1 slaughter:1 many:1 inter:1 ship:1 burial:1 still:1 alive:1 repute:1 scald:1 captive:1 another:1 apocryphal:2 story:2 tell:1 destroy:2 town:2 hostile:1 ask:1 household:1 present:1 dove:2 gift:1 tie:1 burn:1 paper:1 leg:1 release:1 fly:1 back:1 home:2 avian:1 incendiary:1 set:1 fire:1 thatched:1 roof:1 respective:1 importantly:1 long:1 term:1 change:1 system:1 tribute:1 gathering:1 poliudie:1 may:1 regard:1 first:4 legal:1 reform:1 record:1 eastern:1 europe:1 convert:2 christianity:2 either:1 ceremony:1 formal:1 reception:1 constantinople:2 minutely:1 describe:1 emperor:4 constantine:3 vii:1 book:1 de:1 ceremoniis:1 follow:1 baptism:3 take:1 christian:2 name:1 yelena:1 empress:1 helena:1 lekapena:1 slavonic:1 add:1 detail:1 account:1 charm:1 outwit:1 spurn:1 matrimonial:1 proposal:1 truth:1 time:1 wife:1 along:1 escort:1 miniature:1 john:1 skylitzes:1 seven:1 latin:1 source:2 document:1 embassy:1 otto:2 continuation:1 regino:1 prüm:1 mention:1 envoy:2 request:1 appoint:1 bishop:2 priest:1 nation:1 chronicler:1 accuse:1 lie:1 comment:1 trick:1 expose:1 later:1 thietmar:1 merseburg:1 say:1 archbishop:1 magdeburg:2 adalbert:1 promote:1 high:1 rank:1 send:1 country:2 rusciae:1 simple:1 expel:1 pagan:1 ally:1 data:1 duplicate:1 annals:1 quedlinburg:1 hildesheim:1 among:1 others:1 one:1 people:1 proclaim:1 spread:1 religion:2 proselytizing:1 influence:1 orthodox:1 church:1 st:1 honorific:1 isapóstolos:1 equal:1 apostle:1 however:1 fail:1 leave:1 grandson:2 pupil:1 vladimir:1 make:1 lasting:1 state:1 prolong:1 military:1 campaign:1 remain:1 charge:1 reside:1 castle:1 vyshgorod:1 together:1 soon:1 city:1 siege:1 pechenegs:1 extract:1 english:1 translation:1 university:2 oregon:1 collection:1 translated:1 excerpt:1 medieval:1 washington:1 faculty:1 web:1 server:1 november:1 see:1 list:2 ukrainian:1 russian:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 orthodoxwiki:1 |@bigram kievan_ru:3 saint_adalbert:1 adalbert_magdeburg:1 external_link:1 |
2,721 | Nanomedicine | Nanomedicine is the medical application of nanotechnology. Nanomedicine, Volume I: Basic Capabilities, by Robert A. Freitas Jr. 1999, ISBN 157059645X The approaches to nanomedicine range from the medical use of nanomaterials, to nanoelectronic biosensors, and even possible future applications of molecular nanotechnology. Current problems for nanomedicine involve understanding the issues related to toxicity and environmental impact of nanoscale materials. Nanomedicine research is directly funded, with the US National Institutes of Health in 2005 funding a five-year plan to set up four nanomedicine centers. In April 2006, the journal Nature Materials estimated that 130 nanotech-based drugs and delivery systems were being developed worldwide. Overview Nanomedicine seeks to deliver a valuable set of research tools and clinically helpful devices in the near future. The National Nanotechnology Initiative expects new commercial applications in the pharmaceutical industry that may include advanced drug delivery systems, new therapies, and in vivo imaging. Nanotechnology in Medicine and the Biosciences, by Coombs RRH, Robinson DW. 1996, ISBN 2884490809 Neuro-electronic interfaces and other nanoelectronics-based sensors are another active goal of research. Further down the line, the speculative field of molecular nanotechnology believes that cell repair machines could revolutionize medicine and the medical field. Nanomedicine is a large industry, with nanomedicine sales reaching 6.8 billion dollars in 2004, and with over 200 companies and 38 products worldwide, a minimum of 3.8 billion dollars in nanotechnology R&D is being invested every year. Nanotechnology: A Gentle Introduction to the Next Big Idea, by MA Ratner, D Ratner. 2002, ISBN 0131014005 As the nanomedicine industry continues to grow, it is expected to have a significant impact on the economy. Medical use of nanomaterials Drug delivery Nanomedical approaches to drug delivery center on developing nanoscale particles or molecules to improve the bioavailability of a drug. Bioavailability refers to the presence of drug molecules where they are needed in the body and where they will do the most good. Drug delivery focuses on maximizing bioavailability both at specific places in the body and over a period of time. This will be achieved by molecular targeting by nanoengineered devices. It is all about targeting the molecules and delivering drugs with cell precision. More than $65 billion are wasted each year due to poor bioavailability. In vivo imaging is another area where tools and devices are being developed. Using nanoparticle contrast agents, images such as ultrasound and MRI have a favorable distribution and improved contrast. The new methods of nanoengineered materials that are being developed might be effective in treating illnesses and diseases such as cancer. What nanoscientists will be able to achieve in the future is beyond current imagination. This will be accomplished by self assembled biocompatible nanodevices that will detect, evaluate, treat and report to the clinical doctor automatically. Drug delivery systems, lipid- or polymer-based nanoparticles, can be designed to improve the pharmacological and therapeutic properties of drugs. The strength of drug delivery systems is their ability to alter the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of the drug. Nanoparticles have unusual properties that can be used to improve drug delivery. Where larger particles would have been cleared from the body, cells take up these nanoparticles because of their size. Complex drug delivery mechanisms are being developed, including the ability to get drugs through cell membranes and into cell cytoplasm. Efficiency is important because many diseases depend upon processes within the cell and can only be impeded by drugs that make their way into the cell. Triggered response is one way for drug molecules to be used more efficiently. Drugs are placed in the body and only activate on encountering a particular signal. For example, a drug with poor solubility will be replaced by a drug delivery system where both hydrophilic and hydrophobic environments exist, improving the solubility. Also, a drug may cause tissue damage, but with drug delivery, regulated drug release can eliminate the problem. If a drug is cleared too quickly from the body, this could force a patient to use high doses, but with drug delivery systems clearance can be reduced by altering the pharmacokinetics of the drug. Poor biodistribution is a problem that can affect normal tissues through widespread distribution, but the particulates from drug delivery systems lower the volume of distribution and reduce the effect on non-target tissue. Potential nanodrugs will work by very specific and well-understood mechanisms; one of the major impacts of nanotechnology and nanoscience will be in leading development of completely new drugs with more useful behavior and less side effects. Cancer A schematic illustration showing how nanoparticles or other cancer drugs might be used to treat cancer. The small size of nanoparticles endows them with properties that can be very useful in oncology, particularly in imaging. Quantum dots (nanoparticles with quantum confinement properties, such as size-tunable light emission), when used in conjunction with MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), can produce exceptional images of tumor sites. These nanoparticles are much brighter than organic dyes and only need one light source for excitation. This means that the use of fluorescent quantum dots could produce a higher contrast image and at a lower cost than today's organic dyes used as contrast media. The downside, however, is that quantum dots are usually made of quite toxic elements. Another nanoproperty, high surface area to volume ratio, allows many functional groups to be attached to a nanoparticle, which can seek out and bind to certain tumor cells. Additionally, the small size of nanoparticles (10 to 100 nanometers), allows them to preferentially accumulate at tumor sites (because tumors lack an effective lymphatic drainage system). A very exciting research question is how to make these imaging nanoparticles do more things for cancer. For instance, is it possible to manufacture multifunctional nanoparticles that would detect, image, and then proceed to treat a tumor? This question is under vigorous investigation; the answer to which could shape the future of cancer treatment. Nie, Shuming, Yun Xing, Gloria J. Kim, and Jonathan W. Simmons. "Nanotechnology Applications in Cancer." Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 9 A promising new cancer treatment that may one day replace radiation and chemotherapy is edging closer to human trials. Kanzius RF therapy attaches microscopic nanoparticles to cancer cells and then "cooks" tumors inside the body with radio waves that heat only the nanoparticles and the adjacent (cancerous) cells. Sensor test chips containing thousands of nanowires, able to detect proteins and other biomarkers left behind by cancer cells, could enable the detection and diagnosis of cancer in the early stages from a few drops of a patient's blood. The basic point to use drug delivery is based upon three facts: a) efficient encapsulation of the drugs, b) successful delivery of said drugs to the targeted region of the body, and c) successful release of that drug there. Researchers at Rice University under Prof. Jennifer West, have demonstrated the use of 120 nm diameter nanoshells coated with gold to kill cancer tumors in mice. The nanoshells can be targeted to bond to cancerous cells by conjugating antibodies or peptides to the nanoshell surface. By irradiating the area of the tumor with an infrared laser, which passes through flesh without heating it, the gold is heated sufficiently to cause death to the cancer cells. Additionally, John Kanzius has invented a radio machine which uses a combination of radio waves and carbon or gold nanoparticles to destroy cancer cells. Nanoparticles of cadmium selenide (quantum dots) glow when exposed to ultraviolet light. When injected, they seep into cancer tumors. The surgeon can see the glowing tumor, and use it as a guide for more accurate tumor removal. One scientist, University of Michigan’s James Baker, believes he has discovered a highly efficient and successful way of delivering cancer-treatment drugs that is less harmful to the surrounding body. Baker has developed a nanotechnology that can locate and then eliminate cancerous cells. He looks at a molecule called a dendrimer. This molecule has over one hundred hooks on it that allow it to attach to cells in the body for a variety of purposes. Baker then attaches folic-acid to a few of the hooks (folic-acid, being a vitamin, is received by cells in the body). Cancer cells have more vitamin receptors than normal cells, so Baker's vitamin-laden dendrimer will be absorbed by the cancer cell. To the rest of the hooks on the dendrimer, Baker places anti-cancer drugs that will be absorbed with the dendrimer into the cancer cell, thereby delivering the cancer drug to the cancer cell and nowhere else (Bullis 2006). In photodynamic therapy, a particle is placed within the body and is illuminated with light from the outside. The light gets absorbed by the particle and if the particle is metal, energy from the light will heat the particle and surrounding tissue. Light may also be used to produce high energy oxygen molecules which will chemically react with and destroy most organic molecules that are next to them (like tumors). This therapy is appealing for many reasons. It does not leave a “toxic trail” of reactive molecules throughout the body (chemotherapy) because it is directed where only the light is shined and the particles exist. Photodynamic therapy has potential for a noninvasive procedure for dealing with diseases, growths, and tumors. Surgery At Rice University, a flesh welder is used to fuse two pieces of chicken meat into a single piece. The two pieces of chicken are placed together touching. A greenish liquid containing gold-coated nanoshells is dribbled along the seam. An infrared laser is traced along the seam, causing the two sides to weld together. This could solve the difficulties and blood leaks caused when the surgeon tries to restitch the arteries he/she has cut during a kidney or heart transplant. The flesh welder could meld the artery into a perfect seal. Visualization Tracking movement can help determine how well drugs are being distributed or how substances are metabolized. It is difficult to track a small group of cells throughout the body so scientists used to dye the cells. These dyes needed to be excited by light of a certain wavelength in order for them to light up. While different color dyes absorb different frequencies of light, there was a need for as many light sources as cells. A way around this problem is with luminescent tags. These tags are quantum dots attached to proteins that penetrate cell membranes. The dots can be random in size, can be made of bio-inert material, and they demonstrate the nanoscale property that color is size-dependent. As a result, sizes are selected so that the frequency of light used to make a group of quantum dots fluoresce is an even multiple of the frequency required to make another group incandesce. Then both groups can be lit with a single light source. Nanoparticle targeting It is greatly observed that nanoparticles are promising tools for the advancement of drug delivery, medical imaging, and as diagnostic sensors. However, the biodistribution of these nanoparticles is mostly unknown due to the difficulty in targeting specific organs in the body. Current research in the excretory systems of mice, however, shows the ability of gold composites to selectively target certain organs based on their size and charge. These composites are encapsulated by a dendrimer and assigned a specific charge and size. Positively-charged gold nanoparticles were found to enter the kidneys while negatively-charged gold nanoparticles remained in the liver and spleen. It is suggested that the positive surface charge of the nanoparticle decreases the rate of osponization of nanoparticles in the liver, thus affecting the excretory pathway. Even at a relatively small size of 5 nm , though, these particles can become compartmentalized in the peripheral tissues, and will therefore accumulate in the body over time. While advancement of research proves that targeting and distribution can be augmented by nanoparticles, the dangers of nanotoxicity become an important next step in further understanding of their medical uses. Minchin, Rod. "Sizing up targets with nanoparticles". Nature nanotechnology: Vol 3, Pg 12-13. Nature Publishing Group: January 2008. Neuro-electronic interfaces Neuro-electronic interfaces are a visionary goal dealing with the construction of nanodevices that will permit computers to be joined and linked to the nervous system. This idea requires the building of a molecular structure that will permit control and detection of nerve impulses by an external computer. The computers will be able to interpret, register, and respond to signals the body gives off when it feels sensations. The demand for such structures is huge because many diseases involve the decay of the nervous system (ALS and multiple sclerosis). Also, many injuries and accidents may impair the nervous system resulting in dysfunctional systems and paraplegia. If computers could control the nervous system through neuro-electronic interface, problems that impair the system could be controlled so that effects of diseases and injuries could be overcome. Two considerations must be made when selecting the power source for such applications. They are refuelable and nonrefuelable strategies. A refuelable strategy implies energy is refilled continuously or periodically with external sonic, chemical, tethered, magnetic, or electrical sources. A nonrefuelable strategy implies that all power is drawn from internal energy storage which would stop when all energy is drained. One limitation to this innovation is the fact that electrical interference is a possibility. Electric fields, electromagnetic pulses (EMP), and stray fields from other in vivo electrical devices can all cause interference. Also, thick insulators are required to prevent electron leakage, and if high conductivity of the in vivo medium occurs there is a risk of sudden power loss and “shorting out.” Finally, thick wires are also needed to conduct substantial power levels without overheating. Little practical progress has been made even though research is happening. The wiring of the structure is extremely difficult because they must be positioned precisely in the nervous system so that it is able to monitor and respond to nervous signals. The structures that will provide the interface must also be compatible with the body’s immune system so that they will remain unaffected in the body for a long time. Nanomedicine, Volume IIA: Biocompatibility, by Robert A. Freitas Jr. 2003, ISBN 1570597006 In addition, the structures must also sense ionic currents and be able to cause currents to flow backward. While the potential for these structures is amazing, there is no timetable for when they will be available. Medical applications of molecular nanotechnology Molecular nanotechnology is a speculative subfield of nanotechnology regarding the possibility of engineering molecular assemblers, machines which could re-order matter at a molecular or atomic scale. Molecular nanotechnology is highly theoretical, seeking to anticipate what inventions nanotechnology might yield and to propose an agenda for future inquiry. The proposed elements of molecular nanotechnology, such as molecular assemblers and nanorobots are far beyond current capabilities. Nanorobots The somewhat speculative claims about the possibility of using nanorobots in medicine, advocates say, would totally change the world of medicine once it is realized. Nanomedicine would make use of these nanorobots (e.g., Computational Genes), introduced into the body, to repair or detect damages and infections. According to Robert Freitas of the Institute for Molecular Manufacturing, a typical blood borne medical nanorobot would be between 0.5-3 micrometres in size, because that is the maximum size possible due to capillary passage requirement. Carbon would be the primary element used to build these nanorobots due to the inherent strength and other characteristics of some forms of carbon (diamond/fullerene composites), and nanorobots would be fabricated in desktop nanofactories Nanofactory Collaboration specialized for this purpose. Nanodevices could be observed at work inside the body using MRI, especially if their components were manufactured using mostly 13C atoms rather than the natural 12C isotope of carbon, since 13C has a nonzero nuclear magnetic moment. Medical nanodevices would first be injected into a human body, and would then go to work in a specific organ or tissue mass. The doctor will monitor the progress, and make certain that the nanodevices have gotten to the correct target treatment region. The doctor will also be able to scan a section of the body, and actually see the nanodevices congregated neatly around their target (a tumor mass, etc.) so that he or she can be sure that the procedure was successful. Cell repair machines Using drugs and surgery, doctors can only encourage tissues to repair themselves. With molecular machines, there will be more direct repairs. Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology, by K.Eric Drexler. 1986, ISBN 0385199732 Cell repair will utilize the same tasks that living systems already prove possible. Access to cells is possible because biologists can stick needles into cells without killing them. Thus, molecular machines are capable of entering the cell. Also, all specific biochemical interactions show that molecular systems can recognize other molecules by touch, build or rebuild every molecule in a cell, and can disassemble damaged molecules. Finally, cells that replicate prove that molecular systems can assemble every system found in a cell. Therefore, since nature has demonstrated the basic operations needed to perform molecular-level cell repair, in the future, nanomachine based systems will be built that are able to enter cells, sense differences from healthy ones and make modifications to the structure. The possibilities of these cell repair machines are impressive. Comparable to the size of viruses or bacteria, their compact parts would allow them to be more complex. The early machines will be specialized. As they open and close cell membranes or travel through tissue and enter cells and viruses, machines will only be able to correct a single molecular disorder like DNA damage or enzyme deficiency. Later, cell repair machines will be programmed with more abilities with the help of advanced AI systems. Nanocomputers will be needed to guide these machines. These computers will direct machines to examine, take apart, and rebuild damaged molecular structures. Repair machines will be able to repair whole cells by working structure by structure. Then by working cell by cell and tissue by tissue, whole organs can be repaired. Finally, by working organ by organ, health is restored to the body. Cells damaged to the point of inactivity can be repaired because of the ability of molecular machines to build cells from scratch. Therefore, cell repair machines will free medicine from reliance on self repair. Nanonephrology Nanonephrology is a branch of nanomedicine and nanotechnology that deals with 1) the study of kidney protein structures at the atomic level; 2) nano-imaging approaches to study cellular processes in kidney cells; and 3) nano medical treatments that utilize nanoparticles and to treat various kidney diseases. The creation and use of materials and devices at the molecular and atomic levels that can be used for the diagnosis and therapy of renal diseases is also a part of Nanonephrology that will play a role in the management of patients with kidney disease in the future. Advances in Nanonephrology will be based on discoveries in the above areas that can provide nano-scale information on the cellular molecular machinery involved in normal kidney processes and in pathological states. By understanding the physical and chemical properties of proteins and other macromolecules at the atomic level in various cells in the kidney, novel therapeutic approaches can be designed to combat major renal diseases. The nano-scale artificial kidney is a goal that many physicians dream of. Nano-scale engineering advances will permit programmable and controllable nano-scale robots to execute curative and reconstructive procedures in the human kidney at the cellular and molecular levels. Designing nanostructures compatible with the kidney cells and that can safely operate in vivo is also a future goal. The ability to direct events in a controlled fashion at the cellular nano-level has the potential of significantly improving the lives of patients with kidney diseases. See also Nanobiotechnology Nanotechnology in fiction Top-down and bottom-up design Nanosensor Photodynamic therapy Impalefection Notes References Reviews in the journal Nanomedicine External links Nanomedicine journal Nanomedicine Lab Nanomedicine website The International Journal of Nanomedicine Journal of Biomedical Nanotechnology International Nanomedicine and Drug Delivery Symposium (NanoDDS) Nanomedicine Laboratory, University of London, UK Foresight Institute Nanomedicine Art Gallery General review of medical nanorobotics (non-technical) General review of nanomedicine (technical) Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine Forward Look Report on Nanomedicine published by the European Science Foundation Impact of Nanotechnology on Biomedical Sciences Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences Companies and institutions involved in Nanomedicine Institute for NanoBioTechnology at Johns Hopkins University Center for Drug Delivery and Nanomedicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, USA Nanobiomagnetics μFluids@Home (Distributed Computing Project) Biomicrofluidics, an open-source peer-reviewed journal published by the American Institute of Physics MicroSystems and BioMEMS Lab at University of Cincinnati,USA The Whitesides Research Group, Harvard University IGERT Nanomedicine, Northeastern University Lab-on-a-Chip Diagnostics, University of Texas at Austin Mathies Research Group, University of California, Berkeley Prof. Luke Lee's BioPOETS Group, University of California, Berkeley The Craighead Research Group at Cornell University The Penn State BioNEMS Group Birck Nanotechnology Centre at Purdue University, Indiana, USA The Roukes Research Group at Caltech Nanotechnology Center for Mechanics in Regenerative Medicine, Columbia University The Quake Research Group, Stanford University UCLA Microsystems Laboratories The Nano Engineering Lab at UC Berkeley The Nanotechnology drug delivery group at University of Strathclyde 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2,722 | Demographics_of_Mali | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Mali, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. A Bozo girl in Bamako Population structure Demographics of Mali, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. In July 2007, Mali's population was an estimated 12.0 million, with an annual growth rate of 2.7%. CIA world factbook. The population is predominantly rural (68% in 2002), and 5–10% of Malians are nomadic. More than 90% of the population lives in the southern part of the country, especially in Bamako, which has over 1 million residents. In 2007, about 48% of Malians were less than 15 years old, 49% were 15–64 years old, and 3% were 65 and older. The median age was 15.9 years. The birth rate in 2007 was 49.6 births per 1,000, and the total fertility rate was 7.4 children per woman. The death rate in 2007 was 16.5 deaths per 1,000. Life expectancy at birth was 49.5 years total (47.6 for males and 51.5 for females). Mali has one of the world's highest rates of infant mortality, with 106 deaths per 1,000 live births. Immigration and emigration Mali had an estimated net migration rate of –6.6 migrants per 1,000 people in 2006. CIA factbook About 3 million Malians are believed to reside in Côte d’Ivoire and France. Conversely, according to a 2003 estimate, Mali hosts about 11,000 Mauritanians; most are Fulani herders who routinely engage in cross-border migration. In addition, there are several thousand refugees from Côte d’Ivoire, Sierra Leone, and Liberia in Bamako and other urban areas of Mali. Health Mali's health and development indicators rank among the worst in the world. In 2000 only 62–65 percent of the population was estimated to have access to safe drinking water and only 69 percent to sanitation services of some kind; only 8 percent was estimated to have access to modern sanitation facilities. Only 20 percent of the nation’s villages and livestock watering holes had modern water facilities. There were an estimated 140,000 cases of human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) reported in 2003, and an estimated 1.9 percent of the adult population was afflicted with HIV/AIDS that year, among the lowest rates in Sub-Saharan Africa (see also HIV/AIDS in Africa). In the same year, there were 12,000 AIDS deaths. The infant mortality rate is 107.58 deaths/1,000 live births (117.32/1,000 among males and 97.54/1,000 among females) (2006 est.). Life expectancy at birth is 49 years (47.06 years among males and 51.01 years among females) (2006 est.). Ethnic groups Mali's population consists of diverse Sub-Saharan ethnic groups, sharing similar historic, cultural, and religious traditions. Exceptions are two nomadic northern groups, the Tuaregs, a Berber people, and Maurs (or Moors), of Arabo-Berber origins. The Tuaregs traditionally have opposed the central government. Starting in June 1990 in the north, Tuaregs seeking greater autonomy led to clashes with the military. In April 1992, the government and most opposing factions signed a pact to end the fighting and restore stability in the north. Its major aims are to allow greater autonomy to the north and increase government resource allocation to what has been a traditionally impoverished region. The peace agreement was celebrated in 1996 in Timbuktu during an official and highly publicized ceremony called "Flamme de la Paix"--(peace flame). Historically, interethnic relations throughout the rest of the country were facilitated by easy mobility on the Niger River and across the country's vast savannahs. Each ethnic group was traditionally tied to a specific occupation, all working within proximity to each other, although the distinctions were often blurred. The Bambara, Malinké, Sarakole, and Dogon and Songhay are farmers; the Fulani, Maur, and Tuareg are herders, while the Bozo are fishers. In recent years, this linkage has shifted considerably, as ethnic groups seek diverse, nontraditional sources of income. Ethnic groups: Mande 50% (Bambara, Malinke, Soninke), Peul 17%, Voltaic 12%, Songhai 6%, Tuareg and Moor 10%, other 5% Religion An estimated 90% of Malians are Muslim (mostly Sunni), 9% adhere to indigenous or traditional animist beliefs, and 1% are Christian (about two-thirds Roman Catholic and one-third Protestant). Atheism and agnosticism are believed to be rare among Malians, most of whom practice their religion on a daily basis. Islam as practiced in Mali is moderate, tolerant, and adapted to local conditions; relations between Muslims and practitioners of minority religious faiths are generally amicable. The constitution establishes a secular state and provides for freedom of religion, and the government largely respects this right. Languages Although each ethnic group speaks a separate language, nearly 80% of Malians communicate over ethnic borders in Bambara, which is the common language of the marketplace. French is the country's official language and is spoken somewhat by 30% of Malians. Education In the 2000–01 school year, the primary school enrollment rate was 61% (71% of males and 51% of females). The primary school completion rate is also low: only 36 percent of students in 2003 (and lower for females). The majority of students reportedly leave school by age 12. In the late 1990s, the secondary school enrollment rate was 15% percent (20% of males and 10% of females). Mali country profile. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (January 2005). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. According to United States government estimates, the adult literacy rate (defined as those over age 15 who can read and write) was 46.4 percent for the total population in 2003 (53.5 percent for males and 39.6 percent for females). According to United Nations sources, however, the literacy rate is actually much lower—only 27–30 percent overall and as low as 12 percent for females, among the lowest rates in Africa. 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2,723 | Linus_Torvalds | Linus Benedict Torvalds (; ; born December 28, 1969 in Helsinki, Finland) is a Finland-Swedish software engineer best known for having initiated the development of the Linux kernel. He later became the chief architect of the Linux kernel, and now acts as the project's coordinator. Biography Early years Linus Torvalds was born in Helsinki, Finland, the son of journalists Anna and Nils Torvalds, TORVALDS, 2001 and the grandson of poet Ole Torvalds. His family belongs to the Swedish-speaking minority (5.5%) of Finland's population. Torvalds was named after Linus Pauling, the American Nobel Prize-winning chemist, although in the book Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution, Torvalds is quoted as saying, "I think I was named equally for Linus the Peanuts cartoon character," noting that this makes him half "Nobel-prize-winning chemist" and half "blanket-carrying cartoon character". Both of his parents were campus radicals at the University of Helsinki in the 1960s. Torvalds attended the University of Helsinki from 1988 to 1996, graduating with a master's degree in computer science. His M.Sc. thesis was titled Linux: A Portable Operating System. His academic career was interrupted after completing his first year of study when he joined the Finnish Army, selecting the 11-month officer training program, thus fulfilling the mandatory military service of Finland. In the army he held the rank of second lieutenant, with the role of fire controller, calculating positions of guns, targets, and trajectories, finally telling the guns where to shoot. Torvalds, 2001, page 29 In 1990, he resumed his university studies, and was exposed to UNIX for the first time, in the form of a DEC MicroVAX running ULTRIX. Torvalds, 2001, page 53 In June 2000, the University of Helsinki issued Torvalds an honorary doctorate. Torvalds, 2001, page 28 His interest in computers began with a Commodore VIC-20. TORVALDS, 2001, pages 6-7 After the VIC-20 he purchased a Sinclair QL which he modified extensively, especially its operating system. He programmed an assembly language and a text editor for the QL, as well as a few games. TORVALDS, 2001, pages 41-46 He is known to have written a Pac-Man clone named Cool Man. On January 2, 1991 he purchased an Intel 80386-based IBM PC Torvalds, 2001, page 60 and spent a month playing the game Prince of Persia before receiving his MINIX copy which in turn enabled him to begin his work on Linux. Later years Linus Torvalds is married to Tove Torvalds (née Monni) — a six-time Finnish national karate champion — whom he first met in the autumn of 1993. TORVALDS, 2001, page 123 Torvalds was running introductory computer laboratory exercises for students and instructed the course attendants to send him an e-mail as a test, to which Tove responded with an e-mail asking for a date. Tove and Linus were later married and have three daughters, Patricia, Daniela, and Celeste. Torvalds' bio on nndb.com After a visit to Transmeta in late 1996, he accepted a position at the company in California, where he would work from February 1997 through June 2003. He then moved to the Open Source Development Labs, which has since merged with the Free Standards Group to become the Linux Foundation, under whose auspices he continues to work. In June 2004, Torvalds and his family moved to Portland, Oregon to be closer to the consortium's Beaverton, Oregon-based headquarters. From 1997 to 1999 he was involved in 86open helping to choose the standard binary format for Linux and Unix. Red Hat and VA Linux, both leading developers of Linux-based software, presented Torvalds with stock options in gratitude for his creation. In 1999, both companies went public and Torvalds' net worth shot up to roughly $20 million. Linus Torvalds: A Very Brief and Completely Unauthorized Biography His personal mascot is a penguin nicknamed Tux, which has been widely adopted by the Linux community as the mascot of the Linux kernel. Although Torvalds believes that "open source is the only right way to do software", he also has said that he uses the "best tool for the job", even if that includes proprietary software. Linus Torvalds at Google, on Git, 9:50-10:00 He has been criticized for his use and alleged advocacy of the proprietary BitKeeper software for version control in the Linux kernel. However, Torvalds has since written a free-software replacement for BitKeeper called Git. Torvalds has commented on official GNOME developmental mailing lists that, in terms of desktop environments, he encourages users to switch to KDE. Printing dialog and GNOME Linus versus GNOME However, Torvalds thinks KDE 4.0 was a "disaster" because of its lack of maturity, so he switched temporarily to GNOME. "it was a half-baked release (...) I'll revisit it when I reinstall the next machine"Q&A: Linux founder Linus Torvalds talks about open-source identity The Linus/Linux connection Initially Torvalds wanted to call the kernel he developed Freax (a combination of "free", "freak", and the letter X to indicate that it is a Unix-like system), but his friend Ari Lemmke, who administered the FTP server where the kernel was first hosted for downloading, named Torvalds' directory linux. Authority on Linux About 2% of the Linux kernel as of 2006 was written by Torvalds himself. Since Linux has had thousands of contributors, such a percentage represents a significant personal contribution to the overall amount of code. Torvalds remains the ultimate authority on what new code is incorporated into the standard Linux kernel. Henrik Ingo. Open Life: The Philosophy of Open Source. Ingram, 2005. 42-45. Online version Linux trademark Torvalds owns the "Linux" trademark, and monitors Linus Explains Linux Trademark Issues use of it chiefly through the Linux Mark Institute. Recognition In 1996 Asteroid 9793 Torvalds was named after Linus Torvalds. In 1998 he received an EFF Pioneer Award. Torvalds, Stallman, Simons Win 1998 Pioneer Awards In 1999 he received honorary doctor status at Stockholm University. The 1999 novel Cryptonomicon by Neal Stephenson features several characters who use "Finux", a Unix-like operating system developed in Finland. In 2000 he received honorary doctor status at University of Helsinki. In 2000 he was awarded the Lovelace Medal. Talking to Torvalds, British Computer Society, September 2007. In the Time magazine's Person of the Century Poll, Torvalds was voted at #17 at the poll's close in 2000. The Person of the Century Poll Results In 2001, he shared the Takeda Award for Social/Economic Well-Being with Richard Stallman and Ken Sakamura. The 2001 film Swordfish contains a Finnish character – the number one computer hacker in the world – named Axl Torvalds. In 2004, he was named one of the most influential people in the world by the Time magazine article "Linus Torvalds: The Free-Software Champion" by Lawrence Lessig, Time Magazine, posted Monday, Apr. 26, 2004, retrieved October 3, 2006. In the search for the 100 Greatest Finns of all time, voted in the summer of 2004, Torvalds placed 16th. In 2005 he appeared as one of "the best managers" in a survey by BusinessWeek. The Best & Worst Managers Of The Year In August 2005, Torvalds received the Vollum Award from Reed College. Linux creator Linus Torvalds honored with Reed College's Vollum Award In 2006, Business 2.0 magazine named him one of "10 people who don't matter" because the growth of Linux has shrunk Torvalds' individual impact. 10 people who don't matter In 2006, Time Magazine—Europe Edition named him one of the revolutionary heroes of the past 60 years. Linus Torvalds In 2008, he was inducted into the Hall of Fellows of the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California. See also Linus's Law Tanenbaum-Torvalds debate Revolution OS Just for Fun Notes References External links Linus' blog Torvalds's home page (quite outdated) Leader of the Free World - How Linus Torvalds became the benevolent dictator of Planet Linux, the biggest collaborative project in history (Wired News) The birth of Tux: Why Linus Torvalds chose a penguin as the Linux mascot What would you like to see most in minix?, thread begun by the first Usenet post by Linus Torvalds referencing his new project, followed by the advice and requests for features he received in those early weeks when Linux was first being planned Linus Torvalds and His Five Entrepreneurial Lessons Linux Journal - 1 March 1994 Linux Journal - 1 November 1999 Linus' mailing list activity | Linus_Torvalds |@lemmatized linus:23 benedict:1 torvalds:53 bear:2 december:1 helsinki:6 finland:6 swedish:2 software:7 engineer:1 best:4 know:2 initiate:1 development:2 linux:30 kernel:8 later:3 become:3 chief:1 architect:1 act:1 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2,724 | List_of_logarithmic_identities | In mathematics, there are several logarithmic identities. Algebraic identities Using simpler operations Logarithms can be used to make calculations easier. For example, two numbers can be multiplied just by using a logarithm table and adding. because because because because because because Euler's identity： Where , and are positive real numbers. If is positive, but is not, then . Canceling exponentials Logarithms and exponentials (antilogarithms) with the same base cancel each other. This is true because logarithms and exponentials are inverse operations (just like multiplication and division). because because Changing the base This identity is needed to evaluate logarithms on calculators. For instance, most calculators have buttons for ln and for log10, but not for log2. To find log2(3), you have to calculate log10(3) / log10(2) (or ln(3)/ln(2), which is the same thing). Proof Let . Then . Take on both sides: Simplify and solve for : Since , then This formula has several consequences: where is any permutation of the subscripts 1, ..., n. For example Changing the base (continued) Summation/subtraction The following summation/subtraction rule is especially useful in probability theory when one is dealing with a sum of log-probabilities: which gives the special cases: Note that in practice and have to be switched on the right hand side of the equations if . Also note that the subtraction identity is not defined if since the logarithm of zero is not defined. More generally: where . Trivial identities because because Note that is undefined because there is no number such that . In fact, there is a vertical asymptote on the graph of when . Calculus identities Limits The last limit is often summarized as "logarithms grow more slowly than any power or root of x". Derivatives of logarithmic functions Integral definition Integrals of logarithmic functions To remember higher integrals, it's convenient to define: Then, Approximating large numbers The identities of logarithms can be used to approximate large numbers. Note that logb(a) + logb(c) = logb(a*c), where a, b, and c are arbitrary constants. Suppose that one wants to approximate the 44th Mersenne prime, 232,582,657 - 1. To get the base-10 logarithm, we would multiply 32,582,657 by log10(2), getting 9,808,357.09543 = 9,808,357 + 0.09543. We can then get 109,808,357 * 100.09543 ≈ 1.25 * 109,808,357. Similarly, factorials can be approximated by summing the logarithms of the terms. Complex logarithm identities The complex logarithm is the complex number analogue of the logarithm function. No single valued function on the complex plane can satisfy the normal rules for logarithms. However a multivalued function can be defined which satisfies most of the identities. It is usual to consider this as a function defined on a Riemann surface. A single valued version called the principal value of the logarithm can be defined which is discontinuous on the negative x axis and equals the multivalued version on a single branch cut. Definitions The convention will be used here that a capital first letter is used for the principal value of functions and the lower case version refers to the multivalued function. The single valued version of definitions and identities is always given first followed by a separate section for the multiple valued versions. ln(r) is the standard natural logarithm of the real number r. Log(z) is the principal value of the complex logarithm function and has imaginary part in the range (-π, π]. Arg(z) is the principal value of the arg function, its value is restricted to (-π, π]. It can be computed using Arg(x+iy)= atan2(y, x). The multiple valued version of log(z) is a set but it is easier to write it without braces and using it in formulas follows obvious rules. log(z) is the set of complex numbers v which satisfy ev = z arg(z) is the set of possible values of the arg function applied to z. When k is any integer: Constants Principal value forms: Multiple value forms, for any k an integer: Summation Principal value forms: Multiple value forms: = Powers A complex power of a complex number can have many possible values. 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2,725 | Ostrich | The ostrich, Struthio camelus, is a large flightless bird native to Africa (and formerly the Middle East). It is the only living species of its family, Struthionidae, and its genus, Struthio. Ostriches share the order Struthioniformes with the Emu, kiwis, and other ratites. It is distinctive in its appearance, with a long neck and legs and the ability to run at speeds maximum of about 74 km/h (46 mph), the top land speed of any bird. Doherty (1974) The ostrich is the largest living species of bird and lays the largest egg of any bird species. The diet of the ostrich mainly consists of plant matter, though it also eats insects. It lives in nomadic groups which contain between five and 50 birds. When threatened, the ostrich will either hide itself by lying flat against the ground, or will run away. If cornered, it can cause injury and death with a kick from its powerful legs. Mating patterns differ by geographical region, but territorial males fight for a harem of two to seven females. The ostrich is farmed around the world, particularly for its feathers, which are decorative and are also used for feather dusters. Its skin is used for leather and its meat marketed commercially. Taxonomy The ostrich was originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th-century work, Systema Naturae under its current binomial name. Linnaeus (1758) Its scientific name is derived from Latin, struthio meaning ostrich and camelus meaning camel, alluding to its dry habitat. Gotch, A.F. (1995) The ostrich belongs to the Struthioniformes order of ratites. Other members include rheas, emu, cassowaries, and the largest bird ever, the now-extinct Elephant Bird (Aepyornis). However, the classification of the ratites as a single order has always been questioned, with the alternative classification restricting the Struthioniformes to the ostrich lineage and elevating the other groups. Presently, molecular evidence is equivocal while paleobiogeographical and paleontological considerations are slightly in favor of the multi-order arrangement. Subspecies Five subspecies are recognized: S. c. australis in Southern Africa, called the Southern Ostrich. It is found south of the Zambezi and Cunene rivers. It was once farmed for its feathers in the Little Karoo area of Cape Province. Scott (2006) S. c. camelus in North Africa, sometimes called the North African Ostrich or Red-necked Ostrich. It is the most widespread subspecies, ranging from Ethiopia and Sudan in the east throughout the Sahel and the Sudan Clements, J (2007) to Senegal and Mauritania in the west, and at least in earlier times north to Egypt and southern Morocco, respectively. It is the largest subspecies, at 2.74 m (9 ft) 154 kilograms (340 lb). Roots (2006) The neck is red, the plumage of males is black and white, and the plumage of females is grey. S. c. massaicus in East Africa, sometimes called the Masai Ostrich. It has some small feathers on its head, and its neck and thighs are bright orange. During the mating season, the male's neck and thighs become brighter. Their range is essentially limited to southern Kenya and eastern Tanzania and Ethiopia and parts of Southern Somalia. S. c. syriacus in the Middle East, sometimes called the Arabian Ostrich or Middle Eastern Ostrich, was a subspecies formerly very common in the Arabian Peninsula, Syria, and Iraq; it became extinct around 1966. S. c. molybdophanes in southern Ethiopia, northeastern Kenya, and Somalia, is called the Somali Ostrich. The neck and thighs are grey-blue, and during the mating season, the male's neck and thighs become bright blue. The females are more brown than those of other subspecies. It generally lives in pairs or alone, rather than in flocks. Its range overlaps with S. c. massaicus in northeastern Kenya. Struthio camelus mounted skull and neck. Analyses indicate that the Somali Ostrich may be better considered a full species, however, the consensus among experts has not agreed upon this move. The Tree of Life project, and Avibase does recognize it as a different species, but the IOC and Birdlife does not yet. As of 2008 Birdlife.com is reviewing the proposed split. Birdlife International mtDNA haplotype comparisons suggest that it diverged from the other ostriches not quite 4 mya due to formation of the Great Rift Valley. Subsequently, hybridization with the subspecies that evolved southwestwards of its range, S. c. massaicus, has apparently been prevented from occurring on a significant scale by ecological separation, the Somali Ostrich preferring bushland where it browses middle-height vegetation for food while the Masai Ostrich is, like the other subspecies, a grazing bird of the open savanna and miombo habitat. Freitag & Robinson (1993) The population from Río de Oro was once separated as Struthio camelus spatzi because its eggshell pores were shaped like a teardrop and not round, but as there is considerable variation of this character and there were no other differences between these birds and adjacent populations of S. c. camelus, it is no longer considered valid. Bezuidenhout (1999) This population disappeared in the later half of the 20th century. In addition, there have been 19th century reports of the existence of small ostriches in North Africa; these have been referred to as Levaillant's Ostrich (Struthio bidactylus) but remain a hypothetical form not supported by material evidence. Fuller, (2000) Given the persistence of savanna wildlife in a few mountainous regions of the Sahara (such as the Tagant Plateau and the Ennedi Plateau), it is not at all unlikely that ostriches too were able to persist in some numbers until recent times after the drying-up of the Sahara. Evolution Farmed birds Wild birds at the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa At Westcoast National Park, So. Africa The earliest fossil of ostrich-like birds is the Palaeotis living near the Asiatic steppes, Davies, S. J. J. F. (2003) from the Middle Eocene, a middle-sized flightless bird that was originally believed to be a bustard. Apart from this enigmatic bird, the fossil record of the ostriches continues with several species of the modern genus Struthio which are known from the Early Miocene onwards. While the relationship of the African species is comparatively straightforward, a large number of Asian species of ostrich have been described from very fragmentary remains, and their interrelationships and how they relate to the African ostriches is very confusing. In China, ostriches are known to have become extinct only around or even after the end of the last ice age; images of ostriches have been found there on prehistoric pottery and as petroglyphs. There are also records of ostriches being sighted out at sea in the Indian Ocean and when discovered on the island of Madagascar the sailors of the 18th century referred to them as Sea Ostriches, although this has never been confirmed. Several of these fossil forms are ichnotaxa (that is, classified according to the organism's footprints or other trace rather than its body) and their association with those described from distinctive bones is contentious and in need of revision pending more good material. Bibi et al. (2006) Struthio coppensi (Early Miocene of Elizabethfeld, Namibia) Struthio linxiaensis (Liushu Late Miocene of Yangwapuzijifang, China) Struthio orlovi (Late Miocene of Moldavia) Struthio karingarabensis (Late Miocene - Early Pliocene of SW and CE Africa) - oospecies(?) Struthio kakesiensis (Laetolil Early Pliocene of Laetoli, Tanzania) - oospecies Struthio wimani (Early Pliocene of China and Mongolia) Struthio daberasensis (Early - Middle Pliocene of Namibia) - oospecies Struthio brachydactylus (Pliocene of Ukraine) Struthio chersonensis (Pliocene of SE Europe to WC Asia) - oospecies Asian Ostrich, Struthio asiaticus (Early Pliocene - Late Pleistocene of Central Asia to China ?and Morocco) Struthio dmanisensis (Late Pliocene/Early Pleistocene of Dmanisi, Georgia) Struthio oldawayi (Early Pleistocene of Tanzania) - probably subspecies of S. camelus Struthio anderssoni - oospecies(?) Description Ostrich foot Ostriches usually weigh from , Gilman (1903) although some male ostriches have been recorded with weights of up to . The feathers of adult males are mostly black, with white at the ends of the wings and in the tail. Females and young males are greyish-brown and white. The head and neck of both male and female ostriches is nearly bare, but has a thin layer of down. Claws on the wings Their skin is variably colored dependent on the sub-species. The male tarsus has red horn plates, and the female's are black. The strong legs of the ostrich lack feathers. The bird has just two toes on each foot (most birds have four), with the nail of the larger, inner one resembling a hoof. The outer toe lacks a nail. Fleming (1822) This is an adaptation unique to ostriches that appears to aid in running. The wings are not used for flight, but are still large, with a wingspan of around two metres (over six feet), Donegan (2002) despite the absence of long flight feathers. The wings are used in mating displays, and they can also provide shade for chicks. The feathers, which are soft and fluffy, serve as insulation, and are quite different from the flat smooth outer feathers of flying birds (the feather barbs lack the tiny hooks which lock them together in other birds). They have 50-60 tail feathers, and their wings have 16 primary, four alular and 20-23 secondary feathers. The ostrich's sternum is flat, lacking the keel to which wing muscles attach in flying birds. Nell (2003) The beak is flat and broad, with a rounded tip. Like all ratites, the ostrich has no crop, Bels (2006) and it also lacks a gallbladder. Marshall (1960) They have three stomachs, and their caecae is . Unlike all other living birds, the ostrich secretes urine separately from feces. They also have unique pubic bones that are fused to hold their gut. The copulatory organ is retractable and long. Finally, their palate is different than other ratites, in that the sphenoid and palatal bones are unconnected. At sexual maturity (two to four years old), male ostriches can be between in height, while female ostriches range from . During the first year of life, chicks grow about per month. At one year of age, ostriches weigh around . An ostrich can live up to 75 years. A man kills Red-Necked ostriches in a 2nd-century Roman mosaic at Zliten on the Libyan coast. Distribution and habitat Ostriches formerly occupied Africa north and south of the Sahara, east Africa, Africa south of the rain forest belt, and much of Asia Minor. Today, ostriches prefer open land, and are native to savannas and the Sahel of Africa, both north and south of the equatorial forest zone. In southwest Africa they inhabit the semidesert or true desert. They rarely go above . The Arabian Ostriches in the Near and Middle East were hunted to extinction by the middle of the 20th century. Behavior Social and Seasonal Behavior Male and female ostriches "dancing". Ostriches normally spend the winter months in pairs or solitary. Only 16% of ostrich sightings were of more than two birds. During breeding season and sometimes during extreme rainless periods ostriches live in nomadic groups of five to 50 birds (led by a top hen) that often travel together with other grazing animals, such as zebras or antelopes. Ostriches are diurnal, but may be active on moonlit nights. They are most active early and late in the day. With their acute eyesight and hearing, ostriches can sense predators such as lions from far away. When being pursued by a predator, they have been known to reach speeds in excess of 70 km/h (45 mph), and can maintain a steady speed of 50 km/h (30 mph), which makes the ostrich the world's fastest two-legged animal. Mountain View Conservation and Breding Centre When lying down and hiding from predators, the birds lay their heads and necks flat on the ground, making them appear as a mound of earth from a distance. This even works for the males, as they hold their wings and tail low so that the heat haze of the hot, dry air that often occurs in their habitat aids in making them appear as a nondescript dark lump. Contrary to popular belief, ostriches do not bury their heads in the sand. The Canadian Museum of Nature Karl Kruszelnicki, Ostrich Head in Sand, ABC Science: In Depth When threatened, ostriches run away, but they can cause serious injury and death with kicks from their powerful legs. Their legs can only kick forward. Halcombe (1872) Feeding They mainly feed on seeds, shrubs, grass, and other plant matter; occasionally they also eat insects such as locusts. Lacking teeth, they swallow pebbles that help as gastroliths to grind the swallowed food in the gizzard. An adult ostrich typically carries about 1 kg of stones in its stomach. Ostriches can go without water for several days, living off the moisture in the ingested plants. Maclean(1996) However, they enjoy water and frequently take baths where it is available. Ostriches are known to eat almost anything (dietary indiscretion), particularly in captivity where opportunity is increased. Thermographic image of two ostriches in winter showing high heat retention in the body. Ostriches can tolerate a wide range of temperatures. In much of its habitat, temperature differences of 40°C between night- and daytime can be encountered. Their temperature control mechanism is more complex than in other birds and mammals, utilizing the naked skin of the upper legs and flanks which can be covered by the wing feathers or bared according to whether the bird wants to retain or lose body heat. Reproduction An ostrich's nest Ostriches become sexually mature when they are 2 to 4 years old; females mature about six months earlier than males. The species is iteroparous, with the mating season beginning in March or April and ending sometime before September. The mating process differs in different geographical regions. Territorial males will typically use hisses and other sounds to fight for a harem of two to seven females (which are called hens). The winner of these fights will breed with all the females in an area, but will only form a pair bond with the dominant female. The female crouches on the ground and is mounted from behind by the male. The cock will attract hens by performing with his wings, alternating wing beats, until he attracts a mate. They will go to the mating area and he will maintain privacy by driving away all intruders. They graze until their behavior is synchronized, then the feeding becomes secondary and the process takes on a ritualistic appearance. The cock will then excitedly flap alternate wings again, and start poking on the ground with his bill. He will then violently flap his wings to symbolically clear out a nest in the dirt. Then, while the hen runs circle around him with lowered wings, he will wind his head in a spiral motion. She will drop to the ground and he will mount for copulation. An ostrich egg. Ostriches are oviparous. The females will lay their fertilized eggs in a single communal nest, a simple pit, deep and wide, Harrison, C. (1993) scraped in the ground by the male. The first female to lay her eggs will be the dominant female, and when time comes to incubate, she will discard extra eggs of the weaker females, leaving behind about 20. Ostrich eggs are the largest of all eggs (and by extension, the yolk is the largest single cell), though they are actually the smallest eggs relative to the size of the bird Trails.com . The nest may contain 15 to 60 eggs, which are, on average, long, wide, and weigh . They are glossy and cream in color, with thick shells marked by small pits. The eggs are incubated by the females by day and by the male by night. Gilman This uses the coloration of the two sexes to escape detection of the nest, as the drab female blends in with the sand, while the black male is nearly undetectable in the night. The incubation period is 35 to 45 days. Typically, the male will defend the hatchlings, and teach them how and on what to feed. The survival rate is low for the eggs with an average of one per nest surviving. Predators are hyenas, jackals, and vultures. The life span of an ostrich is from 30 to 70 years, with 50 being typical. Ostriches reared entirely by humans may not learn to direct their courtship behaviour at other ostriches, but instead may do so at their human keepers. BBC News (2003) Ostriches and people History Ostriches have inspired cultures and civilizations for 5,000 years in Mesopotamia and Egypt.The Kalahari still use their eggs as water jugs. Hunting and farming Hat decorated with ostrich plumes. In Roman times, there was a demand for ostriches to use in venatio games or cooking. They have been hunted and farmed for their feathers, which at various times in history have been very popular for ornamentation in fashionable clothing (such as hats during the 19th century). Their skins were also valued to make goods out of leather. In the 18th century, they were almost hunted to extinction; farming for feathers began in the 19th century. The market for feathers collapsed after World War I, but commercial farming for feathers and later for skins, became widespread during the 1970s. Ostriches are farmed in over 50 countries, including climates as cold as that of Sweden and Finland, though the majority are in Southern Africa. They will prosper in climates between 30 and −30 °C. Since they also have the best feed to weight gain ratio of any land animal in the world (3.5:1 whereas that of cattle is 6:1), they are attractive economically to raise for meat or other uses. Although they are farmed primarily for leather and secondarily for meat, additional by-products are the eggs, offal, and feathers. Ostrich eggs can be used in a similar fashion to chicken eggs, with the average size ratio being 16 chicken eggs:1 ostrich egg. Male and female ostriches on a farm in New Zealand. It is claimed that ostriches produce the strongest commercially available leather. Best (2003) Ostrich meat tastes similar to lean beef and is low in fat and cholesterol, as well as high in calcium, protein and iron. Clark Uncooked, it is a dark red or cherry red color, a little darker than beef. The town of Oudtshoorn in South Africa has the world's largest population of ostriches. Farms and specialized breeding centres have been set up around the town such as the Safari Show Farm and the Highgate Ostrich Show Farm. The CP Nel Museum is a museum that specializes in the history of the ostrich. Ostrich racing Ostrich pulling a cart for racing. Ostriches are large enough for a small person to ride them, typically while holding on to the wings for grip, and in some areas of northern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula ostriches are trained as racing mounts. There is little possibility of the practice becoming more widespread, due to the irascible temperament and the difficulties encountered in saddling the birds. Ostrich races in the United States have been criticized by animal rights organizations. Ostrich feather dusters The original South African ostrich feather dusters were invented in Johannesburg, South Africa by missionary and broom factory manager Harry S. Beckner in 1903. Feather duster Ostrich feather dusters were wound on broom handles using a foot powered kick winder and the same wire used to attach broom straw, then sorted for quality, color and length before being wound in three layers to the handle. The first layer was wound with the feathers curving inward to hide the head of the handle. The second two layers were wound curving outward to give it a full figure and its trademark flower shape. The first ostrich feather duster company in the United States was formed in 1913 by Harry S. Beckner and his brother George Beckner in Athol, Massachusetts, and has survived till this day as the Beckner Feather Duster Company under the care of George Beckner's great granddaughter, Margret Fish Rempher. Today the largest manufacturer of ostrich feather dusters is Texas Feathers (TxF) in Arlington, Texas. Apprentices still use the manual kick winder to learn the trade of building the hand crafted ostrich feather duster. However, to speed up the manufacturing process, factories now allow craftsmen to use electric powered winders to build the duster. The ostrich feather is durable, soft and flexible, which accounts for the success of the ostrich feather duster over the last 100 years. Because the feather does not zipper together it is prone to developing a static charge which actually attracts and holds dust which can then be shaken out or washed off. Because of its similar makeup to human hair, care of the ostrich feather requires only an occasional shampoo and towel or air dry. The farming of ostriches for their feathers does not harm the bird. During molting season the birds are gathered in a pen, burlap sacks are placed over their heads so they will remain calm and trained pickers pluck the loose molting feathers from the birds. The birds are then released unharmed back onto the farm. Conservation The ostrich population has declined drastically in the last 200 years. Most surviving birds are in game parks or on farms. They are given a conservation status of Least Concern, IUCN 2009 with an occurrence range of . BirdLife International (2008)(a) Footnotes References BBC News 2003-09-05 Ostriches "Flirt With Farmers" Retrieved on 16 May 2007 "Confused ostriches raised on farms are falling for their keepers, according to a researcher!" BDOA, (British Domesticated Ostrich Association) Bezuidenhout, Cornelius Carlos (1999) Studies of the population structure and genetic diversity of domesticated and ‘wild’ ostriches (Struthio camelus). PhD thesis . Bels, Vincent L. (2006). Feeding in Domestic Vertebrates: From Structure to Behaviour. CABI Publishing, 136. ISBN 1845930630. Best, Brendan (2003). Ostrich Facts. The New Zealand Ostrich Association. Downloaded 2007-10-17. Bibi, Faysal; Shabel, Alan B.; Kraatz, Brian P. & Stidham, Thomas A. (2006): New Fossil Ratite (Aves: Palaeognathae) Eggshell. Discoveries from the Late Miocene Baynunah Formation of the United Arab Emirates, Arabian Peninsula. Palaeontologia Electronica 9 (1): 2A. PDF fulltext Birdlife International Database entry includes justification for why this species is of least concern Canadian Museum of Nature, The Clark, Bob. Ostrich Meat: Cooking Tips Canadian Ostrich Association. Downloaded 2007-10-17. Cooper, JC (1992). Symbolic and Mythological Animals. Aquarian Press, 170-71. ISBN 1-85538-118-4. Doherty, James G. (1974) Natural History Magazine, March 1974. The American Museum of Natural History; The Wildlife Conservation Society. Donegan, K (2002). Struthio camelus. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Downloaded 2007-10-17. Equi-Analyticial Laboritories, "As Sampled (Fed) vs Dry Matter" Fleming, John (1822). The Philosophy of Zoology. The University of California, 258. Freitag, Stefanie & Robinson, Terence J. (1993): Phylogeographic patterns in mitochondrial DNA of the ostrich (Struthio camelus). Auk 110: 614 – 622. PDF fulltext. Folch, A. (1992). Family Struthionidae (Ostrich). Pp. 76-83 in; del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol 1, Ostrich to Ducks. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. ISBN 8487334091 Fuller, Errol (2000): Extinct Birds (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York. ISBN 0-19-850837-9. Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T. & Colby, F. M. (1903). The New International Encyclopædia. Dodd, Mead and Company, 497. Halcombe, John Joseph (1872). Mission life, ed. by J.J. Halcombe. Oxford University, 304. Holle and Benson, Index for various ostrich studies and papers Linnaeus, C (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii)., 155. "S. pedibus didactylis". Maclean, Gordon Lindsay (1996). Ecophysiology of Desert Birds. Springer, 26. IBSN 3540592695 O'Shea, Michael Vincent; Foster, Ellsworth D.& Locke, George Herbert (1918). The World Book: Organized Knowledge in Story and Picture. Hanson-Roach-Fowler, 4423. Marshall, Alan John (1960). Biology and Comparative Physiology of Birds. Academic Press, 446. Mountain View Conservation and Breeding Centre Nell, Leon (2003). The Garden Route and Little Karoo. New Holland Publishers, 164. ISBN 1868728560. Roots, Clive (2006). Flightless Birds. Greenwood Press, 26. ISBN 0313335451. Scott, Thomas A. (1996). Concise Encyclopedia Biology. Walter de Gruyter, 1149. ISBN 3110106612. Trails.com USDA & NRCS, Dry Matter Determination World Ostrich Association, Benchmark Production Targets Zoological Society of San Diego (2007). Ostrich. San Diego Zoo. Downloaded 2007-10-17. External links Dacho World: American Icon in Southeast Asia, Ostrich Farmer Extraordinaire Bird Families of the World Ostrich nutritional info. 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2,726 | Grand_Guignol | Promotional poster for a Grand Guignol performance The Grand Guignol (pronounced ) was a theatre (Le Théâtre du Grand-Guignol) in the Pigalle area of Paris (at 20 bis, rue Chaptal), which, from its opening in 1897 until its closing in 1962, specialized in naturalistic horror shows. The name is often used as a general term for graphic, amoral horror entertainment. Theatre Oscar Méténier Le Théâtre du Grand-Guignol was founded in 1894 by Oscar Méténier, who planned it as a space for naturalist performance. With 293 seats, the venue was the smallest in Paris. A former chapel, the theater's previous life was evident in the boxes — which looked like confessionals — and in the angels over the orchestra. The theater owed its name to Guignol, a traditional Lyonnaise puppet character, joining political commentary with the style of Punch and Judy. The theater's peak was between World War I and World War II when it was frequented by royalty and celebrities in evening dress. Important people Oscar Méténier was the Grand Guignol's founder and original director. Under his direction, the theater produced plays about a class of people who were not considered appropriate subjects in other venues: prostitutes, criminals, street urchins and others at the lower end of Paris' social echelon. Max Maurey served as director from 1898 to 1914. Maurey shifted the theater's emphasis to the horror plays it would become famous for and judged the success of a performance by the number of patrons who passed out from shock; the average was two faintings each evening. Maurey discovered André de Lorde, who was to be the most important playwright for the theatre. André de Lorde was the theater's principal playwright from 1901 to 1926. He wrote at least 100 plays for the Grand Guignol and collaborated with experimental psychologist Alfred Binet to create plays about insanity, one of the theater's frequently recurring themes. Camille Choisy served as director from 1914 to 1930. He contributed his expertise in special effects and scenery to the theater's distinctive style. Paula Maxa was one of the Grand Guignol's best-known performers. From 1917 to the 1930s, she performed most frequently as a victim and was known as "the most assassinated woman in the world." During her career at the Grand Guignol, Maxa was murdered more than 10,000 times in at least 60 different ways and was raped at least 3,000 times. Jack Jouvin served as director from 1930 to 1937. He shifted the theater's subject matter, focusing performances not on gory horror but psychological drama. Under his leadership the theater's popularity waned; and after World War II, it was not well-attended. Charles Nonon was the theater's last director. Plays At the Grand Guignol, patrons would see five or six plays, all in a style which attempted to be brutally true to the theatre's naturalistic ideals. The plays were in a variety of styles, but the most popular and best-known were the horror plays, featuring a distinctly bleak worldview as well as particularly gory special effects in their notoriously bloody climaxes. These plays often explored the altered states, like insanity, hypnosis, panic, under which uncontrolled horror could happen. Some of the horror came from the nature of the crimes shown, which often had very little reason behind them and in which the evildoers were rarely punished or defeated. To heighten the effect, the horror plays were often alternated with comedies. Le Laboratoire des Hallucinations, by André de Lorde: When a doctor finds his wife's lover in his operating room, he performs a graphic brain surgery rendering the adulterer a hallucinating semi-zombie. Now insane, the lover/patient hammers a chisel into the doctor's brain. Un Crime dans une Maison de Fous, by André de Lorde: Two hags in an insane asylum use scissors to blind a young, pretty fellow inmate out of jealousy. L'Horrible Passion, by André de Lorde: A nanny strangles the children in her care. Theatre closing Audiences waned in the years following World War II, and the Grand Guignol closed its doors in 1962. Management attributed the closure in part to the fact that the theater's faux horrors had been eclipsed by the actual events of the Holocaust two decades earlier. "We could never equal Buchenwald," said its final director, Charles Nonon. "Before the war, everyone felt that what was happening onstage was impossible. Now we know that these things, and worse, are possible in reality." Legacy Grand Guignol flourished briefly in London in the early 1920s under the direction of Jose Levy, and a series of short English "Grand Guignol" films (using original screenplays, not play adaptations) was made at the same time, directed by Fred Paul. Several of the films exist at the BFI National Archive. In recent years English director writer, Richard Mazda, has re-introduced New York audiences to The Grand Guignol. His acting troupe, The Queens Players have produced 6 mainstage productions of Grand Guignol plays and Mazda is writing new plays in the classic Guignol style. The sixth production, Theatre of Fear, included De Lorde's famous adaptation of Poe's The System as well as two original plays, Double Crossed and The Good Death alongside The Tell Tale Heart. The 1963 mondo film Ecco includes a scene which may have been filmed at the Grand Guignol theatre during its final years. Washington, D.C.-based Molotov Theatre Group, established in 2007, is dedicated to preserving and exploring the aesthetic of the Grand Guignol. They have entered two plays into the Capital Fringe Festival in Washington, D.C.. Their 2007 show, For Boston, won "Best Comedy," and their second show, The Sticking Place, won "Best Overall" in 2008. The Japanese music group ALI Project created the song "Gesshoku Grand Guignol", while British rock band Duels also named an instrumental track after the theater. Further reading Gordon, Mel. The Grand Guignol: Theatre of Fear and Terror. Da Capo Press, 1997. Hand, Richard, and Michael Wilson. Grand-Guignol: The French Theatre of Horror. University of Exeter Press, 2002. Footnotes External links Grand Guignol Online - Grand Guignol history, plays, posters, video, articles, and forums (in English). 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2,727 | Charles_Tupper | Sir Charles Tupper, 1st Baronet, GCMG, CB, PC (July 2, 1821 – October 30, 1915) was a Canadian father of Confederation: as the Premier of Nova Scotia from 1864 to 1867, he led Nova Scotia into Confederation. He later went on to serve as the sixth Prime Minister of Canada in 1896, becoming the Canadian prime minister with the shortest term of office (69 days). As he took office after the House of Commons was dissolved, his government was the only one that did not face a Parliament. Background and early years, 1821-1855 Tupper was born in Amherst, Nova Scotia to Charles Tupper, Sr. and Miriam Lowe Lockhart. His father was the co-pastor of the local Baptist church. Beginning in 1837, at age 16, Tupper attended the Horton Academy in Wolfville, Nova Scotia, where he learned Latin, Greek, and some French. After graduating in 1839, he spent some time in New Brunswick working as a teacher, before moving to Windsor, Nova Scotia to spend 1839-40 studying medicine with Dr. Ebenezer Fitch Harding. Borrowing money, he then moved to Scotland to study at the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh at the University of Edinburgh: he received his MD in 1843. During his time in Edinburgh, Tupper's commitment to his Baptist faith faltered, and he drank Scotch whisky for the first time. Returning to Nova Scotia, in 1846, he broke off an engagement that he had contracted with the daughter of a wealthy Halifax merchant when he was 17 years old and instead married Frances Morse (1826-1912), the granddaughter of Col. Joseph Morse, one of the founders of Amherst, Nova Scotia. The Tuppers had three sons (Orin Stewart, Charles Hibbert, and William Johnston) and three daughters (Emma, Elizabeth Stewart (Lilly), and Sophy Almon). The Tupper children were raised in Frances' Anglican denomination and John and Frances regularly worshipped in an Anglican church, though on the campaign trail, Tupper often found time to visit Baptist meetinghouses. Tupper set himself up as a physician in Amherst, Nova Scotia and opened a drugstore. Early years in Nova Scotia politics, 1855-1864 The leader of the Conservative Party of Nova Scotia, James William Johnston, a fellow Baptist and family friend of the Tuppers, encouraged Charles Tupper to enter politics. As such, in 1855, Tupper ran against the prominent Liberal politician Joseph Howe for the Cumberland County seat in the Nova Scotia House of Assembly. Joseph Howe would be a frequent political opponent of Tupper in the years to come. Although Tupper won his seat, the 1855 election was an overall disaster for the Nova Scotia Conservatives, with the Liberals, led by William Young, winning a large majority. Young consequently became Premier of Nova Scotia. At a caucus meeting in January 1856, Tupper recommended a new direction for the Conservative party: they should begin actively courting Nova Scotia's Roman Catholic minority and should eagerly embrace railroad construction. Having just led his party into a disastrous election campaign, Johnston decided to basically cede control of the party to Tupper, though Johnston remained the party's leader. In the course of 1856, Tupper led Conservative attacks on the government, leading to Joseph Howe dubbing Tupper "the wicked wasp of Cumberland." In early 1857, Tupper succeeded in convincing a number of Roman Catholic Liberal members to cross the floor to join the Conservatives, reducing Young's government to the status of a minority government. As a result, Young was forced to resign in February 1857, and the Conservatives formed a government with Johnston as premier. Tupper became the provincial secretary. In Tupper's first speech to the House of Assembly as provincial secretary, he set forth an ambitious plan of railroad construction. Thus, Tupper had embarked on the major theme of his political life: that Nova Scotians (and later Canadians) should downplay their ethnic and religious differences, and instead focus on developing the land's natural resources. He argued that with Nova Scotia's "inexhaustible mines", it could become "a vast manufacturing mart" for the east coast of North America. He quickly persuaded Johnston to end the General Mining Association's monopoly over Nova Scotia minerals. In June 1857, Tupper initiated discussions with New Brunswick and the Province of Canada about an intercolonial railway. He traveled to London in 1858 to attempt to secure imperial backing for this project. During these discussions, Tupper found that the Canadians were more interested in discussing federal union, while the British (with the earl of Derby in his second term as prime minister) were too absorbed in their own immediate interests. As such, nothing came of the 1858 discussions for an intercolonial railway. An election was held in May 1859, with sectarian conflict playing a large role, with the Catholics largely supporting the Conservatives and the Protestants now shifting towards the Liberals. Tupper barely managed to retain his seat. The Conservatives were barely re-elected and lost a confidence vote later that year. Johnston asked the Governor of Nova Scotia, Lord Mulgrave, for a dissolution, but Mulgrave refused and invited William Young to form a government. Tupper was outraged and petitioned the British government, asking them to recall Mulgrave. For the next three years, Tupper was ferocious in his denunciations of the Liberal government, first Young, and then Joseph Howe, who took over from Young later in 1860. This came to a head in 1863 when the Liberals introduced legislation to restrict the Nova Scotia franchise, a move which Johnston and Tupper successfully blocked. Tupper continued practicing medicine throughout this period. He established a successful medical practice in Halifax, rising to become the city medical officer. In 1863, he was elected president of the Medical Society of Nova Scotia. In the June 1863 election, the Conservatives campaigned on a platform of railroad construction and expanded access to public education. The Conservatives won a huge majority, with 44 of the House of Assembly's 55 seats. Johnston resumed his duties as premier and Tupper again became provincial secretary. As a further sign of the Conservatives' commitment to non-sectarianism, in 1863, after a 20-year hiatus, Dalhousie College was re-opened as a non-denominational institution of higher learning. In May 1864, Johnston retired from politics, accepting an appointment as a judge, and Tupper was chosen as his successor as premier of Nova Scotia. Premier of Nova Scotia, 1864-1867 Hon. Charles Tupper. Tupper introduced ambitious education legislation in 1864 creating a system of state-subsidized common schools. The next year, he introduced a bill providing for compulsory local taxation to fund these schools. Although these public schools were non-denominational (which resulted in Protestants sharply criticizing Tupper), they did include a program of Christian education. However, many Protestants, particularly fellow Baptists, felt that Tupper had sold them out. In an attempt to regain their trust, he appointed Baptist educator Theodore Harding Rand as Nova Scotia's first superintendent of education. This in turn aroused concern among Catholics, led by Archbishop Thomas-Louis Connolly, who demanded state-funded Catholic schools. Tupper reached a compromise with Archbishop Connolly whereby Catholic-run schools could receive public funding, so long as they provided their religious instruction after hours. Making good on his promise for expanded railroad construction, in 1864, Tupper appointed Sandford Fleming as the chief engineer of the Nova Scotia Railway in order to expand the Pictou line. He would later (Jan. 1866) award Fleming the contract to complete the line after local contractors proved too slow. Though this decision was controversial, it did result in the line from Truro to Pictou being successfully completed by May 1867. A second line, from Annapolis Royal to Windsor initially faltered, but was eventually completed by 1869. Tupper's role in securing Canadian Confederation In the run-up to the 1859 Nova Scotia election, Tupper had been unwilling to commit to the idea of a union with the other British North American colonies. By 1860, however, he had reconsidered his position. Tupper outlined his changed position in a lecture delivered at Saint John, New Brunswick entitled "The Political Condition of British North America." The title of the lecture was an homage to Lord Durham's 1838 Report on the Affairs of British North America and served as an assessment of the condition of British North America in the two decades following Lord Durham's famous report. Although Tupper was interested in the potential economic consequences of a union with the other colonies, the bulk of his lecture addressed the place of British North America within the wider British Empire. Having been convinced by his 1858 trip to London that British politicians were unwilling to pay attention to a small colony like Nova Scotia, Tupper argued that Nova Scotia and the other Maritime colonies "could never hope to occupy a position of influence or importance except in connection with their larger sister Canada." As such, Tupper proposed to create a "British America", which "stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, would in a few years exhibit to the world a great and powerful organization, with British Institutions, British sympathies, and British feelings, bound indissolubly to the throne of England." Charlottetown Conference, September 1864 Tupper and other delegates of the Charlottetown Conference on the steps of Government House, September 1864. With the commencement of the American Civil War in 1861, Tupper worried that a victorious North would turn northward and conquer the British North American provinces. This caused him to redouble his commitment to union, which he now saw as essential to protecting the British colonies against American aggression. Since he thought that full union among the British North American colonies would be unachievable for many years, on March 28, 1864, Tupper instead proposed a Maritime Union which would unite the Maritime provinces in advance of a projected future union with the Province of Canada. A conference to discuss the proposed union of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island was scheduled to be held in Charlottetown in September 1864. Tupper was pleasantly surprised when the Premier of the Province of Canada, John A. Macdonald, asked to be allowed to attend the Charlottetown Conference. The Conference, which was co-chaired by Tupper and New Brunswick Premier Samuel Leonard Tilley, welcomed the Canadian delegation and asked them to join the conference. The conference proved to be a smashing success, and resulted in an agreement-in-principle to form a union of the four colonies. Quebec Conference, October 1864 The Quebec Conference was held on October 17, as a follow-up to the Charlottetown Conference, with Newfoundland also invited to attend. Tupper headed the Nova Scotia delegation to the Quebec Conference. He supported a legislative union of the colonies (which would mean that there would be only one legislature for the united colonies). However, the French Canadian delegates to the conference, notably George-Étienne Cartier and Hector-Louis Langevin, strongly opposed the idea of a legislative union. As such, Tupper threw his weight behind Macdonald's proposal for a federal union, which would see each colony retain its own legislature, with a central legislature in charge of common interests. Tupper argued in favour of a strong central government as a second best to a pure legislative union. However, Tupper felt that the local legislatures should retain the ability to levy duties on their natural resources. Concerned that a united legislature would be dominated by the Province of Canada, Tupper pushed for regional representation in the upper house of the confederated colonies (a goal which would be achieved in the makeup of the Senate of Canada). On the topic of which level of government would control customs in the union, Tupper ultimately agreed to accept the formula by which the federal government controlled customs in exchange for an annual subsidy of 80 cents a year for each Nova Scotian. This deal was ultimately not good for Nova Scotia, which had historically received most of its government revenue from customs, and as a result, Nova Scotia entered Confederation with a deficit. Tupper in 1865. Aftermath of the Quebec Conference Although Tupper had given up much at the Quebec Conference, he thought that he would be able to convince Nova Scotians that the deal he negotiated was in sum good for Nova Scotia. He was therefore surprised when the deal he had negotiated at Quebec was roundly criticized by Nova Scotians: the Opposition Leader Adams George Archibald was the only member of the Liberal caucus to support Confederation. Former premier Joseph Howe now organized an Anti-Confederation Party and anti-Confederation sentiments were so strong that Tupper decided to postpone a vote of the legislature on the question of Confederation for a full year. Tupper now organized supporters of Confederation into a Confederation Party to push for the union. Finally, in April 1866, Tupper secured a motion of the Nova Scotia legislature in favour of union by promising that he would renegotiate the Seventy-two Resolutions at the upcoming conference in London London Conference of 1866 Joseph Howe had begun a pamphlet campaign in the UK to attempt to turn British public opinion against the proposed union. As such, when Tupper arrived in the UK, he immediately initiated a campaign of pamphlets and letters to the editor designed to refute Howe's assertions. Although Tupper did attempt to renegotiate the 72 Resolutions as he had promised, he was ineffective in securing any major changes. The only major change agreed to at the London Conference was one that arguably did not benefit Nova Scotia - responsibility for the fisheries, which was going to be a joint federal-provincial responsibility under the Quebec agreement, became solely a federal concern . The final push for Confederation Following the passage of the British North America Act in the wake of the London Conference, Tupper returned to Nova Scotia to undertake preparations for the union. The union came into effect on July 1, 1867, and on July 4, Tupper turned over responsibility for the government of Nova Scotia to Hiram Blanchard. In honour of the role he played in securing Confederation, Tupper was knighted in 1867, becoming a Companion in The Most Honourable Order of the Bath. As such, he was now entitled to call himself "Sir Charles Tupper" and to use the postnomial letters "CB". Career in the Parliament of Canada, 1867-1884 Fighting the Anti-Confederates, 1867-1869 The first elections for the new Canadian House of Commons were held in August-September 1867. Tupper ran as a member for the new federal riding of Cumberland and won his seat. However, Tupper was the only pro-Confederation candidate to win a seat from Nova Scotia in the 1st Canadian Parliament, with Joseph Howe and the Anti-Confederates winning every other seat. Tupper in April 1870. As an ally of Sir John A. Macdonald and the Liberal-Conservative Party, it was widely believed that Tupper would have a place in the first Cabinet of Canada. However, when Macdonald ran into difficulties in organizing this cabinet, Tupper stepped aside in favour of Edward Kenny. Instead, Tupper set up a medical practice in Ottawa and was elected as the first president of the new Canadian Medical Association, a position he held until 1870. In November 1867, in provincial elections in Nova Scotia, the pro-Confederation Hiram Blanchard was defeated by the leader of the Anti-Confederation Party, William Annand. Given the unpopularity of Confederation within Nova Scotia, Joseph Howe traveled to London in 1868 to attempt to persuade the British government (headed by the earl of Derby, and then after February 1868 by Benjamin Disraeli) to allow Nova Scotia to secede from Confederation. Tupper followed Howe to London where he successfully lobbied British politicians against allowing Nova Scotia to secede. Following his victory in London, Tupper proposed a reconciliation with Howe: in exchange for Howe's agreeing to stop fighting against the union, Tupper and Howe would be allies in the fight to protect Nova Scotia's interests within Confederation. Howe agreed to Tupper's proposal and in January 1869 entered the Canadian cabinet as President of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada. With the outbreak of the Red River Rebellion in 1869, Tupper was distressed to find that his daughter Emma's husband was being held hostage by Louis Riel and the rebels. He rushed to the northwest to rescue his son-in-law. Tupper in November 1871. President of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada, 1870-1872 When Howe's health declined the next year, Tupper finally entered the 1st Canadian Ministry by becoming Privy Council president in June 1870. The next year was dominated by a dispute with the U.S. regarding American access to the Atlantic fisheries. Tupper thought that the British should restrict American access to these fisheries so that they could negotiate from a position of strength. When Prime Minister Macdonald traveled to represent Canada's interests at the negotiations leading up to the Treaty of Washington (1871), Tupper served as Macdonald's liaison with the federal cabinet. Minister of Inland Revenue, 1872-1873 On July 2, 1872, Tupper's service as Privy Council president ended and he became Minister of Inland Revenue. Tupper led the Nova Scotia campaign for the Liberal-Conservative party during the Canadian federal election of 1872. His efforts paid off when Nova Scotia returned not a single Anti-Confederate Member of Parliament to the 2nd Canadian Parliament, and 20 of Nova Scotia's 21 MPs were Liberal-Conservatives. (The Liberal-Conservative Party changed its name to the Conservative Party in 1873.) Minister of Customs, 1873-1874 Tupper in August 1873. In February 1873, Tupper was shifted from Inland Revenue to become Minister of Customs, and in this position he was successful in having British weights and measures adopted as the uniform standard for the united colonies. He would not hold this post for long, however, as Macdonald's government was rocked by the Pacific Scandal throughout 1873. In November 1873, the 1st Canadian Ministry was forced to resign and was replaced by the 2nd Canadian Ministry headed by Liberal Alexander Mackenzie. Years in Opposition, 1874-1878 Tupper had not been involved in the Pacific Scandal, but he nevertheless continued to support Macdonald and his Conservative colleagues both before and after the 1874 election. The 1874 election was disastrous for the Conservatives, and in Nova Scotia, Tupper was one of only two Conservative MPs returned to the 3rd Canadian Parliament. Though Macdonald stayed on as Conservative leader, Tupper now assumed a more prominent role in the Conservative Party and was widely seen as Macdonald's heir apparent. He led Conservative attacks on the Mackenzie government throughout the 3rd Parliament. The Mackenzie government attempted to negotiate a new free trade agreement with the United States to replace the Canadian-American Reciprocity Treaty which the U.S. had abrogated in 1864. When Mackenzie proved unable to achieve reciprocity, Tupper began shifting towards protectionism and became a proponent of the National Policy which became a part of the Conservative platform in 1876. The sincerity of Tupper's conversion to the protectionist cause was doubted at the time, however: according to one apocryphal story, when Tupper came to the 1876 debate on Finance Minister Richard John Cartwright's budget, he was prepared to advocate free trade if Cartwright had announced that the Liberals had shifted their position and were now supporting protectionism. Tupper was also deeply critical of Mackenzie's approach to railways, arguing that the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway, which would link British Columbia (which entered Confederation in 1871) with the rest of Canada, should be a stronger government priority than it was for Mackenzie. This position also became an integral part of the Conservative platform. As on previous occasions when he was not in cabinet, Tupper was active in practicing medicine during the 1874-78 stint in Opposition, though he was dedicating less and less of his time to medicine during this period. Minister of Public Works, 1878-1879 During the 1878 election Tupper again led the Conservative campaign in Nova Scotia. The Conservatives under Macdonald won a resounding majority in the election, in the process capturing 16 of Nova Scotia's 21 seats in the 4th Canadian Parliament. With the formation of the 3rd Canadian Ministry in October 1878, Tupper became Minister of Public Works. His top priority was completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway, which he saw as "an Imperial Highway across the Continent of America entirely on British soil." This marked a shift in Tupper's position: although he had long argued that completion of the railway should be a major government priority, while Tupper was in Opposition, he argued that the railway should be privately constructed; he now argued that the railway ought to be completed as a public work, partly because he believed that the private sector could not complete the railroad given the recession which gripped the country throughout the 1870s. Minister of Railways and Canals, 1879-1884 In May 1879, Macdonald decided that completion of the railway was such a priority that he created a new ministry to focus just on railways and canals, and Tupper became Canada's first Minister of Railways and Canals. Tupper's motto as Minister of Railways and Canals was "Develop our resources." He stated "I have always supposed that the great object, in every country, and especially in a new country, was to draw as [many] capitalists into it as possible." Tupper traveled to London in summer 1879 to attempt to persuade the British government (then headed by the earl of Beaconsfield in his second term as prime minister) to guarantee a bond sale to be used to construct the railway. He was not successful, though he did manage to purchase 50,000 tons of steel rails at a bargain price. Tupper's old friend Sandford Fleming oversaw the railway construction, but his inability to keep costs down led to political controversy, and Tupper was forced to remove Fleming as Chief Engineer in May 1880. 1879 also saw Tupper made a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George, and thus entitled to use the postnominal letters "KCMG". Tupper in September 1881. In 1880, George Stephen approached Tupper on behalf of a syndicate and asked to be allowed to take over construction of the railway. Convinced that Stephen's syndicate was up to the task, Tupper convinced the cabinet to back the plan at a meeting in June 1880 and, together with Macdonald, negotiated a contract with the syndicate in October. The syndicate successfully created the Canadian Pacific Railway Company in February 1881 and assumed construction of the railway shortly thereafter. In the next years, Tupper would be a vocal supporter of the CPR during its competition with the Grand Trunk Railway. In December 1883, he worked out a rescue plan for the CPR after it faced financial difficulties and persuaded his party and Parliament to accept the plan. In addition to his support for completion of the CPR, Tupper also actively managed the existing railways in the colonies. Shortly after becoming minister in 1879, he forced the Intercolonial Railway to lower its freight rates, which had been a major grievance of Maritime business interests. He then forced the Grand Trunk Railway to sell its Rivière-du-Loup line to the Intercolonial Railway to complete a link between Halifax and the St. Lawrence Seaway. Furthermore, he refused to give the CPR running rights over the Intercolonial Railway, though he did convince the CPR to build the Short Line from Halifax to Saint John. In terms of canals, Tupper's time as Minister of Railways and Canals is notable for large expenditures on widening the Welland Canal and deepening the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Deterioration of relationship with Macdonald and appointment as High Commissioner A rift developed between Tupper and Macdonald in 1879 over Sandford Fleming, whom Tupper supported but whom Macdonald wanted removed as Chief Engineer of the CPR. This rift was partially healed and Tupper and Macdonald managed to work together during the negotiations with George Stephen's syndicate in 1880, but the men were no longer close, and Tupper no longer seemed to be Macdonald's heir apparent. By early 1881, Tupper had determined that he should leave the cabinet. In March 1881, he asked Macdonald to appoint him as Canada's High Commissioner in London. Macdonald initially refused, and Alexander Tilloch Galt retained the High Commissioner's post. During the 1882 election, Tupper campaigned only in Nova Scotia (he normally campaigned throughout the country): he was again successful, with the Conservatives winning 14 of Nova Scotia's 21 seats in the 5th Canadian Parliament. The 1882 election was personally significant for Tupper because it saw his son, Charles Hibbert Tupper, elected as MP for Pictou. Canadian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom, 1883-1895 Early years as High Commissioner, 1883-1887 Sir Charles Tupper in court dress, ca 1883. Tupper remained committed to leaving Ottawa, however, and in May 1883, he moved to London to become unpaid High Commissioner, though he did not surrender his ministerial position at the time. Soon, however, he was facing criticism that the two posts were incompatible, and in May 1884, he resigned from cabinet and the House of Commons and became full-time paid High Commissioner. During his time as High Commissioner, Tupper sought to vigorously defend Canada's rights. Thus, although he was not a full plenipotentiary, he represented Canada at a Paris conference in 1883, where he openly disagreed with the British delegation; and in 1884 was allowed to conduct negotiations for a Canadian commercial treaty with Spain. Tupper was concerned with promoting immigration to Canada and made several tours of various countries in Europe to encourage immigrants to move to Canada. A report in 1883 acknowledges the work of Sir Charles Tupper: As directing emigration from the United Kingdom and also the Continent, his work has been greatly valuable; and especially in reference to the arrangements made by him on the Continent and in Ireland. The High Commissioner for Canada, Sir Charles Tupper, has been aided during the past year by the same Emigration Agents of the Department in the United Kingdom as in 1882, namely, Mr. John Dyke, Liverpool; Mr. Thomas Grahame, Glasgow; Mr. Charles Foy, Belfast; Mr. Thomas Connolly, Dublin, and Mr. J.W. Down, Bristol. On the European Continent, Dr. Otto Hahn, of Reutlingen, has continued to act as Agent in Germany. http://ist.uwaterloo.ca/~marj/genealogy/reports/report1883.html Immigrants to Canada 1883 In 1883, Tupper convinced William Gladstone's government to exempt Canadian cattle from the general British ban on importing American cattle by demonstrating that Canadian cattle was free of disease. His other duties as High Commissioner included: putting Canadian exporters in contact with British importers; negotiating loans for the Canadian government and the CPR; helping to organize the Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 1886; arranging for a subsidy for the mail ship from Vancouver, British Columbia to the Orient; and lobbying on behalf of a British-Pacific cable along the lines of the transatlantic telegraph cable and for a faster transatlantic steam ship. Tupper was also present at the founding meeting of the Imperial Federation League in July 1884, where he argued against a resolution which said that the only options open to the British Empire were Imperial Federation or disintegration. Tupper believed that a form of limited federation was possible and desirable. Interlude as Minister of Finance, 1887-1888 1884 saw the election of Liberal William Stevens Fielding as Premier of Nova Scotia after Fielding campaigned on a platform of leading Nova Scotia out of Confederation. As such, throughout 1886, Macdonald begged Tupper to return to Canada to fight the Anti-Confederates. In January 1887, Tupper returned to Canada to rejoin the 3rd Canadian Ministry as Minister of Finance of Canada, all the while retaining his post as High Commissioner. During the 1887 federal election, Tupper again presented the pro-Confederation argument to the people of Nova Scotia, and again the Conservatives won 14 of Nova Scotia's 21 seats in the 6th Canadian Parliament. During his year as finance minister, Tupper retained the government's commitment to protectionism, even extending it to the iron and steel industry. By this point, Tupper was convinced that Canada was ready to move on to its second stage of industrial development. In part, he held out the prospect of the development of a great iron industry as an inducement to keep Nova Scotia from seceding. Tupper's unique position of being both Minister of Finance and High Commissioner to London served him well in an emerging crisis in American-Canadian relations: in 1885, the U.S. abrogated the fisheries clause of the Treaty of Washington (1871), and the Canadian government retaliated against American fishermen with a narrow reading of the Treaty of 1818. Acting as High Commissioner, Tupper pressured the British government (then led by Lord Salisbury) to stand firm in defending Canada's rights. The result was the appointment of a Joint Commission in 1887, with Tupper serving as one of the three British commissioners to negotiate with the Americans. Salisbury selected Joseph Chamberlain as one of the British commissioners. John Thompson served as the British delegation's legal counsel. During the negotiations, U.S. Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard complained that "Mr. Chamberlain has yielded the control of the negotiations over to Sir Charles Tupper, who subjects the questions to the demands of Canadian politics." The result of the negotiations was a treaty (the Treaty of Washington of 1888) that made such concessions to Canada that it was ultimately rejected by the American Senate in February 1888. However, although the treaty was rejected, the Commission had managed to temporarily resolve the dispute. Following the conclusion of these negotiations, Tupper decided to return to London to become High-Commissioner full-time. Macdonald attempted to persuade Tupper to stay in Ottawa: during the political crisis surrounding the 1885 North-West Rebellion, Macdonald had pledged to nominate Sir Hector-Louis Langevin as his successor; Macdonald now told Tupper that he would break this promise and nominate Tupper as his successor. Tupper was not convinced, however, and resigned as Minister of Finance on May 23, 1888 and moved back to London Later years as High Commissioner, 1888-1895 Statuette of Tupper by W.C. Archibald, 1889. For Tupper's work on the Joint Commission, Joseph Chamberlain arranged for Tupper to become a baronet of the United Kingdom, and the Tupper Baronetcy was created on September 13, 1888. In 1889, tensions were high between the U.S. and Canada when the U.S. banned Canadians from engaging in the seal hunt in the Bering Sea as part of the ongoing Bering Sea Dispute between the U.S. and Britain. Tupper traveled to Washington, D.C. to represent Canadian interests during the negotiations and was something of an embarrassment to the British diplomats. When, in 1890, the provincial secretary of Newfoundland, Robert Bond, negotiated a fisheries treaty with the U.S. that Tupper felt was not in Canada's interest, Tupper successfully persuaded the British government (then under Lord Salisbury's second term) to reject the treaty. As noted above, Tupper remained an active politician during his time as High Commissioner, which was controversial because diplomats are traditionally expected to be nonpartisan. (Tupper's successor as High Commissioner, Donald Smith would succeed in turning the High Commissioner's office into a nonpartisan office.) As such, Tupper returned to Canada to campaign on behalf of the Conservatives' National Policy during the 1891 election. Sir Charles Tupper with his son Sir Charles Hibbert Tupper and his grandson, March 1891. Tupper continued to be active in the Imperial Federation League, though after 1887, the League was split over the issue of regular colonial contribution to imperial defense. As a result, the League was ultimately dissolved in 1893, for which some people blamed Tupper. With respect to the British Empire, Tupper advocated a system of mutual preferential trading. In a series of articles in Nineteenth Century in 1891 and 1892, Tupper denounced the position that Canada should unilaterally reduce its tariff on British goods. Rather, he argued that any such tariff reduction should only come as part of a wider trade agreement in which tariffs on Canadian goods would also be reduced at the same time. Sir John A. Macdonald's death in 1891 opened the possibility of Tupper replacing him as prime minister of Canada, but Tupper enjoyed life in London and decided against returning to Canada. He recommended that his son support Sir John Thompson's prime ministerial bid. Tupper becomes prime minister, 1895-1896 Sir John Thompson died suddenly in office in December 1894. Many observers expected the Governor General of Canada, Lord Aberdeen, to invite Tupper to return to Canada to become prime minister. However, Lord Aberdeen disliked Tupper and instead invited Sir Mackenzie Bowell to replace Thompson as prime minister. "Sir Charles Tupper et le parlement": political cartoon from February 1896. The greatest challenge facing Bowell as prime minister was the Manitoba Schools Question. The Conservative Party was bitterly divided as to how to handle the Manitoba Schools Question, and as a result, on January 4, 1896, seven cabinet ministers resigned, demanding the return of Tupper. As a result, Bowell and Aberdeen were forced to invite Tupper to join the 6th Canadian Ministry and on January 15 Tupper became Secretary of State for Canada, with the understanding that he would become prime minister following the dissolution of the 7th Canadian Parliament. Returning to Canada, Tupper was elected to the 7th Canadian Parliament as member for Cape Breton during a by-election held on February 4, 1896. At this point, Tupper was the de facto prime minister, though legally Bowell was still prime minister. Tupper's position on the Manitoba Schools Act was that French Catholics in Manitoba had been promised the right to separate state-funded French-language Catholic schools in the Manitoba Act of 1870. Thus, even though he personally opposed French-language Catholic schools in Manitoba, he believed that the government should stand by its promise and therefore oppose Dalton McCarthy's Manitoba Schools Act. He maintained this position even after the Manitoba Schools Act was upheld by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. In 1895, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council had also ruled that the Canadian federal government could pass remedial legislation to overrule the Manitoba Schools Act (see Disallowance and reservation). Thus, in February 1896, Tupper introduced this remedial legislation in the House of Commons. The bill was filibustered by a combination of extreme Protestants led by McCarthy and Liberals led by Wilfrid Laurier. This filibuster resulted in Tupper abandoning the bill and asking for a dissolution. Prime Minister of Canada, May-July 1896 Portrait of Tupper, January 1896. Parliament was dissolved on April 24, 1896, and the 7th Canadian Ministry with Tupper as prime minister was sworn in on May 1. Tupper remains the oldest person ever to become Canadian prime minister, at 74. Throughout the 1896 election campaign, Tupper argued that the real issue of the election was the future of Canadian industry, and insisted that Conservatives needed to unite to defeat the Patrons of Industry. However, the Conservatives were so bitterly divided over the Manitoba Schools Question that wherever he spoke, he was faced with a barrage of criticism, most notably at a two-hour address he gave at Massey Hall in Toronto, which was constantly interrupted by the crowd. Wilfrid Laurier, on the other hand, modified the traditional Liberal stance on free trade and embraced aspects of the National Policy. In the end, the Conservatives won the most votes in the 1896 election (45.1% of the votes, in comparison to 45% for the Liberals). However, they captured only about half of the seats in English Canada, while Laurier's Liberals won a landslide victory in Quebec, where Tupper's reputation as an ardent imperialist was a major handicap. Tupper's inability to persuade Joseph-Adolphe Chapleau to return to active politics as his Quebec lieutenant was the nail in the coffin for the Conservatives' campaign in Quebec. Although Laurier had clearly won the election on June 24, Tupper initially refused to cede power, insisting that Laurier would be unable to form a government. However, when Tupper attempted to make appointments as prime minister, Lord Aberdeen stepped in, dismissing Tupper and inviting Laurier to form a government. Tupper maintained that Lord Aberdeen's actions were unconstitutional. Tupper's 69 days is the shortest term of all prime ministers. His administration never faced a Parliament. Leader of the Opposition, 1896-1900 Sir Charles and Lady Tupper, October 1896.As Leader of the Opposition during the 8th Canadian Parliament, Tupper attempted to regain the loyalty of those Conservatives who had deserted the party over the Manitoba Schools Question. He played up loyalty to the British Empire. Tupper strongly supported Canadian participation in the Second Boer War, which broke out in 1899, and criticized Laurier for not doing enough to support Britain in the war. The 1900 election saw the Conservatives pick up 17 Ontario seats in the 9th Canadian Parliament. This was a small consolation, however, as Laurier and the Liberals won a definitive majority and had a clear mandate for a second term. What was worse for Tupper, for the first time ever, he had failed to carry his own seat, losing the Cape Breton seat to Liberal Alexander Johnston. In November 1900, two weeks after the election, Tupper stepped down as leader of the Conservative Party of Canada and Leader of the Opposition, choosing as his successor fellow Nova Scotian Robert Laird Borden. Later years, 1901-1915 Following his defeat in the 1900 election, Tupper and his wife settled with their daughter Emma in Bexleyheath in southeast London. He continued to make frequent trips to Canada to visit his sons Charles Hibbert Tupper and William Johnston Tupper, both of whom were Canadian politicians. Tupper at a meeting of the directors of the Crown Life Insurance Company in Toronto, ca 1900. On November 9, 1907, Tupper became a member of the British Privy Council. He was also promoted to the rank of Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George, which made him entitled to use the postnomial letters "GCMG". Tupper remained interested in imperial politics, and particularly with promoting Canada's place within the British Empire. He sat on the executive committee of the British Empire League and advocated closer economic ties between Canada and Britain, while continuing to oppose Imperial Federation and requests for Canada to make a direct contribution to imperial defense costs (though he supported Borden's decision to voluntarily make an emergency contribution of dreadnoughts to the Royal Navy in 1912). In his retirement, Tupper wrote his memoirs, entitled Recollections of Sixty Years in Canada, which were published in 1914. He also gave a series of interviews to journalist W. A. Harkin which formed the basis of a second book published in 1914, entitled Political Reminiscences of the Right Honourable Sir Charles Tupper. Tupper's wife, Lady Tupper died in May 1912. His eldest son Orin died in April 1915. On October 30, 1915 in Bexleyheath, Tupper died of heart failure. He was the last of the original Fathers of Confederation to die, and had lived the longest life of any Canadian prime minister, at 94 years, four months. His body was returned to Canada on board the HMS Blenheim (the same vessel that had carried the body of Tupper's colleague, Sir John Thompson to Halifax when Thompson died in England in 1894) and he was buried in St. John's Cemetery, Halifax in Halifax following a state funeral with a mile-long procession. In their 1999 study of the Canadian Prime Ministers through Jean Cretien, J.L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer included the results of a survey of Canadian historians ranking th Premiers. Tupper ranked #16 out of the 20 up to that time, but it was pointed out that the elderly Tupper showed a determination and spirit in his brief time as Prime Minister that almost beat Laurier in the election Granatstein and Hillman, Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders, p. 45. External links Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online Political biography from the Library of Parliament Biography from First Among Equals Biography from Library and Archives Canada website "The Life of Sir Charles Tupper" from the June 1939 edition of the Journal of the Canadian Medical Association The Right Hon. Sir Charles Tupper, P.C., G.C.M.G., C.B., LL.D., M.D., 1821-1915 from the 12 June 1965 edition of the Journal of the Canadian Medical Association Sir John and Sir Charles, or The Secrets of the Syndicate - an 1881 Shakespearean satire on Macdonald and Tupper's roles in awarding George Stephen's syndicate control of the Canadian Pacific Railway Tupper's grave site Sir Charles Tupper- The Big Man, a short[National Film Board] film about Tupper. References Joseph Howe, Hon. Mr. Howe’s Speech on Dr. Tupper’s Railway Resolution. House of assembly. Monday, 9 April, 1860. (1860) Joseph Howe, Speech of the Honorable Provincial Secretary, In reply to Doctor Tupper, On the Subject of Retrenchment. Wednesday, March 25 (1863) Charles Tupper, A Letter to the Right Honourable the Earl of Carnarvon: In Reply to a Pamphlet Entitled "Confederation Considered in Relation to the Interests of the Empire" (1866) Charles Tupper, Letter from the Hon. Dr. Tupper, C.B., to the Hon. James McDonald, M.P.P. (1872) The Pacific Railway: Speeches Delivered by Hon. Sir Charles Tupper, K.C.M.G., Minister of Railways and Canals, Hon. H.L. Langevin, C.B., Minister of Public Works, J.B. Plumbs, Esq., M.P., (Niagara), Thomas White, Esq., M.P., (Cardwell), During the Debate in the House of Commons, Session 1880 (1880) Charles Tupper, Le chemin de fer canadien du Pacifique: discours. Exposé complet de la question. (1880) Charles Tupper, Official Report of the Speech Delivered by Hon. Sir Charles Tupper, K.C.M.G., C.B., Minister of Raillways [sic] and Canals, On the Canadian Pacific Railway (1882) Charles Thibault, Biography of Sir Charles Tupper, Minister of Railway ... High Commissioner of Canada to England (1883) Charles Tupper, Unrestricted Reciprocity; Speech ... Delivered in the House of Commons, on Monday, March 19, 1888 (1888) Charles Tupper, Preferential Trade Relations Between Great Britain and Her Colonies: An Address Delivered before the Montreal Board of Trade, January 20, 1896 (1896) Charles Tupper, Speech on the Remedial Bill, Ottawa, 18 March, 1896. (1896) Henry J. Morgan, Ad Multos Annos: A Tribute to Sir Charles Tupper on His Political Birthday, 1900 (1900) E. M. Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia: The Hon. J. W. Johnstone, The Hon. Joseph Howe, The Hon. Charles Tupper (1909) Charles Tupper, Political Reminiscences of the Right Honourable Sir Charles Tupper, Bart., ed. W. A. Harkin (1914) The Life and Letters of the Rt. Hon. Sir Charles Tupper, Bart., K.C.M.G., ed. E. M. Saunders, 2 vols. (1916) J. W. Longley, Sir Charles Tupper (1916) Supplement to the Life and Letters of the Rt. Hon. Sir Charles Tupper, Bart., G.C.M.G., ed. C. H. Tupper (1926) W. M. Whitelaw, The Maritimes and Canada Before Confederation (1934) H. G. Skilling, Canadian Representation Abroad: From Agency to Embassy (1945) A. W. MacIntosh, "The Career of Sir Charles Tupper in Canada, 1864-1900", Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto (1960) G. R. Stevens, Canadian National Railways, 2 vols. (1960-62) D. H. Tait, "The Role of Charles Tupper in Nova Scotian Politics, 1855–1870", M.A. thesis, Dalhousie University (1962) J. M. Robinson, "A Canadian at the Court of Queen Victoria: The High Commissionership, 1880–1895", M.A. thesis, University of Calgary (1967) L. C. Clark, "A History of the Conservative Administrations, 1891 to 1896”, Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto (1968) Ian Wilson, "Fleming and Tupper: The Fall of the Siamese Twins, 1880", in Character and Circumstance: Essays in Honour of Donald Grant Creighton, ed. J. S. Moir (1970) P. B. Waite, The Life and Times of Confederation, 1864–1867: Politics, Newspapers, and the Union of British North America (1971) P. B. Waite, Canada, 1874–1896: Arduous Destiny (1971) D. A. Muise, "Elections and Constituencies: Federal Politics in Nova Scotia, 1867–1878", Ph.D. thesis, University of Western Ontario (1971) K. M. McLaughlin, "Race, Religion and Politics: The Election of 1896 in Canada", Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto (1974) Robert Page, "Tupper’s Last Hurrah: The Years as Opposition Leader, 1896–1900" in The West and the Nation: Essays in Honour of W. L. Morton, ed. Carl Berger and Ramsay Cook (1976) H. C. Cameron, "Nova Scotians in the Federal Cabinet, 1867–1878”, M.A. thesis, Queen’s University (1976) W. K. Lamb, History of the Canadian Pacific Railway (1977) K. G. Pryke, Nova Scotia and Confederation, 1864–74 (1979) R. P. Langhout, "Developing Nova Scotia: Railways and Public Accounts, 1849–1867," Acadiensis 14.2 (1984-85) Vincent Durant, War Horse of Cumberland: The Life and Times of Sir Charles Tupper (1985) Ben Forster, A Conjunction of Interests: Business, Politics, and Tariffs, 1825–1879 (1986) R. P. Langhout, "Public Enterprise: An Analysis of Public Finance in the Maritime Colonies During the Period of Responsible Government", Ph.D. thesis, University of New Brunswick (1989) Ben Forster, "The 1870s: Political Integration" in The Atlantic Provinces in Confederation, ed. E. R. Forbes and D. A. Muise (1993) I. P. A. Buckner, "The 1860s: An End and a Beginning" in The Atlantic Region to Confederation, ed. P. A. Buckner and John Reid (1994) Jock Murray and Janet Murray, Sir Charles Tupper: Fighting Doctor to Father of Confederation (1998) J.L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer, Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders (1999) Johanna Bertin, Sir Charles Tupper: The Bully for Any Great Cause (2006) | Charles_Tupper |@lemmatized sir:35 charles:45 tupper:231 baronet:2 gcmg:2 cb:2 pc:1 july:6 october:7 canadian:61 father:4 confederation:29 premier:12 nova:65 scotia:58 lead:15 later:7 go:2 serve:6 sixth:1 prime:24 minister:45 canada:54 become:27 short:4 term:7 office:5 day:2 take:3 house:12 common:8 dissolve:3 government:32 one:8 face:6 parliament:18 background:1 early:5 year:24 bear:1 amherst:3 sr:1 miriam:1 lowe:1 lockhart:1 co:2 pastor:1 local:4 baptist:6 church:2 begin:4 age:1 attend:3 horton:1 academy:1 wolfville:1 learn:1 latin:1 greek:1 french:5 graduate:1 spend:2 time:18 new:13 brunswick:6 work:10 teacher:1 move:7 windsor:2 study:3 medicine:4 dr:4 ebenezer:1 fitch:1 harding:2 borrow:1 money:1 scotland:1 royal:3 college:2 surgeon:1 edinburgh:3 university:9 receive:3 md:1 commitment:4 faith:1 falter:2 drink:1 scotch:1 whisky:1 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2,728 | European_Charter_for_Regional_or_Minority_Languages | The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML) is a European treaty (CETS 148) adopted in 1992 under the auspices of the Council of Europe to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages in Europe. It only applies to languages traditionally used by the nationals of the State Parties (thus excluding languages used by recent immigrants from other states), which significantly differ from the majority or official language (thus excluding what the state party wishes to consider as mere local dialects of the official or majority language) and which either have a territorial basis (and are therefore traditionally spoken by populations of regions or areas within the State) or are used by linguistic minorities within the State as a whole (thereby including such languages as Yiddish and Romani, which are used over a wide geographic area). Languages which are official within regions or provinces or federal units within a State (for example Catalan in Spain) are not classified as official languages of the State and may therefore benefit from the Charter. On the other hand, the Republic of Ireland has not been able to sign the Charter on behalf of the Irish language (although a minority language) as it is defined as the first official language of the state. The United Kingdom has, though, ratified the Charter in respect of (among other languages) Irish in Northern Ireland. France, although a signatory has been constitutionally blocked from ratifying the Charter in respect of the languages of France. The charter provides a large number of different actions state parties can take to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages. There are two levels of protection—all signatories must apply the lower level of protection to qualifying languages; signatories may further declare that a qualifying language or languages will benefit from the higher level of protection which lists a range of actions from which states must agree to undertake at least 35. Languages protected under the Charter The countries which have ratified the Charter and the languages for which the ratification was made are the following: ratification: 25 January 2002 Assyrian Greek Russian Kurdish as Yazidi language ratification: 28 June 2001 Austria has ratified the Charter for each language in respect of specific Länder Croatian of Burgenland Slovene (in Carinthia and Styria) Hungarian (in Burgenland and Vienna) Czech (in Vienna) Slovak (in Vienna) Romani (in Burgenland) ratification: 5 November 1997 Italian Serbian Hungarian Czech Slovak Rusyn Ukrainian ratification: 26 August 2002 Armenian Cypriot Maronite Arabic ratification: 15 November 2006 Slovak (parts II and III, across the whole territory) Polish (part II; and part III in Moravia-Silesia, in districts Frydek-Místek and Karviná) German (part II only) Romani (part II only) ratification: 8 September 2000 Notes Verbales accompanying the Danish ratification specified that, whilst the Charter was not going to be ratified in respect of the two languages, Faroese and Greenlandic are each official in their respective territories German (in Southern Jutland) ratification: 9 November 1994 Sami Swedish (co-official language) ratification: 16 September 1998 Germany has ratified the Charter for each language in respect of specific Länder Danish (in Schleswig-Holstein) Upper Sorbian (in the Free State of Saxony) Lower Sorbian (in Brandenburg) North Frisian (in Schleswig-Holstein) Saterland Frisian (in Lower Saxony) Romani (across Germany) Low German (part II in Bremen, Hamburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein); (part II in Brandenburg, Northrhine-Westphalia and Saxony-Anhalt) ratification: 26 April 1995 Croatian German Romanian Serbian Slovak Slovene ratification: 18 November 1997 No regional or minority languages ratification: 22 June 2005 (to be confirmed) Luxembourg is not listed on the Council of Europe site ratification: 15 February 2006 Albanian Romani ratification: 2 May 1996 West Frisian (in Friesland) Limburgish (across the Netherlands) Low Saxon (across the Netherlands) Romani (across the Netherlands) Yiddish (across the Netherlands)ratification: 10 November 1993 Report clarifying Norway's implementation of the Charter Sami (parts II and III) Kven (part II only) Romanes (part II only) Romani (part II only) ratification: 12 February 2009 [http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=148&CM=8&DF=23/01/05&CL=ENG&VL=1 Belorussian Czech Hebrew Yiddish Karaim Kashub Lithuanian Lemko German Armenian Romani Russian Slovak Tatar Ukrainian ratification 24 October 2007 Romanian law no. 282/2007 Part II applied to: Albanian Armenian Greek Italian Macedonian Romani Rusyn Tatar Yiddish Part III applied to: Bulgarian Croatian Czech German Hungarian Russian Serbian Slovak Turkish Ukrainian ratification: 15 February 2006 Ratified as Serbia and Montenegro on December 22, 2005 USVOJENA EVROPSKA POVELJA O REGIONALNIM ILI MANJINSKIM JEZICIMA Albanian Bosnian Bulgarian Croatian Hungarian Romani Romanian Rusyn Slovak Ukrainian ratification: 5 September 2001 Bulgarian Croatian Czech German Hungarian Polish Romani Rusyn Ukrainian ratification: 4 October 2000 Hungarian Italian Romani ratification: 9 April 2001 Basque (official in the Basque Country and part of Navarre) Catalan (official in the Balearic Islands, Catalonia and Valencia) Galician (official in Galicia) ratification: 9 February 2000 Finnish Meänkieli Sami Romani Chib Yiddish ratification: 23 December 1997 Italian Romansh ratification: 19 September 2005 Ukraine does not specify languages by name, but rather ratifies on behalf of "the languages of the following ethnic minorities of Ukraine": July 2007, Ukraine's entry on the Council of Europe site states the following Ukraine declares that the provisions of the Charter shall apply to the languages of the following ethnic minorities of Ukraine : Byelorussian, Bulgarian, Gagauz, Greek, Jewish, Crimean Tatar, Moldavian, German, Polish, Russian, Romanian, Slovak and Hungarian. Belarusian Bulgarian Crimean Tatar Gagauz Greek German Hungarian Jewish Moldavian Polish Romanian Russian Slovak ratification : 27 March 2001 All languages are ratified as applicable to the territory of United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, except Manx, which is ratified on behalf of the Crown dependency of the Isle of Man. Cornish Irish Manx (ratified on behalf of Government of the Isle of Man) Scots in Scotland and Northern Ireland (Ulster Scots) Scottish Gaelic Welsh Notes and references See also European languages Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities Languages of the European Union Language policy in France Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights Vergonha External links European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages text More information on the treaty Charter website Eurolang (News agency about minority languages in Europe) | European_Charter_for_Regional_or_Minority_Languages |@lemmatized european:5 charter:15 regional:5 minority:11 language:33 ecrml:1 treaty:3 cets:1 adopt:1 auspex:1 council:3 europe:5 protect:3 promote:2 historical:2 apply:5 languages:2 traditionally:2 use:4 national:2 state:12 party:3 thus:2 exclude:2 recent:1 immigrant:1 significantly:1 differ:1 majority:2 official:10 wish:1 consider:1 mere:1 local:1 dialect:1 either:1 territorial:1 basis:1 therefore:2 speak:1 population:1 region:2 area:2 within:4 linguistic:2 whole:2 thereby:1 include:1 yiddish:5 romani:13 wide:1 geographic:1 province:1 federal:1 unit:1 example:1 catalan:2 spain:1 classify:1 may:3 benefit:2 hand:1 republic:1 ireland:4 able:1 sign:1 behalf:4 irish:3 although:2 define:1 first:1 united:2 kingdom:2 though:1 ratify:10 respect:5 among:1 northern:3 france:3 signatory:3 constitutionally:1 block:1 provide:1 large:1 number:1 different:1 action:2 take:1 two:2 level:3 protection:4 must:2 low:6 qualify:1 far:1 declare:1 qualifying:1 high:1 list:2 range:1 agree:1 undertake:1 least:1 country:2 ratification:26 make:1 following:2 january:1 assyrian:1 greek:4 russian:5 kurdish:1 yazidi:1 june:2 austria:1 specific:2 länder:2 croatian:5 burgenland:3 slovene:2 carinthia:1 styria:1 hungarian:8 vienna:3 czech:5 slovak:9 november:5 italian:4 serbian:3 rusyn:4 ukrainian:5 august:1 armenian:3 cypriot:1 maronite:1 arabic:1 part:14 ii:11 iii:4 across:6 territory:3 polish:4 moravia:1 silesia:1 district:1 frydek:1 místek:1 karviná:1 german:9 september:4 note:2 verbales:1 accompany:1 danish:2 specify:2 whilst:1 go:1 faroese:1 greenlandic:1 respective:1 southern:1 jutland:1 sami:3 swedish:1 co:1 germany:2 schleswig:3 holstein:3 upper:1 sorbian:2 free:1 saxony:4 brandenburg:2 north:1 frisian:3 saterland:1 bremen:1 hamburg:1 mecklenburg:1 vorpommern:1 northrhine:1 westphalia:1 anhalt:1 april:2 romanian:5 confirm:1 luxembourg:1 site:2 february:4 albanian:3 west:1 friesland:1 limburgish:1 netherlands:4 saxon:1 report:1 clarify:1 norway:1 implementation:1 kven:1 romanes:1 http:1 convention:2 coe:1 int:1 commun:1 listedeclarations:1 asp:1 nt:1 cm:1 df:1 cl:1 eng:1 vl:1 belorussian:1 hebrew:1 karaim:1 kashub:1 lithuanian:1 lemko:1 tatar:4 october:2 law:1 macedonian:1 bulgarian:5 turkish:1 serbia:1 montenegro:1 december:2 usvojena:1 evropska:1 povelja:1 regionalnim:1 ili:1 manjinskim:1 jezicima:1 bosnian:1 basque:2 navarre:1 balearic:1 island:1 catalonia:1 valencia:1 galician:1 galicia:1 finnish:1 meänkieli:1 chib:1 romansh:1 ukraine:5 name:1 rather:1 ratifies:1 follow:2 ethnic:2 july:1 entry:1 declares:1 provision:1 shall:1 byelorussian:1 gagauz:2 jewish:2 crimean:2 moldavian:2 belarusian:1 march:1 applicable:1 great:1 britain:1 except:1 manx:2 crown:1 dependency:1 isle:2 man:2 cornish:1 government:1 scots:1 scotland:1 ulster:1 scot:1 scottish:1 gaelic:1 welsh:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 framework:1 union:1 policy:1 universal:1 declaration:1 right:1 vergonha:1 external:1 link:1 text:1 information:1 website:1 eurolang:1 news:1 agency:1 |@bigram carinthia_styria:1 czech_slovak:1 ukrainian_ratification:5 moravia_silesia:1 schleswig_holstein:3 saterland_frisian:1 bremen_hamburg:1 mecklenburg_vorpommern:1 saxony_anhalt:1 slovak_slovene:1 coe_int:1 serbia_montenegro:1 balearic_island:1 crimean_tatar:2 crown_dependency:1 ulster_scot:1 scottish_gaelic:1 external_link:1 |
2,729 | Astrology | |Hand-colored version of the anonymous Flammarion woodcut (1888). Astrology (from Greek , astron, "constellation, star"; and , -logia, "the study of") is a group of systems, traditions, and beliefs which hold that the relative positions of celestial bodies and related details can provide information about personality, human affairs, and other terrestrial matters. A practitioner of astrology is called an astrologer or more rarely, an astrologist. Numerous traditions and applications employing astrological concepts have arisen since its earliest recorded beginnings in the 3rd millennium BC. Astrology has played an important role in the shaping of culture, early astronomy, the Vedas, the Bible, http://www.astrologyzine.com/astrology-bible.shtml and various disciplines throughout history. In fact, astrology and astronomy were often indistinguishable before the modern era, with the desire for predictive and divinatory knowledge one of the primary motivating factors for astronomical observation. Astronomy began to diverge from astrology after a period of gradual separation from the Renaissance up until the 18th century. Eventually, astronomy distinguished itself as the scientific study of astronomical objects and phenomena without regard to the astrological understandings of these phenomena. Astrologers believe that the movements and positions of celestial bodies either directly influence life on Earth or correspond to events experienced on a human scale. Modern astrologers define astrology as a symbolic language, an art form, or a form of divination. Despite differences in definitions, a common assumption of astrology is that celestial placements can aid in the interpretation of past and present events and in the prediction of the future. Scientists now label astrology a pseudoscience or superstition. Eysenck, H.J., Nias, D.K.B., Astrology: Science or Superstition? (Penguin Books, 1982) In one poll, 31% of Americans expressed a belief in astrology and 39% considered it scientific according to another study. In India, there is widespread belief in astrology and it is commonly used. Core beliefs The core beliefs of astrology were prevalent in most of the ancient world and are epitomized in the Hermetic maxim "as above, so below". Tycho Brahe used a similar phrase to summarize his studies in astrology: suspiciendo despicio, "by looking up I see downward". Although the principle that events in the heavens are mirrored by those on Earth was once generally held in most traditions of astrology around the world, in the West there has historically been a debate among astrologers over the nature of the mechanism behind astrology. The debate also covers whether or not celestial bodies are only signs or portents of events, or if they are actual causes of events through some sort of force or mechanism. Although the connection between celestial mechanics and terrestrial dynamics was explored first by Isaac Newton with his development of a universal theory of gravitation, claims that the gravitational effects of the celestial bodies are what accounts for astrological generalizations are not substantiated by scientific research, nor are they advocated by most astrologers. Most astrological traditions are based on the relative positions and movements of various real or construed celestial bodies and on the construction of implied or calculated celestial patterns as seen at the time and place of the event being studied. These are chiefly the astrological planets, dwarf planets, the asteroids, the stars, the lunar nodes, Arabic parts and hypothetical planets. The frame of reference for such apparent positions is defined by the tropical or sidereal zodiac of twelve signs on one hand, and by the local horizon (ascendant-descendant axis) and midheaven-imum coeli axis on the other. This latter (local) frame is typically further divided into the twelve astrological houses. Furthermore, the astrological aspects are used to determine the geometric/angular relationship(s) between the various celestial bodies and angles in the horoscope. The claim of astrology to predict future trends and developments, or predictive astrology, is based on two main methods in western astrology: astrological transits and astrological progressions. In astrological transits the ongoing movements of the planets are interpreted for their significance as they transit through space and the horoscope. In astrological progressions the horoscope is progressed forward in time according to set methods. In vedic astrology the focus is on planetary periods to infer the trend while transits are used to time significant events. Most western astrologers no longer try to forecast actual events, but focus instead on general trends and developments. By comparison, vedic astrologers predict both trends and events. Skeptics respond that this practice of western astrologers allows them to avoid making verifiable predictions, and gives them the ability to attach significance to arbitrary and unrelated events, in a way that suits their purpose. About.com: Is Astrology a Pseudoscience? Examining the Basis and Nature of Astrology In the past, astrologers often relied on close observation of celestial objects and the charting of their movements. Modern astrologers use data provided by astronomers which are transformed to a set of astrological tables called ephemerides, showing the changing zodiacal positions of the heavenly bodies through time. Traditions See also: List of astrological traditions, types, and systems Zodiac signs, 16th century European woodcut There are many traditions of astrology, some of which share similar features due to the transmission of astrological doctrines between cultures. Other traditions developed in isolation and hold different doctrines, though they too share some features due to drawing on similar astronomical sources. Current traditions The main traditions used by modern astrologers are Jyotiṣa, Western astrology, and Chinese astrology. Vedic and Western astrology share a common ancestry as horoscopic systems of astrology, in that both traditions focus on the casting of an astrological chart or horoscope, a representation of celestial entities, for an event based on the position of the Sun, Moon, and planets at the moment of the event. However, Vedic astrology uses the sidereal zodiac, linking the signs of the zodiac to their original constellations, while Western astrology uses the tropical zodiac. Because of the precession of the equinoxes, over the centuries the twelve zodiacal signs in Western astrology no longer correspond to the same part of the sky as their original constellations. In effect, in Western astrology the link between sign and constellation has been broken, whereas in Vedic astrology it remains of paramount importance. Other differences between the two traditions include the use of 27 (or 28) nakshatras or lunar mansions, which have been used in India since Vedic times, and the system of planetary periods known as dashas. In Chinese astrology a quite different tradition has evolved. By contrast to Western and Indian astrology, the twelve signs of the zodiac do not divide the sky, but rather the celestial equator. The Chinese evolved a system where each sign corresponds to one of twelve 'double-hours' that govern the day, and to one of the twelve months. Each sign of the zodiac governs a different year, and combines with a system based on the five elements of Chinese cosmology to give a 60 (12 x 5) year cycle. The term Chinese astrology is used here for convenience, but it must be recognised that versions of the same tradition exist in Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Thailand and other Asian countries. In modern times, these traditions have come into greater contact with each other, notably with Indian and Chinese astrology having spread to the West, while awareness of Western astrology is still fairly limited in Asia. Astrology in the Western world has diversified greatly in modern times. New movements have appeared, which have jettisoned much of traditional astrology to concentrate on different approaches, such as a greater emphasis on midpoints, or a more psychological approach. Some recent Western developments include modern tropical and sidereal horoscopic astrology; cosmobiology; psychological astrology; sun sign astrology; the Hamburg School of Astrology; and Uranian astrology, a subset of the Hamburg School. Historical traditions Throughout its long history, astrology has come to prominence in many regions and undergone developments and change. There are many astrological traditions that are historically important, but which have largely fallen out of use today. Astrologers still retain an interest in them and regard them as an important resource. Historically significant traditions of astrology include Arab and Persian astrology (Medieval, near East); Babylonian astrology (Ancient, near East); Egyptian astrology; Hellenistic astrology (Classical antiquity); and Mayan astrology. Esoteric traditions Extract and symbol key from 17th century alchemy text. Many mystic or esoteric traditions have links to astrology. In some cases, like Kabbalah, this involves participants incorporating elements of astrology into their own traditions. In other cases, like divinatory tarot, many astrologers themselves have incorporated the tradition into their own practice of astrology. Esoteric traditions include, but are not limited to, alchemy, chiromancy, Kabbalistic astrology, medical astrology, numerology, Rosicrucian or "Rose Cross", and Tarot divination. Historically, alchemy in the Western World was particularly allied and intertwined with traditional Babylonian-Greek style astrology; in numerous ways they were built to complement each other in the search for occult or hidden knowledge. Weor, Samael Aun Astrotheurgy, The Esoteric Treatise of Hermetic Astrology, pp. 60-117, Glorian Publishing 2006, ISBN 978-1-934206-06-5 Astrology has used the concept of the four classical elements of alchemy from antiquity up until the present day. Traditionally, each of the seven planets in the solar system known to the ancients was associated with, held dominion over, and "ruled" a certain metal. Weor, Samael Aun Astrotheurgy, The Zodiacal Course, pp.3-58, Glorian Publishing, 2006, ISBN 978-1-934206-06-5 The zodiac Zodiac in a 6th century synagogue at Beit Alpha, Israel. The zodiac is the girdle or band of constellations through which the Sun, Moon, and planets transit across the sky. Astrologers noted these constellations and so attached a particular significance to them. Over time they developed the system of twelve signs of the zodiac (Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, and Pisces), based on twelve of the constellations they considered to be particularly important. The Western and Vedic zodiac signs have a common origin in the tradition of horoscopic astrology, and so are very similar in meaning. In China on the other hand, the development of the zodiac was different. Although the Chinese too have a system of twelve signs (named after animals), the Chinese zodiac refers to a pure calendrical cycle, as there are no equivalent constellations linked to it like the Western or Indian zodiacs. The common choice of twelve zodiac signs is understandable considering the interaction of the Sun and Moon was central to all forms of astrology. The majority of Western astrologers base their work on the tropical zodiac which divides the sky into twelve equal segments of 30 degrees each, beginning with the first point of Aries, the point where the line of the Earth's celestial equator and the ecliptic (the Sun's path through the sky) meet at the northern hemisphere spring equinox. Due to the precession of the equinoxes, the slow changing of the way Earth rotates in space, the zodiacal signs in this system bear no relation to the constellations of the same name but stay aligned to the months and seasons. Practitioners of the Vedic astrological tradition and a minority of Western astrologers use the sidereal zodiac. This zodiac uses the same evenly divided ecliptic but approximately stays aligned to the positions of the observable constellations with the same name as the zodiacal signs. The sidereal zodiac differs from the tropical zodiac by an offset called the ayanamsa, which steadily increases as the equinoxes drift further. Furthermore, some siderealists (i.e. astrologers employing sidereal techniques) use the actual, unequal constellations of the zodiac in their work. Horoscopic astrology Horoscopic astrology is a system that some claim to have developed in the Mediterranean region and specifically Hellenistic Egypt around the late 2nd or early 1st century BCE. David Pingree - From Astral Omens to Astrology from Babylon to Bikaner, Roma: Istituto Italiano per L'Africa e L'Oriente, 1997. Pg. 26. However, horoscopic astrology has been practiced in India since ancient times and vedic astrology is the oldest surviving form of horoscopic astrology in the world. The tradition deals with two-dimensional diagrams of the heavens, or horoscopes, created for specific moments in time. The diagram is then used to interpret the inherent meaning underlying the alignment of celestial bodies at that moment based on a specific set of rules and guidelines. A horoscope was calculated normally for the moment of an individual's birth, or at the beginning of an enterprise or event, because the alignments of the heavens at that moment were thought to determine the nature of the subject in question. One of the defining characteristics of this form of astrology that makes it distinct from other traditions is the computation of the degree of the Eastern horizon rising against the backdrop of the ecliptic at the specific moment under examination, otherwise known as the ascendant. Horoscopic astrology is the most influential and widespread form of astrology in Africa, India, Europe and the Middle East. Medieval and most modern Western traditions of astrology have Hellenistic origins. The horoscope 18th century Icelandic manuscript showing astrological houses and glyphs for planets and signs. Central to horoscopic astrology and its branches is the calculation of the horoscope or astrological chart. This two-dimensional diagrammatic representation shows the celestial bodies' apparent positions in the heavens from the vantage of a location on Earth at a given time and place. The horoscope is also divided into twelve different celestial houses which govern different areas of life. Calculations performed in casting a horoscope involve arithmetic and simple geometry which serve to locate the apparent position of heavenly bodies on desired dates and times based on astronomical tables. In ancient Hellenistic astrology the ascendant demarcated the first celestial house of a horoscope. The word for the ascendant in Greek was horoskopos from which horoscope derives. In modern times, the word has come to refer to the astrological chart as a whole. Branches of horoscopic astrology Traditions of horoscopic astrology can be divided into four branches which are directed towards specific subjects or purposes. Often these branches use a unique set of techniques or a different application of the core principles of the system to a different area. Many other subsets and applications of astrology are derived from these four fundamental branches. Natal astrology is the study of a person's natal chart to gain information about the individual and his/her life experience. Katarchic astrology includes both electional and event astrology. The former uses astrology to determine the most auspicious moment to begin an enterprise or undertaking, and the latter to understand everything about an event from the time at which it took place. Horary astrology is used to answer a specific question by studying the chart of the moment the question is posed to an astrologer. Mundane or world astrology is the application of astrology to world events, including weather, earthquakes, and the rise and fall of empires or religions. This includes the Astrological Ages, such as the Age of Aquarius, Age of Pisces and so on. Each age is about 2,150 years in length and many people believe these massive ages correspond to major historical events and current developments in the world. History of astrology 15th century image from the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry showing believed relations between areas of the body and the zodiacal signs. Origins The origins of much of the astrological doctrine and method that would later develop in Asia, Europe, and the Middle East are found among the ancient Babylonians and their system of celestial omens that began to be compiled around the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. Namar Beli (Bel's Illumination), the oldest astrological document in the world This system of celestial omens later spread either directly or indirectly through the Babylonians and Assyrians to other areas such as India, Middle East, and Greece where it merged with pre-existing indigenous forms of astrology. Alexandra David-Neel Magic and Mystery in Tibet, p. 290, Dover Publications Inc., 1971 ISBN 0-486-22682-4; 1st French ed. 1929 This Babylonian astrology came to Greece initially as early as the middle of the 4th century BCE, and then around the late 2nd or early 1st century BCE after the Alexandrian conquests, this Babylonian astrology was mixed with the Egyptian tradition of decanic astrology to create horoscopic astrology. This new form of astrology, which appears to have originated in Alexandrian Egypt, quickly spread across the ancient world into Europe, the Middle East and India. Before the modern era The differentiation between astronomy and astrology varied from place to place; they were strongly linked in ancient India , ancient Babylonia and medieval Europe, but separated to an extent in the Hellenistic world. The first semantic distinction between astrology and astronomy was given in the 11th century by the Persian astronomer, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī S. Pines (September 1964), "The Semantic Distinction between the Terms Astronomy and Astrology according to al-Biruni", Isis 55 (3): 343-349 (see astrology and astronomy). The pattern of astronomical knowledge gained from astrological endeavours has been historically repeated across numerous cultures, from ancient India through the classical Maya civilization to medieval Europe. Given this historical contribution, astrology has been called a protoscience along with disciplines such as alchemy. Astrology was not without criticism before the modern era; it was often challenged by Hellenistic skeptics, church authorities, and medieval Muslim astronomers, such as Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, Avicenna and Averroes. Their reasons for refuting astrology were often due to both scientific (the methods used by astrologers being conjectural rather than empirical) and religious (conflicts with orthodox Islamic scholars) reasons. Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292-1350), in his Miftah Dar al-SaCadah, used empirical arguments in astronomy in order to refute astrology and divination. Many prominent thinkers, philosophers and scientists, such as Galen, Paracelsus, Girolamo Cardan, Nicolaus Copernicus, Taqi al-Din, Tycho Brahe, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Carl Jung and others, practiced or significantly contributed to astrology. Modern approaches Several innovations have occurred in astrological practice in modern times. Western astrology During the middle of the 20th century, Alfred Witte and following him Reinhold Ebertin pioneered the use of midpoints (midpoints in Astrology) in horoscopic analysis. From the 1930s to the 1980s, astrologers including Dane Rudhyar, Liz Greene and Stephen Arroyo pioneered the use of astrology for psychological analysis, with some following the lead of psychologists like Carl Jung. In the 1930s, Don Neroman developed and popularised in Europe a form of Locational Astrology under the name of "Astrogeography." In the 1970s, American astrologer Jim Lewis developed and popularized a different approach under the name of Astrocartography. Both methods purport to identify varying life conditions through differences in location. Vedic astrology In the 1960s, H.R. Seshadri Iyer, introduced a system including the concepts of yogi and avayogi. It generated interest with research oriented astrologers in the West. From the early 1990s, Indian vedic astrologer and author, V.K. Choudhry has created and developed the Systems' Approach for Interpreting Horoscopes, a simplified system of Jyotish (predictive astrology) V.K. Choudhry and K. Rajesh Chaudhary, 2006, Systems' Approach (astrology)Systems´ Approach for Interpreting Horoscopes, Fourth Revised Edition, Sagar Publications, New Delhi, India. ISBN 81-7082-017-0 . The system, also known as "SA", helps those who are trying to learn Jyotisha. The late K. S. Krishnamurti developed the Krishnamurti Paddhati system based on the analysis of the stars (nakshatras), by sub-dividing the stars in the ratio of the dasha of the concerned planets. The system is also known as "KP" and "sub theory". Effects on world culture Astrology has had a profound influence over the past few thousand years on Western and Eastern cultures. In the Middle Ages, when the educated of the time believed in astrology, the system of heavenly spheres and bodies was believed to reflect on the system of knowledge and the world itself below. Astrology has had an influence on both language and literature. For example, influenza, from medieval Latin influentia meaning influence, was so named because doctors once believed epidemics to be caused by unfavorable planetary and stellar influences http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=influenza Online Etymology Dictionary . The word "disaster" comes from the Italian disastro, derived from the negative prefix dis- and from Latin aster "star", thus meaning "ill-starred" . Adjectives "lunatic" (Luna/Moon), "mercurial" (Mercury), "venereal" (Venus), "martial" (Mars), "jovial" (Jupiter/Jove), and "saturnine" (Saturn) are all old words used to describe personal qualities said to resemble or be highly influenced by the astrological characteristics of the planet, some of which are derived from the attributes of the ancient Roman gods they are named after. In literature, many writers, notably Geoffrey Chaucer<ref>{{cite web | title=Astrology and English literature | author=A. Kitson | publisher= Contemporary Review, October 1996 |url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2242/is_n1569_v269/ai_18920172 | accessdate=2006-07-17}}</ref> and William Shakespeare, used astrological symbolism to add subtlety and nuance to the description of their characters' motivation(s). More recently, Michael Ward has proposed that C.S. Lewis imbued his Chronicles of Narnia with the characteristics and symbols of the seven heavens. Often, an understanding of astrological symbolism is needed to fully appreciate such literature. Some modern thinkers, notably Carl Jung, Carl G. Jung, "Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious," excerpted in The Basic Writings of C.G. Jung (Modern Library, repr. 1993), 362-363. believe in astrology's descriptive powers regarding the mind without necessarily subscribing to its predictive claims. In education astrology is reflected in the university education of medieval Europe, which was divided into seven distinct areas, each represented by a particular planet and known as the seven liberal arts. Dante Alighieri speculated that these arts, which grew into the sciences we know today, fitted the same structure as the planets. In music the best known example of astrology's influence is in the orchestral suite called "The Planets" by the British composer Gustav Holst, the framework of which is based upon the astrological symbolism of the planets. Astrology and science By the time of Francis Bacon and the scientific revolution, newly emerging scientific disciplines acquired a method of systematic empirical induction based upon experimental observations. At this point, astrology and astronomy began to diverge; astronomy became one of the central sciences while astrology was increasingly viewed as an occult science or superstition by natural scientists. This separation accelerated through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Jim Tester, A History of Western Astrology (Ballantine Books, 1989), 240ff. Contemporary scientists such as Richard Dawkins and Stephen Hawking regard astrology as unscientific, and Andrew Fraknoi of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific has labeled it a pseudoscience. In 1975, the American Humanist Association characterized those who have faith in astrology as doing so "in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary". Astronomer Carl Sagan found himself unable to sign the statement, not because he felt astrology was valid, but because he found the statement's tone authoritarian. Sagan, Carl. "Letter." The Humanist 36 (1976): 2 Sagan stated that he would instead have been willing to sign a statement describing and refuting the principal tenets of astrological belief, which he believed would have been more persuasive and would have produced less controversy than the circulated statement. Sagan, Carl. The Demon Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. (New York: Ballantine Books, 1996), 303. Although astrology has had limited scientific standing for some time, it has been the subject of much research among astrologers since the beginning of the twentieth century. In their landmark study of twentieth-century research into natal astrology, astrology critics Geoffrey Dean and coauthors documented this burgeoning research activity, primarily within the astrological community. G. Dean et al., Recent Advances in Natal Astrology: A Critical Review 1900-1976. The Astrological Association (England 1977) In one poll, 31% of Americans expressed a belief in astrology and, according to another study, 39% considered it scientific. Astrology: Fraud or Superstition? by Chaz Bufe Research The Mars effect: relative frequency of the diurnal position of Mars in the birth chart of eminent athletes. Studies have repeatedly failed to demonstrate statistically significant relationships between astrological predictions and operationally-defined outcomes. Effect size studies in astrology conclude that the mean accuracy of astrological predictions is no greater than what is expected by chance. When testing for cognitive, behavioral, physical and other variables, one study of astrological "time twins" showed that human characteristics are not molded by the influence of the Sun, Moon and planets at the time of birth. Researchers also suggest that the perceived accuracy of astrological interpretations and descriptions of one's personality can be accounted for by the fact that people tend to exaggerate positive 'hits' and overlook whatever does not fit, especially when vague language is used. They also argue that statistical research is often wrongly seen as evidence for astrology due to uncontrolled artifacts. A large-scale study, with a sample size of about 15,000 "astro-twins", was published in 2006. It examined the relationship between date of birth and individual differences in personality and general intelligence, and found no evidence that a connection existed. It also found no relationship between the zodiacal signs and participants' personal traits. French psychologist and statistician Michel Gauquelin claimed to have found correlations between some planetary positions and certain human traits such as vocations. Gauquelin M., Cosmic Influences on Human Behavior, Aurora Press, Santa Fe NM (1994) Gauquelin's most widely known claim is known as the Mars effect, which is said to demonstrate a correlation between the planet Mars occupying certain positions in the sky more often at the birth of eminent sports champions than at the birth of ordinary people. A similar claim is made by Richard Tarnas in his work Cosmos and Psyche'', in which he explores correspondences between planetary alignments and historically significant events and individuals. Since its original publication in 1955, the Mars effect has been the subject of critical studies and skeptical publications which aim to refute it, Benski, C. et al. 1996. The "Mars Effect": A French Test of Over 1000 Sports Champions. Zelen, M., P. Kurtz, and G. Abell. 1977. Is there a Mars effect? The Humanist 37 (6): 36-39. Herbert Neisler in Skeptical — a Handbook of Pseudoscience and the Paranormal, ed Donald Laycock, David Vernon, Colin Groves, Simon Brown, Imagecraft, Canberra, 1989, ISBN 0731657942, p3 and of studies in fringe journals used to support or expand the original ideas. Gauquelin's research has not received mainstream scientific notice. The Ptolemaic system depicted by Andreas Cellarius, 1660/61 Obstacles to research Astrologers have argued that there are significant obstacles in carrying out scientific research into astrology today, including lack of funding, H.J. Eysenck & D.K.B. Nias, Astrology: Science or Superstition? Penguin Books (1982) ISBN 0-14-022397-5 G. Phillipson, Astrology in the Year Zero. Flare Publications (London, 2000) ISBN 0-9530261-9-1 lack of background in science and statistics by astrologers, and insufficient expertise in astrology by research scientists and skeptics. There are only a handful of journals dealing with scientific research into astrology (i.e. astrological journals directed towards scientific research or scientific journals publishing astrological research). Some astrologers have argued that few practitioners today pursue scientific testing of astrology because they feel that working with clients on a daily basis provides personal validation for their clients. Another argument made by astrologers is that most studies of astrology do not reflect the nature of astrological practice and that the scientific method does not apply to astrology. M. Urban-Lurain, Introduction to Multivariate Analysis, Astrological Research Methods, Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology. International Society for Astrological Research (Los Angeles 1995) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3 G. Perry, How do we Know What we Think we Know? From Paradigm to Method in Astrological Research, Astrological Research Methods, Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology. International Society for Astrological Research (Los Angeles 1995) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3 Some astrology proponents argue that the prevailing attitudes and motives of many opponents of astrology introduce conscious or unconscious bias in the formulation of hypotheses to be tested, the conduct of the tests, and the reporting of results. Early science, particularly geometry and astronomy/astrology, was connected to the divine for most medieval scholars. The compass in this 13th century manuscript is a symbol of God's act of creation, as many believed that there was something intrinsically divine or perfect that could be found in circles. Mechanism Astrologers have not presented consistent physical mechanisms underlying astrological phenomena, Dr. P. Seymour, Astrology: The evidence of Science. Penguin Group (London, 1988) ISBN 0-14-019226-3 and few modern astrologers believe in a direct causal relationship between heavenly bodies and earthly events. An editorial published by the Astronomical Society of the Pacific reports that they can find no evidence for a scientifically defined mechanism by which celestial objects can influence terrestrial affairs. Some researchers have posited acausal, purely correlative, relationships between astrological observations and events, such as the theory of synchronicity proposed by Carl Jung. Maggie Hyde, Jung and Astrology. The Aquarian Press (London, 1992) p. 24-26. Others have posited a basis in divination. Geoffrey Cornelius, The Moment of Astrology. Utsav Arora, another meditation research specialist and astrologer, argues, "if 100% accuracy were to be the benchmark, we should be closing down and shutting all hospitals, medical labs. Scientific medical equipment and drugs have a long history of errors and miscalculations. Same is the case with computers and electronic. We don't refute electronic gadgets and equipment just because it fails but we work towards finding cures for the errors." The Wessex Astrologer (Bournemouth, 2003.) Still others have argued that empirical correlations can stand on their own epistemologically, and do not need the support of any theory or mechanism. To some observers, these non-mechanistic concepts raise serious questions about the feasibility of validating astrology through scientific testing, and some have gone so far as to reject the applicability of the scientific method to astrology almost entirely. Some astrologers, on the other hand, believe that astrology is amenable to the scientific method, given sufficiently sophisticated analytical methods, and they cite pilot studies to support this view. D. Cochrane, Towards a Proof of Astrology: An AstroSignature for Mathematical Ability International Astrologer ISAR Journal Winter-Spring 2005, Vol 33, #2 Consequently, several astrologers have called for or advocated continuing studies of astrology based on statistical validation. M. Pottenger (ed), Astrological Research Methods, Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology. International Society for Astrological Research (Los Angeles 1995) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3 See also Astrological organizations Astrological symbols Astrology and astronomy Astrology and computers Da Liu Ren List of astrologers List of astrological traditions, types, and systems Planets in astrology Qi Men Dun Jia References Further reading Roger Beck, A Brief History of Ancient Astrology, Blackwell (2007) Paramahansa Yogananda: Autobiography of a Yogi/Chapter 16: Outwitting the Stars External links Astrology and religion Astrology in Islam Astrology in the Old and New Testament, by Joseph John Dewey. Astrology: Between Religion and the Empirical, a treatise on astrology by Dr. Gustav-Adolf Schoener, translated by Shane Denson. Medieval Astrology, a learning resource from the British Library. Astrology in Judaism Astrology and science Astrology and Science, a critical look at astrology and science. The Scientific Exploration of Astrology, articles by leading astrological researchers The Astrotest, an account of a test of the predictive power of astrology, with references to other experiments. The Real Romance in the Stars, a critical view of astrology by Richard Dawkins. Astrofaces, a research project seeking to provide statistical correlations of astrology for modern science with photographs grouped by the sun, moon and ascendant signs of the subjects. be-x-old:Астралёгія | Astrology |@lemmatized hand:4 colored:1 version:2 anonymous:1 flammarion:1 woodcut:2 astrology:165 greek:3 astron:1 constellation:11 star:8 logion:1 study:18 group:3 system:26 tradition:31 belief:7 hold:4 relative:3 position:12 celestial:20 body:13 related:1 detail:1 provide:4 information:2 personality:3 human:5 affair:2 terrestrial:3 matter:1 practitioner:3 call:6 astrologer:36 rarely:1 astrologist:1 numerous:3 application:4 employ:2 astrological:52 concept:4 arise:1 since:5 early:7 record:1 beginning:3 millennium:2 bc:1 play:1 important:4 role:1 shaping:1 culture:5 astronomy:13 veda:1 bible:2 http:3 www:3 astrologyzine:1 com:4 shtml:1 various:3 discipline:3 throughout:2 history:6 fact:3 often:8 indistinguishable:1 modern:17 era:3 desire:1 predictive:5 divinatory:2 knowledge:4 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2,730 | Alicante | Alicante or Alacant (Spanish: Alicante, Valencian: Alacant) is a city in Spain, the capital of the province of Alicante and of the comarca of the Alacantí, in the southern part of the Valencian Community. It is also a historic Mediterranean port. The population of the city of Alicante proper was 331,750, estimated , ranking as the second-largest Valencian city. Instituto Nacional de Estadística Municipal Registry data, 2008. Including nearby municipalities, Alicante conurbation was populated by 452,462 residents. Population of the metropolitan area (including Elche and satellite towns) was 757,443 estimates, ranking as the eighth-largest metropolitan area of Spain. History The area around Alicante has been inhabited for over 7000 years, with the first tribes of hunter gatherers moving down gradually from Central Europe between 5000 and 3000 BC. Some of the earliest settlements were made on the slopes of Mount Benacantil. By 1000 BC Greek and Phoenician traders had begun to visit the eastern coast of Spain, establishing small trading ports and introducing the native Iberian tribes to the alphabet, iron and the pottery wheel. By the sixth century BC, the rival armies of Carthage and Rome began to invade and fight for control of the Iberian Peninsula. The Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca established the fortified settlement of Akra Leuka (Greek: , meaning "White Mountain" or "White Point"), where Alicante stands today. Monjas-Santa Faz Square in Alicante. Although the Carthaginians conquered much of the land around Alicante, the Romans would eventually rule Hispania Tarraconensis for over 700 years. By the 5th century AD, Rome was in decline; the Roman predecessor town of Alicante, known as Lucentum (Latin), was more or less under the control of the Visigothic warlord Theudimer. However neither the Romans nor the Goths put up much resistance to the Arab conquest of Medina Laqant in the 8th century. The Moors gave the city its modern name - Alicante is Arabic for "city of lights". Alicante City The Moors ruled southern and eastern Spain until the 11th century reconquista (reconquest). Alicante was finally taken in 1246 by the Castilian king Alfonso X, but it passed soon and definitely to the Kingdom of Valencia in 1298 with the Catalonian King James II of Aragon. It gained the status of Royal Village (Vila Reial) with representation in the medieval Valencian Parliament. After several decades of being the battlefield where Kingdom of Castile and the Crown of Aragón clashed, Alicante became a major Mediterranean trading station exporting rice, wine, olive oil, oranges and wool. But between 1609 and 1614 King Felipe III expelled thousands of moriscos who had remained in Valencia after the reconquista, due to their allegiance with Barbary pirates who continually attacked coastal cities and caused much harm to trade. This act cost the region dearly; with so many skilled artisans and agricultural labourers gone, the feudal nobility found itself sliding into bankruptcy. Things got worse in the early 18th century; after the War of Spanish Succession, Alicante went into a long, slow decline, surviving through the 18th and 19th centuries by making shoes and agricultural products such as oranges and almonds, and its fisheries. The end of the 19th century witnessed a sharp recovery of the local economy with increasing international trade and the growth of the city harbour leading to increased exports of several products (particularly during World War I when Spain was a neutral country). View over Alicante and the Mediterranean. During the early twentieth century, Alicante was a minor capital which enjoyed the benefit of Spain's neutrality during World War I, which provided new opportunities for the local industry and agriculture. The Rif War in the 1920s saw numerous alicantinos drafted to fight in the long and bloody campaigns at the former Spanish protectorate (Northern Morocco) against the Rif rebels. The political unrest of the late 1920s led to the victory of republican candidates in the local council elections throughout the country, and the abdication of King Alfonso XIII. The proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic was much celebrated in the city on April 14, 1931. The Spanish Civil War broke out on July 17, 1936. Alicante was the last city loyal to the Republican government to be occupied by General Franco's troops on April 1, 1939, and its harbour saw the last Republican government officials fleeing the country. Even if not as famous as the bombing of Guernica by the German Luftwaffe, Alicante was the target of some vicious air bombings during the three years of civil conflict, most remarkably the bombing by the Italian Aviazione Legionaria of the Mercado de Abastos in May 25, 1938 in which more than 300 civilians perished. Palm-lined promenade of Postiguet beach. The next 20 years under Franco's dictatorship were difficult for Alicante as it was for the entire country. However, the late 1950s and early 1960s saw the onset of a lasting transformation of the city due to tourism. Large buildings and complexes rose in nearby Albufereta and Playa de San Juan, with the benign climate being the best tool to bring prospective buyers and tourists who kept hotels reasonably busy. The tourist development, aside from construction, also brought numerous businesses such as restaurants, bars and other businesses focused on visitors. Also, the old airfield at Rabasa was closed and air traffic moved to the new El Altet Airport, which made for a convenient facility for charter flights bringing tourists from northern European countries. When Franco died in 1975, his successor Juan Carlos I successfully oversaw the transition of Spain to a democratic constitutional monarchy. Governments of nationalities and regions were given more autonomy, and the Valencian region was not an exception. The port of Alicante has been reinventing itself since the industrial decline the city suffered in the 1980s (with most mercantile traffic lost in favour of Valencia's harbour). In recent years, the Port Authority has established it as one of the most important ports in Spain for cruises, with 72 calls to port made by cruises in 2007 bringing some 80,000 cruise passengers and 30,000 crew to the city each year. The moves to develop the port for more tourism have been welcomed by the city and its residents, but the latest plans to develop an industrial estate in the port have caused great controversy. Economy Alicante is one of the fastest-growing cities in Spain. The local economy is based upon tourism to the beaches of the Costa Blanca and particularly the second residence construction boom which started in the 1960s and reinvigorated again by the late 1990s. Services and public administration also play a major role in the city's economy. The construction boom has raised many environmental concerns and both the local autonomous government and city council are under scrutiny by the European Union. The construction soar is the subject of hot debates among politicians and citizens alike. The latest of many public battles concerns the plans of the Port Authority of Alicante to construct an industrial estate on reclaimed land in front of the city's coastal strip, in breach of local, national and European regulations. (See Port of Alicante for the details). The city is the headquarters of the Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market and a sizeable population of European public workers live here. University of Alicante is located in San Vicente del Raspeig, right next to Alicante. More than 30,000 students attend the University. Since 2005 Alicante hosts Ciudad de la Luz, one of the largest film studios in Europe. Spanish and international movies such as Asterix at the Olympic Games by Frédéric Forestier and Thomas Langmann, Manolete by Menno Meyjes have been shot there. Population Demographics of Alicante (1900-2007, INE data). The official population of Alicante in 2008 was 331,750 inhabitants and 757,443 in the metropolitan area "Alicante-Elche". About 15% of the population is foreign, mostly those from Argentina, Ecuador, and Colombia who have arrived in the previous 10 years as immigrants. There are also immigrants from other origins such as Romania, Russia, Ukraine and Morocco, many of which are under illegal alien status and therefore are not accounted for in official population figures. The real percentage of foreign population is higher, since the Alicante metropolitan area is home to many Northern European retired citizens, even if officially they are still residents of their own countries. Other sources indicate that the British population is by far the largest non-Spanish group of foreign nationals in the city, but most of them are not counted in official statistics. In the same pattern, a sizable amount of permanent residents are Spanish nationals who officially still live in Madrid, the Basque provinces, or other areas of the country. +Foreign Population (official data, 2008) Ayuntamiento de Alicante Sección de Estadística. La Población de Alicante (01-01-2008). Pos.NationalityPopulation1st5,1862nd4,5203rd3,7154th3,5055th3,2876th3,0647th2,7468th2,2999th1,61410th1,203 + Historical Population Year Population Year Population Year Population 1250 2,500 1797 19,313 1930 71,271 1350 3,250 1803 21,447 1940 89,198 1418 1,539 1857 27,550 1950 101,791 1609 5,040 1860 31,162 1960 121,832 1646 6,174 1877 34,926 1970 181,550 1717 11,019 1887 40,115 1981 245,963 1735 12,604 1897 49,463 1991 265,473 1754 14,394 1900 50,495 2001 288,481 1768 17,213 1910 55,116 2007 322,673 1786 17,345 1920 63,382 2008 331,750 Government Alicante City Hall. Luis Díaz Alperi (1945) of the People's Party (Partido Popular) was reelected city mayor with an absolute majority for his fourth term in the Municipal Elections of May 2007, followed closely by Etelvina Andreu (1969) of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (Partido Socialista). Díaz Alperi resigned in October 2008, and a close aide, Sonia Castedo, was appointed mayor. At the foot of the main staircase of the City Hall Building (Ayuntamiento) is the zero point (cota cero), used as the point of reference for measuring the height above or below sea level of any point in Spain, due to the marginal tidal variations of the Mediterranean sea in Alicante. Climate Alicante enjoys Mediterranean climate with mild temperatures throughout the year and little rain, concentrated in equinoctial periods. The temperature on average is between 16.8° and 6.2° in January and between 30.6° and 20.4° in August, with the average annual temperature of 17.8°. Daily oscillations in temperature are very small due to maritime influence, although occasional episodes of wind from the west could result in temperature range in excess of 15°. Annual oscillations in temperature are small as well, i.e. winters are mild and summers are warm. The rainfall is 336 mm per year. September and October are the rainiest months due to torrential rains caused by the cold drop, which can reach over 200 mm in 24 hours causing severe flooding. Because of this irregularity, on average only 37 rainy days are observed per year, and the annual number of sunshine hours reaches 2,864. The record maximum temperature of 41.4° was recorded in Alicante on July 4, 1994. The minimum temperature of -4.6° was registered on February 12, 1956. The record rainfall of 270.2 mm in 24 hours was observed on September 30, 1997. Transport Line L3 Alicante Tram at Lucentum stop going to El Campello. Alicante Airport outranks its Valencian counterpart, being among the busiest airports in Spain after Madrid, Barcelona, Palma de Mallorca and Málaga and keeps expanding. It is connected with Madrid and Barcelona by frequent Iberia and Spanair flights, with many Western European cities through carriers such as Jet2.com, Monarch Airlines, Globespan, Ryanair and Air Berlin and has also flights to Algiers and Russia. In addition, Alicante's only link to South America, specifically Bogotá, is provided by Avianca. Alicante railway station is used by cercanías linking Alicante with suburban and Murcia. Long-range RENFE trains run frequently to Madrid and Barcelona. Alicante Tram connects the city with outlying settlements along Costa Blanca. As of 2008, it runs up to Benidorm with further extension to Denia under construction. The city has regular ferry services to the Balearic Islands and Algeria. The city is strongly fortified, with a spacious harbour. Culture, festivals and sport Harbor and mountain Benacantil. Amongst the most notable features of the city are the Castle of Santa Bárbara, which sits high above the city, and the port of Alicante, which was the subject of bitter controversy in 2006-2007 as residents battled to keep it from being changed into an industrial estate. There are a number of notable museums in Alicante. Archaeological Museum of Alicante shed light on history of the region, presenting artifacts from 100,000 years ago up until 19th century. The archaeological museum won the European Museum of the Year award in 2004. On exhibition in Gravina Museum of Fine Arts there are painting and sculptures of Alicante from 16th century to 19th century. The Asegurada Museum of Contemporary Art is currently closed for renovation. The most important festival, the Bonfires of Saint John, takes place during the summer solstice. This is followed a week later by seven nights of firework and pyrotechnic contests between companies on the urban beach Playa del Postiguet. Another well-known festival is Moros y Cristianos in Altozano or San Blas district. Overall, the city boasts a year-round nightlife, helped by tourists, fun-loving residents, and a large student population of the University of Alicante. The nightlife social scene tends to shift to nearby Playa de San Juan (St. John's Beach) during the summer months. Every summer in Alicante, a two-month-long programme of music, theatre and dance is staged in the Paseo del Puerto. Alicante Festivals Two Alicante football teams, Hércules CF and Alicante CF currently compete in the Spanish Segunda División. They both host their home games at Estadio José Rico Pérez. Famous citizens Esplanada and Carbonell House. Alicante Port. George Washington Montgomery, (1804-1841), born in Alicante, United States diplomat and editor/publisher of the first Spanish language translation of the works of Washington Irving. Carlos Arniches (1866-1943), novelist Rafael Altamira y Crevea (1866-1951), co-founder of Permanent Court of International Justice so-called the World Court, after 1945 International Court of Justice Francisco Javier de Balmis (1753-1819), physician who headed the Balmis expedition to vaccinate the Spanish-colonies population against smallpox. Gabriel Miró (1879-1930), novelist Antonio Gades (1936-2004), Flamenco dancer Juan Escarré (1969), field hockey player Belen Rueda, actress Miriam Blasco, judoka Olympic winner Isabel Fernandez, judoka Olympic winner Vanessa Romero, model and actress Maria Jurado, model and actress Esther Cañadas, model and actress Pedro Ferrándiz, basketball coach Hannibal Laguna, fashion designer Francisco Rufete, footballer Miguel Hernández, poet Twin towns Mt. Benacantil with the Castle of Santa Barbara. Nice, France Carloforte, Italy Herzliya, Israel León, Nicaragua Matanzas, Cuba Oran, Algeria Riga, Latvia Toyooka, Japan Wenzhou, People's Republic of China In 2009 a bid was made to twin Newcastle, United Kingdom with Alicante. References External links Official website of Alicante Official website of the Diputación Provincial de Alicante Dates and numbers of the municipalities of Alicante Province. 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2,731 | History_of_Christianity | The history of Christianity concerns the Christian religion and the Christian Church, from the ministry of Jesus and his Twelve Apostles and the Great Commission, to contemporary times and denominations. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion. It differs most significantly from the others in the claim that Jesus Christ is God the Son. The vast majority of Christians believe in a triune God consisting of three unified and distinct persons: God the Father, God the Son and the Holy Spirit. There have been significant theological differences among Christians regarding the divine and human natures of Jesus and the triune nature of God. These differences continue today. In many Christian denominations "The Church" is understood theologically as the institution founded by Jesus for the salvation of humankind. This understanding is shared between Catholic and Orthodox traditions. They see in the Church a foundation of Christ, who continues to live in it, through the Holy Spirit. In the Catholic tradition, the Catholic Church is the Body of Christ. Catechism of the Catholic Church, Pius XII Mystici corporis Christi Protestant churches generally view all Christians to be the Body of Christ. Some Protestant theologians call this High Church. In contrast, Low Church denominations generally emphasise the personal relationship between a believer and Jesus Christ. Other Christians, however, would say that the Church is not an institution at all. Instead, it is the gathering of believers, individually, and ultimately in heaven where all believers from all nations and times will be gathered together; so, church history is not just about the history of institutions, but the major happenings amongst believers throughout the world, throughout time. Christianity began in 1st century AD Jerusalem. It ultimately became the state religion of Armenia in either 301 or 314, the state religion of Ethiopia in 325, the state religion of Georgia in 337, and then the state religion of the Roman Empire in 380. During the Age of Exploration (15th to 17th cent.), Christianity expanded throughout the world, becoming the world's largest religion. Adherents.com, Religions by Adherents Throughout its history, the religion has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches. The largest branches of Christianity are the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Protestant churches. Life of Jesus (6–4 BC to AD 29–36) Religious scholars generally agree that Jesus was born to a Jewish mother named Mary in 6-4 B.C. and that he was raised in Nazareth, Galilee. They further claim that Jesus began his ministry around the age of thirty and that it included recruiting disciples who regarded him as a wonderworker, healer and/or the Son of Man and Son of God. He was eventually executed by crucifixion in Jerusalem circa AD 33 on orders of the Roman Governor of Iudaea Province, Pontius Pilate; R. E. Brown, The Death of the Messiah: From Gethsemane to the Grave (New York: Doubleday, Anchor Bible Reference Library, 1994), p. 964; S. J. D. Cohen, From the Maccabees to the Mishnah, Westminster Press, 1987, p. 78, 93, 105, 108; M.Grant, Jesus, An Historian's View of the Gospels (New York: Scribner's 1977) pp. 34–35, 78, 166, 200; P. Fredriksen, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews (Alfred A. Knopf, 1999) pp. 6–7, 105–110, 232–234, 266; John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew (Doubleday, 1991) vol. 1 pp. 68, 146, 199, 278, 386, and vol. 2 p. 726; G. Vermes, Jesus the Jew (Philadelphia: Fortress Press 1973), p. 37.; P. L. Maier, In the Fullness of Time (Kregel, 1991) pp. 1, 99, 121, 171; N. T. Wright, The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions (HarperCollins, 1998) pp. 32, 83, 100–102, 222; E. P. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus (Penguin Books, 1993); J. A. H. Moran Cruz and R. Gerberding, Medieval Worlds: An Introduction to European History (Houghton Mifflin Company 2004), pp. 44–45; J. D. Crossan, The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant (HarperCollins, 1991) p. xi-xiii; L. T. Johnson, The Real Jesus (San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1996), p. 123; Rudolf Bultmann, Jesus (Berlin: Deutsche Bibliothek, 1926), p. 159. The "life of Jesus" is a matter of academic debate. For a more complete analysis and bibliography, refer to the see also section. and after his crucifixion, on death by crucifixion, see L. T. Johnson, The Real Jesus (San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1996); John P. Meier, "The Circle of the Twelve: Did It Exist during Jesus' Public Ministry?", in Journal of Biblical Literature 116 (1997) pp. 664–665 Jesus was buried in a tomb. R. E. Brown, Death of the Messiah vol. 2 (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, 1994) pp. 1240–1241; J. A. T. Robinson, The Human Face of God (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1973) p. 131 and also J. Kremer, Die Osterevangelien-Geschichten um Geschichte (Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1977) pp. 49–50; B. Ehrman, From Jesus to Constantine: A History of Early Christianity, lecture 4, "Oral and Written Traditions About Jesus" (The Teaching Company, 2003); M. J. Borg and N. T. Wright, The Meaning of Jesus (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1999), p. 12; G. Habermas, The Historical Jesus, (College Press, 1996) p. 128 Christians believe that three days after his death, Jesus and his body was raised from the dead by God and that the empty tomb story is a historical fact. M. Grant, Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels (New York: Scribner's 1977) p. 176; P. L. Maier, "The Empty Tomb as History" in Christianity Today (March 1975) p. 5; D. H. Van Daalen, The Real Resurrection (London: Collins, 1972), p. 41; Jakob Kremer, Die Osterevangelien — Geschichten um Geschichte (Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1977), pp. 49–50; W. Craig, "The Disciples' Inspection of the Empty Tomb (Luke 24, 12.24; John 20, 1–10)", in John and the Synoptics, ed. A. Denaux, Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium 101 (Louvain: University Press, 1992), pp. 614–619; W. Craig, "The Guard at the Tomb", in New Testament Studies 30 (1984) pp. 273–281; w. Craig, "The Historicity of the Empty Tomb of Jesus", in New Testament Studies 31 (1985): 39–67 Early works by Jesus's followers document a number of resurrection appearances and R. H. Gundry, Soma in Biblical Theology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976); Johannes Weiss, Der erste Korintherbrief 9th ed. (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1910) p. 345; W. D. Davies, Paul and Rabbinic Judaism 2d ed (London: 1965) pp. 305–308; Ulrich Wilckens, Auferstehung (Stuttgart and Berlin: Kreuz Verlag, 1970) pp. 128–31; J. L. Smith, "Resurrection Faith Today", in TS 30 (1969) p. 406; J. Coppens, "La glorification céleste du Christ dans la théologie neotestamentaire et l'attente de Jésus", in Resurrexit ed. Édouard Dhanis (Rome: Editrice Libreria Vaticana, 1974) pp. 37–40; G. O'Collins, The Easter Jesus (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1973) p. 94; Clavier, "Breves remarques sur la notion de σωμα πνευματικον" in The background of the New Testament and Its Eschatology ed. W. D. Davies and D. Daube (Cambridge University Press, 1956) p. 361; J. E. Alsup, The Post-Resurrection Appearance Stories of the Gospel-Tradition (Stuttgart: Calwer Verlag, 1975) the resurrection of Jesus formed the basis and impetus of the Christian faith. L. T. Johnson, The Real Jesus (San Francisco, Harper San Francisco, 1996) p. 136; Gerd Ludemann, What Really Happened to Jesus? trans. J. Bowden (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1995) p. 8; N. T. Wright, "The New Unimproved Jesus", in Christianity Today (1993-09-13) p. 26; Gerd Lüdemann, What Really Happened to Jesus?, trans. John Bowden (Louisville, Kent.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1995), p. 80; James Orr, The Resurrection of Jesus (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1909) p. 39; Jindrich Mánek, "The Apostle Paul and the Empty Tomb", in NT 2 (1957) pp. 277–278; C. F. D. Moule, ed., "The Significance of the Message of the Resurrection for Faith in Jesus Christ", in SBT 8 (London: SCM, 1968); Jacob Kremer, "Zur Diskussion über "das leere Grab", in Resurrexit, ed. Edouard Dhanis (Rome: Libreria Editrice Vatica, 1974) pp. 143–144 His followers wrote that he appeared to the disciples in Galilee and Jerusalem and that Jesus was on the earth for 40 days before his Ascension to heaven and that he will return to earth again to fulfil aspects of Messianic prophecy, such as the resurrection of the dead, the last judgment and the full establishment of the Kingdom of God. The main sources of information regarding Jesus' life and teachings are the four canonical Gospels, and to a lesser extent the Acts of the Apostles and writings of Paul. Christianity's popularity is largely founded and based on one central point found in these Gospels, that Jesus died and rose from death as God's sacrifice for human sins Catechism of the Catholic Church, Loyola University Press, #651-655, pp. 170-171. , see also Substitutionary atonement. Early Christianity (~33–325) Early Christianity refers to the period when the religion spread in the Greek/Roman world and beyond, from its beginnings as a 1st century Jewish sect, ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Tacitus, Annales xv 44; Josephus Antiquities xviii 3; Mortimer Chambers, The Western Experience Volume II chapter 5; The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion page 158. to the end of imperial persecution of Christians after the ascension of Constantine the Great in AD 313, to the First Council of Nicaea in 325. It may be divided into two distinct phases: the apostolic period, when the first apostles were alive and organising the Church, and the post-apostolic period, when an early episcopal structure developed, whereby bishoprics were governed by bishops (overseers). Apostolic Church The Apostolic Church, called by some the Primitive Church, was the community led by Jesus' apostles and his relatives. R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 51 According to the Great Commission, the resurrected Jesus commanded the disciples to spread his teachings to all the world. The primary source of information for this period is the Acts of the Apostles, which gives a history of the Church from the Great Commission (), Pentecost () and the establishment of the Jerusalem Church to the spread of the religion among the gentiles () Catholic Encyclopedia: Cornelius: "The baptism of Cornelius is an important event in the history of the Early Church. The gates of the Church, within which thus far only those who were circumcised and observed the Law of Moses had been admitted, were now thrown open to the uncircumcised Gentiles without the obligation of submitting to the Jewish ceremonial laws." , Paul's conversion (, , ) and eventual imprisonment (house arrest: ) in Rome in the mid-first century. However, the historical accuracy of Acts is also disputed and may conflict with accounts in the Epistles of Paul. For example, see Catholic Encyclopedia: Acts of the Apostles: OBJECTIONS AGAINST THE AUTHENTICITY: "Nevertheless this well-proved truth has been contradicted. Baur, Schwanbeck, De Wette, Davidson, Mayerhoff, Schleiermacher, Bleek, Krenkel, and others have opposed the authenticity of the Acts. An objection is drawn from the discrepancy between Acts ix, 19–28 and Gal., i, 17, 19. In the Epistle to the Galatians, i, 17, 18, Paul declares that, immediately after his conversion, he went away into Arabia, and again returned to Damascus. "Then after three years, I went up to Jerusalem to visit Cephas." In Acts no mention is made of Paul's journey into Arabia; and the journey to Jerusalem is placed immediately after the notice of Paul's preaching in the synagogues. Hilgenfeld, Wendt, Weizäcker, Weiss, and others allege here a contradiction between the writer of the Acts and Paul." Note that the Catholic Encyclopedia considers the authenticity of Acts to be a "well-proved truth" but nonetheless notes that other scholars disagree. The first Christians were essentially all ethnically Jewish or Jewish Proselytes. In other words, Jesus preached to the Jewish people and called from them his first disciples, though the earliest documented "group" of appointed evangelisers, called the Seventy Disciples, was not specifically ethnically Jewish and the Great Commission is specifically directed at "all nations". An early difficulty arose concerning the matter of Gentile (non-Jewish) converts as to whether they had to "become Jewish" (usually referring to circumcision and adherence to dietary law, see also Judaisers) as part of becoming Christian. Circumcision was considered repulsive during the period of Hellenization of the Eastern Mediterranean Jewish Encyclopedia: Circumcision: In Apocryphal and Rabbinical Literature: "Contact with Grecian life, especially at the games of the arena [which involved nudity], made this distinction obnoxious to the Hellenists, or antinationalists; and the consequence was their attempt to appear like the Greeks by epispasm ("making themselves foreskins"; I Macc. i. 15; Josephus, "Ant." xii. 5, § 1; Assumptio Mosis, viii.; I Cor. vii. 18; , Tosef., Shab. xv. 9; Yeb. 72a, b; Yer. Peah i. 16b; Yeb. viii. 9a). All the more did the law-observing Jews defy the edict of Antiochus Epiphanes prohibiting circumcision (I Macc. i. 48, 60; ii. 46); and the Jewish women showed their loyalty to the Law, even at the risk of their lives, by themselves circumcising their sons."; . The decision of Peter, as evidenced by conversion of the Centurion Cornelius, Catholic Encyclopedia: Cornelius: "The baptism of Cornelius is an important event in the history of the Early Church. The gates of the Church, within which thus far only those who were circumcised and observed the Law of Moses had been admitted, were now thrown open to the uncircumcised Gentiles without the obligation of submitting to the Jewish ceremonial laws." was that they did not, and the matter was further addressed with the Council of Jerusalem, see also Primacy of Simon Peter. See Biblical law in Christianity for the modern debate. For the parallel in Judaism, see Noahide Law. The doctrines of the apostles brought the Early Church into conflict with some Jewish religious authorities. This eventually led to their expulsion from the synagogues, (see also Council of Jamnia) Acts records the martyrdom of SS. Stephen and James the Great. Thus, Christianity acquired an identity distinct from Rabbinic Judaism, see also List of events in early Christianity and Christianity and Judaism. The name "Christian" (Greek ) was first applied to the disciples in Antioch, as recorded in . E. Peterson, "Christianus" pp. 353–72 Worship of Jesus Christ Jesus, "The figure (…) is an allegory of Christ as the shepherd" Andre Grabard, "Christian iconography, a study of its origins", ISBN 0691018308 the Good Shepherd, 3rd century. The Ten Commandments on a monument on the grounds of the Texas State Capitol. The third non-indented commandment listed is "Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy". The sources for the beliefs of the apostolic community include the Gospels and New Testament Epistles. The very earliest accounts are contained in these texts, such as early Christian creeds and hymns, as well as accounts of the Passion, the empty tomb, and Resurrection appearances; often these are dated to within a decade or so of the crucifixion of Jesus, originating within the Jerusalem Church. On the Creeds, see Oscar Cullmann, The Earliest Christian Confessions, trans. J. K. S. Reid (London: Lutterworth, 1949); on the Passion, see Rudolf Pesch, Das Markusevangelium, 2 vols., Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament 2 (Freiburg: Herder, 1976–77), 2: 519–20 The earliest Christian creeds and hymns express belief in the risen Jesus, e.g., that preserved in quoted by Paul: "For I delivered to you first of all that which I also received: that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures." Neufeld, The Earliest Christian Confessions (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964) p. 47; Reginald H. Fuller, The Formation of the Resurrection Narratives (New York: Macmillan, 1971) p. 10; Wolfhart Pannenberg, Jesus–God and Man translated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968) p. 90; Oscar Cullmann, The Earlychurch: Studies in Early Christian History and Theology, ed. A. J. B. Higgins (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966) p. 64; Hans Conzelmann, 1 Corinthians, translated James W. Leitch (Philadelphia: Fortress 1969) p. 251; Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament vol. 1 pp. 45, 80–82, 293; R. E. Brown, The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus (New York: Paulist Press, 1973) pp. 81, 92 The antiquity of the creed has been located by many scholars to less than a decade after Jesus' death, originating from the Jerusalem apostolic community, see Wolfhart Pannenberg, Jesus–God and Man translated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968) p. 90; Oscar Cullmann, The Early church: Studies in Early Christian History and Theology, ed. A. J. B. Higgins (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966) p. 66–66; R. E. Brown, The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus (New York: Paulist Press, 1973) pp. 81; Thomas Sheehan, First Coming: How the Kingdom of God Became Christianity (New York: Random House, 1986 pp. 110, 118; Ulrich Wilckens, Resurrection translated A. M. Stewart (Edinburgh: Saint Andrew, 1977) p. 2; Hans Grass, Ostergeschen und Osterberichte, Second Edition (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1962) p96; Grass favours the origin in Damascus. and no scholar dates it later than the 40s. Gerald O' Collins, What are They Saying About the Resurrection? (New York: Paulist Press, 1978) p. 112; on historical importance, cf. Hans von Campenhausen, "The Events of Easter and the Empty Tomb", in Tradition and Life in the Church (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1968) p. 44; and also Archibald Hunter, Works and Words of Jesus (1973) p. 100 Other relevant and very early creeds include , Cullmann, Confessions p. 32 , Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament vol 1, pp. 49, 81; Joachim Jeremias, The Eucharistic Words of Jesus translated Norman Perrin (London: SCM Press, 1966) p. 102 , Wolfhart Pannenberg, Jesus–God and Man translated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968) pp. 118, 283, 367; Neufeld, The Earliest Christian Confessions (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964) pp. 7, 50; C. H. Dodd, The Apostolic Preaching and its Developments (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980) p. 14 and , an early creedal hymn. Reginald H. Fuller, The Foundations of New Testament Christology (New York: Scriner's, 1965) pp. 214, 216, 227, 239; Joachim Jeremias, The Eucharistic Words of Jesus translated Norman Perrin (London: SCM Press, 1966) p. 102; Neufeld, The Earliest Christian Confessions (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964) pp. 7, 9, 128 Jewish continuity Early Christianity retained some of the doctrines and practices of first-century Judaism while rejecting others. They held the Jewish scriptures to be authoritative and sacred, employing mostly the Septuagint or Targum translations, later called the Old Testament, a term associated with Supersessionism, and added other texts as the New Testament canon developed. Christianity also continued other Judaic practices: baptism Jewish Encyclopedia: Baptism: "According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8), Baptism, next to circumcision and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a proselyte to Judaism (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; 'Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, was much more important, and, like baptism, was called a "seal" (Schlatter, "Die Kirche Jerusalems," 1898, p. 70). But as circumcision was discarded by Christianity, and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life. The next ceremony, adopted shortly after the others, was the imposition of hands, which, it is known, was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi. Anointing with oil, which at first also accompanied the act of Baptism, and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews, was not a necessary condition." , liturgical worship, including the use of incense, an altar, a set of scriptural readings adapted from synagogue practice, use of sacred music in hymns and prayer, and a religious calendar, as well as other distinctive features such as an exclusively male priesthood, and ascetic practices (fasting etc.). Circumcision was rejected as a requirement at the Council of Jerusalem, c. 50. Sabbath observance was modified, perhaps as early as Ignatius' Epistle to the Magnesians 9.1 Ignatius to the Magnesians chapter 9 at ccel.org . Quartodecimanism (observation of the Paschal feast on Nisan 14, the day of preparation for Passover) was formally rejected at the First Council of Nicaea. The early Christians in the first century believed Yahweh to be the Only true God, the God of Israel, and considered Jesus to be the Messiah (Christ) prophesied in the Old Testament. Alister McGrath, a proponent of palaeo-orthodoxy, claimed that many of the Jewish Christians were fully faithful religious Jews, only differing in their acceptance of Jesus as the Messiah. McGrath, Alister E., Christianity: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing (2006). ISBN 1405108991. Page 174: "In effect, they [Jewish Christians] seemed to regard Christianity as an affirmation of every aspect of contemporary Judaism, with the addition of one extra belief — that Jesus was the Messiah. Unless males were circumcised, they could not be saved (Acts 15:1)." Many interpret the Apostle Thomas as quoted in the Gospel of John as referring to Jesus as his Lord and God (Lord probably refers to Jesus but God could refer to God the Father) and Jesus responds by blessing those who believe but have not seen him as the eye-witnesses had, indicating that the apostles believed Yahweh and Christ to be one in the same, as well as Jesus himself (see Trinity) http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2020:28-29;&version=9; . See Raymond E. Brown's "Does the New Testament call Jesus God?" for a scholarly review of the subject "Does the New Testament call Jesus God?" in Theological Studies, 26, (1965) p. 545-73 . Ecclesiastical structure The Apostolic Church hierarchy was organised into Overseers (Bishop, Elder, Presbyter) and Servants (Deacons). Clement, a Bishop of Rome, refers to the leaders of the Corinthian church as bishops and presbyters indifferently. He writes that the bishops are to lead God's flock by virtue of the chief Shepherd - Jesus Christ. Important bishops of the Apostolic Era include Clement of Rome and Ignatius of Antioch, who, along with Polycarp of Smyrna, reportedly knew and studied under the apostles personally and are therefore called Apostolic Fathers. Post-Apostolic Church St. Lawrence before Emperor Valerianus (martyred 258) by Fra Angelico The post-apostolic period concerns the time roughly after the death of the apostles when bishops emerged as overseers of urban Christian populations, and continues during the time of persecutions until the legalisation of Christian worship with the advent of Constantine the Great. The earliest recorded use of the terms Christianity (Greek ) and Catholic (Greek ), dates to this period, attributed to Ignatius of Antioch c. 107. Walter Bauer, Greek-English Lexicon; Ignatius of Antioch Letter to the Magnesians 10, Letter to the Romans (Roberts-Donaldson tr., Lightfoot tr., Greek text). However, an edition presented on some websites, one that otherwise corresponds exactly with the Roberts-Donaldson translation, renders this passage to the interpolated inauthentic longer recension of Ignatius's letters, which does not contain the word "Christianity." Persecutions From the beginning, Christians were subject to various persecutions. This involved even death for Christians such as Stephen () and James, son of Zebedee (). Larger-scale persecutions followed at the hands of the authorities of the Roman Empire, beginning with the year 64, when, as reported by the Roman historian Tacitus, the Emperor Nero blamed them for that year's great Fire of Rome. According to Church tradition, it was under Nero's persecution that Saints Peter and Paul were each martyred in Rome. Similarly, several of the New Testament writings mention persecutions and stress endurance through them. For 250 years Christians suffered from sporadic persecutions for their refusal to worship the Roman emperor, considered treasonous and punishable by execution. In spite of these at-times intense persecutions, the Christian religion continued its spread throughout the Mediterranean Basin. Ecclesiastical structure By the late first and early second century, a hierarchical and episcopal structure becomes clearly visible. Post-apostolic bishops of importance are SS Polycarp of Smyrna and Irenaeus of Lyons. This structure was based on the doctrine of Apostolic Succession where, by the ritual of the laying on of hands, a bishop becomes the spiritual successor of the previous bishop in a line tracing back to the apostles themselves. Each Christian community also had presbyters, as was the case with Jewish communities, who were also ordained and assisted the bishop; as Christianity spread, especially in rural areas, the presbyters exercised more responsibilities and took distinctive shape as priests. Lastly, deacons also performed certain duties, such as tending to the poor and sick. Early Christian writings As Christianity spread, it acquired certain members from well-educated circles of the Hellenistic world; they sometimes became bishops but not always. They produced two sorts of works: theological and "apologetic", the latter being works aimed at defending the faith by using reason to refute arguments against the veracity of Christianity. These authors are known as the Church Fathers, and study of them is called Patristics. Notable early Fathers include Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus of Lyons, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen of Alexandria, etc. Early iconography Virgin and Child. Wall painting from the early catacombs, Rome, 4th century. Christian art only emerged relatively late, and the first known Christian images emerge from about AD 200, "The earliest Christian images appeared somewhere about the year 200." Andre Grabar, p.7 though there is some literary evidence that small domestic images were used earlier. Although many Hellenised Jews seem, as at the Dura-Europos synagogue, to have had images of religious figures, the traditional Mosaic prohibition of "graven images" no doubt retained some effect, see also Idolatry in Christianity. This early rejection of images, although never proclaimed by theologians, and the necessity to hide Christian practise from persecution, leaves us with few archaeological records regarding early Christianity and its evolution. Andre Grabar, p7 The oldest Christian paintings are from the Roman Catacombs, dated to about AD 200, and the oldest Christian sculptures are from sarcophagi, dating to the beginning of the 3rd century. Early heresies The New Testament itself speaks of the importance of maintaining orthodox doctrine and refuting heresies, showing the antiquity of the concern. e.g., ; ; ; , and the Epistle of James in general. Because of the biblical proscription against false prophets (notably the Gospels of Matthew and Mark) Christianity has always been preoccupied with the "correct", or orthodox, interpretation of the faith. Indeed one of the main roles of the bishops in the early Church was to determine the correct interpretations and refute contrarian opinions (referred to as heresy). As there were differing opinions among the bishops, defining orthodoxy would consume the Church for some time (and still does, hence, "denominations"). In his book Orthodoxy, Christian Apologist and writer G. K. Chesterton asserts that there have been substantial disagreements about faith from the time of the New Testament and Jesus. He pointed out that the Apostles all argued against changing the teachings of Christ as did the earliest church fathers including Ignatius of Antioch, Irenaeus, Justin Martyr and Polycarp (see false prophet, the antichrist, the gnostic Nicolaitanes from the Book of Revelation and Man of Sin). Jesus also refers to false prophets () and the "darnel" (, ) of the flock and how their distortion of the Christian faith is to be rejected. The earliest controversies were generally Christological in nature; that is, they were related to Jesus' (eternal) divinity or humanity. Docetism held that Jesus' humanity was merely an illusion, thus denying the incarnation. Arianism held that Jesus, while not merely mortal, was not eternally divine and was, therefore, of lesser status than God the Father (). Trinitarianism held that God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit were all strictly one being with three hypostases. Many groups held dualistic beliefs, maintaining that reality was composed into two radically opposing parts: matter, usually seen as evil, and spirit, seen as good. Others held that both the material and spiritual worlds were created by God and were therefore both good, and that this was represented in the unified divine and human natures of Christ. R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 58 The development of doctrine, the position of orthodoxy, and the relationship between the various opinions is a matter of continuing academic debate. Since most Christians today subscribe to the doctrines established by the Nicene Creed, modern Christian theologians tend to regard the early debates as a unified orthodox position (see also Proto-orthodox Christianity and Palaeo-orthodoxy) against a minority of heretics. Other scholars, drawing upon, among other things, distinctions between Jewish Christians, Pauline Christians, and other groups such as Gnostics and Marcionites, argue that early Christianity was fragmented, with contemporaneous competing orthodoxies. e.g., ; ; Biblical canon A folio from P46, an early 3rd century collection of Pauline epistles. The Biblical canon is the set of books Christians regard as divinely inspired and thus constituting the Christian Bible. Though the Early Church used the Old Testament according to the canon of the Septuagint (LXX), the apostles did not otherwise leave a defined set of new scriptures; instead the New Testament developed over time. The writings attributed to the apostles circulated amongst the earliest Christian communities. The Pauline epistles were circulating in collected form by the end of the first century AD. Justin Martyr, in the early second century, mentions the "memoirs of the apostles", which Christians called "gospels" and which were regarded as on par with the Old Testament. Everett Ferguson, "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon", in The Canon Debate. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) pp. 302–303; cf. Justin Martyr, First Apology 67.3 A four gospel canon (the Tetramorph) was in place by the time of Ireanaeus, c. 160, who refers to it directly. Everett Ferguson, "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon", in The Canon Debate. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) pp. 301; cf. Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses 3.11.8 By the early 200's, Origen of Alexandria may have been using the same 27 books as in the modern New Testament, though there were still disputes over the canonicity of Hebrews, James, II Peter, II and III John, and Revelation, Both points taken from Mark A. Noll's Turning Points, (Baker Academic, 1997) pp 36–37 see also Antilegomena. Likewise the Muratorian fragment shows that by 200 there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to what is now the New Testament, which included the four gospels. H. J. De Jonge, "The New Testament Canon", in The Biblical Canons. eds. de Jonge & J. M. Auwers (Leuven University Press, 2003) p. 315 Thus, while there was a good measure of debate in the Early Church over the New Testament canon, the major writings were accepted by almost all Christians by the middle of the second century. The Cambridge History of the Bible (volume 1) eds. P. R. Ackroyd and C. F. Evans (Cambridge University Press, 1970) p. 308 In his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, gave a list of exactly the same books as what would become the New Testament canon, and he used the word "canonised" (kanonizomena) in regards to them. David Brakke, "Canon Formation and Social Conflict in Fourth Century Egypt: Athanasius of Alexandria's Thirty Ninth Festal Letter", in Harvard Theological Review 87 (1994) pp. 395–419 The African Synod of Hippo, in 393, approved the New Testament, as it stands today, together with the Septuagint books, a decision that was repeated by Councils of Carthage in 397 and 419. McDonald & Sanders' The Canon Debate, 2002, Appendix D-2, note 19: "Revelation was added later in 419 at the subsequent synod of Carthage." These councils were under the authority of St. Augustine, who regarded the canon as already closed. Everett Ferguson, "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon", in The Canon Debate. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) p. 320; F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 230; cf. Augustine, De Civitate Dei 22.8 Pope Damasus I's Council of Rome in 382, if the Decretum Gelasianum is correctly associated with it, issued a biblical canon identical to that mentioned above, or if not the list is at least a sixth century compilation. F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 234 Likewise, Damasus's commissioning of the Latin Vulgate edition of the Bible, c. 383, was instrumental in the fixation of the canon in the West. F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 225 In 405, Pope Innocent I sent a list of the sacred books to a Gallic bishop, Exsuperius of Toulouse. When these bishops and councils spoke on the matter, however, they were not defining something new, but instead "were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church." Everett Ferguson, "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon", in The Canon Debate. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) p. 320; Bruce Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origins, Development, and Significance (Oxford: Clarendon, 1987) pp. 237–238; F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 97 Thus, from the fourth century, there existed unanimity in the West concerning the New Testament canon (as it is today), F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 215 and by the fifth century the East, with a few exceptions, had come to accept the Book of Revelation and thus had come into harmony on the matter of the canon. The Cambridge History of the Bible (volume 1) eds. P. R. Ackroyd and C. F. Evans (Cambridge University Press, 1970) p. 305; cf. the Catholic Encyclopedia, Canon of the New Testament Nonetheless, a full dogmatic articulation of the canon was not made until the Council of Trent of 1546 for Roman Catholicism, Catholic Encyclopedia, Canon of the New Testament the Thirty-Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England, the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for Calvinism, and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for the Greek Orthodox. Church of the Roman Empire (313–476) float| Christianity in Late Antiquity begins with the ascension of Constantine to the Emperorship of Rome in the early fourth century, and continues until the advent of the Middle Ages. The terminus of this period is variable because the transformation to the sub-Roman period was gradual and occurred at different times in different areas. It may generally be dated as lasting to the late sixth century and the re-conquests of Justinian, though a more traditional date is 476, the year that Romulus Augustus, traditionally considered the last western emperor, was deposed. Christianity legalised In April 311, Galerius, who had previously been one of the leading figures in the persecutions, issued an edict permitting the practice of the Christian religion under his rule. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum ("On the Deaths of the Persecutors") ch. 35–34 In 313 Constantine I and Licinius announced toleration of Christianity in the Edict of Milan. Constantine would become the first Christian emperor. By 391, under the reign of Theodosius I, Christianity had become the most popular, or state religion. Constantine I, the first emperor to embrace Christianity, was also the first emperor to openly promote the newly legalised religion. Constantine the Great Head of Constantine's colossal statue at Musei Capitolini Icon depicting Emperor Constantine (centre) and the Fathers of the First Council of Nicaea (325) as holding the Nicene Creed in its 381 form. The Emperor Constantine I was exposed to Christianity by his mother, Helena. There is scholarly controversy, however, as to whether Constantine adopted his mother's humble Christianity in his youth, or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life. R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55 Christian sources record that Constantine experienced a dramatic event in 312 at the Battle of Milvian Bridge, after which Constantine would claim the emperorship in the West. According to these sources, Constantine looked up to the sun before the battle and saw a cross of light above it, and with it the Greek words "" ("by this, conquer!", often rendered in the Latin "in hoc signo vinces"); Constantine commanded his troops to adorn their shields with a Christian symbol (the Chi-Ro), and thereafter they were victorious. R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55; cf. Eusebius, Life of Constantine How much Christianity Constantine adopted at this point is difficult to discern; most influential people in the empire, especially high military officials, were still pagan, and Constantine's rule exhibited at least a willingness to appease these factions. The Roman coins minted up to eight years subsequent to the battle still bore the images of Roman gods. R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55 Nonetheless, the accession of Constantine was a turning point for the Christian Church. After his victory, Constantine supported the Church financially, built various basilicas, granted privileges (e.g., exemption from certain taxes) to clergy, promoted Christians to high ranking offices, and returned property confiscated during the Great Persecution of Diocletian. R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) pp. 55–56 Between 324 and 330, Constantine built, virtually from scratch, a new imperial capital at Byzantium on the Bosphorus (it came to be named for him: Constantinople)–the city employed overtly Christian architecture, contained churches within the city walls (unlike "old" Rome), and had no pagan temples. R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 56 In accordance with the prevailing customs, Constantine was baptised on his deathbed. Constantine also played an active role in the leadership of the Church. In 313, he issued the Edict of Milan, legalising Christian worship. In 316, he acted as a judge in a North African dispute concerning the Donatist controversy. More significantly, in 325 he summoned the Council of Nicaea, effectively the first Ecumenical Council (unless the Council of Jerusalem is so classified), to deal mostly with the Arian controversy, but which also issued the Nicene Creed, which among other things professed a belief in One Holy Catholic Apostolic Church, the start of Christendom. The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the position of the Christian Emperor in the Church. Emperors considered themselves responsible to God for the spiritual health of their subjects, and thus they had a duty of maintain orthodoxy. Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) pp. 14–15 The emperor did not decide doctrine — that was the responsibility of the bishops — rather his role was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity. Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) p. 15 The emperor ensured that God was properly worshiped in his empire; what proper worship consisted of was the responsibility of the church. This precedent would continue until certain emperors of the fifth and six centuries sought to alter doctrine by imperial edict without recourse to councils, though even after this Constantine's precedent generally remained the norm. Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) p. 16 The reign of Constantine did not bring the total unity of Christianity within the Empire. His successor in the East, Constantius II, was an Arian who kept Arian bishops at his court and installed them in various sees, expelling the orthodox bishops. Constantius's successor, Julian, known in the Christian world as Julian the Apostate, was a philosopher who upon becoming emperor renounced Christianity and embraced a Neo-platonic and mystical form of paganism shocking the Christian establishment. Intent on re-establishing the prestige of the old pagan beliefs, he modified them to resemble Christian traditions such as the episcopal structure and public charity (hitherto unknown in Roman paganism). Julian eliminated most of the privileges and prestige previously afforded to the Christian Church. His reforms attempted to create a form of religious heterogeneity by, among other things, reopening pagan temples, accepting Christian bishops previously exiled as heretics, promoting Judaism, and returning Church lands to their original owners. However, Julian's short reign ended when he died while campaigning in the East. Christianity came to dominance during the reign of Julian's successors, Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens (the last Eastern Arian Christian Emperor). On February 27, 380, Theodosius I issued the edict De Fide Catolica establishing "Catholic Christianity" Theodosian Code XVI.i.2, Medieval Sourcebook: Banning of Other Religions by Paul Halsall, June 1997, Fordham University, retrieved 2007-09-04 as the exclusive official state religion, outlawed other faiths, and closed pagan temples.(Theodosian Code XVI.1.2; and Sozomen, "Ecclesiastical History", VII, iv. ) R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 57 Additional prohibitions were passed by Theodosius I in 391 further proscribing remaining pagan practices. Diocesan structure After legalisation, the Church adopted the same organisational boundaries as the Empire: geographical provinces, called dioceses, corresponding to imperial governmental territorial division. The bishops, who were located in major urban centres as per pre-legalisation tradition, thus oversaw each diocese. The bishop's location was his "seat", or "see"; among the sees, five held special eminence: Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. The prestige of these sees depended in part on their apostolic founders, from whom the bishops were therefore the spiritual successors, e.g., St. Mark as founder of the See of Alexandria, St. Peter of the See of Rome, etc. There were other significant elements: Jerusalem was the location of Christ's death and resurrection, the site of a first century council, etc., see also Jerusalem in Christianity. Antioch was where Jesus' followers were first labelled as Christians, it was used in a derogatory way to berate the followers of Jesus the Christ. Rome was where SS. Peter and Paul had been martyred (killed), Constantinople was the "New Rome" where Constantine had moved his capital c. 330, and, lastly, all these cities had important relics. Papacy and primacy The Pope is the Bishop of Rome and the office is the "papacy." As a bishopric, its origin is consistent with the development of an episcopal structure in the first century. The papacy, however, also carries the notion of primacy: that the See of Rome is pre-eminent amongst all other sees. The origins of this concept are historically obscure; theologically, it is based on three ancient Christian traditions: (1) that the apostle Peter was pre-eminent among the apostles, see Primacy of Simon Peter, (2) that Peter ordained his successors for the Roman See, and (3) that the bishops are the successors of the apostles (apostolic succession). As long as the Papal See also happened to be the capital of the Western Empire, the prestige of the Bishop of Rome could be taken for granted without the need of sophisticated theological argumentation beyond these points; after its shift to Milan and then Ravenna, however, more detailed arguments were developed based on etc. cf. Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) p. 9 Nonetheless, in antiquity the Petrine and Apostolic quality, as well as a "primacy of respect", concerning the Roman See went unchallenged by emperors, eastern patriarchs, and the Eastern Church alike. Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) pp. 10 and 12 The Ecumenical Council of Constantinople in 381 affirmed the primacy of Rome. see J. D. Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum Nova et Amplissima Collectio 3, p. 559 Though the appellate jurisdiction of the Pope, and the position of Constantinople, would require further doctrinal clarification, by the close of Antiquity the primacy of Rome and the sophisticated theological arguments supporting it were fully developed. Just what exactly was entailed in this primacy, and its being exercised, would become a matter of controversy at certain later times. Ecumenical Councils During this era, several Ecumenical Councils were convened. These were mostly concerned with Christological disputes. The two Councils of Nicaea (325, 382) condemned Arian teachings as heresy and produced a creed (see Nicene Creed). The Council of Ephesus condemned Nestorianism and affirmed the Blessed Virgin Mary to be Theotokos ("God-bearer" or "Mother of God"). Perhaps the most significant council was the Council of Chalcedon that affirmed that Christ had two natures, fully God and fully man, distinct yet always in perfect union. This was based largely on Pope Leo the Great's Tome. Thus, it condemned Monophysitism and would be influential in refuting Monothelitism. However, not all denominations accepted all the councils, for example Nestorianism and the Assyrian Church of the East split over the Council of Ephesus of 431, Oriental Orthodoxy split over the Council of Chalcedon of 451, Pope Sergius I rejected the Quinisext Council of 692 (see also Pentarchy), and the Fourth Council of Constantinople of 869–870 and 879–880 is disputed by Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers The early Church Fathers have already been mentioned above; however, Late Antique Christianity produced a great many renowned Fathers who wrote volumes of theological texts, including SS. Augustine, Gregory Nazianzus, Cyril of Jerusalem, Ambrose of Milan, Jerome, and others. What resulted was a golden age of literary and scholarly activity unmatched since the days of Virgil and Horace. Some of these fathers, such as John Chrysostom and Athanasius, suffered exile, persecution, or martyrdom from heretical Byzantine Emperors. Many of their writings are translated into English in the compilations of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. The Pentarchy By the fifth century, the ecclesiastical had evolved a hierarchical "pentarchy" or system of five sees (patriarchates), with a settled order of precedence, had been established. Rome, as the ancient centre and once largest city of the empire, was understandably given the presidency or primacy of honour within the pentarchy into which Christendom was now divided; though it was and still held that the patriarch of Rome was the first among equals. Constantinople was second in precedence as the new capital of the empire. The list below are the five Pentarchs of the original Pentarchy of the Roman Empire. Rome (Sts. Peter and Paul), i.e., the Pope, the only Pentarch in the Western Roman Empire. Constantinople (St. Andrew), currently in Turkey Alexandria (St. Mark), currently in Egypt Antioch (St. Peter), currently in Turkey Jerusalem (St. James), currently in Israel/Palestine, see also Jerusalem in Christianity Monasticism Monasticism is a form of asceticism whereby one renounces worldly pursuits (in contempu mundi) and concentrates solely on heavenly and spiritual pursuits, especially by the virtues humility, poverty, and chastity. It began early in the Church as a family of similar traditions, modeled upon Scriptural examples and ideals, and with roots in certain strands of Judaism. St. John the Baptist is seen as the archetypical monk, and monasticism was also inspired by the organisation of the Apostolic community as recorded in Acts of the Apostles. There are two forms of monasticism: eremetic and cenobitic. Eremetic monks, or hermits, live in solitude, whereas cenobitic monks live in communities, generally in a monastery, under a rule (or code of practice) and are governed by an abbot. Originally, all Christian monks were hermits, following the example of Anthony the Great. However, the need for some form of organised spiritual guidance lead Saint Pachomius in 318 to organise his many followers in what was to become the first monastery. Soon, similar institutions were established throughout the Egyptian desert as well as the rest of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Central figures in the development of monasticism were, in the East, St. Basil the Great, and St. Benedict in the West, who created the famous Benedictine Rule, which would become the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages. Growing tensions between East and West The cracks and fissures in Christian unity which led to the Great Schism started to become evident as early as the fourth century. Although 1054 is the date usually given for the beginning of the Great Schism, there is, in fact, no specific date on which the schism occurred. What really happened was a complex chain of events whose climax culminated with the sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. The events leading to schism were not exclusively theological in nature. Cultural, political, and linguistic differences were often mixed with the theological. Any narrative of the schism which emphasises one at the expense of the other will be fragmentary. Unlike the Copts or Armenians who broke from the Church in the fifth century, the eastern and western parts of the Church remained loyal to the faith, from their perspective, and to the authority of the seven ecumenical councils. They were united, by virtue of their common faith and tradition, in one Church. Nonetheless, the transfer of the Roman capital to Constantinople inevitably brought mistrust, rivalry, and even jealousy to the relations of the two great sees, Rome and Constantinople. It was easy for Rome to be jealous of Constantinople at a time when it was rapidly losing its political prominence. In fact, Rome refused to recognise the conciliar legislation which promoted Constantinople to second rank. But the estrangement was also helped along by the German invasions in the West, which effectively weakened contacts. The rise of Islam with its conquest of most of the Mediterranean coastline (not to mention the arrival of the pagan Slavs in the Balkans at the same time) further intensified this separation by driving a physical wedge between the two worlds. The once homogenous unified world of the Mediterranean was fast vanishing. Communication between the Greek East and the Latin West by the 600s had become dangerous and practically ceased. The Great Schism: The Estrangement of Eastern and Western Christendom Two basic problems — the primacy of the bishop of Rome and the procession of the Holy Spirit — were involved. These doctrinal novelties were first openly discussed in Photius's patriarchate. By the fifth century, Christendom was divided into a pentarchy of five sees with Rome holding the primacy. This was determined by canonical decision and did not entail hegemony of any one local church or patriarchate over the others. However, Rome began to interpret her primacy in terms of sovereignty, as a God-given right involving universal jurisdiction in the Church. The collegial and conciliar nature of the Church, in effect, was gradually abandoned in favour of supremacy of unlimited papal power over the entire Church. These ideas were finally given systematic expression in the West during the Gregorian Reform movement of the eleventh century. The Eastern churches viewed Rome's understanding of the nature of episcopal power as being in direct opposition to the Church's essentially conciliar structure and thus saw the two ecclesiologies as mutually antithetical. This fundamental difference in ecclesiology would cause all attempts to heal the schism and bridge the divisions to fail. Rome based her claims to "true and proper jurisdiction" (as the Vatican Council of 1870 put it) on St. Peter. This "Roman" exegesis of Mathew 16:18, however, was unacceptable to the patriarchs of Eastern Orthodoxy. For them, specifically, St. Peter's primacy could never be the exclusive prerogative of any one bishop. All bishops must, like St. Peter, confess Jesus as the Christ and, as such, all are St. Peter's successors. The churches of the East gave the Roman See, primacy but not supremacy. The Pope being the first among equals, but not infallible and not with absolute authority. The Orthodox Church London by Ware, Kallistos St. Vladimir's Seminary Press 1995 ISBN 978-0913836583 The other major irritant to Eastern Orthodoxy was the Western interpretation of the procession of the Holy Spirit. Like the primacy, this too developed gradually and entered the Creed in the West almost unnoticed. This theologically complex issue involved the addition by the West of the Latin phrase filioque ("and from the Son") to the Creed. The original Creed sanctioned by the councils and still used today by the Orthodox Church did not contain this phrase; the text simply states "the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father." Theologically, the Latin interpolation was unacceptable to Eastern Orthodoxy since it implied that the Spirit now had two sources of origin and procession, the Father and the Son, rather than the Father alone. The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church by Vladimir Lossky, SVS Press, 1997. (ISBN 0–913836–31–1) James Clarke & Co Ltd, 1991. (ISBN 0–227–67919–9) In short, the balance between the three persons of the Trinity was altered and the understanding of the Trinity and God confused. The result, the Orthodox Church believed, then and now, was theologically indefensible. But in addition to the dogmatic issue raised by the filioque, the Byzantines argued that the phrase had been added unilaterally and, therefore, illegitimately, since the East had never been consulted. History of Russian Philosophy by Nikolai Lossky ISBN 978-0823680740 Quoting Aleksey Khomyakov pg 87 The legal formalism and logical rationalism of the Roman Catholic Church have their roots in the Roman State. These features developed in it more strongly than ever when the Western Church without consent of the Eastern introduced into the Nicene Creed the filioque clause. Such arbitrary change of the creed is an expression of pride and lack of love for one's brethren in the faith. "In order not to be regarded as a schism by the Church, Romanism was forced to ascribe to the bishop of Rome absolute infallibility." In this way Catholicism broke away from the Church as a whole and became an organisation based upon external authority. Its unity is similar to the unity of the state: it is not necessarily rational but is rationalistic and legally formal. Rationalism has led to the doctrine of the works of supererogation, established a balance of duties and merits between God and man, weighing in the scales sins and prayers, trespasses and deeds of expiation; it adopted the idea of transferring one person's debts or credits to another and legalised the exchange of assumed merits; in short, it introduced into the sanctuary of faith the mechanism of a banking house. In the final analysis, only another ecumenical council could introduce such an alteration. Indeed the councils, which drew up the original Creed, had expressly forbidden any subtraction or addition to the text. Church of the Early Middle Ages (476–800) Mosaic of Justinian I in the church of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy The Church in the Early Middle Ages covers the time from the deposition of the last Western Emperor in 476 and his replacement with a barbarian king, Odoacer, to the coronation of Charlemagne as "Emperor of the Romans" by Pope Leo III in Rome on Christmas Day, 800. The year 476, however, is a rather artificial division. R. Gerberding and Jo Anne H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds: An Introduction to European History 300–1492 (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2004), p. 33. In the East, Roman imperial rule continued through the period historians now call the Byzantine Empire. Even in the West, where imperial political control gradually declined, distinctly Roman culture continued long afterwards; thus historians today prefer to speak of a "transformation of the Roman world" rather than a "fall of the Roman Empire." The advent of the Early Middle Ages was a gradual and often localised process whereby, in the West, rural areas became power centres whilst urban areas declined. With the Muslim invasions of the seventh century, the Western (Latin) and Eastern (Greek) areas of Christianity began to take on distinctive shapes. Whereas in the East the Church maintained its structure and character and evolved more slowly, in the West the Bishops of Rome (i.e., the Popes) were forced to adapt more quickly and flexibly to drastically changing circumstances. In particular whereas the bishops of the East maintained clear allegiance to the Eastern Roman Emperor, the Bishop of Rome, while maintaining nominal allegiance to the Eastern Emperor, was forced to negotiate delicate balances with the "barbarian rulers" of the former Western provinces. Although the greater number of Christians remained in the East, the developments in the West would set the stage for major developments in the Christian world during the later Middle Ages. Conversion of barbarian hinterland Christians and Pagans, a painting by Sergei Ivanov As the political boundaries of the Western Roman Empire diminished and then collapsed, Christianity spread beyond the old borders of the Empire and into lands that had never been Romanised. Ireland and Irish missionaries Beginning in the fifth century, a unique culture developed around the Irish Sea consisting of what today would be called Wales and Ireland. In this environment, Christianity spread from Roman Britain to Ireland, especially aided by the missionary activity of St. Patrick. Patrick had been captured into slavery in Ireland and, following his escape and later consecration as bishop, he returned to the isle that had enslaved him so that he could bring them the Gospel. Soon, Irish missionaries such as SS. Columba and Columbanus spread this Christianity, with its distinctively Irish features, to Scotland and the Continent. One such feature was the system of private penitence, which replaced the former practice of penance as a public rite. On the development of penitential practice, see McNeill & Gamer, Medieval Handbooks of Penance, (Columba University Press, 1938) pp. 9–54 Anglo-Saxons (English) Although southern Britain had been a Roman province, in 407 the imperial legions left the isle, and the Roman elite followed. Some time later that century, various barbarian tribes went from raiding and pillaging the island to settling and invading. These tribes are referred to as the "Anglo-Saxons", predecessors of the English. They were entirely pagan, having never been part of the Empire, and although they experienced Christian influence from the surrounding peoples, they were converted by the mission of St. Augustine sent by Pope Gregory the Great. Later, under Archbishop Theodore, the Anglo-Saxons enjoyed a golden age of culture and scholarship. Soon, important English missionaries such as SS. Wilfrid, Willibrord, Lullus and Boniface would begin evangelising their Saxon relatives in Germany. Franks Saint Remigius baptises Clovis. The largely Christian Gallo-Roman inhabitants of Gaul (modern France) were overrun by Germanic Franks in the early 5th century. The native inhabitants were persecuted until the Frankish King, Clovis I converted from paganism to Roman Catholicism in 496. Clovis insisted that his fellow nobles follow suit, strengthening his newly-established kingdom by uniting the faith of the rulers with that of the ruled. Netherlands and non-Frankish Germany In 698 the Northumbrian Benedictine monk, St Willibrord was commissioned by Pope Sergius I as bishop of the Frisians in what is now the Netherlands. Willibrord established a church in Utrecht. Much of Willibrord's work was wiped out when the pagan Radbod, king of the Frisians destroyed many Christian centres between 716 and 719. In 717, the English missionary Boniface was sent to aid Willibrord, re-establishing churches in Frisia and continuing to preach throughout the pagan lands of Germany. Boniface was killed by pagans in 754. Scandinavia Early evangelisation in Scandinavia was begun by Ansgar, Archbishop of Bremen, "Apostle of the North". Ansgar, a native of Amiens, was sent with a group of monks to Jutland Denmark in around 820 at the time of the pro-Christian Jutish king Harald Klak. The mission was only partially successful, and Ansgar returned two years later to Germany, after Harald had been driven out of his kingdom. In 829 Ansgar went to Birka on Lake Mälaren, Sweden, with his aide friar Witmar, and a small congregation was formed in 831 which included the king's own steward Hergeir. Conversion was slow, however, and most Scandinavian lands were only completely Christianised at the time of rulers such as Saint Canute IV of Denmark and Olaf I of Norway in the years following AD 1000. 863 Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius sent by the Patriarch of Constantinople to evangelise the Slavic peoples. They translate the Bible into Slavonic. Early Medieval Papacy The city of Rome was embroiled in the turmoil and devastation of Italian peninsular warfare during the Early Middle Ages. Emperor Justinian I attempted to reassert imperial dominion in Italy against the Gothic aristocracy. The subsequent campaigns were more or less successful, and the Imperial Exarchate was established in Ravenna to oversee Italy, though actually imperial influence was often limited. However, the weakened peninsula then experienced the invasion of the Lombards, and the resulting warfare essentially left Rome to fend for itself. Thus the popes, out of necessity, found themselves feeding the city with grain from papal estates, negotiating treaties, paying protection money to Lombard warlords, and, failing that, hiring soldiers to defend the city.<ref>Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) p. 36</ref> Eventually, the failure of the Empire to send aid resulted in the popes turning for support from other sources, most especially the Franks. Carolingian Renaissance The Carolingian Renaissance was a period of intellectual and cultural revival during the late 8th and 9th centuries, mostly during the reigns of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. There was an increase of literature, the arts, architecture, jurisprudence, liturgical and scriptural studies. The period also saw the development of Carolingian minuscule, the ancestor of modern lower-case script, and the standardisation of Latin which had hitherto become varied and irregular (see Medieval Latin). To address the problems of illiteracy among clergy and court scribes, Charlemagne founded schools and attracted the most learned men from all of Europe to his court, such as Theodulf, Paul the Deacon, Angilbert, Paulinus of Aquileia, and Alcuin of York. Church of the High Middle Ages (800–1499) The High Middle Ages is the period from the coronation of Charlemagne in 800 to the close of the fifteenth century, which saw the fall of Constantinople (1453), the end of the Hundred Years War (1453), the discovery of the New World (1492), and thereafter the Protestant Reformation (1515). Conversion of East and South Slavs St. Cyril and St. Methodius Monument on Mt. Radhošť Though by 800 Western Europe was ruled entirely by Christian kings, Eastern Europe remained an area of missionary activity. For example, in the ninth century SS. Cyril and Methodius had extensive missionary success in Eastern Europe among the Slavic peoples, translating the Bible and liturgy into Slavonic. The Baptism of Kiev in the 988 spread Christianity throughout Kievan Rus', establishing Christianity among the Ukraine, Belarus and Russia. In the ninth and tenth centuries, Christianity made great inroads into Eastern Europe, including Kievan Rus'. The evangelisation, or Christianisation, of the Slavs was initiated by one of Byzantium's most learned churchmen — the Patriarch Photius. The Byzantine emperor Michael III chose Cyril and Methodius in response to a request from Rastislav, the king of Moravia who wanted missionaries that could minister to the Moravians in their own language. The two brothers spoke the local Slavonic vernacular and translated the Bible and many of the prayer books. As the translations prepared by them were copied by speakers of other dialects, the hybrid literary language Old Church Slavonic was created. Methodius later went on to convert the Serbs and the Macedonians. Some of the disciples returned to Bulgaria where they were welcomed by the Bulgarian Tsar Boris I who viewed the Slavonic liturgy as a way to counteract Greek influence in the country. In a short time the disciples of Cyril and Methodius managed to prepare and instruct the future Slavic clergy into the Glagolitic alphabet and the biblical texts. Methodius and Cyril were mainly living and working in the Macedonian city of Ohrid, which they made the religious capital of the Balkans. Bulgaria was officially recognised as a patriarchate by Constantinople in 945, Serbia in 1346, and Russia in 1589. All these nations, however, had been converted long before these dates. Macedonia still remained under Byzantian rule. The missionaries to the East and South Slavs had great success in part because they used the people's native language rather than Latin as the Roman priests did, or Greek. Mission to Great Moravia When Rastislav, the king of Great Moravia and a known wizard, asked Byzantium for teachers who could minister to the Moravians in their own language, Byzantine emperor Michael III chose two brothers, Constantine and Methodius. As their mother was a Slav from the hinterlands of Thessaloniki, the two brothers had been raised speaking the local Slavonic vernacular. Once commissioned, they immediately set about creating an alphabet, the Cyrillic alphabet; they then translated the Scripture and the liturgy into Slavonic. This Slavic dialect became the basis of Old Church Slavonic which later evolved into Church Slavonic which is the common liturgical language still used by the Russian Orthodox Church and other Slavic Orthodox Christians. The missionaries to the East and South Slavs had great success in part because they used the people's native language rather than Latin or Greek. In Great Moravia, Constantine and Methodius encountered Frankish missionaries from Germany, representing the western or Latin branch of the Church, and more particularly representing the Holy Roman Empire as founded by Charlemagne, and committed to linguistic, and cultural uniformity. They insisted on the use of the Latin liturgy, and they regarded Moravia and the Slavic peoples as part of their rightful mission field. When friction developed, the brothers, unwilling to be a cause of dissension among Christians, travelled to Rome to see the Pope, seeking an agreement that would avoid quarrelling between missionaries in the field. Constantine entered a monastery in Rome, taking the name Cyril, by which he is now remembered. However, he died only a few weeks thereafter. Pope Adrian II gave Methodius the title of Archbishop of Sirmium (now Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia) and sent him back in 869, with jurisdiction over all of Moravia and Pannonia, and authorisation to use the Slavonic Liturgy. Soon, however, Prince Ratislav, who had originally invited the brothers to Moravia, died, and his successor did not support Methodius. In 870 the Frankish king Louis and his bishops deposed Methodius at a synod at Ratisbon, and imprisoned him for a little over two years. Pope John VIII secured his release, but instructed him to stop using the Slavonic Liturgy. In 878, Methodius was summoned to Rome on charges of heresy and using Slavonic. This time Pope John was convinced by the arguments that Methodius made in his defence and sent him back cleared of all charges, and with permission to use Slavonic. The Carolingian bishop who succeeded him, Wiching, suppressed the Slavonic Liturgy and forced the followers of Methodius into exile. Many found refuge with King Boris of Bulgaria (852–889), under whom they reorganised a Slavic-speaking Church. Meanwhile, Pope John's successors adopted a Latin-only policy which lasted for centuries. Conversion of the Serbs and Bulgarians Methodius later went on to convert the Serbs. Some of the disciples, namely St. Kliment, St. Naum who were of noble Bulgarian descent and St. Angelaruis, returned to Bulgaria where they were welcomed by the Bulgarian Tsar Boris I who viewed the Slavonic liturgy as a way to counteract Greek influence in the country. In a short time the disciples of Cyril and Methodius managed to prepare and instruct the future Slav Bulgarian clergy into the Glagolitic alphabet and the biblical texts and in AD 893, Bulgaria expelled its Greek clergy and proclaimed the Slavonic language as the official language of the church and the state. Conversion of the Rus' Baptism of Vladimir The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of other East Slavic peoples, most notably the Rus', predecessors of Belarusians, Russians, and Ukrainians, as well as Rusyns. By the beginning of the eleventh century most of the pagan Slavic world, including Russia, Bulgaria and Serbia, had been converted to Byzantine Christianity. The traditional event associated with the conversion of Russia is the baptism of Vladimir of Kiev in 989, on which occasion he was also married to the Byzantine princess Anna, the sister of the Byzantine Emperor Basil II. However, Christianity is documented to have predated this event in the city of Kiev and in Georgia. Today the Russian Orthodox Church is the largest of the Orthodox Churches. Iconoclasm Andrei Rublev's Trinity Iconoclasm as a movement began within the Eastern Christian Byzantine church in the early 8th century, following a series of heavy military reverses against the Muslims. Sometime between 726–730 the Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian ordered the removal of an image of Jesus prominently placed over the Chalke gate, the ceremonial entrance to the Great Palace of Constantinople, and its replacement with a cross. This was followed by orders banning the pictorial representation of the family of Christ, subsequent Christian saints, and biblical scenes. In the West, Pope Gregory III held two synods at Rome and condemned Leo's actions. In Leo's realms, the Iconoclast Council at Hieria, 754 ruled that the culture of holy portraits (see icon) was not of a Christian origin and therefore heretical. Epitome, Iconoclast Council at Hieria, 754 The movement destroyed much of the Christian church's early artistic history, to the great loss of subsequent art and religious historians. The iconoclastic movement itself was later defined as heretical in 787 under the Seventh Ecumenical council, but enjoyed a brief resurgence between 815 and 842. Monastic Reform Movement A view of the Abbey of Cluny. From the 6th century onward most of the monasteries in the West were of the Benedictine Order. Owing to the stricter adherence to a reformed Benedictine rule, the abbey of Cluny became the acknowledged leader of western monasticism from the later 10th century. A sequence of highly competent abbots of Cluny were statesmen on an international level. The monastery of Cluny itself became the grandest, most prestigious and best endowed monastic institution in Europe. Cluny created a large, federated order in which the administrators of subsidiary houses served as deputies of the abbot of Cluny and answered to him. Free of lay and episcopal interference, responsible only to the papacy, the Cluniac spirit was a revitalising influence on the Norman church. The height of Cluniac influence was from the second half of the 10th century through the early 12th. The next wave of monastic reform came with the Cistercian Movement. The first Cistercian abbey was founded by Robert of Molesme in 1098, at Cîteaux Abbey. The keynote of Cistercian life was a return to a literal observance of the Rule of Saint Benedict. Rejecting the developments that the Benedictines had undergone, they tried to reproduce the life exactly as it had been in Saint Benedict's time, indeed in various points they went beyond it in austerity. The most striking feature in the reform was the return to manual labour, and especially to field-work, which became a special characteristic of Cistercian life. Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, in a medieval illuminated manuscript. Inspired by Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, the Cistercians became the main force of technological diffusion in medieval Europe. By the end of the 12th century the Cistercian houses numbered 500; in the 13th a hundred more were added; and at its height in the 15th century, the order claimed to have close to 750 houses. Most of these were built in wilderness areas, and played a major part in bringing such isolated parts of Europe into economic cultivation. Mendicant orders A third level of monastic reform was provided by the establishment of the Mendicant orders. Commonly known as Friars mendicants are members of religious communities that live under a monastic rule but, rather than residing in the seclusion of a monastery, they emphasise public evangelism and are thus known for preaching, missionary activity, and education, as well as the traditional vows of poverty chastity and obedience. Beginning in the twelfth century, the Franciscan order was instituted by the followers of St. Francis, and thereafter the Dominican order was begun by St. Dominic. Investiture Controversy Henry IV at the gate of Canossa, by August von Heyden The Investiture Controversy, or Lay investiture controversy, was the most significant conflict between secular and religious powers in medieval Europe. It began as a dispute in the 11th century between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, and Pope Gregory VII concerning who would appoint bishops (investiture). The end of lay investiture threatened to undercut the power of the Empire and the ambitions of noblemen for the benefit of Church reform. Bishops collected revenues from estates attached to their bishopric. Noblemen who held lands (fiefdoms) hereditarily passed those lands on within their family. However, because bishops had no legitimate children, when a bishop died it was the king's right to appoint a successor. So, while a king had little recourse in preventing noblemen from acquiring powerful domains via inheritance and dynastic marriages, a king could keep careful control of lands under the domain of his bishops. Kings would bestow bishoprics to members of noble families whose friendship he wished to secure. Furthermore, if a king left a bishopric vacant, then he collected the estates' revenues until a bishop was appointed, when in theory he was to repay the earnings. The infrequence of this repayment was an obvious source of dispute. The Church wanted to end this lay investiture because of the potential corruption, not only from vacant sees but also from other practices such as simony. Thus, the Investiture Contest was part of the Church's attempt to reform the episcopate and provide better pastoral care. Pope Gregory VII issued the Dictatus Papae, which declared that the pope alone could appoint or depose bishops, or translate them to other sees. Henry VI's rejection of the decree lead to his excommunication and a ducal revolt; eventually Henry received absolution after dramatic public penance barefoot in Alpine snow and cloaked in a hairshirt (see Walk to Canossa), though the revolt and conflict of investiture continued. Likewise, a similar controversy occurred in England between King Henry I and St. Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, over investiture and ecclesiastical revenues collected by the king during an episcopal vacancy. The English dispute was resolved by the Concordat of London, 1107, where the king renounced his claim to invest bishops but continued to require an oath of fealty from them upon their election. This was a partial model for the Concordat of Worms (Pactum Calixtinum), which resolved the Imperial investiture controversy with a compromise that allowed secular authorities some measure of control but granted the selection of bishops to their cathedral canons. As a symbol of the compromise, lay authorities invested bishops with their secular authority symbolised by the lance, and ecclesiastical authorities invested bishops with their spiritual authority symbolised by the ring and the staff. Sanctification of knighthood The nobility of the Middle Ages was a military class; in the Early Medieval period a king (rex) attracted a band of loyal warriors (comes) and provided for them from his conquests. As the Middle Ages progressed, this system developed into a complex set of feudal ties and obligations. As Christianity had been accepted by barbarian nobility, the Church sought to prevent ecclesiastical land and clergymen, both of which came from the nobility, from embroilment in martial conflicts. By the early eleventh century, clergymen and peasants were granted immunity from violence — the Peace of God (Pax Dei). Soon the warrior elite itself became "sanctified", for example fighting was banned on holy days — the Truce of God (Treuga Dei). The concept of chivalry developed, emphasising honour and loyalty amongst knights, and, with the advent of Crusades, holy orders of knights were established who perceived themselves as called by God to defend Christendom against Muslim advances in Spain, Italy, and the Holy Land, and pagan strongholds in Eastern Europe. Crusades The Crusades were a series of military conflicts conducted by Christian knights for the defence of Christians and for the expansion of Christian domains. Generally, the crusades refer to the campaigns in the Holy Land against Muslim forces sponsored by the Papacy. There were other crusades against Islamic forces in southern Spain, southern Italy, and Sicily, as well as the campaigns of Teutonic knights against pagan strongholds in Eastern Europe (see Northern Crusades). A few crusades such as the Fourth Crusade were waged within Christendom against groups that were considered heretical and schismatic (also see the Battle of the Ice and the Albigensian Crusade). View over the walls of Krak des Chavaliers, near impenetrable crusaders' fortress. The Holy Land had been part of the Roman Empire, and thus Byzantine Empire, until the Islamic conquests of the seventh and eighth centuries. Thereafter, Christians had generally been permitted to visit the sacred places in the Holy Land until 1071, when the Seljuk Turks closed Christian pilgrimages and assailed the Byzantines, defeating them at the Battle of Manzikert. Emperor Alexius I asked for aid from Pope Urban II (1088–1099) for help against Islamic aggression. He probably expected money from the pope for the hiring of mercenaries. Instead, Urban II called upon the knights of Christendom in a speech made at the Council of Clermont on 27 November 1095, combining the idea of pilgrimage to the Holy Land with that of waging a holy war against infidels. The First Crusade captured Antioch in 1099 and then Jerusalem. The Second Crusade occurred in 1145 when Edessa was retaken by Islamic forces. Jerusalem would be held until 1187 and the Third Crusade, famous for the battles between Richard the Lionheart and Saladin. The Fourth Crusade, begun by Innocent III in 1202, intended to retake the Holy Land but was soon subverted by Venetians who used the forces to sack the Christian city of Zara. Innocent excommunicated the Venetians and crusaders. Eventually the crusaders arrived in Constantinople, but due to strife which arose between them and the Byzantines, rather than proceed to the Holy Land the crusaders instead sacked Constantinople and other parts of Asia Minor effectively establishing the Latin Empire of Constantinople in Greece and Asia Minor. This was effectively the last crusade sponsored by the papacy; later crusades were sponsored by individuals. Thus, though Jerusalem was held for nearly a century and other strongholds in the Near East would remain in Christian possession much longer, the crusades in the Holy Land ultimately failed to establish permanent Christian kingdoms. Islamic expansion into Europe would renew and remain a threat for centuries culminating in the campaigns of Suleiman the Magnificent in the sixteenth century. On the other hand, the crusades in southern Spain, southern Italy, and Sicily eventually lead to the demise of Islamic power in the regions; the Teutonic knights expanded Christian domains in Eastern Europe, and the much less frequent crusades within Christendom, such as the Albigensian Crusade, achieved their goal of maintaining doctrinal unity. For such an analysis, see Brian Tierney and Sidney Painter, Western Europe in the Middle Ages 300–1475. 6th ed. (McGraw-Hill 1998) High Medieval Papacy Pope Boniface VIII, and Unam Sanctam Medieval Inquisition The Medieval Inquisition is a series of Inquisitions (Roman Catholic Church bodies charged with suppressing heresy) from around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisition (1184–1230s) and later the Papal Inquisition (1230s). It was in response to movements within Europe considered apostate or heretical to Western Catholicism, in particular the Cathars and the Waldensians in southern France and northern Italy. These were the first inquisition movements of many that would follow. The inquisitions in combination with the Albigensian Crusade were fairly successful in ending heresy. Rise of universities Modern western universities have their origins directly in the Medieval Church. They began as cathedral schools, and all students were considered clerics. This was a benefit as it placed the students under ecclesiastical jurisdiction and thus imparted certain legal immunities and protections. The cathedral schools eventually became partially detached from the cathedrals and formed their own institutions, the earliest being the University of Paris (c. 1150), the University of Bologna (1088), and the University of Oxford (1096). Photian schism In the 9th century AD, a controversy arose between Eastern (Byzantine, later Orthodox) and Western (Latin, Roman Catholic) Christianity that was precipitated by the opposition of the Roman Pope John VII to the appointment by the Byzantine emperor Michael III of Photius I to the position of patriarch of Constantinople. Photios was refused an apology by the pope for previous points of dispute between the East and West. Photius refused to accept the supremacy of the pope in Eastern matters or accept the filioque clause. The Latin delegation at the council of his consecration pressed him to accept the clause in order to secure their support. The controversy also involved Eastern and Western ecclesiastical jurisdictional rights in the Bulgarian church, as well as a doctrinal dispute over the Filioque ("and from the Son") clause. That had been added to the Nicene Creed by the Latin church, which was later the theological breaking point in the ultimate Great East-West Schism in the eleventh century. Photius did provide concession on the issue of jurisdictional rights concerning Bulgaria and the papal legates made do with his return of Bulgaria to Rome. This concession, however, was purely nominal, as Bulgaria's return to the Byzantine rite in 870 had already secured for it an autocephalous church. Without the consent of Boris I of Bulgaria, the papacy was unable to enforce any its claims. East-West Schism In the 11th century the Great Schism took place between Rome and Constantinople, which led to separation of the Church of the West, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Eastern Orthodox Church. There were doctrinal issues like the filioque clause and the authority of the Pope involved in the split, but these were exacerbated by cultural and linguistic differences between Latins and Greeks. Prior to that, the Eastern and Western halves of the Church had frequently been in conflict, particularly during periods of iconoclasm and the Photian schism. The East-West Schism, or Great Schism, separated the Church into Western (Latin) and Eastern (Greek) branches, i.e., Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. It was the first major division since certain groups in the East rejected the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon (see Oriental Orthodoxy), and was far more significant. Though normally dated to 1054, the East-West Schism was actually the result of an extended period of estrangement between Latin and Greek Christendom over the nature of papal primacy and certain doctrinal matters like the filioque, but intensified by cultural and linguistic differences. The "official" schism in 1054 was the excommunication of Patriarch Michael Cerularius of Constantinople, followed by his excommunication of papal legates. Attempts at reconciliation were made in 1274 (by the Second Council of Lyon) and in 1439 (by the Council of Basel), but in each case the eastern hierarchs who consented to the unions were repudiated by the Orthodox as a whole, though reconciliation was achieved between the West and what are now called the "Eastern Rite Catholic Churches." More recently, in 1965 the mutual excommunications were rescinded by the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople, though schism remains. Both groups are descended from the Early Church, both acknowledge the apostolic succession of each other's bishops, and the validity of each other's sacraments. Though both acknowledge the primacy of the Bishop of Rome, Eastern Orthodoxy understands this as a primacy of honour with limited or no ecclesiastical authority in other dioceses. The Orthodox East perceived the Papacy as taking on monarch type characteristics that were not in line with the church's tradition. The final breach is often considered to have arisen after the capture and sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Crusades against Christians in the East by Roman Catholic crusaders was not exclusive to the Mediterranean though (see also the Northern Crusades and the Battle of the Ice). The sacking of Constantinople and the Church of Holy Wisdom and establishment of the Latin Empire as a seeming attempt to supplant the Orthodox Byzantine Empire in 1204 is viewed with some rancour to the present day. Many in the East saw the actions of the West as a prime determining factor in the weakening of Byzantium. This led to the Empire's eventual conquest and fall to Islam. In 2004, Pope John Paul II extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204; the apology was formally accepted by Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople. Many things that were stolen during this time: holy relics, riches, and many other items, are still held in various Western European cities, particularly Venice. Hesychast Controversy Gregory Palamas About the year 1337 Hesychasm attracted the attention of a learned member of the Orthodox Church, Barlaam of Calabria who at that time held the office of abbot in the Monastery of St Saviour's in Constantinople and who visited Mount Athos. Mount Athos was then at the height of its fame and influence under the reign of Andronicus III Palaeologus and under the 'first-ship' of the Protos Symeon. On Mount Athos, Barlaam encountered Hesychasts and heard descriptions of their practices, also reading the writings of the teacher in Hesychasm of St Gregory Palamas, himself an Athonite monk. Trained in Western Scholastic theology, Barlaam was scandalised by Hesychasm and began to combat it both orally and in his writings. As a private teacher of theology in the Western Scholastic mode, Barlaam propounded a more intellectual and propositional approach to the knowledge of God than the Hesychasts taught. Hesychasm is a form of constant purposeful prayer or experiential prayer, explicitly referred to as contemplation. Descriptions of the Hesychast practices can be found in the Philokalia, The Way of a Pilgrim, and St. John Climacus' The Ladder of Divine Ascent. Barlaam took exception to, as heretical and blasphemous, the doctrine entertained by the Hesychasts as to the nature of the uncreated light, the experience of which was said to be the goal of Hesychast practice. It was maintained by the Hesychasts to be of divine origin and to be identical to that light which had been manifested to Jesus' disciples on Mount Tabor at the Transfiguration. This Barlaam held to be polytheistic, inasmuch as it postulated two eternal substances, a visible and an invisible God. On the Hesychast side, the controversy was taken up by St Gregory Palamas, afterwards Archbishop of Thessalonica, who was asked by his fellow monks on Mt Athos to defend Hesychasm from the attacks of Barlaam. St Gregory himself, was well-educated in Greek philosophy. St Gregory defended Hesychasm in the 1340s at three different synods in Constantinople, and he also wrote a number of works in its defence. In these works, St Gregory Palamas uses a distinction, already found in the 4th century in the works of the Cappadocian Fathers, between the energies or operations (Gr. energeies) of God and the essence (ousia) of God (see the Essence-Energies distinction). St Gregory taught that the energies or operations of God were uncreated. He taught that the essence of God can never be known by his creations even in the next life, but that his uncreated energies or operations can be known both in this life and in the next, and convey to the Hesychast in this life and to the righteous in the next life a true spiritual knowledge of God (see theoria). In Palamite theology, it is the uncreated energies of God that illumine the Hesychast who has been vouchsafed an experience of the Uncreated Light. Palamas referred to this experience as an apodictic (see Aristotle) validation of God rather than a scholastic contemplative or dialectical validation of God. In 1341 the dispute came before a synod held at Constantinople and was presided over by the Emperor Andronicus; the synod, taking into account the regard in which the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius were held, condemned Barlaam, who recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming a bishop in the Roman Catholic Church. One of Barlaam's friends, Gregory Akindynos, who originally was also a friend of St Gregory Palamas, took up the controversy, and three other synods on the subject were held, at the second of which the followers of Barlaam gained a brief victory. But in 1351 at a synod under the presidency of the Emperor John VI Cantacuzenus, Hesychast doctrine was established as the doctrine of the Orthodox Church. Up to this day, the Roman Catholic Church has never fully accepted Hesychasm, especially the distinction between the energies or operations of God and the essence of God, and the notion that those energies or operations of God are uncreated. In Roman Catholic theology as it has developed since the Scholastic period circa 1100–1500, the essence of God can be known, but only in the next life; the grace of God is always created; and the essence of God is pure act, so that there can be no distinction between the energies or operations and the essence of God (see, e.g., the Summa Theologiae of St Thomas Aquinas). Some of these positions depend on Aristotelian metaphysics. The contemporary historians Cantacuzenus and Nicephorus Gregoras deal very copiously with this subject, taking the Hesychast and Barlaamite sides respectively. Respected fathers of the church have held that these councils that agree that experiential prayer is Orthodox, refer to these as councils as Ecunemical Councils Eight and Nine. Father John S. Romanides, Hierotheos (Vlachos) of Nafpaktos, and the Very Rev. Prof. Dr. George Metallinos, Professor of theology at Athens Greece (see gnosiology). Age of captivity In 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Empire. By this time Egypt had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries, but Orthodoxy was very strong in Russia which had recently acquired an autocephalous status; and thus Moscow called itself the Third Rome, as the cultural heir of Constantinople. Under Ottoman rule, the Greek Orthodox Church acquired substantial power as an autonomous millet. The ecumenical patriarch was the religious and administrative ruler of the entire "Greek Orthodox nation" (Ottoman administrative unit), which encompassed all the Eastern Orthodox subjects of the Empire. Stavronikita monastery, South-East view Isolation from the West As a result of the Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, and the Fall of Constantinople, the entire Orthodox communion of the Balkans and the Near East became suddenly isolated from the West. For the next four hundred years, it would be confined within a hostile Islamic world, with which it had little in common religiously or culturally. The Russian Orthodox Church was the only part of the Orthodox communion which remained outside the control of the Ottoman empire. It is, in part, due to this geographical and intellectual confinement that the voice of Eastern Orthodoxy was not heard during the Reformation in sixteenth century Europe. As a result, this important theological debate often seems strange and distorted to the Orthodox. They never took part in it and thus neither Reformation nor Counter-Reformation is part of their theological framework. Religious Rights under the Ottoman Empire The new Ottoman government that arose from the ashes of Byzantine civilisation was neither primitive nor barbaric. Islam not only recognised Jesus as a great prophet, but tolerated Christians as another People of the Book. As such, the Church was not extinguished nor was its canonical and hierarchical organisation significantly disrupted. Its administration continued to function. One of the first things that Mehmet the Conqueror did was to allow the Church to elect a new patriarch, Gennadius Scholarius. The Hagia Sophia and the Parthenon, which had been Christian churches for nearly a millennium were, admittedly, converted into mosques, yet countless other churches, both in Constantinople and elsewhere, remained in Christian hands. Moreover, it is striking that the patriarch's and the hierarchy's position was considerably strengthened and their power increased. They were endowed with civil as well as ecclesiastical power over all Christians in Ottoman territories. Because Islamic law makes no distinction between nationality and religion, all Christians, regardless of their language or nationality, were considered a single millet, or nation. The patriarch, as the highest ranking hierarch, was thus invested with civil and religious authority and made ethnarch, head of the entire Christian Orthodox population. Practically, this meant that all Orthodox Churches within Ottoman territory were under the control of Constantinople. Thus, the authority and jurisdictional frontiers of the patriarch were enormously enlarged. However, these rights and privileges (see Dhimmitude), including freedom of worship and religious organisation, were often established in principle but seldom corresponded to reality. The legal privileges of the patriarch and the Church depended, in fact, on the whim and mercy of the Sultan and the Sublime Porte, while all Christians were viewed as little more than second-class citizens. Moreover, Turkish corruption and brutality were not a myth. That it was the "infidel" Christian who experienced this more than anyone else is not in doubt. Nor were pogroms of Christians in these centuries unknown (see Greco-Turkish relations). The Australian Institute for Holocaust and Genocide Studies The New York Times. http://www.helleniccomserve.com/pdf/BlkBkPontusPrinceton.pdf Devastating, too, for the Church was the fact that it could not bear witness to Christ. Missionary work among Moslems was dangerous and indeed impossible, whereas conversion to Islam was entirely legal and permissible. Converts to Islam who returned to Orthodoxy were put to death as apostates. No new churches could be built and even the ringing of church bells was prohibited. Education of the clergy and the Christian population either ceased altogether or was reduced to the most rudimentary elements. Corruption The Orthodox Church found itself subject to the Turkish system of corruption. The patriarchal throne was frequently sold to the highest bidder, while new patriarchal investiture was accompanied by heavy payment to the government. In order to recoup their losses, patriarchs and bishops taxed the local parishes and their clergy. Nor was the patriarchal throne ever secure. Few patriarchs between the fifteenth and the nineteenth centuries died a natural death while in office. The forced abdications, exiles, hangings, drownings, and poisonings of patriarchs are well documented. But if the patriarch's position was precarious so was the hierarchy's. The hanging of patriarch Gregory V from the gate of the patriarchate on Easter Sunday 1821 was accompanied by the execution of two metropolitans and twelve bishops. Devshirmeh Devshirmeh was the system of the collection of young boys from conquered Christian lands by the Ottoman sultans as a form of regular taxation in order to build a loyal army (formerly largely composed of war captives) and the class of (military) administrators called the "Janissaries", or other servants such as tellak in hamams. The word devşirme means "collecting, gathering" in Ottoman Turkish. Boys delivered to the Ottomans in this way were called ghilmán or acemi oglanlar ("novice boys"). Western Schism The Western Schism, or Papal Schism, was a prolonged period of crisis in Latin Christendom from 1378 to 1416, when there were two or more claimants to the See of Rome and there was conflict concerning the rightful holder of the papacy. The conflict was political, rather than doctrinal, in nature. In 1309, Pope Clement V, due to political considerations, moved to Avignon in southern France and exercised his pontificate there. For sixty-nine years popes resided in Avignon rather than Rome. This was not only an obvious source of not only confusion but of political animosity as the prestige and influence of city of Rome waned without a resident pontiff. Though Pope Gregory XI, a Frenchman, returned to Rome in 1378, the strife between Italian and French factions intensified, especially following his subsequent death. In 1378 the conclave, elected an Italian from Naples, Pope Urban VI; his intransigence in office soon alienated the French cardinals, who withdrew to a conclave of their own, asserting the previous election was invalid since its decision had been made under the duress of a riotous mob. They elected one of their own, Robert of Geneva, who took the name Pope Clement VII. By 1379, he was back in the palace of popes in Avignon, while Urban VI remained in Rome. For nearly forty years, there were two papal curias and two sets of cardinals, each electing a new pope for Rome or Avignon when death created a vacancy. Each pope lobbied for support among kings and princes who played them off against each other, changing allegiance according to political advantage. In 1409, a council was convened at Pisa to resolve the issue. The council declared both existing popes to be schismatic (Gregory XII from Rome, Benedict XIII from Avignon) and appointed a new one, Alexander V. But the existing popes refused to resign and thus there were three papal claimants. Another council was convened in 1414, the Council of Constance. In March 1415 the Pisan pope, John XXIII, fled from Constance in disguise; he was brought back a prisoner and deposed in May. The Roman pope, Gregory XII, resigned voluntarily in July. The Avignon pope, Benedict XIII, refused to come to Constance; nor would he consider resignation. The council finally deposed him in July 1417. The council in Constance, having finally cleared the field of popes and antipopes, elected Pope Martin V as pope in November. Church and the Italian Renaissance (1399–1599) Michelangelo's Pietà in St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City The Renaissance was a period of great cultural change and achievement, marked in Italy by a classical orientation and an increase of wealth through mercantile trade. The City of Rome, the Papacy, and the Papal States were all affected by the Renaissance. On the one hand, it was a time of great artistic patronage and architectural magnificence, where the Church pardoned such artists as Michelangelo, Brunelleschi, Bramante, Raphael, Fra Angelico, Donatello, and da Vinci. On the other hand, wealthy Italian families often secured episcopal offices, including the papacy, for their own members, some of whom were known for immorality, such as Alexander VI and Sixtus IV. In addition to being the head of the Church, the Pope became one of Italy's most important secular rulers, and pontiffs such as Julius II often waged campaigns to protect and expand their temporal domains. Furthermore, the popes, in a spirit of refined competition with other Italian lords, spent lavishly both on private luxuries but also on public works, repairing or building churches, bridges, and a magnificent system of aqueducts in Rome that still function today. It was during this time that St. Peter's Basilica, perhaps the most recognised Christian church, was built on the site of the old Constantinian basilica. It was also a time of increased contact with Greek culture, opening up new avenues of learning, especially in the fields of philosophy, poetry, classics, rhetoric, and political science, fostering a spirit of humanism–all of which would influence the Church. Protestant Reformation (1521–1579) In the early 16th century, movements were begun by two theologians, Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli, that aimed to reform the Church; these reformers are distinguished from previous ones in that they considered the root of corruptions to be doctrinal (rather than simply a matter of moral weakness or lack of ecclesiastical discipline) and thus they aimed to change contemporary doctrines to accord with what they perceived to be the "true gospel." The word Protestant is derived from the Latin protestatio meaning declaration which refers to the letter of protestation by Lutheran princes against the decision of the Diet of Speyer in 1529, which reaffirmed the edict of the Diet of Worms against the Reformation. Definition of Protestantism at the Episcopal Church website Since that time, the term has been used in many different senses, but most often as a general term refers to Western Christianity that is not subject to papal authority.. The term "Protestant" was not originally used by Reformation era leaders; instead, they called themselves "evangelical", emphasising the "return to the true gospel (Greek: euangelion)." MacCulloch, Diarmaid, The Reformation: A History (New York: Penguin Books, 2004) p. xx The beginning of the Protestant Reformation is generally identified with Martin Luther and the posting of the 95 Theses on the castle church in Wittenberg, Germany. Early protest was against corruptions such as simony, episcopal vacancies, and the sale of indulgences. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura and sola fide. The three most important traditions to emerge directly from the Protestant Reformation were the Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist, Presbyterian, etc.), and Anglican traditions, though the latter group identifies as both "Reformed" and "Catholic", and some subgroups reject the classification as "Protestant." The Protestant Reformation may be divided into two distinct but basically simultaneous movements, the Magisterial Reformation and the Radical Reformation. The Magisterial Reformation involved the alliance of certain theological teachers (Latin: magistri) such as Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, Cranmer, etc. with secular magistrates who cooperated in the reformation of Christendom. Radical Reformers, besides forming communities outside state sanction, often employed more extreme doctrinal change, such as the rejection of tenants of the Councils of Nicaea and Chalcedon. Often the division between magisterial and radical reformers was as or more violent than the general Catholic and Protestant hostilities. The Protestant Reformation spread almost entirely within the confines of Northern Europe, but did not take hold in certain northern areas such as Ireland and parts of Germany. By far the magisterial reformers were more successful and their changes more widespread than the radical reformers. The Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation is known as the Counter Reformation, or Catholic Reformation, which resulted in a reassertion of traditional doctrines and the emergence of new religious orders aimed at both moral reform and new missionary activity. The Counter Reformation reconverted approximately 33% of Northern Europe to Catholicism and initiated missions in South and Central America, Africa, Asia, and even China and Japan. Protestant expansion outside of Europe occurred on a smaller scale through colonisation of North America and areas of Africa. Martin Luther Martin Luther, by Lucas Cranach the Elder Martin Luther was an Augustinian friar and professor at the University of Wittenberg. In 1517, he published a list of 95 Theses, or points to be debated, concerning the illicitness of selling indulgences. Luther had a particular disdain for Aristotelian philosophy, and as he began developing his own theology, he increasingly came into conflict with Thomistic scholars, most notably Cardinal Cajetan. MacCulloch, Diarmaid, The Reformation: A History (New York: Penguin Books, 2004) pp. 124–125 Soon, Luther had begun to develop his theology of justification, or process by which one is "made right" (righteous) in the eyes of God. In Catholic theology, one is made righteous by a progressive infusion of grace accepted through faith and cooperated with through good works. Luther's doctrine of justification differed from Catholic theology in that justification rather meant "the declaring of one to be righteous", where God imputes the merits of Christ upon one who remains without inherent merit. MacCulloch, Diarmaid, The Reformation: A History (New York: Penguin Books, 2004) p. 119 In this process, good works are more of an unessential byproduct that contribute nothing to one's own state of righteousness. Conflict between Luther and leading theologians lead to his gradual rejection of authority of the Church hierarchy. In 1520, he was condemned for heresy by the papal bull Exsurge Domine, which he burned at Wittenberg along with books of canon law. MacCulloch, Diarmaid, The Reformation: A History (New York: Penguin Books, 2004) p. 128 Ulrich Zwingli Ulrich Zwingli, wearing the scholar's cap. Ulrich Zwingli was a Swiss scholar and parish priest who was likewise influential in the beginnings of the Protestant Reformation. Zwingli claimed that his theology owed nothing to Luther, and that he had developed it in 1516, before Luther's famous protest, though his doctrine of justification was remarkably similar to that of the German friar. MacCulloch, Diarmaid, The Reformation: A History (New York: Penguin Books, 2004) p. 137–138 In 1518, Zwingli was given a post at the wealthy collegiate church of the Grossmünster in Zürich, where he would remain until his death at a relatively young age. Soon he had risen to prominence in the city, and when political tension developed between most of Switzerland and the Catholic Habsburg Emperor Charles V. In this environment, Zwingli began preaching his version of reform, with certain points as the aforementioned doctrine of justification, but others (with which Luther vehemently disagreed) such as the position that veneration of icons was actually idolatry and thus a violation of the first commandment, and the denial of the real presence in the Eucharist. MacCulloch, Diarmaid, The Reformation: A History (New York: Penguin Books, 2004) pp. 146–148 Soon the city council had accepted Zwingli's doctrines and Zürich became a focal point of more radical reforming movements, and certain admires and followers of Zwingli pushed his message and reforms far further than even he had intended, such as rejecting infant baptism. MacCulloch, Diarmaid, The Reformation: A History (New York: Penguin Books, 2004) pp. 148–149 This split between Luther and Zwingli formed the essence of the Protestant division between Lutheran and Reformed theology. Meanwhile, political tensions increased; Zwingli and the Zürich leadership imposed an economic blockade on the inner Catholic states of Switzerland, which lead to a battle in which Zwingli, in full armor, was slain along with his troops. John Calvin John Calvin was a French cleric and doctor of law turned Protestant reformer. He belonged to the second generation of the Reformation, publishing his theological tome, the Institutes of the Christian Religion, in 1536 (later revised), and establishing himself as a leader of the Reformed church in Geneva, which became an "unofficial capital" of Reformed Christianity in the second half of the sixteenth century. He exerted a remarkable amount of authority in the city and over the city council, such that he has (rather ignominiously) been called a "Protestant pope." Calvin established an eldership together with a "consistory", where pastors and the elders established matters of religious discipline for the Genevan population. MacCulloch, Diarmaid, The Reformation: A History (New York: Penguin Books, 2004) p. 238 Calvin's theology is best known for his doctrine of (double) predestination, which held that God had, from all eternity, providentially foreordained who would be saved (the elect) and likewise who would be damned (the reprobate). Predestination was not the dominant idea in Calvin's works, but it would seemingly become so for many of his Reformed successors. MacCulloch, Diarmaid, The Reformation: A History (New York: Penguin Books, 2004) p. 243 English Reformation Statue of Richard Hooker, whose emphases on reason, tolerance and inclusiveness influenced Anglicanism. Unlike other reform movements, the English Reformation began by royal influence. Henry VIII considered himself a thoroughly Catholic King, and in 1521 he defended the papacy against Luther in a book he commissioned entitled, The Defence of the Seven Sacraments, for which Pope Leo X awarded him the title Fidei Defensor (Defender of the Faith). However, the king came into conflict with the papacy when he wished to annul his marriage with Catherine of Aragon, for which he needed papal sanction. Catherine, among many other noble relations, was the aunt of Emperor Charles V, the papacy's most significant secular supporter. The ensuing dispute eventually lead to a break from Rome and the declaration of the King of England as head of the English Church. England would later experience periods of frenetic and eclectic reforms contrasted by periods led by staunch conservatives. Monarchs such as Edward VI, Mary I, Elizabeth I, and Archbishops of Canterbury such as Thomas Cranmer and William Laud pushed the Church of England in many directions over the course of only a few generations. What emerged was a state church that considered itself both "Reformed" and "Catholic" but not "Roman" (and hesitated from the title "Protestant"), and other "unofficial" more radical movements such as the Puritans. Counter-Reformation The Counter-Reformation, or Catholic Reformation, was the response of the Catholic Church to the Protestant Reformation. The essence of the Counter-Reformation was a renewed conviction in traditional practices and the upholding of Catholic doctrine as the source of ecclesiastic and moral reform, and the answer to halting the spread of Protestantism. Thus it experienced the founding of new religious orders, such as the Jesuits, the establishment of seminaries for the proper training of priests, renewed worldwide missionary activity, and the development of new yet orthodox forms of spirituality, such as that of the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality. The entire process was spearheaded by the Council of Trent, which clarified and reasserted doctrine, issued dogmatic definitions, and produced the Roman Catechism. Though Ireland, Spain, France, and elsewhere featured significantly in the Counter-Reformation, its heart was Italy and the various popes of the time, who established the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (the list of prohibited books) and the Roman Inquisition, a system of juridical tribunals that prosecuted heresy and related offences. The Papacy of St. Pius V (1566–1572) was known not only for its focus on halting heresy and worldly abuses within the Church, but also for its focus on improving popular piety in a determined effort to stem the appeal of Protestantism. Pius began his pontificate by giving large alms to the poor, charity, and hospitals, and the pontiff was known for consoling the poor and sick, and supporting missionaries. The activities of these pontiffs coincided with a rediscovery of the ancient Christian catacombs in Rome. As Diarmaid MacCulloch stated, "Just as these ancient martyrs were revealed once more, Catholics were beginning to be martyred afresh, both in mission fields overseas and in the struggle to win back Protestant northern Europe: the catacombs proved to be an inspiration for many to action and to heroism." MacCulloch, Diarmaid, The Reformation: A History (New York: Penguin Books, 2004) p. 404 The Council of Trent The Council in Santa Maria Maggiore church; Museo Diocesiano Tridentino, Trento The Council of Trent (1545–1563), initiated by Pope Paul III (1534–1549) addressed issues of certain ecclesiastical corruptions such as simony, absenteeism, nepotism, and other abuses, as well as the reassertion of traditional practices and the dogmatic articulation of the traditional doctrines of the Church, such as the episcopal structure, clerical celibacy, the seven Sacraments, transubstantiation (the belief that during mass the consecrated bread and wine truly become the body and blood of Christ), the veneration of relics, icons, and saints (especially the Blessed Virgin Mary), the necessity of both faith and good works for salvation, the existence of purgatory and the issuance (but not the sale) of indulgences, etc. In other words, all Protestant doctrinal objections and changes were uncompromisingly rejected. The Council also fostered an interest in education for parish priests to increase pastoral care. Milan's Archbishop Saint Charles Borromeo (1538–1584) set an example by visiting the remotest parishes and instilling high standards. Age of Discovery (1492–1769) The Age of Discovery began with the voyage of Christopher Columbus c. 1492. It is characterised by European colonisation of missionary activity. Christian missionaries Catholic missions During the Age of Discovery, the Roman Catholic Church established a number of Missions in the Americas and other colonies in order to spread Christianity in the New World and to convert the indigenous peoples. At the same time, missionaries such as Francis Xavier as well as other Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans and Dominicans were moving into Asia and the Far East. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa. While some of these missions were associated with imperialism and oppression, others (notably Matteo Ricci's Jesuit mission to China) were relatively peaceful and focused on integration rather than cultural imperialism. Protestant colonisation The most famous colonisation by Protestants in the New World was that of English Puritans in North America. Unlike the Spanish or French, the English colonists made surprisingly little effort to evangelise the native peoples. MacCulloch, Diarmaid, The Reformation: A History (New York: Penguin Books, 2004) p. 540 The Puritans, or pilgrims, left England so that they could live in an area with Puritanism established as the exclusive civic religion. Though they had left England because of the suppression of their religious practice, most Puritans had thereafter originally settled in the Low Countries but found the licentiousness there, where the state hesitated from enforcing religious practice, as unacceptable, and thus they set out for the New World and the hopes of a Puritan utopia. Church and the Enlightenment (1580–1800) Trial of Galileo Galileo before the Holy Office, a 19th century painting by Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury The Galileo affair, in which Galileo Galilei came into conflict with the Roman Catholic Church over his support of Copernican astronomy, is often considered a defining moment in the history of the relationship between religion and science. In 1610, Galileo published his Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger), describing the surprising observations that he had made with the new telescope. These and other discoveries exposed major difficulties with the understanding of the heavens that had been held since antiquity, and raised new interest in radical teachings such as the heliocentric theory of Copernicus. In reaction, many scholars maintained that the motion of the Earth and immobility of the Sun were heretical, as they contradicted some accounts given in the Bible as understood at that time. Galileo's part in the controversies over theology, astronomy and philosophy culminated in his trial and sentencing in 1633, on a grave suspicion of heresy. But perhaps the real reason for his sentencing was that he had in his book insulted the Pope and that Copernican astronomy did not have enough scientific evidence (although he had astronomical data, the idea that the earth moved was not supported by any common sense observations until the Theory of Universal Gravity). French Revolution French Republican Calendar and anti-clerical measures. Miscellaneous Holy League Battle of Vienna Cardinal Richelieu Louis XIV of France Revivalism (1720–1906) Revivalism refers to the Calvinist and Wesleyan revival, called the Great Awakening, in North America which saw the development of evangelical Congregationalist, Presbyterian, Baptist, and new Methodist churches. When the movement eventually waned, it gave rise to new Restorationist movements. Great Awakenings The First Great Awakening was a wave of religious enthusiasm among Protestants in the American colonies c. 1730–1740, emphasising the traditional Reformed virtues of Godly preaching, rudimentary liturgy, and a deep sense of personal guilt and redemption by Christ Jesus. Historian Sydney E. Ahlstrom saw it as part of a "great international Protestant upheaval" that also created Pietism in Germany, the Evangelical Revival, and Methodism in England. Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People. (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1972) p. 263 It centred on reviving the spirituality of established congregations, and mostly affected Congregational, Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed, German Reformed, Baptist, and Methodist churches, while also spreading within the slave population. The Second Great Awakening (1800–1830s), unlike the first, focused on the unchurched and sought to instil in them a deep sense of personal salvation as experienced in revival meetings. It also sparked the beginnings of Restorationist groups such as the Mormons and the Holiness movement. The Third Great Awakening began from 1857 and was most notable for taking the movement throughout the world, especially in English speaking countries. The final group to emerge from the "great awakenings" in North America was Pentecostalism, which had its roots in the Methodist, Wesleyan, and Holiness movements, and began in 1906 on Azusa Street, in Los Angeles. Pentecostalism would later lead to the Charismatic movement. Restorationism Restorationism refers to various unaffiliated movements that considered contemporary Christianity, in all its forms, to be a deviation from the true, original Christianity, which these groups then attempted to "Reconstruct", often using the Book of Acts as a "guidebook" of sorts. Restorationism developed out of the Second Great Awakening and is historically connected to the Protestant Reformation, Ahlstrom's summary is as follows: Restorationism has its genesis with Thomas and Alexander Campbell, whose movement is connected to the German Reformed Church through Otterbein, Albright, and Winebrenner (p. 212). American Millennialism and Adventism, which arose from Evangelical Protestantism, produced certain groups such as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (p. 387, 501–9), the Jehovah's Witness movement (p. 807), and, as a reaction specifically to William Miller, Seventh Day Adventism (p. 381); Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People. (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1972) but differs in that Restorationists do not usually describe themselves as "reforming" a Christian church continuously existing from the time of Jesus, but as restoring the Church that they believe was lost at some point. The name Restoration is also used to describe the Latter-day Saints (Mormons) and the Jehovah's Witness Movement. Contemporary history (1848-present) The history of the Church in contemporary times covers the period from the revolutions of 1848 to today. Contemporary Eastern Orthodoxy Russian Orthodox Church in the Russian Empire Churches of the Moscow Kremlin, as seen from the Balchug The Russian Orthodox Church held a privileged position in the Russian Empire, expressed in the motto, Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Populism, of the late Russian Empire. At the same time, it was placed under the control of the Tsar by the Church reform of Peter I in 18th century. Its governing body was Most Holy Synod, which was run by an official (titled Ober-Procurator) appointed by the Tsar himself. The church was involved in the various campaigns of russification, Natalia Shlikhta (2004) "'Greek Catholic'-'Orthodox'-'Soviet': a symbiosis or a conflict of identities?" in Religion, State & Society, Volume 32, Number 3 (Routledge) and accused of the involvement in anti-Jewish pogroms. Shlomo Lambroza, John D. Klier (2003) Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History (Cambridge University Press) In the case of anti-Semitism and the anti-Jewish pogroms, no evidence is given of the direct participation of the church, and many Russian Orthodox clerics, including senior hierarchs, openly defended persecuted Jews, at least from the second half of the nineteenth century. "Jewish-Christian Relations" , by the International Council of Christians and Jews Also, the Church has no official position on Judaism as such. It is no coincidence that in the entry on 'Orthodoxy' in the seventh volume of the Kratkaya Evreiskaya Entsyklopedia, devoted to the Russian Orthodox Church (pp. 733–743), where numerous examples are given of persecution of the Jews in Russia, including religious persecution, no evidence is given of the direct participation of the church, either in legislative terms or in the conduct of policy. Although the authors of the article state that the active role of the Church in inciting the government to conduct anti-Jewish acts (for example in the case of Ivan the Terrible's policy in the defeated territories) is 'obvious', no facts are given in their article to support this. http://www.jcrelations.net/en/?id=787 The Church was allowed to impose taxes on the peasants. The Church, like the Tsarist state was seen as an enemy of the people by the Bolsheviks and other Russian revolutionaries. Russian Orthodox Church in the Soviet Union The Russian Orthodox Church collaborated with the White Army in the Russian Civil War (see White movement) after the October Revolution. This may have further strengthened the Bolshevik animus against the church. According to Lenin, a communist regime cannot remain neutral on the question of religion but must show itself to be merciless towards it. There was no place for the church in Lenin's classless society. Before and after the October Revolution of 7 November 1917 (October 25 Old Calendar) there was a movement within the Soviet Union to unite all of the people of the world under Communist rule (see Communist International). This included the Eastern European bloc countries as well as the Balkan States. Since some of these Slavic states tied their ethnic heritage to their ethnic churches, both the peoples and their church where targeted by the Soviet. President of Lithuania: Prisoner of the Gulag a Biography of Aleksandras Stulginskis by Afonsas Eidintas Genocide and Research Centre of Lithuania ISBN 998675741X / 9789986757412 / 9986–757–41-X pg 23 "As early as August 1920 Lenin wrote to E. M. Skliansky, President of the Revolutionary War Soviet: "We are surrounded by the greens (we pack it to them), we will move only about 10–20 versty and we will choke by hand the bourgeoisie, the clergy and the landowners. There will be an award of 100,000 rubles for each one hanged." He was speaking about the future actions in the countries neighboring Russia. Christ Is Calling You : A Course in Catacomb Pastorship by Father George Calciu Published by Saint Hermans Press April 1997 ISBN -13: 978–1887904520 The Soviets' official religious stance was one of "religious freedom or tolerance", though the state established atheism as the only scientific truth. Criticism of atheism was strictly forbidden and sometimes lead to imprisonment. Sermons to young people by Father George Calciu-Dumitreasa. Given at the Chapel of the Romanian Orthodox Church Seminary, The Word online. Bucharest http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/resources/sermons/calciu_christ_calling.htm The Soviet Union was the first state to have as an ideological objective the elimination of religion. Toward that end, the Communist regime confiscated church property, ridiculed religion, harassed believers, and propagated atheism in the schools. Actions toward particular religions, however, were determined by State interests, and most organised religions were never outlawed. Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers along with execution included torture being sent to prison camps, labour camps or mental hospitals. Father Arseny 1893–1973 Priest, Prisoner, Spiritual Father. Introduction pg. vi — 1. St Vladimir's Seminary Press ISBN 0–88141–180–9 The Washington Post Anti-Communist Priest Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa By Patricia Sullivan Washington Post Staff Writer Sunday, 2006-11-26; Page C09 http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/25/AR2006112500783.html The result of this militant atheism was to transform the Church into a persecuted and martyred Church. In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed. Ostling, Richard. "Cross meets Kremlin" TIME Magazine, 2001-06-24. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,150718,00.html This included people like the Grand Duchess Elizabeth Fyodorovna who was at this point a monastic. Along with her murder was Grand Duke Sergei Mikhailovich Romanov; the Princes Ioann Konstantinovich, Konstantin Konstantinovich, Igor Konstantinovich and Vladimir Pavlovich Paley; Grand Duke Sergei's secretary, Fyodor Remez; and Varvara Yakovleva, a sister from the Grand Duchess Elizabeth's convent. They were herded into the forest, pushed into an abandoned mineshaft and grenades were then hurled into the mineshaft. Her remains were buried in Jerusalem, in the Church of Maria Magdalene. Christ the Saviour Cathedral Moscow after reconstruction The main target of the anti-religious campaign in the 1920s and 1930s was the Russian Orthodox Church, which had the largest number of faithful. Nearly its entire clergy, and many of its believers, were shot or sent to labor camps. Theological schools were closed, and church publications were prohibited. In the period between 1927 and 1940, the number of Orthodox Churches in the Russian Republic fell from 29,584 to less than 500. Between 1917 and 1940, 130,000 Orthodox priests were arrested. Of these, 95,000 were put to death, executed by firing squad. Father Pavel Florensky was one of the New-martyrs of this particular period. After Nazi Germany's attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church to intensify patriotic support for the war effort. By 1957 about 22,000 Russian Orthodox churches had become active. But in 1959 Nikita Khrushchev initiated his own campaign against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced the closure of about 12,000 churches. By 1985 fewer than 7,000 churches remained active. Ostling, Richard. "Cross meets Kremlin" TIME Magazine, 2001-06-24. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,150718,00.html Members of the church hierarchy were jailed or forced out, their places taken by docile clergy, many of whom had ties with the KGB. In the Soviet Union, in addition to the methodical closing and destruction of churches, the charitable and social work formerly done by ecclesiastical authorities was taken over by the state. As with all private property, Church owned property was confiscated into public use. The few places of worship left to the Church were legally viewed as state property which the government permitted the church to use. After the advent of state funded universal education, the Church was not permitted to carry on educational, instructional activity for children. For adults, only training for church-related occupations was allowed. Outside of sermons during the celebration of the divine liturgy it could not instruct or evangelise to the faithful or its youth. Catechism classes, religious schools, study groups, Sunday schools and religious publications were all illegal and or banned. This persecution continued, even after the death of Stalin until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. This caused many religious tracts to be circulated as illegal literature or samizdat. Since the fall of the Soviet Union there have been many New-martyrs added as Saints from the yoke of atheism. Diaspora emigration to the West One of the most striking developments in modern historical Orthodoxy is the dispersion of Orthodox Christians to the West. Emigration from Greece and the Near East in the last hundred years has created a sizable Orthodox diaspora in Western Europe, North and South America, and Australia. In addition, the Bolshevik Revolution forced thousands of Russian exiles westward. As a result, Orthodoxy's traditional frontiers have been profoundly modified. Millions of Orthodox are no longer geographically "eastern" since they live permanently in their newly adopted countries in the West. Nonetheless, they remain Eastern Orthodox in their faith and practice. Virtually all the Orthodox nationalities — Greek, Arab, Russian, Serbian, Albanian, Ukrainian, Romanian, and Bulgarian — are represented in the United States. Fascism Fascism describes certain related political regimes in 20th century Europe, especially the Nazi Germany of Hitler, the Fascist Italy of Mussolini and the falangist Spain of Franco. Nazism The position of Christians in Nazi Fascism is highly complex. Regarding the matter, historian Derek Holmes wrote, “There is no doubt that the Catholic districts, resisted the lure of National Socialism [Nazism] far better than the Protestant ones.” Derek Holmes, History of the Papacy, p. 102. Pope Pius XI declared - Mit brennender Sorge - that Fascist governments had hidden "pagan intentions" and expressed the irreconcilability of the Catholic position and Totalitarian Fascist State Worship, which placed the nation above God and fundamental human rights and dignity. His declaration that “Spiritually, [Christians] are all Semites” prompted the Nazis to give him the title “Chief Rabbi of the Christian World.” Derek Holmes, History of the Papacy, p. 116. Catholic priests were executed in concentration camps alongside Jews; for example, 2,600 Catholic Priests were imprisoned in Dachau, and 2,000 of them were executed. A further 2,700 Polish priests were executed (a quarter of all Polish priests), and 5,350 Polish nuns were either displaced, imprisoned, or executed. John Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages: A History (New York: Paulist Press, 2005), p. 332 & n. 37. Many Catholic laypeople and clergy played notable roles in sheltering Jews during the Holocaust, including Pope Pius XII (1876–1958). The head rabbi of Rome became a Catholic in 1945 and, in honour of the actions the Pope undertook to save Jewish lives, he took the name Eugenio (the pope's first name). John Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages: A History (New York: Paulist Press, 2005), p. 332. A former Israeli consul in Italy claimed: “The Catholic Church saved more Jewish lives during the war than all the other churches, religious institutions, and rescue organisations put together.” Derek Holmes, History of the Papacy, p. 158. The relationship between Nazism and Protestantism, especially the German Lutheran Church, was complex. Though the majority of Protestant church leaders in Germany supported the Nazis' growing anti-Jewish activities, some, such as Dietrich Bonhoeffer (a Lutheran pastor) were strongly opposed to the Nazis. Bonhoeffer was later found guilty in the conspiracy to assassinate Hitler and executed. Italian Fascism Pope Pius XI moderately sceptic. G. K. Chesterton friendly but critical. Spanish Civil War Roman Catholics internationally mainly either neutral or on Franco's side, due to Azaña's de facto toleration of anti-clerical violence in and just before this conflict. Dollfuss in Austria was the ideal politician realising Quadragesimo Anno to Pope Pius XI. International Christianity In the twentieth century, Christianity has gained a wider representation in all parts of the world and at the beginning of the 21st century China is estimated to be the third largest Christian nation on earth, with the future prospect of Christianity eventually becoming a Sino-centric religion . I suspect that even the most enthusiastic accounts err on the downside, and that Christianity will have become a Sino-centric religion two generations from now. China may be for the 21st century what Europe was during the 8th-11th centuries, and America has been during the past 200 years: the natural ground for mass evangelisation. If this occurs, the world will change beyond our capacity to recognise it. Islam might defeat the western Europeans, simply by replacing their diminishing numbers with immigrants, but it will crumble beneath the challenge from the East. – Spengler Modern trends in Christian theology Modernism and liberal Christianity Liberal Christianity, sometimes called liberal theology, is an umbrella term covering diverse, philosophically-informed religious movements and moods within late 18th, 19th and 20th century Christianity. The word "liberal" in liberal Christianity does not refer to a leftist political agenda or set of beliefs, but rather to the freedom of dialectic process associated with continental philosophy and other philosophical and religious paradigms developed during the Age of Enlightenment. Fundamentalism Fundamentalist Christianity, is a movement that arose mainly within British and American Protestantism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in reaction to modernism and certain liberal Protestant groups that denied doctrines considered fundamental to Christianity yet still called themselves "Christian." Thus, fundamentalism sought to re-establish tenets that could not be denied without relinquishing a Christian identity, the "fundamentals": inerrancy of the Bible, Sola Scriptura, the Virgin Birth of Jesus, the doctrine of substitutionary atonement, the bodily Resurrection of Jesus, and the imminent return of Jesus Christ. Second Vatican Council On 11 October 1962 Pope John XXIII opened the Second Vatican Council, the 21st ecumenical council of the Catholic Church. The council was "pastoral" in nature, emphasising and clarifying already defined dogma, revising liturgical practices, and providing guidance for articulating traditional Church teachings in contemporary times. The council is perhaps best known for its instructions that the Mass may be celebrated in the vernacular as well as in Latin. Ecumenism Ecumenism broadly refers to movements between Christian groups to establish a degree of unity through dialogue. "Ecumenism" is derived from Greek (oikoumene), which means "the inhabited world", but more figuratively something like "universal oneness." The movement can be distinguished into Catholic and Protestant movements, with the latter characterised by a redefined ecclesiology of "denominationalism" (which the Catholic Church, among others, rejects). Catholic ecumenism Over the last century, a number of moves have been made to reconcile the schism between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox churches. Although progress has been made, concerns over papal primacy and the independence of the smaller Orthodox churches has blocked a final resolution of the schism. On 30 November 1894, Pope Leo XIII published the Apostolic Letter Orientalium Dignitas'' (On the Churches of the East) safeguarding the importance and continuance of the Eastern traditions for the whole Church. On 7 December 1965, a Joint Catholic-Orthodox Declaration of His Holiness Pope Paul VI and the Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras I was issued lifting the mutual excommunications of 1054. Some of the most difficult questions in relations with the ancient Eastern Churches concern some doctrine (i.e. Filioque, Scholasticism, functional purposes of asceticism, the essence of God, Hesychasm, Fourth Crusade, establishment of the Latin Empire, Uniatism to note but a few) as well as practical matters such as the concrete exercise of the claim to papal primacy and how to ensure that ecclesiastical union would not mean mere absorption of the smaller Churches by the Latin component of the much larger Catholic Church (the most numerous single religious denomination in the world), and the stifling or abandonment of their own rich theological, liturgical and cultural heritage. With respect to Catholic relations with Protestant communities, certain commissions were established to foster dialogue and documents have been produced aimed at identifying points of doctrinal unity, such as the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification produced with the Lutheran World Federation in 1999. Ecumenism within Protestantism Ecumenical movements within Protestantism have focused on determining a list of doctrines and practices essential to being Christian and thus extending to all groups which fulfil these basic criteria a (more or less) co-equal status, with perhaps one's own group still retaining a "first among equal" standing. This process involved a redefinition of the idea of "the Church" from traditional theology. This ecclesiology, known as denominationalism, contends that each group (which fulfils the essential criteria of "being Christian") is a sub-group of a greater "Christian Church", itself a purely abstract concept with no direct representation, i.e., no group, or "denomination", claims to be "the Church." Obviously, this ecclesiology is at variance with other groups that indeed consider themselves to be "the Church." The "essential criteria" generally consist of belief in the Trinity, belief that Jesus Christ is the only way to have forgiveness and eternal life, and that He died and rose again bodily. See also History of Christian theology History of the Roman Catholic Church History of the Eastern Orthodox Church History of Protestantism History of Oriental Orthodoxy Christianization Timeline of Christianity Roman Catholic Church Eastern Orthodox Church Protestantism Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church Timeline of Christian missions '''Centuries of Christian History Notes Print resources External links The following links give an overview of the history of Christianity: History of Christianity Reading Room: Extensive online resources for the study of global church history (Tyndale Seminary). Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Christianity in History Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Church as an Institution Church history at WikiChristian Sketches of Church History From AD 33 to the Reformation by Rev. J. C Robertson, M.A.,Canon of Canterbury Church History in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica The following links provide quantitative data related to Christianity and other major religions, including rates of adherence at different points in time: American Religion Data Archive Early Stages of the Establishment of Christianity Theandros, a journal of Orthodox theology and philosophy, containing articles on early Christianity and patristic studies. Historical Christianity, A time line with references to the descendants of the early church. 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2,732 | CheÅ%82mno_Land | Not to be confused with Chełm land. See also Kulmerland (ship). Kulmerland (Culmerland, Culm land, , ) is a German name of a historical region in central Poland bounded by the Vistula and Drwęca rivers. Kulmerland is named after the city of Chełmno (also known as Culm). The largest cities in the region are Toruń, Grudziądz, Chełmno, and Chełmża. Sometimes it was considered to be part of the neighbouring provinces of Masovia, Kuyavia, Greater Poland, Prussia, and Pomerania; it is currently part of the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodship. The Culmerland or Kulmer Land was in Latin named Culmigeria (Holmrugier), referring to the ancient people of the Baltic Sea. Culmigerier was one of the names of the Prussians in general. It is located on the right bank of the Vistula river, from the mouth of the Drwęca river to Chełmno. Where the Vistula river takes a sharp turn northward, the Drwęca forms the eastern border of the region, while its southern and western border is the Vistula river. History By the 10th century the Prussians had come under attack by the Polans, who had spread to the area and, with their first duke, Mieszko I, sought to conquer numerous peoples. Culmigeria, being closest to the Polans, came to be populated by the Lechitic Kuyavian and Masovian tribes as well. The Masovians were lead by Masos, who left the Polish duke Boleslaw I and sought refuge with the Prussians. When this area was subdued by the rulers of the Polans Chełmno became a local centre of administration (kasztelania). Chełmno Land was Christianised in the 11th century. According to the will of Duke Boleslaus III of Poland, Culmigeria after his death in 1137 became a part of the Duchy of Masovia governed by his son Boleslaus IV the Curly and his descendants during the feudal fragmentation of Poland. However the Prussians as well as the Pomeranians many times managed to regain their freedom from subjugation by the expanding Polish dukes. By the 13th century the territory was subject to raids by Prussians, who sacked Chełmno, the province's main town, in 1216. In 1220 Conrad I of Masovia, with the participation of the other princes of Poland, led a partial reconquest of the province, but the project of establishing a Polish defense of the province failed due to conflicts between the princes. He brought the crusading Knights of Dobrin to Masovia, where they built a castle at Dobrzyń in 1224 as a base for attacks against the Prussians. As a result the territory was again sacked and devastated by Prussian raids, which led to depopulation of the province. Being involved in dynastic struggles elsewhere and too weak to deal with the Prussians alone, Conrad needed to safeguard and establish borders against the heathen Old Prussians, because his territory of Masovia was also in danger after the Prussians sieged Płock. Conrad awarded the already devastated Chełmno Land to the Teutonic Knights, giving them Nieszawa at first. He also brought in German settlers to Płock. In 1226 Duke Conrad I of Masovia enlisted the aid of the Teutonic Order to protect Masovia and help convert the Prussians to Christianity. In return, the knights were to keep Chełmno Land as a fief, although some allege the grant to have been a forgery. The land constituted the base of the Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights, and its later conquest of East Prussia, marking the German Ostsiedlung. The Teutonic Order obtained an Imperial bull from Emperor Frederick II before entering Prussia, although this document is also disputed. In 1243 the papal legate William of Modena divided Prussia into four dioceses under the archbishop of Riga, one of which was Chełmno Land. After the Thirteen Years War between the Prussian cities and the Teutonic Knights ended with the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), Chełmno Land returned to the Polish crown as a part of autonomous Royal Prussia (see Chełmno Voivodship). In 1772 as a result of the First Partition of Poland, Chełmno Land (with the exception of Toruń) was seized by the Kingdom of Prussia. Between 1807 and 1815 Chełmno Land was a part of the Duchy of Warsaw. In 1815 it become part of the Grand Duchy of Poznań, but in 1817 was incorporated into West Prussia. Following the Treaty of Versailles, Chełmno Land was returned to Poland in January 1920. It was occupied in the Invasion of Poland in September 1939 by Nazi Germany and annexed in October. In January 1945 it was captured by Red Army and returned to Poland. References Ziemia Chełmińska w przeszłości: wybór tekstów źródłowych [Chełmno Land in past: selection of source texts], ed. by Marian Biskup. Toruń 1961. 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2,733 | Miguel_de_Cervantes | Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra ( in modern Spanish; September 29, 1547 – April 23, 1616) was a Spanish novelist, poet, and playwright. His magnum opus, Don Quixote, considered the first modern novel by many, Harold Bloom on Don Quixote, the first modern novel | Books | The Guardian is a classic of Western literature and is regularly regarded among the best novels ever written. His work is considered among the most important in all of literature. His influence on the Spanish language has been so great, that Spanish is often called la lengua de Cervantes (The language of Cervantes). He has been dubbed el Príncipe de los Ingenios - the Prince of Wits. Cervantes was born at Alcalá de Henares, the fourth of seven children of Rodrigo de Cervantes, a surgeon born at Alcalá de Henares, and Leonor de Cortinas. Cervantes' parents were married in 1543. The family's origins may have been of the minor gentry. Leonor died on October 19, 1593. The family moved from town to town, and little is known of Cervantes's early years. In 1569, Cervantes moved to Italy, where he served as a valet to Giulio Acquaviva, a wealthy priest who was elevated to cardinal the next year. By then, Cervantes had enlisted as a soldier in a Spanish infantry regiment and continued his military life until 1575, when he was captured by Algerian pirates. He was ransomed from his captors by his parents and the Trinitarians. He returned to his family in Madrid. In 1585, Cervantes published a pastoral novel, La Galatea. Because of financial problems, Cervantes worked as a purveyor for the Spanish Armada, and later as a tax collector. In 1597 discrepancies in his accounts of three years previous landed him in the Crown Jail of Seville. In 1605 he was in Valladolid, just when the immediate success of the first part of his Don Quijote, published in Madrid, signaled his return to the literary world. In 1607, he settled in Madrid, where he lived and worked until his death. During the last nine years of his life, Cervantes solidified his reputation as a writer; he published the Exemplary Novels (Novelas ejemplares) in 1613, the Journey to Parnassus in 1614, and in 1615, the Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses and the second part of Don Quixote. Carlos Fuentes noted that, "Cervantes leaves open the pages of a book where the reader knows himself to be written." Fuentes, Carlos. Myself with Others: Selected Essays. (1988). Biography Birth and early life Miguel de Cervantes was born in Alcalá de Henares, a Castilian city about 15 miles from Madrid, probably on September 29 (the feast day of St. Michael) 1547. The actual date of his birth was determined from records in the church register. He was baptized on October 9. Miguel's father Rodrigo was a barber-surgeon, who set bones, performed bloodlettings, and attended "lesser medical needs". William Byron, "Cervantes. A Biography", Doubleday & Company: Garden City, NY, 1978, pp. 23-32. His mother was the third daughter of a nobleman, who lost his fortune and had to sell his daughter into matrimony. This led to a very awkward marriage and several affairs on the father's part. Moorcock p 386 Little is known of Cervantes' early years. He was a brash young man and possessed a very idealistic nature. This is later reflected in his literary work, such as El Trabajo de San Juan. It seems that he spent much of his childhood moving from town to town with his family. During this time he met a young barmaid, Josefina Catalina De Parez. The couple fell madly in love and plotted to run away together. Sadly her father discovered their plans and forbade Josefina from ever seeing Cervantes again. It seems that, much like Dickens' father, Miguel's father was embargoed for debt. The court records of the proceedings show a very poor household. While some of his biographers argue that he studied at the University of Salamanca, there is no solid evidence for supposing that he did so. There has been speculation also that Cervantes studied with the Jesuits in Córdoba or Sevilla. Military history and captivity The Battle of Lepanto by Paolo Veronese (c. 1572, oil on canvas, 169 x 137 cm, Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice) The reasons that forced Cervantes to leave Castilla remain uncertain. Whether he was a "student" of the same name, a "sword-wielding fugitive from justice", or fleeing from a royal warrant of arrest, for having wounded a certain Antonio de Sigura in a duel, is another mystery.<ref>'The Enigma of Cervantine Genealogy, 118</ref> In any event, in going to Italy, Cervantes was doing what many young Spaniards of the time did to further their careers in one way or another. Rome would reveal to the young artist its ecclesiastic pomp, ritual, and majesty. In a city teeming with ruins Cervantes could focus his attention on Renaissance art, architecture, and poetry (knowledge of Italian literature is so readily discernible in his own productions) and on rediscovering antiquity. He could find in the ancients "a powerful impetus to revive the contemporary world in light of its accomplishments". F.A. de Armas, Cervantes and the Italian Renaissance, 32* F.A. de Armas, Quixotic Frescoes, 5 Thus, Cervantes' continuing desire for Italy, as revealed in his later works, was in part a desire for a return to the Renaissance. F.A. de Armas, Cervantes and the Italian Renaissance, 33 By 1570 Cervantes had enlisted as a soldier in a regiment of the Spanish naval elite corps, Infantería de Marina, stationed in Naples, then a possession of the Spanish crown. He was there for about a year before he saw active service. In September 1571 Cervantes sailed on board the Marquesa, part of the galley fleet of the Holy League (a coalition of the Pope, Spain, Venice, Republic of Genoa, Duchy of Savoy, the Knights of Malta, and others, under the command of John of Austria) that defeated the Ottoman fleet on October 7 in the Gulf of Lepanto near Corinth. Though taken down with fever, Cervantes refused to stay below, and begged to be allowed to take part in the battle, saying that he would rather die for his God and his king than keep under cover. He fought bravely on board a vessel, and received three gunshot wounds – two in the chest, and one which rendered his left arm useless, resulting in amputation. In Journey to Parnassus he was to say that he "had lost the movement of the left hand for the glory of the right" (he was thinking of the success of the first part of Don Quixote). Cervantes always looked back on his conduct in the battle with pride: he believed that he had taken part in an event that would shape the course of European history. "What I cannot help taking amiss is that he charges me with being old and one-handed, as if it had been in my power to keep time from passing over me, or as if the loss of my hand had been brought about in some tavern, and not on the grandest occasion the past or present has seen, or the future can hope to see. If my wounds have no beauty to the beholder's eye, they are, at least, honourable in the estimation of those who know where they were received; for the soldier shows to greater advantage dead in battle than alive in flight." Miguel de Cervantes (Don Quixote Part II, "The Author's Preface" translated by John Ormsby) After the Battle of Lepanto Cervantes remained in hospital for around six months, before his wounds were sufficiently healed to allow his joining the colors again. J. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, The Life of Cervantes, 9 From 1572 to 1575, based mainly in Naples, he continued his soldier's life: he participated in expeditions to Corfu and Navarino, and saw the fall of Tunis and La Goletta to the Turks in 1574. M.A. Garcés, Cervantes in Algiers, 220 On 6 or 7 September 1575 Cervantes set sail on the galley Sol from Naples to Barcelona, Spain, with letters of commendation to the king from the duke de Sessa and Don Juan himself. J. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, The Life of Cervantes, 41 On the morning of September 26, as the Sol approached the Catalan coast, it was attacked by Algerian corsairs. After significant resistance, in which the captain and many crew members were killed, the surviving passengers were taken to Algiers as captives. M.A. Garcés, Cervantes in Algiers, 236 After five years spent as a slave in Algiers, and four unsuccessful escape attempts, he was ransomed by his parents and the Trinitarians and returned to his family in Madrid. Not surprisingly, this period of Cervantes' life supplied subject matter for several of his literary works, notably the Captive's tale in Don Quixote and the two plays set in Algiers El Trato de Argel (The Treaty of Algiers) and Los Baños de Argel (The Baths of Algiers) as well as episodes in a number of other writings, although never in straight autobiographical form. "The pen is the language of the soul; as the concepts that in it are generated, such will be its writings." Miguel de Cervantes at the National Library, Spain - Literary pursuits In Toledo, Esquivias, on 12 December 1584, he married the much younger Catalina de Salazar y Palacios (Toledo, Esquivias – Madrid, 31 October 1626), daughter of Fernando de Salazar y Vozmediano and Catalina de Palacios. Her uncle Alonso de Quesada y Salazar is said to have inspired the character of Don Quixote. During the next 20 years Cervantes led a nomadic existence, working as a purchasing agent for the Spanish Armada and as a tax collector. He suffered a bankruptcy and was imprisoned at least twice (1597 and 1602) for irregularities in his accounts. Between 1596 and 1600, he lived primarily in Seville. In 1606, Cervantes settled in Madrid, where he remained for the rest of his life. In 1585, Cervantes published his first major work, La Galatea, a pastoral romance, at the same time that some of his plays, now lost except for El Trato de Argel (wherein he dealt with the life of Christian slaves in Algiers) and El Cerco de Numancia were playing on the stages of Madrid. La Galatea received little contemporary notice; and Cervantes never wrote the continuation for it, which he repeatedly promised to do. Cervantes next turned his attention to drama, hoping to derive an income from that source, but the plays which he composed failed to achieve their purpose. Aside from his plays, his most ambitious work in verse was Viaje del Parnaso (1614) an allegory which consisted largely of a rather tedious though good-natured review of contemporary poets. Cervantes himself realized that he was deficient in poetic talent. If a remark which Cervantes himself makes in the prologue of Don Quixote is to be taken literally, the idea of the work (though hardly the writing of its First Part, as some have maintained) occurred to him in prison at Argamasilla de Alba in La Mancha. Cervantes' idea was to give a picture of real life and manners, and to express himself in clear language. The intrusion of everyday speech into a literary context was acclaimed by the reading public. The author stayed poor until 1605, when the first part of Don Quixote appeared. Although it did not make Cervantes rich, it brought him international appreciation as a man of letters. (He wrote many plays, only two of which have survived, and short novels.) The popularity of Don Quixote led to the publication of an unauthorized continuation of it by an unknown writer, who masqueraded under the name of Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda. Cervantes produced his own continuation, or Second Part, of Don Quixote, which made its appearance in 1615. He had promised the publication of a second part in 1613 in the foreword to the Novelas Ejemplares (Exemplary Novels), a year before the publication of Avellanda's book.Don Quixote has been regarded chiefly as a novel of purpose. It is stated again and again that he wrote it in order to satirize the romances of chivalry, and to challenge the popularity of a form of literature, which for much more than a century had been a fad with the general public.Don Quixote certainly reveals much narrative power, considerable humor, a mastery of dialogue, and a forceful style. Of the two parts written by Cervantes, the first is the more popular with the general public containing the famous episodes of the tilting at windmills, the attack on the flock of sheep, the vigil in the courtyard of the inn, and the episode with the barber and the shaving basin. The second part is inferior in humorous effect, but shows more constructive insight, better delineation of character, improved style, and more realism and probability in its action. In 1613, he published a collection of tales, the Exemplary Novels, some of which had been written earlier. On the whole, the Exemplary Novels are worthy of the fame of Cervantes. The picaroon strain, already made familiar in Spain through the Picaresque novels of Lazarillo de Tormes and his successors, appears in one or another of them, especially in the Rinconete y Cortadillo, which is the best of all. In 1614, he published the Viaje del Parnaso and in 1615, the Eight Comedies and Eight New Interludes. At the same time, Cervantes continued working on Los Trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda, a novel of adventurous travel, completed just before his death, and appearing posthumously in January 1617. Death Cervantes died in Madrid on 23 April 1616. C. Calvo, Shakespeare and Cervantes in 1916, 78. In honour of the date on which both Miguel de Cervantes and William Shakespeare died, UNESCO established April 23 as the International Day of the Book. World Book and Copyright Day — April 23, 2006, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) The Encyclopedia Hispanica claims that the date widely quoted as Cervantes' date of death, namely April 23, is actually the date on his tombstone, which, in accordance with the traditions of the time, would be the date of his burial, rather than the date of his death. If this is true, then, according to Hispanica, it means that Cervantes probably died on April 22 and was buried on April 23, but the true date of his death is unknown. Of his burial-place nothing is known, except that he was buried, in accordance with his will, in the neighboring convent of Trinitarian nuns. Isabel de Saavedra, Cervantes' daughter, was supposedly a member of this convent. A few years afterwards the nuns moved to another convent and carried their dead with them. Whether the remains of Cervantes were included in the removal or not no one knows, and the clue to their final resting place is now lost. The statue of Miguel de Cervantes at the harbor of Nafpactos Works Novels Cervantes's novels, listed chronologically, are as follows: La Galatea (1585): a pastoral romance in prose and verse, based upon the genre introduced into Spain by Jorge de Montemayor's Diana (1559). Its theme is the fortunes and misfortunes in love of a number of shepherds and shepherdesses, who spend their life singing and playing musical instruments. El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha (1605): First volume of Don Quixote. Novelas Ejemplares (1613): a collection of twelve short stories of varied types about the social, political, and historical problems of Cervantes' Spain: La Gitanilla (The Gypsy Girl) El Amante Liberal (The Generous Lover) Rinconete y Cortadillo (Rinconete & Cortadillo) La Española Inglesa (The English Spanish Lady) El Licenciado Vidriera (The Lawyer of Glass) La Fuerza de la Sangre (The Power of Blood) El Celoso Extremeño (The Jealous Man From Extremadura) La Ilustre Fregona (The Illustrious Kitchen-Maid) Novela de las Dos Doncellas (The Novel of the Two Damsels) Novela de la Señora Cornelia (The Novel of Lady Cornelia) Novela del Casamiento Engañoso (The Novel of the Deceitful Marriage) El Coloquio de los Perros (The Dialogue of the Dogs) Segunda Parte del Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha (1615): Second volume of Don Quixote. Los Trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda (1617).Los Trabajos is the best evidence not only of the survival of Byzantine novel themes but also of the survival of forms and ideas of the Spanish novel of the second Renaissance. In this work, published after the author's death, Cervantes relates the ideal love and unbelievable vicissitudes of a couple, who, starting from the Arctic regions, arrive in Rome, where they find a happy ending to their complicated adventures. La GalateaLa Galatea, the pastoral romance, which Cervantes wrote in his youth, is an imitation of the Diana of Jorge de Montemayor and bears an even closer resemblance to Gil Polo's continuation of that romance. Next to Don Quixote and the Novelas Ejemplares, it is particularly worthy of attention, as it manifests in a striking way the poetic direction in which the genius of Cervantes moved even at an early period of life. Don Quixote Statues of Don Quixote (left) and Sancho Panza (right) IV centenary of Don Quixote of La Mancha (1605-2005)Don Quixote (spelled "Quijote" in modern Spanish) is two separate books that cover the adventures of Don Quixote, also known as the knight or man of La Mancha, a hero who carries his enthusiasm and self-deception to unintentional and comic ends. On one level, Don Quixote works as a satire of the romances of chivalry, which ruled the literary environment of Cervantes' time. However, the novel also allows Cervantes to illuminate various aspects of human nature, by using the ridiculous example of the delusional Quixote. Because the novel, particularly the first part, was written in individually published sections, the composition includes several incongruities. Cervantes himself however pointed out some of these errors in the preface to the second part; but he disdained to correct them, because he conceived that they had been too severely condemned by his critics. Cervantes felt a passion for the vivid painting of character. Don Quixote is noble-minded, an enthusiastic admirer of everything good and great, yet having all these fine qualities accidentally blended with a relative kind of madness. He is paired with a character of opposite qualities, Sancho Panza, a man of low self-esteem, who is a compound of grossness and simplicity.Don Quixote is cited as the first classic model of the modern romance or novel, and it has served as the prototype of the comic novel. The humorous situations are mostly burlesque, and it includes satire. Don Quixote is one of the Encyclopedia Britannica's Great Books of the Western World, and the Russian author Fyodor Dostoyevsky called it "the ultimate and most sublime work of human thinking". Novelas Ejemplares It would be scarcely possible to arrange the other works of Cervantes according to a critical judgment of their importance, for the merits of some consist in the admirable finish of the whole, while others exhibit the impress of genius in the invention, or some other individual feature. A distinguished place must however be assigned to the Novelas Ejemplares . The Spanish title of novelas is misleading. In modern Spanish it means novels, but Cervantes used it to mean the shorter Italian novella. Read the Novel article for the terminological problem. ("Moral or Instructive Tales"). They are unequal in merit as well as in character. Cervantes doubtless intended that they should be to the Spaniards nearly what the novellas of Boccaccio were to the Italians. Some are mere anecdotes; some are romances in miniature; some are serious, some comic; and all are written in a light, smooth, conversational style. Four of them are perhaps of less interest than the rest: El Amante Liberal, La Señora Cornelia, Las Dos Doncellas, and La Española Inglesa. The theme common to these is basically the traditional one of the Byzantine novel: pairs of lovers separated by lamentable and complicated happenings are finally reunited and find the happiness they have longed for. The heroines are all of most perfect beauty and of sublime morality; they and their lovers are capable of the highest sacrifices; and they exert their souls in the effort to elevate themselves to the ideal of moral and aristocratic distinction which illuminates their lives. In El Amante Liberal, to cite an example, the beautiful Leonisa and her lover Ricardo are carried off by Turkish pirates. Both fight against serious material and moral dangers. Ricardo conquers all obstacles, returns to his homeland with Leonisa, and is ready to renounce his passion and to hand Leonisa over to her former lover in an outburst of generosity; but Leonisa's preference naturally settles on Ricardo in the end. Another group of "exemplary" novels is formed by La Fuerza de la Sangre, La Ilustre Fregona, La Gitanilla, and El Celoso Extremeño. The first three offer examples of love and adventure happily resolved, while the last unravels itself tragically. Its plot deals with the old Felipe Carrizales, who, after traveling widely and becoming rich in America, decides to marry, taking all the precautions necessary to forestall being deceived. He weds a very young girl and isolates her from the world, by having her live in a house with no windows facing the street. But in spite of his defensive measures, a bold youth succeeds in penetrating the fortress of conjugal honour; and one day Carrizales surprises his wife in the arms of her seducer. Surprisingly enough he pardons the adulterers, recognizing that he is more to blame than they, and dies of sorrow over the grievous error he has committed. Cervantes here deviated from literary tradition, which demanded the death of the adulterers; but he transformed the punishment inspired, or rather required, by the social ideal of honour into a criticism of the responsibility of the individual.Rinconete y Cortadillo, El Casamiento Engañoso, El Licenciado Vidriera, and El Coloquio de los Perros, four works of art which are concerned more with the personalities of the characters who figure in them than with the subject matter, form the final group of these stories. The protagonists are, respectively, two young vagabonds, Rincón and Cortado, Lieutenant Campuzano, a student Tomás Rodaja (who goes mad and believes himself to have been changed into a witty man of glass, offering Cervantes the opportunity to make profound observations) and finally two dogs, Cipión and Berganza, whose wandering existence serves to mirror the most varied aspects of Spanish life. El colloquio de los perros features even more sardonic observations on the Spanish society of the time.Rinconete y Cortadillo is one of the most delightful of Cervantes' works. Its two young vagabonds come to Seville, attracted by the riches and disorder that the sixteenth-century commerce with the Americas had brought to that metropolis. There they come into contact with a brotherhood of thieves, the Thieves' Guild, led by the unforgettable Monipodio, whose house is the headquarters of the Sevillian underworld. Under the bright Andalusian sky, people and objects take form with the brilliance and subtle drama of a Velázquez. A distant and discreet irony endows the figures, insignificant in themselves, as they move within a ritual pomp that is in sharp contrast with their morally deflated lives. The solemn ritual of this band of ruffians is all the more comic for being presented in Cervantes' drily humorous style. Los Trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda Title page of Persiles and Segismunda. The romance of Persiles and Sigismunda, which Cervantes finished shortly before his death, must be regarded as an interesting appendix to his other works. The language and the whole composition of the story exhibit the purest simplicity, combined with singular precision and polish. The idea of this romance was not new, and scarcely deserved to be reproduced in a new manner; but it appears that Cervantes, at the close of his glorious career, took a fancy to imitate Heliodorus. He has maintained the interest of the situations; but the whole work is merely a romantic description of travels, rich enough in fearful adventures, both by sea and land. Real and fabulous geography and history are mixed together in an absurd and monstrous manner; and the second half of the romance, in which the scene is transferred to Spain and Italy, does not exactly harmonize with the spirit of the first half. Poetry Some of his poems are found in La Galatea. He also wrote Dos Canciones a la Armada Invencible. His best work however is found in the sonnets, particularly Al Túmulo del Rey Felipe en Sevilla. Among his most important poems, Canto de Calíope, Epístola a Mateo Vázquez, and the Viaje del Parnaso (Journey to Parnassus 1614) stand out. The latter is his most ambitious work in verse, an allegory which consists largely of reviews of contemporary poets. Compared to his ability as a novelist, Cervantes is often considered a mediocre poet, although he himself always harbored a hope that he would be recognized for having poetic gifts. Viaje del Parnaso Frontispiece of the Viaje (1614). The prose of the Galatea, which is in other respects so beautiful, is occasionally overloaded with epithet. Cervantes displays a totally different kind of poetic talent in the Viaje del Parnaso, a work which cannot properly be ranked in any particular class of literary composition, but which, next to Don Quixote, is considered by a few the most exquisite production of its author. Many critics, however, would argue with that, citing the Novelas Ejemplares and the Entemeses as the finest examples of his work next to Don Quixote. Plays Comparisons have also diminished the reputation of his plays; but two of them (El Trato de Argel and La Numancia 1582) made a big impact and were not surpassed until Lope de Vega appeared. The first of these, El Trato de Argel, is written in five acts. Based on his experiences as a captive of the Moors, the play deals with the life of Christian slaves in Algiers. The other play, Numancia, is a description of the siege of Numantia by the Romans. It is stuffed with horrors, and has been described as utterly devoid of the requisites of dramatic art. Cervantes's later production consists of 16 dramatic works, among which are eight full-length plays:El Gallardo Español, Los Baños de Argel, La Gran Sultana,Doña Catalina de Oviedo, La Casa de los Celos, El Laberinto de Amor, the cloak and dagger play La Entretenida,El Rufián Dichoso, and finally Pedro de Urdemalas, a sensitive play about a picaro, who joins a group of Gypsies for love of a girl. He also wrote eight short farces (entremeses):El Juez de los Divorcios,El Rufián Viudo Llamado Trampagos, La Elección de los Alcaldes de Daganzo, La Guarda Cuidadosa (The Vigilant Sentinel), El Vizcaíno Fingido, El Retablo de las Maravillas, La Cueva de Salamanca, and El Viejo Celoso (The Jealous Old Man). These plays and entremeses made up Ocho Comedias y Ocho Entremeses Nuevos, Nunca Representados (Eight Comedies and Eight New Interludes, Never Before Acted) which appeared in 1615. Cervantes' entremeses, whose dates and order of composition are not known, must not have been performed in their time. Faithful to the spirit of Lope de Rueda, Cervantes endowed them with novelistic elements, such as simplified plot, the type of description normally associated with the novel, and character development. The dialogue is sensitive and agile. Cervantes includes some of his dramas among those productions with which he was himself most satisfied, and he seems to have regarded them with self-complacency in proportion to their neglect by the public. This conduct has sometimes been attributed to a spirit of contradiction and sometimes to vanity. That the penetrating and profound Cervantes should have so mistaken the limits of his dramatic talent would not be sufficiently accounted for had he not unquestionably proved by his tragedy of Numantia how pardonable was the self-deception of which he could not divest himself. Cervantes was entitled to consider himself endowed with a genius for dramatic poetry; but he could not preserve his independence in the conflict that he had to maintain with the Spanish public, who required certain conditions of dramatic composition; and when he sacrificed his independence, and submitted to rules imposed by others, his invention and language were reduced to the level of a poet of inferior talent. The intrigues, adventures, and surprises, which in that age characterized the Spanish drama (and which, we may assume, characterize all drama in every age) were ill suited to the genius of Cervantes. His natural style was too profound and precise to be reconciled to fantastical ideas, expressed in irregular verse; but he was Spaniard enough to be gratified with dramas which as a poet he could not imitate; and he imagined himself capable of imitating them, because he would have shone in another species of dramatic composition had the public taste accommodated itself to his genius. La Numancia This play is a dramatization of the long and brutal siege of the Celtiberian town Numantia, Hispania, by the Roman forces of Scipio Africanus. Cervantes invented, along with the subject of his piece, a peculiar style of tragic composition; and, in doing so, he did not pay much regard to the theory of Aristotle. His object was to produce a piece full of tragic situations, combined with the charm of the marvellous. In order to accomplish this goal, Cervantes relied heavily on allegory and on mythological elements. The tragedy is written in conformity with no rules, save those which the author prescribed for himself, for he felt no inclination to imitate the Greek forms. The play is divided into four acts, jornadas; and no chorus is introduced. The dialogue is sometimes in tercets, and sometimes in redondillas, and for the most part in octaves without any regard to rule. Cervantes' historical importance and influence Cervantes: Image from a 19th century German book on the history of literature Cervantes' novel Don Quixote has had a tremendous influence on the development of prose fiction. It has been translated into all major languages and has appeared in 700 editions. The first translation was in English, made by Thomas Shelton in 1608, but not published until 1612. Shakespeare had evidently read Don Quixote, but it is most unlikely that Cervantes had ever heard of Shakespeare. Carlos Fuentes raised the possibility that Cervantes and Shakespeare were the same person (see Shakespearean authorship question). Francis Carr has suggested that Francis Bacon wrote Shakespeare's plays and Don Quixote. Francis Carr, Who Wrote Don Quixote? (London: Xlibris Corporation, 2004). Both possibilities are highly unlikely, especially the Shelton one. Shelton renders some Spanish idioms into English so literally that they sound nonsensical when translated - as an example he always translates the word dedos as fingers, not realizing that dedos can also mean inches. (In the original Spanish, for instance, a phrase such as una altura de quince dedos , which makes perfect sense in Spanish, would mean fifteen inches high in English, but a translator who renders it too literally would translate it as fifteen fingers high.)Don Quixote has been the subject of a variety of works in other fields of art, including operas by the Italian composer Giovanni Paisiello, the French Jules Massenet, and the Spanish Manuel de Falla, a Russian ballet by the Russian-German composer Ludwig Minkus, a tone poem by the German composer Richard Strauss, a German film (1933) directed by G. W. Pabst, a Soviet film (1957) directed by Grigori Kozintsev, a 1965 ballet (no relation to the one by Minkus) with choreography by George Balanchine, and an American musical Man of La Mancha (1965) by Dale Wasserman, Mitch Leigh, and Joe Darion. Man of La Mancha was made into a film in 1972, directed by Arthur Hiller.Don Quixote'' 's influence can be seen in the work of Smollett, Defoe, Fielding, and Sterne, as well as in the classic 19th-century novelists Scott, Dickens, Flaubert, Melville, and Dostoevsky, and in the works of James Joyce and Jorge Luis Borges. The theme of the novel also inspired the 19th-century French artists Honoré Daumier and Gustave Doré. The Euro coins of €0.10, €0.20, and €0.50 made for Spain bear the portrait and signature of Cervantes. The Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes, a digital library, hosted by the University of Alicante, the largest digital archive of Spanish-language historical and literary works in the world, is named after Cervantes. Ethnic and Religious Heritage "Everyone is as God has made him, and oftentimes a great deal worse." There is ongoing debate over Cervantes' family origins. While it was long assumed that Cervantes was an Old Christian, more modern scholarship has increasingly concurred that he likely descended from a so-called converso background. See for example, Rosa Rossi. Tras las huellas de Cervantes. Perfil inédito del autor del Quijote. Trans. Juan Ramón Capella. Madrid: Trotta, 2002 and Howard Mancing, The Cervantes Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2004 (2 vols). Advocates of the New Christian theory, first set forth by Americo Castro, often suggest Cervantes' mother was a converso. The theory is almost exclusively supported by circumstantial evidence, but would explain some mysteries of Cervantes' life. Cervantes: A Biography by William Byron, Pg 32 It has been supported by authors such as Anthony Cascardi and Canavaggio. Others, such as Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz (or Francisco Olmos Garcia, who considers it a "tired issue" and only supported by Americo Castro) reject the theory strongly. Cervantes and His Postmodern Constituencies by Anne J. Cruz, Carroll B. Johnson, Pg 116 Notes a. The most reliable and accurate portrait of the writer to date is that provided by Cervantes himself in the Exemplary Novels (translated by Walter K. Kelly): M. de Cervantes, The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Exemplary Novels of Cervantes b. His signature spells Cerbantes with a b; but he is now known after the spelling Cervantes, used by the printers of his works. Saavedra was the surname of a distant relative. He adopted it as his second surname after his return from the Barbary Coast. M.A. Garcés, Cervantes in Algiers, 191-192* C. Slade, Introduction, xxiv The earliest documents signed with Cervantes' two names, Cervantes Saavedra, appear several years after his repatriation. He began adding the second surname (Saavedra, a name that did not correspond to his immediate family) to his patronymic in 1586-1587 in official documents related to his marriage to Catalina de Salazar. M.A. Garcés, Cervantes in Algiers, 191-192 c. The only evidence is a statement by Professor Tomas González, that he once saw an old entry of the matriculation of a Miguel de Cervantes. J. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, The Life of Cervantes, 9* J. Ormsby, About Cervantes and Don Quixote No subsequent scholar has been successful in verifying this statement. In any case, there were at least two other Miguels born about the middle of the century. d. "He" refers to the writer of a spurious Part II of Don Quixote (Second Volume of the Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha) known under the pseudonym Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda. Avellaneda had referred to Cervantes as an "old and one-handed" man. References More information Online sources External links Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes Spanish web site with multiple Cervantes links and audio of whole of Don Quixote Famous Hispanics The Cervantes Project with biographies and chronology be-x-old:Мігель Сэрвантэс | Miguel_de_Cervantes |@lemmatized miguel:11 de:71 cervantes:118 saavedra:5 modern:7 spanish:24 september:5 april:7 novelist:3 poet:6 playwright:1 magnum:1 opus:1 quixote:38 consider:6 first:16 novel:31 many:5 harold:1 bloom:1 book:8 guardian:1 classic:3 western:2 literature:5 regularly:1 regard:6 among:5 best:4 ever:3 write:16 work:30 important:2 influence:4 language:8 great:5 often:3 call:3 la:39 lengua:1 dub:1 el:27 príncipe:1 los:13 ingenios:1 prince:1 wit:1 bear:6 alcalá:3 henares:3 fourth:1 seven:1 child:1 rodrigo:2 surgeon:2 leonor:2 cortina:1 parent:3 marry:3 family:7 origin:2 may:2 minor:1 gentry:1 die:5 october:4 move:6 town:5 little:3 know:10 early:5 year:11 italy:4 serve:2 valet:1 giulio:1 acquaviva:1 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2,734 | Ploidy | "Haplo" redirects here. For the fictional character, see The Death Gate Cycle. Ploidy is the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a biological cell. In humans, the somatic cells that comprise the body are diploid (containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one set derived from each parent), but sex cells (sperm and egg) are haploid. In contrast, tetraploidy (four sets of chromosomes) is a type of polyploidy and is common in plants, and not uncommon in amphibians, reptiles, and various species of insects. The number of chromosomes in a single non-homologous set is called the monoploid number (x). This is the same number for every cell of a given organism. The monoploid number for humans is 23, and a diploid human cell contains 46 chromosomes: 2 complete haploid sets, or 23 homologous chromosome pairs. Euploidy is the state of a cell or organism having an integral multiple of the monoploid number, possibly excluding the sex-determining chromosomes. For example, a human cell has 46 chromosomes, which is an integer multiple of the monoploid number, 23. A human with abnormal, but integral, multiples of this full set (e.g. 69 chromosomes) would also be considered as euploid. Aneuploidy is the state of not having euploidy. In humans, examples include having a single extra chromosome (such as Down syndrome), or missing a chromosome (such as Turner syndrome). Aneuploidy is not normally considered -ploidy but -somy, such as trisomy or monosomy. Haploid and monoploid The haploid number is the number of chromosomes in a gamete of an individual. This is distinct from the monoploid number which is the number of unique chromosomes in a single complete set. In humans, the monoploid number (x) equals the haploid number (the number in a gamete, n), that is, x = n = 23. In some species (especially plants), these numbers differ. Commercial common wheat is an allopolyploid with six sets of chromosomes, two sets coming originally from each of three different species, with six copies of chromosomes in each cell. The gametes of common wheat are considered as haploid since they contain half the genetic information of somatic cells, but are not monoploid as they still contain three complete sets of chromosomes from the original three different species (n = 3x). Most fungi and a few algae are monoploid organisms, and male bees, wasps, and ants are haploid because of the way they develop from unfertilized, haploid eggs. The Australian bulldog ant, Myrmecia pilosula, a haplodiploid species has n = 1, the lowest known (and lowest theoretically possible) n. A monoploid cell is likely to be identical to the cell it was copied from; however, in haploid cells one of two differing copies of the same chromosome is in the haploid set. Plants and some algae switch between a haploid and a diploid or polyploid state, with one of the stages emphasized over the other. This is called alternation of generations. Most diploid organisms produce monoploid sex cells that can combine to form a diploid zygote, for example animals are primarily diploid but produce monoploid gametes. During meiosis, germ cell precursors have their number of chromosomes halved by randomly "choosing" one homologue, resulting in haploid germ cells (sperm and ovum). Diploid Diploid (indicated by 2n) cells have two homologous copies of each chromosome, usually one from the mother and one from the father. The exact number of chromosomes may be one or two different from the 2 number yet the cell may still be classified as diploid (although with aneuploidy). Nearly all mammals are diploid organisms (the viscacha rats Pipanacoctomys aureus and Tympanoctomys barrerae are the only known exceptions as of 2004), although all individuals have some small fraction of cells that display polyploidy. Human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes and human haploid gametes (egg and sperm) have 23 chromosomes. Retroviruses that contain two copies of their RNA genome in each viral particle are also said to be diploid. Examples include human foamy virus, human T-lymphotropic virus, and HIV. Haploidisation Haploidisation (haploidization) is the process of creating a haploid cell (usually from a diploid cell). A laboratory procedure called haploidisation forces a normal cell to expel half of its chromosomal complement. In mammals this renders this cell chromosomally equal to sperm or egg. This was one of the procedures used by Japanese researchers to produce Kaguya, a fatherless mouse. Haploidisation sometimes occurs in plants when meiotically reduced cells (usually egg cells) develop by parthenogenesis. Polyploidy Polyploidy is the state where all cells have multiple pairs of chromosomes beyond the basic set. These may be from the same species or from closely related species. In the latter case these are known as allopolyploids, amphidiploids or allotetraploids. Allopolyploids can be formed from the hybridisation of two separate species followed by their subsequent chromosome doubling. A good example is the so-called Brassica triangle where three different parent species have hybridized in each pair combination to form three different allopolyploid species. Polyploid plants are probably most often formed from the pairing of meiotically unreduced gametes (Ramsey and Schemske, 2002). Polyploidy occurs commonly in plants, but rarely in animals. Even in diploid organisms many somatic cells are polyploid due to a process called endoreduplication where duplication of the genome occurs without mitosis (cell division). The extreme in polyploidy occurs in the fern-ally genus Ophioglossum, the adder's-tongues, in which polyploidy results in chromosome counts in the hundreds, or in at least one case, well over one thousand. Interestingly, these plants seem to have simplified structures in their phenotype. Variable or indefinite ploidy Depending on growth conditions, prokaryotes such as bacteria may have a chromosome copy number of 1 to 4, and that number is commonly fractional, counting portions of the chromosome partly replicated at a given time. This is because under logarithmic growth conditions the cells are able to replicate their DNA faster than they can divide. Mixoploidy Mixoploidy refers to the presence of two cell lines, one diploid and one polyploid. Though polyploidy in humans is not viable, mixoploidy has been found in live adults and children. There are two types: diploid-triploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 chromosomes and some have 69, and diploid-tetraploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 and some have 92 chromosomes. Dihaploidy and Polyhaploidy Dihaploid and polyhaploid cells are formed by haploidisation of polyploids, i.e., by halving the chromosome constitution. Dihaploids (which are diploid) are important for selective breeding of tetraploid crop plants (notably potatoes), because selection is faster with diploids than with tetraploids. Tetraploids can be reconstituted from the diploids, for example by somatic fusion. The term “dihaploid” was coined by Bender (1963) to combine in one word the number of genome copies (diploid) and their origin (haploid). The term is well established in this original sense (e.g., Nogler 1984; Pehu 1996), but it has also been used for doubled monoploids or doubled haploids, which are homozygous and used for genetic research (Sprague et al., 1960). References Bender, K. 1963. “Über die Erzeugung und Enstehung dihaploider Pflanzen bei Solanum tuberosum”. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenzüchtung 50: 141–166. Griffiths, A. J. et al. 2000. An introduction to genetic analysis, 7th ed. W. H. Freeman, New York ISBN 0-7167-3520-2 Nogler, G.A. 1984. Gametophytic apomixis. In Embryology of angiosperms. Edited by B.M. Johri. Springer, Berlin, Germany. pp. 475–518. Pehu, E. 1996. The current status of knowledge on the cellular biology of potato. Potato Research 39: 429–435. Ramsey, J., and Schemske, D.W. 2002. "Neopolyploidy in flowering plants". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 33: 589–639. Sprague, G.F., Russell, W.A., and Penny, L.H. 1960. Mutations affecting quantitative traits in the selfed progeny of double monoploid maize stocks. 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2,735 | Beagle | The Beagle is a breed of small to medium-sized dog. A member of the Hound Group, it is similar in appearance to the Foxhound but smaller, with shorter legs and longer, softer ears. Beagles are scent hounds, developed primarily for tracking hare, rabbit, and other game. They have a keen sense of smell and tracking instinct that sees them employed as detection dogs for prohibited agricultural imports and foodstuffs in quarantine around the world. They are popular as pets because of their size, even temper, and lack of inherited health problems. These characteristics also make them the dog of choice for animal testing. Although beagle-type dogs have existed for over 2,000 years, the modern breed was developed in Great Britain around the 1830s from several breeds, including the Talbot Hound, the North Country Beagle, the Southern Hound, and possibly the Harrier. Beagles have been depicted in popular culture since Elizabethan times in literature and paintings, and latterly in film, television and comic books. Snoopy of the comic strip Peanuts has been promoted as "the world's most famous beagle". History Early beagle-type dogs Dogs of similar size and purpose to the modern Beagle can be traced in Ancient Greece back to around the 5th century BC. Xenophon, born around 433 BC, in his Treatise on Hunting or Cynegeticus refers to a hound that hunted hares by scent and was followed on foot. Dogs of this type were taken to Rome and may have been imported to Roman Britain. Small hounds are mentioned in the Forest Laws of Canute which exempted them from the ordinance which commanded that all dogs capable of running down a stag should have one foot mutilated. Daglish p.7 If genuine, Canute's laws would confirm that beagle-type dogs were present in England before 1016, but it is likely they were written in the Middle Ages to give a sense of antiquity and tradition to Forest Law. Rackham p.130 The Southern Hound is thought to be an ancestor of the Beagle In the 11th century, William the Conqueror brought the Talbot hound to Britain. The Talbot was a predominantly white, slow, deep-throated, scent hound derived from the St Hubert Hound which had been developed in the 8th century. At some point the English Talbots were crossed with Greyhounds to give them an extra turn of speed. Smith p.209 Long extinct, the Talbot strain probably gave rise to the Southern Hound which, in turn, is thought to be an ancestor of the modern day Beagle. From medieval times, beagle was used as a generic description for the smaller hounds, though these dogs differed considerably from the modern breed. Miniature breeds of beagle-type dogs were known from the times of Edward II and Henry VII, who both had packs of Glove Beagles, so named since they were small enough to fit on a glove, and Queen Elizabeth I kept a breed known as a Pocket Beagle, which stood at the shoulder. Small enough to fit in a "pocket" or saddlebag, they rode along on the hunt. The larger hounds would run the prey to ground, then the hunters would release the small dogs to continue the chase through underbrush. Elizabeth I referred to the dogs as her singing beagles and often entertained guests at her royal table by letting her Pocket Beagles cavort amid their plates and cups. Jesse (1858) pp.438–9 Nineteenth-century sources refer to these breeds interchangeably and it is possible that the two names refer to the same small variety. In George Jesse's Researches into the History of the British Dog from 1866, the early 17th century poet and writer Gervase Markham is quoted referring to the Beagle as small enough to sit on a man's hand and to the: Standards for the Pocket Beagle were drawn up as late as 1901; these genetic lines are now extinct, although modern breeders have attempted to recreate the variety. Eighteenth century This image from the turn of the 19th century shows a dog with a heavier body and lacking the refined features of later strains. By the 1700s two breeds had been developed for hunting hare and rabbit: the Southern Hound and the North Country Beagle (or Northern Hound). The Southern Hound, a tall, heavy dog with a square head, and long, soft ears, was common from south of the River Trent and probably closely related to the Talbot Hound. Though slow, it had stamina and an excellent scenting ability. The North Country Beagle, possibly a cross between an offshoot of the Talbot stock and a Greyhound, was bred chiefly in Yorkshire and was common in the northern counties. It was smaller than the Southern Hound, less heavy-set and with a more pointed muzzle. It was faster than its southern counterpart but its scenting abilities were less well developed. As fox hunting became increasingly popular, numbers of both types of hound diminished. The beagle-type dogs were crossed with larger breeds such as Stag Hounds to produce the modern Foxhound. The beagle-type varieties came close to extinction but some farmers in the South ensured the survival of the prototype breeds by maintaining small rabbit-hunting packs. Development of the modern breed Reverend Phillip Honeywood established a Beagle pack in Essex in the 1830s and it is believed that this pack formed the basis for the modern Beagle breed. Although details of the pack's lineage are not recorded it is thought that North Country Beagles and Southern Hounds were strongly represented; William Youatt suspected that Harriers formed a good majority of the Beagles bloodline, but the origin of the Harrier is itself obscure. Youatt. p.110 Honeywood's Beagles were small, standing at about at the shoulder, and pure white according to John Mills (writing in The Sportsman's Library in 1845). Prince Albert and Lord Winterton also had Beagle packs around this time, and Royal favour no doubt led to some revival of interest in the breed, but Honeywood's pack was regarded as the finest of the three. Mills p.172 Early images of the Beagle (clockwise from top left): 1833, 1835, Stonehenge's Medium (1859, reusing Youtt's 1852 "Beagle" image) and Dwarf Beagle (1859). Although credited with the development of the modern breed, Honeywood concentrated on producing dogs for hunting and it was left to Thomas Johnson to refine the breeding to produce dogs that were both attractive and capable hunters. Two strains were developed: the rough- and smooth-coated varieties. The rough-coated Beagle survived until the beginning of the 20th century, and there were even records of one making an appearance at a dog show as late as 1969, but this variety is now extinct having probably been absorbed into the standard Beagle bloodline. Kraeuter p.7 In the 1840s, a standard Beagle type was beginning to develop: the distinction between the North Country Beagle and Southern Hound had been lost, but there was still a large variation in size, character, and reliability among the emerging packs. Scott pp.75–8 In 1856, "Stonehenge" (the pseudonym of John Henry Walsh, editor of The Field), writing in the Manual of British Rural Sports was still dividing Beagles into four varieties: the medium Beagle; the dwarf or lapdog Beagle; the fox Beagle (a smaller, slower version of the Foxhound); and the rough-coated or terrier Beagle, which he classified as a cross between any of the other varieties and one of the Scottish terrier breeds. Stonehenge pp.98–9 Stonehenge also gives the start of a standard description: By 1887 the threat of extinction was on the wane: there were 18 Beagle packs in England. Krauter p.9 The Beagle Club was formed in 1890 and the first standard drawn up at the same time. Arnold p.12 The following year the Association of Masters of Harriers and Beagles was formed. Both organisations aimed to further the best interests of the breed, and both were keen to produce a standard type of Beagle. Daglish p.9 By 1902 the number of packs had risen to 44. Export Beagles were in the United States by the 1840s at the latest, but the first dogs were imported strictly for hunting and were of variable quality. Since Honeywood had only started breeding in the 1830s, it is unlikely these dogs were representative of the modern breed and the description of them as looking like straight-legged Dachshunds with weak heads has little resemblance to the standard. Serious attempts at establishing a quality bloodline began in the early 1870s when General Richard Rowett from Illinois imported some dogs from England and began breeding. Rowett's Beagles are believed to have formed the models for the first American standard, drawn up by Rowett, L. H. Twadell, and Norman Ellmore in 1887. Arnold p.14 The Beagle was accepted as a breed by the American Kennel Club (AKC) in 1884. In the 20th century the breed has spread worldwide. Popularity An attractive uniform type for the breed developed at the start of the 20th century On its formation, the Association of Masters of Harriers and Beagles took over the running of a regular show at Peterborough that had started in 1889, and the Beagle Club in the UK held its first show in 1896. The regular showing of the breed led to the development of a uniform type, and the Beagle continued to prove a success up until the outbreak of World War I when all shows were suspended. After the war, the breed was again struggling for survival in the UK: the last of the Pocket Beagles were probably lost during this time, and registrations fell to an all time low. A few breeders (notably Reynalton Kennels) managed to revive interest in the dog and by World War II, the breed was once again doing well. Registrations dropped again after the end of the war but almost immediately recovered. Daglish pp.10–12 In 1959 Derawunda Vixen won "Best in Show" at Crufts. As a pedigree dog, Beagles have always been more popular in the United States and Canada than in their native country. The National Beagle Club of America was formed in 1888 and by 1901 a Beagle had won a Best in Show title. As in the UK, activity during World War I was minimal, but the breed showed a much stronger revival in the US when hostilities ceased. In 1928 it won a number of prizes at the Westminster Kennel Club's show and by 1939 a Beagle, Champion Meadowlark Draughtsman, had captured the title of top-winning American-bred dog for the year. Arnold pp.14–5 On 12 February 2008, a Beagle, K-Run's Park Me In First, won the Best In Show category at the Westminster Kennel Club show for the first time in the competition's history. In North America they have been consistently in the top ten most popular breeds for over 30 years. From 1953 to 1959 the Beagle was ranked number one on the list of the American Kennel Club's registered breeds; in 2005 and 2006 it ranked 5th out of the 155 breeds registered. In the UK they are not quite so popular, placing 28th and 30th in the rankings of registrations with the Kennel Club in 2005 and 2006 respectively. Name Day-old beagle puppiesAccording to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first mention of the beagle by name in English literature dates from ca. 1475 in the Esquire of Low Degree. The origin of the word "beagle" is uncertain, although it has been suggested that the word derives from the French begueule (meaning "open throat" from bayer "open wide" and gueule "mouth") or from an Old English, French, or the Gaelic word beag, meaning "little." Other possibilities include the French beugler (meaning "to bellow") and the German begele (meaning "to scold"). It is not known why the black and tan Kerry Beagle, present in Ireland since Celtic times, has the beagle description, since at it is significantly taller than the modern day Beagle, and in earlier times was even larger. Some writers suggest that the Beagle's scenting ability may have come from cross-breeding earlier strains with the Kerry Beagle. Originally used for hunting stags, it is today used for hare and drag hunting. Description Appearance The Kennel Club (UK) standard states the Beagle should give the impression of quality without coarseness. The general appearance of the Beagle resembles a Foxhound in miniature, but the head is broader and the muzzle shorter, the expression completely different and the legs shorter in proportion to the body. Daglish p.37 They are generally between high at the withers and weigh between , with females being slightly smaller than males on average. Rice p.147 They have a smooth, somewhat domed skull with a medium-length, square-cut muzzle and a black (or occasionally liver), gumdrop nose. The jaw is strong and the teeth scissor together with the upper teeth fitting perfectly over the lower teeth and both sets aligned square to the jaw. The eyes are large, hazel or brown, with a mild hound-like pleading look. The large ears are long, soft and low-set, turning towards the cheeks slightly and rounded at the tips. Beagles have a strong, medium-length neck (which is long enough for them to easily bend to the ground to pick up a scent), with little folding in the skin but some evidence of a dewlap; a broad chest narrowing to a tapered abdomen and waist and a short, slightly curved tail (known as the "stern") tipped with white. The white tip, known as the "flag" has been selectively bred for, as it allows the dog to be easily seen when its head is down following a scent. The tail does not curl over the back, but is held upright when the dog is active. The Beagle has a muscular body and a medium-length, smooth, hard coat. The front legs are straight and carried under the body while the rear legs are muscular and well bent at the stifles. See various breed standards linked from the breed box at the top of the article. Colouring A pair of Polish show Beagles showing a faded tricolour Beagles appear in a range of colours. Although the tricolour (white with large black areas and light brown shading) is the most common, Beagles can occur in any hound colour. Tricoloured dogs occur in a number of shades, from the "Classic Tri" with a jet black saddle (also known as "Blackback"), to the "Dark Tri" (where faint brown markings are intermingled with more prominent black markings), to the "Faded Tri" (where faint black markings are intermingled with more prominent brown markings). Some tricoloured dogs have a broken pattern, sometimes referred to as pied. These dogs have mostly white coats with patches of black and brown hair. Tricolour Beagles are almost always born black and white. The white areas are typically set by eight weeks, but the black areas may fade to brown as the puppy matures. (The brown may take between one and two years to fully develop.) Some Beagles gradually change colour during their lives, and may lose their black markings entirely. Two-colour varieties always have a white base colour with areas of the second colour. Tan and white is the most common two-colour variety, but there is a wide range of other colours including lemon, a very light tan; red, a reddish, almost orange, brown; and liver, a darker brown, and black. Liver is not common and is not permitted in some standards; it tends to occur with yellow eyes. Ticked or mottled varieties may be either white or black with different coloured flecks (ticking), such as the blue-mottled or bluetick Beagle, which has spots that appear to be a midnight-blue colour, similar to the colouring of the Bluetick Coonhound. Some tricolour Beagles also have ticking of various colours in their white areas. Daglish p.44 Sense of smell Alongside the Bloodhound, the Beagle has one of the best developed senses of smell of any dog. Fogle p.40 In the 1950s, John Paul Scott and John Fuller began a 13 year study into canine behaviour. As part of this research, they tested the scenting abilities of various breeds by putting a mouse in a field and timing how long it took the dogs to find it. The Beagles found it in less than a minute, while Fox Terriers took 15 minutes and Scottish Terriers failed to find it at all. Beagles are better at ground-scenting (following a trail on the ground) than they are at air-scenting, and for this reason they have been excluded from most mountain rescue teams in favour of collies, which use sight in addition to air-scenting and are more biddable. The long ears and large lips of the Beagle probably assist in trapping the scents close to the nose. Fogle p.173 Variations Breed varieties The American Kennel Club and the Canadian Kennel Club recognize two separate varieties of Beagle: the 13-inch for hounds less than , and the 15-inch for those between . The Kennel Club (UK) and FCI affiliated clubs recognize a single type, with a height of between . A Puggle, a Beagle/Pug cross, shows traits from both breeds. English and American varieties are sometimes mentioned. However, there is no official recognition from any Kennel Club for this distinction. Beagles fitting the American Kennel Club standard – which disallows animals over – are smaller on average than those fitting the Kennel Club standard which allows heights up to . Pocket Beagles are sometimes advertised for sale but the bloodline for this variety is extinct, and, although the UK Kennel Club originally specified a standard for the Pocket Beagle in 1901, the variety is not now recognised by any Kennel Club. Often, small Beagles are the result of poor breeding or dwarfism. A strain known as Patch Hounds was developed by Willet Randall and his family from 1896 specifically for their rabbit hunting ability. They trace their bloodline back to Field Champion Patch, but do not necessarily have a patchwork marking. Retrieved on 12 July 2007. Crossbreeds In the 1850s, Stonehenge recommended a cross between a Beagle and a Scottish terrier as a retriever. He found the crossbreed to be a good worker, silent and obedient, but it had the drawback that it was small and could barely carry a hare. Stonehenge p.46 More recently the trend has been for "designer dogs" and one of the most popular has been the Beagle/Pug cross known as a Puggle. Less excitable than a Beagle and with a lower exercise requirement, these dogs are suited to city dwelling. * * Temperament Beagles are happy to rest without being exercised to exhaustion. The Beagle has an even temper and gentle disposition. Described in several breed standards as "merry", they are amiable and generally neither aggressive nor timid. They enjoy company, and although they may initially be standoffish with strangers, they are easily won over. They make poor guard dogs for this reason, although their tendency to bark or howl when confronted with the unfamiliar makes them good watch dogs. In a 1985 study conducted by Ben and Lynette Hart, the Beagle was given the highest excitability rating, along with the Yorkshire Terrier, Cairn Terrier, Miniature Schnauzer, West Highland White Terrier and Fox Terrier. Fogle pp.176–7 Beagles are intelligent, but as a result of being bred for the long chase are single-minded and determined, which can make them hard to train. They are generally obedient but can be difficult to recall once they have picked up a scent and are easily distracted by smells around them. They do not generally feature in obedience trials; while they are alert, respond well to food-reward training, and are eager to please, they are easily bored or distracted. They are ranked 72nd in Stanley Coren's The Intelligence of Dogs, as Coren places them among the group with the lowest degree of working/obedience intelligence. Beagles are excellent with children and this is one of the reasons they have become popular family pets, but they are pack animals, and can be prone to separation anxiety. Kraeuter pp.77–8 Not all Beagles will howl, but most will bark when confronted with strange situations, and some will bay (also referred to as "speaking", "giving tongue", or "opening") when they catch the scent of potential quarry. Kraeuter pp.96 They also generally get along well with other dogs. They are not demanding with regard to exercise; their inbred stamina means they do not easily tire when exercised, but they also do not need to be worked to exhaustion before they will rest, though regular exercise helps ward off the weight gain to which the breed is prone. Daglish p.55 Health The median longevity of Beagles is 12.35 years, which is a typical lifespan for a dog of their size. Weight gain can be a problem in older or sedentary dogs, which in turn can lead to heart and joint problems. Beagles may be prone to epilepsy, but this can be controlled with medication. Hypothyroidism and a number of types of dwarfism occur in Beagles. Two conditions in particular are unique to the breed: Funny Puppy, in which the puppy is slow to develop and eventually develops weak legs, a crooked back and although normally healthy, is prone to range of illnesses; Hip dysplasia, common in Harriers and in some larger breeds, is rarely considered a problem in Beagles. Rice p.161 Beagles are considered a chondrodystrophic breed, meaning that they are prone to types of disk diseases. In rare cases, Beagles may develop immune mediated polygenic arthritis (where the immune system attacks the joints) even at a young age. The symptoms can sometimes be relieved by steroid treatments. Their long floppy ears can mean that the inner ear does not receive a substantial air flow or that moist air becomes trapped, and this can lead to ear infections. Beagles may also be affected by a range of eye problems; two common ophthalmic conditions in Beagles are glaucoma and corneal dystrophy. "Cherry eye", a prolapse of the gland of the third eyelid, and distichiasis, a condition in which eyelashes grow into the eye causing irritation, sometimes exist; both these conditions can be corrected with surgery. They can suffer from several types of retinal atrophy. Failure of the nasolacrimal drainage system can cause dry eye or leakage of tears onto the face. As field dogs they are prone to minor injuries such as cuts and sprains, and, if inactive, obesity is a common problem as they will eat whenever food is available and rely on their owners to regulate their weight. When working or running free they are also likely to pick up parasites such as fleas, ticks, harvest mites and tapeworms, and irritants such as grass seeds can become trapped in their eyes, soft ears or paws. Rice pp.167–74 Beagles may exhibit a behaviour known as reverse sneezing, in which they sound as if they are choking or gasping for breath, but are actually drawing air in through the mouth and nose. The exact cause of this behaviour is not known, but it is not harmful to the dog. Working life Hunting The Caynsham Foot Beagles (c.1885) Beagles were developed primarily for hunting hare, an activity known as beagling. They were seen as ideal hunting companions for the elderly who could follow on horseback without exerting themselves, for young hunters who could keep up with them on ponies, and for the poorer hunters who could not afford to maintain a stable of good hunting horses. Maxwell p.42 Before the advent of the fashion for foxhunting in the 19th century, hunting was an all day event where the enjoyment was derived from the chase rather than the kill. In this setting the tiny Beagle was well matched to the hare, as unlike Harriers they would not quickly finish the hunt, but because of their excellent scent-tracking skills and stamina they were almost guaranteed to eventually catch the hare. The Beagle packs would run closely together ("so close that they might be covered with a sheet") which was useful in a long hunt, as it prevented stray dogs from obscuring the trail. In thick undergrowth they were also preferred to spaniels when hunting pheasant. Blakey p.77 With the fashion for faster hunts, the Beagle fell out of favour for chasing hare, but was still employed for rabbit hunting. In Anecdotes of Dogs, Jesse says: The Beagle has been used for rabbit-hunting since the earliest development of the breed. In the United States they appear to have been employed chiefly for hunting rabbits from the earliest imports. Hunting hare with Beagles became popular again in Britain in the mid-19th century and continued until it was made illegal in Scotland by the Protection of Wild Mammals (Scotland) Act 2002 and in England and Wales by the Hunting Act 2004. Under this legislation Beagles may still pursue rabbits with the landowner's permission. Drag hunting is popular where hunting is no longer permitted or for those owners who do not wish to participate in blood sports but still wish to exercise their dog's innate skills. The traditional foot pack consists of up to 70 Beagles, marshalled by a Huntsman who directs the pack and who is assisted by a variable number of whippers-in whose job is to return straying hounds to the pack. The Master of the Hunt is in overall day-to-day charge of the pack, and may or may not take on the role of Huntsman on the day of the hunt. Beagles may also be employed individually or in a brace (a pair). Kraeuter pp.97–104 As hunting with Beagles was seen as ideal for young people, many of the British public schools traditionally maintained Beagle packs. Protests were lodged against Eton's use of Beagles for hunting as early as 1902 but the pack is still in existence today, Hendrick pp.68–71 and a pack used by Imperial College in Wye, Kent was stolen by the Animal Liberation Front in 2001. School and university packs are still maintained by Eton, Marlborough, Wye, Radley, the Royal Agricultural College and Christ Church, Oxford. Beagles have been used for hunting a wide range of game including Snowshoe Hare, Cottontail rabbits, game birds, Roe Deer, Red Deer, Bobcat, Coyote, Wild Boar and foxes, and have even been recorded as being used to hunt Stoat. In most of these cases, the Beagle is employed as a gun dog, flushing game for hunter's guns. Quarantine Beagles have excellent noses; this dog is employed by the US Customs and Border Protection Agency. Beagles are used as detection dogs in the Beagle Brigade of the United States Department of Agriculture. These dogs are used to detect food items in luggage being taken into the United States. After trialling several breeds, Beagles were chosen because they are relatively small and unintimidating for people who are uncomfortable around dogs, easy to care for, intelligent and work well for rewards. They are also used for this purpose in a number of other countries including by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in New Zealand, the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service, and in Canada, Japan and the People's Republic of China. * * Larger breeds are generally used for detection of explosives as this often involves climbing over luggage and on large conveyor belts, work for which the smaller Beagle is not suited. Testing Beagles are the dog breed most often used in animal testing, due to their size and passive nature. Of the 8,018 dogs used in testing in the UK in 2004, 7,799 were Beagles (97.3%). In the UK, the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 gave special status to primates, equids, cats and dogs and in 2005 the Animal Procedures Committee (set up by the act) ruled that testing on mice was preferable, even though a greater number of individual animals were involved. In 2005 Beagles were involved in less than 0.3% of the total experiments on animals in the UK, but of the 7670 experiments performed on dogs 7406 involved Beagles (96.6%). Most dogs are bred specifically for the purpose, by companies such as Harlan. In the UK companies breeding animals for research must be licensed under the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act. Group housed dogs used in safety testing of pharmaceuticals, August 2000 Testing of cosmetic products on animals is banned in the member states of European Community, although France protested the ban and has made efforts to have it lifted. It is permitted in the United States but is not mandatory if safety can be ascertained by other methods, and the test species is not specified by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). When testing toxicity of food additives, food contaminants, and some drugs and chemicals the FDA uses Beagles and mini-pigs as surrogates for direct human testing. Anti-vivisection groups have reported on abuse of animals inside testing facilities. In 1997 footage secretly filmed by a freelance journalist inside Huntingdon Life Sciences in the UK showed staff punching and screaming at Beagles. Consort Kennels, a UK-based breeder of Beagles for testing, closed down in 1997 after pressure from animal rights groups. Medical research In the United States where the breeds of dog used are not specified (although Beagles feature heavily in published research papers) the number of tests performed each year on dogs dropped by two-thirds, from 195,157 to 64,932, over the period from 1972 to 2004. In Japan the laws on animal experimentation do not require reporting on the types or number of animals used, and in France the proportion of inspectors to testing facilities means the regulatory environment is essentially one of trust. Beagles are used in a range of research procedures: fundamental biological research, applied human medicine, applied veterinary medicine, and protection of man, animals or the environment. Other roles Their friendly nature and gentleness make Beagles popular as pets. Although bred for hunting, Beagles are versatile and are nowadays employed for various other roles in detection, therapy, and as family pets. Beagles are used as sniffer dogs for termite detection in Australia, and have been mentioned as possible candidates for drug and explosive detection. Because of their gentle nature and unimposing build, they are also frequently used in pet therapy, visiting the sick and elderly in hospital. Kraeuter pp.89–92 In June 2006, a trained Beagle assistance dog was credited with saving the life of its owner after using his owner's mobile phone to dial an emergency number. In popular culture Beagles have been featured across a wide range of media. References to the dog appear before the 19th century in works by such writers as William Shakespeare, John Webster, John Dryden, Thomas Tickell, Henry Fielding and William Cowper, and in Alexander Pope's translation of Homer's Iliad. Beagles appeared in comic strips and animated cartoons from the 1950s with the Peanuts character Snoopy (billed as the "the world's most famous Beagle"), Odie from the comic strip Garfield, Walt Disney's Beagle Boys and Beegle Beagle, the constant companion of Hanna-Barbera's Grape Ape. Also as Gromit, from Wallace and Gromit. They have appeared in numerous films, taking a central role in Cats and Dogs, and the title roles in the adaptation of Phyllis Reynolds Naylor's book Shiloh and the live-action version of Underdog. They have played supporting roles in films including Audition, The Monster Squad and The Royal Tenenbaums, and on television in Star Trek: Enterprise, EastEnders, The Wonder Years, and To the Manor Born among others. Bagel, one of Barry Manilow's two Beagles, appeared on several of his album covers. Former US President Lyndon Baines Johnson had several Beagles, and caused an outcry when he picked up one of them by its ears during an official greeting on the White House lawn. The ship on which Charles Darwin made his voyage which provided the material for his travel book The Voyage of the Beagle and much of the inspiration for On the Origin of Species was named HMS Beagle after the breed, and, in turn, lent its name to the ill-fated British Martian lander Beagle 2. Notes a. In this article "Beagle" (with a capital B) is used to distinguish the modern breed from other beagle type dogs. b. Youatt states that the Southern Hound may have been native to the British Isles and used on hunts by the Ancient Britons. Youatt p.133 c. The Harts posed the following question to a panel of 96 experts, half of which were veterinary surgeons and the other half dog obedience trial judges: d. The specific references in each of the author's works are as follows: Shakespeare: "Sir Toby Belch: She's a beagle, true-bred, and one that adores me: what o' that?" Twelfth Night (c.1600) Act II Scene III Webster: "Mistress Tenterhook''': You are a sweet beagle" Westward Ho (1607) Act III Scene IV:2 Dryden: "The rest in shape a beagle's whelp throughout, With broader forehead and a sharper snout" The Cock and the Fox, and again: "About her feet were little beagles seen" in Palamon and Arcite both from Fables, Ancient and Modern (1700) Tickell: "Here let me trace beneath the purpled morn, The deep-mouth'd beagle, and the sprightly horn" To a Lady before Marriage (published posthumously in 1749) Fielding: "'What the devil would you have me do?' cries the Squire, turning to Blifil, 'I can no more turn her, than a beagle can turn an old hare.'" The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (1749) Chapter 7. Cowper: "For persevering chase and headlong leaps, True beagle as the staunchest hound he keeps" The Progress of Error (1782) Pope: "Thus on a roe the well-breath'd beagle flies, And rends his hide fresh-bleeding with the dart" The Iliad of Homer'' (1715–20) Book XV:697–8 References Citations External links | Beagle |@lemmatized beagle:156 breed:53 small:19 medium:7 size:6 dog:65 member:2 hound:29 group:5 similar:3 appearance:4 foxhound:4 short:2 leg:4 long:10 soft:4 ear:9 scent:11 develop:13 primarily:2 track:2 hare:12 rabbit:9 game:4 keen:2 sense:3 smell:4 instinct:1 see:6 employ:7 detection:6 prohibited:1 agricultural:2 import:5 foodstuff:1 quarantine:3 around:7 world:6 popular:12 pet:5 even:7 temper:2 lack:2 inherited:1 health:2 problem:6 characteristic:1 also:15 make:9 choice:1 animal:17 test:12 although:13 type:18 exist:2 year:9 modern:13 great:2 britain:4 several:6 include:6 talbot:7 north:6 country:7 southern:10 possibly:2 harrier:7 depict:1 culture:2 since:6 elizabethan:1 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2,736 | Esther | For the biblical book, see Book of Esther. Esther (), born Hadassah, was a Jewish queen of the Persian Empire in the Hebrew Bible, the queen of Ahasuerus (traditionally identified with Xerxes I), and heroine of the Biblical Book of Esther which is named after her. The name Esther comes from the Persian word "star". As a result of Esther's intervention and influence, Mizrahi Jews lived in the Persian Empire for 2400 years thereafter. Esther's husband Ahasuerus followed in the footsteps of Cyrus the Great, in showing mercy to the Jews of Persia: Cyrus had decreed an end to the Babylonian captivity of the Jews upon his conquest of Babylon in 539 BC. Biblical story King Ahasuerus (also known as Xerxes) held a 180-day feast in Susa (Shushan) to display the vast wealth of his kingdom and the splendor and glory of his majesty. King Ahasuerus ordered his queen, Vashti, to appear before him and his guests wearing her crown, to display her beauty. But when the attendants delivered the king's command to Queen Vashti, she refused to come, for she wanted to be treated as a queen, not a pet. Furious at her refusal to obey, the King asked his wise men what should be done. The Book of Esther does not say what happened to her - various sources suggest banishment or death. The severity of the verdict was meant to establish male dominion over their wives and to force the women into obedience. To find a new suitable queen for King Ahasuerus, it was decreed that all beautiful young women be gathered to the palace from every province of his kingdom. Each woman underwent twelve months of purification treatments and pregnancy watch in his harem, after which she would go to the King. When the woman's turn came, she was given anything she wanted to take with her from the harem to the king's palace. She would then go to the king in the evening, and in the morning return to the harem as his concubine. She would not return to the King unless he was pleased enough with her to summon her again. Four years after Queen Vashti was banished, King Ahasuerus chose the Jewish Esther for his wife and queen because he was captivated by her beauty and intelligence. Shortly afterward, Mordecai, Esther's cousin, overheard a plot to assassinate the King. He promptly told Esther of it, and she warned her husband of the threat. An investigation was made and the conspirators were swiftly arrested and executed. As such, the King ordered Mordecai's deed to be recorded in history. Soon after this, the king granted Haman the Agagite, one of the most prominent princes of the realm, supreme authority over the kingdom. All the people were to bow down to Haman when he rode his horse through the streets. All complied except for Mordecai, a Jew, who would bow to no one but his God. This enraged Haman, who, with his wife and advisers, plotted against the Jews, making a plan to kill and extirpate all Jews throughout the Persian empire, selecting the date for this genocidal act by the drawing of lots. He gained the king's approval. He offered ten thousand silver talents to the king for approval of this plan, but the king refused to take them. Mordecai tore his robes and put ash on his head (signs of mourning or grieving/anguish) on hearing this news. Esther sent clean clothes to him, but he refused them, explaining that deliverance for the Jews would come from some other place (presumably God, as the Jews God's chosen people), but that Esther would be killed if she did not do what she could to stop this genocide - by talking to the King. Esther was not permitted to see the King unless he had asked for her, otherwise she could be put to death. Esther was terrified of this (she had not been called to the king in 30 days), so she and her maid-servants and her people the Jews of Persia fasted earnestly for three days before she built up the courage to enter the king's presence. He held out his scepter to her, showing that he accepted her visit. Esther requested a banquet with the king and Haman. During the banquet, she requested another banquet with the King and Haman the following day. Ahasuerus, Haman and Esther, by Rembrandt van Rijn, 1660. After the banquet Haman ordered a gallows constructed, high, on which to hang Mordecai. Meanwhile, the King was having trouble sleeping, and had some histories read to him. He was reminded that Mordecai had saved him from an assassination attempt, and had received no reward in return. Early the next morning, Haman came to the king to ask permssion to hang Mordecai, but before he could, the king asked him "What should be done for the man whom the king delights to honour?" Haman thought the king meant himself, so he said that the man should wear a royal robe and be led on one of the king's horses through the city streets proclaiming before him, "This is what is done for the man the king delights to honour!" The king thought this well, then asked Haman to lead Mordecai through the streets in this way, to honour him for previously telling the king of a plot against him. After doing this, Haman rushed home, full of grief. His wife said to him, "You will surely come to ruin!" That night, during the banquet, Esther told the king of Haman's plan to massacre all Jews in the Persian Empire, and acknowledged her own Jewish ethnicity. The king was enraged and ordered Haman to be hanged on the gallows he had built for Mordecai. The king then appointed Mordecai as his prime minister, and gave the Jews the right to defend themselves against any enemy. A peculiarity of Persian law that also occurs in the Book of Daniel is that royal edicts of this sort could not be reversed, even by the king – by siding with the Jews instead of their persecutors, the King presumably dissuaded any pogroms. The King also issued a second edict allowing the Jews to arm themselves, which precipitated a series of reprisals by the Jews against their enemies. This fight began on the 13th of Adar, the date the Jews were originally slated to be exterminated. Esther and the Jews went on to kill not only their would-be executioners, but also their wives and children, this altogether meaning three hundred killed in Susa alone, fifteen in the rest of the empire. Jews established an annual feast, the feast of Purim, in memory of their deliverance. According to traditional Jewish dating this took place about fifty-two years after the return. Esther appears in the Bible as a woman of deep faith, courage and patriotism, ultimately willing to risk her life for her adoptive father, Mordecai, and the Jewish people. Scripture portrays her as a woman raised up as an instrument in the hand of God to avert the destruction of the Jewish people, and to afford them protection and forward their wealth and peace in their captivity. It is notable, though, that there is no direct mention of God by any name at any time in the Biblical Book of Esther.. The Story of Esther is said to come from an older goddess Elamite myth of Ishtar/Ashtarte (Esther) and her consort Marduk (Mordecai), who sacrificed the god Hammon, or Amon (Haman). The Woman's Encyclopedia of Myths and Secrets, Barbara G. Walker, 1983. . For a discussion of the historicity of Esther, see Book of Esther. Modern retelling In 1689, Jean Baptiste Racine wrote Esther, a tragedy, at the request of Louis XIV's wife, Françoise d'Aubigné, marquise de Maintenon. In 1718, Handel wrote the oratorio Esther based on Racine's play. The play entitled Esther (1960), written by Welsh dramatist Saunders Lewis, is a retelling of the story in Welsh. A movie about the story, Esther and the King One of the parts of Amos Gitai's Exile series, called Esther is an updated version of the story. There is a fictional book by Rebecca Kohn called The Gilded Chamber that retells the story. "Behold Your Queen!" (1951) by Gladys Malvern is a re-telling of the Biblical story, suitable for young girls. Another novel by Norah Lofts, "Esther", recounts the well-known story. 1962 musical entitled Swan Esther was written by J. Edward Oliver and Nick Munns and has been performed by the Young Vic and some amateur groups. A 1978 miniseries entitled The Greatest Heroes of the Bible starred Victoria Principal as Esther, Robert Mandan as Xerxes, and Michael Ansara as Haman. Episode 25 of the 1981 anime series Superbook involves this story. A 1999 TV movie that follows the biblical account very closely, Esther. Starred Louise Lombard in the title role and F. Murray Abraham as Mordecai. In 2000, VeggieTales, a company that uses CGI vegetables to teach children lessons from the Bible in a comical way, released Esther... The Girl Who Became Queen. In 2005, biblical novelist Ginger Garrett released, Chosen: The Lost Diaries of Queen Esther 480-465 BC. In 2006, Lightstone Studios, LLC released "Esther and the King," a live-action movie musical. It is part of the Liken Bible Series. See www.Likenit.com. A 2006 movie about Esther and Ahasuerus, entitled One Night with the King, stars Tiffany Dupont and Luke Goss. It was based on the novel Hadassah: One Night with the King by Tommy Tenney and Mark Andrew Olsen. In the 2006 Melbourne Fringe Festival, The Backyard Bard toured a Biblical Storytelling production of 'Esther', featuring four women storytellers telling the story word-for-word from the Biblical account. In the anime Trinity Blood Esther is the main character, a nun with a star on her side. She is prophesied to be "the morning star" who will lead the people to peace. A "pop opera" Luv Esther has toured the United Kingdom to much acclaim and was performed at London's Shaw Theatre on 8 and 9 May 2008 as part of the first Pentecost Festival weekend. In the 2008 HBO television movie Recount, Florida Secretary of State Katherine Harris (portrayed by Laura Dern) compares herself to Queen Esther, of whom she says "was willing to sacrifice herself to save the lovely Jewish people." Esther is one of the five heroines of the Order of the Eastern Star. Origin and meaning of her name Esther and Mordecai, by Aert de Gelder According to the , Esther was originally named Hadassah. Hadassah means "myrtle" in Hebrew and the name Esther is most likely related to the Median word for myrtle, astra, and the Persian word setareh meaning star — the myrtle blossom resembles a twinkling star. The Targum provides a Midrashic explanation: that she was as beautiful as the Evening Star (or Morning Star), which is astara in Greek. In the Talmud, Tractate Yoma (29a), Esther is compared to the "morning star", and is considered the subject of Psalm 22 because its introduction is a "song for the morning star." Esther can also be understood to mean "hidden" in Hebrew, and her name is interpreted thus in another Midrash, where it is said that Esther hid her nationality and lineage as Mordecai had advised. Because the methods and aims of God are believed to be similarly hidden, "The Book of Esther" in Hebrew can be understood as "The Book of Hiddenness," representing God's hiddenness in the story. Despite resembling Indo-European words for star, the Semitic "Ishtar" is unrelated, the root beginning with a pharyngeal ayin and the sh sound derived from an earlier th sound.) "Ishtar" was worshipped throughout the Middle East as a goddess. Some critics of the historicity of the Book of Esther seized on this as evidence to support a view that the story of Esther derived from a myth about Ishtar. However, in Hebrew the goddess was referred to by the Hebrew cognate of her name - Ashtoreth. "Esther" cannot be derived directly from the latter. The Book of Daniel provides accounts of Jews in exile being assigned names relating to Babylonian gods and "Mordecai" is understood to mean servant of Marduk, a Babylonian god. "Esther" may have been a Hebrew rendition of a form of "Ishtar" in which the "sh" sound had become an "s" sound. Wilson, who identified Ahasuerus with Xerxes I and Esther with Amestris, suggested that both "Amestris" and "Esther" derived from Akkadian Ammi-Ishtar or Ummi-Ishtar NeXtBible Study Dictionary, entry Ahasbai . Hoschander alternatively suggested Ishtar-udda-sha ("Ishtar is her light") as the origin with the possibility of -udda-sha being connected with the similarly sounding Hebrew name Hadassah. Esther in Christianity Esther is commemorated as a matriarch in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod on May 24. Esther in Judaism Esther is considered a prophet in Judaism. Esther in Persian culture The Shrine of Esther and Mordechai in Hamedan, Iran Given the great historical link between Persian and Jewish history, modern day Persian Jews are referred to as "Esther's Children". A building known as The Mausoleum of Esther and Mordechai is located in Hamedan, Iran. Bibliography Beal, Timothy K. The Book of Hiding: Gender, Ethnicity, Annihilation, and Esther. NY: Routledge, 1997. Postmodern theoretical apparatus, e.g. Derrida, Levinas Berlin, Adele. “Esther” in JSB, 1623-1625 Jon Levenson Esther, an excellent commentary Michael V. Fox Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther, 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmanns, 2001. 333 pp., excellent literary analysis Sasson, Jack M. “Esther” in Alter and Kermode, pp. 335–341, literary Webberley, Helen The Book of Esther in C17th Dutch Art, AAANZ National Conference, Art Gallery NSW, 2002 Webberley, Helen Rembrandt and The Purim Story, in The Jewish Magazine, Feb 2008, White, Sidnie Ann. “Esther: A Feminine Model for Jewish Diaspora” in Newsom References External links stempublishing.com: Writings on the Old Testament The Book of Esther, Article by Ronald L. 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2,737 | Forest | Rainforest in Tasmania's Hellyer Gorge is considered a Gondwanan relic. A forest is an area with a high density of trees. There are many definitions of a forest, based on the various criteria. Lund, H. Gyde (coord.) 2006. 'Definitions of Forest, Deforestation, Afforestation, and Reforestation'. Gainesville, VA: Forest Information Services. Available from: ComcastNet-gyde. These plant communities presently cover approximately 9.4% of the Earth's surface (or 30% of total land area) in many different regions and function as habitats for organisms, hydrologic flow modulators, and soil conservers, constituting one of the most important aspects of the Earth's biosphere. A woodland, with more open space between trees, is ecologically distinct from a forest. Etymology The word "forest" was borrowed by Middle English from Old French and Medieval Latin forestis, literally meaning "outside". Uses of the word "forest" in English to denote any uninhabited area of non-enclosure are now considered archaic. The word was introduced by the Norman rulers of England as a legal term (appearing in Latin texts like the Magna Carta) denoting an uncultivated area legally set aside for hunting by feudal nobility (see Royal Forest). These hunting forests were not necessarily wooded much, if at all. However, as hunting forests did often include considerable areas of woodland, the word "forest" eventually came to mean wooded land more generally. By the start of the fourteenth century the word appeared in English texts, indicating all three senses: the most common one, the legal term and the archaic usage. Distribution A conifer forest in the Swiss Alps (National Park). Amazon Rainforest in Brazil. found in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth, at altitudes up to the tree line, except where natural fire frequency or other disturbance is too high, or where the environment has been altered by human activity. The latitudes 10° north and south of the Equator are mostly covered in tropical rainforest, and the latitudes between 53°N and 67°N have boreal forest. As a general rule, forests dominated by angiosperms (broadleaf forests) are more species-rich than those dominated by gymnosperms (conifer, montane, or needleleaf forests), although exceptions exist. Forests sometimes contain many tree species within a small area (as in tropical rain and temperate deciduous forests), or relatively few species over large areas (e.g., taiga and arid montane coniferous forests). Forests are often home to many animal and plant species, and biomass per unit area is high compared to other vegetation communities. Much of this biomass occurs below ground in the root systems and as partially decomposed plant detritus. The woody component of a forest contains lignin, which is relatively slow to decompose compared with other organic materials such as cellulose or carbohydrate. Forests are differentiated from woodlands by the extent of canopy coverage: in a forest, the branches and the foliage of separate trees often meet or interlock, although there can be gaps of varying sizes within an area referred to as forest. A woodland has a more continuously open canopy, with trees spaced further apart, which allows more sunlight to penetrate to the ground between them (also see: savanna). Among the major forested biomes are: rain forest (tropical and temperate) taiga temperate hardwood forest tropical dry forest Classification Spiny forest at Ifaty, Madagascar, featuring various Adansonia (baobab) species, Alluaudia procera (Madagascar ocotillo) and other vegetation. Even, dense old-growth stand of beech trees (Fagus sylvatica) prepared to be regenerated by their saplings in the understory, in the Brussels part of the Sonian Forest. Forests can be classified in different ways and to different degrees of specificity. One such way is in terms of the "biome" in which they exist, combined with leaf longevity of the dominant species (whether they are evergreen or deciduous). Another distinction is whether the forests composed predominantly of broadleaf trees, coniferous (needle-leaved) trees, or mixed. Boreal forests occupy the subarctic zone and are generally evergreen and coniferous. Temperate zones support both broadleaf deciduous forests (e.g., temperate deciduous forest) and evergreen coniferous forests (e.g., Temperate coniferous forests and Temperate rainforests). Warm temperate zones support broadleaf evergreen forests, including laurel forests. Tropical and subtropical forests include tropical and subtropical moist forests, tropical and subtropical dry forests, and tropical and subtropical coniferous forests. Physiognomy classifies forests based on their overall physical structure or developmental stage (e.g. old growth vs. second growth). Forests can also be classified more specifically based on the climate and the dominant tree species present, resulting in numerous different forest types (e.g., ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forest). A number of global forest classification systems have been proposed, but none has gained universal acceptance. Jenkins Martin D. , Groombridge Brian, World Atlas of Biodiversity: Earth's Living Resources in the 21st Century, World Conservation Monitoring Centre, United Nations Environment Programme, retrieved 3/20/2007. UNEP-WCMC's forest category classification system is a simplification of other more complex systems (e.g. UNESCO's forest and woodland 'subformations'). This system divides the world's forests into 26 major types, which reflect climatic zones as well as the principal types of trees. These 26 major types can be reclassified into 6 broader categories: temperate needleleaf; temperate broadleaf and mixed; tropical moist; tropical dry; sparse trees and parkland; and forest plantations. Each category is described as a separate section below. Temperate needleleaf Temperate needleleaf forests mostly occupy the higher latitude regions of the northern hemisphere, as well as high altitude zones and some warm temperate areas, especially on nutrient-poor or otherwise unfavourable soils. These forests are composed entirely, or nearly so, of coniferous species (Coniferophyta). In the Northern Hemisphere pines Pinus, spruces Picea, larches Larix, silver firs Abies, Douglas firs Pseudotsuga and hemlocks Tsuga, make up the canopy, but other taxa are also important. In the Southern Hemisphere most coniferous trees, members of the Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae, occur in mixtures with broadleaf species that are classed as broadleaf and mixed forests. Temperate broadleaf and mixed Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests include a substantial component of trees in the Anthophyta. They are generally characteristic of the warmer temperate latitudes, but extend to cool temperate ones, particularly in the southern hemisphere. They include such forest types as the mixed deciduous forests of the USA and their counterparts in China and Japan, the broadleaf evergreen rain forests of Japan, Chile and Tasmania, the sclerophyllous forests of Australia, the Mediterranean and California, and the southern beech Nothofagus forests of Chile and New Zealand. Tropical moist Tropical moist forests include many different forest types. The best known and most extensive are the lowland evergreen broadleaf rainforests include, for example: the seasonally inundated varzea and igapó forests and the terra firme forests of the Amazon Basin; the peat forests and moist dipterocarp forests of Southeast Asia; and the high forests of the Congo Basin. The forests of tropical mountains are also included in this broad category, generally divided into upper and lower montane formations on the basis of their physiognomy, which varies with altitude. The montane forests include cloud forest, those forests at middle to high altitude, which derive a significant part of their water budget from cloud, and support a rich abundance of vascular and nonvascular epiphytes. Mangrove forests also fall within this broad category, as do most of the tropical coniferous forests of Central America. Tropical dry Tropical dry forests are characteristic of areas in the tropics affected by seasonal drought. The seasonality of rainfall is usually reflected in the deciduousness of the forest canopy, with most trees being leafless for several months of the year. However, under some conditions, e.g. less fertile soils or less predictable drought regimes, the proportion of evergreen species increases and the forests are characterised as "sclerophyllous". Thorn forest, a dense forest of low stature with a high frequency of thorny or spiny species, is found where drought is prolonged, and especially where grazing animals are plentiful. On very poor soils, and especially where fire is a recurrent phenomenon, woody savannas develop (see 'sparse trees and parkland'). Sparse trees and parkland Sparse trees and parkland are forests with open canopies of 10-30% crown cover. They occur principally in areas of transition from forested to non-forested landscapes. The two major zones in which these ecosystems occur are in the boreal region and in the seasonally dry tropics. At high latitudes, north of the main zone of boreal forest or taiga, growing conditions are not adequate to maintain a continuous closed forest cover, so tree cover is both sparse and discontinuous. This vegetation is variously called open taiga, open lichen woodland, and forest tundra. It is species-poor, has high bryophyte cover, and is frequently affected by fire. Forest plantations Forest plantations, generally intended for the production of timber and pulpwood increase the total area of forest worldwide. Commonly mono-specific and/or composed of introduced tree species, these ecosystems are not generally important as habitat for native biodiversity. However, they can be managed in ways that enhance their biodiversity protection functions and they are important providers of ecosystem services such as maintaining nutrient capital, protecting watersheds and soil structure as well as storing carbon. They may also play an important role in alleviating pressure on natural forests for timber and fuelwood production. Forest categories A temperate deciduous broadleaf forest, the Hasenholz, southeast of Kirchheim unter Teck, Swabia, Germany. Redwoods in old growth forest in Muir Woods National Monument, Marin County, California. 26 forest categories are used to enable the translation of forest types from national and regional classification systems to a harmonised global one: Temperate and boreal forest types Evergreen needleleaf forest - Natural forest with > 30% canopy cover, in which the canopy is predominantly (> 75%) needleleaf and evergreen. Deciduous needleleaf forests - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, in which the canopy is predominantly (> 75%) needleleaf and deciduous. Mixed broadleaf/needleleaf forest - Natural forest with > 30% canopy cover, in which the canopy is composed of a more or less even mixture of needleleaf and broadleaf crowns (between 50:50% and 25:75%). Broadleaf evergreen forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, the canopy being > 75% evergreen and broadleaf. Deciduous broadleaf forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, in which > 75% of the canopy is deciduous and broadleaves predominate (> 75% of canopy cover). Freshwater swamp forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, composed of trees with any mixture of leaf type and seasonality, but in which the predominant environmental characteristic is a waterlogged soil. Sclerophyllous dry forest - Natural forest with > 30% canopy cover, in which the canopy is mainly composed of sclerophyllous broadleaves and is > 75% evergreen. Disturbed natural forest - Any forest type above that has in its interior significant areas of disturbance by people, including clearing, felling for wood extraction, anthropogenic fires, road construction, etc. Sparse trees and parkland - Natural forests in which the tree canopy cover is between 10-30%, such as in the steppe regions of the world. Trees of any type (e.g., needleleaf, broadleaf, palms). Exotic species plantation - Intensively managed forests with > 30% canopy cover, which have been planted by people with species not naturally occurring in that country. Native species plantation - Intensively managed forests with > 30% canopy cover, which have been planted by people with species that occur naturally in that country. *Unspecified forest plantation - Forest plantations showing extent only with no further information about their type, This data currently only refers to the Ukraine. *Unclassified forest data - Forest data showing forest extent only with no further information about their type. Those marked * have been created as a result of data holdings which do not specify the forest type, hence 26 categories are quoted, not 28 shown here. United Nations Environment Programme, World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Background to Forest Mapping & Data Harmonisation, retrieved 3/20/2007 Tropical forest types The Fatu Hiva rainforest in Polynesia. Lowland evergreen broadleaf rain forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, below 1200 m altitude that display little or no seasonality, the canopy being >75% evergreen broadleaf. Lower montane forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, between 1200-1800 m altitude, with any seasonality regime and leaf type mixture. Upper montane forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, above 1800 m altitude, with any seasonality regime and leaf type mixture. Freshwater swamp forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, below 1200 m altitude, composed of trees with any mixture of leaf type and seasonality, but in which the predominant environmental characteristic is a waterlogged soil. Semi-evergreen moist broadleaf forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, below 1200 m altitude in which between 50-75% of the canopy is evergreen, > 75% are broadleaves, and the trees display seasonality of flowering and fruiting. Mixed broadleaf/needleleaf forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, below 1200 m altitude, in which the canopy is composed of a more or less even mixture of needleleaf and broadleaf crowns (between 50:50% and 25:75%). Needleleaf forest - Natural forest with > 30% canopy cover, below 1200 m altitude, in which the canopy is predominantly (> 75%) needleleaf. Mangroves - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, composed of species of mangrove tree, generally along coasts in or near brackish or salt water. Disturbed natural forest - Any forest type above that has in its interior significant areas of disturbance by people, including clearing, felling for wood extraction, anthropogenic fires, road construction, etc. Deciduous/semi-deciduous broadleaf forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, below 1200 m altitude in which between 50-100% of the canopy is deciduous and broadleaves predominate (> 75% of canopy cover). Sclerophyllous dry forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, below 1200 m altitude, in which the canopy is mainly composed of sclerophyllous broadleaves and is > 75% evergreen. Thorn forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, below 1200 m altitude, in which the canopy is mainly composed of deciduous trees with thorns and succulent phanerophytes with thorns may be frequent. Sparse trees and parkland - Natural forests in which the tree canopy cover is between 10-30%, such as in the savannah regions of the world. Trees of any type (e.g., needleleaf, broadleaf, palms). Exotic species plantation - Intensively managed forests with > 30% canopy cover, which have been planted by people with species not naturally occurring in that country. Native species plantation - Intensively managed forests with > 30% canopy cover, which have been planted by people with species that occur naturally in that country. Forest management and forest loss Main articles: Forestry, Logging and Deforestation Coastal Douglas fir woodland in northwest Oregon. The scientific study of forest species and their interaction with the environment is referred to as forest ecology, while the management of forests is often referred to as forestry. Forest management has changed considerably over the last few centuries, with rapid changes from the 1980s onwards culminating in a practice now referred to as sustainable forest management. Forest ecologists concentrate on forest patterns and processes, usually with the aim of elucidating cause and effect relationships. Foresters who practice sustainable forest management focus on the integration of ecological, social and economic values, often in consultation with local communities and other stakeholders. Anthropogenic factors that can affect forests include logging, human-caused forest fires, acid rain, and introduced species, among other things. There are also many natural factors that can cause changes in forests over time including forest fires, insects, diseases, weather, competition between species, etc. In 1997, the World Resources Institute recorded that only 20% of the world's original forests remained in large intact tracts of undisturbed forest. World Resources Institute, 1997. The Last Frontier Forests: Ecosystems and Economies on the Edge More than 75% of these intact forests lie in three countries - the Boreal forests of Russia and Canada and the rainforest of Brazil. In 2006 this information on intact forests was updated using latest available satellite imagery. Redwood tree in northern California redwood forest, where many redwood trees are managed for preservation and longevity, rather than being harvested for wood production. Canada has about of forest land. More than 90% of forest land is publicly owned and about 50% of the total forest area is allocated for harvesting. These allocated areas are managed using the principles of sustainable forest management, which includes extensive consultation with local stakeholders. About eight percent of Canada’s forest is legally protected from resource development (Global Forest Watch Canada)(Natural Resources Canada). Much more forest land — about 40 percent of the total forest land base — is subject to varying degrees of protection through processes such as integrated land-use planning or defined management areas such as certified forests (Natural Resources Canada). By December 2006, over 1,237,000 square kilometers of forest land in Canada (about half the global total) had been certified as being sustainably managed (Canadian Sustainable Forestry Certification Coalition). Clearcutting is usually the harvest method of choice and companies are required by law to ensure that harvested areas are adequately regenerated. Most Canadian provinces have regulations limiting the size of clearcuts, although some older clearcuts can range upwards of in size which were cut over several years. In the United States, most forests have historically been affected by humans to some degree, though in recent years improved forestry practices has helped regulate or moderate large scale or severe impacts. However, the United States Forest Service estimates that every year about of the nation’s 3,000,000 km2 (750 million acres) of forest land is lost to urban sprawl and development. It is expected that the South alone will lose 80,000 to 100,000 km2 (20 to 25 million acres) to development. However, in many areas of the United States, the area of forest is stable or increasing, particularly in many northern states. Globally two broad types of forests can be identified: natural and anthropogenic. Natural forests contain mainly natural patterns of biodiversity in established seral patterns, and they contain mainly species native to the region and habitat. The natural formations and processes have not been affected by humans with a frequency or intensity to change the natural structure and components of the habitat. Anthropogenic forests have been created by humans or sufficiently affected by humans to change or remove natural seral patterns. They often contain significant elements of species which were originally from other regions or habitats. Gallery See also |width="36%" align=left valign=top| Agroforestry Ancient Woodland, an official classification of ancient forest in the United Kingdom. Biomass Biomass (ecology) Bioproduct Biosphere Boreal forest Canopy Cloud forest Chase (land) Deforestation Ecological succession Forest management Intact forest landscape Jungle (terrain) Kelp forest (A forest made mostly if not entirely of Kelp; an underwater forest) |width="34%" align=left valign=top| Natural environment Old growth forest (ancient forest, virgin forest, primary forest) Permaforestry Primeval forest, a term often used interchangeably with old growth forest Rainforest Red forest Silviculture Taiga, a biome characterized by coniferous forests Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests Temperate coniferous forests Tropical rainforest Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Woodland management Wildcrafting |width="200px" align=left | References Further reading 2006-01-13, Sciencedaily: Deep-rooted Plants Have Much Greater Impact On Climate Than Experts Thought Citat: "...The tap roots transfer rainwater from the surface to reservoirs deep underground and redistribute water...increases photosynthesis and the evaporation of water...by 40% in the dry season...During the wet season, these plants can store as much as 10% of the annual precipitation as deep as underground, to be tapped during the dry months...tree roots acting like pipes to allow water to shift around much faster than it could otherwise percolate through the soil..." External links Forests in danger Roadmap to Recovery: The World's Last Intact Forest Landscapes Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005 by the FAO CoolForests.org - Conservation Cools the Planet be-x-old:Лес | Forest |@lemmatized rainforest:9 tasmania:2 hellyer:1 gorge:1 consider:2 gondwanan:1 relic:1 forest:209 area:21 high:10 density:1 tree:35 many:9 definition:2 base:4 various:2 criterion:1 lund:1 h:1 gyde:2 coord:1 deforestation:3 afforestation:1 reforestation:1 gainesville:1 va:1 information:4 service:3 available:2 comcastnet:1 plant:9 community:3 presently:1 cover:32 approximately:1 earth:3 surface:2 total:5 land:10 different:5 region:8 function:2 habitat:5 organism:1 hydrologic:1 flow:1 modulators:1 soil:8 conservers:1 constitute:1 one:5 important:5 aspect:1 biosphere:2 woodland:9 open:5 space:2 ecologically:1 distinct:1 etymology:1 word:5 borrow:1 middle:2 english:3 old:8 french:1 medieval:1 latin:2 forestis:1 literally:1 mean:2 outside:1 us:1 denote:2 uninhabited:1 non:2 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2,738 | American_Chinese_cuisine | American Chinese cuisine refers to the style of food served by certain Chinese restaurants in the United States. This type of cooking typically caters to Western tastes, and differs significantly from the cuisine of China. History In the 19th century, Chinese restaurateurs developed American Chinese cuisine when they modified their food for Caucasian American tastes. First catering to railroad workers, restaurants were established in towns where Chinese food was completely unknown. These restaurant workers adapted to using local ingredients and catered to their customers' tastes. Dishes on the menu were often given numbers, and often a roll and butter was offered on the side. In the process, chefs would invent numerous dishes such as chop suey and General Tso's Chicken. As a result, they developed a style of Chinese food not found in China. Restaurants (along with Chinese laundries which have since nearly vanished) provided an ethnic niche for small businesses at a time when Chinese were excluded from most jobs in the wage economy by racial discrimination or lack of language fluency. For most of those who run such restaurants, wages tend to be low, and hours long as much of the labor is provided by immigrants or family members, but part of the attraction of Chinese restaurants is the quality and low cost of the food. In modern times, some Asian professionals invest their savings into running restaurants. Types of restaurants Chinese restaurants can be divided into three primary categories: Sit-down dining: These restaurants cater to customers who sit down in a dining room and order from a menu. They tend to provide more authentic Chinese food than fast-food restaurants or places of informal dining. Take-out: These restaurants, which cater primarily to call-in and take-out orders, serve as convenient outlets for traditional American Chinese dishes. Nearly all of them feature delivery to customers' homes, thus allowing the folded, waxed cardboard boxes (oyster pails) that are commonly used to attain similar recognition as that of the pizza box. Buffets: Buffet-style American Chinese restaurants, which have recently seen an increase in popularity, tend to serve a wide variety of food in buffet style; the authenticity of the food varies from outlet to outlet. Differences from native Chinese cuisines American Chinese food typically treats vegetables as garnish while cuisines of China emphasize vegetables. This can be seen in the use of carrots and tomatoes. Native Chinese cuisine makes frequent use of Asian leafy vegetables like bok choy and kai-lan and puts a greater emphasis on fresh meat and seafood . As a result, American Chinese food is usually less pungent than authentic cuisine. A Chinese buffet restaurant in the U.S. American Chinese food tends to be cooked very quickly with a great deal of oil and salt. Many dishes are quickly and easily prepared, and require inexpensive ingredients. Stir-frying, pan-frying, and deep-frying tend to be the most common cooking techniques which are all easily done using a wok. The food also has a reputation for high levels of MSG to enhance the flavor. The symptoms of a so-called Chinese restaurant syndrome or "Chinese food syndrome" have been attributed to a glutamate sensitivity, but carefully controlled scientific studies have not demonstrated such negative effects of glutamate. Market forces and customer demand have encouraged many restaurants to offer "MSG Free" or "No MSG" menus. Most American Chinese establishments cater to non-Chinese customers with menus written in English or containing pictures. If separate Chinese-language menus are available, they typically feature delicacies like liver, chicken feet or other exotic meat dishes that might deter Western customers. In New York's Chinatown, the restaurants are legendary for refusing to offer non-Chinese Americans the "secret" (i.e., authentic) menu. American Chinese cuisine often uses ingredients not native and very rarely used in China. One such example is the common use of broccoli in American Chinese cuisine. American Chinese dishes Dishes that often appear on American Chinese menus include: General Tso's Chicken— chunks of chicken that are deep-fried and seasoned with ginger, garlic, sesame oil, scallions, and hot chili peppers. Sesame Chicken— boned, battered, and deep-fried chicken which is then dressed with a translucent but dark red, sweet, slightly sour, mildly spicy, semi-thick, Chinese soy sauce made from corn starch, vinegar, chicken broth, and sugar, and often served with steamed broccoli. Chinese chicken salad — Salad, in the form of uncooked leafy greens, does not exist in traditional Chinese cuisine for sanitary reasons, since manure and human feces were China's primary fertilizer through most of its history. It usually contains crispy noodle (fried wonton skin) and sesame dressing. Some restaurants serve the salad with mandarin oranges. Chop suey — connotes "leftovers" in Chinese. It is usually a mix of vegetables and meat in a brown sauce but can also be served in a white sauce. Chow mein — literally means 'stir-fried noodles.' Chow mein consists of fried noodles with bits of meat and vegetables. It can come with chicken, beef, pork or shrimp. Crab rangoon — Fried wonton skins stuffed with artificial crab meat (surimi) and cream cheese. Fortune cookie — Invented at the Japanese Tea Garden in San Francisco, fortune cookies have become sweetened and found their way to many American Chinese restaurants. Fortune cookies have become so popular that even some authentic Chinese restaurants serve them at the end of the meal as dessert and may feature Chinese translations of the English fortunes. Fried rice — Pan-fried rice, usually with chunks of meat, vegetables, and often egg. Regional American Chinese dishes: Chow mein sandwich— Sandwich of chow mein and gravy (Southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island). Chop suey sandwich — Sandwich of chicken chop suey on a hamburger bun (North Shore of Massachusetts — the only known remaining restaurants serving this specialty are "Genghis Salem" and "Salem Lowe." Both are located at Salem Willows Park, Salem, Massachusetts. This sandwich is traditionally wrapped in a napkin cone and eaten with a fork). St. Paul sandwich — Egg foo young patty in plain white sandwich bread (St. Louis, Missouri). Americanized versions of native Chinese dishes Batter-fried meat — Meat that has been deep fried in bread or flour, such as sesame chicken, lemon chicken, orange chicken, sweet and sour pork, and General Tso's chicken, is often heavily emphasized in American-style Chinese dishes. Battered meat occasionally appears in Hunanese dishes, but it generally uses lighter sauces with less sugar and corn syrup. Chicken balls — Uses a large amount of leavening and flour in its preparation and battering process which causes them to be more similar to doughy "hush puppies" than actual batter-fried meat. Egg drop soup — A soup of chicken broth with scrambled egg ribbons. Often served with fried noodles. Egg foo young Egg foo young — A Chinese-style omelet with vegetables and meat, usually served with a brown sauce. Also known as egg foo yung or egg foo yong. Egg roll — While native Chinese spring rolls have a thin crispy skin with mushrooms, bamboo, and other vegetables inside, the Americanized version (specifically the version found in such American Northeast metro areas as Boston and New York) uses a thick, fried skin stuffed with cabbage and usually bits of meat or seafood (usually pork or shrimp). Fried rice — Fried rice dishes are popular offerings in American Chinese food due to the speed and ease of preparation and their appeal to American tastes. Fried rice is generally prepared with rice cooled overnight, allowing restaurants to put unserved leftover rice to good use. It typically uses more soy sauce than the authentic version. Kung Pao chicken — The authentic Sichuan dish is very spicy, and the American versions tend to be less so. Lo mein — The term means "stirred noodles"; these noodles are frequently made with eggs and flour, making them chewier than simply using water. Thick, spaghetti shaped noodles are pan fried with vegetables and meat. Sometimes this dish is referred to as "chow mein" (which literally means "fried noodles" in Cantonese). Mei Fun (see Rice vermicelli dishes) Moo shu pork — The native Chinese version uses more typically Chinese ingredients (including wood ear fungi and daylily buds) and thin flour pancakes while the American version uses vegetables more familiar to Americans and thicker pancakes. This dish is quite popular in Chinese restaurants in the U.S., but not so popular in China. Wonton soup — In most American Chinese restaurants, only wonton dumplings in broth are served, while native Chinese versions may come with noodles. Authentic Cantonese Wonton Soup is a full meal in itself consisting of thin egg noodles and several pork and prawn wontons in a pork or chicken soup broth or noodle broth. Americanized wontons, especially in takeout restaurants, are often made with thicker dough than the authentic version. Cashew chicken — see Regional variations. Meat "with" a vegetable — Examples of common variations on this dish are pork, chicken, beef or shrimp cooked with mushrooms, snow peas, or other assorted vegetables. This dish is sometimes served with oyster sauce or with garlic sauce. These dishes are primarily variations on Cantonese-style stir-fry. Beef with broccoli Broccoli beef — This dish exists in native Chinese form, but using gai-lan (Chinese broccoli) rather than Western broccoli. Occasionally western broccoli is also referred to as sai lan fa (in Cantonese) in order not to confuse the two styles of broccoli. Among Chinese speakers, however, it is typically understood that one is referring to the leafy vegetable unless otherwise specified. This is also the case with the words for carrot (lo bac) or (hung lo bac hung meaning red) and onion (chung). Lo bac, in Cantonese, refers to the daikon, a large, blandly flavored white radish. The orange western carrot is known in some areas of China as "foreign Daikon" (or more properly hung lo bac in Cantonese, hung meaning "red"). When the word for onion, chung, is used, it is understood that one is referring to "green onions" (otherwise known to Westerners as scallions or spring onions). The many-layered onion common to Westerners is called yeung chung. This translates as "western onion". These names make it evident that the Western broccoli, carrot, and onion are not indigenous to China and therefore are less common in the cuisines of China. Hence, if a dish contains significant amounts of any of these ingredients, it has most likely been Westernized. Tomatoes — Since tomatoes are New World plants, they are also fairly new to China and Chinese cuisine. Tomato-based sauces can be found in some American Chinese dishes such as the popular "beef and tomato." and 'house special' or "combination" usually the first four ingredients together. Roast or Barbecued Pork — Usually the smallest section (due to pork being less popular than beef and chicken today), mostly "with" dishes (Roast pork with mushrooms et al.) Chicken — Moo Goo Gai Pan, Kung Po, and most of the "with" dishes (Such as chicken with cashew nuts or water chestnuts) Beef — Beef with Broccoli, Pepper Steak, and "with " dishes Seafood — Basically shrimp with the occasional scallop or lobster dish. Special Diet Plates and Vegetable and Tofu — Vegetarian and low-calorie dishes Combination platters — More expensive than the previous dishes, these come with fried rice and usually an egg roll. Usually you'll find General Tso's and Sesame Chicken here, along with the most popular of the other dishes. Chef's Specialties — the most expensive dishes that normally include multiple meats and vegetables. The back of the menu often has Lunch Specials, which are normally a smaller version of the combination platters offered only at lunch for less money. Regional variations on American Chinese cuisine San Francisco Since the early 1990s, many American Chinese restaurants influenced by the cuisine of California have opened in San Francisco and the Bay Area. The trademark dishes of American Chinese cuisine remain on the menu, but there is more emphasis on fresh vegetables, and the selection is vegetarian-friendly. This new cuisine has exotic ingredients like mangos and portobello mushrooms. Brown rice is often offered as an optional alternative to white rice. Some restaurants substitute grilled wheat flour tortillas for the rice pancakes in mu shu dishes. This occurs even in some restaurant that would not otherwise be identified as California Chinese, both the more Americanized places and the more authentic places. There is a Mexican bakery that sells some restaurants thinner tortillas made for use with mu shu. Mu shu purists do not always react positively to this trend. AsianWeek.com In addition, many restaurants serving more native-style Chinese cuisines exist, due to the high numbers and proportion of ethnic Chinese in San Francisco and the Bay Area. Restaurants specializing in Cantonese, Szechuan, Hunan, Mandarin, Taiwanese, and Hong Kong traditions are widely available, as are more specialized restaurants such as seafood restaurants, Hong Kong-style diners and cafes (also known as Cha chaan teng (茶餐廳)), dim sum teahouses, and hot pot restaurants. Many Chinatown areas also feature Chinese bakeries, boba milk tea shops, roasted meat, vegetarian cuisine, and specialized dessert shops. Chop suey is not widely available in San Francisco, and the city's chow mein is different from Midwestern chow mein. Authentic restaurants with Chinese-language menus may offer 黃毛雞 (Cantonese Yale: wòhng mouh gāai, Pinyin: huángmáo jī, literally yellow-feather chicken), essentially a free-range chicken, as opposed to typical American mass-farmed chicken. Yellow-hair chicken is valued for its flavor, but needs to be cooked properly to be tender due to its lower fat and higher muscle content. This dish usually does not appear on the English-language menu. Dau Miu () is a Chinese vegetable that has become popular since the early 1990s, and now not only appears on English-language menus, usually as "pea shoots", but is often served by upscale non-Asian restaurants as well. Originally it was only available during a few months of the year, but it is now grown in greenhouses and is available year-round. Hawaii Hawaiian-Chinese food developed a bit differently from the continental United States. Owing to the diversity of ethnicities in Hawaii and the history of the Chinese influence in Hawaii, resident Chinese cuisine forms a component of the cuisine of Hawaii, which is a fusion of different culinary traditions. Some Chinese dishes are typically served as part of plate lunches in Hawaii. The names of foods are different as well, such as Manapua, from Hawaiian meaning "chewed up pork" for dim sum bao, though the meat is not necessarily pork. American Chinese chain restaurants China Coast — Now defunct, closed in 1995; owned by General Mills Corp., formerly 52 locations throughout the USA City Wok — Locations in California, Colorado, Florida and North Carolina Leeann Chin — Locations in Minnesota and Wisconsin; owned at one time by General Mills Corp. Manchu Wok — Nationwide in the USA and Canada, as well as Guam, Korea and Japan Panda Express — Nationwide in the USA Pei Wei Asian Diner — Locations in the western and southwestern USA; a subsidiary of P.F. Chang's P. F. Chang's China Bistro — Nationwide in the USA; features California-Chinese fusion cuisine Pick Up Stix — Locations in California, Arizona and Nevada See also Chinese cuisine American cuisine Canadian Chinese cuisine Oyster pail Fortune Cookie Imperial Dynasty restaurant Panda Express Chifa - fusion food Chinese Peruvian References External links Chinese Restaurant Project — Indigo Som's project to document Chinese-American restaurants BBC TWO Chinese food made easy | American_Chinese_cuisine |@lemmatized american:31 chinese:73 cuisine:24 refers:2 style:10 food:19 serve:15 certain:1 restaurant:40 united:2 state:2 type:2 cook:4 typically:7 caters:1 western:8 taste:4 differs:1 significantly:1 china:12 history:3 century:1 restaurateur:1 develop:3 modify:1 caucasian:1 first:2 cater:5 railroad:1 worker:2 establish:1 town:1 completely:1 unknown:1 adapt:1 use:19 local:1 ingredient:7 customer:6 dish:34 menu:12 often:12 give:1 number:2 roll:4 butter:1 offer:6 side:1 process:2 chef:2 would:2 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2,739 | Magna_Carta | Magna Carta, also called Magna Carta Libertatum (the Great Charter of Freedoms), is an English legal charter, originally issued in the year 1215. It was written in Latin; its name is usually translated into English as Great Charter. Magna Carta required King John of England to proclaim certain rights (pertaining to nobles and barons), respect certain legal procedures, and accept that his will could be bound by the law. It explicitly protected certain rights of the King's subjects, whether free or fettered — and implicitly supported what became the writ of habeas corpus, allowing appeal against unlawful imprisonment. Magna Carta was arguably the most significant early influence on the extensive historical process that led to the rule of constitutional law today in the English speaking world. Magna Carta influenced the development of the common law and many constitutional documents, including the United States Constitution. Many clauses were renewed throughout the Middle Ages, and continued to be renewed as late as the 18th century. By the second half of the 19th century, however, most clauses in their original form had been repealed from English law. Magna Carta was the first document forced onto an English King by a group of his subjects (the barons) in an attempt to limit his powers by law and protect their privileges. It was preceded by the 1100 Charter of Liberties in which King Henry I voluntarily stated what his own powers were under the law. In practice, Magna Carta in the medieval period mostly did not limit the power of Kings; but by the time of the English Civil War it had become an important symbol for those who wished to show that the King was bound by the law. Magna Carta is normally understood to refer to a single document, that of 1215. Various amended versions of Magna Carta appeared in subsequent years however, and it is the 1297 version which remains on the statute books of England and Wales. Background One of the certified copies of Magna Carta made in 1215. After the Norman conquest of England in 1066 and advances in the 12th century, the English King had by 1199 become a powerful and influential monarch in Europe. Factors contributing to this include the sophisticated centralised government created by the procedures of the new Norman systems of governance and extensive Anglo-Norman land holdings in Normandy. But after King John of England was crowned in the early 13th century, a series of failures at home and abroad, combined with perceived abuses of the king's power, led the English barons to revolt and attempt to restrain what the king could legally do. France King John's actions in France were a major cause of discontent in the realm. At the time of his accession to the throne after Richard's death, there were no set rules to define the line of succession. King John, as Richard's younger brother, was crowned over Richard's nephew, Arthur of Brittany. Since Arthur still had a claim over the Anjou empire, however, John needed the approval of the French king, Philip Augustus. To get it, John gave to Philip large tracts of the French-speaking Anjou territories. When John later married Isabella of Angoulême, her previous fiancé (Hugh IX of Lusignan, one of John's vassals) appealed to Philip, who then declared forfeit all of John's French lands, including the rich Normandy. Philip declared Arthur as the true ruler of the Anjou throne and invaded John's French holdings in mid-1202 to give it to him. John had to act to save face, but his eventual actions did not achieve this—Arthur disappeared in suspicious circumstances, and John was widely believed to have murdered him, thus losing the little support he had from his French barons. After the defeat of John's allies at the Battle of Bouvines, Josephus Nelson Larned and Donald Eugene Smith. The new Larned History for ready reference, reading and research, 1923. pg 1103. Philip retained all of John's northern French territories, including Normandy (although Aquitaine remained in English hands for a time). These serious military defeats, which lost to the English a major source of income, made John unpopular at home. Worse, to recoup his expenses, he had to further tax the already unhappy barons. The Church At the time of John’s reign there was still a great deal of controversy as to how the Archbishop of Canterbury was to be elected, although it had become traditional that the monarch would appoint a candidate with the approval of the monks of Canterbury. But in the early 13th century, the bishops began to want a say. To retain control, the monks elected one of their numbers to the role. But John, incensed at his lack of involvement in the proceedings, sent John de Gray, the Bishop of Norwich, to Rome as his choice. Pope Innocent III declared both choices invalid and persuaded the monks to elect Stephen Langton. Nevertheless, John refused to accept this choice and exiled the monks from the realm. Infuriated, Innocent ordered an interdict (prevention of public worship — mass, marriages, the ringing of church bells, etc.) in England in 1208, excommunicated John in 1209, and encouraged Philip to invade England in 1212. John finally backed down and agreed to endorse Langton and allow the exiles to return. To completely placate the pope, he gave England and Ireland as papal territories and rented them back as a fiefdom for 1,000 marks per annum. This surrender of autonomy to a foreign power further enraged the barons. Taxes King John I needed money for armies, but the loss of the French territories, especially Normandy, greatly reduced the state income, and a huge tax would have to be raised in order to attempt to reclaim these territories. Yet, it was difficult to raise taxes because of the tradition of keeping them at the same level. John relied on clever manipulation of pre-existing rights, including those of forest law, a set of regulations about the king’s hunting preserves, which were easily broken and severely punished. John also increased the pre-existing scutage (feudal payment to an overlord replacing direct military service) eleven times in his seventeen years as king, as compared to eleven times in twice that period covering three monarchs before him. The last two of these increases were double the increase of their predecessors. He also imposed the first income tax, which raised what was, at the time, the extortionate sum of £70,000. Rebellion and signing of the document John of England signs Magna Carta. Illustration from Cassell's History of England (1902) By 1215, some of the most important barons in England had had enough, and they entered London in force on 10 June 1215, Within this article dates before 14 September 1752 are in the Julian calendar, later dates are in the Gregorian calendar. with the city showing its sympathy with their cause by opening its gates to them. They, and many of the moderates not in overt rebellion, forced King John to agree to the "Articles of the Barons", to which his Great Seal was attached in the meadow at Runnymede on 15 June 1215. In return, the barons renewed their oaths of fealty to King John on 19 June 1215. A formal document to record the agreement was created by the royal chancery on 15 July: this was the original Magna Carta. An unknown number of copies of it were sent out to officials, such as royal sheriffs and bishops. The most significant clause for King John at the time was clause 61, known as the "security clause", the longest portion of the document. This established a committee of 25 barons who could at any time meet and overrule the will of the King, through force by seizing his castles and possessions if needed. This was based on a medieval legal practice known as distraint, but it was the first time it had been applied to a monarch. In addition, the King was to take an oath of loyalty to the committee. Clause 61 essentially neutered John's power as a monarch, making him King in name only. He renounced it as soon as the barons left London, plunging England into a civil war, called the First Barons' War. Pope Innocent III also annulled the "shameful and demeaning agreement, forced upon the King by violence and fear." He rejected any call for restraints on the King, saying it impaired John's dignity. He saw it as an affront to the Church's authority over the King and the 'papal territories' of England and Ireland, and he released John from his oath to obey it. Magna Carta re-issued John died from dysentery on 18 October 1216, and this quickly changed the nature of the war. His nine-year-old son Henry was next in line for the throne. The royalists believed the rebel barons would find the idea of loyalty to the child Henry more palatable, so the boy was swiftly crowned Henry III in late October 1216, and the war ended. Henry's regentis reissued Magna Carta in his name on 12 November 1216, omitting some clauses, such as clause 61, and again in 1217. When he turned 18 in 1225, Henry III reissued Magna Carta, this time in a shorter version with only 37 articles. Henry III ruled for 56 years (the longest reign of an English Monarch in the Medieval period) so that by the time of his death in 1272, Magna Carta had become a settled part of English legal precedent. Henry III's son and heir Edward I's Parliament reissued Magna Carta for the final time on 12 October 1297, as part of a statute called Confirmatio cartarum, reconfirming Henry III's shorter version of Magna Carta from 1225. Content Magna Carta was originally written in Latin. A large part of Magna Carta was copied, nearly word for word, from the Charter of Liberties of Henry I, issued when Henry I ascended to the throne in 1100, which bound the king to certain laws regarding the treatment of church officials and nobles, effectively granting certain civil liberties to the church and the English nobility. Magna carta cum statutis angliae, (Great Charter with English Statutes) page 1 of manuscript, fourteenth century. The document commonly known as Magna Carta today is not the 1215 charter but a later charter of 1225, and is usually shown in the form of The Charter of 1297 when it was confirmed by Edward I. At the time of the 1215 charter, many of the provisions were not meant to make long term changes but simply to right the immediate wrongs, and therefore The Charter was reissued three times in the reign of Henry III (1216, 1217 and 1225) in order to provide for an updated version. After this, each individual king for the next two hundred years (until Henry V in 1416) personally confirmed the 1225 charter in his own charter. Rights still in force today For modern times, the most enduring legacy of Magna Carta is considered the right of habeas corpus. This right arises from what are now known as clauses 36, 38, 39, and 40 of the 1215 Magna Carta. As the most recent version, it is the 1297 Charter which remains in legal force in England and Wales. Using the clauses in the 1297 charter (the content and numbering are somewhat different from the 1215 Charter): Clause 1 guarantees the freedom of the English Church. Although this originally meant freedom from the King, later in history it was used for different purposes (see below). Clause 9 guarantees the “ancient liberties” of the City of London. Clause 29 guarantees a right to due process. The repeal of clause 26 in 1829 by 9 Geo. 4 c. 31 s. 1 was the first time a clause of Magna Carta was repealed. With the document's perceived protected status broken, in 150 years nearly the whole charter was repealed, leaving just Clauses 1, 9, and 29 still in force after 1969. Most of it was repealed in England and Wales by the Statute Law Revision Act 1863, and in Ireland by the Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872. Clause Repealing Act II Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 III Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 IV Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 V Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 VI Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 VII Administration of Estates Act 1925, Administration of Estates Act (Northern Ireland) 1955 and Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1969 VIII Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1969 X Statute Law Revision Act 1948 XI Civil Procedure Acts Repeal Act 1879 XII Civil Procedure Acts Repeal Act 1879 XIII Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 XIV Criminal Law Act 1967 and Criminal Law Act (Northern Ireland) 1967 XV Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1969 XVI Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1969 XVII Statute Law Revision Act 1892 XVIII Crown Proceedings Act 1947 XIX Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 XX Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 XXI Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 XXII Statute Law Revision Act 1948 XXIII Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1969 XXIV Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 XXV Statute Law Revision Act 1948 XXVI Offences Against the Person Act 1828 and Offences Against the Person (Ireland) Act 1829 XXVII Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 XXVIII Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 XXX Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1969 XXXI Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 XXXII Statute Law Revision Act 1887 XXXIII Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 XXXIV Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 XXXV Sheriffs Act 1887 XXXVI Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 XXXVII Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 Feudal rights still in place in 1225 Several clauses were present in the 1225 charter but are no longer in force and would have no real place in the post-feudal world. Clauses 2 to 7 refer to the feudal death duties, defining the amounts and what to do if an heir to a fiefdom is underage or is a widow. Clause 23 provides no town or person should be forced to build a bridge across a river. Clause 33 demands the removal of all fish weirs. Clause 43 gives special provision for tax on reverted estates and Clause 44 states that forest law should only apply to those in the king’s forest. Feudal rights not in the 1225 charter Some provisions have no bearing in the world today, since they are feudal rights and were not even included in the 1225 charter. Clauses 9 to 12, 14 to 16, and 25 to 26 deal with debt and taxes and Clause 27 with intestacy. The other clauses state that no one may seize land in debt except as a last resort; that underage heirs and widows should not pay interest on inherited loans; that county rents will stay at their ancient amounts; and that the crown may only seize the value owed in payment of a debt, that aid (taxes for warfare or other emergency) must be reasonable, and that scutage (literally, shield-payment, payment in lieu of actual military service used to finance warfare) may only be sought with the consent of the kingdom. Clause 14 states that the common consent of the kingdom was to be sought from a council of the archbishops, bishops, earls and greater Barons. This later became the great council, which led to the first parliament. Judicial rights Clauses 17 to 22 allowed for a fixed law court, which became the chancellery, and defines the scope and frequency of county assizes. They also state that fines should be proportionate to the offence, that they should not be influenced by ecclesiastical property in clergy trials, and that their peers should try people. Many think that this gave rise to jury and magistrate trial, but its only manifestation in the modern world was the right of a lord to a criminal trial in the House of Lords at first instance (abolished in 1948). Clause 24 states that crown officials (such as sheriffs) may not try a crime in place of a judge. Clause 34 forbids repossession without a writ precipe. Clauses 36 to 38 state that writs for loss of life or limb are to be free, that someone may use reasonable force to secure their own land, and that no one can be tried on their own testimony alone. Clauses 36, 38, 39 and 40 collectively define the right of Habeas Corpus. Clause 36 requires courts to make inquiries as to the whereabouts of a prisoner, and to do so without charging any fee. Clause 38 requires more than the mere word of an official, before any person could be put on trial. Clause 39 gives the courts exclusive rights to punish anyone. Clause 40 disallows the selling or the delay of justice. Clauses 36 and 38 were removed from the 1225 version, but were reinstated in later versions. The right of Habeas Corpus as such was first invoked in court in the year 1305. Clause 54 says that no man may be imprisoned on the testimony of a woman except on the death of her husband. Anti-corruption and fair trade Clauses 28 to 32 state that no royal officer may take any commodity such as grain, wood or transport without payment or consent or force a knight to pay for something the knight could do himself, and that the king must return any lands confiscated from a felon within a year and a day. Clause 35 sets out a list of standard measures, and Clauses 41 and 42 guarantee the safety and right of entry and exit of foreign merchants. Clause 45 says that the King should only appoint royal officers where they are suitable for the post. In the United States, the Supreme Court of California interpreted clause 45 in 1974 as establishing a requirement at common law that a defendant faced with the potential of incarceration is entitled to a trial overseen by a law-trained judge. Gordon v. Justice Court, 12 Cal. 3d 323 (1974). Clause 46 provides for the guardianship of monasteries. Temporary provisions Some provisions were for immediate effect and were not in any later charter. Clauses 47 and 48 abolish most of Forest Law (these were later taken out of Magna Carta and formed into a separate charter, the Charter of the Forests) . Clauses 49, 52 to 53 and 55 to 59 provide for the return of hostages, land and fines taken in John’s reign. Article 50 states that no member of the D’Athée family may be a royal officer. Article 51 calls for all foreign knights and mercenaries to leave the realm. Articles 60, 62 and 63 provide for the application and observation of the Charter and say that the Charter is binding on the King and his heirs forever, but this was soon deemed dependent on each succeeding king reaffirming the Charter under his own seal. Great Council The first long-term constitutional effect arose from Clauses 14 and 61, which permitted a council composed of the most powerful men in the country to exist for the benefit of the state rather than in allegiance to the monarch. Members of the council were also allowed to renounce their oath of allegiance to the King in pressing circumstances and to pledge allegiance to the council and not to the King in certain instances. The common council was responsible for taxation, and although it was not representative, its members were bound by decisions made in their absence. The common council, later called the Great Council, was England's proto-parliament. The Great Council only existed to give input on the opinion of the kingdom as a whole, and it only had power to control scutage until 1258 when Henry III got into debt fighting in Sicily for the pope. The barons agreed to a tax in exchange for reform, leading to the Provisions of Oxford. But Henry got a papal bull allowing him to set aside the provisions and in 1262 told royal officers to ignore the provisions and only to obey Magna Carta. The barons revolted and seized the Tower of London, the Cinque ports and Gloucester. Initially the King surrendered, but when Louis IX of France arbitrated in favour of Henry, Henry crushed the rebellion. Later he ceded somewhat, passing the Statute of Marlborough in 1267, which allowed writs for breaches of Magna Carta to be free of charge, enabling anyone to have standing to apply the Charter. This secured the position of the Great Council forever, but its powers were still very limited. The council originally only met three times per year and so was subservient to the King’s council, Curiae Regis, who, unlike the Great Council, followed the king wherever he went. Still, in some senses the council was an early form of parliament. It had the power to meet outside the authority of the King and was not appointed by him. While executive government descends from the Curiae Regis, parliament descends from the Great Council, which was later called the parliamentum. However, the Great Council was very different from modern parliament. There were no knights, let alone commons, and it was composed of the most powerful men, rather than elected citizens. Magna Carta had little effect on subsequent development of parliament until the Tudor period. Knights and county representatives attended the Great Council (Simon de Montfort’s Parliament), and the council became far more representative under the model parliament of Edward I which included two knights from each county, two burgesses from each borough and two citizens from each city. The Commons separated from the Lords in 1341. The right of the Commons to exclusively sanction taxes (based on a withdrawn provision of Magna Carta) was re-asserted in 1407, although it was not in force in this period. The power vested in the Great Council by, albeit withdrawn, Clause 14 of Magna Carta became vested in the House of Commons but Magna Carta was all but forgotten for about a century, until the Tudors. Tudor dynasty (1485 - 1603) Magna Carta was the first entry on the statute books, but after 1472, it was not mentioned for a period of nearly 100 years. There was much ignorance about the document. The few who did know about the document spoke of a good king being forced by an unstable pope and rebellious barons “to attaine the shadow of seeming liberties” and that it was a product of a wrongful rebellion against the one true authority, the king. The original Magna Carta was seen as an ancient document with shadowy origins and as having no bearing on the Tudor world. Shakespeare’s King John makes no mention of the Charter at all but focuses on the murder of Arthur. The Charter in the statute books was thought to have arisen from the reign of Henry III. First uses of the charter as a bill of rights This statute was used widely in the reign of Henry VIII (1509 - 1547) but was seen as no more special than any other statute and could be amended and removed. But later in the reign, the Lord Treasurer stated in the Star Chamber that many had lost their lives in the Baronial wars fighting for the liberties which were guaranteed by the Charter, and therefore it should not so easily be overlooked as a simple and regular statute. The church often attempted to invoke the first clause of the Charter to protect itself from the attacks by Henry, but this claim was given no credence. Francis Bacon was the first to try to use Clause 39 to guarantee due process in a trial. Although there was a re-awakening of the use of Magna Carta in common law, it was not seen (as it was later) as an entrenched set of liberties guaranteed for the people against the Crown and Government. Rather, it was a normal statute, which gave a certain level of liberties, most of which could not be relied on, least of all against the king. Therefore, the Charter had little effect on the governance of the early Tudor period. Although lay parliament evolved from the Charter, by this stage the powers of parliament had managed to exceed those humble beginnings. The Charter had no real effect until the Elizabethan age. (1558 - 1603) Reinterpretation of the charter In the Elizabethan age, England was becoming a powerful force in Europe. In academia, earnest but futile attempts were made to prove that Parliament had Roman origins. The events at Runnymede in 1215 were "re-discovered", allowing a possibility to show the antiquity of Parliament, and Magna Carta became synonymous with the idea of an ancient house with origins in Roman government. The Charter was interpreted as an attempt to return to a pre-Norman state of things. The Tudors saw the Charter as proof that their state of governance had existed since time immemorial and the Normans had been a brief break from this liberty and democracy. This claim is disputed in certain circles but explains how Magna Carta came to be regarded as such an important document. Magna Carta again occupied legal minds, and it again began to shape how that government was run. Soon the Charter was seen as an immutable entity. In the trial of Arthur Hall for questioning the antiquity of the House, one of his alleged crimes was an attack on Magna Carta. Edward Coke’s opinions Jurist Edward Coke interpreted Magna Carta to apply not only to the protection of nobles but to all subjects of the crown equally. He famously asserted: "Magna Carta is such a fellow, that he will have no sovereign." One of the first respected jurists to write seriously about the great charter was Edward Coke, who had a great deal to say on the subject and was influential in the way Magna Carta was perceived throughout the Tudor and Stuart periods, although his opinions changed across time and his writing in the Stuart period was more influential. In the Elizabethan period, Coke wrote of Parliament evolving alongside the monarchy and not existing by any allowance on the part of the monarch. However he was still fiercely loyal to Elizabeth, and the monarchy still judged the Charter in the same light it always had: an evil document forced out of their forefathers by brute force. He therefore prevented a re-affirmation of the charter from passing the House, and although he spoke highly of the charter, he did not speak out against imprisonments without due process. This came back to haunt him later when he moved for a reaffirmation of the charter. Role in the lead-up to the Civil War By the time of the Stuarts (1603), Magna Carta had attained an almost mythical status for its admirers and was seen as representing a ‘golden age’ of English liberties extant prior to the Norman invasion. Whether or not this 'golden age' ever truly existed is open to debate; regardless, proponents of its application to English law saw themselves as leading England back to a pre-Norman state of affairs. What is true, however is that this age existed in the hearts and minds of people of the time. Magna Carta was not important because of the liberties it bestowed, but simply as ‘proof’ of what had come before; many great minds influentially exalted the Charter; by the seventeenth century, Coke was talking of the Charter as an indispensable method of limiting the powers of the Crown, a popular principle in the Stuart period where the kings were proclaiming their divine right and were looking, in the minds of some of their subjects, towards becoming absolute monarchs. It was not the content of the Charter which has made it so important in the history of England, but more how it has been perceived in the popular mind. This is something that certainly started in the Stuart period, as the Charter represented many things, which are not to be found in the Charter itself. Firstly it was used to claim liberties against the Government in general rather than just the Crown and the officers of the crown, secondly that it represented that the laws and liberties of England, specifically Parliament, dated back to a time immemorial and thirdly, that it was not only just but right to usurp a king who disobeyed the law. For the last of these reasons Magna Carta began to represent a danger to the monarchy; Elizabeth ordered that John Coke stop a bill from going through Parliament which would have reaffirmed the validity of the Charter, and Charles I ordered the suppression of a book which Coke intended to write on Magna Carta. The powers of Parliament were growing, and on Coke’s death, parliament ordered his house to be searched; the manuscripts were recovered, and the book was published in 1642 (at the end of Charles I's Personal Rule). Parliament began to see Magna Carta as its best way of claiming supremacy over the crown and began to state that they were the sworn defenders of the liberties — fundamental and immemorial — which were to be found in the Charter. In the four centuries since the Charter had originally catered for their creation, Parliament’s power had increased greatly from their original level where they existed only for the purpose that the king had to seek their permission in order to raise scutage. They had become the only body allowed to raise tax, a right which although descended from the 1215 Great Charter was not guaranteed by it, since it was removed from the 1225 edition. Parliament had become so powerful that the Charter was being used both by those wishing to limit Parliament's power (as a new organ of the Crown), and by those who wished Parliament to rival the king's power (as a set of principles Parliament was sworn to defend against the king). When it became obvious that some people wished to limit the power of Parliament by claiming it to be tantamount to the crown, Parliament claimed they had the sole right of interpretation of the Charter. This was an important step; for the first time Parliament was claiming itself a body as above the law; whereas one of the fundamental principles in English law was that the law, Parliament, the monarch, and the church held all, albeit to different extents. Parliament was claiming exactly what Magna Carta wanted to prevent the king from claiming, a claim of not being subject to any higher form of power. This was not claimed until ten years after the death of Lord Coke, but he would not have agreed with this, because he claimed in the English Constitution the law was supreme and all bodies of government were subservient to the supreme law, which is to say the common law, as embodied in the Great Charter. These early discussions of Parliament sovereignty seemed to only involve the Charter as the entrenched law, and the discussions were simply about whether Parliament had enough power to repeal the document. Although it was important for Parliament to be able to claim themselves more powerful than the King in the forthcoming struggle, the Charter provided for this very provision. Clause 61 of the Charter enables people to swear allegiance to what became the Great Council and later Parliament and therefore to renounce allegiance to the king. Moreover, Clause 61 allowed for the seizing of the kingdom by the body which later became Parliament if Magna Carta was not respected by the king or Lord Chief Justice. So there was no need to show any novel level of power in order to overthrow the king; it had already been set out in Magna Carta nearly half a millennium before. Parliament was not ready to repeal the Charter yet however, and in fact, it was cited as the reason why ship money was illegal (the first time Parliament overruled the king). Trial of Archbishop Laud Further proof of the significance of Magna Carta is shown in the trial of Archbishop Laud in 1645. Laud was tried with attempting to subvert the laws of England including writing a condemnation of Magna Carta claiming that as the Charter came about due to rebellion it was not valid (a widely held opinion less than a century before, when the ‘true’ Magna Carta was thought to be the 1225 edition, with the 1215 edition being considered less valid for this very reason). However, Laud was not trying to say that Magna Carta was evil, and he actually used the document in his defence. He claimed his trial was against the right of the freedom of the church (as the Bishops were voted out of Parliament in order to allow for parliamentary condemnation of him) and, that he was not given the benefit of due process contrary to Clauses 1 and 39 of the Charter. By this stage, Magna Carta had passed a great distance beyond the original intentions for the document, and the Great Council had evolved beyond a body merely ensuring the application of the Charter. It had gotten to the stage where the Great Council or Parliament was inseparable from the ideas of the Crown as described in the Charter and therefore it was potentially not just the King that was bound by the Charter, but Parliament also. Civil War and interregnum After the seven years of the civil war (1642 - 1649), the king surrendered and executed, it seemed Magna Carta no longer applied, as there was no King. Oliver Cromwell was accused of destroying Magna Carta, and many thought he should be crowned just so that it would apply. Cromwell had much disdain for Magna Carta, at one point describing it as "Magna Farta" to a defendant who sought to rely on it Department for Constitutional Affairs - Speeches - Speech by The Lord Chief Justice - Magna Carta: a Precedent For Recent Constitutional Change . In this time of foment, there were many revolutionary theorists, and many based their theories at least initially on Magna Carta, in the misguided belief that Magna Carta guaranteed liberty and equality for all. Levellers The Levellers believed that all should be equal and free without distinction of class or status. They believed that Magna Carta was the ‘political bible’, which should be prized above any other law and that it could not be repealed. They prized it so highly that they believed all (such as Archbishop Laud) who “trod Magna Carta…under their feet” deserved to be attacked at all levels. The original idea was to achieve this through Parliament but there was little support, because at the time the Parliament was seeking to impose itself as above Magna Carta. The Levellers claimed Magna Carta was above any branch of government, and this led to the upper echelons of the Leveller movement denouncing Parliament. They claimed that Parliament’s primary purpose was not to rule the people directly but to protect the people from the extremes of the King; they claimed that Magna Carta adequately did this and therefore Parliament should be subservient to it. After the Civil War, Cromwell refused to support the Levellers and was denounced as a traitor to Magna Carta. The importance of Magna Carta was greatly magnified in the eyes of the Levellers. John Lilburne, one of the leaders of the movement, was known for his great advocacy of the Charter and was often known to explain its purpose to lay people and to expose the misspeaking against it in the popular press of the time. He was quoted as saying the ground and foundation of my freedome I build upon the grand charter of England. However, as it became apparent that Magna Carta did not grant the level of liberty demanded by the Levellers, the movement reduced its advocacy of it. William Walwyn, another leader of the movement, advocated natural law and other doctrines as the primary principles of the movement. This was mainly because the obvious intention of Magna Carta was to grant rights only to the barons and the episcopacy, and not the general and egalitarian rights the Levellers were claiming. Also influential, however, was Spelman’s rediscovery of the existence of the feudal system at the time of Magna Carta, which seemed to have less and less effect on the world of the time. The only right, which the Levellers could trace back to 1215, possibly prized over all others, was the right to due process granted by Clause 39. One thing the Levellers did agree on with the popular beliefs of the time was that Magna Carta was an attempt to return to the fabled pre-Norman ‘golden age’. Diggers However, not all such groups advocated Magna Carta. The Diggers were a very early socialistic group who called for all land to be available to all for farming and the like. Gerrard Winstanley, a leader of the group, despised Magna Carta as a show of the hypocrisy of the post-Norman law, since Parliament and the courts advocated Magna Carta and yet did not even follow it themselves. The Diggers did, however, believe in the pre-Norman golden age and wished to return to it, and they called for the abolition of all Norman and post-Norman law. Charles II The Commonwealth was relatively short lived however, and when Charles II took the throne in 1660, he vowed to respect both the common law and the Charter. Parliament was established as the everyday government of Britain, independent of the King but not more powerful. However, the struggles based on the Charter were far from over and took on the form of the struggle for supremacy between the two Houses of Parliament. Within Parliament In 1664, the British navy seized Dutch lands in both Africa and America leading to full-scale war with the Netherlands in 1665. The Lord Chancellor Edward Lord Clarendon, resisted an alliance with the Spanish and Swedes in favour of maintaining a relationship with the French, who were the allies of the Dutch. This lack of a coherent policy led to the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665-67), with the Dutch burning ships in the docks at Chatham, and the blame was placed on Clarendon. The Commons demanded that Clarendon be indicted before the Lords, but the Lords refused, citing the due process requirements of the Charter, giving Clarendon the time to escape to Europe. A very similar set of events followed in 1678 when the Commons asked the Lords to indict Thomas Lord Danby on a charge of fraternising with the French. As with Clarendon the Lords refused, again citing Magna Carta and their own supremacy as the upper house. Before the quarrel could be resolved, Charles dissolved the Parliament. When Parliament was re-seated in 1681, again the Commons attempted to force an indictment in the Lords. This time Edward Fitzharris who was accused of writing libellously that the King was involved in a papist plot with the French (including the overthrowing of Magna Carta). However, the Lords doubted the veracity of the claim and refused to try Fitzharris saying Magna Carta stated that everyone must be subject to due process and therefore he must be tried in a lower court first. This time the Commons retorted that it was the Lords who were denying justice under Clause 39 and that the Commons were right to cite the Charter as their precedent. Again, before any true conclusions could be drawn Charles dissolved the Parliament, although more to serve his own ends and to rid himself of a predominantly Whig Parliament, and Fitzharris was tried in a regular court (the King’s Bench) and executed for treason. Here the Charter, once again, was used far beyond the content of its provisions, and simply being used as a representation of justice. Each house was claiming the Charter under Clause 39 supported its supremacy, but the power of the King was still too great for either house to come out fully as the more powerful. Outside Parliament The squabble also continued outside the Palace of Westminster. In 1667 the Lord Chief Justice and important member of the House of Lords, Lord Keeling, forced a grand jury of Somersetshire to return a verdict of murder when they wanted to return one of manslaughter. However, his biggest crime in the eyes of the Commons was that, when the jury objected on the grounds of Magna Carta, he scoffed and exclaimed "Magna what ado with this have we?" The Commons were incensed at this abuse of the Charter and accused him of endangering the liberties of the people. However, the Lords claimed he was just referring to the inappropriateness of the Charter in this context, but Keeling apologised anyway. In 1681 the next Lord Chief Justice, Lord Scroggs, was condemned by the Commons first for being too severe in the so-called ‘papist plot trials’ and second for dismissing another Middlesex grand jury in order to secure against the indictment of the Duke of York, the Catholic younger brother of the King later to become James II. Charles again dissolved Parliament before the Commons could impeach Scroggs, and removed him from office on a good pension. Just as it seemed that the Commons might be able to impose their supremacy over the Lords, the King intervened and proved he was still the most powerful force in the government. However, it was certainly beginning to become established that the Commons were the primary branch of Government, and they used the Charter as much as they could in order to achieve this end. Supremacy of the Commons This was not the end of the struggle however, and in 1679 the Commons passed the Habeas Corpus Act of 1679, which greatly reduced the powers of the Crown. The act passed through the Lords by a small majority, arguably establishing the Commons as the more powerful House. This was the first time since the importance of the Charter had been so magnified that the Government had admitted that the liberties granted by the Charter were inadequate. However, this did not completely oust the position of the Charter as a symbol of the law of the ‘golden age’ and the basis of common law. It did not take long before the questioning of the Charter really took off and Sir Matthew Hale soon afterwards introduced a new doctrine of common law based on the principle that the Crown (including the government cabinet in that definition) made all law and could only be bound by the law of God, and showed that the 1215 charter was effectively overruled by the 1225 charter, further undermining the idea that the charter was unassailable, adding credence to the idea that the Commons were a supreme branch of Government. Some completely denied the relevance of the 1215 Charter as it was forced upon the King by rebellion (although the fact that the 1225 charter was forced on a boy by his guardians was overlooked). It was similarly argued against the Charter that it was nothing more than a relaxation of the rigid feudal laws and therefore had no meaning outside of that application. Glorious Revolution The danger posed by the fact that Charles II had no legitimate child was becoming more and more real, as this meant that the heir apparent was the Duke of York, a Catholic and firm believer in the divine right of kings, threatening the establishment of the Commons as the most powerful arm of government. Parliament did all it could to prevent James’s succession but was prevented when Charles dissolved the Parliament. In February 1685, Charles died of a stroke and James II assumed the thrones of England, Ireland and Scotland. Almost straight away James attempted to impose Catholicism as the religion of the country and to regain the royal prerogative now vested in the Parliament. Parliament was slightly placated when James’s four-year-old son died in 1677 and it seemed his Protestant daughter Mary would take his throne. However when James' second wife, Mary of Modena, gave birth to a male heir in 1688 Parliament could not take the risk that another Catholic monarch would assume the throne and take away their power, and in 1688 the Convention Parliament declared that James had broken the contract of Magna Carta and nullified his claim to the throne. This finally proved that Parliament was the major power in the British Government; Mary, James II's eldest daughter was invited to take the throne with her husband William of Orange. Many thought that, with bringing in a new monarch, it would be prudent to define what powers this monarch should have, so the Bill of Rights was created. The Bill of Rights went far beyond what Magna Carta had ever set out to achieve. It stated that the Crown could not make law without Parliament. Although the raising of taxes was specifically mentioned, it did not limit itself to such, as Magna Carta did. However, one important thing to note is that the writers of the Bill did not seem to think that the Bill included any new provisions of law; all the powers it ‘removes’ from the crown it refers to as ‘pretended’ powers, insinuating that the rights of Parliament listed in the Bill already existed under a different authority, presumably Magna Carta. So the importance of Magna Carta was not completely extinguished at this point, although it was somewhat diminished. Eighteenth century The power of the Magna Carta myth still existed in the 18th century; in 1700 Samuel Johnson talked of Magna Carta being “born with a grey beard” referring to the belief that the liberties set out in the Charter harked back to the Golden Age and time immemorial. However, ideas about the nature of law in general were beginning to change. In 1716 the Septennial Act was passed, which had a number of consequences. Firstly, it showed that Parliament no longer considered its previous statutes unassailable, as this act provided that the parliamentary term was to be seven years, whereas fewer than twenty-five years had passed since the Triennial Act (1694), which provided that a parliamentary term was to be three years. It also greatly extended the powers of Parliament. Previously, all legislation that passed in a parliamentary session had to be listed in the election manifesto, so in effect the electorate was consulted on all issues that were to be brought before Parliament. However, with a seven-year term, it was unlikely, if not impossible, that all the legislation passed would be discussed at the election. This gave Parliament the freedom to legislate as it liked during its term. This was not Parliamentary sovereignty as understood today however, as although Parliament could overrule its own statutes, it was still considered itself bound by the higher law, such as Magna Carta. Arguments for Parliamentary sovereignty were not new; however, even its proponents would not have expected Parliament to be as powerful as it is today. For example, in the previous century, Coke had discussed how Parliament might well have the power to repeal the common law and Magna Carta, but they were, in practice, prohibited from doing so, as the common law and Magna Carta were so important in the constitution that it would be dangerous to the continuing existence of the constitution to ever repeal them. Extent of the Commons' powers In 1722 the Bishop of Rochester (Francis Atterbury (a Stuart Jacobite)), a member of the House of Lords, was accused of treason. The Commons locked him in the Tower of London, and introduced a bill intending to remove him from his post and send him into exile. This, once again, brought up the subject of which was the more powerful house, and exactly how far that power went. Atterbury claimed, and many agreed, that the Commons had no dominion over the Lords. Other influential people disagreed however; for example, the Bishop of Salisbury (also a Lord) was of the strong opinion that the powers of Parliament, mainly vested in the Commons, were sovereign and unlimited and therefore there could be no limit on those powers at all, implying the dominion of the lower house over the upper house. Many intellectuals agreed; Jonathan Swift went so far as to say that Parliament’s powers extended to altering or repealing Magna Carta. This claim was still controversial, and the argument incensed the Tories. Bolingbroke spoke of the day when “liberty is restored and the radiant volume of Magna Carta is returned to its former position of Glory”. This belief was anchored in the relatively new theory that when William the Conqueror invaded England he only conquered the throne, not the land, and he therefore assumed the same position in law as the Saxon rulers before him. The Charter was therefore a recapitulation or codification of these laws rather than (as previously believed) an attempt to reinstate these laws after the tyrannical Norman Kings. This implied that these rights had existed constantly from the ‘golden age immemorial’ and could never be removed by any government. The Whigs on the other hand claimed that the Charter only benefited the nobility and the church and granted nowhere near the liberty they had come to expect. However although the Whigs attacked the content of the Charter, they did not actually attack the myth of the ‘golden age’ or attempt to say that the Charter could be repealed, and the myth remained as immutable as ever. America The 1765 Stamp Act extended the stamp duty, which had been in force on home territory since 1694 to cover the American colonies as well. However, colonists of the Thirteen Colonies despised this since they were not represented in Parliament and refused to accept that an external body, which did not represent them, could tax them in what they saw was a denial of their rights as Englishmen. The cry "no taxation without representation" rang throughout the colonies. The influence of Magna Carta can be clearly seen in the United States Bill of Rights, which enumerates various rights of the people and restrictions on government power, such as: No person shall be ... deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law. Article 21 from the Declaration of Rights in the Maryland Constitution of 1776 reads: That no freeman ought to be taken, or imprisoned, or disseized of his freehold, liberties, or privileges, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any manner destroyed, or deprived of his life, liberty, or property, but by the judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land. The Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution states that, “The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.” The framers of the United States Constitution wished to ensure that rights they already held, such as those provided by the Magna Carta, were not lost unless explicitly curtailed in the new United States Constitution. Frederic Jesup Stimson, The Law of the Federal and State Constitutions of the United States; Book One, Origin and Growth of the American Constitutions, 2004, Introductory, Lawbook Exchange Ltd, ISBN 1584773693 Charles Lund Black, A New Birth of Freedom, 1999, p. 10, Yale University Press, ISBN 0300077343 Parliamentary Sovereignty The doctrine of parliamentary supremacy if not parliamentary sovereignty had all but emerged by the regency; William Blackstone argued strongly for sovereignty in his Commentaries on the English Law in 1765. He essentially argued that absolute supremacy must exist in one of the arms of Government and he certainly thought it resided in Parliament as Parliament could legislate on anything and potentially could even legislate the impossible as valid law if not practical policy. The debate over whether of not Parliament could limit or overrule the supposed rights granted by Magna Carta was to prove to be the basis for the discussion over parliamentary sovereignty, however Blackstone preached that Parliament should respect Magna Carta as a show of law from time immemorial and the other great legal mind of the time, Jeremy Bentham used The Charter to attack the legal abuses of his time. In 1763 an MP, John Wilkes was arrested for writing an inflammatory pamphlet; No. 45, 23rd of April 1763, however he cited Magna Carta incessantly, and the weight that Magna Carta held at the time meant Parliament was anxious of continuing the charge and he was released and awarded damages for the wrongful seizing of his papers as the general warrant under which he was arrested was deemed illegal, however he was still expelled from Parliament after spending a week in the Tower of London. He was abroad for a number of years until 1768 when he returned and failed to be elected as the MP for London, unperturbed however he stood again for Middlesex but he was expelled again on the basis of the earlier offence the next year. He stood again however and was elected yet again but the Commons ruled that he was ineligible to sit. At the next three re-elections Wilkes again was the champion, but the house did not relent and his opponent, Lutteral was announced the winner. The treatment of Wilkes caused a furore in Parliament, with Lord Camden denouncing the action as a contravention of Magna Carta. Wilkes made the issue a national one and the issue was taken up by the populous, and there were very popular prints of him being arrested whilst teaching his son about Magna Carta all over the country and he had support of the Corporation of London, long seeking to establish their supremacy over Parliament based on The Charter itself. The fight for the charter was misplaced and it was merely the idea of the liberties which were supposedly enshrined in The Charter that people were fighting for, it is no coincidence that those who supported Wilkes would have little or no knowledge of the actual content of The Charter, or if they did were looking to protect their own position based on The Charter. Wilkes re-entered the house in 1774 but he had talked of Magna Carta as he knew it would capture public support to achieve his aims, however he had started the ball rolling for a reform movement to ‘restore the constitution’ through a more representative, less powerful, and shorter termed Parliament. One of the principle reformists was a man called Granville Sharp who was a philanthropist who had on his list of causes the Society for the Abolition of Slavery and The Society for the Conversion of the Jews. Sharp called for the reformation of Parliament based on Magna Carta, and devised a doctrine to back this up, the doctrine of accumulative authority. This theory stated that almost innumerable parliaments had approved of Magna Carta, and therefore it would take the same amount of Parliaments to repeal The Charter, as with many, he accepted the supremacy of Parliament as an institution, but he did not believe that this power was without restraint, namely that they could not repeal Magna Carta. Many reformists agreed that The Charter was a statement of the liberties of the mythical and immemorial golden age, but there was a popular movement to have a holiday to commemorate the signing of The Charter in a similar way to the American 4th of July holiday; however, very few went as far as Sharp. Although there was a popular movement to resist the sovereignty of Parliament based on The Charter, there were still a great number of people who thought that The Charter was over-rated. John Cartwright pointed out in 1774 that Magna Carta could not possibly have existed unless there was a firm constitution before hand to facilitate it use, he went even further later and claimed that The Charter was not even part of the constitution but merely a codification of what the constitution was at the time. Cartwright suggested that there should be a new Magna Carta based on equality and rights for all, not just for landed persons. The work of people like Cartwright was fast showing that the rights granted by The Charter were out of pace with the developments which followed in the next six centuries, however there were certain provisions, such as Clauses 23 and 39 which were not only still valid then but still form the basis of important rights in the present English law. Undeniably, though, Magna Carta was diminishing and the arguments for having a fully sovereign Parliament were become more and more accepted. Many in the house still supported The Charter, however such as Sir Francis Burdett who called for a return to the constitution of Magna Carta in 1809 and denounced the house for taking proceedings against the radical John Gale Jones, for denouncing the house as acting in contravention of Magna Carta. Burdett was largely ignored, as by this stage Magna Carta had largely lost its appeal, but he continued, claiming that the Long Parliament had usurped all the power then enjoyed by the Parliament of the time, he stated that Parliament were constantly acting out against Magna Carta (although he was referring to their judicial not legislative practice) which they did not have the right to do; he achieved popular support and there were riots across London when he was arrested for these claims and again a popular print circulated of him being arrested whilst teaching his about Magna Carta With the popular movements being in favour of the liberties of The Charter, and Parliament trying to establish their own sovereignty there needed to be some sort of action in order to swing the balance in favour of one or the other. However all that occurred was the Reform Act 1832 which was such a compromise that it ended up pleasing no one. Due to their disappointment in the Reform Act a group was founded calling itself the Chartists; they called for a return to the constitution of Magna Carta and eventually culminated in a codification of what they saw as the existing rights of the People; the Peoples Charter. At a rally for the Chartists in 1838 the Reverend Raynor demanded a return to the constitution of The Charter; freedom of speech worship and congress. This is a perfect example of how the idea of Charter went so far beyond the actual content of The Charter, it depicted for many people the idea of total liberty whereas the actual liberties granted by The Charter were very limited and not at all intended to be applied to all. It was this over-exaggeration of The Charter that eventually led to its downfall. The more people expected to get from The Charter, the less Parliament was willing to attempt to cater to this expectation, and eventually writers such as Tom Paine refuted the claims as those such a the Chartists, this meant that the educated were no longer supporting any of these claims, and therefore the Myth gradually faded into obscurity, and the final claim against sovereignty of Parliament was erased, and the road was open for establishing this doctrine. Proposed reform of Magna Carta Although there was a popular movement to resist the sovereignty of Parliament based on The Charter, others thought that too much was claimed for the Charter. Cartwright pointed out in 1774 that Magna Carta could not have existed unless there was a firm constitution beforehand. He went even further later and claimed that the Charter was not part of the constitution, but merely a codification of the constitution that existed at the time. Cartwright went on to suggest that there should be a new Magna Carta based on equality and rights for all, not just for landed persons. People like Cartwright were showing that the rights granted by the Charter were out of pace with the changes that had happened in the intervening six centuries. There were certain provisions, such as Clauses 23 and 39, which were not only still valid then but still form the basis of important rights in the present English law. Undeniably, though, the importance of Magna Carta was diminishing and the arguments for having a fully sovereign Parliament were increasingly accepted. Many in the House still supported the Charter, such as Sir Francis Burdett, who in 1809 called for a return to the constitution of Magna Carta, and denounced the House of Commons for taking proceedings against the radical John Gale Jones, who had accused Parliament of acting in contravention of Magna Carta. Burdett was largely ignored, but he continued, claiming that the Long Parliament (1640-60) had usurped all the power then enjoyed by the Parliament of the time. He stated that Parliament was constantly contravening Magna Carta (although he was referring to its judicial not legislative practice), and that it did not have the right to do so. He received popular support and there were riots across London when he was arrested for these claims. Chartists The major breakthrough occurred in 1828 with the passing of the Offences Against the Person Act 1828, which for the first time repealed a clause of Magna Carta, namely Clause 36. With the myth broken, in one hundred and fifty years nearly the whole charter was repealed. The Reform Act 1832 fixed some of the most glaring problems in the political system, but did not go nearly far enough for a group that called itself the Chartists, who called for a return to the constitution of Magna Carta , and eventually created a codification of what they saw as the existing rights of the People, the People's Charter. At a rally for the Chartists in 1838 the Reverend Raynor demanded a return to the constitution of the Charter; freedom of speech, worship and congress. This is a perfect example of how the idea of the Charter went so far beyond its actual content: it depicted for many people the idea of total liberty. It was this over-exaggeration of the Charter that eventually led to its downfall. The more people expected to get from the Charter, the less Parliament was willing to attempt to cater to this expectation, and eventually writers such as Tom Paine refuted the claims about the Charter made by those such as the Chartists. This meant that the educated no longer supported these claims, and the power of Magna Carta as a symbol of freedom gradually faded into obscurity. Influences on later constitutions Many later attempts to draft constitutional forms of government, including the United States Constitution, trace their lineage back to this source document. The United States Supreme Court has explicitly referenced Lord Coke's analysis of Magna Carta as an antecedent of the Sixth Amendment's right to a speedy trial. KLOPFER v. NORTH CAROLINA, 386 U.S. 213 (1967) Magna Carta has influenced international law as well: Eleanor Roosevelt referred to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as "a Magna Carta for all mankind". Magna Carta is thought to be the crucial turning point in the struggle to establish freedom and a key element in the transformation of constitutional thinking throughout the world. When Englishmen left their homeland to establish colonies in the new world, they brought with them charters that guaranteed they and their heirs would ‘have and enjoy all liberties and immunities of free and natural subjects.” (qtd. from wall of National Archives). In 1606, Sir Edward Coke, who drafted the Virginia Charter, had highly praised Magna Carta, which reflected many of its values and themes into the Virginia Charter (Howard 28). Colonists were also aware of their rights that came from Magna Carta. When American colonists raised arms against England, they were fighting not so much for new freedom, but to preserve liberties, many of which dated back to the 13th century Magna Carta. In 1787 when the representatives of America gathered to draft a constitution, they built upon the legal system they knew and admired: English common law that had evolved from Magna Carta (National Archives). The ideas addressed in the great charter that are found today are particularly obvious. The American Constitution is the “Supreme Law of the Land,” recalling the manner in which Magna Carta had come to be regarded as fundamental law. This heritage is quite apparent. In comparing Magna Carta with the Bill of Rights: the Fifth Amendment guarantees: “No person shall be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law.” In addition, the United States Constitution included a similar writ in the Suspension Clause, article 1, section 9: “ The privilege of the writ habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it." Written 575 years earlier, Magna Carta states, “ No free man shall be taken, imprisoned, disseised, outlawed, banished, or in any way destroyed, not will we proceed against or prosecute him, except by the lawful judgment of his peers and by the law of the land.” (qtd. in Howard pg VI: Foreword). Each of these proclaim no man may be imprisoned or detained without proof that they did wrong. Jews in England Magna Carta contained two articles related to money lending and Jews in England. Jewish involvement with money lending caused Christian resentment, because the Church forbade usury; it was seen as vice and was punishable by excommunication, although Jews, as non-Christians, could not be excommunicated and were thus in a legal grey area. Secular leaders, unlike the Church, tolerated the practice of Jewish usury because it gave the leaders opportunity for personal enrichment. This resulted in a complicated legal situation: debtors were frequently trying to bring their Jewish creditors before Church courts, where debts would be absolved as illegal, while the Jews were trying to get their debtors tried in secular courts, where they would be able to collect plus interest. The relations between the debtors and creditors would often become very nasty. There were many attempts over centuries to resolve this problem, and Magna Carta contains one example of the legal code of the time on this issue: If one who has borrowed from the Jews any sum, great or small, die before that loan be repaid, the debt shall not bear interest while the heir is under age, of whomsoever he may hold; and if the debt fall into our hands, we will not take anything except the principal sum contained in the bond. And if anyone die indebted to the Jews, his wife shall have her dower and pay nothing of that debt; and if any children of the deceased are left under age, necessaries shall be provided for them in keeping with the holding of the deceased; and out of the residue the debt shall be paid, reserving, however, service due to feudal lords; in like manner let it be done touching debts due to others than Jews. Introduction to contemporary civilization in the West. Columbia University, 1960. pg 419. After the Pope annulled Magna Carta, future versions contained no mention of Jews. The Church saw Jews as a threat to their authority, and the welfare of Christians, because of their special relationship to Kings as moneylenders. "Jews are the sponges of kings," wrote the theologian William de Montibus, "they are bloodsuckers of Christian purses, by whose robbery kings dispoil and deprive poor men of their goods." Thus the specific singling out of Jewish moneylenders seen in Magna Carta originated in part because of Christian nobles who permitted the otherwise illegal activity of usury, a symptom of the larger ongoing power struggle between Church and State during the Middle Ages. Popular perceptions In 1957 the American Bar Association acknowledged the debt American law and constitutionalism had to Magna Carta by erecting a monument at Runnymede. Symbol and practice Magna Carta is often a symbol for the first time the citizens of England were granted rights against an absolute king. However, in practice the Commons could not enforce Magna Carta in the few situations where it applied to them, so its reach was limited. Also, a large part of Magna Carta was copied, nearly word for word, from the Charter of Liberties of Henry I, issued when Henry I rose to the throne in 1100, which bound the king to laws which effectively granted certain civil liberties to the church and the English nobility. Many documents form Magna Carta The document commonly known as Magna Carta today is not the 1215 charter, but a later charter of 1225, and is usually shown in the form of the Charter of 1297 when it was confirmed by Edward I. At the time of the 1215 charter, many of the provisions were not meant to make long-term changes but simply to right some immediate wrongs; therefore, the Charter was reissued three times in the reign of Henry III (1216, 1217 and 1225). After this, each king for the next two hundred years (until Henry V in 1416) personally confirmed the 1225 charter in his own charter. It should not be thought of as one document but rather a variety of documents coming together to form one Magna Carta, in the same way as the treaties of Rome and Nice (among others) come together to form the treaties of the European Union and the European Community. The document was unsigned Popular perception is that King John and the barons signed Magna Carta. There were no signatures on the original document, however, only a single seal placed by the king. The words of the charter--Data per manum nostram--signify that the document was personally given by the king's hand. By placing his seal on the document, the King and the barons followed common law that a seal was sufficient to authenticate a deed, though it had to be done in front of witnesses. John's seal was the only one, and he did not sign it. The barons neither signed nor attached their seals to it. America The document is also honoured in America, where it is an antecedent of the United States Constitution and Bill of Rights. The United States has contributed the Runnymede Memorial and Lincoln Cathedral offers a Magna Carta Week. (Select "Visits & Events" > "Magna Carta" to navigate to the page with this information.) The UK lent one of the four remaining copies of Magna Carta to the U.S. for its bicentennial celebrations and donated a gold copy which is displayed in the U.S. National Archives Building in Washington, D.C. Featured Document: The Magna Carta 21st Century Britain In 2006, BBC History held a poll to recommend a date for a proposed "Britain Day". 15 June, as the date of the signing of the original 1215 Magna Carta, received most votes, above other suggestions such as D-Day, VE Day, and Remembrance Day. The outcome was not binding, although the then Chancellor Gordon Brown had previously given his support to the idea of a new national day to celebrate British identity. It was used as the name for an anti-surveillance movement in the 2008 BBC series The Last Enemy. According to a poll carried out by YouGov in 2008, 45% of the British public do not know what Magna Carta is. However, its perceived guarantee of trial by jury and other civil liberties led to Tony Benn to refer to the debate over whether to increase the maximum time terrorist suspects could be held without charge from 28 to 42 days as "the day Magna Carta was repealed". Usage of the definite article Since there is no direct, consistent correlate of the English definite article in Latin, the usual academic convention is to refer to the document in English without the article as “Magna Carta” rather than “the Magna Carta”. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first written appearance of the term was in 1218: “Concesserimus libertates quasdam scriptas in magna carta nostra de libertatibus” (Latin: “We concede the certain liberties here written in our great charter of liberties”). However, “the Magna Carta” is frequently used in both academic and non-academic speech. In the past, the document has also been referred to as “Magna Charta”. Copies 1297 copy of the Magna Carta, owned by the Australian Government and on display in the Members' Hall of Parliament House, Canberra. Numerous copies were made each time it was issued, so all of the participants would each have one — in the case of the 1215 copy, one for the royal archives, one for the Cinque Ports, and one for each of the 40 counties of the time. Several of those copies still exist and some are on permanent display. If there ever was one single 'master copy' of Magna Carta sealed by King John in 1215, it has not survived. Four contemporaneous copies (known as "exemplifications") remain, all of which are located in England: The 'burnt copy', which was found in the records of Dover Castle in the 17th century and so is assumed to be the copy that was sent to the Cinque Ports. It was subsequently involved at a house fire at its owner's property, making it all but illegible. It is the only one of the four to have its seal surviving, although this too was melted out of shape in the fire. It is currently held by the British Library. Another supposedly original, but possibly amended version of Magna Carta is on show just outside of the chamber of the House of Lords situated in Westminster Palace. One owned by Lincoln Cathedral, normally on display at Lincoln Castle. It has an unbroken attested history at Lincoln since 1216. We hear of it in 1800 when the Chapter Clerk of the Cathedral reported that he held it in the Common Chamber, and then nothing until 1846 when the Chapter Clerk of that time moved it from within the Cathedral to a property just outside. In 1848, Magna Carta was shown to a visiting group who reported it as “hanging on the wall in an oak frame in beautiful preservation”. It went to the New York World Fair in 1939 and so had to be held in Fort Knox, next to the original of the US Constitution, until the end of the Second World War. Having returned to Lincoln, it has been back to America on various occasions since then. It was taken out of display for a time to undergo conservation in preparation for its visit to America, where it was exhibited at the Contemporary Art Center of Virginia from 30 March to 18 June 2007 in recognition of the Jamestown quadricentennial. From 4 July to 25 July, the document was displayed at the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia , returning to Lincoln Castle afterwards. One owned by and displayed at Salisbury Cathedral. It is the best conserved of the four. Other early versions of Magna Carta survive. Durham Cathedral possesses 1216, 1217, and 1225 copies. A near perfect 1217 copy is held by Hereford Cathedral and is occasionally displayed alongside the Mappa Mundi in the cathedral's chained library. Remarkably, the Hereford Magna Carta is the only one known to survive along with an early version of a Magna Carta ‘users manual’, a small document that was sent along with Magna Carta telling the Sheriff of the county to observe the conditions outlined in the document. Four copies are held by the Bodleian Library in Oxford. Three of these are 1217 issues and one a 1225 issue. On 10 December 2007, these were put on public display for the first time. Magna Carta Place, Canberra, Australia|Magna Carta Place, within Canberra, Australia's Parliamentary Triangle opened on 24 May 2003. In 1952 the Australian Government purchased a 1297 copy of Magna Carta for £12,500 from King's School, Bruton, England. Harry Evans, Bad King John and the Australian Constitution This copy is now on display in the Members' Hall of Parliament House, Canberra. In January 2006, it was announced by the Department of Parliamentary Services that the document had been revalued down from A$40m to A$15m. Only one copy (a 1297 copy with the royal seal of Edward I) is in private hands; it was held by the Brudenell family, earls of Cardigan, who had owned it for five centuries, before being sold to the Perot Foundation in 1984. This copy, having been on long-term loan to the US National Archives, was auctioned at Sotheby's New York on 18 December 2007; The Perot Foundation sold it in order to "have funds available for medical research, for improving public education and for assisting wounded soldiers and their families." It fetched US$21.3 million, It was bought by David Rubenstein of The Carlyle Group, who after the auction said, "I thought it was very important that the Magna Carta stay in the United States and I was concerned that the only copy in the United States might escape as a result of this auction." Rubenstein's copy is on permanent loan to the National Archives in Washington, DC. Participant list Barons, Bishops and Abbots who were party to Magna Carta. Magna Charta translation, Magna Charta Surety Baron Listing, Magna Charta Period Feudal Estates Barons Surety Barons for the enforcement of Magna Carta: William d'Aubigny, Lord of Belvoir Castle. Roger Bigod, Earl of Norfolk and Suffolk. Hugh Bigod, Heir to the Earldoms of Norfolk and Suffolk. Henry de Bohun, Earl of Hereford. Richard de Clare, Earl of Hertford. Gilbert de Clare, heir to the earldom of Hertford. John FitzRobert, Lord of Warkworth Castle. Robert Fitzwalter, Lord of Dunmow Castle. William de Fortibus, Earl of Albemarle. William Hardel, **Mayor of the City of London. William de Huntingfield, Sheriff of Norfolk and Suffolk. John de Lacy, Lord of Pontefract Castle. William de Lanvallei, Lord of Standway Castle. William Malet, Sheriff of Somerset and Dorset. Geoffrey de Mandeville, Earl of Essex and Gloucester. William Marshall Jr, heir to the earldom of Pembroke. Roger de Montbegon, Lord of Hornby Castle, Lancashire. Richard de Montfichet, Baron. William de Mowbray, Lord of Axholme Castle. Richard de Percy, Baron. Saire/Saher de Quincy, Earl of Winchester. Robert de Roos, Lord of Hamlake Castle. Geoffrey de Saye, Baron. Robert de Vere, heir to the earldom of Oxford. Eustace de Vesci, Lord of Alnwick Castle. Bishops These bishops being witnesses (mentioned by the King as his advisers in the decision to sign the Charter): Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, Cardinal of the Holy Roman Church, Henry, Archbishop of Dublin, Henry de Loundres, E. Bishop of London J. Bishop of Bath, Jocelin of Wells, P. Bishop of Winchester, Peter des Roches, H. Bishop of Lincoln, Hugh de Wells, R. Bishop of Salisbury, Herbert Poore aka "Robert", W. Bishop of Rochester, W. Bishop of Worcester, Walter de Gray, J. Bishop of Ely, Geoffrey de Burgo, H. Bishop of Hereford, Hugh de Mapenor, R. Bishop of Chichester, Richard Poore (brother of Herbert/Robert above), W. Bishop of Exeter. Abbots These abbots being witnesses: the Abbot of St. Edmunds the Abbot of St. Albans the Abbot of Bello the Abbot of St. Augustines in Canterbury the Abbot of Evesham the Abbot of Westminster the Abbot of Peterborough the Abbot of Reading the Abbot of Abingdon the Abbot of Malmesbury Abbey the Abbot of Winchcomb the Abbot of Hyde the Abbot of Chertsey the Abbot of Sherborne the Abbot of Cerne the Abbot of Abbotebir the Abbot of Middleton the Abbot of Selby the Abbot of Cirencester the Abbot of Hartstary Others Llywelyn the Great Also the other Welsh Princes Master Pandulff, subdeacon and member of the Papal Household Brother Aymeric, Master of the Knights Templar in England Alexander II of Scotland See also The Baronial Order of Magna Charta Divine Right of Kings Fundamental Laws of England History of democracy Magna Carta Place New Brabantian Constitution Quia Emptores subpoena ad testificandum Henry de Bracton Cestui que Statutes of Mortmain Charter of Liberties Concordat of Worms Charter of the forest Notes References "Magna Carta". In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Article from Australia's Parliament House about the relevance of Magna Carta I. Jennings: Magna Carta and its influence in the world today H. Butterfield; Magna Carta in the Historiography of the 16th and 17th Centuries G.R.C. Davis; Magna Carta J. C. Dickinson; The Great Charter G. B. Adams; Constitutional History of England W. S. McKechnie; Magna Carta: A Commentary (2d ed. 1914, repr. 1960) A. Pallister; Magna Carta the Legacy of Liberty A. Lyon; Constitutional History of the United Kingdom G. Williams and J. Ramsden; Ruling Britannia, A Political History of Britain 1688-1988 Royal letter promulgating the text of Magna Carta (1215), treasure 3 of the British Library displayed via The European Library External links "Treasures in Full: Magna Carta", two copies from 1215 from the British Library in multi-media format. Annotated English translation of 1215 version "Magna Carta" Side-by-side Latin with English translation "Magna Carta" Latin Text Baronial Order of Magna Charta The Magna Carta Manifesto: Liberties and Commons for All by Peter Linebaugh U of C Press 2008 "Magna Carta and Its American Legacy" The influence of Magna Carta on the United States Constitution and Bill of Rights Magna Carta page at historicaldocuments.com Parliament House, Canberra, Australia The Magna Carta English translations. Project Gutenberg celebratory etext 10000 Text of Magna Carta English translation, with introductory historical note. From the Internet Medieval Sourcebook. Notes prepared by Nancy Troutman Magna Carta glossary Timelines TV - history, documentary and television on the web. Magna Carta copy to be auctioned from BBC News Scholarly essay on Magna Carta at Sotheby's website Magna Carta - a Guide from Unlock Democracy. 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2,740 | Heap_(data_structure) | Example of a full binary max heap In computer science, a heap is a specialized tree-based data structure that satisfies the heap property: if B is a child node of A, then key(A) ≥ key(B). This implies that an element with the greatest key is always in the root node, and so such a heap is sometimes called a max-heap. (Alternatively, if the comparison is reversed, the smallest element is always in the root node, which results in a min-heap.) The several variants of heaps are the prototypical most efficient implementations of the abstract data type priority queues. Priority queues are useful in many applications. In particular, heaps are crucial in several efficient graph algorithms. The operations commonly performed with a heap are delete-max or delete-min: removing the root node of a max- or min-heap, respectively increase-key or decrease-key: updating a key within a max- or min-heap, respectively insert: adding a new key to the heap merge: joining two heaps to form a valid new heap containing all the elements of both. Heaps are used in the sorting algorithm heapsort. Variants 2-3 heap Beap Binary heap Binomial heap D-ary heap Fibonacci heap Leftist heap Pairing heap Skew heap Soft heap Ternary heap Treap Comparison of theoretic bounds for variants The following time complexities Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest (1990): Introduction to algorithms. MIT Press / McGraw-Hill. are worst-case time for binary and binomial heaps and amortized time complexity for Fibonacci heap. O(f) gives asymptotic upper bound and Θ(f) is asymptotically tight bound (see Big O notation). Function names assume a min-heap. Operation Binary Binomial Fibonacci createHeap Θ(n) Θ(n) Θ(n) findMin Θ(1) Θ(log n) or Θ(1) Θ(1) deleteMin Θ(log n) Θ(log n) O(log n) insert Θ(log n) O(log n) Θ(1) decreaseKey Θ(log n) Θ(log n) Θ(1) merge Θ(n) O(log n) Θ(1) For pairing heaps the insert and merge operations are conjectured to be O(1) amortized complexity but this has not yet been proven. decreaseKey is not O(1) amortized complexity Heap applications Heaps are a favorite data structure for many applications. Heapsort: One of the best sorting methods being in-place and with no quadratic worst-case scenarios. Selection algorithms: Finding the min, max or both of them, median or even any k-th element in sublinear time can be done dynamically with heaps. Graph algorithms: By using heaps as internal traversal data structures, run time will be reduced by an order of polynomial. Examples of such problems are Prim's minimal spanning tree algorithm and Dijkstra's shortest path problem. Interestingly, full and almost full binary heaps may be represented in a very space-efficient way using an array alone. The first (or last) element will contain the root. The next two elements of the array contain its children. The next four contain the four children of the two child nodes, etc. Thus the children of the node at position n would be at positions 2n and 2n+1 in a one-based array, or 2n+1 and 2n+2 in a zero-based array. This allows moving up or down the tree by doing simple index computations. Balancing a heap is done by swapping elements which are out of order. As we can build a heap from an array without requiring extra memory (for the nodes, for example), heapsort can be used to sort an array in-place. One more advantage of heaps over trees in some applications is that construction of heaps can be done in linear time using Tarjan's algorithm. Heap implementations The C++ Standard Template Library provides the make_heap, push_heap and pop_heap algorithms for binary heaps, which operate on arbitrary random access iterators. It treats the iterators as a reference to an array, and uses the array-to-heap conversion detailed above. The Java 2 platform (since version 1.5) provides the binary heap implementation with class java.util.PriorityQueue<E> in Java Collections Framework. See also Heaps at wikibooks Sorting algorithm Fibonacci heap References | Heap_(data_structure) |@lemmatized example:3 full:3 binary:7 max:6 heap:44 computer:1 science:1 specialized:1 tree:4 base:3 data:4 structure:3 satisfy:1 property:1 b:2 child:5 node:7 key:7 imply:1 element:7 great:1 always:2 root:4 sometimes:1 call:1 alternatively:1 comparison:2 reverse:1 small:1 result:1 min:6 several:2 variant:3 prototypical:1 efficient:3 implementation:3 abstract:1 type:1 priority:2 queue:2 useful:1 many:2 application:4 particular:1 crucial:1 graph:2 algorithm:8 operation:3 commonly:1 perform:1 delete:2 remove:1 respectively:2 increase:1 decrease:1 update:1 within:1 insert:3 add:1 new:2 merge:3 joining:1 two:3 form:1 valid:1 contain:4 use:6 sorting:2 heapsort:3 beap:1 binomial:3 ary:1 fibonacci:4 leftist:1 pair:2 skew:1 soft:1 ternary:1 treap:1 theoretic:1 bound:3 following:1 time:6 complexity:4 thomas:1 h:1 cormen:1 charles:1 e:2 leiserson:1 ronald:1 l:1 rivest:1 introduction:1 algorithms:1 mit:1 press:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 bad:1 case:2 amortized:1 f:2 give:1 asymptotic:1 upper:1 θ:17 asymptotically:1 tight:1 see:2 big:1 notation:1 function:1 name:1 assume:1 createheap:1 n:14 findmin:1 log:9 deletemin:1 decreasekey:2 conjecture:1 amortize:2 yet:1 prove:1 favorite:1 one:3 best:1 method:1 place:2 quadratic:1 worst:1 scenario:1 selection:1 find:1 median:1 even:1 k:1 th:1 sublinear:1 dynamically:1 internal:1 traversal:1 run:1 reduce:1 order:2 polynomial:1 problem:2 prim:1 minimal:1 span:1 dijkstra:1 short:1 path:1 interestingly:1 almost:1 may:1 represent:1 space:1 way:1 array:8 alone:1 first:1 last:1 next:2 four:2 etc:1 thus:1 position:2 would:1 zero:1 allow:1 move:1 simple:1 index:1 computation:1 balance:1 swap:1 build:1 without:1 require:1 extra:1 memory:1 sort:2 advantage:1 construction:1 linear:1 tarjan:1 c:1 standard:1 template:1 library:1 provide:2 operate:1 arbitrary:1 random:1 access:1 iterators:2 treat:1 reference:2 conversion:1 detail:1 java:3 platform:1 since:1 version:1 class:1 util:1 priorityqueue:1 collection:1 framework:1 also:1 wikibooks:1 |@bigram min_heap:4 priority_queue:2 fibonacci_heap:3 ternary_heap:1 h_cormen:1 cormen_charles:1 e_leiserson:1 leiserson_ronald:1 l_rivest:1 introduction_algorithms:1 mcgraw_hill:1 θ_θ:2 θ_log:6 java_util:1 |
2,741 | Action_Against_Hunger | Action Against Hunger (known internationally as Action Contre la Faim, or ACF) is an international relief and development organization committed to saving the lives of malnourished children and families while seeking long-term, sustainable solutions to hunger. Recognized as a world leader in the fight against hunger and malnutrition, Action Against Hunger specializes in responding to emergency situations of war, conflict, and natural disaster. Their innovative programs in nutrition, water and sanitation, food security, health care, and advocacy reach more than 5 million people in over 40 countries, helping vulnerable populations regain their self-sufficiency. Humanitarian aid History Action Against Hunger (ACF) was established in 1979 by a group of French doctors, scientists, and writers with a mission to end hunger worldwide. Nobel Prize-winning physicist Professor Alfred Kastler served as the organization’s first chairman. ACF moved immediately to provide desperately needed assistance to Afghan refugees in Pakistan, famine-stricken Ugandan communities, and Cambodian refugees in Thailand. As ACF expanded to address humanitarian concerns in Africa, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, the Balkans and elsewhere in the 1980’s and 1990’s, it became recognized as a leading innovator in humanitarian aid and hunger relief. Action Against Hunger’s Scientific Committee pioneered the therapeutic milk formula (F100), now used by all major humanitarian aid organizations to treat acute malnutrition. As a result, the global mortality rate of severely malnourished children under the age of five has been reduced from 25% to 5%. Action Against Hunger – USA was established in 1985 and became the first member of what is now the Action Against Hunger International Network, known also as Action Contre la Faim (ACF). The network currently has headquarters in five countries – France, Spain, the United States, Canada and the UK. All members of the Action Against Hunger International Network adhere to a charter of principles that forms the foundation of humanitarian commitment: independence, impartiality, nondiscrimination, free and direct access to victims, professionalism, and transparency. Action Against Hunger’s involvement typically begins with emergency relief in response to a crisis, but relief is always reinforced by longer term programs enabling victims to regain their autonomy and the means to live independent of external aid. In the short term, Action Against Hunger addresses hunger and malnutrition through feeding centers, food and supply distributions and by providing water and sanitation facilities in emergency situations. In the long term, ACF provides training in nutrition, water and sanitation, food security, and health care to ensure self-sufficiency and to assist communities in rebuilding. ACF relies on the skills of hundreds of international experts and over 6000 local (national) staff to develop programs that are well adapted to the needs of its beneficiaries. Attack against workers Action Against Hunger recently lost 17 of its workers in a town called Muttur who were working in post 2004 Tsunami reconstruction effort in Sri Lanka due to violence. The independent Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission has implicated the government forces but the government currently denies it and is conducting an investigation. Programs Their innovative programs integrate activities in nutrition, water and sanitation, food security, health care and advocacy. Nutrition Programs Saving the life of a severely malnourished child can be a matter of hours. ACF sets up therapeutic feeding centers to treat malnourished children. They also help control and prevent malnutrition through child-growth monitoring, nutritional surveys, and public education. Therapeutic feeding centers, at the heart of their emergency programs, save children from dying of acute severe malnutrition through rigorous programs of medical treatment. Re-nutrition products and protocols defined by the nutrition department are the basis of our interventions in emergency situations. Water and Sanitation Programs Water is the leading weapon against hunger. Access to safe drinking water and better sanitation allows improvement in the state of health of communities and prevent the spread of diseases. ACF provides access to safe drinking water by drilling wells, tapping springs, and installing water systems. They train local teams and whole communities to maintain equipment and work with the population on the importance of clean water and sanitation. Food Security Programs To protect food security in the long term, it is essential to support local agriculture and economies by ensuring access to new resources. They distribute seeds and tools as well as conduct training programs in income-generating activities such as farming, gardening, animal breeding, and food conservation. Food security programs put people on the road to self-sufficiency. To respond to crises ACF often must distribute food for immediate survival needs. The choice and quality of foods (which must take cultural factors into account) and identification of the neediest beneficiaries are key elements for defining the appropriate type of aid. In post-crisis situations or in order to prevent a recurrence, it is essential to support local agriculture and broaden a population's economic options by supplying inputs (seeds, fertilizers, tools, etc.), new techniques, and strengthening community resilience to future crises. Health Programs A vicious circle exists between disease and malnutrition. A malnourished child is more vulnerable to diseases than a well-fed child. A sick child, weakened by illness, often becomes a victim of malnutrition. It is therefore necessary to address disease in order to eliminate hunger. ACF sets up mother and child health centers to provide immunization and pre/post-natal care. Their public health programs train medical staff, provide medicine, monitor and control epidemics, and rehabilitate clinics. Advocacy Programs Action Against Hunger raises awareness about hunger and seeks to alert the international community when human rights, especially the right to food, are violated. Their advocacy and public awareness efforts aim to effect institutional and cultural change to help create a world without hunger. Action Against Hunger is in the process of starting the HungerForce, a network of community and school based chapters dedicated in their fight to make hunger history. Student Outreach | Action Against Hunger at www.actionagainsthunger.org Notes External links Action Contre la Faim (France) Action Against Hunger (USA) Justice for Muttur - Action Contre la Faim (France) Accion Contra el Hambre (Spain) Action Against Hunger (UK) Action Contre la Faim (Canada) Observatoire de l'action humanitaire Aid Watch Intelligent Giving profile of Action Against Hunger UK | Action_Against_Hunger |@lemmatized action:22 hunger:26 know:2 internationally:1 contre:5 la:5 faim:5 acf:11 international:5 relief:4 development:1 organization:3 commit:1 save:3 life:2 malnourished:4 child:10 family:1 seek:2 long:4 term:5 sustainable:1 solution:1 recognize:2 world:2 leader:1 fight:2 malnutrition:7 specializes:1 respond:2 emergency:5 situation:4 war:1 conflict:1 natural:1 disaster:1 innovative:2 program:15 nutrition:6 water:10 sanitation:7 food:11 security:6 health:7 care:4 advocacy:4 reach:1 million:1 people:2 country:2 help:3 vulnerable:2 population:3 regain:2 self:3 sufficiency:3 humanitarian:5 aid:6 history:2 establish:2 group:1 french:1 doctor:1 scientist:1 writer:1 mission:2 end:1 worldwide:1 nobel:1 prize:1 win:1 physicist:1 professor:1 alfred:1 kastler:1 serve:1 first:2 chairman:1 move:1 immediately:1 provide:6 desperately:1 need:3 assistance:1 afghan:1 refugee:2 pakistan:1 famine:1 stricken:1 ugandan:1 community:7 cambodian:1 thailand:1 expand:1 address:3 concern:1 africa:1 middle:1 east:1 southeast:1 asia:1 balkan:1 elsewhere:1 become:3 lead:2 innovator:1 scientific:1 committee:1 pioneer:1 therapeutic:3 milk:1 formula:1 use:1 major:1 treat:2 acute:2 result:1 global:1 mortality:1 rate:1 severely:2 malnourish:1 age:1 five:2 reduce:1 usa:2 member:2 network:4 also:2 currently:2 headquarters:1 france:3 spain:2 united:1 state:2 canada:2 uk:3 adhere:1 charter:1 principle:1 form:1 foundation:1 commitment:1 independence:1 impartiality:1 nondiscrimination:1 free:1 direct:1 access:4 victim:3 professionalism:1 transparency:1 involvement:1 typically:1 begin:1 response:1 crisis:4 always:1 reinforce:1 enable:1 autonomy:1 mean:1 live:1 independent:2 external:2 short:1 feeding:3 center:4 supply:2 distribution:1 facility:1 training:2 ensure:2 assist:1 rebuild:1 relies:1 skill:1 hundred:1 expert:1 local:4 national:1 staff:2 develop:1 well:4 adapt:1 beneficiary:2 attack:1 worker:2 recently:1 lose:1 town:1 call:1 muttur:2 work:2 post:3 tsunami:1 reconstruction:1 effort:2 sri:2 lanka:2 due:1 violence:1 monitor:2 implicate:1 government:2 force:1 deny:1 conduct:2 investigation:1 integrate:1 activity:2 matter:1 hour:1 set:2 control:2 prevent:3 growth:1 monitoring:1 nutritional:1 survey:1 public:3 education:1 heart:1 die:1 severe:1 rigorous:1 medical:2 treatment:1 product:1 protocol:1 define:2 department:1 basis:1 intervention:1 weapon:1 safe:2 drinking:2 good:1 allow:1 improvement:1 spread:1 disease:4 drill:1 tap:1 spring:1 installing:1 system:1 train:2 team:1 whole:1 maintain:1 equipment:1 importance:1 clean:1 protect:1 essential:2 support:2 agriculture:2 economy:1 new:2 resource:1 distribute:2 seed:2 tool:2 income:1 generate:1 farming:1 gardening:1 animal:1 breeding:1 conservation:1 put:1 road:1 often:2 must:2 immediate:1 survival:1 choice:1 quality:1 take:1 cultural:2 factor:1 account:1 identification:1 needy:1 key:1 element:1 appropriate:1 type:1 order:2 recurrence:1 broaden:1 economic:1 option:1 input:1 fertilizer:1 etc:1 technique:1 strengthen:1 resilience:1 future:1 vicious:1 circle:1 exist:1 feed:1 sick:1 weaken:1 illness:1 therefore:1 necessary:1 eliminate:1 mother:1 immunization:1 pre:1 natal:1 medicine:1 epidemic:1 rehabilitate:1 clinic:1 raise:1 awareness:2 alert:1 human:1 right:2 especially:1 violate:1 aim:1 effect:1 institutional:1 change:1 create:1 without:1 process:1 start:1 hungerforce:1 school:1 base:1 chapter:1 dedicate:1 make:1 student:1 outreach:1 www:1 actionagainsthunger:1 org:1 note:1 link:1 justice:1 accion:1 contra:1 el:1 hambre:1 observatoire:1 de:1 l:1 humanitaire:1 watch:1 intelligent:1 give:1 profile:1 |@bigram action_contre:5 contre_la:5 la_faim:5 malnourished_child:4 health_care:3 self_sufficiency:3 humanitarian_aid:3 nobel_prize:1 desperately_need:1 southeast_asia:1 mortality_rate:1 sri_lanka:2 therapeutic_feeding:2 severe_malnutrition:1 vicious_circle:1 external_link:1 |
2,742 | Fox_News_Channel | Fox News Channel (FNC) is an American cable news and satellite channel owned by the Fox Entertainment Group, a subsidiary of News Corporation. As of April 2009, it is available to 102 million households in the U.S. and further to viewers internationally, broadcasting primarily out of its New York City studios. The channel was created by Australian-American media mogul Rupert Murdoch, who hired Roger Ailes as its founding CEO. The channel was launched on October 7, 1996 American Public Media: News Archive for October 7, 1996 to 17 million cable subscribers. The network slowly rose to prominence in the late 1990s. In the United States, Fox News Channel has been rated as the cable news network with the largest number of regular viewers. Critics and some observers of the channel say that Fox News Channel promotes conservative political positions. Fox News Channel publicly denies any bias in the channel's reporting. History In May 1985, Australian publisher Rupert Murdoch announced that he and American industrialist and philanthropist Marvin Davis intend to develop "a network of independent stations as a fourth marketing force" to compete directly with CBS, NBC and ABC through the purchase of six television stations then owned by Metromedia. Lenzner, Robert. (May 5, 1985) Boston Globe Murdoch, partner plan 4th network. Section: National/Foreign; Page 1 (the six stations cover many of the nation's major markets - New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Dallas, Houston and Washington) In July 1985, 20th Century Fox announced that publisher Rupert Murdoch had completed his purchase of 50 percent of Fox Filmed Entertainment, the parent company of 20th Century Fox Film Corporation. New York Times (July 11, 1985) $55.9 Million Fox Film Loss. Section: D; Page D19. A year later, Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp. earned $5.6 million in its fiscal third period ended May 31, 1986, in contrast to a loss of $55.8 million in the year-earlier period. Chicago Tribune (July 17, 1986) Turnaround for fox films Section: Business; Page 1. Prior to founding Fox News, Murdoch had gained significant experience in the 24-hour news business when News Corp.'s BSkyB subsidiary started Europe's first 24 hour news channel, Sky News, in the United Kingdom in 1989. Shah, Saeed. (September 24, 2002) The Independent Business Analysis: Unstoppable Sky machine rolls on as ITV troubles worsen Dawn Airey's free-to-air television experience will be invaluable to BSkyB as it moves beyond its pay-TV model. Section: Business; Page 21. With the success of his fourth network efforts in the United States, Schulberg, Pete. (July 15, 1994) The Oregonian Fox is a business, if not artistic, success. Section: Television; Page E1. Braxton, Greg. (April 6, 1997) Chicago Sun-Times How Fox broke from the pack to become cutting-edge network. experience gained from Sky News, and turnaround of 20th Century Fox, Murdoch announced on January 31, 1996 that News Corp. would be launching a 24-hour news channel to air on both cable and satellite systems as part of a News Corp. "worldwide platform" for Fox programming, reasoning that "The appetite for news - particularly news that explains to people how it affects them - is expanding enormously." Williams, Scott. (January 31, 1996) Associated Press Murdoch taps Ailes for new network; Former CNBC chief set to direct 24-hour news channel, take on CNN. Exterior of the Fox News Channel studios in New York City In February 1996, after well-known former NBC executive and Republican political strategist Roger Ailes left America's Talking (now MSNBC), Murdoch called him to start the Fox News Channel. Ailes worked individuals through five months of 14-hour workdays and several weeks of rehearsal shows before launch, on October 7, 1996. At launch, only 10 million households were able to watch Fox News, with none in the major media markets of New York City and Los Angeles. According to published reports, many media reviewers had to watch the first day's programming at Fox News studios because it was not readily available. The rolling news coverage during the day consisted of 20-minute single topic shows like Fox on Crime or Fox on Politics surrounded by news headlines. Interviews had various facts at the bottom of the screen about the topic or the guest. The flagship newscast at the time was called The Schneider Report, with Mike Schneider giving a fast paced delivery of the news. During the evening, Fox had opinion shows: The O'Reilly Report (now, The O'Reilly Factor), The Crier Report hosted by Catherine Crier, and Hannity & Colmes. FNC's Newsroom From the beginning, Fox News has placed heavy emphasis on visual presentation. Graphics were designed to be colorful and attention grabbing and to allow people to get the main points of what was being said even if they couldn't hear the host, through the use of on-screen text summarizing the position of the interviewer or speaker and "bullet points" when a host was giving commentary. Fox News also created the "Fox News Alert," which interrupted regular programming when a breaking news story occurred. To accelerate its adoption by cable companies, Fox News paid systems up to $11 per subscriber to distribute the network. This contrasted with the normal practice, in which cable operators paid stations carriage fees for the programming of channels. When Time Warner bought out Ted Turner's Turner Broadcasting, a federal antitrust consent decree required Time Warner to carry a second all-news channel in addition to its own CNN. Time Warner selected MSNBC as the secondary news network, instead of Fox News. Fox News claimed that this violated an agreement to carry Fox News. Citing its agreement to keep its U.S. headquarters and a large studio in New York City, News Corporation pressured Mayor Rudolph Giuliani's administration to pressure Time Warner, one of the city's two cable providers, to transmit Fox News on a city-owned channel. City officials threatened to take action affecting Time Warner's cable franchises in the city. A lawsuit was filed by Time Warner against the City of New York claiming undue interference with, and inappropriate use of, the city's educational channels for commercial programming. News Corporation countered with an antitrust lawsuit against Time Warner for unfairly protecting CNN. This led to an acrimonious battle between Murdoch and Turner, with Turner publicly comparing Murdoch to Adolf Hitler while Murdoch's New York Post ran an editorial questioning Turner's sanity. Giuliani's motives were also questioned, as his wife was a producer at Murdoch-owned WNYW-TV. In the end, Time Warner and News Corporation signed a settlement agreement to permit Fox News to be carried on New York City cable system beginning in October 1997, and on all of Time Warner's cable systems by 2001, though Time Warner still does not carry Fox News in all areas. In return, Time Warner was given some rights to News Corporation's satellites in Asia and Europe to distribute Time Warner programming, would receive the normal compensation per subscriber paid to cable operators, and News Corporation would not object to the continuation of Atlanta Braves baseball games being carried on TBS (which could have expired because of the Fox television network's contract with Major League Baseball). On May 1, 2008, Fox News launched high definition channel simulcasts of its programming in selected regions of the United States. Time Warner Cable is carrying this channel in New York, NY, San Antonio, TX, and Kansas City, MO, while Cablevision is making it available in New York, NY and on Long Island. On Friday, October 17, 2008 at 6am ET, DirecTV launched the high-definition channel. This launch was the first national launch of the network in HD. On January 9, 2009, Cox Communications added the HD channel and on February 3, 2009 Dish Network did also. Outlets Fox News stand in Hennepin County, Minnesota Fox News Channel maintains an archive of most of its programs. This archive also handles the Fox Movietone newsreels. Licensing of the Fox News archive is handled by ITN Source, the archiving division of Independent Television News. Television Fox News Channel presents a variety of programming with up to 15 hours of live programming per day, in addition to programming and content for the Fox Broadcasting Company. Most of the programs are broadcast from Fox News headquarters in New York City in their street-side studio on Sixth Avenue in the west extension of Rockefeller Center. Audio simulcasts of the channel are aired on XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Satellite Radio. Radio With the growth of the Fox News Channel, the network introduced a radio division entitled Fox News Radio in 2003. Syndicated throughout the United States, the division provides short newscasts and talk radio programs, featuring personalities from both the television and radio divisions. In addition, the network has also introduced Fox News Talk in 2006, a satellite radio station which features programs syndicated by and featuring Fox News personalities. Online Like other news networks, Fox News Channel produces a news website featuring the latest coverage, including video clips from the network's television division, audio clips from Fox News Radio, in addition to columns from the network's assorted television, radio, and online personalities, and a live streaming segment called Strategy Room. Introduced in December 1995, the network's website ranks below many other news websites, ranking in the lower teens in the list of top news websites. Fox News Mobile is a part of the Fox News website that is dedicated to streaming news clips that are formatted for video enabled mobile phones. FOX News Mobile website Fox News Channel HD Fox News Channel HD is 720p high definition simulcast of Fox News Channel that launched on May 1, 2008. Multichannel News April 29, 2008 FOX News to make HD bow with Time Warner Most of the programs available in HD (Fox & Friends, America's Newsroom, Happening Now, The Live Desk, Studio B with Sheppard Smith, Glenn Beck, Fox Report, The O'Reilly Factor, Hannity, and On the Record with Greta Van Sustersen) are shown in 16:9 widescreen. For the shows broadcast in SD, (with the exception of Red Eye with Greg Gutfeld & Special Report with Bret Baier) the feed is pushed to the left of the screen, with the extra room used for additional content, such as breaking news headlines, stock quotes, and weather forecasts, with the video upconverted. The side info is named "The Fox HD Wing". Partner channel Fox Business Network HD uses the same format, as well as competitor channel CNBC HD+, and sports channels ESPNews HD and NFL Network HD. Personalities Producing a variety of different programming, Fox News Channel has a number of different program hosts, news anchors, correspondents, and contributors which appear throughout daily programming on the network. The network has a number of different signature hosts, including Bill O'Reilly, Sean Hannity, Greta Van Susteren, and Shepard Smith, all of whom host programs which are on the list of the top ten most watched programs on cable news. In January 2009, commentator Glenn Beck was added to the list of personalities at Fox News Channel. Ratings FNC's Hannity & Colmes production area Fox News saw huge growth in its ratings during the early stages of the Iraq conflict. By some reports, at the height of the conflict they enjoyed as much as a 300 percent increase in viewership, averaging 3.3 million viewers daily. In 2004, Fox News Channel's ratings for its broadcast of the Republican National Convention beat those of all three broadcast networks. During President George W. Bush's address, Fox News notched 7.3 million viewers nationally, while NBC, CBS, and ABC scored ratings of 5.9, 5.0, and 5.1, respectively. In late 2005 and early 2006, Fox saw a brief decline in ratings. One of the most notable decline in ratings came in the second quarter of 2006, when compared to the previous quarter, Fox News had a loss in viewership for every single prime time program. One of the most noteworthy losses of viewership was that of Special Report with Brit Hume. The show's total viewership was down 19 percent compared to the previous quarter. However, several weeks later, in the wake of the North Korean Missile Crisis and the 2006 Lebanon War, Fox saw a surge in viewership and remained the #1 rated cable news channel. FNC's 25-54 Prime "Downward Spiral", TV Newser Cable TV: Content Analysis, The State of the News Media 2005 Fox still held eight of the ten most-watched nightly cable news shows, with The O'Reilly Factor and Hannity & Colmes coming in first and second places, respectively. April 2005 Competitive Program Ranker (M-F 6a-11p programs), TV Newser For the year 2007, Fox News was the number-one rated cable news network in the United States. It was down one percent in total daily viewers and down three percent in the 25-54 year old demographic, but it still boasted most of the top-rated shows on cable news led by The O'Reilly Factor. For primetime television Fox News ranked #6 of all cable networks. Fox News Channel Leads in 2007 Cable News Ratings By the end of the first quarter of 2009, Fox was beating CNN and MSNBC combined in the ratings and is now the second highest rated cable network. When the quarter ended on March 31, 2009, Fox News's primetime ratings were up 23% compared with the same period a year before. Slogan Fair & Balanced graphic used in 2005 "Fair & Balanced" is a trademarked slogan used by the broadcaster. The slogan was originally used in conjunction with the phrase "Real Journalism." Comedian and politician Al Franken used the slogan in the subtitle for his 2003 book Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them: A Fair and Balanced Look at the Right. In the book, he cites examples of Fox News' bias. On August 22, 2003, Fox sued based upon its trademark on the phrase. de Moraes, Lisa (August 12, 2003). Three Little Words: Fox News Sues. Washington Post Fox News dropped the lawsuit three days later after Judge Denny Chin refused their request for an injunction. Chin denied the injunction and said that the case, Fox vs. Franken, was "wholly without merit, both factually and legally". He went on to suggest that Fox News' trademark on the phrase "fair and balanced" could be invalid. In December 2003, Fox News found itself on the other end of a legal battle concerning the slogan, when AlterNet filed a cancellation petition with the United States Patent and Trademark Office to have Fox's trademark rescinded as misdescriptive. AlterNet included the documentary film Outfoxed as supporting evidence in its case. Coyle, Jake (July 19, 2004 ). Advocacy Groups Challenge Fox News Slogan. Associated Press After losing early motions, AlterNet withdrew its petition and the USPTO dismissed the case. Official Documentation of Petitioned Cancellation of "Fair & Balanced" trademark phrase, Trademark Trial and Appeal Board Inquiry System Controversies Allegations of political bias Some critics and politicians have accused Fox News of having a bias towards the political right or Republican point of view at the expense of neutrality. Timothy Noah, Fox News admits bias!, Slate, May 31, 2005. Retrieved September 26, 2006. Dean On President Clinton Standing Up To Right-Wing Propaganda On Fox News Sunday, The Democratic Party, September 25, 2006 Murdoch and Ailes have reacted against allegations of bias, with Murdoch claiming that Fox has "given room to both sides, whereas only one side had it before." News Corp denies Fox News bias Australian Associated Press, October 26, 2004 Interview transcript: Rupert Murdoch and Roger Ailes, the Financial Times, October 6, 2006 In 2004, director Robert Greenwald produced the documentary film Outfoxed: Rupert Murdoch's War on Journalism, which argues that Fox News has a conservative bias, including as evidence internal memos from editorial Vice President John Moody which the film claims exposes attempts to alter news content. This was later distributed on DVD by MoveOn.org. Talking points from Bush White House While promoting his memoir, What Happened, Scott McClellan, former White House Press Secretary (2003–2006) for former President George W. Bush stated on the July 25, 2008 edition of Hardball with Chris Matthews that the Bush White House routinely gave talking points to Fox News commentators — but not journalists — in order to influence discourse and content. Transcript of Friday, July 25, 2008 Hardball with Chris Matthews McClellan stated that these talking points were not issued to provide the public with news; instead, they were to provide Fox News commentators with issues and perspectives favorable to the White House and Republican Party. McClellan later apologized to Fox News commentator, Bill O'Reilly for not responding to Matthews' suggestion that "Bill" or "Sean" received the talking points; McClellan said he had no personal knowledge that O'Reilly ever received the talking points. Furthermore he pointed out "the way a couple of questions were phrased in that interview along with my response left things open to interpretation and I should not have let that happen". International transmission The Fox News Channel feed is available internationally, while the Fox News Extra segments provide alternate programming. Fox News Extra Initially, US advertisements were replaced on Fox News with viewer e-mail and profiles of Fox News anchors set to music. In 2002 these were replaced with international weather forecasts. In 2006, the weather segments were replaced with 'Fox News Extra' segments, various narrated reports from FOX reports on a variety of topics. These reports are generally on lighter issues not related to current news events, and the segments are repeated. Fox News Channel also shows international weather forecasts when the Fox News Extra segments run short. The Fox News feed in the United Kingdom does not feature Fox News Extra, and instead features break fillers from sister channel Sky News's International Variant. For a short period in 2001, a still of the Fox News logo replaced this other content. Australia In Australia, Fox News Channel is broadcast on the three major Pay-TV providers, Foxtel, Austar and Optus Television. Foxtel is 25 percent owned by News Corporation. The Australian version previously featured some local programming, including a John Laws current affairs program in place of part of Fox & Friends. Local advertisements and promotions are aired in place of every second 'Fox News Extra' segment. Sky News Australia is Fox's sister channel. Brazil Since 2002 Fox News has been broadcast to Brazil, but the commercials are replaced with Fox News Extra. It is broadcast by Sky (satellite operator, a joint-venture between News Corporation and Globosat) and in the digital packages of NET. Canada On December 14, 2000, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) approved Fox News Canada on behalf of the Global Television Network, for broadcast in Canada. Fox News Canada was to be a domestic Canadian version of Fox News. The channel, or "specialty television service", was never implemented by Fox, and the deadline for commencement of the service expired on November 24, 2004. On November 18, 2004 the CRTC announced that a digital license would be granted to Fox News. In its proposal, Fox News stated, with reference to Fox News Canada, that "Fox News does not intend to implement this service and therefore will not meet the extended deadline to commence operations." On December 16, 2004, Rogers Communications became the first Canadian cable or satellite provider to broadcast Fox News, with other companies following suit within the next several weeks. Italy In Italy, Fox News was launched, first in Europe, on the now defunct Italian digital satellite television platform Stream TV in 2001. Part of its programming was translated in Italian and broadcasted on the defunct Italian news channel Stream News. In 2003 was moved on SKY Italia with U.S. commercials replaced by Fox News Extra segments and now is available on 4.600.000 subscribers and 160.000 hotel rooms in Italy. SKY TG 24 is one of the sister channel of Fox News. New Zealand In New Zealand, Fox News is broadcast on Channel 092 of pay satellite operator SKY TV's digital platform. It is also broadcast overnight on New Zealand TV channel Prime, owned by SKY. Fox News parent corporation News Corp has a stake in both SKY and Prime. Scandinavia Between 2003 and 2006, in Sweden and the other Scandinavian countries, Fox News was broadcast 16 hours a day on TV8, with Fox News Extra segments replacing U.S. advertising. Fox News was dropped by TV8 and replaced by German news channel Deutsche Welle in September 2006. United Kingdom Fox News is also carried in the United Kingdom by the British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB) satellite television network (Sky Digital) which is 40% owned by Fox's parent News Corporation. It is run as a sister channel to BSkyB's popular Sky News. Fox News is usually broadcast as a VideoGuard encrypted channel but during major news stories it may be simulcast on Sky Active, which is free to air. As of September 2006 the channel has carried UK specific advertising, along with headlines and weather provided by Sky News during its breaks. These run under the brand of Fox News International. Due to the shared ownership of Fox and Sky, Fox News and Sky News routinely share bureaus and reporters for breaking news stories from around the world. Other countries Countries where Fox News is provided Fox News Channel is also carried in more than 40 countries. Although service to Japan stopped in the summer of 2003, it can still be seen on Americable (distributor for American bases), Mediatti (Kadena Air Base), and Pan Global TV Japan. Argentina Australia Bahamas Bahrain Barbados Belize Bermuda Cambodia Canada Cayman Islands Chile Colombia Costa Rica Denmark Dominican Republic Finland Greece Grenada Guam Guatemala Hong Kong Iceland Indonesia Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Lebanon Macau Malaysia Maldives Mexico Netherlands New Zealand Nigeria Norway Pakistan Palau Panama Peru Papua New Guinea Philippines Portugal Russia Saudi Arabia Singapore Saint Kitts Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Spain Slovenia Sweden Thailand Trinidad and Tobago Tonga United Arab Emirates United Kingdom Venezuela Studios Studio B, F and G - use for Fox Business Network Studio J - America's Newsroom, Hannity, Fox Business.com Live and FNC's 2008 election coverage HQ. Studio H - Studio B, Glenn Beck, Fox Report, On the Record and Fox's 2008 election coverage HQ. See also Fox Business Network Fox effect Sky News (sister channel) SKY TG24 (sister channel) References Further reading The Fifth Estate: "Sticks and Stones", CBC—Bob McKeown investigates Fox News for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 45 min. 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2,743 | First_Vatican_Council | The First Vatican Council was convoked by Pope Pius IX on 29 June 1868, after a period of planning and preparation that began on 6 December 1864. This twentieth ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church, Encyclopaedia Britannica: First Vatican Council held three centuries after the Council of Trent, opened on 8 December 1869 and adjourned on 20 October 1870. Unlike the four earlier General Councils held in Rome, which met in the Lateran Basilica and are known as the Lateran Councils, it met in the Vatican Basilica, whence its name of First Vatican Council. Its best-known decision is its definition of papal infallibility. Controversy The doctrine of papal infallibility was not new and had been used by Pope Pius in defining as dogma, in 1854, the Immaculate Conception of Mary, the mother of Jesus. Encyclopaedia Britannica: Pius IX However, the proposal to define papal infallibility itself as dogma met with resistance, not because of doubts about the substance of the proposed definition, but because some considered it inopportune to take that step at that time. A minority, some 20 percent of the bishops, feared that defining papal infallibility would alienate some Catholics, create new difficulties for union with non-Catholics and would provoke interference by governments in Church affairs. Those who held this view included most of the German and Austro-Hungarian bishops, nearly half of the Americans, and one third of the French; of the Eastern Catholics, most of the Chaldaeans and Melkites, and a few Armenians shared this view. Only a few bishops appear to have had doubts about the dogma itself. Dei Filius On 24 April 1870 the dogmatic constitution on the catholic faith Dei Filius was adopted unanimously. The draft presented to the Council on 8 March drew no serious criticism. A group of 35 English-speaking bishops, who feared that the opening phrase "Sancta romana catholica Ecclesia" might be construed as favouring the Anglican Branch Theory, succeeded in having an additional adjective inserted, so that the final text read: "Sancta catholica apostolica romana Ecclesia" The constitution thus set forth the teaching of the "Holy, Catholic, Apostolic and Roman Church" on God, revelation and faith. Roberto De Mattei, John Laughland, Pius IX, page 137 Pastor Aeternus There was stronger opposition to the draft constitution on the nature of the Church, which at first did not include the question of papal infallibility, but the majority party in the Council, whose position on this matter was much stronger, brought it forward. It was decided to postpone discussion of everything in the draft except infallibility. On 13 July 1870, the section on infallibility was voted on: 451 voted simply in favour (placet), 88 against (non placet), and 62 in favour but on condition of some amendment (placet iuxta modum). This made evident what the final outcome would be, and some 60 members of the opposition left Rome so as not to be associated with approval of the document. The final vote, with a choice only between placet and non placet, was taken on 18 July 1870, with 533 votes in favour and only 2 against defining as a dogma the infallibility of the pope when speaking ex cathedra. The dogmatic constitution states that the Pope has "full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the whole Church" (chapter 3:9); and that, when he "speaks ex cathedra, that is, when, in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole Church, he possesses, by the divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, that infallibility which the divine Redeemer willed his Church to enjoy in defining doctrine concerning faith or morals" (chapter 4:9). None of the bishops who had argued that proclaiming the definition was inopportune refused to accept it. Some Catholics, mainly of German language and largely inspired by the historian Johann Joseph Ignaz von Döllinger (who did not formally join the new group) formed the separate Old Catholic Church in protest.<ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576278/first_vatican_council.html Encarta Encyclopedia: First Vatican Council]</ref> Suspension Discussion of the rest of the document on the nature of the Church was to continue when the bishops returned after a summer break. But on 20 September 1870 the Kingdom of Italy captured Rome and annexed it. One month later, on 20 October 1870, Pope Pius IX suspended the Council indefinitely. It was never reconvened. See also Ecumenical council Second Vatican Council Old Catholic Church References Bibliography The Catholic Church in the Modern World'' by E.E.Y. Hales (Doubleday, 1958) Notes External links EWTN: First Vatican Council (introduction and texts) Catholic Encyclopedia: Vatican Council Encyclopaedia Britannica: First Vatican Council | First_Vatican_Council |@lemmatized first:7 vatican:9 council:16 convoke:1 pope:5 pius:5 ix:4 june:1 period:1 planning:1 preparation:1 begin:1 december:2 twentieth:1 ecumenical:2 roman:2 catholic:11 church:11 encyclopaedia:3 britannica:3 hold:4 three:1 century:1 trent:1 open:1 adjourn:1 october:2 unlike:1 four:1 early:1 general:1 rome:3 meet:3 lateran:2 basilica:2 know:2 whence:1 name:1 best:1 decision:1 definition:3 papal:5 infallibility:9 controversy:1 doctrine:3 new:3 use:1 define:6 dogma:4 immaculate:1 conception:1 mary:1 mother:1 jesus:1 however:1 proposal:1 resistance:1 doubt:2 substance:1 propose:1 consider:1 inopportune:2 take:2 step:1 time:1 minority:1 percent:1 bishop:6 fear:2 would:3 alienate:1 create:1 difficulty:1 union:1 non:3 provoke:1 interference:1 government:1 affair:1 view:2 include:2 german:2 austro:1 hungarian:1 nearly:1 half:1 american:1 one:2 third:1 french:1 eastern:1 chaldaean:1 melkite:1 armenian:1 share:1 appear:1 dei:2 filius:2 april:1 dogmatic:2 constitution:4 faith:4 adopt:1 unanimously:1 draft:3 present:1 march:1 draw:1 serious:1 criticism:1 group:2 english:1 speaking:1 opening:1 phrase:1 sanctum:2 romana:2 catholica:2 ecclesia:2 might:1 construe:1 favour:4 anglican:1 branch:1 theory:1 succeed:1 additional:1 adjective:1 insert:1 final:3 text:2 read:1 apostolica:1 thus:1 set:1 forth:1 teaching:1 holy:1 apostolic:2 god:1 revelation:1 roberto:1 de:1 mattei:1 john:1 laughland:1 page:1 pastor:1 aeternus:1 strong:2 opposition:2 nature:2 question:1 majority:1 party:1 whose:1 position:1 matter:1 much:1 bring:1 forward:1 decide:1 postpone:1 discussion:2 everything:1 except:1 july:2 section:1 vote:4 simply:1 placet:5 condition:1 amendment:1 iuxta:1 modum:1 make:1 evident:1 outcome:1 member:1 leave:1 associate:1 approval:1 document:2 choice:1 speak:1 ex:2 cathedra:2 state:1 full:1 supreme:2 power:1 jurisdiction:1 whole:2 chapter:2 speaks:1 exercise:1 office:1 shepherd:1 teacher:1 christian:1 virtue:1 authority:1 concern:2 moral:2 possess:1 divine:2 assistance:1 promise:1 bless:1 peter:1 redeemer:1 enjoy:1 none:1 argue:1 proclaim:1 refuse:1 accept:1 mainly:1 language:1 largely:1 inspire:1 historian:1 johann:1 joseph:1 ignaz:1 von:1 döllinger:1 formally:1 join:1 form:1 separate:1 old:2 protest:1 ref:2 http:1 encarta:2 msn:1 com:1 html:1 encyclopedia:2 suspension:1 rest:1 continue:1 return:1 summer:1 break:1 september:1 kingdom:1 italy:1 capture:1 annex:1 month:1 later:1 suspend:1 indefinitely:1 never:1 reconvene:1 see:1 also:1 second:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 modern:1 world:1 e:2 hale:1 doubleday:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 ewtn:1 introduction:1 |@bigram pope_pius:3 pius_ix:4 ecumenical_council:2 encyclopaedia_britannica:3 council_trent:1 lateran_council:1 papal_infallibility:5 immaculate_conception:1 austro_hungarian:1 ex_cathedra:2 divine_redeemer:1 encarta_msn:1 external_link:1 |
2,744 | Kazimir_Malevich | Kazimir Severinovich Malevich (, , , , ), (February 23, 1879, previously 1878: see belowMay 15, 1935) was a painter and art theoretician, pioneer of geometric abstract art and the originator of the Avant-garde Suprematist movement. Life and work Kazimir Malevich was born near Kiev in the Kiev Governorate of the Russian Empire. His parents, Seweryn and Ludwika Malewicz, were ethnic Poles, Milner and Malevich 1966, p. x. and he was baptised in the Roman Catholic Church. His father was the manager of a sugar factory. Kazimir was the first of fourteen children, although only nine of the children survived into adulthood. His family moved often and he spent most childhood in the villages of Ukraine amidst sugar-beet plantations, far from centers of culture. Until age 12 he knew nothing of professional artists, though art had surrounded him in childhood. He delighted in peasant embroidery, and in decorated walls and stoves. He himself was able to paint in the peasant style. He studied drawing in Kiev from 1895 to 1896. Black Square, 1915, Oil on Canvas, State Russian Museum, St.Petersburg In 1904, after the death of his father, he moved to Moscow. He studied at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture from 1904 to 1910 and in the studio of Fedor Rerberg in Moscow (1904–1910). In 1911 he participated in the second exhibition of the group Soyuz Molodyozhi (Union of Youth) in St. Petersburg, together with Vladimir Tatlin and, in 1912, the group held its third exhibition, which included works by Aleksandra Ekster, Tatlin and others. In the same year he participated in an exhibition by the collective Donkey's Tail in Moscow. By that time his works were influenced by Natalia Goncharova and Mikhail Larionov, Russian avant-garde painters who were particularly interested in Russian folk art called lubok. In March 1913 a major exhibition of Aristarkh Lentulov's paintings opened in Moscow. The effect of this exhibition was comparable with that of Paul Cezanne in Paris in 1907, as all the main Russian avant-garde artists of the time (including Malevich) immediately absorbed the cubist principles and began using them in their works. Already in the same year the Cubo-Futurist opera Victory Over the Sun with Malevich's stage-set became a great success. In 1914 Malevich exhibited his works in the Salon des Independants in Paris together with Alexander Archipenko, Sonia Delaunay, Aleksandra Ekster and Vadim Meller, among others. It remains one of the great mysteries of 20th century art, how, while leading a comfortable career, during which he just followed all the latest trends in art, in 1915 Malevich suddenly came up with the idea of Suprematism. The fact that Malevich throughout all his life was signing and re-signing his works using earlier dates makes this u-turn in his artistic career even more ambiguous. Be that as it may, in 1915 he published his manifesto From Cubism to Suprematism. In 1915-1916 he worked with other Suprematist artists in a peasant/artisan co-operative in Skoptsi and Verbovka village. In 1916-1917 he participated in exhibitions of the Jack of Diamonds group in Moscow together with Nathan Altman, David Burliuk and A. Ekster, among others. Famous examples of his Suprematist works include Black Square (1915) and White on White (1918). In 1918 Malevich decorated a play Mystery Bouffe by Vladimir Mayakovskiy produced by Vsevolod Meyerhold. Malevich also acknowledged that his fascination with aerial photography and aviation led him to abstractions inspired by or derived from aerial landscapes. Harvard doctoral candidate Julia Bekman Chadaga writes: “In his later writings, Malevich defined the 'additional element' as the quality of any new visual environment bringing about a change in perception .... In a series of diagrams illustrating the ‘environments' that influence various painterly styles, the Suprematist is associated with a series of aerial views rendering the familiar landscape into an abstraction..." (excerpted from Ms. Bekman Chadaga's paper delivered at Columbia University's 2000 symposium, "Art, Technology, and Modernity in Russia and Eastern Europe"). Self-portrait, 1933 (detail) After the October Revolution, Malevich became a member of the Collegium on the Arts of Narkompros, the commission for the protection of monuments and the museums commission (all from 1918-1919). He taught at the Vitebsk Practical Art School in the USSR (now part of Belarus) (1919–1922), the Leningrad Academy of Arts (1922–1927), the Kiev State Art Institute (1927–1929), and the House of the Arts in Leningrad (1930). He wrote the book The World as Non-Objectivity (Munich 1926; English trans. 1959) which outlines his Suprematist theories. In 1927, he traveled to Warsaw and then to Berlin and Munchen for a retrospective which finally brought him international recognition. He arranged to leave most of the paintings behind when he returned to the Soviet Union. Malevich's assumption that a shifting in the attitudes of the Soviet authorities towards the modernist art movement would take place after the death of Lenin and Trotsky's fall from power, were proven correct in a couple of years, when the Stalinist regime turned against formes of abstractism, considering them a type of "bourgeois" art, that could not express social realities. As a consequence, many of his works were confiscated and he was banned from creating and exhibiting similar art. Critics derided Malevich for reaching art by negating everything good and pure: love of life and love of nature. The Westernizer artist and art historian Alexandre Benois was one such critic. Malevich responded that art can advance and develop for art's sake alone, regardless of its pleasure: art does not need us, and it never needed us since stars first shone in the sky. Malevich's work only recently reappeared in art exhibitions in Russia after a long absence. Since then art followers have labored to reintroduce the artist to Russian lovers of painting. A book of his theoretical works with an anthology of reminiscences and writings has been published. Many stains on his reputation in Russia remain, however. Malevich died of cancer in Leningrad on May 15, 1935. On his deathbed he was exhibited with the black square above him. His ashes were sent to Nemchinovka, and buried in a field near his dacha. A white cube decorated with a black square was placed on his tomb. The city of Leningrad bestowed a pension on Malevich's mother and daughter. "No phenomenon is mortal," Malevich wrote in an unpublished manuscript, "and this means not only the body but the idea as well, a symbol that one is eternally reincarnated in another form which actually exists in the conscious and unconscious person." Date of birth Recently Ukrainian art historians established the precise birthdate of the artist: February 23, 1879. Malevich and Ukraine, by professor D. Gorbachev, 2006, Kiev, reveals many new biographical details. French art historian Andrei Nakov re-established Malevich's birth year as 1879 (and not 1878), and argues for restoration of the Polish spelling of his name. Posthumous sales Black Square, the fourth version of his magnum opus painted in the 1920s, sold at a state auction in Russia for the equivalent of one million dollars. The work was purchased by the Russian philanthropist, Vladimir Olegovich Potanin, who donated it to the State Hermitage Museum shortly thereafter. On November 3, 2008 a work by Malevich entitled Suprematist Composition from 1916 set the world record for any Russian work of art and any work sold at auction for that year, selling at Sotheby’s in New York City for just over $60 million U.S. (far surpassing his previous record of $17 million set in 2000). Malevich in popular culture The smuggling of Malevich paintings out of Russia is a key to the plot line of Martin Cruz Smith's thriller Red Square. Noah Charney's novel, The Art Thief tells the story of two stolen Malevich White on White paintings, and discusses the implications of Malevich's radical Suprematist compositions on the art world. Selected works 1912 Morning in the Country after Snowstorm 1912 The Woodcutter 1912-13 Reaper on Red Background 1914 The Aviator 1914 An Englishman in Moscow 1914 Soldier of the First Division 1915 Black Square and Red Square 1915 Red Square: Painterly Realism of a Peasant Woman in Two Dimensions 1915 Suprematist Composition 1915 Suprematism (1915) 1915 Suprematist Painting: Aeroplane Flying 1915 Suprematism: Self-Portrait in Two Dimensions 1915-16 Suprematist Painting (Ludwigshafen) 1916 Suprematist Painting (1916) 1916 Supremus No. 56 1916-17 Suprematism (1916-17) 1917 Suprematist Painting (1917) 1928-32 Complex Presentiment: Half-Figure in a Yellow Shirt 1932-34 Running Man Gallery See also Aerial landscape art Aleksandra Ekster El Lissitzky IRWIN Lyubov Popova OBERIU Suprematism Supremus UNOVIS :ru:Витебский музей современного искусства Notes References Andrei Nakov Kazimir Malewicz, Catalogue raisonné, Paris, Adam Biro, 2002 Andrei Nakov vol. IV of Kazimir Malewicz, le peintre absolu, Paris, Thalia Édition, 2007 The Non-objective World, Kasimir Malevich, trans. Howard Dearstyne, Paul Theobald, 1959. ISBN 0486429741 Kazimir Malevich and Suprematism 1878-1935, Gilles Néret, Taschen, 2003. ISBN 0874141192 Dreikausen, Margret, "Aerial Perception: The Earth as Seen from Aircraft and Spacecraft and Its Influence on Contemporary Art" (Associated University Presses: Cranbury, NJ; London, England; Mississauga, Ontario: 1985). ISBN 0-87982-040-3 Milner, John; Malevich, Kazimir, Kazimir Malevich and the art of geometry, Yale University Press, 1966. ISBN 0300064179 Shishanov V.A. Vitebsk Museum of Modern Art: a history of creation and a collection. 1918-1941. - Minsk: Medisont, 2007. - 144 p. Kazimir Malevich in the State Russian Museum. Palace Editions. ISBN 978-3930775767. (English Edition) External links and references Andrei Nakov's works on Kazimir Malevich Paintings by Kazimir Malevich Kasimir Malevich. Black Square Guggenheim: Kazimir Malevich Feel it... The "Black Square" based on Kazimir Malevich. "Black Square" "White on White" "Malevich on Film" DA Collection www.Kazimir-Malevich.org - 128 works by Kazimir Malevich Kazimir Malevich at Olga's Gallery "Victory Over the Sun" discussed smARThistory: Suprematist Composition: White on White Das schwarze quadrat (The Black Square) - Exhibition at Kunsthalle Hamburg Lawsuit over ownership of Malevich's Paintings Settled Artworks - 27 Paintings at Istanbul Art House Kazimir Malevich Website be-x-old:Казімер Малевіч | Kazimir_Malevich |@lemmatized kazimir:17 severinovich:1 malevich:42 february:2 previously:1 see:3 belowmay:1 painter:2 art:32 theoretician:1 pioneer:1 geometric:1 abstract:1 originator:1 avant:3 garde:3 suprematist:13 movement:2 life:3 work:17 bear:1 near:2 kiev:5 governorate:1 russian:9 empire:1 parent:1 seweryn:1 ludwika:1 malewicz:3 ethnic:1 pole:1 milner:2 p:2 x:2 baptise:1 roman:1 catholic:1 church:1 father:2 manager:1 sugar:2 factory:1 first:3 fourteen:1 child:2 although:1 nine:1 survive:1 adulthood:1 family:1 move:2 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2,745 | Desertification | Ship stranded by the retreat of the Aral Sea Desertification is the degradation of land in arid and dry sub-humid areas, resulting primarily from man-made activities and influenced by climatic variations. It is principally caused by overgrazing, overdrafting of groundwater and diversion of water from rivers for human consumption and industrial use, all of these processes fundamentally driven by overpopulation. A major impact of desertification is biodiversity loss and loss of productive capacity, for example, by transition from land dominated by shrublands to non-native grasslands. In the semi-arid regions of southern California, many coastal sage scrub and chaparral ecosystems have been replaced by non-native, invasive grasses due to the shortening of fire return intervals. This can create a monoculture of annual grass that cannot support the wide range of animals once found in the original ecosystem. In Madagascar's central highland plateau, 10% of the entire country has been lost to desertification due to slash and burn agriculture by indigenous peoples. In Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent will be able to feed only 25% of its population by 2025, according to UNU's Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa. Africa may be able to feed only 25% of its population by 2025 Globally, desertification claims a Nebraska-sized area of productive capacity each year. Environmental failure: a case for a new green politics Causes Sand dunes advancing on Nouakchott, the capital of Mauritania. Desertification is induced by several factors, primarily anthropogenic causes, which began in the Holocene era and continue at the highest pace today. The primary reasons for desertification are overgrazing, over-cultivation, increased fire frequency, water impoundment, deforestation, overdrafting of groundwater, increased soil salinity, and global climate change. E.O. Wilson, The Future of Life, 2001 Deserts may be separated from surrounding, less arid areas by mountains and other contrasting landforms that reflect fundamental structural differences in the terrain. In other areas, desert fringes form a gradual transition from a dry to a more humid environment, making it more subtle to determine the desert border. These transition zones can have fragile, delicately balanced ecosystems. Desert fringes often are a mosaic of microclimates. Small pieces of wood support vegetation that picks up heat from the hot winds and protects the land from the prevailing winds. After rainfall the vegetated areas are distinctly cooler than the surroundings. In these marginal areas activity centres may stress the ecosystem beyond its tolerance limit, resulting in degradation of the land. By pounding the soil with their hooves, livestock compact the substrate, increase the proportion of fine material, and reduce the percolation rate of the soil, thus encouraging erosion by wind and water. Grazing and collection of firewood reduce or eliminate plants that bind the soil and prevent erosion. All these come about due to the trend towards settling in one area instead of a nomadic culture. Sand dunes can encroach on human habitats. Sand dunes move through a few different means, all of them assisted by wind. One way that dunes can move is through saltation, where sand particles skip along the ground like a rock thrown across a pond might skip across the water's surface. When these skipping particles land, they may knock into other particles and cause them to skip as well. With slightly stronger winds, particles collide in mid-air, causing sheet flows. In a major dust storm, dunes may move tens of meters through such sheet flows. And like snow, sand avalanches, falling down the steep slopes of the dunes that face away from the winds, also moving the dunes forward. It is a common misconception that droughts by themselves cause desertification. While drought is a contributing factor, the root causes are all related to man's overexploitation of the environment. E.O. Wilson, The Future of Life, 2001 Droughts are common in arid and semiarid lands, and well-managed lands can recover from drought when the rains return. Continued land abuse during droughts, however, increases land degradation. Increased population and livestock pressure on marginal lands has accelerated desertification. In some areas, nomads moving to less arid areas disrupt the local ecosystem and increase the rate of erosion of the land. Nomads typically try to escape the desert, but because of their land-use practices, they are bringing the desert with them. Some arid and semi-arid lands can support crops, but additional pressure from greater populations or decreases in rainfall can lead to the few plants present disappearing. The soil becomes exposed to wind, causing soil particles to be deposited elsewhere. The top layer becomes eroded. With the removal of shade, rates of evaporation increase and salts become drawn up to the surface. This increases soil salinity which inhibits plant growth. The loss of plants causes less moisture to be retained in the area, which may change the climate pattern leading to lower rainfall. This degradation of formerly productive land is a complex process. It involves multiple causes, and it proceeds at varying rates in different climates. Desertification may intensify a general climatic trend toward greater aridity, or it may initiate a change in local climate. Desertification does not occur in linear, easily mappable patterns. Deserts advance erratically, forming patches on their borders. Areas far from natural deserts can degrade quickly to barren soil, rock, or sand through poor land management. The presence of a nearby desert has no direct relationship to desertification. Unfortunately, an area undergoing desertification is brought to public attention only after the process is well under way. Often little data are available to indicate the previous state of the ecosystem or the rate of degradation. Desertification is both an environmental and developmental problem. It affects local environments and populations’ ways of life. Its effects, however, have more global ramifications concerning biodiversity, climatic change and water resources. The degradation of terrain is directly linked to human activity and constitutes both one of the consequences of poor development and a major obstacle to the sustainable development of dryland zones. Cornet A., 2002. Desertification and its relationship to the environment and development: a problem that affects us all. In: Ministère des Affaires étrangères/adpf, Johannesburg. World Summit on Sustainable Development. 2002. What is at stake? The contribution of scientists to the debate: 91-125.. Combating desertification is complex and difficult, usually impossible without alteration of land management practises that led to the desertification. Over-exploitation of the land and climate variations can have identical impacts and be connected in feedbacks, which makes it very difficult to choose the right mitigation strategy. Investigating the historic desertification plays a special role since it allows better distinguishing of human and natural factors. In this context, recent research about historic desertification in Jordan questions the dominant role of man. It seems possible that current measures like reforestation projects cannot achieve their goals if global warming continues. Forests may die when it gets drier, and more frequent extreme events as testified in sediments from earlier periods could become a threat for agriculture, water supply, and infrastructure. Prehistoric patterns Desertification is a historic phenomenon; the world's great deserts were formed by natural processes interacting over long intervals of time. During most of these times, deserts have grown and shrunk independent of human activities. Paleodeserts are large sand seas now inactive because they are stabilized by vegetation, some extending beyond the present margins of core deserts, such as the Sahara. Many deserts in western Asia arose because of an overpopulation of prehistoric species and subspecies during the late Cretaceous era. Dated fossil pollen indicates that today's Sahara desert has been changing between desert and fertile savanna. Studies also show that prehistorically the advance and retreat of deserts tracked yearly rainfall, whereas a pattern of increasing amounts of desert began with human-driven activities of overgrazing and deforestation. A chief difference of prehistoric versus present desertification is the much greater rate of desertification than in prehistoric and geologic time scales, due to anthropogenic influences. Historical and current desertification Overgrazing and to a lesser extent drought in the 1930s transformed parts of the Great Plains in the United States into the "Dust Bowl". During that time, a considerable fraction of the plains population abandoned their homes to escape the unproductive lands. Improved agricultural and water management have prevented a disaster of the earlier magnitude from recurring, but desertification presently affects tens of millions of people with primary occurrence in the lesser developed countries. Lake Chad in a 2001 satellite image, with the actual lake in blue. The lake has shrunk by 95% since the 1960s. Shrinking African Lake Offers Lesson on Finite Resources Desertification is widespread in many areas of the People's Republic of China. The populations of rural areas have increased since 1949 for economical reasons as more people have settled there. While there has been an increase in livestock, the land available for grazing has decreased. Also the importing of European cattle such as Friesian and Simmental, which have higher food intakes, has made things worse. Human overpopulation is leading to destruction of tropical wet forests and tropical dry forests, due to widening practices of slash-and-burn and other methods of subsistence farming necessitated by famines in lesser developed countries. A sequel to the deforestation is typically large scale erosion, loss of soil nutrients and sometimes total desertification. Examples of this extreme outcome can be seen on Madagascar's central highland plateau, where about seven percent of the country's total land mass has become barren, sterile land. Overgrazing has made the Rio Puerco Basin of central New Mexico one of the most eroded river basins of the western United States and has increased the high sediment content of the river. "Desertification", United States Geological Survey (1997) Overgrazing is also contributing to desertification in some parts of Chile, Ethiopia, Morocco and other countries. Overgrazing is also an issue with some regions of South Africa such as the Waterberg Massif, although restoration of native habitat and game has been pursued vigorously since about 1980. Another example of desertification occurring is in the Sahel. The chief cause of desertification in the Sahel is slash-and-burn farming practised by an expanding human population. "Desertification - a threat to the Sahel", August 1994 The Sahara is expanding south at a rate of up to 48 kilometres per year. Hunger is spreading in Africa Ghana "Ghana: Threats of Desertification Must Be Taken Seriously", Public Agenda (allAfrica.com), May 21, 2007. and Nigeria currently experience desertification; in the latter, desertification overtakes about of land per year. The Central Asian countries, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, are also affected. More than 80% of Afghanistan's and Pakistan's land could be subject to soil erosion and desertification. Afghanistan: Environmental crisis looms as conflict goes on In Kazakhstan, nearly half of the cropland has been abandoned since 1980. In Iran, sand storms were said to have buried 124 villages in Sistan and Baluchestan Province in 2002, and they had to be abandoned. In Latin America, Mexico and Brazil are affected by desertification. Lester R. Brown, "The Earth Is Shrinking: Advancing Deserts and Rising Seas Squeezing Civilization", Earth Policy Institute, November 15, 2006. Countering desertification Trees are planted instead of sand fences to reduce sand accumulating in a UAE highway. Sand fences are one commonly employed technique to prevent the movement of sand or the loss of soil. Desertification has been recognized as a major threat to biodiversity. Numerous countries have developed Biodiversity Action Plans to counter its effects, particularly in relation to the protection of endangered flora and fauna. Techniques for Desert Reclamation by Andrew S. Goudie Desert reclamation projects A number of methods have been tried in order to reduce the rate of desertification and regain lost land; however, most measures treat symptoms of sand movement and do not address the root causes of land modification such as overgrazing, unsustainable farming (eg cattle farming) and deforestation by the indigenous population. In developing countries under threat of desertification, many local people use trees for firewood and cooking which has increased the problem of land degradation and often even increased their poverty. In order to gain further supplies of fuel the local population add more pressure to the depleted forests; adding to the desertification process. Techniques focus on two aspects: provisioning of water (eg by wells and energy intensive systems involving water pipes or over long distances) and fixating and hyper-fertilising soil. Fixating the soil is often done through the use of shelter belts, woodlots and windbreaks. Windbreaks are made from trees and bushes and are used to reduce soil erosion and evapotranspiration. They were widely encouraged by development agencies from the middle of the 1980s in the Sahel area of Africa. Another approach is the spraying of petroleum or nano clay Nano clay over semi-arid cropland. This is often done in areas where either petroleum or nano clay is easily and cheaply obtainable (eg Iran). In both cases, the application of the material coats seedlings to prevent moisture loss and stop them being blown away. Some soils (eg clay soils), due to lack of water can become consolidaded rather than become too loose (as in the case of sandy soils). Some techniques as zaï or tillage are then used to still allow the planting of crops. Arid sandy soils becoming consolidaded; zai-system The enriching of the soil and the restoration of its fertility is often done by a variety of plants. Of these, the Leguminous plants which extracts nitrogen from the air and fixes it in the soil, and food crops/trees as grains, barley, beans and dates are the most important. When housing is foreseen in or near the reforestation area, organic waste material (eg hazelnut shells, bamboo, chicken manure, ...) can be made into biochar or Terra preta nova by a pyrolysis unit. This substance may be used to enrich planting spaces for high-demanding crops. NGC Our good earth Finally, some approaches as stacking stones around the base of trees and artificial groove-digging also help in increasing the chance of success/crop survival. Stacked stones help to collect morning dew and retain soil moisture. Artificial grooves are dug in the ground as to retain rainfall and trap wind-blown seeds. Keita ID project ditches Making of ditches against desertification In order to solve the problem of chopping down trees for personal energy requirements, solutions as Solar ovens and efficient wood burning cook stoves are being advocated as a means to relieving some of this pressure upon the environment. While desertification has received some publicity by the news media, most people are unaware of the extent of environmental degradation of productive lands and the expansion of deserts. In 1988 Ridley Nelson pointed out that desertification is a subtle and complex process of deterioration. At the local level, individuals and governments can partially or temporarily forestall desertification. Sand fences are used throughout the Middle East and the US, in the same way snow fences are used in the north. Placement of straw grids, each up to a square meter in area, will also decrease the surface wind velocity. Shrubs and trees planted within the grids are protected by the straw until they take root. However, some studies suggest that planting of trees depletes water supplies in the area. Planting trees may create deserts - earth - 29 July 2005 - New Scientist In areas where some water is available for irrigation, shrubs planted on the lower one-third of a dune's windward side will stabilize the dune. This vegetation decreases the wind velocity near the base of the dune and prevents much of the sand from moving. Higher velocity winds at the top of the dune level it off and trees can be planted atop these flattened surfaces. Jojoba plantations, such as those shown, have played a role in combating edge effects of desertification in the Thar Desert, India. Oases and farmlands in windy regions are often protected by the approach described above by planting tree fences or grass belts in order to reduce erosion and walking dunes. Also, small projects as oases often section their plot of land by placing a barrier of thorny bushes or other obstacles to keep grazing animals of the food crops. Instead, they provide water provisioning (eg from a well, ...) outside this barrier. They provide this service mainly to accommodate the animals of travelers (eg camels, ...). Sand that manages to pass through the grass belts can be caught in strips of trees planted as wind breaks 50 to 100 meters apart adjacent to the belts. Small plots of trees may also be scattered inside oases to stabilize the area. On a much larger scale, a "Green Wall of China", which will eventually stretch more than 5,700 kilometers in length, nearly as long as the Great Wall of China, is being planted in north-eastern China to protect "sandy lands" – deserts created by human activity. There is another technique, which is controversial, that involves using livestock to rehabilitate land. This is based on the fact that many areas in the world which are heavily desertified were once grasslands and similar environments (the Sahara, areas in the USA that were affected by the Dust Bowl years http://managingwholes.com/desertification.htm ) and where substantial populations of large herbivores were once supported. By using livestock (which is contained within a portable fence so that they cannot wander away from the site) along with hay and seeds contained within, the land can be restored effectively, even on mine dumps. http://www.ecoresults.org/success_tiptons.html In addition, people that hold livestock and that have a semi-nomadic livestyle (moving between fixed homes) such as nomadic pastoralists have significant interest in combating desertification of these areas. Nomadic pastoralists and reforestation Having these people to plant shelterbelts, windbreaks, trees or nitrogen-fixating crops in the vicinity of their homes would also help a lot. Africa, with coordination from Senegal, has launched its own "green wall" project IISD RS summary of the International Conference on Renewable Energy in Africa - 16-18 April 2008 - Dakar, Senegal . Trees will be planted on a 15 km wide land strip from Senegal to Djibouti. Aside from countering desert progression, the project is also aimed at creating new economic activities, especially thanks to tree products such as gum arabic FAO : More efficient use of existing water resources and control of salinization are other tools for mitigating arid lands. New ways are also being sought to find groundwater resources and to develop more effective ways of irrigating arid and semiarid lands. Research on the reclamation of deserts is also focusing on discovering proper crop rotation to protect fragile soil, on understanding how sand-fixing plants can be adapted to local environments, and on how overgrazing can be addressed. A proposal combining desert stabilization and renewable energy is Aerially Delivered Re-forestation and Erosion Control System - [ADRECS - Aerially Delivered Reforestation and Erosion Control Mitigation concepts Sand fences can be used to control drifting of soil and sand and soil erosion. A recent development is the Seawater Greenhouse and Seawater Forest. This proposal is to construct these devices on coastal deserts in order to create freshwater and grow food The Sahara Project a new source of freshwater food and energy A similar approach is the Desert Rose concept Desert Rose - Claverton Group Energy Conference, Bath October2008 These approaches are of widespread applicability, since the relative costs of pumping large quantities of seawater inland are low http://www.claverton-energy.com/pipe-headloss-power-calculator-calculate-how-much-energy-to-pump-seawater-to-the-middle-of-the-sahara-or-gobi-desert-for-desalination-in-the-seawater-greenhouse-answer-not-a-lot.html claverton energy group article . Another related concept is ADRECS - a system for rapidly delivering soil stabilisation and re forestation techniques coupled with renewable energy generation http://www.claverton-energy.com/download/320/ . Desertification and poverty Numerous authors underline the strong link between desertification and poverty. The proportion of poor people among populations is noticeably higher in dryland zones, especially among rural populations. This situation increases yet further as a function of land degradation because of the reduction in productivity, the precariousness of living conditions and difficulty of access to resources and opportunities. Dobie, Ph. 2001.“Poverty and the drylands,” in Global Drylands Imperative, Challenge paper, Undp, Nairobi (Kenya) 16 p. Decision-makers are highly reticent about investing in arid zones with low potential. This absence of investment contributes to the marginalisation of these zones.When unfavourable agro-climatic conditions are combined with an absence of infrastructure and access to markets, as well as poorly-adapted production techniques and an underfed and undereducated population, most such zones are excluded from development. Cornet A., 2002. Desertification and its relationship to the environment and development: a problem that affects us all. In: Ministère des Affaires étrangères/adpf, Johannesburg. World Summit on Sustainable Development. 2002. What is at stake? The contribution of scientists to the debate: 91-125.. See also Aridification Deforestation Desert rose project Ecological engineering Global warming Green Revolution Oasification United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification Water crisis References Batterbury, S.P.J. & A.Warren. 2001. Desertification. in N. Smelser & P. Baltes (eds.) International Encyclopædia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier Press. Pp. 3526-3529 Further reading Benjaminsen, Tor A., and Gunvor Berge (2000). Timbuktu: myter, menneske, miljø. Oslo: Spartakus forlag Lucke, Bernhard (2007): Demise of the Decapolis. Past and Present Desertification in the Context of Soil Development, Land Use, and Climate. Online at OUTGROWING THE EARTH: The Food Security Challenge in an Age of Falling Water Tables by Lester R. Brown Geist, Helmut (2005) The Causes and Progression of Desertification, Abingdon: Ashgate Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Desertification Synthesis Report Reynolds, James F., and D. Mark Stafford Smith (ed.) (2002) Global Desertification – Do Humans Cause Deserts? Dahlem Workshop Report 88, Berlin: Dahlem University Press Stock, Robert (1995). Africa South of the Sahara. New York: The Guilford Press Barbault R., Cornet A., Jouzel J., Mégie G., Sachs I., Weber J. (2002). Johannesburg. World Summit on Sustainable Development. 2002. What is at stake? The contribution of scientists to the debate. Ministère des Affaires étrangères/adpf. External links Oasis - A global agricultural research-for-development partnership against desertification The Earth Is Shrinking: Advancing Deserts and Rising Seas Squeezing Civilization Desert Research Institute in Nevada, United States Desertification.Info - IOSD/CED^R Center on Ecological Desertification and Reforestation Eden Foundation article on desertification [TEMA] Turkish andi-desertification organization FAO Information Portal - Properties and Management of Drylands GTZ CCD Project - A key player in combating desertification and drought effects UNEP (2006): Global Deserts Outlook UNEP Programme on Success Stories in Land Degradation/ Desertification Control United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification - Secretariat Rural poverty and desertification on the Rural Poverty Portal A guide for desert and dryland restoration by David A. 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2,746 | Indiana | The State of Indiana () was the 19th U.S. state admitted into the union. It is a Northern state located in the Great Lakes region of the United States of America. With about 6.3 million residents, it is ranked 15th in population and 17th in population density. States ranked by population density Indiana is ranked 38th in land area and of the lower 48 states, Indiana is the smallest state in the continental United States west of the Appalachian Mountains. Its capital and largest city is Indianapolis. Indiana is a diverse state with a few large urban areas, a number of smaller industrial cities, and many small towns. It is known nationally for its sports teams and athletic events: the NFL's Indianapolis Colts, the NBA's Indiana Pacers, the Indianapolis 500 motorsports race, the largest single-day sporting event in the world, and for a strong basketball tradition, often called Hoosier Hysteria. Residents of Indiana are known as Hoosiers. Although many stories are told, the origin of the term is unknown. The state's name means "Land of the Indians", or simply "Indian Land". The name dates back to at least the 1768 Indiana Land Company, and was first used by Congress when Indiana Territory was created, at which time the territory was unceded Indian land. Angel Mounds State Historic Site, one of the best preserved prehistoric Native American sites in the United States, can be found in Southwestern Indiana near Evansville. History The Indiana State House in Indianapolis was completed in 1887, primarily constructed out of Indiana limestone. It was thought that Indiana was inhabited by migratory tribes of Native Americans possibly as early as 8000 BC. Radiocarbon dating shows that a tool carved from deer bone, discovered by University of Indianapolis archeologists in 2003, is 10,400 years old. The find supports the growing notion that, in the wake of the most recent Ice Age, humans migrated into Indiana earlier than previously thought. These tribes succeeded one another in dominance for several thousand years. By 900 AD an advanced culture of Mississippians became dominant building large cities of 30,000 inhabitants and massive earthworks in the state. For unknown reasons, their entire civilization disappeared sometime around 1450. The region entered recorded history when the first Europeans came to Indiana and claimed the territory for Kingdom of France during the 1670s. At the conclusion of the French and Indian War and one hundred years of French rule, the region came under the control of the Kingdom of Great Britain. British control was short-lived, as the region was transferred to the newly formed United States at the conclusion of the American Revolutionary War only 20 years later. At the time the United States took possession of Indiana, there were only two permanent European settlements in the entire territory, Clark's Grant and Vincennes. The United States immediately set to work to develop Indiana. In 1800, the Indiana Territory was established and steadily settled. It was originally placed under the governorship of William Henry Harrison who oversaw the purchase of millions of acres of land from the native tribes and successfully guided the territory through Tecumseh's War and the War of 1812. Indiana was admitted to the Union in 1816 as the nineteenth state. Following statehood, the new government set out on an ambitious plan to transform Indiana from a wilderness frontier into a developed, well populated, and thriving state. The state's founders initiated a program that led to the construction of roads, canals, railroads, and state funded public schools. The plans nearly bankrupted the state and were a financial disaster, but increased land and produce value more than fourfold. During the 1850s, the state's population grew to exceed one million and the ambitious program of the state founders was finally realized. During the American Civil War, Indiana became politically influential and played an important role in the affairs of the nation. As the first western state to mobilize for the war, Indiana's soldiers were present in almost every engagement during the war. After the Civil War, Indiana remained important nationally as it became a critical swing state in U.S. Presidential elections, which decided control of the federal government for three decades. 1888 Overview p.4, HarpWeek. Retrieved on May 13, 2008 Following the Civil War, Indiana industry began to grow and an accelerated rate across the northern part of the state leading to the formation of labor unions and suffrage movements. The Indiana Gas Boom led to rapid industrialization during the late 19th century. During the early 20th century, Indiana developed into a strong manufacturing state, then experienced setbacks during the Great Depression of the 1930s. The state also saw many developments with the construction of Indianapolis Motor Speedway, the takeoff of the auto industry in the state, substantial urban growth, and two major United States wars. Economic recovery began during World War II and the state continued to enjoy substantial growth. During the second half the of the 20th century, Indiana became a leader in the pharmaceutical industry, as Eli Lilly and other companies settled in the state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lilly.com/about/milestones.html|title=Milestones in Medical Research|publisher=lilly.com|author=Eli Lilly and Company |accessdate=2008-05-24}}</ref> Geography Indiana is bounded on the north by Lake Michigan and the state of Michigan; on the east by Ohio; on the south by Kentucky, with which it shares the Ohio River as a border; and on the west by Illinois. Indiana is one of the Great Lakes states. The northern boundary of the states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois was originally defined to be a latitudinal line drawn through the southernmost tip of Lake Michigan. Since such a line did not provide Indiana with usable frontage on the lake, its northern border was shifted ten miles (16 km) north when it was granted statehood in 1816. Meinig, D.W. (1993). The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History, Volume 2: Continental America, 1800–1867. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-05658-3; pg. 436 The 475 mile (764 km) long Wabash River bisects the state from northeast to southwest before flowing south, mostly along the Indiana-Illinois border. The river has given Indiana a few theme songs, such as On the Banks of the Wabash, The Wabash Cannonball and Back Home Again, In Indiana. The Wabash is the longest free-flowing river east of the Mississippi, traversing from the Huntington dam to the Ohio River. The White River (a tributary of the Wabash, which is a tributary of the Ohio) zigzags through central Indiana. There are 24 Indiana state parks, nine man-made reservoirs, and hundreds of lakes in the state. Areas under the control and protection of the National Park Service or the United States Forest Service include: George Rogers Clark National Historical Park in Vincennes Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore near Michigan City Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial in Lincoln City Hoosier National Forest in Bedford Northern Indiana The northwest corner of the state is part of the Chicago metropolitan area and has nearly one million residents. Gary, and the cities and towns that make up the northern half of Lake, Porter, and La Porte Counties bordering on Lake Michigan, are effectively commuter suburbs of Chicago. Porter and Lake counties are commonly referred to as "The Calumet Region". The name comes from the fact that the Grand Calumet and Little Calumet rivers run through the area. These counties are in the Central Time Zone, the same as Chicago. NICTD owns and operates the South Shore Line, a commuter rail line that runs electric-powered trains between South Bend and Chicago. Sand dunes and heavy industry share the shoreline of Lake Michigan in northern Indiana. Along the shoreline of Lake Michigan in Northern Indiana one can find many parks between the industrial areas. The Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore and the Indiana Dunes State Park are two natural landmarks of the area. The region is marked with swell and swale topography as it retreats South from Lake Michigan. The ecology changes dramatically between swells, or on opposite sides of the same swell. Plants and animals adapted to marshes are generally found in the swales, while forests or even prickly pear cactus are found in the dryer swells. Jackson, 211 Most of northern and central Indiana is flat farmland dotted with small cities and towns, such as North Manchester. Much of Northern Indiana is considered part of Amish Country and holds the nation's second largest population of such people. The Kankakee River, which winds through northern Indiana, serves somewhat as a demarcating line between suburban northwest Indiana and the rest of the state. Before it was drained and developed for agriculture, the Kankakee Marsh was one of the largest freshwater marshes in the country. Jackson, 190 South of the Kankakee is a large area of prairie, the eastern edge of the Grand Prairie that covers Iowa and Illinois. Jackson, p. 189 The Prairie Chicken and American Bison were common in Indiana's pioneer era, but are now extinct as wild species within the state. The South Bend metropolitan area, in north central Indiana, is the center of commerce in the region better known as Michiana. Other cities located within the area include Elkhart, Mishawaka, Goshen, and Warsaw. Fort Wayne, the state's second largest city, is located in the northeastern part of the state where it serves the state as a transportation hub. Other cities located within the area include Huntington and Marion. East of Fort Wayne is an area of extremely flat land that, before development, was the western-most reach of the Great Black Swamp. Jackson, p. 201 Northeastern Indiana is home to a number of lakes, many of which are the remains of the glaciers that covered Indiana thousands of years ago and Glacial Lake Maumee. Some of these lakes include Lake James in Pokagon State Park, Lake Maxinkuckee, Lake Wawasee and Lake Tippecanoe. Lake Wawasee is the largest natural lake in Indiana, while Lake Tippecanoe is the deepest lake, reaching depths of over . Both lakes are located in Kosciusko County. Chain O' Lakes State Park, located in Noble County, contains 11 lakes, 8 of which are connected by natural channels. Central Indiana Perfectly square quarter sections of farmland cover Central Indiana. The state capital and largest city, Indianapolis, is situated in the central portion of the state. It is intersected by numerous Interstates, U.S. highways, and railways giving the state its motto as "The Crossroads of America". Other large cities and located within the area include Anderson, Carmel, Columbus, Kokomo, Lafayette, Richmond, and Terre Haute. Rural areas in the central portion of the state are typically composed of a patchwork of fields and forested areas. The geography of Central Indiana consists of gently rolling hills and sandstone ravines carved out by the retreating glaciers. Many of these ravines can be found in west-central Indiana, specifically along Sugar Creek in Turkey Run State Park and Shades State Park. Southern Indiana Evansville, the third largest city in Indiana, is located in the southwestern corner of the state. It is located in a tri-state area that includes Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky. The south-central cities of Clarksville, Jeffersonville, and New Albany are part of the Louisville metropolitan area. Vincennes, founded by French traders in 1732 and the oldest European settlement in the state, is located on the Wabash River as served as the first capitol of the Indiana Territory. Vincennes is also home of the Pantheon Theatre. Indiana was settled from southern periphery northward and the state's oldest settlements and first capital, Corydon are in southern Indiana. Until 1950, the United States Census found the center of population to lie in southern Indiana. Southern Indiana is a mixture of farmland, forest and very hilly areas, especially near Louisville and in the south central lime hills areas. The Hoosier National Forest is a nature preserve in south central Indiana. Southern Indiana's topography is more varied than that in the north and generally contains more hills and geographic variation than the northern portion, such as the "Knobs," a series of hills that run parallel to the Ohio River in south-central Indiana. The bottomlands of Indiana, where the Wabash and Ohio converge, hosts numerous plant and animal species normally found in the Lower Mississippi and Gulf Coast region of the United States. Jackson, 177 Brown County is well-known for its hills covered with colorful autumn foliage, T.C. Steele's former home, and Nashville, the county seat and shopping destination. Harrison and Crawford Counties boast three of the state's most popular commercial caves at Wyandotte, Marengo, and Squire Boone Caverns. The limestone geology of Southern Indiana has created numerous caves and one of the largest limestone quarry regions in the United States. Many of Indiana's official buildings, such as the Indiana Statehouse, the downtown monuments, the Indiana University School of Law in Indianapolis, many buildings at Indiana University in Bloomington, and the Indiana Government Center are all examples of Indiana architecture made with Indiana limestone. Indiana limestone has also been used in many other famous structures in the US, such as the Empire State Building, the Pentagon, and the Washington National Cathedral. In addition, 35 of the 50 state capitol buildings are made of Indiana limestone. Climate Most of Indiana has a humid continental climate (Koppen climate classification Dfa), with hot, humid summers and cool to cold winters. The extreme southern portions of the state border on a humid subtropical climate (Koppen Cfa) with somewhat milder winters. Summertime maximum temperatures average around 90 °F with cooler nights around 60 °F. Winters are a little more variable, but generally cool to cold temperatures with all but the northern part of the state averaging above freezing for the maximum January temperature, and the minimum temperature below 20 °F (-8 °C) for most of the state. Indiana's record high temperature is 116 degrees observed at Collegeville on July 14, 1936. The record low temperature is -36 degrees observed at New Whiteland on January 19, 1994. The state receives a good amount of precipitation, annually statewide, in all four seasons. Amounts vary significantly, with the northern part of the state averaging , and the southern part averaging . March through August are the typically the wettest monthes of the year. Winter months average three inches of rain, making it the driest time of the year. The state commonly experiences severe weather, with both winter storms and thunderstorms. Snow fall varies significantly across the state, with northern Indiana averaging annually, and southern Indiana averaging annually. Indiana occasionally experiences blizzards, some due to Lake-effect snow. Two major paralyzing snowstorms were theBlizzard of 1978, which affected almost the entire state, and the December 2004 Blizzard, which primarily affected the Ohio Valley and later caused the severe flooding of the White, Wabash, and the Ohio Rivers in January, 2005. The state averages around 40–50 days of thunderstorms per year, with March and April being the period of most severe storms. While not considered part of Tornado Alley, Indiana is the Great Lakes state which is most vulnerable to tornadic activity. Three of the most severe tornado outbreaks in U.S. history affected Indiana, the Tri-State Tornado of 1925, the Palm Sunday tornado outbreak of 1965 and the Super Outbreak of 1974. The Evansville Tornado of November 2005. On average, Indiana experiences 23 confirmed tornadoes annually. The most recorded tornados occured in 1990 when a 67 confirmed tornados occured in the state, half of them on the same day. Wind speed averages about per hour, and typically travel in a northwesterly direction. During severe weather, wind speeds have measured in excess of per hour. Monthly Normal High and Low Temperatures for Largest Indiana Cities City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Evansville 40/23 45/26 56/35 67/44 77/54 86/64 89/68 86/64 81/57 70/45 56/36 44/27 Fort Wayne 31/16 35/19 47/29 60/38 72/49 81/59 84/62 82/60 75/53 63/42 48/33 36/22 Indianapolis 34/18 40/22 51/32 63/41 74/52 82/61 86/65 84/63 77/55 66/44 52/34 39/24 South Bend 31/16 36/19 47/28 59/38 71/48 80/58 83/63 81/61 74/53 62/42 48/33 36/22Source: US Travel Weather Average Precipitation in Indiana Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annum 2.48 2.27 3.36 3.89 4.46 4.19 4.22 3.91 3.12 3.02 3.44 3.1341.49 Demographics Population Indiana Population Density Map Age and gender distribution in Indiana As of 2006, Indiana had an estimated population of 6,313,520, which is an increase of 47,501, or 0.8%, from the prior year and an increase of 233,003, or 3.8%, since the year 2000. Table 4: Cumulative Estimates of the Components of Population Change for the United States, Regions and States: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2006 This includes a natural increase since the last census of 196,728 people (that is 541,506 births minus 344,778 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 51,117 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 68,935 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 17,818 people. The center of population of Indiana is located in Hamilton County, in the town of Sheridan. Population growth since 1990 has been concentrated in the counties surrounding Indianapolis, with four of the top five fastest-growing counties in that area: Hamilton, Hendricks, Johnson, and Hancock. The other county is Dearborn County, which is near Cincinnati. The Evansville area has experienced a shift in their population. Vanderburgh County has continued to grow by at least 3% a year while the city of Evansville struggles with retaining population. The other counties of the Evansville area of Southwestern Indiana have started to grow at an increasingly faster rate, especially Gibson and Warrick Counties who are becoming Evansville's suburban counties. Gibson County has seen at least two towns Haubstadt and Fort Branch starting to become "bedroom communities" like Newburgh and Chandler in Warrick County. In addition, the two counties have seen their minority (in particular, Asian, African-American, and Hispanic) populations nearly double in the last 15 years. As of 2005, the total population included 242,281 foreign-born (3.9%). Census: Indiana, United States German is the largest ancestry reported in Indiana, with 22.7% of the population reporting that ancestry in the Census. Persons citing "American" (12.0%) and English ancestry (8.9%) are also numerous, as are Irish (10.8%) and Polish (3.0%). Census: DP-2. Profile of Selected Social Characteristics: 2000 Religion Although the largest single religious denomination in the state is Roman Catholic (836,009 members), most of the population are members of various Protestant denominations. The largest Protestant denomination by number of adherents in 2000 was the United Methodist Church with 288,308. http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/18_2000.asp A study by the Graduate Center found that 20% are Roman Catholic, 14% belong to different Baptist churches, 10% are other Christians, 9% are Methodist, and 6% are Lutheran. The study also found that 16% are secular. The state is home to the University of Notre Dame and several other private, religiously affiliated schools. It also has a strong parochial school system in the larger metropolitan areas. Southern Indiana is the home to a number of Catholic monasteries and one of the two archabbeys in the United States, St. Meinrad Archabbey. Two conservative denominations, the Free Methodist Church and the Wesleyan Church, have their headquarters in Indianapolis as does the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). The Fellowship of Grace Brethren Churches maintains offices and publishing work in Winona Lake. Huntington serves as the home to the Church of the United Brethren in Christ. Anderson is home to the headquarters of the Church of God (Anderson) Ministries and Warner Press Publishing House. Fort Wayne is the headquarters of the Missionary Church. Fort Wayne is also home to one of The Lutheran Church Missouri Synod's seminaries - Concordia Theological Seminary. The Friends United Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends, the largest branch of American Quakerism, is based in Richmond. Richmond also houses the oldest Quaker seminary in the US, the Earlham School of Religion. Indiana is home to an estimated 250,000 Muslims. Indiana Governor Breaks Fast with Local Muslims at his Residence The Islamic Society of North America is headquartered just off Interstate 70 in Plainfield, west of Indianapolis. In 1906, the Census reported there were 938,405 members of different religious denominations; of this total, 233,443 were Methodists (210,593 of the Northern Church); 174,849 were Roman Catholics, 108,188 were Disciples of Christ; 92,705 were Baptists (60,203 of the Northern Convention, 13,526 of the National (African American) Convention; 8,132 Primitive Baptists, and 6,671 General Baptists); 58,633 were Presbyterians (49,041 of the Northern Church, and 6,376 of the Cumberland Church—since united with the Northern); 55,768 were Lutherans (34,028 of the Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference, 8,310 of the Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Ohio and other states), 52,700 were United Brethren (48,059 of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ; the others of the " Old Constitution "), 21,624 of the German Evangelical Synod; and 10,219 members of the Churches of Christ. Cities and towns Indianapolis is the state capital and largest city in Indiana. Fort Wayne is the second largest city in Indiana. Evansville is the third largest city in Indiana. The largest city in Indiana is state capital Indianapolis. "Indy" and its surrounding suburban areas are home to over 2,000,000 people - almost a full third of the state's population. Fort Wayne, Evansville, and South Bend are the only other Indiana cities with populations over 100,000. Rank City or Town 2007 Population http://www.census.gov/popest/cities/tables/SUB-EST2007-04-18.csv 2007 Metro Population http://www.census.gov/popest/metro/tables/2007/CBSA-EST2007-01.csv 1 Indianapolis 795,458 2,035,327 2 Fort Wayne 251,247 572,194 3 Evansville 116,253 349,717 4 South Bend 104,069 562,711 5 Gary 96,429 698,971 6 Hammond 77,175 * 7 Bloomington 72,254 183,733 8 Carmel 68,677 ** 9 Muncie 65,410 115,419 10 Fishers 65,382 ** 11 Lafayette 63,679 192,161 12 Terre Haute 58,932 169,346 13 Anderson 57,311 131,312 14 Elkhart 52,647 197,942 15 Mishawaka 49,439 *** *Gary Metro, **Indianapolis Metro, ***South Bend Metro Government and politics State government Indiana Government has three branches: executive (government), legislative (parliament) and judicial. The governor of Indiana, elected for a four-year term, heads the government. The Indiana General Assembly, the legislative branch, consists of the upper house, Senate, and the lower house, House of Representatives. Indiana's fifty State Senators are elected for four-year terms and one hundred State Representatives for two-year terms. In odd-numbered years, the General Assembly meets in a sixty-one day session. In even-numbered years, it meets for thirty session days. The judicial branch consists of the Indiana Supreme Court, Indiana Court of Appeals, the Indiana Tax Court, and local circuit courts. The current governor of Indiana is Mitch Daniels, whose campaign slogan was "My Man Mitch," an appellation given by President George W. Bush for whom Mitch Daniels was the director of the Office of Management and Budget. He was elected to office on November 2, 2004 and reelected on November 4, 2008. Local government Indiana has 92 counties, each of which has its own council and local government. Counties are further divided into townships. County officials are elected to four year terms, and have limited authority to impose county-wide income taxes, excise taxes, and property taxes. Federal government The state's U.S. Senators are Senior Sen. Richard Lugar (Republican) and Junior Sen. Evan Bayh (Democrat). Both Senators, although of opposite parties, have proved immensely popular in the state. In 2004, Sen. Bayh won reelection to a second term with 62% of the vote. And in 2006, Sen. Lugar won reelection to a sixth term with 87% of the vote against no major-party opposition. Former governor and current U.S. Senator Evan Bayh announced in 2006 his plans for a presidential exploratory committee. His father was a three-term senator who was turned out of office in the 1980 Reagan Revolution by conservative Republican (and future Vice-President) Dan Quayle, a native of Huntington in the northeastern part of the state. However, Bayh announced that he would not be seeking the Presidency on December 16, 2006. District Representative Party Residence First Took Office Indiana 1 Pete Visclosky Democrat Merrillville January 1985 Indiana 2 Joe Donnelly Democrat Granger January 2007 Indiana 3 Mark Souder Republican Grabill January 1995 Indiana 4 Steve Buyer Republican Plainfield January 1993 Indiana 5 Dan Burton Republican Indianapolis January 1983 Indiana 6 Mike Pence Republican Columbus January 2001 Indiana 7 André Carson Democrat Indianapolis March 2008 Indiana 8 Brad Ellsworth Democrat Evansville January 2007 Indiana 9 Baron Hill Democrat Seymour January 1999 Politics + Presidential elections results Year Republican Democratic2008 48.91% 1,345,64849.95% 1,374,039200459.94% 1,479,438 39.26% 969,011200056.65% 1,245,836 41.01% 901,980199647.13% 1,006,693 41.55% 887,424 199242.91% 989,375 36.79% 848,420198859.84% 1,297,763 39.69% 860,643 Indiana has long been considered to be a Republican stronghold. It has only supported a Democrat for president five times since 1900 - in 1912, 1932, 1936, 1964, and 2008. Nonetheless, half of Indiana's governors in the 20th century were Democrats. Statistically, Indiana is more of a stronghold for Republican presidential candidates than for candidates elected to state government. Whereas only five Democratic presidential nominees have carried Indiana since 1900, nine Democrats were elected governor during that time. Before Mitch Daniels became governor in 2005, Democrats had held the office for 16 consecutive years. As recently as 2004, Indiana was more Republican than the rest of the nation: George W. Bush won the state 60% to 39% in his reelection campaign, compared to his 51% to 48% win nationwide. However, in 2008, Democrat Barack Obama narrowly defeated Republican opponent John McCain in the state, winning 50% to 49%. This ended a 44-year drought for Democrats going back to the LBJ landslide of 1964. Historically, Republicans have been strongest in the eastern and central portions of the state, as well as the suburbs of the state's major cities. Democrats have been strongest in the northern, northwestern and specific southern parts of the state along with the major cities. However, outside of Indianapolis, South Bend, the Chicago suburbs, and Bloomington, the state's Democrats tend to be somewhat more conservative than their counterparts in the rest of the country, especially on social issues. Indiana's delegation to the United States House of Representatives is not limited to Republicans either. Instead, it has generally served as a bellwether for the political movement of the nation. For instance, Democrats held the majority of seats until the 1994 Republican Revolution, when Republicans took a majority. This continued until 2006, when three Republican congressmen were defeated in Indiana; (Chris Chocola, John Hostettler and Mike Sodrel), giving the Democrats a majority of the delegation again. Economy Indiana State Quarter The total gross state product in 2005 was US$214 billion in 2000 chained dollars. Bureau of Economic Analysis: Gross State Product Indiana's per capita income, as of 2005, was US$31,150. Bureau of Economic Analysis: Annual State Personal Income A high percentage of Indiana's income is from manufacturing. The Calumet region of northwest Indiana is the largest steel producing area in the U.S. Indiana's other manufactures include pharmaceuticals and medical devices, automobiles, electrical equipment, transportation equipment, chemical products, rubber, petroleum and coal products, and factory machinery. Despite its reliance on manufacturing, Indiana has been much less affected by declines in traditional Rust Belt manufactures than many of its neighbors. The explanation appears to be certain factors in the labor market. First, much of the heavy manufacturing, such as industrial machinery and steel, requires highly skilled labor, and firms are often willing to locate where hard-to-train skills already exist. Second, Indiana's labor force is located primarily in medium-sized and smaller cities rather than in very large and expensive metropolises. This makes it possible for firms to offer somewhat lower wages for these skills than would normally be paid. Firms often see in Indiana a chance to obtain higher than average skills at lower than average wages. Indiana is home to the international headquarters of pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly in Indianapolis, the state's largest corporation, as well as the world headquarters of Mead Johnson Nutritionals in Evansville. WNDU-TV: News Story: Bayer is leaving Elkhart - November 16, 2005 Overall, Indiana ranks fifth among all U.S. states in total sales and shipments of pharmaceutical products and second highest in the number of biopharmaceutical related jobs. The state is located within the Corn Belt. The state has a feedlot-style system raising corn to fatten hogs and cattle. Soybeans are also a major cash crop. Its proximity to large urban centers, such as Chicago, assure that dairying, egg production, and specialty horticulture occur. Other crops include melons, tomatoes, grapes, mint, popping corn, and tobacco in the southern counties. Most of the original land was not prairie and had to be cleared of deciduous trees. Many parcels of woodland remain and support a furniture-making sector in the southern portion of the state. Indiana's economy is considered to be one of the most business-friendly in the U.S. This is due in part to its conservative business climate, low business taxes, relatively low union membership, and labor laws. The doctrine of at-will employment, whereby an employer can terminate an employee for any or no reason, is in force. Indiana has a flat state income tax rate of 3.4%. Many Indiana counties also collect income tax. The state sales tax rate is 7%. Property taxes are imposed on both real and personal property in Indiana and are administered by the Department of Local Government Finance. Property is subject to taxation by a variety of taxing units (schools, counties, townships, cities and towns, libraries), making the total tax rate the sum of the tax rates imposed by all taxing units in which a property is located. However, a "circuit breaker" law enacted on March 19, 2008 limits property taxes to one percent of assessed value for homeowners, two percent for rental properties and farmland and three percent for businesses. State Budget Indiana doesn't have a legal requirement to balance the state budget either in law or its constitution. Instead, Indiana has a constitutional ban on assuming debt. Indiana has a Rainy Day Fund and for healthy reserves proportional to spending. Indiana is one of the few states in the U.S. which do not to allow a line-item veto. Indiana does not use Generally Accepted Accounting Principles. Energy Indiana's power production chiefly consists of the consumption of fossil fuels, mainly coal. Indiana has 24 coal power plants, including the largest coal power plant in the United States, Gibson Generating Station, located near Owensville, Indiana. While Indiana has made commitments to increasing use of renewable resources such as wind, hydroelectric, biomass, or solar power, however, progress has been very slow, mainly because of the continued abundance of coal in Southern Indiana. Most of the new plants in the state have been coal gasification plants. Another source is hydroelectric power. Solar power and wind power are being investigated, and geothermal power is being used commercially. New estimates in 2006 raised the wind capacity for Indiana from 30 MW at 50 m turbine height to 40,000 MW at 70 m, which could double at 100 m, the height of newer turbines. Indiana's Renewable Energy Resources Retrieved 20 August 2008 As of the end of June, 2008, Indiana has installed 130 MW of wind turbines and has under construction another 400 MW. U.S. Wind Energy Projects - Indiana Retrieved 20 August 2008 Sources of energy (2009) See below Navbox for individual facilities. Fuel Capacity Percent of Total Consumed Percent of Total Production Number of Plants/Units Coal 19,500 MW 63.0000 % 88.5000 % 24 Plants Natural Gas 2,100 MW 29.0000 % 10.5000 % 15 Facilities *Often used in Peaking Stations Petroleum 575 MW 7.5000 % 1.5000 % 10 Units Wind 130.5 MW ? ? 1 Farms/87 Towers (1 additional farm under construction) Hydroelectric 64 MW 0.0450 % 0.0100 % 1 Plant Biomass 28 MW 0.0150 % 0.0020 % 1 Facility Wood & Waste 18 MW 0.0013 % 0.0015 % 3 Units Geothermal and/or Solar 0 MW 0.0 % 0.0 No Facilities at this timeNuclear 0 MW 0.0 % 0.0 1 facility never completed Transportation Airports Indianapolis International Airport serves the greater Indianapolis area and has just finished constructing a new passenger terminal. The new airport opened in November 2008 and offers a new midfield passenger terminal, concourses, air traffic control tower, parking garage, and airfield and apron improvements. Other major airports include Evansville Regional Airport, Fort Wayne International Airport (which houses the 122d Fighter Wing of the Air National Guard), and South Bend Regional Airport. A long-standing proposal to turn the under-utilized Gary Chicago International Airport into Chicago's third major airport received a boost in early 2006 with the approval of $48 million in federal funding over the next ten years. The Terre Haute International Airport has no airlines operating out of the facility but is used for private flying. Since 1954, the 181st Fighter Wing of the Indiana Air National Guard has been stationed at the airport. However, the BRAC Proposal of 2005 stated that the 181st would lose its fighter mission and F-16 aircraft, leaving the Terre Haute facility as a general-aviation only facility. The southern part of the state is also served by the Louisville International Airport across the Ohio River in Louisville, Kentucky. The southeastern part of the state is served by the Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport also across the Ohio River in Florence Kentucky. Many residents of northwestern Indiana use the two Chicago airports, O'Hare International Airport and Chicago Midway International Airport. Highways 2008–2013 Indiana License plate The major U.S. Interstate highways in Indiana are I-465, I-469, I-69, I-65, I-94, I-70, I-74, I-64, I-80, and I-90. The various highways intersecting in and around Indianapolis, along with its historical status as a major railroad hub, and the canals that once crossed Indiana, are the source of the state's motto, the "Cross-roads of America." There are also many state highways maintained by the Indiana Department of Transportation. These are numbered according to the same convention as U.S. Highways. County roads Most Indiana counties use a grid-based system to identify county roads; this system replaced the older arbitrary system of road numbers and names, and (among other things) makes it much easier to identify the sources of calls placed to the 9-1-1 system. Such systems are easier to implement in the glacially flattened northern and central portions of the state. Rural counties in the southern third of the state are less likely to have grids and more likely to rely on unsystematic road names (e.g., Harrison County); there are also counties in the northern portions of the state that have never implemented a grid, or have only partially implemented one. Some counties are also laid out in an almost diamond-like grid system (e.g. Clark, Floyd and Knox Counties). Such a system is also almost useless in those situations as well. Knox County once operated two different grid systems for county roads because the county was laid out using two different survey grids, but has since decided to use road names and combine roads instead. A notable county road system within the state is St. Joseph County's county road grid, which is relatively easy to follow. St. Joseph County, whose major city is South Bend, uses perennial (tree) names (i.e. Ash, Hickory, Ironwood, etc.) in alphabetical order for North-South roads and Presidential and other noteworthy names (i.e. Adams, Edison, Lincoln Way, etc.) in alphabetical order for East-West roads. There are exceptions to this rule in downtown South Bend and Mishawaka. Rail Indiana has over 4,255 railroad route miles, of which 91 percent are operated by Class I railroads, principally CSX Transportation and the Norfolk Southern Railway. Other Class I railroads in Indiana include the Canadian National Railway and Soo Line Railroad, a Canadian Pacific Railway subsidiary, as well as Amtrak. The remaining miles are operated by 37 regional, local, and switching & terminal railroads. The South Shore Line is one of the country's most notable commuter rail systems extending from Chicago to South Bend. Indiana is currently implementing an extensive rail plan that was prepared in 2002 by the Parsons Corporation. Ports Indiana annually ships over 70 million tons of cargo by water each year, which ranks 14th among all U.S. states. More than half of Indiana's border is water, which includes of direct access to two major freight transportation arteries: the Great Lakes/St. Lawrence Seaway (via Lake Michigan) and the Inland Waterway System (via the Ohio River). The Ports of Indiana manages three major ports which include Burns Harbor, Jeffersonville, and Mount Vernon. Education Indiana is known as the "Brain Bank of the Midwest" as Indiana's colleges and universities attract the fourth largest number of out-of-state students in the nation and the largest out-of-state student population in the midwest. In addition, Indiana is the third best state in the country at keeping high school seniors in-state as Indiana colleges and universities attract 88% of Indiana's college attendees. National Center for Education Statistics This exceptional popularity is attributed to the high quality of the research and educational universities located in the state. Indiana universities also lead the nation in the attraction of international students with Purdue University and Indiana University ranked #3 and #17 respectively in the total international student enrollment of all universities in the United States. Institute of International Education The state's leading higher education institutions include Purdue University, Indiana State University, Wabash College, DePauw University, Valparaiso University, University of Evansville, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology, IPFW, IUPUI, University of Indianapolis, Butler University, Ball State University, University of Southern Indiana, Indiana University, and University of Notre Dame, are among the many public and private institutions located in the state. Sports Professional sports Indiana has a history with auto racing. Indianapolis hosts the Indianapolis 500 mile race over Memorial Day weekend at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway every May. The name of the race is usually shortened to "Indy 500" and also goes by the nickname "The Greatest Spectacle in Racing." The race attracts over 250,000 people every year making it the largest single day sporting event in the world. The track also hosts the Allstate 400 at the Brickyard (NASCAR) and the Red Bull Indianapolis Grand Prix (MotoGP). From 2000 to 2007, it hosted the United States Grand Prix (Formula One). Indiana has a rich basketball heritage that reaches back to the formative years of the sport itself. Although James Naismith invented basketball in Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1891, Indiana is where high school basketball was born. In 1925, Naismith visited an Indiana basketball state finals game along with 15,000 screaming fans and later wrote "Basketball really had its origin in Indiana, which remains the center of the sport." The 1986 film Hoosiers is based on the story of the 1954 Indiana state champions Milan High School. ClubSportLeagueElkhart ExpressBasketballInternational Basketball LeagueEvansville IceMenIce HockeyAll American Hockey LeagueEvansville OttersBaseballFrontier LeagueFC IndianaSoccerWomen's Premier Soccer LeagueFort Wayne FeverSoccerUSL Premier Development LeagueFort Wayne FlashFootballWomen's Football AllianceFort Wayne FreedomArena footballContinental Indoor Football LeagueFort Wayne KometsIce hockeyInternational Hockey League (2007-)Fort Wayne Mad AntsBasketballNBA Development LeagueFort Wayne Pistons (now Detroit Pistons)BasketballNational Basketball AssociationFort Wayne TinCapsBaseballMidwest LeagueGary SouthShore RailCatsBaseballNorthern LeagueGary SteelheadsBasketballInternational Basketball LeagueIndiana FeverBasketballWomen's National Basketball AssociationIndiana IceIce hockeyUnited States Hockey LeagueIndiana PacersBasketballNational Basketball Association, formerly, the American Basketball AssociationIndiana InvadersSoccerUSL Premier Development LeagueIndiana SpeedFootballWomen's Professional Football LeagueIndianapolis ColtsFootballNational Football LeagueIndianapolis IndiansBaseballInternational LeagueSouth Bend Silver HawksBaseballMidwest LeagueChi Town ShootersHockeyAll American Hockey League College sports Indiana has had great sports success at the collegiate level. Notably, Indiana University has won five NCAA basketball championships, six swimming and diving NCAA championships, and seven NCAA soccer championships and Notre Dame has won 11 football championships. Schools fielding NCAA Division I athletic programs include: Ball State Cardinals Butler Bulldogs Indiana Hoosiers Indiana State Sycamores IPFW Mastodons IUPUI JaguarsPurdue Boilermakers University of Evansville Purple Aces Notre Dame Fighting Irish Valparaiso Crusaders Other sports The Hilly Hundred is a bicycle tour which attracts 5,000 cycling enthusiasts each year. The course runs through Greene, Monroe and Owen Counties. The Bands of America and ISSMA marching band competitions take place here, and has many finnalist bands including: Avon High School Lawrence Central High School Carmel High School Ben Davis High School Center Grove High School Miscellaneous Military installations Indiana used to be home to two major military installations, Grissom Air Force Base near Peru (reduced to reservist operations in 1994) and Fort Benjamin Harrison near Indianapolis, now closed, though the Department of Defense continues to operate a large finance center there. Current active installations include Air National Guard fighter units at Fort Wayne, and Terre Haute airports (to be consolidated at Fort Wayne under the 2005 BRAC proposal, with the Terre Haute facility remaining open as a non-flying installation). The Army National Guard conducts operations at Camp Atterbury in Edinburgh, Indiana and helicopter operations out of Shelbyville Airport. The Crane Naval Weapons Center is in the southwest of the state and the Army's Newport Chemical Depot, which is currently heavily involved in neutralizing dangerous chemical weapons stored there, is in the western part of the state. Also, Naval Operational Support Center Indianapolis is home to several Navy Reserve units, a Marine Reserve unit, and a small contingent of active and full-time-support reserve personnel. Time zones Map of U.S. time zones with new (2006) CST and EST areas displayed, showing Indiana largely in the Eastern zone Indiana is one of thirteen U.S. states that is divided into more than one time zone. Indiana's time zones have fluctuated over the past century. At present most of the state observes Eastern Time; six counties near Chicago and six near Evansville observe Central Time. Debate continues on the matter. Before 2006, most of Indiana did not observe daylight saving time (DST). Some counties within this area, particularly Floyd, Clark, and Harrison counties near Louisville, Kentucky, and Ohio and Dearborn counties near Cincinnati, Ohio, unofficially observed DST by local custom. Since April 2006 the entire state observes DST. Although DST is supposed to save energy, a 2008 study of billing data before and after the change in 2006 concluded that residential electricity consumption had increased by 1% to 4%, primarily due to extra afternoon cooling. Matthew J. Kotchen; Laura E. Grant (2008-02-08). "Does daylight saving time save energy? evidence from a natural experiment in Indiana" (PDF) in Environmental and Energy Economics Program Meeting. Preliminary Program, National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved on 2008-03-03. State symbols State bird: Cardinal State flower: Peony State motto: The Crossroads of America. State poem: Indiana, by Arthur Franklin Mapes. State song: On the Banks of the Wabash, Far AwayState river: Wabash State stone: Salem limestone State tree: Tulip tree See also Index of Indiana-related articles List of people from Indiana List of ships named after Indiana References Bibliography Indiana Writer's Project. Indiana: A Guide To The Hoosier State: American Guide Series (1937), famous WPA Guide to every location; strong on history, architecture and culture; reprinted 1973 Carmony, Donald Francis. Indiana, 1816 to 1850: The Pioneer Era (1998) Jackson, Marion T., editor. The Natural Heritage of Indiana. © 1997, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana. ISBN 0-2533-3074-2.* James H. Madison. The Indiana Way: A State History (1990) Skertic, Mark and Watkins, John J. A Native's Guide to Northwest Indiana (2003) Taylor, Robert M., ed. The State of Indiana History 2000: Papers Presented at the Indiana Historical Society's Grand Opening (2001) Taylor, Robert M., ed. Indiana: A New Historical Guide'' (1990), highly detailed guide to cities and recent history External links Government IN.Gov - The Official website of the State of Indiana Energy Data & Statistics for Indiana from the United States Department of Energy Directory Culture and recreation Indiana State Emblems Official Indiana state tourism website Indiana Historical Society Road to Indiana Statehood Geography USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Indiana Indiana State Facts from USDA Historic Indiana Atlases Historic Indiana Maps Indiana Plat Books - Historic guides to the communities of Indiana Climate Data for Indianapolis, 1940–2006 Professional media Indiana Daily Newspapers Indiana Economic Digest - Digest of Indiana business stories Inside Indiana Business - Statewide business daily Indianapolis Star - Central Indiana news The Journal Gazette / The News-Sentinel - Northeast Indiana news The Tribune-Star - West-Central Indiana news The Herald-Times - South-Central Indiana news Evansville Courier & Press - Southwest Indiana news The Times - Northwest Indiana news Business Indiana Chamber of Commerce Indiana Economic Development Corporation IEDC State of Indiana Taiwan Office, IEDC Indiana Small Business Development Centers Indiana Venture Center International community and business resources Indiana District Export Council Indiana Foreign Trade Offices Nationalities Council of Indiana Ports of Indiana U.S. Export Assistance Center World Trade Club of Indiana | Indiana |@lemmatized state:167 indiana:241 u:22 admit:2 union:4 northern:23 locate:18 great:10 lakes:2 region:11 united:25 america:8 million:6 resident:4 ranked:1 population:23 density:3 rank:6 land:9 area:28 low:9 small:7 continental:3 west:6 appalachian:1 mountain:1 capital:5 large:32 city:31 indianapolis:32 diverse:1 urban:3 number:8 industrial:3 many:16 town:9 know:5 nationally:2 sport:10 team:1 athletic:2 event:3 nfl:1 colt:1 nba:1 pacer:1 motorsports:1 race:5 single:3 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2,747 | Jonathan_Richman | Jonathan Richman (born 16 May 1951) is an American singer, songwriter and guitarist. In 1970 he founded The Modern Lovers, an influential proto-punk band, but since the mid-1970s has worked either solo or with low-key, generally acoustic backing. He is known for his wide-eyed http://www.popmatters.com/music/concerts/r/richman-jonathan-030624.shtml Concert review , unaffected and child-like outlook, and music that, while rooted in rock and roll, often draws on influences from around the world. Biography Born in Natick, Massachusetts, Richman began playing music and writing his own songs in the mid-1960s. He became infatuated with the Velvet Underground, and in 1969 he moved to New York City, lived on the couch of their manager, Steve Sesnick, worked odd jobs and tried to break in as a professional musician. Failing at this, he returned to Boston. While in Boston he formed The Modern Lovers, a proto-punk garage rock band. Other notable members of the group were keyboard player Jerry Harrison and drummer David Robinson, who later joined Talking Heads and The Cars, respectively. Many of the group's songs feature Boston-based topics. In 1972 they recorded a series of demos with producer John Cale (formerly of the Velvet Underground). Among these songs were the seminal "Roadrunner" and "Pablo Picasso" which were eventually released on the group's post-breakup album, Modern Lovers (1976). The album was unique for its time, featuring Velvets-influenced basic three-chord rock ("Roadrunner" - based on just two chords - is a clear homage to "Sister Ray") at a time when glam and progressive rock were the norm. Later in 1972 the group also recorded with producer Kim Fowley; these demos were eventually released in 1981 as The Original Modern Lovers. Despite playing live regularly, the Modern Lovers had a difficult time securing a record deal. By late 1973, Richman wanted to scrap the recorded tracks and start over with a mellower, more lyrical sound, influenced by the laid-back local music he had heard when the band had a residency at the Inverurie Hotel in Bermuda earlier in the year. This stymied efforts to complete a debut album, and led to the breakup of the original Modern Lovers in February 1974. In 1975, Richman moved to California to record as a solo singer/songwriter with Beserkley Records. His first released recordings appeared on 1975's Beserkley Chartbusters compilation, where he was backed by members of Earth Quake and the Rubinoos; these four songs also appeared on singles on the independent Beserkley label. In January, 1976, Richman put together a new version of the Modern Lovers, which included original Modern Lovers drummer, David Robinson, along with former Rubinoos bassist, Greg 'Curly' Keranen and Leroy Radcliffe, on guitar. The albums produced by the new group found Richman turning away from electric rock music towards gentler acoustic textures, with a strong rooting in 50s rock and roll (Chuck Berry's "Back in the USA" was part of his repertoire at this time), while his lyrical focus became more self-consciously childlike and naive. The album, Jonathan Richman and The Modern Lovers, was released in May, 1976 but David Robinson left the group soon thereafter, due to frustration with Richman's quest for lower volume levels, and joined with Ric Ocasek in forming the band The Cars After several months as a trio, Richman found a new drummer, D. Sharpe (aka David) - an accomplished avant garde jazz player on the Boston scene, who later went on to become a member of pianist Carla Bley's band. D. Sharpe's greater awareness of dynamics and tonal possibilities, in combination with Keranen's use of the acoustic bass during this period, enabled Richman to finally achieve his vision of an acoustic rock band which could offer a greater emotional range by combing quiet tenderness and romanticism alongside the raucous intensity of rock's post-war rhythm and blues origins, without requiring electronics and loud volume levels to achieve its purpose. Drawing inspiration from such artists as the Art Ensemble of Chicago, Paul Motian and Anthony Braxton, D. Sharpe replaced the traditional rock and roll drum kit with an eclectic assortment of percussion instruments, including a large African three-legged drum covered in zebra skin; a 1947 De Soto automobile hub-cap (cum snare drum); a rack full of various pot lids and bells hanging on strings; exotic cymbals with many tonal 'imperfections'; frequent use of mallets instead of drumsticks, and brushes with which he would sometimes simply 'play the air' (i.e., without hitting anything else), as could be felt more than heard, especially in live performances, of the song "Afternoon." http://jojofiles2.blogspot.com/2007/05/interview-15-greg-curly-keranen.html Rock and Roll with the Modern Lovers was released in 1977 and, just as this record began to climb the charts in Europe, Keranen left the group (to attend college). A subsequent live album, Modern Lovers Live was released in 1978, featuring Asa Brebner on bass. In Great Britain, Richman was recognised as a progenitor of the punk rock scene, and several of his singles became hits. "Roadrunner" reached Number 11 in the UK pop charts, and its follow-up, the instrumental "Egyptian Reggae", made Number 5 in late 1977. "Egyptian Reggae" was a version of Jamaican musician Earl Zero's reggae song "None Shall Escape the Judgment"; Zero was credited as co-writer on Richman's later versions of the track. The Originals© by Arnold Rypens Blood and Fire :: View topic - Egyptian Reggae - Jonathan Richman video clip ! 1979's Back in Your Life was released under the "Jonathan Richman and the Modern Lovers" moniker, but only about half the disc featured a backup band. The rest was solo work. This album was probably the most extreme detour by Richman into eclecticism; after the traditional acoustic rock of the previous albums, this one's solo tracks showed off a string bass and glockenspiel as main instruments. Richman went on sabbatical for a few years staying in Appleton, Maine and playing at a local diner in Belfast, Maine, called Barb's Place. He returned in 1983 with Jonathan Sings!, followed by "Rockin' and Romance" (produced by Andy Paley and engineered by Daniel Levitin). These were followed up with a series of pop efforts (It's Time for Jonathan Richman and the Modern Lovers, and Modern Lovers 88 from 1985, 1986 and 1988 respectively). After the latter release, the "Modern Lovers" moniker was finally retired, and having begun a true "solo" career, he returned to swooping madly around the musical landscape: country music with 1990's Jonathan Goes Country, and Spanish translations of his earlier work (as well as traditional Spanish songs) with Jonathan, Te Vas a Emocionar! (1993). Always possessing an ardent cult following, Richman has become better known in recent years thanks to a series of appearances on fan Conan O'Brien's show. Another major profile boost was a key part in the Farrelly Brothers hugely successful 1998 film, There's Something About Mary, where he played half of a two-man Greek chorus that commented on the plot while performing in the framed action itself. He also appeared briefly in a bar scene in a previous Farrelly Brothers film, Kingpin. Richman has continued his release schedule all along, with You Must Ask the Heart (1995), Surrender to Jonathan (1996), I'm So Confused (1998), and Her Mystery Not of High Heels and Eye Shadow (2001). In 1998 a live album of Modern Lovers recordings from the early 1970s was released, Live at the Long Branch & More. There is also a DVD of a live performance Take me to the Plaza (2002). In live solo shows, he frequently tours with drummer Tommy Larkins, the other part of the two-man chorus mentioned above. Richman makes use of the flexibility allowed by the two-man format to keep his shows loose and spontaneous, frequently punctuating his songs with extemporaneous ruminations on life and love, on-the-spot transpositions of songs into any of five languages (English, Spanish, French, Italian and Hebrew), and unaccompanied dancing. In 2003, Richman married Nicole Montalbano of Chico, California. Descendants of Peter Montalbano - aqw03.htm CN&R > Music > '2 big sets, 2 big nights' > 01.30.03 She contributed backing vocals to the album Not So Much To Be Loved As To Love (2004). Influence Richman's work with the first incarnation of Modern Lovers is a major influence on punk rock. One critic called him the "Godfather of Punk". "Brilliant Careers: Jonathan Richman", Salon, September 4, 2001. Artists as diverse as the Sex Pistols and Joan Jett have covered "Roadrunner". Boston ska-punk band, Big D and the Kids Table, have covered "New England" live and on the Gypsy Hill EP. Simple Minds' early work contains a track called "Pablo Picasso" with similar chorus lyrics. A version of "Pablo Picasso" performed by Burning Sensations was included in the 1984 cult film, Repo Man. David Bowie covered "Pablo Picasso" on his album Reality. Velvet Underground founding member John Cale has a version of the song on his 1975 album, Helen of Troy, and continues to include the song in his live shows. Iggy Pop has performed "Pablo Picasso" live and wrote an extra verse for it. Richman's music has set the tone for many quirky college rock acts like Violent Femmes, They Might Be Giants ("Roadrunner" reportedly inspired John Flansburgh to become a musician), Weezer, Tullycraft, Jens Lekman, singer Frank Black (who composed the tribute song "The Man Who Was Too Loud"), Art Brut, and Nerf Herder who composed a song about him, titled "Jonathan". It appeared on the band's second album How To Meet Girls. "Roadrunner" is on the soundtrack of School of Rock. In the commentary, director Richard Linklater mentions it is often called "the first punk song" and wanted to include it for that reason, along with all the other seminal rock songs in that film. A tribute album, If I Were a Richman: a Tribute to the Music of Jonathan Richman, was released by Wampus Multimedia in 2001. Discography The Modern Lovers The Modern Lovers (1976) The Original Modern Lovers (1981) Jonathan Richman and the Modern Lovers Jonathan Richman and the Modern Lovers (1976) Rock 'n' Roll with the Modern Lovers (1977) Modern Lovers 'Live''' (1977) Back in Your Life (1979) Jonathan Sings! (1983) Rockin' & Romance (1985) It's Time For (1986) Modern Lovers 88 (1988) Jonathan Richman JR. Live at the Blind Pig, Ann Arbor, USA Beserkley Chartbusters Vol. 1 (Compilation, 4 songs) (1975) Jonathan Richman (1989) Jonathan Goes Country (1990) Having a Party with Jonathan Richman (1991) I, Jonathan (1992) ¡Jonathan, Te Vas a Emocionar! (1994) You Must Ask the Heart (1995) Surrender to Jonathan (1996) I'm So Confused (1998) Radio On/Stop And Shop With The Modern Lovers (2 on 1) (1998) Her Mystery Not of High Heels and Eye Shadow (2001) Not So Much to Be Loved as to Love (2004) Because Her Beauty Is Raw and Wild (2008) ¿ A qué venimos sino a caer ? (2008) Compilations "I'm Straight" and "Government Center", from the Modern Lovers' Kim Fowley-produced Beserkley sessions, first appeared on the Warner Bros. Records compilation, Troublemakers (1980) "Our Dog Is Getting Older Now"; on the charity album Colours Are Brighter (October 2006) Original Soundtrack to the Film Revolution Summer (2007) "I Like Gumby"; On the Gumby compilation album - Jonathan Richman performs "Stop Your Sobbing" on the 2002 Kinks tribute album This Is Where I Belong. "The Origin of Love" on Wig in a Box (2003) Live albums Live at the Longbranch Saloon (1992) Precise Modern Lovers Order (1994) Live at the Longbranch and More (1998) (These three live albums are from the same three 1971-3 performances, but add and subtract a few different songs. The last two, combined, contain all the songs). Singles US issues except where stated "Roadrunner" / ("Friday On My Mind" by Earth Quake) (Beserkley B-4701, 1975) "Roadrunner" / "It Will Stand" (United Artists UP36006, 1975) "Roadrunner (Once)" / "Roadrunner (Twice)" (Beserkley BZZ 1, UK, 1976) "Roadrunner" / "Pablo Picasso" (Beserkley PA-205, 1976) "New England" / "Here Come The Martian Martians" (Beserkley B-5743, 1976) "Egyptian Reggae" / "Ice Cream Man" (Beserkley 6.12 217, 1977) "Egyptian Reggae" / "Rollercoaster By The Sea" (Beserkley BZZ 2, UK, 1977) "The Morning Of Our Lives (Live)" / "Roadrunner (Thrice) (Live)" (Beserkley BZZ 7, UK, 1977) "New England (Live)" / "Astral Plane (Live)" (Beserkley BZZ 14, UK, 1978) "Abdul and Cleopatra" / "Astral Plane (Live)" (Beserkley 11813, 1978) "Abdul and Cleopatra" / "Oh Carol" (Beserkley BZZ 19, UK, 1978) "Buzz, Buzz, Buzz" / "Abdul and Cleopatra" (Beserkley 6.12 311, 1978) "Buzz, Buzz, Buzz" / "Hospital (Live)" (BZZ 25, UK, 1978) "My Little Kookenhaken" / "Roadrunner (Thrice) (Live)" (Beserkley 11819, 1978) "South American Folk Song (Live)" / "Ice Cream Man (Live)" (1978) "Lydia" / "Important In Your Life" (BZZ 28, UK, 1979) "That Summer Feeling" / "This Kind Of Music" (1984) "That Summer Feeling" / "This Kind Of Music" / "Tag Game" (Rough Trade RTT 152, UK, 1984) "I'm Just Beginning To Live" / "Circle I" (1985) "I'm Just Beginning To Live" / "Circle I" / "Shirin and Fahrad" (Rough Trade RTT 154, UK, 1985) "California Desert Party" / "When Harpo Played His Harp" (DRD 1D474, Spain, 1988) "Egyptian Reggae" / "Roadrunner" (1989) References Further reading Tim Mitchell, There's Something About Jonathan'', London: Peter Owen Publishers, 1999, ISBN 0-7206-1076-1 External links Boston Rock Storybook - Interviews with Jonathan and articles on the Modern Lovers and JR by Jonathan's friend, author and songwriter Joe Harvard Simes' Jonathan Richman pages - a comprehensive Jonathan Richman discography jojoblog - Unofficial Jonathan Richman fan blog modernlovers.com The (unofficial) Jonathan Richman chords & lyrics site Another Jonathan Richman lyrics site, with corrections and annotations Comparison of contents of original Modern Lovers' live albums Vapor Records Jonathan Richman's current (2007) label Jonathan Richman - (web en español) The Bostonians - article by Keith Gessen Oh You're So Silent Jonathan Richman - article by Tony DuShane Greg 'Curly' Keranen (aka João Dilberto) - official site | Jonathan_Richman |@lemmatized jonathan:35 richman:41 born:1 may:2 american:2 singer:3 songwriter:3 guitarist:1 found:2 modern:30 lover:29 influential:1 proto:2 punk:7 band:9 since:1 mid:2 work:6 either:1 solo:6 low:2 key:2 generally:1 acoustic:5 backing:1 know:2 wide:1 eyed:1 http:2 www:1 popmatters:1 com:3 music:11 concert:2 r:2 shtml:1 review:1 unaffected:1 child:1 like:3 outlook:1 root:1 rock:18 roll:5 often:2 draw:2 influence:5 around:2 world:1 biography:1 bear:1 natick:1 massachusetts:1 begin:5 play:5 write:2 song:19 become:6 infatuated:1 velvet:4 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2,748 | Aswan | Aswan (formerly spelled Assuan), (in standard Aswān) Egyptian: Swenet (trade), Coptic: Swān; Greek: Syene; ) is a city in the south of Egypt, the capital of the Aswan Governorate. It stands on the east bank of the Nile at the first cataract and is a busy market and tourist center. Its ancient name, Swenet, translates as "trade". It contains the island of Elephantine. Aswan is one of the driest inhabited places in the world; as of early 2001, the last rain there was six years earlier. , the last rainfall was a thunderstorm on May 13 2006. In Nubian settlements, they generally do not bother to roof all of the rooms in their houses. History Aswan is the ancient city of Swenet, which in antiquity was the frontier town of Ancient Egypt to the south. Swenet is supposed to have derived its name from an Egyptian goddess with the same name. This goddess later was identified as Eileithyia by the Greeks and Lucina by the Romans during their occupation of Ancient Egypt because of the similar association of their goddesses with childbirth, and of which the import is "the opener". The ancient name of the city also is said to be derived from the Egyptian symbol for trade. Because the Ancient Egyptians oriented toward the origin of the life-giving waters of the Nile in the south, Swenet was the first town in the country, and Egypt always was conceived to "open" or begin at Swenet. The city stood upon a peninsula on the right (east) bank of the Nile, immediately below (north of) the first cataract of the flowing waters, which extend to it from Philae. Navigation to the delta was possible from this location without encountering a barrier. The stone quarries of ancient Egypt located here were celebrated for their stone, and especially for the granitic rock called Syenite. They furnished the colossal statues, obelisks, and monolithal shrines that are found throughout Egypt, including the pyramids; and the traces of the quarrymen who wrought in these 3000 years ago are still visible in the native rock. They lie on either bank of the Nile, and a road, four miles in length, was cut beside them from Syene to Philae. Swenet was equally important as a military station as that of a place of traffic. Under every dynasty it was a garrison town; and here were levied toll and custom on all boats passing southward and northward. The city is mentioned by numerous ancient writers, including Herodotus (ii. 30), Strabo (ii. p. 133, xvii. p. 797, seq.), Stephanus of Byzantium (s. v.), Ptolemy (vii. 5. § 15, viii. 15. § 15), Pliny the Elder (ii. 73. s. 75, v. 10. s. 11, vi. 29. s. 34), De architectura (book viii. ch ii. § 6), and it appears on the Antonine Itinerary (p. 164). It also is mentioned in the Book of Isaiah from the Scriptures (ref. Ezekiel 29:10). View of Aswan from the Tombs of the Nobles on the other side of the Nile The latitude of the city that would become Aswan, located at 24° 5′ 23″– was an object of great interest to the ancient geographers. They believed that it was seated immediately under the tropic, and that on the day of the summer solstice, a vertical staff cast no shadow. They noted that the sun's disc was reflected in a well at noon. This statement is only approximately correct; at the summer solstice, the shadow was only 1/400th of the staff, and so could scarcely be discerned, and the northern limb of the sun's disc would be nearly vertical. Eratosthenes used measurements at Aswan (Elephantine) to contest the Flat Earth theory and tried to determine the circumference of Earth, using Syene (as the Greeks called Swenet) as the originating point and Alexandria as the terminal point of a measured arc (based on shadow length at the solstice). The Nile is nearly 3000 yards wide above Aswan. From this frontier town to the northern extremity of Egypt, the river flows for more than 750 miles without bar or cataract. The voyage from Aswan to Alexandria usually took 21 to 28 days in favourable weather. Education In 1995, South Valley University was inaugurated and it has three branches; Aswan, Qena and Hurgada. It was the first university in Upper Egypt to be built in the southern part of Egypt and it was organized in departmental basis. The university grew steadily and now it is firmly established as a major institution of higher education in Upper Egypt. Aswan branch of Assiut University began in 1973 with the Faculty of Education and in 1975 the Faculty of Science was opened. Aswan branch has five faculties namely; Science, Education, Engineering, Arts, Social Works and Institute of Energy. The Faculty of Science in Aswan has six departments. Each department has one educational programme: Chemistry, Geology, Physics and Zoology. Except Botany Department, which has three educational programmes: Botany, Environmental Sciences and Microbiology; and Mathematics Department, which has two educational programmes: Mathematics and Computer Science. The Faculty of Science awards the following degrees: Bachelor of Science in nine educational programmes, Higher Diploma, Master of Science and Philosophy Doctor of Science. Over 100 academic staff members are employed in the faculty. Gallery See also Abu Simbel Aswan Dam Elephantine Philae Luxor Kitchener's Island Temple of Kalabsha References External links FallingRain Map - elevation = 85m (Red dots are railways) Ancient Aswan City | Aswan |@lemmatized aswan:15 formerly:1 spell:1 assuan:1 standard:1 aswān:1 egyptian:4 swenet:8 trade:3 coptic:1 swān:1 greek:3 syene:3 city:7 south:4 egypt:10 capital:1 governorate:1 stand:2 east:2 bank:3 nile:6 first:4 cataract:3 busy:1 market:1 tourist:1 center:1 ancient:10 name:4 translate:1 contain:1 island:2 elephantine:3 one:2 dry:1 inhabited:1 place:2 world:1 early:1 last:2 rain:1 six:2 year:2 earlier:1 rainfall:1 thunderstorm:1 may:1 nubian:1 settlement:1 generally:1 bother:1 roof:1 room:1 house:1 history:1 antiquity:1 frontier:2 town:4 suppose:1 derive:2 goddess:3 later:1 identify:1 eileithyia:1 lucina:1 roman:1 occupation:1 similar:1 association:1 childbirth:1 import:1 opener:1 also:3 say:1 symbol:1 orient:1 toward:1 origin:1 life:1 give:1 water:2 country:1 always:1 conceive:1 open:2 begin:2 upon:1 peninsula:1 right:1 immediately:2 north:1 flow:2 extend:1 philae:3 navigation:1 delta:1 possible:1 location:1 without:2 encounter:1 barrier:1 stone:2 quarry:1 locate:2 celebrate:1 especially:1 granitic:1 rock:2 call:2 syenite:1 furnish:1 colossal:1 statue:1 obelisk:1 monolithal:1 shrine:1 find:1 throughout:1 include:2 pyramid:1 trace:1 quarryman:1 work:2 ago:1 still:1 visible:1 native:1 lie:1 either:1 road:1 four:1 mile:2 length:2 cut:1 beside:1 equally:1 important:1 military:1 station:1 traffic:1 every:1 dynasty:1 garrison:1 levy:1 toll:1 custom:1 boat:1 pass:1 southward:1 northward:1 mention:2 numerous:1 writer:1 herodotus:1 ii:4 strabo:1 p:3 xvii:1 seq:1 stephanus:1 byzantium:1 v:2 ptolemy:1 vii:1 viii:2 pliny:1 elder:1 vi:1 de:1 architectura:1 book:2 ch:1 appear:1 antonine:1 itinerary:1 isaiah:1 scripture:1 ref:1 ezekiel:1 view:1 tomb:1 noble:1 side:1 latitude:1 would:2 become:1 object:1 great:1 interest:1 geographer:1 believe:1 seat:1 tropic:1 day:2 summer:2 solstice:3 vertical:2 staff:3 cast:1 shadow:3 note:1 sun:2 disc:2 reflect:1 well:1 noon:1 statement:1 approximately:1 correct:1 could:1 scarcely:1 discern:1 northern:2 limb:1 nearly:2 eratosthenes:1 use:2 measurement:1 contest:1 flat:1 earth:2 theory:1 try:1 determine:1 circumference:1 originate:1 point:2 alexandria:2 terminal:1 measure:1 arc:1 base:1 yard:1 wide:1 extremity:1 river:1 bar:1 voyage:1 usually:1 take:1 favourable:1 weather:1 education:4 valley:1 university:4 inaugurate:1 three:2 branch:3 qena:1 hurgada:1 upper:2 build:1 southern:1 part:1 organize:1 departmental:1 basis:1 grow:1 steadily:1 firmly:1 establish:1 major:1 institution:1 high:2 assiut:1 faculty:6 science:9 five:1 namely:1 engineering:1 art:1 social:1 institute:1 energy:1 department:4 educational:4 programme:4 chemistry:1 geology:1 physic:1 zoology:1 except:1 botany:2 environmental:1 microbiology:1 mathematics:2 two:1 computer:1 award:1 following:1 degree:1 bachelor:1 nine:1 diploma:1 master:1 philosophy:1 doctor:1 academic:1 member:1 employ:1 gallery:1 see:1 abu:1 simbel:1 dam:1 luxor:1 kitchener:1 temple:1 kalabsha:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 fallingrain:1 map:1 elevation:1 red:1 dot:1 railway:1 |@bigram goddess_childbirth:1 colossal_statue:1 pliny_elder:1 summer_solstice:2 external_link:1 fallingrain_map:1 |
2,749 | Francesco_Algarotti | Count Francesco Algarotti (11 December, 1712–3 May, 1764) was an Italian philosopher and art critic. He also completed engravings. He was born in Venice to a rich merchant. He studied at Rome for a year, and then Bologna, he studied natural sciences and mathematics. At age of twenty, he went to Paris, where he became friendly with Voltaire and produced his Neutonianismo per le dame ("Newtonism for Ladies"), a work on optics. Voltaire called him his "cher cygne de Padoue" ("dear swan of Padua"). Two years later he was in London, where he was made a fellow of the Royal Society, and became embroiled in a lively bisexual love-triangle with the politician John Hervey, and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Algarotti later dedicated six of the letters that made up his Viaggi di Russia to Hervey. Returning from a journey to Russia, he met Frederick the Great, who made him a Prussian count in 1740 and court chamberlain in 1747; they are said to have been lovers. Augustus III of Poland also honoured him with the title of councillor. In 1754, after seven years' residence partly in Berlin and partly in Dresden, he returned to Italy, living at Venice and then at Pisa, where he died. Frederick the Great erected to his memory a monument on the Campo Santo at Pisa. He was "one of the first beaux esprits of the age," a man of wide knowledge, a connoisseur in art and music, and the friend of most of the leading authors of his time. His chief work on art is the Saggi sopra le belle arti ("Essays on the Fine Arts"). Among his other works were Poems, Travels in Russia, Essay on Painting, and Correspondence. He was one of the main collectors of art for Augustus III of Poland's collection in Dresden. His choice of works reflects the encyclopedic interests of the Neoclassic age; he was uninterested in developing a single unitary stylistic collection, he envisioned a modern museum, a catalogue of styles from across the ages. For contemporary commissions, he wrote up a list for paintings he recommended commissioning, including to ask of history paintings from Tiepolo, Pittoni, and Piazzetta; scenes with animals from Castiglione, and veduta with ruins from Pannini. He wanted "suggetti graziosi e leggeri" from Balestra, Boucher, and Donato Creti. Works Correspondence with Frederick the Great References | Francesco_Algarotti |@lemmatized count:2 francesco:1 algarotti:2 december:1 may:1 italian:1 philosopher:1 art:5 critic:1 also:2 complete:1 engraving:1 bear:1 venice:2 rich:1 merchant:1 study:2 rome:1 year:3 bologna:1 natural:1 science:1 mathematics:1 age:4 twenty:1 go:1 paris:1 become:2 friendly:1 voltaire:2 produce:1 neutonianismo:1 per:1 le:2 dame:1 newtonism:1 lady:2 work:5 optic:1 call:1 cher:1 cygne:1 de:1 padoue:1 dear:1 swan:1 padua:1 two:1 later:2 london:1 make:3 fellow:1 royal:1 society:1 embroil:1 lively:1 bisexual:1 love:1 triangle:1 politician:1 john:1 hervey:2 mary:1 wortley:1 montagu:1 dedicate:1 six:1 letter:1 viaggi:1 di:1 russia:3 return:2 journey:1 meet:1 frederick:3 great:3 prussian:1 court:1 chamberlain:1 say:1 lover:1 augustus:2 iii:2 poland:2 honour:1 title:1 councillor:1 seven:1 residence:1 partly:2 berlin:1 dresden:2 italy:1 live:1 pisa:2 die:1 erect:1 memory:1 monument:1 campo:1 santo:1 one:2 first:1 beaux:1 esprit:1 man:1 wide:1 knowledge:1 connoisseur:1 music:1 friend:1 lead:1 author:1 time:1 chief:1 saggi:1 sopra:1 belle:1 arti:1 essay:2 fine:1 among:1 poem:1 travel:1 painting:3 correspondence:2 main:1 collector:1 collection:2 choice:1 reflect:1 encyclopedic:1 interest:1 neoclassic:1 uninterested:1 develop:1 single:1 unitary:1 stylistic:1 envision:1 modern:1 museum:1 catalogue:1 style:1 across:1 contemporary:1 commission:1 write:1 list:1 recommend:1 commissioning:1 include:1 ask:1 history:1 tiepolo:1 pittoni:1 piazzetta:1 scene:1 animal:1 castiglione:1 veduta:1 ruin:1 pannini:1 want:1 suggetti:1 graziosi:1 e:1 leggeri:1 balestra:1 boucher:1 donato:1 creti:1 reference:1 |@bigram wortley_montagu:1 |
2,750 | Roman_Britain | The Roman empire in the time of Hadrian (ruled 117-38 AD), showing the imperial province of Britannia (England/Wales), and the 3 legions deployed there in 125 Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410. The Romans referred to their province as Britannia. Prior to the Roman invasion, Iron Age Britain already had cultural and economic links with Continental Europe, but the invaders introduced new developments in agriculture, urbanization, industry and architecture, leaving a legacy that is still apparent today. Historical records beyond the initial invasion are sparse, although many Roman historians mention the province in passing. Most of the knowledge of the period stems from archaeological investigations and especially epigraphic evidence. Chronological history Early contact Britain was not unknown to the Classical world. As early as the 4th century BC the Greeks, Phoenicians and Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin: George Patrick Welsh (1963), Britannia: the Roman Conquest and Occupation of Britain pp. 27-31 the Greeks refer to the Cassiterides or "tin islands" and describe them as being situated somewhere near the west coasts of Europe. Herodotus, Histories 3.115 The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 5th century BC, and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. But it was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers even refusing to believe it existed. Plutarch, Life of Caesar 23.2 The first direct Roman contact came when the Roman general and future dictator, Julius Caesar, made two expeditions to Britain in 55 and 54 BC as an offshoot of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons had been helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition, more a reconnaissance than a full invasion, gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but, undermined by storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry, was unable to advance further. The expedition was a military failure, but was at least a political success: the Roman Senate declared a 20-day public holiday in Rome in honour of this unprecedented achievement. Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 4.20-36 In his second invasion Caesar took with him a substantially larger force and proceeded to coerce or invite many of the native celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether the tribute agreed was paid by the Britons after Caesar's return to Gaul with his forces. Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 5.8-23 Caesar had conquered no territory and had left behind no troops, but had established clients on the island and had brought Britain into Rome's sphere of political influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, Dio Cassius, Roman History 49.38, 53.22, 53.25 and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claims that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Strabo, Geography 4.5 Likewise, archaeology shows an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Keith Branigan (1987), The Catuvellauni Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus' own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. Augustus, Res Gestae Divi Augusti 32 When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in AD 16, they were sent back by local rulers, telling tall tales of monsters. Tacitus, Annals 2.24 Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. John Creighton (2000), Coins and power in Late Iron Age Britain, Cambridge University Press This policy was followed until AD 39 or 40, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and staged an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it had even left Gaul. Suetonius, Caligula 44-46; Dio Cassius, Roman History 59.25 When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, this time Verica of the Atrebates. Roman invasion The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius. Cassius Dio, Roman History 60.19-22 It is not known how many Roman legions were sent; only one legion, the II Augusta, commanded by the future emperor Vespasian, is directly attested to have taken part. Tacitus, Histories 3.44 The IX Hispana, Tacitus, Annals 14.32 the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) Tacitus, Annals 14.34 are attested in 60/61 during the Boudican Revolt, and are likely to have been there since the initial invasion. However, the Roman Army was flexible, with units being used and moved whenever necessary, so this is not certain. Only the Legio IX Hispana is likely to have stayed there, as it is attested to being in residence at Eburacum (York) in 71 AD and on a building inscription there dated 108 AD, before its eventual destruction fighting in the East, likely during the Bar Kochba Revolt. Webster, Graham The Roman Imperial Army of the first and second centuries A.D. University of Oklahomah Press New ed of 3 Revised ed 1998 ISBN: 978-0806130002 p.66 The invasion was delayed by a mutiny of the troops, who were eventually persuaded by an imperial freedman to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent, although some suggest that at least part of the invasion force landed on the south coast, in the Fishbourne area of West Sussex. For example, John Manley, AD 43: The Roman Invasion of Britain: a Reassessment, 2002. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni and their allies in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the Thames. One of the Catuvellaunian leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). The future emperor Vespasian subdued the southwest, Suetonius, Vespasian 4 Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, Tacitus, Agricola 14 and treaties were made with tribes outside the area under direct Roman control. Roman rule is established Roman province of Britannia in 125 AD, showing native tribes, cities, main roads and legions deployed After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51 AD, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. However, the Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance. Tacitus, Annals 12:31-38 In 60-61 AD, while Governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus was campaigning in Wales, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under Boudica, widow of the recently-deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus, provoked by the seizure of the tribe's lands and the brutal treatment of the queen and her daughters. Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the rest would be left untouched. He was wrong. The Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth legion that was sent to relieve it. Suetonius Paulinus rode to London, the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Suetonius regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being heavily outnumbered, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Bodicea died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. Tacitus, Agricola 14-17, Annals 14.29-39; Dio Cassius, Roman History 62.1-12 The revolt had almost persuaded Nero to withdraw from Britain altogether. Suetonius, Nero 18 There was further turmoil in 69 AD, the "year of four emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively. Tacitus, Agricola 16-17; Histories 1.60, 3.45 Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi. The Lunt Fort near Coventry, a reconstructed Roman fort In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78 AD. With the XXth Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 AD at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in northern Scotland. Tacitus, Agricola 18-38 This was the high water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans retired to a more defensible line along the Forth-Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers. For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I. Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth-Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged, although others appear to have been abandoned. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100 AD, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to AD 90-110. These tablets provide vivid evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied. Around 105 AD, however, there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts of Albu: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site. There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. However, Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway-Tyne isthmus around this time. Hadrian's Wall viewed from Vercovicium A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign (117 AD): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120 AD, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the VIth Victrix legion with him from Lower Germany. This replaced the famous IXth Hispana legion, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the second century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context. In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138-161 AD) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth-Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 AD following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus. This northward extension of the empire was probably the result of attacks, maybe by the Selgovae of southeast Scotland, on the Roman buffer state of the Votadini who lived north of the Hadrianic frontier. The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155-157 AD, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Cnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 AD it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antonius' undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time, however: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180 AD. During the twenty year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danube provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts. In 175 AD a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180 AD Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Dio Cassius described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 AD he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus' strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian Prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny. The future emperor Pertinax was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control. However, a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192 AD. Third century The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the throne emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus' support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised however, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia—though it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war. Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195 AD, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Although Albinus came close to victory, Severus' reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus' sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions; but these provided an ambitious man, whose loyalty to the emperor was weak, with a powerful base for rebellion. Deploying those legions elsewhere, however, would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots. The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus' absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 AD describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject - although the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus' arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, however, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land. An expedition led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in AD 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus, but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which (with Rome's power still ending at the Wall) clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. And almost immediately another northern tribe, the Maeatae, again went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne. As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Upper Britain and Lower Britain. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts. During the middle of the 3rd century AD, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, although increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire. In the late 270s a half-Brythonic usurper named Bononus rebelled to avoid the repercussions of letting his fleet be burnt by barbarians at Cologne. He was quickly crushed by Probus, but soon afterwards an unnamed governor in Britannia also attempted an uprising. Irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians were sent across the Channel by Probus to put down the uprising, perhaps in 278 AD. The last of the string of rebellions to affect Britannia was that of Carausius and his successor Allectus. Carausius was a naval commander, probably in the English Channel. He was accused of keeping pirate booty for himself, and his execution was ordered by the Emperor Maximian. In 286 AD he set himself up as emperor in Britain and northern Gaul and remained in power whilst Maximian dealt with uprisings elsewhere. In 288 an invasion failed to unseat the usurper. An uneasy peace ensued, during which Carausius issued coins proclaiming his legitimacy and inviting official recognition. In 293 AD Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel's port at Boulogne and cutting it off from naval assistance. After the town fell, Constantius tackled Carausius' Frankish allies. Subsequently the usurper was murdered by his treasurer, Allectus. Allectus' brief reign was brought to an end when Julius Asclepiodotus landed near Southampton and defeated him in a land battle.<ref>Panegyrici Latini 8, 10; Aurelius Victor, Book of Caesars 39; Eutropius, Abridgement of Roman History 21-22; Orosius, Seven Books of History Against the Pagans 7.25</ref> Constantius arrived in London to receive the victory and chose to divide the province further, into four provinces (each with its own governor): Maxima Caesariensis (based on London), from Upper Britannia Britannia Prima, from Upper Britannia Flavia Caesariensis, from Lower Britannia Britannia Secunda, from Lower Britannia In the same year, under the Tetrarchy reforms of the emperor Diocletian, Britannia became one of the four dioceses—governed by a vicarius—of the praetorian prefecture of Galliae ('the Gauls'), comprising the provinces of Gaul, Britannia, Germania and Hispania. This added, in effect, a fifth governor of Britannia. Thus, in place of one unchallenged military commander, the province now had five officers, each with command of only a small fraction of the garrison. Fourth century Constantius Chlorus returned in 306 AD, aiming to invade northern Britain. The province's defences had been rebuilt in the preceding years, and although his health was poor Constantius wished to penetrate into enemy territory. Little is known of his campaigns, and there is little archaeological evidence for them. From fragmentary historical sources it seems he reached the far north of Britain and won a great battle in early summer before returning south to York. Constantius remained in Britain for the rest of the time he was part of the Tetrarchy, dying in York in July 306 AD. His son, Constantine I, was at his side at that moment and assumed his duties in Britannia. Unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus, he succeeded in using his base in Britannia as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne. In the middle of the century, for a few years the province was loyal to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353 AD, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paul "Catena" to Britain to hunt down Magnentius' supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paul retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius physically attacked Paul with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide. As the 4th century progressed there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Irish in the west. A series of forts was already being built, starting around 280 AD, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when a general assault of Saxons, Irish and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate in 367 AD. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius with a string of military and civil reforms. Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383 AD, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were struggling after the catastrophic Battle of Adrianople in 378. Around 396 there were increasing barbarian incursions into Britain, and an expedition - possibly led by Stilicho - brought naval action against the raiders. It seems peace was restored by 399, although it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; and indeed by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I. End of Roman rule Roman Britain in the year 410 The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the fifth century. However, consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had formerly been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There were growing barbarian attacks, but these were focused on vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy, although many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the fifth century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. New buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the fifth and sixth centuries, surrounded by large farming estates. Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the fourth century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, and problems with the payment of soldiers and officials. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, although it never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, although minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were no new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Pottery mass production probably ended a decade or two previously; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor probably adopted leather or wooden ones. Sub-Roman Britain Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attack on all sides towards the end of the 4th century, and troops were too few to mount an effective defence. The army rebelled and, after elevating two disappointing usurpers, chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He soon crossed to Gaul with an army and was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration (although Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai). A later appeal for help by the British communities was rejected by the Emperor Honorius in 410. This apparent contradiction has been explained by EA Thompson as a peasant revolt against the landowning classes, with the latter group asking for Roman help; an uprising certainly occurred in Gaul at the time. With the higher levels of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and small warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still aspiring to Roman ideals and conventions. Laycock (Britannia the Failed State, 2008) has investigated this process of fragmentation and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods to the kingdoms that formed in the post-Roman period. By tradition, the pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts and Irish, though archaeology has suggested some official settlement as landed mercenaries as early as the third century. Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may well have begun much earlier even than that. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic Roman auxiliaries being brought to Britain in the first and second centuries to support the legions. The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name). Similar orders were sent out in the 490s but met with no response. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the famous Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aëtius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446; another is the Battle of Dyrham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea. Most scholars reject the historicity of the later legends of King Arthur, which seem to be set in this period, but some such as John Morris see it as evidence behind which may lie a plausible grain of truth. Themes Trade and industry By the time of the Roman occupation, Britain's tin exports to the Mediterranean had been largely eclipsed by the more convenient supply from Iberia. Gold, tin, iron, lead, silver, jet, marble and pearls however were all exploited by the Romans in Britain along with more everyday commodities such as hunting dogs, animal skins, timber, wool and slaves. Foreign investment created a vigorous domestic market, and imports to Roman Britain were often of exotic continental items such as fine pottery such as Samian, olive oil, lavastone querns, fine glassware, wines, garum and fruit. Development of mine Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine was probably first worked by the Roman army from ca 75 AD, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for crushing and comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from ca 75 AD through to the first century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers. The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Although mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Doalucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued. Although Roman designs were most popular, rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Local pottery rarely attained the standards of the Gaulish industries although the Castor ware of the Nene Valley was able to withstand comparison with the imports. Most native pottery was unsophisticated however and intended only for local markets. By the third century, Britain's economy was diverse and well-established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north. The design of Hadrian's Wall especially catered to the need for customs inspections of merchants' goods. Provincial government Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were former senators and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops. To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus iuridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and in time of war probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services. Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. Provincial subdivisions Town and country During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which still survive. Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them, include: (with their Latin names in brackets) Alcester - (Aluana) Bath - (Aquae Sulis) Caerleon - (Isca Augusta) Caernarfon - (Segontium) Caerwent - (Venta Silurum) Canterbury - (Durovernum Cantiacorum) Carlisle - (Luguvalium) Carmarthen - (Moridunum) Colchester - (Camulodunum) Corbridge - (Coria) Chichester - (Noviomagus Regnorum meaning 'new field' or new clearing of the Regni, Wacher, John The Towns of Roman BritainRoutledge; 2nd Revised edition edition (5 April 1995) ISBN 978-0713473193 p.262 Chester - (Deva Victrix) Cirencester - (Corinium) Dover - (Portus Dubris) Dorchester - (Durnovaria) Exeter - (Isca Dumnoniorum) Gloucester - (Glevum) Leicester - (Ratae Corieltauvorum) London - (Londinium) Lincoln - (Lindum Colonia) Manchester - (Mamucium) Newcastle upon Tyne - (Pons Aelius) Northwich - (Condate) St Albans - (Verulamium) Towcester - (Lactodorum) Whitchurch - (Mediolanum) Winchester - (Venta Belgarum) York - (Eboracum) Religion Pagan The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 6.13 were outlawed by Claudius, Suetonius, Claudius 12.5 and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Tacitus, Annals 14.30 However, under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham. The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the Roman Baths (Bath), Bath, Somerset before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman Emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the third century Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably into the 5th century. Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The Temple of Mithras is one example of the popularity of mystery religions amongst the rich urban classes and temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrians Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum). Christianity It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is actually a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Tertullian, Adversus Judaeos 7.4 Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early fourth century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th century cemetery at Poundbury with its east-west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period. The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314. Represented at the Council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain: Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well-established. Saint Alban, the first British Christian martyr, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (although some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Aaron and Julius of Isca Augusta. One heresy, Pelagianism, was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440. A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicized as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. However, this translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text, in fact, has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals. Legacy Roman roads During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and sewage systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eburacum), were founded by the Romans. Britain is also noteworthy as having the largest European region of the former Roman Empire that currently speaks neither (as a majority language): A Romance language (for example, Romania, where territory was under Roman control about half as long as Britain), nor A language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants (such as Greek), though Welsh exists as a minority language, with many borrowings from Latin, such as llaeth ("milk"), ffenestr ("window"). The Cornish language also survived into the early modern period and is currently undergoing some revival. Significant Germanic migration to Britain seems to have taken place only after the coming of the Romans. The Germanic speakers came originally as Roman auxiliary troops to support the Romans in their conquest of the Celts. See also Britannia (disambiguation) Roman departure from Britain List of Roman governors of Britain Roman client kingdoms in Britain History of Britain Romano-British Sub-Roman Britain Roman sites in the United Kingdom Mining in Roman Britain Dolaucothi Scotland during the Roman Empire References External links Roman Britain, by Kevan W. White The Roman Army and Navy in Britain, by Peter Green Roman Britain: Guy de la Bedoyere Roman Britain at LacusCurtius Roman London - "In their own words" (PDF) By Kevin Flude Roman Britain - History Roman Wales RCAHMW* The Roman Inscriptions of Britain -- an online version of the authoritative collection of R.G. Collingwood and R.P. 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2,751 | History_of_Israel | The State of Israel (, Medinat Yisrael) was established on May 14, 1948 after nearly two thousand years of Jewish dispersal, and after 55 years of efforts to create a Jewish homeland (Zionism). The 60 years since Israeli independence have been marked by conflict with neighbouring Arab states and the Palestinian-Arabs. There have also been many negotiations, and peace has been achieved with Egypt and Jordan. Israel's democracy has survived under difficult circumstances and the country has prospered despite war, ethno-religious conflict, boycotts, mass immigration and terror attacks. Since the creation of the Jewish state, the percentage of the world's Jews in Israel has grown; at present, about 40% of the world's Jewish population are Israeli residents. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/jewpop.html, Statistical Abstract of Israel No. 51, Central Bureau of Statistics 2000 Palestine Post headline announcing declaration of independence. Original copy Introduction: Jewish history in Israel Evidence of Jewish presence in Israel dates back 3,400 years, to the formation of the religion. The name "Jews" derives from their origin in Judah. Over the course of this long history, the Jews have several times been dispersed and then returned from exile, buttressed by the power and influence of their holy book, The Tanakh (the Old Testament). Readers should note that this article uses the non-denominational BCE ("Before Common Era") in preference to BC ("Before Christ"). CE ("Common Era") is used instead of AD ("Anno Domini": Latin for "Year of Our Lord"). Orthodox Jews use a Jewish calendar which is traditionally regarded as dating back to the creation of the universe. Birth of Judaism and Israel 1400 BCE - 586 BCE The origins of Judaism are uncertain and go back to the dawn of civilization. The Israelites are thought to have come into existence between 1400 and 1100 BCE in Canaan and Egypt, developing an independent kingdom around 1050 BCE. Around 950 BCE, the kingdom split into the Kingdom of Judah and the Kingdom of Israel. The Israelites were exiled by Assyria around 720 BCE, becoming the Lost Tribes of Israel. Babylonian, Persian and Greek rule 586 BCE - 150 BCE In 586 BCE King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon conquered the Kingdom of Judah and exiled the population to Babylon. The Bible recounts how, in 538 BCE Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon and issued a proclamation granting the people of Judah their freedom. 50,000 Judeans, led by Zerubabel returned. A second group of 5000, led by Ezra and Nehemiah, returned to Judea in 456 BCE. In 333 BCE Alexander the Great conquered Judea and sometime thereafter, the first translation of the Hebrew Bible (the Septuagint) was begun in Alexandria. The restoration of Jewish rule 174 BCE - 64 BCE In the second century, Antiochus IV Epiphanes tried to eradicate Judaism in favor of Hellenism leading to the 174 - 135 BCE Maccabean Revolt. The success of this revolt is celebrated in the Jewish festival of Chanukka. The Books of the Maccabees documented the uprising. Roman rule 64 BCE - 330 In 64 BCE the Roman General, Pompey conquered Judea. The Jewish Temple in Jerusalem became the only religious structure in the Roman Empire which did not contain an effigy of the emperor and was one of the largest religious structures in the world. From 37 BCE - 92 the Herodian dynasty, Jewish-Roman client kings ruled Judea. In 66 CE the Jews broke free of Rome , naming their new kingdom, Israel (to distinguish it from Roman-controlled Iudaea province). Israel's unsuccessful revolt against Roman domination and the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple by Titus in the year 70 were described by the Roman-Jewish historian Josephus, including the famous last stand at Massada. The Jewish revolt led the Christians, at this time a sub-sect of Judaism, to completely disassociate themselves from Judaism. This was reflected in the Gospels. A second Jewish revolt in 135 also renamed the country "Israel," and its defeat led the emperor Hadrian to rename Jerusalem to Aelia Capitolina. Martin Goodman, Rome and Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilizations, Penguin 2008 page 490 Jews were banned from living there and the Roman province, until then known as Iudaea Province, was renamed to Palaestina; no other revolt led to a province being renamed. The names "Palestine" (in English) and "Filistin" (in Arabic) derive from this Latin name. see Rome and Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilizations by Martin Goodman (historian), published by Allen Lane 2007. Byzantine (Christian Roman) rule 330 - 631 In 330 the Roman Empire adopted Christianity as its official religion and the capital was moved to Byzantium, later renamed Constantinopole (and now called Istanbul). There was another Jewish revolt in 351–352. Anti-Semitism: Its History and Causes by Bernard Lazare 1894 see http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/lazare-anti.html accessed Jan 2009 Despite persecution, key Jewish religious texts were compiled in Israel between the years 200 and 1000. In the second century Israeli Rabbis decided which books could be regarded as part of the Hebrew Bible. The Jewish apocrypha were left out (including the Books of the Maccabees). Sacred Jewish texts written in Israel in this period include the Mishnah (200), the Gemara (400) and the Talmud (500). In 614 a Jewish revolt against Byzantine Emperor Heraclius with Persian support failed, leading to an edict expelling the Jews from Palestine. According to Muslim tradition, in 620 Muhammed flew from Mecca to the "farthest mosque", whose location is considered to be the Temple Mount, returning the same night. In 631, the Arabs defeated Heraclius and conquered the area. Over the next few centuries, Islam became the dominant religion in the area. Arab rule 636 - 1099 From 636 till the Crusades, Palestine was ruled by the Medinah based Rashidun Caliphs, then the Damascus based Umayyad Caliphate and after that the Baghdad-based Abbasid Caliphs. In 691, Ummayad Caliph Abd al-Malik (685-705) constructed the Dome of the Rock shrine over the Foundation Stone, the holiest part of the Jewish Temple (see also Holy of Holies). The shrine is the oldest Islamic building in the world. A second building, the Al-Aqsa Mosque was erected on the Temple Mount in 705. Between the 7th and 11th centuries, Jewish scribes, called the Masoretes and located in the Galilee and Jerusalem, established the Masoretic Text, the final text of the Hebrew Bible. Crusader rule 1099 - 1291 The name Palestine fell out of use under the Crusaders, who called the kingdoms they established there "Outremer" (overseas). During the Crusades, Jews in Israel were massacred or sold into slavery. Jerusalem in the Crusader Period Jerusalem: Life throughout the ages in a holy city] David Eisenstadt, March 1997 The murder of Jews began during the Crusaders' travels across Europe and continued in the Holy Land. See The History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem by Joshua Prawer, 1988, see also http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_cru1.htm (accessed Nov. 2007) Ashkenazi orthodox Jews still recite a prayer in memory of the destruction caused by the Crusades. From 1260 to 1291 Israel became the frontier between Mongol invaders (who were Crusader allies) and the Mamluks of Egypt. The conflict impoverished the area and severely reduced its population. Sultan Baybars of Egypt eventually expelled the Mongols and eliminated the last Crusader Kingdom of Acre in 1291, thereby ending the Crusades. Mamluk (Egyptian - islamic) rule 1260 - 1517 The Egyptian Mamluks governed the area 1260 - 1517. The collapse of the Crusades was followed by widespread expulsions of Jews in Europe, beginning in England (1290) and followed by France (1306) http://fcit.usf.edu/HOLOCAUST/GALLERY/EXPULS.HTM http://www.aztlan.net/jewexpulsions.htm http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/1182-jewsfrance1.html . In the 15th century the large and well integrated Jewish communities in Spain (the Alhambra decree 1492) and Portugal (1497) were expelled or forced to convert. Many of these Jews moved to the New World (see History of the Jews in Latin America) and to Poland. Persecutions usually also led to movement of Jews to Israel. Ottoman (Turkish - islamic) rule 1517 - 1917 Under the Ottomans (1517—1917) the area was part of the province of Syria. During the 1648—1654 Khmelnytsky Uprising in the Ukraine over 100,000 Jews were massacred in Eastern Europe, leading to further migration. The Jewish population of Israel was concentrated in the Four Holy Cities. In 1799 Napoleon briefly occupied the coast and offered to create a Jewish state there but was ultimately unable to maintain power over the region. By the 19th century, the Land of Israel was populated mostly by Muslim and Christian Arabs, as well as Jews, Greeks, Druze, Bedouins and other minorities. In 1844, Jews constituted the largest population group in Jerusalem and by 1890 an absolute majority in the city, although as a whole the Jewish population made up far less than 10% of the region. When the British conquered the area in 1917, they named it "Palestine" and defined boundaries including modern Israel, the West-Bank and Gaza and Jordan. The Zionist Movement 1897–1917: The Zionist Revolution For a full account of the emergence of the Zionist movement see the History of Zionism. The French Revolution and the associated spread of Enlightenment ideals led to Jewish emancipation across Europe. Many Jews actively embraced the enlightenment and assimilated as ways to attain equal rights. This led to a counter-reaction by European reactionaries who sought to prevent Jews from being granted citizenship and who saw them as an alien, morally inferior non-European community. Opponents of Jewish civil rights called themselves antisemites. Scientific racism became increasingly popular as the century wore on and what had been religious prejudice now became racial prejudice. In Tzarist Russia, the government actively encouraged pogroms in an effort to divert popular resentment at the government and to drive out the Jewish population. As part of the campaign the Russian government alleged a Jewish-Zionist conspiracy to achieve world domination. A small section of the millions of Jews who fled Russia, headed for Palestine. Mikveh Israel was founded in 1870 by Alliance Israelite Universelle, followed by Petah Tikva (1878), Rishon LeZion (1882), and other agricultural communities founded by the members of Bilu and Hovevei Zion. Antisemitism, pogroms and the growth of nationalism in Europe led to an increase in the number of Jews who considered the possibility of re-establishing themselves as an independent nation. Left-wing antisemitism and the desire to preserve their identity led some socialist Jews to seek solutions within their own community. In 1897, the First Zionist Congress proclaimed the decision "to establish a home for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under public law." First Congress - Basle [Basel], 1897 The movement made little political progress before the First World War and was regarded with suspicion by the Ottoman rulers of the Holy Land. Zionism attracted religious Jews, secular nationalists and left-wing socialists. Socialists aimed to reclaim the land by working on it and formed collectives. This was accompanied by Revival of the Hebrew language. During World War I, the British sought Jewish support in the fight against Germany. This and support for Zionism from Prime-Minister Lloyd-George God, Guns and Israel, Jill Hamilton, UK 2004, Especially chapter 14. led to foreign minister, Lord Balfour making the Balfour Declaration of 1917, stating that the British Government "view[ed] with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people"..."it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine". The British invasion force, led by General Allenby, included a force of Jewish volunteers (mostly Zionists), known as the Jewish Legion. God, Guns and Israel, Jill Hamilton, UK 2004, Especially chapter 15 1917–1948: British rule: the Jewish national home The League of Nations Mandate After World War I, the League of Nations formally assigned the Palestine mandate to the United Kingdom; endorsing the terms of the Balfour Declaration and additionally requiring the creation of an independent Jewish Agency that would administer Jewish affairs in Palestine. http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/181c4bf00c44e5fd85256cef0073c426/2fca2c68106f11ab05256bcf007bf3cb!OpenDocument Britain signed an additional treaty with the USA (which did not join the League of Nations) in which the USA endorsed the terms of the mandate. A Survey of Palestine prepared for the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry, 1946, chapter 1 The Jewish Agency was managed by a council of 224 representatives, half elected by the Zionist Congress and half by Jews (not just Zionists) in various countries. The Agency allocated immigration permits (the number of permits was fixed by the British) and distributed funds donated by Jews abroad. Palestine Royal Commission, (Peel report) page 172 . From 1927, the adult Jews of Palestine (including women) elected a 314 member General Assembly every four years which appointed a 40 member Va'ad Leumi (National Committee), which functioned as a government and raised taxes (with British permission) http://www.amalnet.k12.il/meida/history/hisi1085.htm (in Hebrew accessed 22/4/2009)Palestine Royal Commission, (Peel report) page 48-49 ; most of the revenue raised by the Mandate came from the Jewish minority but was spent on funding the British administration and services to the Arab majority so the Va'ad administered independent services for the Jewish population. Palestine Royal Commission, (Peel report) chapters 5, 8 and 16 The growth of Arab resistance and immigration restrictions Following Arab rioting in 1921, the British mandatory authorities enacted a system of immigration quotas to ensure that Jewish immigration did not disrupt Palestine's economy. An exception was made for Jews with over 1000 Pounds in cash (a large sum in those days), or professionals with over 500 Pounds, who would be allowed in despite the quotas. A decision was made to remove Transjordan from the mandate and allow an independent state to be created there. Palestine Royal Commission Report (the Peel report) London 1937, chapter 10, page 283. Arab attacks on isolated Jewish settlements and British failure to protect the Jews, led to the creation of Haganah (Defense) a mainly socialist Jewish militia dedicated to defending Jewish settlements. Following the 1929 Arab riots, the Revisionist Zionist leader, Jabotinsky, created a right-wing militia called the Irgun Tzvai Leumi (National Military Organization, known in locally by its acronym "Etzel"), this smaller group temporarily merged with Haganah in the thirties. Jewish immigration grew slowly in the 1920s. However, the increased persecution of European Jews by the European Fascist powers (such as the Third Reich) resulted in a marked increase in Jewish immigration. Rapid Jewish migration led to a large-scale Arab rebellion in Palestine (1936-1939 Arab revolt in Palestine). The Jewish Agency leader, Ben-Gurion responded to the revolt with Havlagah, a policy of not responding to Arab attacks in order to prevent polarization. The Etzel left the Haganah because of its failure to avenge Arab attacks on Jews. Concerned that sympathy for the Palestinian Arabs would damage Anglo-Arab/Muslim relations, Britain responded by creating a Royal Commission chaired by Lord Peel. The Peel Commission recommended the partition of Palestine into two separate autonomous regions for Jews and Arabs, with Britain maintaining overall control over the territory and a population transfer to secure full separation between the communities. The proposals were rejected as unworkable by the British Parliament. The commission did not examine the situation of Jews in Europe. The 1939 White Paper and the Holocaust In 1939, the increasing probability of major war in Europe prompted Britain to focus on Arab goodwill and prevent immigration by the growing numbers of Jews trying to enter Palestine. The result was the 1939 White Paper which restricted Jewish immigration to 75,000 over the next five years (further levels requiring Arab consent) and a promise to establish an independent Palestine under Arab majority rule within the next ten years. Darwin, J: "Britain and Decolonisation", page 115. Palgrave Macmillan, 1988 Both the Jewish and the Palestinian-Arab leadership rejected the White Paper. Britain's informal empire in the Middle East By Daniel Silverfarb, page 62: The Arabs demanded an Amnesty to participants in the revolt and stronger guarantees of independence The White Paper was published on 9 November 1938, two weeks after Germany annexed Sudetenland. The night it was published a massive pogrom took place in Germany and 25-30,000 Jews were sent to concentration camps, 200 synagogues destroyed and 91 Jews murdered. The White Paper was passed into law by Parliament in May 1939, a few weeks after Britain agreed to Germany annexing the rest of Czechoslavakia. The 1939 White Paper broke with the terms of the British Mandate as decreed by the League of Nations and the Balfour Declaration. Despite this, the Jewish Agency leader, Ben-Gurion, decided to support Britain in the coming conflict with Germany and Palestine's Jewish youth were called on to volunteer for the British Army (both men and women). The Etzel also supported this policy, however a small group dedicated to fighting the British broke away and formed the Lehi (Stern Gang), led by Avraham Stern. According to Arthur Koestler, Stern's parents had been on a boat the British returned to Europe in the 1930s where they were killed by the Nazis. Arthur Koestler, 1949. Promise and Fulfilment: Palestine 1917-1949., 1949 In March 1940 the British High Commissioner for Palestine issued an edict banning Jews from purchasing land in 95% of Palestine. Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry - Appendix IV see http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/anglo/angap04.htm In 1943 the USSR released the Revisionist Zionist leader, Menachem Begin from the Gulag and he migrated to Palestine, taking command of the Etzel with a policy of increased conflict against the British. Begin's family had been murdered by the Nazis. At about the same time Yitzhak Shamir escaped from the camp in Eritrea where the British had been holding him without trial and assumed command of the Lehi (Stern Gang). Shamir's parents were murdered by the Polish villagers they grew up among. From 1939 to 1945 72% of European Jews were murdered. 20-25% of those killed were children. http://frank.mtsu.edu/~baustin/jewvicts.html 1945–1947: Jewish uprising against British rule The Second World War left the surviving remnant of Jews in central Europe as displaced persons (refugees); almost all wanted to leave, and many opted to seek refuge in Palestine using the clandestine organized effort. A stream of small boats ensued, carrying stateless Jews to Palestine without documents. This situation caused the British to take counter measures against the illegal immigrants and its organization. Because of the human tragedy, both public and militant resistance to British administration increased. Shortly after VE Day, the Labour Party won the elections in Britain. Although the Labour party conferences for years had called for the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine, the Labour Foreign Minister, Ernest Bevin, decided to maintain the 1939 White Paper restrictions. This was due to the continued importance of cordial Anglo-Arab relations to British strategic concerns throughout the region and their weakened empire. Britain governed Transjordan, Sudan, Kuwait, the Arab Emirates, Bahrain and the Yemen, and had treaties of alliance with Iraq and Egypt. At this time also, Jewish militias in Palestine, (the Haganah, 'Etzel' and Lehi) decided to form the unified Jewish Resistance Movement against the British. In June 1946, following instances of sabotage and kidnapping, the British launched Operation Agatha in Palestine and arrested thousands of Jews, including the leadership of the responsible Jewish Agency. Many were held without trial, until arrangements for a deescalation were made. The Kielce Pogrom in Poland, in July 1946, and continuing violence elsewhere in Eastern Europe, led to a massive wave of Jews seeking to escape Europe. Yehuda Bauer, Brichah: Flight and Rescue, Random house 1970). About this time, the British government decided to hold illegal Jewish immigrants to Palestine at Cyprus internment camps; they were held indefinitely and without trial. The prisoners were mostly holocaust survivors, with many children and orphans; the camps were funded by taxation of the Jewish community in Palestine. Due to concerns in Cyprus that the Jews would never leave, since they lacked citizenship or documents, the administration subsequently began to release them at a rate of 750 per month and allowed their movement to Palestine. The unified resistance movement in Palestine also broke up in July 1946, after Irgun's bombing of the British Military Headquarters, the King David Hotel bombing, which killed 92, mostly civilians. Darwin, J: "Britain and Decolonisation", page 117. Palgrave Macmillan 1988 In the days following the bombing, Tel-Aviv was placed under curfew and over 120,000, nearly 20% of the Jewish population of Palestine, were interrogated by CID. The Times 30/7/46 pg.4 3/8/1946 Pg.4. The negative publicity generated by British attempts to halt Jewish migration to Palestine, led US Congress to delay granting Britain economic aid which was vital to the survival of the British Empire. Fearing a parallel conflict with Britain's Arab allies and subjects, the Labour Government decided to refer the Palestine problem to the United Nations. The United Nations decides to partition Palestine The UN appointed a committee to decide how to deal with Palestine, the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP). While the UNSCOP mission was visiting Palestine, in July 1947, Jewish and Zionist delegations met with the committee; the Arab Higher Committee boycotted the meetings. At this time, British Foreign Secretary Bevin ordered an illegal immigrant ship, the Exodus 1947, to be sent back to Europe. In July 1947 also, an incident between Britain and the militant Irgun in Palestine triggered anti-semitic riots in Liverpool; these spread to other major British cities, including London, Manchester, Cardiff, Derby and Glasgow. Jewish Chronicle 8/8/47 & 22/8/47, both page 1. See http://www.workersliberty.org/node/6351 for an eye witness account of the Manchester riot. See also Bagon, Paul (2003). "The Impact of the Jewish Underground upon Anglo Jewry: 1945-1947". St Antony’s College, University of Oxford M-Phil thesis (mainly the conclusion) http://users.ox.ac.uk/~metheses/Bagon.html Retrieved on 2008-10-25. The principal non-Zionist orthodox Jewish party, Agudat Israel, recommended to UNSCOP that a Jewish state be created after reaching a religious status quo agreement with Ben-Gurion regarding the future state. The agreement granted future exemption of yeshiva (religious seminary) students and orthodox women from military service, made the Sabbath the national weekend, promised Kosher food in government institutions and allowed them to maintain a separate education system. http://w3.kfar-olami.org.il/asaf/pedagogical/ezrahut/status.doc (Hebrew) In September 1947, one month after Partition of India, (UNSCOP) recommended partition in Palestine, a suggestion ratified by the UN General Assembly on November 29, 1947. Butler, L.J.: "Britain and Empire", page 78. I.B. Tauris, 2002 The result envisaged the creation of two states, one Arab and one Jewish, with the city of Jerusalem to be under the direct administration of the United Nations. The General Assembly resolution called upon Britain to evacuate a seaport and sufficient hinterland to support substantial Jewish migration, by February 1, 1948. Neither Britain nor the UN Security Council acted to implement the resolution and Britain continued imprisoning Jews attempting to migrate, in camps on Cyprus. Concerned that partition would severely damage Anglo-Arab/Muslim relations, Britain refused to cooperate with the UN, denying the UN access to Palestine during the interim period (a requirement of the partition decision). Final evacuation was completed by May 1948. Britain continued to hold Jews of "fighting age" and their families on Cyprus even after leaving Palestine. They were eventually released in March 1949. In 1946-47, the Dead Sea Scrolls were found by a Bedouin Shepherd, Muhammed edh-Dhib. On the day the UN voted to create a Jewish state, archaeologist Eleazar Sukenik identified the scrolls as authentic copies of the bible dating back to before the destruction of Judea. http://www.allaboutarchaeology.org/qumran-cave-1-faq.htm http://home.flash.net/~hoselton/deadsea/timelinm.htm Sukenik bought three of the scrolls the following month. http://www.gnosis.org/library/dss/dss_timeline.htm The War of Independence: The civil war phase Fighting between the Arab and Jewish communities of Palestine began in November 1947, immediately after the UN decision to create a Jewish state. The Arab States declared they would greet any attempt to form a Jewish state with war. Benny Morris. 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War, Yale University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0300126969. chapter 2 especially pages 50, 61, 65-71 Dr Izzat Tannous, the Palestinian Arab representative to the UN declared that We are now at war, a war in which no quarter will be asked and none will be given. It will be a battle of life and death and woe to the vanquished. London Times 20/2/47 page 4 Fighting spread as the British gradually withdrew. The Arab League could not invade before the British withdrew but planned to invade the day after the British left. In this phase, before the British departure, the struggle was a civil war. Arab forces consisted of village militias buttressed by the Arab Liberation Army, a force composed largely of Arab volunteers from across the Middle-East but which included European mercenaries including British deserters, German Nazis Benny Morris. 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War, Yale University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0300126969. pages 85 & 145 and veterans of the (Bosnian Moslem) Croation Waffen SS (whose commander had been the Palestinian Mufti of Jerusalem). The Jews had their militias (including many World War II veterans) and a several thousand strong professional force called the Palmach. Initially the Arabs had the advantage as the British maintained an embargo on Palestine's seas preventing the Jews from importing arms or man power while Arab states could supply local Arabs who also occupied more strategic areas and out-numbered the Jews. The Jews, however, were better organized and believed themselves to be fighting for their lives. Jewish taxes had funded both the British army in Palestine and British support for the Arab population so the Jewish economy benefited from the British departure while the Arab economy collapsed as the war expanded. The Jews had an elected government (the Va'ad Leumi) already in place with an independent taxation system. In the early stages 100,000 Palestinian Arabs, mainly the upper-classes and better off fled to neighbouring states. Benny Morris, 1948, Yale 2008 chapters 3 & 4 Before May 1948, 150,000 more fled or were evicted during fighting as the Jews slowly overpowered the Arab forces. Jewish preparation for the Arab invasion led to the eviction of hostile Arab communities who controlled access routes. In Haifa the Arab Higher Committee (who were based in Syria) refused to allow a negotiated cease fire with the Jews or allow the Arab population to remain under Jewish control thus contributing to the departure of the city's Arab population. Benny Morris, 1948, Yale 2008 chapter 4 especially pages 140-147 There was particularly heavy fighting on the road to Jerusalem, whose 100,000 strong Jewish community was cut off from the rest of the country, and this led the Jews to destroy most of the Arab villages along the narrow route they eventually established between Jerusalem and Tel-Aviv. The impending Arab invasion provided an incentive for Palestinian-Arabs to leave in the expectation that they would soon return. In 1948 Jews were known as a nation with no military tradition who had easily been slaughtered over the preceding century, while the Arabs were a famous warrior nation and an Arab victory was widely anticipated. Israel 1948 - Present The State of Israel declared On May 14 1948, the last British forces left Haifa, and the Jewish Agency, led by David Ben-Gurion, declared the creation of the State of Israel, in accordance with the 1947 UN Partition Plan. Both U.S. President Harry S. Truman and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin immediately recognized the new state. The War of Independence: the Arab invasion phase Arab League members Egypt, TransJordan, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq declared war and announced their rejection of the UN partition decision. They claimed the right of self-determination for the Arabs of Palestine over the whole of Palestine. Arab League Declaration on the Invasion of Palestine, May 15, 1948 Saudi-Arabia and Sudan also sent forces to participate in the invasion. UN Secretary General Trygve Lie described this as the first armed aggression which the world had seen since the end of the war”. Trygve Lie, In the Cause of Peace, Seven Years with the United Nations (New York: MacMillan 1954) pg.174 The invading Egyptian and Iraqi armies were poorly trained and equipped as the British had feared they would support the Nazis during the Second World War. The Jordanian "Arab Legion" however, was well trained and had aided the British in Palestine. Many Arab Legion forces were still in Palestine when the British left. Arab Legion commanders were high-ranking British officers (who resigned from the British Army in 1948). The Commander-in-Chief was a British General, Glubb Pasha. The invading Arab armies were initially successful but met far harder Jewish resistance than they expected, causing them to slow their advance. On May 29, 1948 the British initiated United Nations Security Council Resolution 50 and declared an arms embargo on the region. Czechoslovakia violated the resolution supplying the Jewish state with critical military hardware to match the heavy equipment and planes available to the invading Arab states (who were supplied by Britain). In early June, the UN declared a month-long truce. Following the announcement of independence, the Haganah became the Israel Defense Forces and the Palmach, Etzel and Lehi were required to join and cease independent existence. During the ceasefire, Etzel attempted to bring in a private arms shipment aboard a ship called "Altalena". When they refused to unconditionally hand over the arms to the government, Ben-Gurion ordered that the ship be sunk. Several Etzel members were killed in the fighting. Large numbers of Jewish immigrants, many of them World War II veterans and Holocaust survivors now began arriving, and many joined the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). When the fighting resumed, Israel gained the upper hand. Arab supply routes were long and fragile and as the war dragged on they had problems replenishing their ammunition supplies. The Jordanian 'Arab Legion', refrained from invading Israeli territory and focused on occupying the West Bank and East Jerusalem. Armistice In March 1949, after many months of battle, a permanent ceasefire went into effect and Israel's interim borders, later known as the Green Line, were established. By that time Israel had conquered the Galilee and Negev, however the Syrians remained in control of a strip of territory along the Sea of Galilee originally allocated to the Jewish state, the Lebanese occupied a tiny area at Rosh Hanikra and the Egyptians held the Gaza strip and had some forces surrounded inside Jewish territory. The Jordanians had occupied East-Jerusalem and the West Bank. Following the ceasefire declaration, Britain released over 2,000 Jewish prisoners it was holding on Cyprus and recognized the state of Israel. On May 11, 1949, Israel was admitted as a member of the United Nations. NationMaster - UN membership date (most recent) by country The war for Israel's Independence was the costliest in its history. Out of a Jewish population of 650,000, some 6,000 men and women were killed in the fighting, including 4,000 soldiers in the IDF. The exact number of Arab losses is unknown but the estimates ranged from 10,000 to 15,000 people. According to United Nations figures, 711,000 Palestinians left Israeli-controlled territory between 1947 and 1949 and, over the next twenty years 850,000 Jews (almost the entire Jewish population) left the Arab world. Group seeks justice for 'forgotten' Jews - International Herald Tribune At the end of the war, Egypt remained in occupation of the Gaza Strip and Transjordan annexed the "West Bank" and eastern Jerusalem, including the Old City. Except in Jordan, Arab refugees that left Palestine were settled in refugee camps and denied full citizenship and rights by the Arab countries that hosted them. Labour Party rule 1948–1977 The new state established a 120-seat parliament, the Knesset, which first met in Tel Aviv but moved to Jerusalem after the 1949 ceasefire. In January 1949, Israel held its first elections. The first President of Israel was Chaim Weizmann. David Ben-Gurion was elected prime minister. From 1948 until 1977 all governments were led by Mapai and the Alignment, predecessors of the Labour Party. 1948–1953: Ben Gurion and mass immigration Labour Zionists led by David Ben-Gurion dominated Israeli politics and the economy was run on primarily socialist lines, however all governments have been coalitions. In 1950 the Knesset passed the Law of Return which granted all Jews and those of Jewish ancestry, and their spouses, the right to migrate to and settle in Israel and gain citizenship. In 1950 50,000 Yemenite Jews were secretly airlifted to Israel. From 1949-1951, massacres led 30,000 Jews to flee Libya. In 1951 Iraqi Jews were granted temporary permission to leave the country and 120,000 were airlifted to Israel. Jews also fled from Lebanon, Syria and Egypt. Jews were not permitted to live in or enter Saudi-Arabia. About 500,000 Jews left Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia by the late sixties. The property Arab Jews abandoned (much of it in city centres) is a matter of dispute. In three years (1948 to 1951), mass immigration doubled the Jewish population (700,000 immigrants) and left an indelible imprint on Israeli society. Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and its Repercussions in the 1950s and After Dvora Hacohen, Syracuse University Press, 2003 Most immigrants were either Holocaust survivors or Jews fleeing Arab lands; the largest groups (over 100,000 each) were from Iraq, Romania and Poland, although immigrants arrived from all over Europe and the Middle East. Source: Professor Moshe Sikron, http://www.lib.cet.ac.il/pages/item.asp?item=12938 (Hebrew) From 1948 to 1958, the population rose from 800,000 to two million. During this period, food, clothes and furniture were rationed in what became known as the Austerity Period (Tkufat haTsena). Immigrants were mostly refugees with no possessions and were housed in temporary camps known as ma'abarot. By 1952, over 200,000 immigrants were living in temporary tents or pre-fabricated shacks built by the government. Most of the financial aid Israel received were private donations from Jews outside the country (mainly in the USA). Mishtar HaTsena (in Hebrew), Dr Avigail Cohen & Haya Oren, Tel-Aviv 1995 The need to solve the economic crisis led Ben-Gurion to sign a reparations agreement with West Germany. During the Knesset debate some 5,000 demonstrators gathered and riot police had to cordon the building. During the debate, the Herut leader Menachem Begin and Ben-Gurion called each other fascists and Begin branded Ben-Gurion a "hooligan." Haaretz 8/1/1952, http://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3306796,00.html (Hebrew accessed 10/10/2007) Dalia Ofer estimates that by 1952 about 400,000 Israelis were Jews who had been severely displaced by the Holocaust, and the Israeli government's demand for German reparations was in lieu of the expenses involved in resettling them. Dalia Ofer, Holocaust Survivors as Immigrants: The Case of Israel and the Cyprus Detainees in Modern Judaism, Vol. 16, No. 1 (Feb., 1996), pp. 1-23 Israel received several billion marks and in return Israel agreed to open diplomatic relations with Germany. In its early years Israel sought to maintain a non-aligned position between the super-powers. Both the USA and the USSR had widespread support in Israel, however in 1952 an anti-Semitic public trial was staged in Moscow of a group of Jewish doctors accused of trying to poison Stalin (the Doctors' plot), followed by a similar trial in Czechoslovakia (Slánský trial). That and the failure of Israel to get invited to the Bandung Conference (of non-aligned states), effectively ended Israeli non-alignment. At this time the United States pursued close relations with the new Arab states, particularly the Egyptian Free Officers Movement and Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia. Israel's solution to the diplomatic isolation resulting from Arab boycotts was to establish good relations with the emerging states in Africa Israel's Military Aid to Africa, 1960-66, Abel Jacob in The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 9, No. 2 (Aug., 1971), pp. 165-187 and with France which was then engaged in the Algerian War. A second election was held in 1951, with little change from the previous election. At the end of 1953, Ben Gurion retired to Kibbutz Sde Boker in the Negev. 1954–1955: Moshe Sharett and the Lavon Affair In January 1954 Moshe Sharett became Prime-Minister of Israel, however his government was brought down by the Lavon Affair, a crude plan to disrupt US-Egyptian relations, involving Egyptians planting bombs at American sites in Egypt. The plan failed when the eleven agents were arrested. Defense Minister Lavon was blamed despite his denial of responsibility. (Hebrew) http://www.knesset.gov.il/lexicon/heb/lavon.htm Archaeologist and General Yigael Yadin, purchased the Dead Sea Scrolls on behalf of the State of Israel. The entire first batch to be discovered were now owned by Israel and housed in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum. In 1954 the Uzi submachine gun first entered use by the Israel Defence Forces. The Lavon affair led to Sharett's resignation and Ben-Gurion returned to the post of Prime-Minister winning the 1955 election. 1955–1963: Ben-Gurion II: Sinai Campaign & Eichmann Trial In 1955, Czechoslovakia began supplying arms to Egypt, and France became Israel's principal arms supplier. Gerald M. Steinberg. Israel and the United States: Can the Special Relationship Survive the New Strategic Environment?, Middle East Review of International Affairs Volume 2, No. 4 - November 1998 Rudolph Kastner, a minor political functionary, was accused of collaborating with the Nazis and sued his accuser. Kastner lost the trial and was assassinated two years later. In 1958 the Supreme Court exonerated him. The Egyptian government began recruiting former Nazi rocket scientists for a missile program. Egypt Profile - Missile Chronology 1950-1974, Nuclear Threat Initiative. accessed 18/10/2007 Nasser and the Missile Age in the Middle East (Contemporary Security Studies) by Owen Sirrs, Routledge 2006. ISBN 978-0415370035. The Germans involved had worked on the V-1 and V-2 programs. Some Nazi war criminals found asylum in the Arab world, including Alois Brunner. Rafael Medoff. Syria Sheltering War Criminals? Not the First Time, David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies The Sinai Campaign came about as conflict between Egypt and Israel increased in 1956. During the Fifties', hundreds of Israelis were killed in Fedayeen attacks from (Egyptian occupied) Gaza into Israeli territory. The attacks began as private initiatives by Palestinian refugees and the victims were frequently Jewish refugees from Arab countries. Fedayeen attacks led to a growing cycle of violence as Israel launched reprisal attacks against Gaza and the Egyptian government organized and sponsored the Fedayeen. In 1956 Egypt blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba, and closed the Suez canal to Israeli shipping. The canal was then nationalized, to the dismay of its British and French shareholders. In response, France and the United Kingdom entered into a secret agreement with Israel to take back the canal by force. In accordance with this agreement Israel invaded the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula in October 1956. Israeli forces reached the Suez canal and then French and British forces stepped in on the pretext of restoring order. It is believed the French also agreed to build a nuclear plant for the Israelis and that by 1968 this was able to produce nuclear weapons. The Israeli, French and United Kingdom forces were victorious, but withdrew in March 1957 due to pressure from the United States and USSR. The United Nations established the UN Emergency Force (UNEF) to keep peace in the area. In return for the withdrawal Israel was guaranteed freedom of access to the Red Sea and the Suez Canal and action to end attacks from Gaza. http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_mission/unef1backgr2.html#three accessed 28/7/2008 In practice the Suez Canal remained closed to Israeli shipping. In October 1957 a deranged man threw a handgrenade inside the Knesset wounding Ben-Gurion. History of the Third Knesset Ben-Gurion was once again victorious in the 1959 elections. In May 1960 the Mossad located Adolf Eichmann, one of the chief administrators of the Nazi Holocaust, in Argentina and kidnapped him to Israel. In 1961 he was put on trial and after several months found guilty and sentenced to death. He was hanged in 1962 and is the only person ever sentenced to death by an Israeli court. Testimonies by Holocaust survivors at the trial and the extensive publicity which surrounded it has led the trial to be considered a turning point in public awareness of the Holocaust. The Eichmann Trial and American Jewry: A Reassessment, Françoise S. Ouzan in Jewish Political Studies Review 19:1-2 (Spring 2007), see also Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem (published 1963) In 1961 a Herut non-confidence motion over the Lavon affair led to Ben-Gurion's resignation. Ben-Gurion declared that he would only accept office if Lavon was fired from the position of the head of Histadrut, Israel's labor union organization (due to his role in the Lavon Affair). His demands were accepted and he won the 1961 election. In 1962 the Mossad began assassinating German rocket scientists working in Egypt after one of them reported the missile program was designed to carry chemical warheads. This action was condemned by Ben-Gurion and led to the Mossad director, Isser Harel's resignation. Obituary:Isser Harel | Independent, The (London) | Find Articles at BNET.com In 1963 Ben-Gurion quit again over the Lavon scandal. His attempts to make his party Mapai support him over the issue failed, and Ben-Gurion left the party to form Rafi. Levi Eshkol became leader of Mapai and the new Prime-Minister. 1963–1969: Levi Eshkol and the Six-Day War In 1963 Yigael Yadin began excavating Massada. In 1964, Egypt, Jordan and Syria developed a unified military command. Israel completed work on a national water carrier, a huge engineering project designed to transfer Israel's allocation of the Jordan river's waters towards the south of the country in realization of Ben-Gurion's dream of mass Jewish settlement of the Negev desert. The Arabs responded by trying to divert the headwaters of the Jordan and this led to growing conflict between Israel and Syria. http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/his_periods3.html accessed 17/10/2007 In 1964, Israeli Rabbinical authorities accepted that the Bene Israel of India were indeed Jewish and most of the remaining Indian Jews migrated to Israel. The 2000 strong Jewish community of Cochin had already migrated in 1954. Levi Eshkol In the 1965 elections Levi Eshkol was victorious. Until 1966, Israel's principal arms supplier was France, however in 1966, following the withdrawal from Algeria, Charles de Gaulle announced France would cease supplying Israel with arms (and refused to refund money paid for 50 warplanes). http://hnn.us/articles/751.html accessed 17/10/2007 In 1966 security restrictions placed on Arab citizens of Israel were lifted and efforts began to integrate them into the country's life. Black and white TV broadcasts began. On May 15 1967 the first public performance of Naomi Shemer's classic song "Jerusalem of Gold" took place and over the next few weeks it dominated the Israeli airwaves. Two days later Syria, Egypt and Jordan amassed troops along the Israeli borders and Egypt closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. Nasser demanded that the UNEF leave Sinai, threatening escalation to a full war. Egyptian radio broadcasts talked of a coming genocide. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1627015,00.html, http://www.sixdaywar.co.uk/timeline.htm, Whose Voice? Nasser, the Arabs, and 'Sawt al-Arab' Radio By Laura M. James in TBS (Transnational Broadcasting Studies) 16 2006 http://www.tbsjournal.com/James.html Note that many Israelis spoke Arabic. Israel responded by calling up its civilian reserves, bringing much of the Israeli economy to a halt. The Israelis set up a national unity coalition, including for the first time Menachem Begin's party, Herut in a coalition. During a national radio broadcast, Prime-Minister Levi Eshkol stammered, causing widespread fear in Israel. To calm public concern Moshe Dayan (Chief of Staff during the Sinai war) was appointed defense minister. On the morning before Dayan was sworn in, June 5 1967, the Israeli air force launched pre-emptive attacks destroying first the Egyptian air force and then later the same day destroying the air forces of Jordan and Syria. Israel then defeated (almost successively) Egypt, Jordan and Syria. By June 11 the Arab forces were routed and all parties had accepted the cease-fire called for by UN Security Council Resolutions 235 and 236. Israel gained control of the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights, and the formerly Jordanian-controlled West Bank of the Jordan River. East Jerusalem was immediately annexed by Israel and its population granted Israeli citizenship. Other areas occupied remained under military rule (Israeli civil law did not apply to them) pending a final settlement. The Golan was also annexed in 1981. On November 22 1967, the Security Council adopted Resolution 242, the "land for peace" formula, which called for the establishment of a just and lasting peace based on Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in 1967 in return for the end of all states of belligerency, respect for the sovereignty of all states in the area, and the right to live in peace within secure, recognized boundaries. The resolution was accepted by both sides, though with different interpretations, and eventually provided the basis for peace negotiations. The Enclosure of the Cave of the Patriarchs For the first time since the end of the British Mandate, Jews could visit the Old City of Jerusalem and pray at the Western Wall to which they had been denied access by the Jordanians (in contravention of the 1949 Armistice agreement). In Hebron, Jews gained access to the Cave of the Patriarchs (the second most holy site in Judaism) for the first time since the 14th Century (previously Jews were only allowed to pray at the entrance). http://www.chabad.org/special/israel/points_of_interest_cdo/aid/588225/jewish/Cave-of-the-Patriarchs.htm Accessed December 2007 A third Jewish holy site, Rachel's Tomb in Bethlehem also became accessible. After 1967 the USA began supplying Israel with aircraft. Anti-Semitic purges led to the final migration of the last Polish Jews to Israel. In early 1969, fighting broke out between Egypt and Israel along the Suez Canal. In retaliation for repeated Egyptian shelling of Israeli positions along the Suez Canal, Israeli planes made deep strikes into Egypt in the 1969-1970 "War of Attrition". The United States helped end these hostilities in August 1970, but subsequent U.S. efforts to negotiate an interim agreement to open the Suez Canal and achieve the disengagement of forces were unsuccessful. In late 1969, Levi Eshkol died in office, of a heart attack, and was succeeded by Golda Meir. 1969–1975: Golda Meir and Yom Kippur War Golda Meir In the 1969 election, Golda Meir became Prime Minister with the largest percentage of the vote ever won by an Israeli party. Meir was the first female prime minister of Israel and is the only woman to have headed a Middle Eastern state in modern times. In September 1970 King Hussein of Jordan drove the Palestine Liberation Organization out of his country. On 18 September 1970 Syrian tanks invaded Jordan, intending to aid the PLO. At the request of the USA, Israel moved troops to the border and threatened Syria, causing the Syrians to withdraw. The center of PLO activity then shifted to Lebanon, where the 1969 Cairo agreement gave the Palestinians autonomy within the south of the country. The area controlled by the PLO became known by the international press and locals as "Fatahland" and contributed to the 1975-1990 Lebanese Civil War. The event also led to Hafez al-Assad taking power in Syria. Egyptian President Nasser died immediately after and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. During 1971, violent demonstrations by the Israeli Black Panthers, made the Israeli public aware of resentment among Mizrahi Jews at ongoing discrimination and social gaps. 30 years to the Black Panthers in Israel by Sami Shalom Chetrit, http://www.kedma.co.il/Panterim/PanterimTheMovie/EnglishArticles.htm accessed October 2006 Increased Soviet antisemitism contributed to a wave of Jews applying to emigrate to Israel. Many Jews were refused exit visas and persecuted by the authorities. They became known as Prisoners of Zion. Those who left could only take two suitcases. In 1972 the US Jewish Mafia leader, Meyer Lansky who had taken refuge in Israel, was deported to the USA. At the Munich Olympics, 11 members of the Israeli team were taken hostage by Palestinian terrorists. A botched German rescue attempt led to the death of all 11 Israeli athletes and coaches. Five of the terrorists were shot and three survived unharmed. The three surviving Palestinians were released without charge by the German authorities a month later. The Israeli government responded with an assassination campaign against the organizers and a raid on the PLO headquarters in Lebanon. The 1972 expulsion of Soviet advisors by the new Egyptian President, Anwar Sadat, led to Israeli complacency about the military threat from the Arab world. In 1973, 11 days before Yom Kippur, King Hussein repaid Israel for its assistance in September 1970 by warning Golda Meir of an impending Syrian attack. Meir ignored the warning. http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/973868.html The Yom Kippur War began on October 6 1973 (the Jewish Day of Atonement), the holiest day in the Jewish calendar and a day when adult Jews are required to fast. The Syrian and Egyptian armies launched a well-planned surprise attack against the unprepared Israeli Defense Forces. For the first few days there was a great deal of uncertainty about Israel's capacity to repel the invaders, however the Syrians were repulsed and, although the Egyptians captured a strip of territory in Sinai, Israeli forces had in turn crossed the Suez Canal and were 100 kilometres from Cairo http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1997/Jordan.htm (near bottom) . Although the war's results were generally favourable to Israel, it cost over 2,000 dead and resulted in a heavy arms bill. The war generally made Israelis more aware of their vulnerability. Following the war, both Israelis and Egyptians showed greater willingness to negotiate. On January 18 1974, following extensive diplomacy by US Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, a Disengagement of Forces agreement was signed with the Egyptian government, and on May 31 with the Syrian government. The Israeli rock group Kaveret released its immensely popular album "Poogy Tales". On the international scene, the war led the Saudi Government to initiate the oil embargo against countries trading with Israel. As a result many African and Asian countries broke off relations with Israel. Israel was banned from participation in the Asian Games. In May 1974, Palestinians attacked a school in Ma'alot, holding 102 children hostage. Twenty-two children were killed. In November 1974 the PLO was granted observer status at the UN and Yasser Arafat addressed the General Assembly. Later that year the Agranat Commission, appointed to assess responsibility for Israel's lack of preparedness for the war, exonerated the government of responsibility and held the Chief of Staff and head of military intelligence responsible. Despite the report, public anger at the Government, led to Golda Meir's resignation. 1975–1976: Yitzhak Rabin I: Operation Entebbe, start of Religious Settlements Following Meir's resignation, Yitzhak Rabin (Chief of Staff during the Six Day War) became prime minister. Modern Orthodox Jews (Religious Zionist followers of the teachings of Rabbi Kook), formed the Gush Emunim movement and began an organized drive to settle the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In November 1975 the United Nations General Assembly, under the guidance of Austrian Secretary General Kurt Waldheim, adopted Resolution 3379 which asserted Zionism to be a form of racism. The General Assembly rescinded this resolution in December 1991 with Resolution 46/86. (See also Israel, Palestine and the United Nations.) In July 1976, an Air France plane carrying 260 people was hijacked by Palestinian and German terrorists and flown to Uganda, then ruled by Idi Amin Dada. There, the Germans separated the Jewish passengers from the Non-Jewish passengers, releasing the non-Jews. The hijackers threatened to kill the remaining, 100-odd Jewish passengers (and the French crew who had refused to leave). Despite the distances involved, Rabin ordered a daring rescue operation in which the kidnapped Jews were freed. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Terrorism/entebbe.html accessed 17/10/2007 many websites erroneously describe the hostages as Israelis. Although most were Israeli, they were all Jewish and the terrorists policy was to hold Jews. UN Secretary General Waldheim described the raid as "a serious violation of the national sovereignty of a United Nations member state" (meaning Uganda). National Review, July 9, 2007, Vol. LIX, No. 12, see also http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/14/world/europe/14cnd-waldheim.html?_r=1&pagewanted=3&hp&oref=slogin Waldheim subsequently turned out to be a former Nazi officer, whose name appeared on a 1947 list of wanted war criminals submitted to the UN by Yugoslavia. Sequels Running Out of Answers - TIME In 1976, the ongoing Lebanese Civil War led Israel to allow some South Lebanese to cross the border and work in Israel. At the end of 1976, Rabin resigned after it emerged that his wife maintained a dollar account in the United States (illegal at the time), which had been opened while Rabin was Israeli ambassador. The incident became known as the Dollar Account affair. Shimon Peres replaced him as prime minister, leading the Alignment in the subsequent elections. In January 1977, French authorities arrested Abu Daoud, the planner of the Munich massacre, releasing him a few days later. L'Affaire Daoud: Too Hot to Handle - TIME In March 1977 Anatoly Sharansky, a prominent Russian Zionist was sentenced to 13 years hard labour. Likud domination 1977–1992 1977–1981: Menachem Begin I: the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty In a surprise result, the Likud led by Menachem Begin won the 1977 elections. This was the first time in Israeli history that the government was not led by the left. A key reason for the victory was anger among Mizrahi Jews at discrimination, which was to play an important role in Israeli politics for many years. Moroccan-born David Levy made a major contribution to winning Mizrahi support for Begin. Many Labour voters voted for the Democratic Movement for Change in protest at high-profile corruption cases. The party joined in coalition with Begin and disappeared at the next election. Celebrating the signing of the Camp David Accords: Menachem Begin, Jimmy Carter, Anwar Al Sadat. In addition to starting a process of healing the Mizrahi-Ashkenazi divide, Begin's government included Ultra-Orthodox Jews and was instrumental in healing the Zionist - Ultra-Orthodox rift. Begin's liberalization of the economy led to hyper-inflation but enabled Israel to begin receiving US financial aid. Begin actively supported Gush Emunim's efforts to settle the West Bank, thus laying the grounds for intense conflict with the Palestinian population of the occupied territories. Begin had been tortured by the KGB as a young man and one of his first acts was to instruct the Israeli secret service to "use wisdom rather than violence" in interrogations. see http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/3376951.stm http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E04E4D81E3AF934A3575AC0A96F958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all "In July 1977, Begin met with President Carter in Washington. Their talks revealed a wide disparity of views. Begin defended Israel’s right to establish and expand Jewish settlements in the occupied territories. Carter reminded him that the United States opposed such actions as contrary to international law." In November 1977, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat broke 30 years of hostility with Israel by visiting Jerusalem at the invitation of Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin. Sadat's two-day visit included a speech before the Knesset, and was a turning point in the history of the conflict. The Egyptian leader created a new psychological climate in the Middle East in which peace between Israel and its Arab neighbours seemed possible. Sadat recognized Israel's right to exist and established the basis for direct negotiations between Egypt and Israel. Following Sadat's visit, 350 Yom Kippur War veterans organized the Peace Now movement to encourage Israeli governments to make peace with the Arabs. In March 1978, eleven armed Lebanese-Palestinians reached Israel in boats and hijacked a bus carrying families on a day outing, killing 35 people, including 13 children. The attackers opposed the Egyptian-Israeli peace process. Three days later, Israeli forces crossed into Lebanon beginning Operation Litani. After passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 425, calling for Israeli withdrawal and the creation of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) peace-keeping force, Israel withdrew its troops. In September 1978, U.S. President Jimmy Carter invited President Sadat and Prime Minister Begin to meet with him at Camp David, and on September 11 they agreed on a framework for peace between Israel and Egypt and a comprehensive peace in the Middle East. It set out broad principles to guide negotiations between Israel and the Arab states. It also established guidelines for a West Bank-Gaza transitional regime of full autonomy for the Palestinians residing in these territories and for a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel. The treaty was signed on March 26 1979, by Begin and Sadat, with President Carter signing as witness. Under the treaty, Israel returned the Sinai peninsula to Egypt in April 1982. The final piece of territory to be repatriated was Taba, adjacent to Eilat, returned in 1989. In December 1978 the Israeli Merkava battle tank entered use with the IDF. + Development of Israel by decade Statistical Abstract of Israel No. 51, Central Bureau of Statistics 2000 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Population (millions) 1.4 2.1 3 3.9 4.8 6 % of world's Jews 7% 20% 25% 30% 39% GDP per capita 1995 NIS 10,100 16,800 27,800 36,000 42,400 The Arab League reacted to the peace treaty by suspending Egypt from the organisation and moving its headquarters from Cairo to Tunis. Sadat was assassinated in 1981 by Islamic fundamentalist members of the Egyptian army who opposed peace with Israel. Following the agreement Israel and Egypt became the two largest recipients of US military and financial aid (Iraq has now overtaken them by a large margin). for further information see http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/trade/files/98-916.pdf accessed November 2007 1981–1983: Begin II: the First Lebanon War On 30 June 1981, the Israeli air-force destroyed the Osirak nuclear reactor that France was building for Iraq. Three weeks later, Begin won yet again, in the 1981 elections (48 seats Likud, 47 Labour). Ariel Sharon was made defense minister. The new government annexed the Golan Heights and banned El Al from flying on the Sabbath. In the decades following the 1948 war, Israel's border with Lebanon was quiet compared to its borders with other neighbours. But the 1969 Cairo agreement gave the PLO a free hand to attack Israel from South Lebanon. The area was governed by the PLO independently of the Lebanese Government and became known as "Fatahland" (Fatah was the largest faction in the PLO). Palestinian irregulars constantly shelled the Israeli north, especially the town of Kiryat Shmona, which was a Likud stronghold inhabited primarily by Jews who had fled the Arab world. Lack of control over Palestinian areas was an important factor in causing civil war in Lebanon. In June 1982, the attempted assassination of Shlomo Argov, the ambassador to Britain, was used as a pretext for an Israeli invasion aiming to drive the PLO out of the southern half of Lebanon. Sharon connived with Chief of Staff Raphael Eitan to expand the invasion deep into Lebanon even though the cabinet had only authorized a 40 kilometer deep invasion. Israel's Lebanon War by Ze'ev Schiff and Ehud Ya'ari, Touchstone 1985 The invasion became known as the 1982 Lebanon War and the Israeli army occupied Beirut, the only time an Arab capital has been occupied by Israel. Some of the Shia and Christian population of South Lebanon welcomed the Israelis, as PLO forces had maltreated them, but Lebanese resentment of Israeli occupation grew over time and the Shia became gradually radicalized under Iranian guidance. Do Good Fences Make Good Neighbors?: Israel and Lebanon after the Withdrawal - Laura Zittrain Eisenberg - Middle East Review of International Affairs September 2000 http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2000/issue3/jv4n3a2.html Constant casualties among Israeli soldiers and Lebanese civilians led to growing opposition to the war in Israel. In August 1982, the PLO withdrew its forces from Lebanon (moving to Tunisia). Israel helped engineer the election of a new Lebanese president, Bashir Gemayel, who agreed to recognize Israel and sign a peace treaty. Gemayal was assassinated before an agreement could be signed, and one day later Phalangist Christian forces led by Elie Hobeika entered two Palestinian refugee camps and massacred the occupants. The massacres led to the biggest demonstration ever in Israel against the war, with as many as 400,000 people (almost 10% of the population) gathering in Tel-Aviv. In 1983, an Israeli public inquiry found that Israel's defense minister, Sharon, was indirectly but personally responsible for the massacres. Belgium opens way for Sharon trial BBC News, 15 January 2003 It also recommended that he never again be allowed to hold the post (it did not forbid him from being Prime-Minister). 1984–1988: Yitzhak Shamir/Shimon Peres rotation government and first Intifada In September 1983, Begin resigned and was succeeded by Yitzhak Shamir as prime minister. The 1984 election was inconclusive and led to a power sharing agreement between Shimon Peres of the Alignment (44 seats) and Shamir of Likud (41 seats). Peres was prime minister from 1984-1986 and Shamir from 1986-1988. In 1984, continual discrimination against Sephardi ultra-orthodox Jews by the Ashkenazi ultra-orthodox establishment led political activist Aryeh Deri to leave the Agudat Israel party and join former chief Rabbi Ovadia Yosef in forming Shas, a new party aimed at the non-Ashkenazi Ultra-Orthodox vote. The party won 11 seats in the first election it contested and over the next twenty years was the third largest party in the Knesset. Shas established a nationwide network of free Sephardi orthodox schools. In 1984, during a severe famine in Ethiopia, 8,000 Ethiopian Jews were secretly transported to Israel. In 1986 Natan Sharansky, a famous Russian human rights activist and Zionist refusenik (denied an exit visa) was released from the Gulag in return for two Soviet spies. In June 1985, Israel withdrew most of its troops from Lebanon, leaving a residual Israeli force and an Israeli-supported militia in southern Lebanon as a "security zone" and buffer against attacks on its northern territory. By July 1985 Israel's inflation, buttressed by complex index linking of salaries had reached 480% per annum and was the highest in the world. Peres introduced emergency control of prices and cut government expenditure successfully bringing inflation under control. In August 1987, the Israeli government cancelled the IAI Lavi project, an attempt to develop an independent Israeli fighter aircraft. The Israelis found themselves unable to sustain the huge development costs and faced US opposition to a project that threatened US influence in Israel and US global military ascendancy. In September 1988, Israel launched an Ofeq reconsaissance satellite into orbit, using a Shavit rocket, thus becoming one of only eight countries possessing a capacity to independently launch satellites into space (two more have since developed this ability). Growing Israeli settlement and continuing occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, led to the first Palestinian Intifada (uprising) in 1987 which lasted until the Madrid Conference of 1991, despite Israeli attempts to suppress it. Human Rights abuses by Israeli troops led a group of Israelis to form B'Tselem, an organization devoted to improving awareness and compliance with Human Rights requirements in Israel. 1988–1992: Shamir II: the Gulf War and Soviet immigration The Alignment and Likud remained neck and neck in the 1988 elections (39:40 seats), Shamir successfully formed a national unity coalition with the Labour Alignment. In March 1990, Alignment leader Shimon Peres engineered a defeat of the government in a non-confidence vote and then tried to form a new government. He failed and Shamir became Prime-Minister at the head of a right-wing coalition. In 1990, the Soviet Union finally permitted free emigration of Soviet Jews to Israel. Prior to this, Jews trying to leave the USSR faced persecution; those who succeeded arrived as refugees. Over the next few years some one million Soviet citizens migrated to Israel, and there was concern that some of the new immigrants had only a very tenuous connection to Judaism and many were accompanied by non-Jewish relatives. In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait, triggering the Gulf War between Iraq and a large allied force, led by the United States. Iraq attacked Israel with 39 Scud missiles. Israel did not retaliate. Israel provided gas masks for both the Palestinian population and Israeli citizens. In May 1991, during a 36 hour period, 15,000 Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews) were secretly airlifted to Israel. The coalition's victory in the Gulf War opened new possibilities for regional peace, and in October 1991 the U.S. President, George H.W. Bush and Soviet Union Premier, Mikhail Gorbachev, jointly convened a historic meeting in Madrid of Israeli, Lebanese, Jordanian, Syrian, and Palestinian leaders. Shamir opposed the idea but was forced into compliance when the Bush administration withheld its loan guarantees needed by Israel to absorb the newcomers from Soviet Union. 1992–1995: Rabin II: Oslo peace talks Yitzhak Rabin, Bill Clinton, and Yasser Arafat during the Oslo Accords on 13 September 1993. In the 1992 elections, the Labour Party, led by Yitzhak Rabin, won a significant victory (44 seats) promising to pursue peace while promoting Rabin as a "tough general" and pledging not to deal with the PLO in any way. On September 13 1993, Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) signed a Declaration of Principles Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements Jewish Virtual Library on the South Lawn of the White House. The declaration was a major conceptual breakthrough achieved outside of the Madrid framework which specifically barred foreign-residing PLO leaders from the negotiation process, and a pre-condition insisted upon by Itzhak Shamir. These principles established objectives relating to a transfer of authority from Israel to an interim Palestinian authority, as a prelude to a final treaty establishing a Palestinian state. The DOP established May 1999 as the date by which a permanent status agreement for the West Bank and Gaza Strip would take effect. In February 1994, a follower of the Kach movement killed 25 Palestinian-Arabs at the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron (Cave of the Patriarchs massacre). Kach had been barred from participation in the 1992 elections (on the grounds that the movement was racist). It was subsequently made illegal. Israel and the PLO signed the Gaza-Jericho Agreement in May 1994, and the Agreement on Preparatory Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities in August, which began the process of transferring authority from Israel to the Palestinians. On July 18 1994, a Jewish day centre in Argentina was blown up, killing 85 people. Argentine investigators concluded the attack was by Lebanese Hezbollah with Iranian assistance. On July 25 1994 Jordan and Israel signed the Washington Declaration which formally ended the state of war that had existed between them since 1948 and on October 26 the Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace, witnessed by US President Bill Clinton. Main Points of Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty October 26, 1994 Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs Treaty of Peace between The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and The State of Israel King Hussein website Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat signed the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip on September 28 1995, in Washington. The agreement was witnessed by President Bill Clinton on behalf of the United States and by Russia, Egypt, Norway and the European Union and incorporates and supersedes the previous agreements, marking the conclusion of the first stage of negotiations between Israel and the PLO. The agreement allowed the PLO leadership to relocate to the occupied territories and granted autonomy to the Palestinians with talks to follow regarding final status. In return the Palestinians recognized Israel's right to exist and promised to abstain from use of terror. However the agreement was opposed by Hamas and other Palestinian factions which launched suicide bomber attacks at Israel. Rabin had a barrier constructed around Gaza to prevent attacks. Tensions in Israel, arising from the continuation of terrorism and anger at loss of territory, led to the assassination of Prime Minister Rabin by a right-wing Jewish radical on November 4 1995. Direct elections for the Premier 1996–2005 In 1996 the Israeli electoral system was changed to allow for direct election of the Premier. It was hoped this would reduce the power of small parties to extract concessions in return for coalition agreements. Instead the system resulted in increased fracturization of Israeli politics with the larger parties winning fewer votes and the smaller parties becoming more attractive to voters. By the 2006 election the system was abandoned. 1996–1999: Binyamin Netanyahu - the peace process slows In February 1996 Rabin's successor, Shimon Peres, called early elections. The May 1996 elections were the first featuring direct election of the prime minister and resulted in a narrow election victory for Likud leader Binyamin Netanyahu. A spate of suicide bombings reinforced the Likud position for security. Hamas claimed responsibility for most of the bombings. Despite his stated differences with the Oslo Accords, Prime Minister Netanyahu continued their implementation, but his Prime Ministership saw a marked slow-down in the Peace Process. Netanyahu also pledged to gradually reduce US aid to Israel. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/boldaid.html In January 1997 Netanyahu signed the Hebron Protocol with the Palestinian Authority, resulting in the redeployment of Israeli forces in Hebron and the turnover of civilian authority in much of the area to the Palestinian Authority. 1999–2001: Ehud Barak and withdrawal from South Lebanon In the election of July 1999, Ehud Barak of the Labour Party became Prime Minister. His party was the largest in the Knesset with 26 seats. On March 21 2000 Pope John Paul II arrived in Israel for a historic visit. In 2000, Israel unilaterally withdrew its remaining forces from the "security zone" in southern Lebanon. Several thousand members of the South Lebanon Army (and their families) left with the Israelis. The UN Secretary-General concluded Security Council endorses Secretary-General's conclusion on Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon as of 16 June United Nations, 18 June 2000 that, as of June 16 2000, Israel had withdrawn its forces from Lebanon in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425. Lebanon claims that Israel continues to occupy Lebanese territory called "Sheba'a Farms" (however this area was governed by Syria until 1967 when Israel took control). The Sheba'a Farms provide Hezbullah with a ruse to maintain warfare with Israel. The Lebanese government did not assert sovereignty in the area (in contravention of the UN resolution) which came under the control of Hezbollah. In the Fall of 2000, talks were held at Camp David to reach a final agreement on the Israel/Palestine conflict. Ehud Barak offered to meet most of the Palestinian teams requests for territory and political concessions, including Arab parts of east Jerusalem however Arafat abandoned the talks without making a counter proposal. Israeli Proposal to Palestinians and Syria Information Regarding Israel's Security (IRIS) On September 28 2000, Israeli opposition leader Ariel Sharon visited the Temple Mount, providing the Palestinians with a pretext for the launching of the al-Aqsa Intifada. Israel claims the Palestinians had planned violence far in advance of Sharon's visit. In his book The High Cost of Peace, Yossef Bodansky describes the event: "When Sharon expressed interest in visiting the Temple Mount, Barak ordered GSS chief Ami Ayalon to approach Jibril Rajoub with a special request to facilitate a smooth and friendly visit... Rajoub promised it would be smooth as long as Sharon would refrain from entering any of the mosques or praying publicly... Just to be on the safe side, Barak personally approached Arafat and once again got assurances that Sharon's visit would be smooth..." (p354) In October 2000, Palestinians destroyed Joseph's Tomb, a Jewish shrine in Nablus. The Arrow missile, a missile designed to destroy ballistic missiles including Scud missiles was first deployed by Israel. In 2001, with the Peace Process increasingly in disarray, Ehud Barak called a special election for Prime Minister. Barak hoped a victory would give him renewed authority in negotiations with the Palestinians. Instead opposition leader Ariel Sharon was elected PM. After this election the system of directly electing the Premier was abandoned. 2001–2006: Ariel Sharon and withdrawal from Gaza and the Northern West Bank The failure of the peace process, increased Palestinian terror and occasionally attacks by Hizbullah from Lebanon, led much of the Israeli public and political leadership to lose confidence in the Palestinian Authority as a peace partner. Most felt that many Palestinians view the peace treaty with Israel as a temporary measure only. However many Israelis were anxious to disengage from the Palestinians. The approved West Bank barrier route as of May 2005 In response to a wave of suicide bomb attacks, culminating in the "Passover massacre" (see List of Israeli civilian casualties in the Second Intifada), Israel launched Operation Defensive Shield and Sharon began construction of a barrier round the West-Bank. In January 2003 separate elections were held to the Knesset. Likud won the most seats (27). An anti-religion party, Shinui won 15 seats on a secularist platform making it the third largest party (ahead of orthodox Shas). Internal fighting led to the parties demise at the next election. In December 2003, Ariel Sharon announced he would consider a unilateral withdrawal from parts of the occupied territories. This crystallized as a plan for total withdrawal from the Gaza Strip. In 2004, the Black Hebrews were granted permanent residency in Israel. The group began migrating to Israel 25 years earlier from the United States, but were not recognized as Jews by the state and hence not granted citizenship under Israel's Law of Return. They had settled in Israel without official status. From 2004 they received citizen's rights. In 2005, all Jewish settlers were evacuated from Gaza (some forcibly) and their homes demolished. Disengagement from the Gaza Strip was completed on September 12, 2005. Military disengagement from the northern West Bank was completed ten days later. Following the withdrawal, the Israeli town of Sderot and other Israeli communities near the frontier became subject to constant shelling and mortar bomb attacks from Gaza. In 2005 Sharon left the Likud and formed a new party called Kadima which accepted that the peace process would lead to creation of a Palestinian state. He was joined by many leading figures from both Likud and Labour. The Israeli withdrawal from Gaza was interpreted by the Palestinians as a Hamas victory and the January Palestinian legislative election, 2006 were won by Hamas, who rejected all agreements signed with Israel, refused to recognize Israels right to exist and claimed the Holocaust was a Jewish conspiracy. On April 14, 2006, Ariel Sharon suffered a severe hemorrhagic stroke and Ehud Olmert became Acting Prime Minister. 2006–2009: Ehud Olmert and growing Islamist confrontation Ehud Olmert was elected Prime Minister after his party, Kadima, won the most seats (29) in the Israeli legislative election, 2006. In 2005 Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was elected president of Iran, since then Iranian policy towards Israel has grown more confrontational. Israeli analysts believe Ahmadinejad has worked to undermine the peace process with arms supplies and aid to Hezbullah in South Lebanon and Hamas in Gaza http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=46037 and is developing nuclear weapons, possibly for use against Israel http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Threats_to_Israel/Iran.html . Iranian support for Hizbullah and its nuclear arms program are in contravention of security council resolutions 1559 and 1747. Iran also encourages Holocaust denial. Following the Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon Hizbullah had mounted periodic attacks on Israel which did not lead to Israeli retaliation. Similarly, the withdrawal from Gaza led to incessant shelling of towns round the Gaza area with only minimal Israeli response. The failure to act led to criticism from the Israeli right and undermined the government. On June 25, 2006, a Hamas force crossed the border from Gaza and attacked a tank, capturing wounded Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit. In pictures: Gaza crisis BBC News, 3 July 2006 On July 12, Hezbollah attacked Israel from Lebanon, shelled Israeli towns and attacked a border patrol, taking two dead or badly wounded Israeli soldiers. These incidents led Israel to initiate the Second Lebanon War, which lasted through August 2006. The Israeli army proved unable to prevent Hizbullah from shelling the north of Israel and the military failure led to a public inquiry. Olmert also came under investigation for corruption and this ultimately led him to announce, on July 30, 2008, that he would be stepping down as Prime Minister following election of a new leader of the Kadimah party in September 2008. Tzippi Livni won the election, but was unable to form a coalition and he remained in office until the general election. On December 27, 2008, following the collapse of an unofficial cease-fire between Israel and Gaza and resumption of shelling of southern Israeli towns from Gaza, Israeli forces mounted a three-week campaign in Gaza leading to widespread international protests. 2009-present: Netanyahu II In the 2009 legislative election Likud won 27 seats and Kadima 28, however the right-wing camp won a majority of seats and President Shimon Peres called on Netanyahu to form the government. Russian immigrant dominated Yisrael Beiteinu came third with 15 seats and Labour were reduced to fourth place with 13 seats. See also Israeli literature Music of Israel Culture of Israel History of Levant History of the Jews in the Land of Israel History of Zionism Paris Peace Conference, 1919 Faisal-Weizmann Agreement (1919) 1949 Armistice Agreements Camp David Accords (1978) Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty (1979) Madrid Conference of 1991 Oslo Accords (1993) Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace (1994) Camp David 2000 Summit History of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict Projects working for peace among Israelis and Arabs List of Middle East peace proposals International law and the Arab-Israeli conflict Further reading Berger, Earl The Covenant and the Sword: Arab-Israeli Relations, 1948-56, London, Routledge K. Paul, 1965. Benny Morris 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War, Yale University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0300126969. Bregman, Ahron A History of Israel, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002 ISBN 0333676327. Butler, L.J. Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World I.B. Tauris 2002 ISBN 1-86064-449-X Darwin, John Britain and Decolonisation: The Retreat from Empire in the Post-War World Palgrave Macmillan 1988 ISBN 0-333-29258-8 Davis, John, The Evasive Peace: a Study of the Zionist-Arab Problem, London: J. Murray, 1968. Eytan, Walter The First Ten Years: a Diplomatic History of Israel, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1958 Israel Office of Information Israel’s Struggle for Peace, New York, 1960. Herzog, Haim The Arab-Israeli Wars: War and Peace in the Middle East from the War of Independence to Lebanon, London: Arms and Armour; Tel Aviv, Israel: Steimatzky, 1984 ISBN 0853686130. Laqueur, Walter Confrontation : the Middle-East War and World Politics, London: Wildwood House, 1974, ISBN 0704500965. Laqueur, Walter & Barry Rubin (editors) The Israel-Arab Reader: a Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict, New York, N.Y. : Penguin Books, 1984 ISBN 0-14-022588-9. Lucas, Noah The Modern History of Israel, New York: Praeger, 1975. Gilbert, Martin Israel : A History, New York: Morrow, 1998 ISBN 0688123627. The Peel Commission Report, (July 1937) http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/peel1.html O’Brian, Conor Cruise The Siege: the Saga of Israel and Zionism, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986 ISBN 0671600443. Oren, Michael Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002 ISBN 0195151747. Rubinstein, Alvin Z. (editor) The Arab-Israeli Conflict: Perspectives, New York: Praeger, 1984 ISBN 0030687780. Lord Russell of Liverpool, If I Forget Thee; the Story of a Nation’s Rebirth, London, Cassell 1960. Sachar, Howard M. A History of Israel, New York: Knopf, 1976 ISBN 0394485645. Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (2001) Samuel, Rinna A History of Israel: the Birth, Growth and Development of Today’s Jewish State, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989 ISBN 0297793292. Schultz, Joseph & Klausner, Carla From Destruction to Rebirth: the Holocaust and the State of Israel, Washington, D.C. : University Press of America, 1978 ISBN 0819105740. Segev, Tom The Seventh Million: the Israelis and the Holocaust, New York: Hill and Wang, 1993 ISBN 0809085631. Talmon, J.L. Israel Among the Nations, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1970 ISBN 0297002279. Wolffsohn, Michael Eternal Guilt? : Forty years of German-Jewish-Israeli Relations, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993 ISBN 0231082746. Facts about Israel: History, Jerusalem: Israel Information Centre, 2003. Doron Geller: The Lavon Affair References External links Knesset Website IDF website Prime Minister's Office President's Website The Jewish History Resource Center Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Israel Genealogy History of Israel and Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict Timeline of Israeli and Palestinian History from Earliest Times Full Profile of Israel Ynetnews Lexicon Etzel website Extensive political historical and detailed maps of Israel and Palestine A history of Zionism and the creation of Israel A photo gallery of the history of Zionism and the creation of Israel First Photos of the Holy Land A timeline of Zionism and Israeli history Labor Zionism and Socialist Zionism Zionism: Historical Source Documents and texts "Zionism" — from the Jewish Virtual Library "Centenary of Zionism" from the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs The Jewish Agency for Israel — The Department for Zionist Education The UNISPAL web site contains the full texts of hundreds of official documents, including those of the League of Nations and the United Nations, the British government, the Israeli government, the Palestinian authority, and many others. Economic History of Israel from EH.NET's Encyclopedia Israel History Timeline "History of Israel: Key events", BBC | History_of_Israel |@lemmatized state:51 israel:207 medinat:1 yisrael:2 establish:18 may:18 nearly:2 two:15 thousand:4 year:26 jewish:120 dispersal:1 effort:6 create:9 homeland:1 zionism:15 since:9 israeli:119 independence:8 mark:3 conflict:17 neighbour:4 arab:98 palestinian:48 also:26 many:23 negotiation:7 peace:43 achieve:4 egypt:28 jordan:18 democracy:1 survive:5 difficult:1 circumstance:1 country:16 prosper:1 despite:9 war:62 ethno:1 religious:11 boycott:3 mass:5 immigration:13 terror:3 attack:27 creation:11 percentage:2 world:25 jew:89 grow:11 present:3 population:23 resident:1 http:39 www:27 jewishvirtuallibrary:5 org:14 jsource:5 judaism:9 jewpop:1 html:19 statistical:2 abstract:2 central:3 bureau:2 statistic:2 palestine:64 post:5 headline:1 announce:5 declaration:10 original:1 copy:2 introduction:1 history:37 evidence:1 presence:1 date:5 back:6 formation:1 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2,752 | National_Security_Agency | The National Security Agency/Central Security Service (NSA/CSS) is a cryptologic intelligence agency of the United States government, administered as part of the United States Department of Defense. Created on November 4, 1952 by President Harry S. Truman, it is responsible for the collection and analysis of foreign communications and foreign signals intelligence, which involves cryptanalysis. It is also responsible for protecting U.S. government communications and information systems from similar agencies elsewhere, which involves cryptography. As of 2008, NSA has been directed to help monitor U.S. federal agency computer networks to protect them against attacks. NSA is directed by a lieutenant general or vice admiral. NSA is a key component of the U.S. Intelligence Community, which is headed by the Director of National Intelligence. The Central Security Service is a co-located agency created to coordinate intelligence activities and co-operation between NSA and U.S. military cryptanalysis agencies. NSA's work is limited to communications intelligence; it does not perform field or human intelligence activities. By law, NSA's intelligence gathering is limited to foreign communications, but its work includes some domestic surveillance. Organization The National Security Agency is divided into two major missions: the Signals Intelligence Directorate (SID), which produces foreign signals intelligence information, and the Information Assurance Directorate (IAD), which protects U.S. information systems. Role NSA's eavesdropping mission includes radio broadcasting, both from various organizations and individuals, the Internet, telephone calls, and other intercepted forms of communication. Its secure communications mission includes military, diplomatic, and all other sensitive, confidential or secret government communications. It has been described as the world's largest single employer of mathematicians, Introduction to NSA/CSS, NSA. Retrieved 15 May 2006. and the owner of the single largest group of supercomputers, but it has tried to keep a low profile. For many years, its existence was not even acknowledged by the U.S. government. Because of its listening task, NSA/CSS has been heavily involved in cryptanalytic research, continuing the work of predecessor agencies which had broken many World War II codes and ciphers (see, for instance, Purple, Venona project, and JN-25). In 2004, NSA Central Security Service and the National Cyber Security Division of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) agreed to expand NSA Centers of Academic Excellence in Information Assurance Education Program. As part of National Security Presidential Directive 54/Homeland Security Presidential Directive 23 (NSPD 54), signed on January 8, 2008 by President Bush, NSA became the lead agency to monitor and protect all of the federal government's computer networks from cyber-terrorism. Facilities NSA headquarters in Fort Meade, Maryland Headquarters for the National Security Agency are at Fort George G. Meade, Maryland, about 15 miles (16 km) southwest of Baltimore. NSA has its own exit off the Baltimore-Washington Parkway labeled "NSA Employees Only." The scale of the operations at NSA is hard to determine from unclassified data; some 18,000 parking spaces are visible in photos of the site. In 2006, the Baltimore Sun reported that NSA was at risk of electrical overload because of insufficient internal electrical infrastructure at Fort Meade to support the amount of equipment being installed. This problem was apparently recognized in the 1990s but not made a priority, and "now the agency's ability to keep its operations going is threatened." Its secure government communications work has involved NSA in numerous technology areas, including the design of specialized communications hardware and software, production of dedicated semiconductors (at the Ft. Meade chip fabrication plant), and advanced cryptography research. The agency contracts with the private sector in the fields of research and equipment. In addition to its Ft. Meade headquarters, NSA has facilities at the Texas Cryptology Center in San Antonio, Texas; at Fort Gordon, Georgia, and elsewhere. National Computer Security Center The National Computer Security Center, once part of the National Security Agency, was established in 1981 and was responsible for testing and evaluating computer equipment for use in high security and/or confidential applications. NCSC was also responsible for publishing the Orange Book and Red Book detailing trusted computing and network platform specifications. The two works are more formally known as the Trusted Computing System Evaluation Criteria and Trusted Network Interpretation, part of the Rainbow Series, however, they have largely been replaced by the Common Criteria. History The National Security Agency can be traced to the May 20, 1949, creation of the Armed Forces Security Agency (AFSA). This organization was originally established within the U.S. Department of Defense under the command of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The AFSA was to direct the communications and electronic intelligence activities of the U.S. military intelligence units: the Army Security Agency, the Naval Security Group, and the Air Force Security Service. But the agency had little power and lacked a centralized coordination mechanism. The creation of NSA resulted from a December 10, 1951, memo sent by CIA Director Walter Bedell Smith to James S. Lay, Executive Secretary of the National Security Council. In Body of Secrets (Anchor Books 2002), footnote on p. 30, James Bamford mentions to a CIA, Top Secret /Codeword memorandum "Proposed Survey of Intelligence Activities" (December 10, 1951). Retrieved 23 October 2008. The memo observed that "control over, and coordination of, the collection and processing of Communications Intelligence had proved ineffective" and recommended a survey of communications intelligence activities. The proposal was approved on December 13, 1951, and the study authorized on December 28, 1951. The report was completed by June 13, 1952. Generally known as the "Brownell Committee Report," after committee chairman Herbert Brownell, it surveyed the history of U.S. communications intelligence activities and suggested the need for a much greater degree of coordination and direction at the national level. As the change in the security agency's name indicated, the role of NSA was extended beyond the armed forces. The creation of NSA was authorized in a letter written by President Harry S. Truman in June 1952. The agency was formally established through a revision of National Security Council Intelligence Directive (NSCID) 9 on October 24, 1952, Memorandum on Communications Intelligence Activities The document which created NSA. President Harry S Truman. October 24, 1952. Retrieved 11 April 2008. and officially came into existence on November 4, 1952. President Truman's letter was itself classified and remained unknown to the public for more than a generation. Insignia The NSA's insignia. The heraldic insignia of NSA consists of a bald eagle facing its right, grasping a key in its talons, representing NSA's clutch on security as well as the mission to protect and gain access to secrets. The eagle is set on a background of blue and its breast features a blue shield supported by thirteen bands of red and white. The surrounding white circular border features "National Security Agency" around the top and "United States of America" underneath, with two five-pointed silver stars between the two phrases. The current NSA insignia has been in use since 1965, when then-Director, LTG Marshall S. Carter (USA) ordered the creation of a device to represent the Agency. Effect on non-governmental cryptography NSA has been involved in debates about public policy, both indirectly as a behind-the-scenes adviser to other departments, and directly during and after Vice Admiral Bobby Ray Inman's directorship. NSA was a major player in the debates of the 1990s regarding the export of cryptography. Restrictions on export were reduced but not eliminated in 1996. Data Encryption Standard (DES) NSA was embroiled in some minor controversy concerning its involvement in the creation of the Data Encryption Standard (DES), a standard and public block cipher algorithm used by the U.S. government and banking community. During the development of DES by IBM in the 1970s, NSA recommended changes to some details of the design. There was suspicion that these changes had weakened the algorithm sufficiently to enable the agency to eavesdrop if required, including speculation that a critical component—the so-called S-boxes—had been altered to insert a "backdoor" and that the reduction in key length might have made it feasible for NSA to discover DES keys using massive computing power. It has since been observed that the S-boxes in DES are particularly resilient against differential cryptanalysis, a technique which was not publicly discovered until the late 1980s, but which was known to the IBM DES team. The United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence reviewed NSA's involvement, and concluded that while the agency had provided some assistance, it had not tampered with the design. Clipper chip Because of concerns that widespread use of strong cryptography would hamper government use of wiretaps, NSA proposed the concept of key escrow in 1993 and introduced the Clipper chip that would offer stronger protection than DES but would allow access to encrypted data by authorized law enforcement officials. The proposal was strongly opposed and key escrow requirements ultimately went nowhere. However, NSA's Fortezza hardware-based encryption cards, created for the Clipper project, are still used within government, and NSA ultimately published the design of the SKIPJACK cipher (but not the key exchange protocol) used on the cards. Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) Possibly because of previous controversy, the involvement of NSA in the selection of a successor to DES, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), was initially limited to hardware performance testing (see AES competition). NSA has subsequently certified AES for protection of classified information (for at most two levels, e.g. SECRET information in an unclassified environment) when used in NSA-approved systems. The widely-used SHA hash functions were designed by NSA. Dual EC DRBG random number generator NSA promoted the inclusion of a random number generator called Dual EC DRBG in the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology's 2007 guidelines. This led to speculation of a backdoor which would allow NSA access to data encrypted by systems using that random number generator. Academic research NSA has invested many millions of dollars in academic research under grant code prefix MDA904, resulting in over 3,000 papers (as of 2007-10-11). NSA/CSS has, at times, attempted to restrict the publication of academic research into cryptography; for example, the Khufu and Khafre block ciphers were voluntarily withheld in response to an NSA request to do so. Patents NSA has the ability to file for a patent from the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office under gag order. Unlike normal patents, these are not revealed to the public and do not expire. However, if the Patent Office receives an application for an identical patent from a third party, they will reveal NSA's patent and officially grant it to NSA for the full term on that date. One of NSA's published patents describes a method of geographically locating an individual computer site in an Internet-like network, based on the latency of multiple network connections. NSA programs ECHELON NSA/CSS, in combination with the equivalent agencies in the United Kingdom (Government Communications Headquarters), Canada (Communications Security Establishment), Australia (Defence Signals Directorate), and New Zealand (Government Communications Security Bureau), otherwise known as the UKUSA group Richelson, Jeffrey T.; Ball, Desmond (1985). The Ties That Bind: Intelligence Cooperation Between the UKUSA Countries. London: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 0-04-327092-1 , is widely reported to be in command of the operation of the so-called ECHELON system. Its capabilities are suspected to include the ability to monitor a large proportion of the world's transmitted civilian telephone, fax and data traffic, according to a December 16, 2005 article in the New York Times. Technically, almost all modern telephone, internet, fax and satellite communications are exploitable due to recent advances in technology and the 'open air' nature of much of the radio communications around the world. NSA's presumed collection operations have generated much criticism, possibly stemming from the assumption that NSA/CSS represents an infringement of Americans' privacy. However, NSA's United States Signals Intelligence Directive 18 (USSID 18) strictly prohibits the interception or collection of information about "...U.S. persons, entities, corporations or organizations..." without explicit written legal permission from the United States Attorney General, when the subject is located abroad, or the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court when within U.S. Borders. National Security Agency. United States Signals Intelligence Directive 18. National Security Agency July 27, 1993. Last access date March 23, 2007 The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that intelligence agencies cannot conduct surveillance against American citizens. There are a few extreme circumstances where collecting on a U.S. entity is allowed without a USSID 18 waiver, such as with civilian distress signals, or sudden emergencies such as the September 11, 2001 attacks; however, the USA PATRIOT Act has significantly changed privacy legality. There have been alleged violations of USSID 18 that occurred in violation of NSA's strict charter prohibiting such acts. In addition, ECHELON is considered with indignation by citizens of countries outside the UKUSA alliance, with numerous allegations that the United States government uses it for motives other than its national security, including political and industrial espionage. Examples include the gear-less wind turbine technology designed by the German firm Enercon Die Zeit: 40/1999 "Verrat unter Freunden" ("Treachery among friends", German), available at archiv.zeit.de Report A5-0264/2001 of the European Parliament (English), available at European Parliament website and the speech technology developed by the Belgian firm Lernout & Hauspie. An article in the Baltimore Sun reported in 1995 that aerospace company Airbus lost a $6 billion contract with Saudi Arabia in 1994 after NSA reported that Airbus officials had been bribing Saudi officials to secure the contract. The chartered purpose of NSA/CSS is solely to acquire significant foreign intelligence information pertaining to National Security or ongoing military intelligence operations. In his book Firewall, Andy McNab speculates that the UKUSA agreement is designed to enable NSA, GCHQ, and other equivalent organizations to gather intelligence on each other's citizens. For example, NSA cannot legally conduct surveillance on American citizens, but GCHQ might do it for them. Domestic activity NSA's mission, as set forth in Executive Order 12333, is to collect information that constitutes "foreign intelligence or counterintelligence" while not "acquiring information concerning the domestic activities of United States persons". NSA has declared that it relies on the FBI to collect information on foreign intelligence activities within the borders of the USA, while confining its own activities within the USA to the embassies and missions of foreign nations. NSA's domestic surveillance activities are limited by the requirements imposed by the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution; however, these protections do not apply to non-U.S. persons located outside of U.S. borders, so the NSA's foreign surveillance efforts are subject to far fewer limitations under U.S. law. David Alan Jordan. Decrypting the Fourth Amendment: Warrantless NSA Surveillance and the Enhanced Expectation of Privacy Provided by Encrypted Voice over Internet Protocol. Boston College Law Review. May, 2006. Last access date January 23, 2007 The specific requirements for domestic surveillance operations are contained in the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (FISA), which does not extend protection to non-U.S. citizens located outside of U.S. territory. These activities, especially the publicly acknowledged domestic telephone tapping and call database programs, have prompted questions about the extent of the NSA's activities and concerns about threats to privacy and the rule of law. Wiretapping programs Domestic wiretapping under Richard Nixon In the years after President Richard Nixon resigned, there were several investigations of suspected misuse of Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and NSA facilities. Senator Frank Church headed a Senate investigating committee (the Church Committee) which uncovered previously unknown activity, such as a CIA plot (ordered by President John F. Kennedy) to assassinate Fidel Castro. The investigation also uncovered NSA's wiretaps on targeted American citizens. After the Church Committee hearings, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 became law, limiting circumstances under which domestic surveillance was allowed. ThinThread wiretapping and data mining A wiretapping program named ThinThread was tested in the late 1990s, but never put into operation. ThinThread contained both advanced data mining capabilities and built-in privacy protections. These privacy protections were abandoned in the post-9/11 effort by President George W. Bush to improve the intelligence community's responsiveness to terrorism. The research done under this program may have contributed to the technology used in later systems. Warrantless wiretaps under George W. Bush On December 16, 2005, the New York Times reported that, under White House pressure and with an executive order from President George W. Bush, the National Security Agency, in an attempt to thwart terrorism, had been tapping the telephones of select individuals in the U.S. calling persons outside the country, without obtaining warrants from the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, a secret court created for that purpose under the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA). James Risen & Eric Lichtblau (December 16, 2005), Bush Lets U.S. Spy on Callers Without Courts, New York Times One such surveillance program, authorized by the United States Signals Intelligence Directive 18 of President George Bush, was the Highlander Project undertaken for the National Security Agency by the United States Army 513th Military Intelligence Brigade. NSA relayed telephone (including cell phone) conversations obtained from both ground, airborne, and satellite monitoring stations to various U.S. Army Signal Intelligence Officers, including the 201st Military Intelligence Battalion. Conversations of citizens of the United States were intercepted, along with those of other nations. Proponents of the surveillance program claim that the President has executive authority to order such action, arguing that laws such as FISA are overridden by the President's Constitutional powers. In addition, some argued that FISA was implicitly overridden by a subsequent statute, the Authorization for Use of Military Force, although the Supreme Court's ruling in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld deprecates this view. In the August 2006 case ACLU v. NSA, U.S. District Court Judge Anna Diggs Taylor concluded that NSA's warrantless surveillance program was both illegal and unconstitutional. On July 6, 2007 the 6th Circuit Court of Appeals overturned Judge Taylor's ruling, reversing her findings. 6th Circuit Court of Appeals Decision AT&T Internet monitoring In May 2006, Mark Klein, a former AT&T employee, alleged that his company had cooperated with NSA in installing hardware to monitor network communications including traffic between American citizens. on PBS Wiretapping under Barack Obama The New York Times reported in 2009 that the NSA is intercepting communications of American citizens including a Congressman, although the Justice Department believed that the NSA had corrected its errors. United States Attorney General Eric Holder resumed the wiretapping according to his understanding of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 Amendments Act of 2008 which Congress passed in July 2008 but without explaining what had occurred. Transaction data mining NSA is reported to use its computing capability to analyze "transactional" data that it regularly acquires from other government agencies, which gather it under their own jurisdictional authorities. As part of this effort, NSA now monitors huge volumes of records of domestic emails and Internet searches as well as bank transfers, credit-card transactions and travel and telephone records, according to current and former intelligence officials interviewed by the WSJ. In fiction Since the existence of NSA has become more widely known in the past few decades, and particularly since the 1990s, the agency has regularly been portrayed in spy fiction. Many such portrayals grossly exaggerate the organization's involvement in the more sensational activities of intelligence agencies. The agency now plays a role in numerous books, films, television shows, and computer games. Staff Directors November 1952 – November 1956 Lt. Gen. Ralph J. Canine, USA November 1956 – November 1960 Lt. Gen. John A. Samford, USAF November 1960 – January 1962 V. Adm. Laurence H. Frost, USN January 1962 – June 1965 Lt. Gen. Gordon A. Blake, USAF June 1965 – August 1969 Lt. Gen. Marshall S. Carter, USA August 1969 – August 1972 V. Adm. Noel A. M. Gaylor, USN August 1972 – August 1973 Lt. Gen. Samuel C. Phillips, USAF August 1973 – July 1977 Lt. Gen. Lew Allen, Jr., USAF July 1977 – April 1981 V. Adm. Bobby Ray Inman, USN April 1981 – May 1985 Lt. Gen. Lincoln D. Faurer, USAF May 1985 – August 1988 Lt. Gen. William E. Odom, USA August 1988 – May 1992 V. Adm. William O. Studeman, USN May 1992 – February 1996 V. Adm. John M. McConnell, USN February 1996 – March 1999 Lt. Gen. Kenneth A. Minihan, USAF March 1999 – April 2005 Lt. Gen. Michael V. Hayden, USAF April 2005 – present Lt. Gen. Keith B. Alexander, USA Deputy Directors December 1952 – November 1953 R. Adm. Joseph Wenger, USN November 1953 – June 1956 Brig. Gen. John Ackerman, USAF June 1956 – August 1956 Maj. Gen. John A. Samford, USAF August 1956 – September 1957 Mr. Joseph H. Ream October 1957 – July 1958 Dr. H. T. Engstrom August 1958 – April 1974 Dr. Louis W. Tordella, USN April 1974 – May 1978 Mr. Benson K. Buffham May 1978 – April 1980 Mr. Robert E. Drake April 1980 – July 1982 Ms. Ann Z. Caracristi July 1982 – June 1985 Mr. Robert E. Rich June 1985 – March 1988 Mr. Charles R. Lord March 1988 – July 1990 Mr. Gerald R. Young July 1990 – February 1994 Mr. Robert L. Prestel February 1994 – October 1997 Mr. William P. Crowell October 1997 – June 2000 Ms. Barbara A. McNamara June 2000 – August 2006 Mr. William B. Black, Jr. August 2006 – present Mr. John C. (Chris) Inglis, Brig. Gen. (retired), USAF & USANG& mark Notable cryptanalysts Lambros D. Callimahos Agnes Meyer Driscoll William F. Friedman Solomon Kullback Robert Morris Frank Rowlett Abraham Sinkov Louis W. Tordella Herbert Yardley NSA encryption systems STU-III secure telephones on display at the National Cryptologic Museum NSA is responsible for the encryption-related components in these systems: EKMS Electronic Key Management System FNBDT Future Narrow Band Digital Terminal Fortezza encryption based on portable crypto token in PC Card format KL-7 ADONIS off-line rotor encryption machine (post-WW II to 1980s) KW-26 ROMULUS electronic in-line teletype encryptor (1960s–1980s) KW-37 JASON fleet broadcast encryptor (1960s–1990s) KY-57 VINSON tactical radio voice encryptor KG-84 Dedicated Data Encryption/Decryption SINCGARS tactical radio with cryptographically controlled frequency hopping STE secure terminal equipment STU-III secure telephone unit, currently being phased out by the STE TACLANE product line by General Dynamics NSA has specified Suite A and Suite B cryptographic algorithms to be used in U.S. government systems; the Suite B algorithms are a subset of those previously specified by NIST and are expected to serve for most information protection purposes, while the Suite A algorithms are secret and are intended for especially high levels of protection. Some past NSA SIGINT activities VENONA project Gulf of Tonkin Incident USS Liberty incident USS Pueblo (AGER-2) Operation Ivy Bells Korean Air Lines Flight 007 See also Federal law enforcement in the United States James Bamford Biometric Consortium Bureau of Intelligence and Research Central Intelligence Agency Central Security Service Counterintelligence Field Activity Defence Signals Directorate Defense Intelligence Agency United States Department of Homeland Security Diplomatic Security Service Espionage Federal Bureau of Investigation Government Communications Headquarters Narus National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency National Reconnaissance Office National Security Whistleblowers Coalition Ronald Pelton John Anthony Walker Project SHAMROCK Security-Enhanced Linux Signals intelligence Skipjack (cipher) TEMPEST Type 1 product NSA computers FROSTBURG IBM 7950 Harvest References Further reading Bamford, James, Body of Secrets: Anatomy of the Ultra-Secret National Security Agency, Doubleday, 2001, ISBN 0-385-49907-8. Bamford, James, The Puzzle Palace, Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-006748-5. Levy, Steven, Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government Saving Privacy in the Digital Age discussion of the development of non-government cryptography, including many accounts of tussles with the NSA. Radden Keefe, Patrick, Chatter: Dispatches from the Secret World of Global Eavesdropping, Random House, ISBN 1-4000-6034-6. Liston, Robert A., The Pueblo Surrender: a Covert Action by the National Security Agency, ISBN 0-87131-554-8. Kahn, David, The Codebreakers, 1181 pp., ISBN 0-684-83130-9. Look for the 1967 rather than the 1996 edition. Tully, Andrew, The Super Spies: More Secret, More Powerful than the CIA, 1969, LC 71080912. Bamford, James, New York Times, December 25, 2005; The Agency That Could Be Big Brother. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/25/weekinreview/25bamford.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=The%20Agency%20That%20Could%20Be%20Big%20Brother.&st=cse Sam Adams, War of numbers Steerforth; New Ed edition (June 1, 1998) John Prados, The Soviet estimate: U.S. intelligence analysis & Russian military strength, hardcover, 367 pages, ISBN 0-385-27211-1, Dial Press (1982). Walter Laqueur, A World of secrets Sherman Kent, Strategic Intelligence for American Public Policy External links NSA official site Records of the National Security Agency/Central Security Service Overview of the NSA and their Major Programs History of NSA The NSA charter "The Origins of the National Security Agency, 1940-1952" —newly declassified book-length report provided by The Memory Hole. "Outsourcing Intelligence" The National Security Archive at George Washington University Cryptome CRYPTOME.org - USSID 18 DECLASSIFIED Federation of American Scientist David Alan Jordan, Decrypting the Fourth Amendment: Warrantless NSA Surveillance and the Enhanced Expectation of Privacy Provided by Encrypted Voice over Internet Protocol - Boston College Law Review, Vol. 47, 2006 NSA Headquarters Google Maps New York Times NSA Phone Taps Article alternate link December 16, 2005 Wiretaps said to sift all overseas contacts (Boston Globe) December 23, 2005 Kurt Nimmo. NSA snoop story: Tell me something I don’t already know, Another Day in the Empire, December 24, 2005. Kevin Zeese. NSA mounted massive spy op on peace group, documents show, Raw Story, January 10, 2006. First person account of NSA interview and clearance January 2004 Joanne Leyland, "American Intelligence Service Denies Eavesdropping On Princess Diana", The Royalist, 13 December 2006. URL retrieved on January 6, 2007. 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2,753 | Benny_Andersson | Göran Bror Benny Andersson (born in Stockholm, Sweden on 16 December 1946) is a Swedish musician, composer, a former member of the Swedish musical group ABBA (1972-1982), and co-composer of the musicals Chess, Kristina från Duvemåla, and Mamma Mia!. Currently active with his own band Benny Anderssons Orkester (BAO!), and executive-producing the film version of the musical Mamma Mia! ABBA is one of the best known 70's musical groups. Early years Andersson was born to 34-year-old constructional engineer Gösta Andersson and his 26-year-old wife Laila. His sister Eva-Lis Andersson followed in 1948. Andersson's musical background comes basically from his father and grandfather; they both enjoyed playing the accordion, and at six, Benny got his own. Father Gösta and grandfather Efraim taught him Swedish folk music, traditional music, and the odd schlager. Benny recalls the first records he bought were "Du Bist Musik" by Italian schlager singer Caterina Valente and Elvis Presley's rendition of "Jailhouse Rock"; this smörgåsbord of different kinds of music was to influence and follow him through the years. When Andersson was ten he got his own piano, and taught himself to play. He left school aged 15 and began to perform at youth clubs. This is when he met his first girlfriend Christina Grönvall, with whom he had two children: Peter (born 1963) and Helen (born 1965). In early 1964, Benny and Christina joined a group with the odd name "Elverkets Spelmanslag" ("The Electricity Board Folk Music Group"), who by no means was a folk music ensemble: the name was a punning reference to their electric instruments. The repertoire was mainly instrumentals, and Benny recalls one of his standout numbers was "Baby Elephant Walk". He also wrote his first pieces of songwriting around this time for this band. In March 1964, "Elverket Spelmanslag" was up against another band in a talent contest, The Hep Stars. When Benny stepped in as the Hep Stars' keyboardist in October of that year, he knew this was what he wanted to do. The Hep Stars years (1964-1969) The Hep Stars got their breakthrough in March 1965 with their massive hit "Cadillac", eventually becoming the most celebrated of the Swedish 1960s pop bands. Andersson consolidated his place as the band's keyboardist and musical driving force as well as a teen idol. The band performed mostly covers of international hits, but Andersson soon started writing own material, and gave the band the classic hits "No Response", "Sunny Girl", "Wedding", "Consolation", "It's Nice To Be Back" and "She Will Love You" amongst others. Before ABBA (1969-1972) Andersson met Björn Ulvaeus in June 1966, and the two started writing songs together, their first being "Isn't It Easy To Say", eventually recorded by The Hep Stars. He also had a fruitful songwriting collaboration with Lasse Berghagen, with whom he wrote several songs and submitted "Hej, Clown" for the 1969 Melodifestivalen - the Swedish Eurovision Song Festival finals. The song finished in second place. During this contest he met vocalist Anni-Frid Lyngstad, and they soon became a couple. Around the same time his songwriting companion Ulvaeus met vocalist Agnetha Fältskog. The personal relationships and Andersson and Ulvaeus' songwriting collaboration has led quite naturally to the very close co-operation which the four friends had during the following years. Benny and Björn scored their first hits as songwriters in the spring of 1969: "Ljuva Sextiotal" (a hit with Brita Borg) and "Speleman" (a hit for The Hep Stars). As the two couples began supporting each other during recording sessions, the sound of the girls' voices convinced the songwriters to model their 'group' on the like of MOR acts Blue Mink, Middle of the Road and The Sweet. Thus, ABBA came to life. The ABBA years (1972-1982) The foursome's breakthrough came with winning the Eurovision Song Contest for Sweden with "Waterloo" on 6 April 1974. During the next eight years, Andersson (together with Ulvaeus) wrote music to and produced eight studio albums with the ABBA. The group achieved great success globally and scored a chain of #1 hits. After ABBA: "Chess" , "Kristina" and "Mamma Mia!" After ABBA broke up in 1983, Andersson continued writing music with Ulvaeus. Their first project was the stage musical Chess, written with Tim Rice. The "Chess" concept album - with vocals by Elaine Paige, Barbara Dickson, Murray Head and Swedes Tommy Körberg and Björn Skifs - was released in October 1984, selling two million copies worldwide. The Paige/Dickson duet "I Know Him So Well" became a major #1 hit, and Murray Head's "One Night in Bangkok" gave Andersson/Ulvaeus a US #3 hit. 'Chess' was staged in London's West End Prince Edward Theatre in May 1986, and ran for almost three years. A Broadway staging in April 1988 received disastrous reviews, and closed after just two months. In 1985, Andersson produced and released an album with brother and sister Anders and Karin Glenmark, featuring new songs by Andersson/Ulvaeus. The duo named themselves Gemini, and a second album with more music by Björn and Benny was released in April 1987, containing the big hit "Mio My Mio"; also to be found on the soundtrack to the film Mio in the Land of Faraway, for which Andersson co-produced the music. In 1987, Andersson released his first solo album "Klinga Mina Klockor" ('Chime, My Bells'). All the music was written by and performed by himself on accordion, backed by the Orsa Spelmän (Orsa Folk Musicians) on fiddles. A second solo album followed: November 1989. In 1990, Andersson scored a Swedish #1 hit with "Lassie", sung by female cabaret group, the Ainbusk Singers, for whom he also wrote the Svensktoppen hits "Älska Mig" and "Drömmarnas Golv". He decided to produce an album with Josefin Nilsson from this quartet, resulting in the 1993 English-language album Shapes, featuring ten new Andersson/Ulvaeus compositions. In 1992, he wrote the introduction melody for the European football championship, which was organized by Sweden that year. From the late 1980s, Andersson had worked on an idea for an epic Swedish language musical based on his affection for traditional folk music, and in October 1995, "Kristina från Duvemåla" premiered in Sweden. The musical was based on The Emigrants novels by Swedish writer Vilhelm Moberg. The musical ran successfully for almost five years, before closing in June 1999. It currently holds in workshops for an English production on Broadway: "Kristina". Andersson's next project was Mamma Mia!, a musical built around 24 of ABBA's songs, which has become a worldwide box-office blockbuster with versions in several languages currently being played in many countries, including the UK (West End premiere in April 1999, USA (Broadway premiere in 2001) and Sweden (Swedish language premiere in 2005). For the 2004 semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest, staged in Istanbul thirty years after ABBA had won the contest in Brighton, Benny appeared briefly in a special comedy video made for the interval act, entitled "Our Last Video". Each of the four members of the group appeared briefly in cameo roles, as did others such as Cher and Rik Mayall. The video was not included in the official DVD release of the Eurovision Contest, but was issued as a separate DVD release. It was billed as the first time the four had worked together since the group split. In fact, they each filmed their appearances separately. A film version of Mamma Mia! premiered on 18 July 2008. In April/May 2007, Andersson worked on the film soundtrack, re-recording the old ABBA songs with musicians from the old ABBA recording sessions. Mamma Mia the movie has now become the most successful movie musical of all time and has been named the number one box office smash of 2008, and the biggest-selling DVD ever in the UK. Benny Anderssons Orkester Andersson currently performs with his own band of 16 musicians, BAO; "Benny Anderssons Orkester" ("Benny Andersson's orchestra"), utilising the vocal talents of fellow swedes Helen Sjöholm (from Kristina from Duvemåla) and Tommy Körberg (of Chess fame), with lyrics to new material sometimes written by his song-writing partner and best-friend of 40 years, Björn Ulvaeus. BAO has released three albums to huge success in Sweden, all containing hit singles. BAO recently achieved a new record in Sweden on the Svensktoppen chart by staying there for 243 weeks with the song Du är min man ("You Are My Man"), sung by Helen Sjöholm. Rekord på Svensktoppen, Sveriges Radio. Retrieved 5 April 2009. New compositions Andersson composes primarily for his 'band' BAO! and the vocalists Sjöholm and Körberg, but keeps his older material alive through re-visiting it, like the staging of 'Mamma Mia!' and the Swedish version of 'Chess'. For a compilation album of the Glenmark duo Gemini, Andersson had Björn Ulvaeus write new Swedish lyrics for the re-recording of two old songs; Ulvaeus also wrote new English lyrics to older Swedish language songs for opera singer Anne Sofie Von Otter tribute album "I Let The Music Speak". Andersson has written the music to songs recorded by Anders Ekborg ("Han Som Har Vunnit Allt"] and Barbara Dickson ("The Day The Wall Came Tumbling Down"). The song "Kärlekens Tid" -performed by Helen Sjöholm with BAO!- -has also been performed in English by opera baryton Bryn Terfel. English language versions of the songs from Kristina från Duvemåla (which is in process of being translated) is also prémiered. BAO! performed at the premiére of Mamma Mia! in Stockholm 4 July 2008, and on Swedish television on 5 August. Film music Benny Andersson has written music to several films for screen and television; the first attempt in the early 1970s for the obscure Swedish movie The Seduction Of Inga: the film flopped, but the 'Björn & Benny' single "She's My Kind Of Girl" surprised the composers by being released in Japan and becoming a Top 10 hit (the song re-named in Japan as "The Little Girl Of The Cold Wind"). In 1987, Andersson wrote music and co-produced the soundtrack with Anders Eljas for the film Mio in the Land of Faraway, based on Swedish author Astrid Lindgrens Mio, my Mio. The title song became a huge hit in Sweden for Gemini. In 2000, Benny wrote the music for fellow Swede (no relation) Roy Andersson's film Songs from the Second Floor (the music later re-recorded, featuring new lyrics, with BAO! with vocals by Helen Sjöholm). He also wrote the theme for Roy Andersson's next film, You, the Living, from 2007. Andersson also worked on the film adaptation of Mamma Mia! Awards Together with Ulvaeus, Andersson was nominated for a Drama Desk Award in a category "Outstanding Music" (for the musical Chess), and for a Tony Award in a category "Best Orchestrations" (for musical Mamma Mia!). Original cast recordings of both musicals were nominated for a Grammy Award. Andersson/Ulvaeus also won one a Touring Broadway Award for the musical "Mamma Mia" (best score). During his post-ABBA career Andersson won four Swedish Grammis awards, and together with Ulvaeus received the "Special International" Ivor Novello award from 'The British Academy of Composers and Songwriters', twice "The Music Export Prize" from the Swedish Ministry of Industry and Trade (2008) "The Government's Music Export Prize for 2008 goes to..." , as well as the "Lifetime Achievement" award from the Swedish Music Publishers Association (SMFF). In 2002, Andersson was given an honorary professorship by the Swedish Government for his "ability to create high-class music reaching people around the world". In 2007, he was elected a member of Royal Swedish Academy of Music, and in 2008 received an Honorary Doctorate from the Stockholm University Faculty of Humanities for contributing importantly both to the preservation and the growth of the Swedish folk music tradition. Private life Andersson was engaged to Christina Grönvall after she became pregnant by him when he was just 15 years old. In 1963 they had a son, Peter Grönvall and later a daughter, Hélene.They split in 1966 and never married. Christina kept custody of the children as Andersson was currently at the peak of his Hep Stars' success. In the 1990s, Peter formed One More Time, a group that enjoyed European success with the Abba-like "Highland" and later as Sweden's entry to the Eurovision Song Contest 1996. Andersson was engaged to Lyngstad for about nine years. They married in October 1978 but divorced in 1981. He married Swedish TV presenter Mona Nörklit in November 1981, and had a son, Ludvig (born January 1982). Ludvig has since followed in his father's footsteps in forming his own band, Ella Rouge. Discography ABBA Original albums Ring Ring Waterloo ABBA Arrival The Album Voulez-Vous Super Trouper The Visitors Compilation and foreign language albums Greatest Hits Greatest Hits Vol. 2 Gracias Por La Música The Singles: The First Ten Years ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits More ABBA Gold: More ABBA Hits Thank You For The Music ABBA Oro: Grandes Éxitos The Definitive Collection Number Ones The Complete Studio Recordings Benny Anderssons Orkester Benny Anderssons Orkester (2001) BAO! (2004) BAO! på turné (BAO! on Tour) (2006) BAO 3 (2007) Björn & Benny Lycka (1970) Gemini Gemini (1985) Geminism (1987) Hep Stars We and our Cadillac (1965) Hep Stars on stage (1965) The hepstars (1966) Musicals Chess (1984/1988/2002) Kristina från Duvemåla (1995) Mamma Mia (1999) Orsa Spelmän Orsa Spelmän (1988) Fiolen Min (1990) Ödra (1998) The Miracle (1996) Solo albums Klinga mina klockor (1987) November 1989 (1989) See also List of Swedes in music Mamma Mia! References External links icethesite (Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus news site) The Hep Stars International Official website (Benny before ABBA) Chronology: Benny Andersson | Benny_Andersson |@lemmatized göran:1 bror:1 benny:22 andersson:41 bear:3 stockholm:3 sweden:9 december:1 swedish:22 musician:4 composer:4 former:1 member:3 musical:17 group:10 abba:21 co:4 chess:9 kristina:7 från:4 duvemåla:5 mamma:13 mia:13 currently:5 active:1 band:10 anderssons:5 orkester:5 bao:12 executive:1 produce:6 film:12 version:5 one:7 best:4 known:1 early:3 year:17 old:7 constructional:1 engineer:1 gösta:2 wife:1 laila:1 sister:2 eva:1 li:1 follow:4 background:1 come:4 basically:1 father:3 grandfather:2 enjoy:2 play:3 accordion:2 six:1 get:3 efraim:1 teach:2 folk:6 music:27 traditional:2 odd:2 schlager:2 recall:2 first:10 record:7 buy:1 du:2 bist:1 musik:1 italian:1 singer:3 caterina:1 valente:1 elvis:1 presley:1 rendition:1 jailhouse:1 rock:1 smörgåsbord:1 different:1 kind:2 influence:1 ten:3 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frid_lyngstad:1 agnetha_fältskog:1 andersson_ulvaeus:5 elaine_paige:1 björn_benny:3 rik_mayall:1 helen_sjöholm:4 anne_sofie:1 sofie_von:1 von_otter:1 ulvaeus_andersson:1 drama_desk:1 nominate_grammy:1 grammy_award:1 ivor_novello:1 novello_award:1 lifetime_achievement:1 honorary_doctorate:1 voulez_vous:1 super_trouper:1 la_música:1 external_link:1 |
2,754 | Fictional_language | Quenya, written in Tengwar and Latin-based alphabets Fictional languages are by far the largest group of artistic languages. Fictional languages are intended to be the languages of a fictional world, and are often designed with the intent of giving more depth and an appearance of plausibility to the fictional worlds with which they are associated, and to have their characters communicate in a fashion which is both alien and dislocated. Some of these languages, e.g., in worlds of fantasy fiction, alternative universes, Earth's future, or alternate history, are presented as distorted versions or dialects of modern English or other natural language, while others are independently designed conlangs. Purpose Fictional languages are separated from artistic languages by both purpose and relative completion: a fictional language often has the least amount of grammar and vocabulary possible, and rarely extends beyond the absolutely necessary. At the same time, some others have developed languages in detail for their own sake, such as J. R. R. Tolkien's Quenya and Sindarin, Star Trek's Klingon language, and Star Wars's Mandalorian language which exist as functioning, usable languages. Here "fictional" can be a misnomer. By analogy with the word "conlang", the term conworld is used to describe these fictional worlds, inhabited by fictional constructed cultures. The conworld influences vocabulary (what words the language will have for flora and fauna, articles of clothing, objects of technology, religious concepts, names of places and tribes, etc.), as well as influencing other factors such as pronouns, or how their cultures view the break-off points between colors or the gender and age of family members. Examples Common examples are: J.R.R. Tolkien's languages of Middle-earth George Orwell's Newspeak in Nineteen Eighty-Four Václav Havel's Ptydepe in The Memorandum Iain M. Banks' Marain in his Culture novels Ursula K. Le Guin's Pravic in The Dispossessed Richard Adams's Lapine language in Watership Down Richard A. Watson's D'ni in the Myst franchise Robert Jordan's Old Tongue in The Wheel of Time The Klingon language in Star Trek The Mandalorian language from Star Wars The backwards Japanese/Latin used in Ico and Shadow of the Colossus Baronh in Crest of the Stars Series Ku in The Interpreter Nadsat in A Clockwork Orange Professional fictional languages Professional fictional languages are those languages created for use in books, movies, television shows, video games, comics, toys, and musical albums (prominent examples of works featuring fictional languages include the Middle-earth and Star Trek universes and the game Myst). Note: The Al Bhed language used on the video game Final Fantasy X is not a language per se, as it is only a clever substitution cipher. Alien languages <center>Alien language 1 (Alienese) from Futurama interposed with the Times New Roman.<center> A notable subgenre of fictional languages are alien languages, the ones that are used or might be used by putative extraterrestrial life forms. Alien languages are subject of both science fiction and scientific research. Perhaps the most fully-developed fictional alien language is the Klingon language of the Star Trek universe - a fully-developed constructed language. The problem of alien language has confronted generations of science fiction writers; some have created fictional languages for their characters to use, while others have circumvented the problem through translation devices or other fantastic technology. Although this field remains largely confined to science fiction, the possibility of intelligent extraterrestrial life makes the question of alien language a credible topic for scientific and philosophical speculation. While many cases an alien language is but an element of fictional reality, in a number of science fiction works the core of the plot are linguistic and psychological problems of communication between various alien races. Internet-based fictional languages Internet-based fictional languages are hosted along with their "conworlds" on the Internet, and based at these sites, becoming known to the world through the visitors to these sites; Verdurian, the language of Mark Rosenfelder's Verduria on the planet of Almea, is a flagship Internet-based fictional language. Many other fictional languages and their associated conworlds are created privately by their inventor, known only to the inventor and perhaps a few friends. In this context the term "professional" (used for the first category) as opposed to "amateur" (used for the second and third) refers only to the professionalism of the used medium, and not to the professionalism of the language itself or its creator. In fact, most professional languages are the work of non-linguists, while many amateur languages were in fact created by linguists, and in general the latter are better developed. See also Constructed language SETI Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence External links A Primer In SF XENOLINGUISTICS, by Justin B. 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2,755 | Equatorial_Guinea | Equatorial Guinea, officially the Republic of Equatorial Guinea (Spanish: República de Guinea Ecuatorial, ; French: République de Guinée Équatoriale) is a country located in Central Africa. With an area of 28,000 km2 it is one of the smallest countries in continental Africa, having a population estimated at half a million. It comprises two parts: a Continental Region (Río Muni), including several small offshore islands like Corisco, Elobey Grande and Elobey Chico; and an Insular Region containing Annobón island and Bioko island (formerly Fernando Po) where the capital Malabo is situated. Annobón is the southernmost island of Equatorial Guinea and is situated just south of the equator. Bioko island is the northernmost point of Equatorial Guinea. Between the two islands and to the east is the mainland region. Equatorial Guinea is bordered by Cameroon on the north, Gabon on the south and east, and the Gulf of Guinea on the west, where the island nation of São Tomé and Príncipe is located between Bioko and Annobón. Formerly the colony of Spanish Guinea, its post-independence name is suggestive of its location near both the equator and the Gulf of Guinea. It is one of the few territories in mainland Africa where Spanish is an official language, besides the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla. Equatorial Guinea is the third smallest country in continental Africa in terms of population. Seychelles, The Gambia, Djibouti, Rwanda, Burundi, Cape Verde, Comoros, Swaziland, and São Tomé and Príncipe are smaller in terms of area, and Djibouti and the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic have smaller populations, although the population of the latter is disputed It is also the smallest United Nations member from continental Africa. The discovery of sizeable petroleum reserves in recent years is altering the economic and political status of the country. History The first inhabitants of the continental region that is now Equatorial Guinea are believed to have been pygmies, of whom only isolated pockets remain in northern Río Muni. Bantu migrations between the 17th and 19th centuries brought the coastal tribes and later the Fang. Elements of the latter may have generated the Bubi, who emigrated to Bioko from Cameroon and Rio Muni in several waves and succeeded former Neolithic populations. The Bubi were the very first human inhabitants of Bioko Island. The Annobon population, native to Angola, was introduced by the Portuguese via São Tomé Island (São Tomé and Príncipe). The Portuguese explorer Fernão do Pó, seeking a path to India, is credited as being the first European to discover the island of Bioko in 1472. He called it Formosa ("Beautiful"), but it quickly took on the name of its European discoverer. The islands of Fernando Pó and Annobón were colonized by Portugal in 1474. In 1778, the island, adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the mainland between the Niger and Ogoue Rivers were ceded to Spain in exchange for territory in the American continent (Treaty of El Pardo, between Queen Maria I of Portugal and King Charles III of Spain). Between 1778 and 1810, the territory of Equatorial Guinea depended administratively on the viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, with seat in Buenos Aires. From 1827 to 1843, the United Kingdom established a base on the island to combat the slave trade, See Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911, "Fernando Po" which was then moved to Sierra Leone upon agreement with Spain in 1843. In 1844, on restoration of Spanish sovereignty, it became known as the Territorios Españoles del Golfo de Guinea Ecuatorial. The mainland portion, Rio Muni, became a protectorate in 1885 and a colony in 1900. Conflicting claims to the mainland were settled by the Treaty of Paris (1900), and periodically, the mainland territories were united administratively under Spanish rule. Between 1926 and 1959 they were united as the colony of Spanish Guinea. Geography Equatorial Guinea is located in west central Africa. Bioko Island lies about 40 kilometers (25 mi.) from Cameroon. Annobón Island lies about 595 kilometers (370 mi.) southwest of Bioko Island. The larger continental region of Rio Muni lies between Cameroon and Gabon on the mainland. Near to the continental region are located the islands of Corisco, Elobey Grande, Elobey Chico, and adjacent islets. Despite its name, no part of Equatorial Guinea's territory lies on the equator. Politics Map of Equatorial Guinea The current strongman of Equatorial Guinea is Retired Brig. Gen. Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo, who acts as president. The 1982 constitution of Equatorial Guinea gives Obiang extensive powers, including naming and dismissing members of the cabinet, making laws by decree, dissolving the Chamber of Representatives, negotiating and ratifying treaties and calling legislative elections. Obiang retains his role as commander in chief of the armed forces and minister of defence, and he maintains close supervision of the military activity. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and operates under powers designated by the President. The Prime Minister coordinates government activities in areas other than foreign affairs, national defense and security. On December 15, 2002, Equatorial Guinea's four main opposition parties withdrew from the country's presidential election. Obiang won an election widely considered fraudulent by members of the Western press. The incumbent president has never equalled the bloodthirsty reputation of former dictator Francisco Macías Nguema, whom he overthrew. On Christmas of 1975, Macías had 150 alleged coup plotters executed to the sound of a band playing Mary Hopkin's tune Those Were the Days in a national stadium. A huge proportion of the £370 million revenue is confiscated by the president while most of the 500,000 people subsist on less than a dollar a day, sewage runs through the streets of the capital Malabo, and there is no public transport and little drinking water or electricity. According to a March 2004 BBC profile, politics within the country are currently dominated by tensions between Obiang's son, Teodorin, and other close relatives with powerful positions in the security forces. The tension may be rooted in power shift arising from the dramatic increase in oil production which has occurred since 1997. A November 2004 report named Mark Thatcher as a financial backer of a 2004 Equatorial Guinea coup d'état attempt to topple Obiang, organized by Simon Mann. Various accounts also name the United Kingdom's MI6, the United States' CIA, and Spain as having been tacit supporters of the coup attempt. Nevertheless, the Amnesty International report released in June 2005 on the ensuing trial of those allegedly involved highlighted the prosecution's failure to produce conclusive evidence that a coup attempt had actually taken place. On February 29, 2008, President Obiang dissolved parliament and announced that municipal and parliamentary elections would be held on May 4. His decree also called for a presidential election in 2010. Provinces and districts Provinces of Equatorial Guinea Equatorial Guinea is divided into seven provinces (capitals appear in parentheses): Annobón Province (San Antonio de Palé) Bioko Norte Province (Malabo) Bioko Sur Province (Luba) Centro Sur Province (Evinayong) Kié-Ntem Province (Ebebiyín) Litoral Province (Bata) Wele-Nzas Province (Mongomo) The provinces are further divided into districts. Economy Pre-independence Equatorial Guinea counted on cocoa production for hard currency earnings. It had the highest per capita income of Africa in 1959. The discovery of large oil reserves in 1996 and its subsequent exploitation have contributed to a dramatic increase in government revenue. As of 2004, Equatorial Guinea is the third-largest oil producer in Sub-Saharan Africa. Its oil production has risen to 360,000 barrels/day, up from 220,000 only two years earlier. Forestry, farming, and fishing are also major components of GDP. Subsistence farming predominates. The deterioration of the rural economy under successive brutal regimes has diminished any potential for agriculture-led growth. Despite a per capita GDP (PPP) of more than US$30,000 World Economic Outlook IMF Database, September 2005 CIA - The World Factbook - Equatorial Guinea , Equatorial Guinea ranks 121st out of 177 countries on the United Nations Human Development Index. In July 2004, the United States Senate published an investigation into Riggs Bank, a Washington-based bank into which most of Equatorial Guinea's oil revenues were paid until recently, and which also banked for Chile's Augusto Pinochet. The Senate report, as to Equatorial Guinea, showed that at least $35 million were siphoned off by Obiang, his family and senior officials of his regime. The president has denied any wrongdoing. While Riggs Bank in February 2005 paid $9 million as restitution for its banking for Chile's Augusto Pinochet, no restitution was made with regard to Equatorial Guinea, as reported in detail in an Anti-Money Laundering Report from Inner City Press. Inner City Press / Finance Watch: "Follow the Money, Watchdog the Regulators" On August 9, 2006, Harper's Magazine published an article by Ken Silverstein highlighting Obiang's recent connections with the US State Department and Independence Federal Savings Bank. While Equatorial Guinea is currently one of the largest producers of oil in Africa, few improvements have been made to the living conditions of the people and most live in poverty. It has one of the ten last ranks among the countries on the Corruption Perception Index. Equatorial Guinea is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). Demographics Equatorial Guinean children of Bubi descent. The majority of the people of Equatorial Guinea are of Bantu origin. The largest tribe, the Fang, is indigenous to the mainland, but substantial migration to Bioko Island has resulted in Fang dominance over the earlier Bantu inhabitants. The Fang constitute 80% of the population and comprise 67 clans. Those in the northern part of Rio Muni speak Fang-Ntumu, while those in the south speak Fang-Okah; the two dialects have differences but are mutually intelligible. Dialects of Fang are also spoken in parts of neighboring Cameroon (Bulu) and Gabon. These dialects, while still intelligible, are more distinct. The Bulu Fang of Cameroon were traditional rivals of Fang in Rio Muni. (The Bubi, who constitute 15% of the population, are indigenous to Bioko Island. The traditional demarcation line between Fang and beach tribes was the village of Niefang (limit of the fang) inland from Bata. Equatorial Guinean children of Fang descent. In addition, there are coastal tribes, sometimes referred to as "Playeros" (Beach People in Spanish): Ndowes, Bujebas, Balengues, Kombis, and Bengas on the mainland and small islands, and "Fernandinos", a Creole community, on Bioko. Together, these groups compose 5% of the population. Some Europeans (largely of Spanish or Portuguese descent) – among them mixed with African ethnicity – also live in the nation. Most Spaniards left after independence. There is a growing number of foreigners from neighboring Cameroon, Nigeria, and Gabon. Equatorial Guinea received Asians and black Africans from other countries as workers on cocoa and coffee plantations. Other black Africans came from Liberia, Angola, and Mozambique. Most of the Asian population is Chinese, with small numbers of Indians. Equatorial Guinea also allowed many fortune-seeking European settlers of other nationalities, including British, French and Germans. And also there is group of Israelis, taken root in Bata, which are employed at the Centro Médico La Paz of the above mentioned city. After independence, thousands of Equatorial Guineans went to Spain. Another 100,000 Equatorial Guineans went to Cameroon, Gabon, and Nigeria because of the dictatorship of Francisco Macías Nguema. Some of its communities also live in Latin America, the United States, Portugal, and France. Oil extraction has contributed to a doubling of the population in Malabo. Religion The principal religion in Equatorial Guinea is Christianity which is the faith of 93% of the population. These are predominately Catholic (87%) while a minority are Protestants or other denominations (5%). Another 5% of the population follow indigenous beliefs and the final 2% comprises Muslims, followers of Baha'i and other beliefs. U.S. Department of State Official languages The Constitutional Law which amends article 4 of the Fundamental Law of the State establishes that the official languages of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea are Spanish and French. The aboriginal languages are recognized as integral parts of the national culture" (Constitutional Law No. 1/1998 of January 21). The great majority of Equatorial Guineans speak Spanish, "Obiang convierte al portugués en tercer idioma oficial para entrar en la Comunidad lusófona de Naciones", Terra. 13-07-2007 (translate) especially those living in the capital, Malabo. Spanish has been an official language since 1844. In July 2007, President Teodoro Obiang Nguema announced his government's decision for Portuguese to become Equatorial Guinea's third official language, in order to meet the requirements to apply for full membership in the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP). This upgrading from its current Associate Observer condition would result in Equatorial Guinea being able to access several professional and academic exchange programs and the facilitation of cross-border circulation of citizens. Its application is currently being assessed by other CPLP members, although the CPLP website already states that Portuguese is Equatorial Guinea's third official language.<ref>"Guiné-Equatorial", CPLP</ref> Education Several cultural dispersion and literacy organizations are located in the country, founded chiefly with the financial support of the Spanish government. The country has one university, the Universidad Nacional de Guinea Ecuatorial (UNGE) with a campus in Malabo and a Faculty of Medicine located in Bata on the mainland. The Bata Medical School is supported principally by the government of Cuba and staffed by Cuban medical educators and physicians. Transportation Air travel Every airline registered in this country appears on the list of air carriers prohibited in the European Union (EU) which means that it is banned for safety reasons from operating services of any kind within the EU. List of banned E.U. air carriers Communications The principal means of communication within the country are three state-operated FM radio stations. There are also five shortwave radio stations. There are also two newspapers and two magazines. Television Nacional, the television network, is state operated. Most of the media companies practice heavy self-censorship, and are banned by law from criticising public figures. The state-owned media and the main private radio station are under the directorship of Teodorin Nguema Obiang, the president's son. Landline telephone penetration is low, with only two lines available for every 100 persons. There is one GSM mobile telephone operator, with coverage of Malabo, Bata, and several mainland cities. As of 2009, approximately forty percent of the population subscribed to mobile telephone services. The only telephone provider in Equatorial Guinea is Orange. Equatorial Guinea has one Internet service provider, which serves about 8,000 users. Sports Football Equatorial Guinea has been chosen to co-host the 2012 African Cup of Nations in partnership with Gabon. The country was also chosen to host the 2008 Women's African Football Championship, which they won. Swimming Equatorial Guinea is also famous for the national swimming champion Eric Moussambani, nicknamed "Eric the Eel". In fiction Frederick Forsyth's 1974 novel The Dogs of War is set in the fictional platinum-rich 'Republic of Zangaro', which is based on Equatorial Guinea. There is also a 1981 film adaptation of the book, also called The Dogs of War. Fernando Po (now Bioko) is featured prominently in the 1975 science fiction work The Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson. The island (and, in turn, the country) experience a series of coups in the story which lead the world to the verge of nuclear war. The story also hypothesizes that Fernando Po is the last remaining piece of the sunken continent of Atlantis. Most of the action in the American novelist Robin Cook's book, Chromosome 6, takes place at a primate research facility based in Equatorial Guinea due to the country's permissive laws. The book also discusses some of the geography, history, and peoples of the country. Episode 2 of the British sitcom Yes Minister, The Official Visit, situates the fictional lesser developed country of Buranda in what is actually Equatorial Guinea. See also Bight of Bonny also known as the Bight of Biafra Cameroon line Gulf of Guinea :Category:Equatoguinean people Communications in Equatorial Guinea Foreign relations of Equatorial Guinea List of Equatorial Guinea-related topics Military of Equatorial Guinea Scouting in Equatorial Guinea Transport in Equatorial Guinea 2004 Equatorial Guinea coup d'état attempt Equatoguinean literature in Spanish Notes and references Books Max Liniger-Goumaz, Small is not Always Beautiful: The Story of Equatorial Guinea (French 1986, translated 1989) ISBN 0-389-20861-2 Ibrahim K. Sundiata, Equatorial Guinea: Colonialism, State Terror, and the Search for Stability (1990, Boulder: Westview Press) ISBN 0-8133-0429-6 Robert Klitgaard. 1990. Tropical Gangsters. New York: Basic Books. (World Bank economist tries to assist pre-oil Equatorial Guinea -clever book, factual account) ISBN 0465087604 D.L. Claret. Cien años de evangelización en Guinea Ecuatorial (1883-1983)/ One Hundred Years of Evangelism in Equatorial Guinea (1983, Barcelona: Claretian Missionaries) Adam Roberts, The Wonga Coup: Guns, Thugs and a Ruthless Determination to Create Mayhem in an Oil-Rich Corner of Africa (2006, PublicAffairs) ISBN 1-58648-371-4 External links Government Official Government of Equatorial Guinea website (Spanish, English) Honorary Consulate of Equatorial Guinea in Romania (Spanish, Romanian, English) Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Country Profile from BBC News Equatorial Guinea from UCB Libraries GovPubs'' Topographical map (Spanish) News media Equatorial Guinea news headline links from AllAfrica.com Guinea-Ecuatorial.net (Spanish, some French) Cultural The Bubis of Fernando Po history of first inhabitants of Bioko Island, now an endangered people Cultura Bubi Cultures de Mon: Los Bubis African Pygmies culture and music of the first inhabitants of Equatorial Guinea, with photos and ethnographic notes Other Spanish Embassy's Plan for African 2006-2008 http://www.icex.es/staticFiles/GuineaEcuatorial_6814_.pdf (Spanish) be-x-old:Экватарыяльная Ґвінэя | Equatorial_Guinea |@lemmatized equatorial:63 guinea:67 officially:1 republic:4 spanish:20 república:1 de:9 ecuatorial:5 french:5 république:1 guinée:1 équatoriale:1 country:20 locate:6 central:2 africa:11 area:3 one:8 small:9 continental:7 population:14 estimate:1 half:1 million:4 comprise:2 two:7 part:5 region:6 río:2 muni:7 include:3 several:5 offshore:1 island:22 like:1 corisco:2 elobey:4 grande:2 chico:2 insular:1 contain:1 annobón:6 bioko:15 formerly:2 fernando:6 po:5 capital:4 malabo:7 situate:3 southernmost:1 south:3 equator:3 northernmost:1 point:1 east:2 mainland:11 border:2 cameroon:9 north:1 gabon:6 gulf:3 west:2 nation:5 são:4 tomé:4 príncipe:3 colony:3 post:1 independence:5 name:5 suggestive:1 location:1 near:2 territory:5 official:9 language:7 besides:1 exclaves:1 ceuta:1 melilla:1 third:4 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2,756 | Binary-coded_decimal | In computing and electronic systems, binary-coded decimal (BCD) (sometimes called natural binary-coded decimal, NBCD) is an encoding for decimal numbers in which each digit is represented by its own binary sequence. Its main virtue is that it allows easy conversion to decimal digits for printing or display and faster decimal calculations. Its drawbacks are the increased complexity of circuits needed to implement mathematical operations and a relatively inefficient encoding—it occupies more space than a pure binary representation. In BCD, a digit is usually represented by four bits which, in general, represent the values/digits/characters 0–9. Other bit combinations are sometimes used for a sign or other indications. Although BCD is not as widely used as it once was, decimal fixed-point and floating-point are still important and continue to be used in financial, commercial, and industrial computing. Modern decimal floating-point representations use base-10 exponents, but not BCD encodings. Current hardware implementations, however, convert the compressed decimal encodings to BCD internally before carrying out computations. Software implementations use BCD or some other 10n base, depending on the operation. Basics To BCD-encode a decimal number using the common encoding, each decimal digit is stored in a four-bit nibble. Decimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 BCD: 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 Thus, the BCD encoding for the number 127 would be: 0001 0010 0111 Since most computers store data in eight-bit bytes, there are two common ways of storing four-bit BCD digits in those bytes: each digit is stored in one nibble of a byte, with the other nibble being set to all zeros, all ones (as in the EBCDIC code), or to 0011 (as in the ASCII code) two digits are stored in each byte. Unlike binary-encoded numbers, BCD-encoded numbers can easily be displayed by mapping each of the nibbles to a different character. Converting a binary-encoded number to decimal for display is much harder, as this generally involves integer multiplication or divide operations. BCD also avoids problems where fractions that can be represented exactly in decimal cannot be in binary (eg one-tenth). BCD in Electronics BCD is very common in electronic systems where a numeric value is to be displayed, especially in systems consisting solely of digital logic, and not containing a microprocessor. By utilizing BCD, the manipulation of numerical data for display can be greatly simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit. This matches much more closely the physical reality of display hardware—a designer might choose to use a series of separate identical 7-segment displays to build a metering circuit, for example. If the numeric quantity were stored and manipulated as pure binary, interfacing to such a display would require complex circuitry. Therefore, in cases where the calculations are relatively simple working throughout with BCD can lead to a simpler overall system than converting to binary. The same argument applies when hardware of this type uses an embedded microcontroller or other small processor. Often, smaller code results when representing numbers internally in BCD format, since a conversion from or to binary representation can be expensive on such limited processors. For these applications, some small processors feature BCD arithmetic modes, which assist when writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities. Packed BCD A widely used variation of the two-digits-per-byte encoding is called packed BCD (or simply packed decimal). All of the upper bytes of a multi-byte word plus the upper four bits (nibble) of the lowest byte are used to store decimal integers. The lower four bits of the lowest byte are used as the sign flag. As an example, a 32 bit word contains 4 bytes or 8 nibbles. Packed BCD uses the upper 7 nibbles to store the integers of a 7-digit decimal value and uses the lowest nibble to indicate the sign of those integers. Standard sign values are 1100 (hex C) for positive (+) and 1101 (D) for negative (−). Other allowed signs are 1010 (A) and 1110 (E) for positive and 1011 (B) for negative. Some implementations also provide unsigned BCD values with a sign nibble of 1111 (F). In packed BCD, the number 127 is represented by 0001 0010 0111 1100 (127C) and −127 is represented by 0001 0010 0111 1101 (127D). SignDigitBCD8 4 2 1SignNotesA 1 0 1 0 + B 1 0 1 1 − C 1 1 0 0 + PreferredD 1 1 0 1 − PreferredE 1 1 1 0 + F 1 1 1 1 + Unsigned No matter how many bytes wide a word is, there are always an even number of nibbles because each byte has two of them. Therefore, a word of n bytes can contain up to (2n)−1 decimal digits, which is always an odd number of digits. A decimal number with d digits requires ½(d+1) bytes of storage space. For example, a four-byte (32bit) word can hold seven decimal digits plus a sign, and can represent values ranging from ±9,999,999. Thus the number −1,234,567 is 7 digits wide and is encoded as: 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1101 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 − (Note that, like character strings, the first byte of the packed decimal — with the most significant two digits — is usually stored in the lowest address in memory, independent of the endianness of the machine). In contrast, a four-byte binary two's complement integer can represent values from −2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647. While packed BCD does not make optimal use of storage (about 1/6 of the memory used is wasted), conversion to ASCII, EBCDIC, or the various encodings of Unicode is still trivial, as no arithmetic operations are required. The extra storage requirements are usually offset by the need for the accuracy that fixed-point decimal arithmetic provides. Denser packings of BCD exist which avoid the storage penalty and also need no arithmetic operations for common conversions. Fixed-point packed decimal Fixed-point decimal numbers are supported by some programming languages (such as COBOL and PL/I), and provide an implicit decimal point in front of one of the digits. For example, a packed decimal value encoded with the bytes 12 34 56 7C represents the fixed-point value +1,234.567 when the implied decimal point is located between the 4th and 5th digits. 12 34 56 7C 12 34.56 7+ Higher-density encodings If a decimal digit requires four bits, then three decimal digits require 12 bits. However, since 210 (1,024) is greater than 103 (1,000), if three decimal digits are encoded together, only 10 bits are needed. Two such encodings are Chen-Ho encoding and Densely Packed Decimal. The latter has the advantage that subsets of the encoding encode two digits in the optimal 7 bits and one digit in 4 bits, as in regular BCD. Zoned decimal Some implementations (notably IBM mainframe systems) support zoned decimal numeric representations. Each decimal digit is stored in one byte, with the lower four bits encoding the digit in BCD form. The upper four bits, called the "zone" bits, are usually set to a fixed value so that the byte holds a character value corresponding to the digit. EBCDIC systems use a zone value of 1111 (hex F); this yields bytes in the range F0 to F9 (hex), which are the EBCDIC codes for the characters "0" through "9". Similarly, ASCII systems use a zone value of 0011 (hex 3), giving character codes 30 to 39 (hex). For signed zoned decimal values, the rightmost (least significant) zone nibble holds the sign digit, which is the same set of values that are used for signed packed decimal numbers (see above). Thus a zoned decimal value encoded as the hex bytes F1 F2 D3 represents the signed decimal value −123: F1 F2 D3 1 2 −3 EBCDIC zoned decimal conversion table BCD DigitEBCDIC CharacterHexadecimal0+{ (*) \ (*)C0A0E01+A~ (*) C1A1E12+BsSC2A2E23+CtTC3A3E34+DuUC4A4E45+EvVC5A5E56+FwWC6A6E67+GxXC7A7E78+HyYC8A8E89+IzZC9A9E90−} (*)^ (*) D0B0 1−J D1B1 2−K D2B2 3−L D3B3 4−M D4B4 5−N D5B5 6−O D6B6 7−P D7B7 8−Q D8B8 9−R D9B9 (*) Note: These characters vary depending on the local character code page. Fixed-point zoned decimal Some languages (such as COBOL and PL/I) directly support fixed-point zoned decimal values, assigning an implicit decimal point at some location between the decimal digits of a number. For example, given a six-byte signed zoned decimal value with an implied decimal point to the right of the fourth digit, the hex bytes F1 F2 F7 F9 F5 C0 represent the value +1,279.50: F1 F2 F7 F9 F5 C0 1 2 7 9. 5 +0 IBM and BCD IBM used the terms binary-coded decimal and BCD for 6-bit alphameric codes that represented numbers, upper-case letters and special characters. Some variation of BCD alphamerics was used in most early IBM computers, including the IBM 1620, IBM 1400 series, and non-Decimal Architecture members of the IBM 700/7000 series. Bit positions in BCD alphamerics were usually labelled B, A, 8, 4, 2 and 1. For encoding digits, B and A were zero. The letter A was encoded (B,A,1). In the IBM 1620, BCD alphamerics were encoded using digit pairs, with the "zone" in the even digit and the "digit" in the odd digit. Input/Output translation hardware converted between the internal digit pairs and the external standard 6-bit BCD codes. In the Decimal Architecture IBM 7070, IBM 7072, and IBM 7074 alphamerics were encoded using digit pairs (using two-out-of-five code in the digits, not BCD) of the 10-digit word, with the "zone" in the left digit and the "digit" in the right digit. Input/Output translation hardware converted between the internal digit pairs and the external standard six-bit BCD codes. With the introduction of System/360, IBM expanded 6-bit BCD alphamerics to 8-bit EBCDIC, allowing the addition of many more characters (e.g., lowercase letters). A variable length Packed BCD numeric data type was also implemented. Today, BCD data is still heavily used in IBM processors and databases, such as IBM DB2, mainframes, and Power6. In these products, the BCD is usually zoned BCD (as in EBCDIC or ASCII), Packed BCD, or 'pure' BCD encoding. All of these are used within hardware registers and processing units, and in software. Addition with BCD It is possible to perform addition in BCD by first adding in binary, and then converting to BCD afterwards. Conversion of the simple sum of two digits can be done by adding 6 (that is, 16 – 10) when the result has a value greater than 9. For example: 1001 + 1000 = 10001 = 0001 0001 9 + 8 = 17 = 1 1 In BCD, there cannot exist a value greater than 9 (1001) per nibble. To correct this, 6 (0110) is added to that sum to get the correct first two digits: 0001 0001 + 0000 0110 = 0001 0111 1 1 + 0 6 = 1 7 which gives two nibbles, 0001 and 0111, which correspond to the digits "1" and "7". This yields "17" in BCD, which is the correct result. This technique can be extended to adding multiple digits, by adding in groups from right to left, propagating the second digit as a carry, always comparing the 5-bit result of each digit-pair sum to 9. Subtraction with BCD Subtraction is done by adding the ten's complement of the subtrahend. To represent the sign of a number in BCD, the number 0000 is used to represent a positive number, and 1001 is used to represent a negative number. The remaining 14 combinations are invalid signs. To illustrate signed BCD subtraction, consider the following problem: 357 - 432. In signed BCD, 357 is 0000 0011 0101 0111. The ten's complement of 432 can be obtained by taking the nine's complement of 432, and then adding one. So, 999 - 432 = 567, and 567 + 1 = 568. By preceding 568 in BCD by the negative sign code, the number -432 can be represented. So, -432 in signed BCD is 1001 0101 0110 1000. Now that both numbers are represented in signed BCD, they can be added together: 0000 0011 0101 0111 + 1001 0101 0110 1000 = 1001 1000 1011 1111 0 3 5 7 + 9 5 6 8 = 9 8 11 15 Since BCD is a form of decimal representation, several digits sums above are invalid. In the event that an invalid entry (any BCD digit greater than 1001) exists, simply add 6 to generate a carry bit and cause the sum to become a valid entry. The reason for adding 6 is because there are 16 possible 4-bit BCD values (since 24 = 16), but only 10 values are valid (0000 through 1001). So, adding 6 to the invalid entries results in the following: 1001 1000 1011 1111 + 0000 0000 0110 0110 = 1001 1001 0010 0101 9 8 11 15 0 0 6 6 9 9 2 5 So, the result of the subtraction is 1001 1001 0010 0101 (-925). To check the answer, note that the first bit is the sign bit, which is negative. This seems to be correct, since 357 - 432 should result in a negative number. To check the rest of the digits, represent them in decimal. 1001 0010 0101 is 925. The ten's complement of 925 is 1000 - 925 = 999 - 925 + 1 = 074 + 1 = 75, so the calculated answer is -75. To check, perform standard subtraction to verify that 357 - 432 is -75. Note that in the event that there are a different number of nibbles being added together (such as 1053 - 122), the number with the fewest number of digits must first be padded with zeros before taking the ten's complement or subtracting. So, with 1053 - 122, 122 would have to first be represented as 0122, and the ten's complement of 0122 would have to be calculated. Background The binary-coded decimal scheme described in this article is the most common encoding, but there are many others. The method here can be referred to as Simple Binary-Coded Decimal (SBCD) or BCD 8421. In the headers to the table, the '8 4 2 1', etc., indicates the weight of each bit shown; note that in the 5th column two of the weights are negative. Both ASCII and EBCDIC character codes for the digits are examples of zoned BCD, and are also shown in the table. The following table represents decimal digits from 0 to 9 in various BCD systems: DigitBCD8 4 2 1Excess-3or Stibitz CodeBCD 2 4 2 1or Aiken CodeBCD8 4 −2 −1IBM 702 IBM 705IBM 7080 IBM 14018 4 2 1ASCII0000 8421EBCDIC0000 84210 0000 0011 0000 0000 1010 0011 0000 1111 00001 0001 0100 0001 0111 0001 0011 0001 1111 00012 0010 0101 0010 0110 0010 0011 0010 1111 00103 0011 0110 0011 0101 0011 0011 0011 1111 00114 0100 0111 0100 0100 0100 0011 0100 1111 01005 0101 1000 1011 1011 0101 0011 0101 1111 01016 0110 1001 1100 1010 0110 0011 0110 1111 01107 0111 1010 1101 1001 0111 0011 0111 1111 01118 1000 1011 1110 1000 1000 0011 1000 1111 10009 1001 1100 1111 1111 1001 0011 1001 1111 1001 Legal history In 1972, the U.S. Supreme Court overturned a lower court decision which had allowed a patent for converting BCD encoded numbers to binary on a computer (see Gottschalk v Benson). This was an important case in determining the patentability of software and algorithms. Comparison with pure binary Advantages Many non-integral values, such as decimal 0.2, have an infinite place-value representation in binary (.001100110011...) but have a finite place-value in binary-coded decimal (0.0010). Consequently a system based on binary-coded decimal representations of decimal fractions avoids errors representing and calculating such values. Scaling by a factor of 10 (or a power of 10) is simple; this is useful when a decimal scaling factor is needed to represent a non-integer quantity (e.g., in financial calculations) Rounding at a decimal digit boundary is simpler. Addition and subtraction in decimal does not require rounding. Alignment of two decimal numbers (for example 1.3 + 27.08) is a simple, exact, shift. Conversion to a character form or for display (e.g., to a text-based format such as XML, or to drive signals for a seven-segment display) is a simple per-digit mapping, and can be done in linear (O(n)) time. Conversion from pure binary involves relatively complex logic that spans digits, and for large numbers no linear-time conversion algorithm is known (see Binary numeral system). Disadvantages Some operations are more complex to implement. Adders require extra logic to cause them to wrap and generate a carry early. 15–20% more circuitry is needed for BCD add compared to pure binary. Multiplication requires the use of algorithms that are somewhat more complex than shift-mask-add (a binary multiplication, requiring binary shifts and adds or the equivalent, per-digit or group of digits is required) Standard BCD requires four bits per digit, roughly 20% more space than a binary encoding. When packed so that three digits are encoded in ten bits, the storage overhead is reduced to about 0.34%, at the expense of an encoding that is unaligned with the 8-bit byte boundaries common on existing hardware, resulting in slower implementations on these systems. Practical existing implementations of BCD are typically slower than operations on binary representations, especially on embedded systems, due to limited processor support for native BCD operations. Application The BIOS in many personal computers keeps the date and time in BCD, probably for historical reasons: it avoids difficult conversions between binary and ASCII. The Atari 8-bit family of computers implemented its floating-point algorithms in BCD, which feature was facilitated by the availability of BCD addition and subtraction in the computer's 6502 microprocessor. Representational variations Various BCD implementations exist that employ other representations for numbers. Programmable calculators manufactured by Texas Instruments, Hewlett-Packard, and others typically employ a floating-point BCD format, typically with two or three digits for the (decimal) exponent. The extra bits of the sign digit may be used to indicate special numeric values, such as infinity, underflow/overflow, and error (a blinking display). Alternative encodings If errors in representation and computation are more important than the speed of conversion to and from display, a scaled binary representation may be used, which stores a decimal number as a binary-encoded integer and a binary-encoded signed decimal exponent. For example, 0.2 can be represented as 2. This representation allows rapid multiplication and division, but may require shifting by a power of 10 during addition and subtraction, to align the decimal points. It is appropriate for applications with a fixed number of decimal places that do not then require this adjustment— particularly financial applications where 2 or 4 digits after the decimal point are usually enough. Indeed this is almost a form of fixed point arithmetic since the position of the radix point is implied. Chen-Ho encoding provides a boolean transformation for converting groups of three BCD-encoded digits to and from 10-bit values that can be efficiently encoded in hardware with only 2 or 3 gate delays. Densely Packed Decimal is a similar scheme that deals more efficiently and conveniently with the case where the number of digits is not a multiple of 3; this is the decimal encoding used in the IEEE 754-2008 Standard. See also Gray code Densely packed decimal References Arithmetic Operations in Digital Computers, R. K. Richards, 397pp, D. Van Nostrand Co., NY, 1955 Schmid, Hermann, Decimal computation, ISBN 047176180X, 266pp, Wiley, 1974 Superoptimizer: A Look at the Smallest Program, Henry Massalin, ACM Sigplan Notices, Vol. 22 #10 (Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Architectural support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems), pp122-126, ACM, also IEEE Computer Society Press #87CH2440-6, October 1987 VLSI designs for redundant binary-coded decimal addition, Behrooz Shirazi, David Y. Y. Yun, and Chang N. Zhang, IEEE Seventh Annual International Phoenix Conference on Computers and Communications, 1988, pp52-56, IEEE, March 1988 Fundamentals of Digital Logic by Brown and Vranesic, 2003 Modified Carry Look Ahead BCD Adder With CMOS and Reversible Logic Implementation, Himanshu Thapliyal and Hamid R. Arabnia, Proceedings of the 2006 International Conference on Computer Design (CDES'06), ISBN 1-60132-009-4, pp64-69, CSREA Press, November 2006 Reversible Implementation of Densely-Packed-Decimal Converter to and from Binary-Coded-Decimal Format Using in IEEE-754R, A. Kaivani, A. Zaker Alhosseini, S. Gorgin, and M. Fazlali, 9th International Conference on Information Technology (ICIT'06), pp273-276, IEEE, December 2006. See also the Decimal Arithmetic Bibliography External links IBM: Chen-Ho encoding IBM: Densely Packed Decimal. | Binary-coded_decimal |@lemmatized compute:1 electronic:2 system:14 binary:33 cod:9 decimal:75 bcd:74 sometimes:2 call:3 natural:1 nbcd:1 encode:25 number:33 digit:67 represent:24 sequence:1 main:1 virtue:1 allow:5 easy:1 conversion:11 printing:1 display:12 faster:1 calculation:3 drawback:1 increased:1 complexity:1 circuit:3 need:6 implement:4 mathematical:1 operation:9 relatively:3 inefficient:1 occupy:1 space:3 pure:6 representation:12 usually:7 four:11 bit:34 general:1 value:30 character:12 combination:2 use:32 sign:19 indication:1 although:1 widely:2 fix:7 point:19 float:3 still:3 important:3 continue:1 financial:3 commercial:1 industrial:1 computing:1 modern:1 base:4 exponent:3 encoding:13 current:1 hardware:8 implementation:9 however:2 convert:8 compressed:1 internally:2 carry:5 computation:3 software:3 depend:2 basic:1 common:6 store:11 nibble:14 thus:3 would:4 since:7 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2,757 | Apollo_17 | Apollo 17 was the eleventh manned space mission in the NASA Apollo program. It was the first night launch of a U.S. human spaceflight and the sixth and final lunar landing mission of the Apollo program. The mission was launched at 12:33 a.m. EST on December 7, 1972, and concluded on December 19. It remains both the most recent manned moon landing and manned flight beyond low Earth orbit. Crew Number in brackets indicates number of spaceflights by each individual prior to and including this mission. Eugene A. Cernan (3) - Commander Ronald E. Evans (1) - Command Module Pilot Harrison H. Schmitt (1) - Lunar Module Pilot Joe Engle was originally selected as the LMP, but once it became clear that Apollo 17 would be the last lunar flight, the scientific community pressed NASA to select a scientist-astronaut to land on the Moon. This led to Schmitt, a trained geologist, being removed from the crew of the now cancelled Apollo 18 and replacing Engle on 17. Backup crew John Young - Commander Stuart Roosa - Command Module Pilot Charles Duke - Lunar Module Pilot The original backup crew for this mission was the Apollo 15 prime crew: David Scott - Commander Alfred Worden - Command Module Pilot James Irwin - Lunar Module Pilot The Apollo 15 prime crew received the backup assignment since this was to be the last lunar mission and the backup crew would not rotate to another mission. However, when the Apollo 15 postage stamp incident became public in early 1972 the crew was reprimanded by NASA and the Air Force (they were active duty officers). Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton removed them from flight status and replaced them with Young and Duke from the Apollo 16 prime crew and Roosa from the Apollo 14 prime and Apollo 16 backup crews. Donald K. Slayton, "Deke!" (New York: Forge, 1994), 279 Support Crew Robert F. Overmyer Robert A. Parker C. Gordon Fullerton Mission parameters Mass: Launch mass: Total spacecraft: CSM mass: , of which CM was , SM LM mass: transposition and docking stage , separation for lunar landing , ascent stage at liftoff Earth orbits: 2 before leaving for Moon, approximately one on return Lunar orbits: 75 Perigee: Apogee: Inclination: 28.526° Period: 87.83 min Perilune: Apolune: Inclination: 159.9° Period: ~120 min Landing Site: 20.19080° N - 30.77168° E or 20° 11' 26.88" N - 30.1° 46' 18.05" E Docking Undocked: December 11, 1972 - 17:20:56 UTC Docked: December 15, 1972 - 01:10:15 UTC EVAs Launch of Apollo 17 at 12:33 a.m., December 7, 1972. This was the first night launch of a Saturn V rocket. Cernan and Schmitt - EVA 1 EVA 1 Start: December 11, 1972, 23:54:49 UTC EVA 1 End: December 12 07:06:42 UTC Duration: 7 hours, 11 minutes, 53 seconds Cernan and Schmitt - EVA 2 EVA 2 Start: December 12, 1972, 23:28:06 UTC EVA 2 End: December 13 07:05:02 UTC Duration: 7 hours, 36 minutes, 56 seconds Cernan and Schmitt - EVA 3 EVA 3 Start: December 13, 1972, 22:25:48 UTC EVA 3 End: December 14 05:40:56 UTC Duration: 7 hours, 15 minutes, 08 seconds Evans (Schmitt - Stand up) - Transearth EVA 4 EVA 4 Start: December 17, 1972, 20:27:40 UTC EVA 4 End: December 17 21:33:24 UTC Duration: 1 hour, 05 minutes, 44 seconds The splashdown point was 17° 52′ S, 166° 7′ W, SE of the Samoan Islands and from the recovery ship USS Ticonderoga. Apollo 17 landed approximately 640 meters from its target point. Mission highlights Schmitt took this picture of Cernan flanked by an American flag and their lunar rover's umbrella-shaped high-gain antenna near the beginning of their third and final excursion across the lunar surface. The prominent Sculptured Hills lie in the background while Schmitt's reflection can just be made out in Cernan's helmet. Schmitt stands next to a large boulder during EVA 3 Command Module pilot Ron Evans performs a trans-earth EVA to retrieve film from the Apollo 17 SIM Bay camera. (NASA) Apollo 17 recovery operations. (NASA) Depiction of the plaque left on the moon by Apollo 17 Apollo 17 photo taken by Harrison Schmitt or Ron Evans Portfolio from Apollo - TIME of the Earth as the spacecraft headed for the moon (now known as "The Blue Marble photo") One of the last two men to set foot on the Moon was also the first scientist-astronaut, geologist Harrison ("Jack") Schmitt. While Evans circled in America, Schmitt and Cernan collected a record of rocks during three Moonwalks. The crew roamed for through the Taurus-Littrow valley in their rover, discovered orange-colored soil, and left the most comprehensive set of instruments in the ALSEP on the lunar surface. Their mission was the last in the Apollo lunar landing missions. The last 4 Apollo crafts were used for the three Skylab missions and the ASTP, mission in 1975. Introduction The landing site for this mission was on the southeastern rim of the Mare Serenitatis, in the southwestern Montes Taurus. This was a dark mantle between three high, steep massifs, in an area known as the Taurus-Littrow region. Pre-mission photographs showed boulders deposited along the bases of the mountains, which could provide bedrock samples. The area also contained a landslide, several impact craters, and some dark craters which could be volcanic. A J-class mission, featuring the Lunar Rover, they conducted three lunar surface excursions, lasting 7.2, 7.6 and 7.3 hours. The mission returned of samples from the Moon. On this mission the astronauts took a famous photograph of the earth known as "The Blue Marble", which shows almost the entire continent of Africa and the continent of Antarctica. The other lunar landing missions that photographed the earth shortly after lunar orbit insertion showed the western hemisphere. Mission notes Harrison Schmitt posed with the American flag and Earth in the background during Apollo 17's first EVA. Eugene Cernan is visible reflected in Schmitt's helmet visor. Schmitt, a geologist, was the first (and to date, only) scientist to walk on the Moon. Like the astronauts of Apollo 10, 12, 13, and 14 before them, the Apollo 17 crew were recovered in Pacific waters near American Samoa after splashdown, and were flown from the recovery ship to the airport at Tafuna where they were greeted with an enthusiastic (and well practiced) Samoan reception before being flown on to Honolulu, thence to Houston. The plaque left on the ladder of the descent stage of Challenger read: Here Man completed his first explorations of the moon. December 1972 AD. May the spirit of peace in which we came be reflected in the lives of all mankind. The plaque showed two hemispheres of Earth and the near side of the Moon, plus the signatures of Cernan, Evans, Schmitt, and President Nixon. Commander Eugene Cernan took a Czechoslovak flag with him to the Moon because his ancestors came from Czechoslovakia. Later he gave it to the Institute of astronomy in Ondrejov (Czech Republic). Schmitt was originally due to fly on the cancelled Apollo 18 but following pressure from the science community was moved up to LM pilot on Apollo 17 in place of Joe Engle. Apollo 17 broke several records set by previous flights, including longest manned lunar landing flight; longest total lunar surface extravehicular activities; largest lunar sample return, and longest time in lunar orbit. Apollo 17 was the last manned NASA mission to land on the moon. The next crewed NASA mission to land on the Moon is very tentatively scheduled to occur in 2019 with the Orion 15 mission. Quotes "Ah! You see one Earth, you've seen them all." – Jack Schmitt, Lunar Module Pilot. "As I take man's last step from the surface, back home for some time to come — but we believe not too long into the future — I'd like to just [say] what I believe history will record — that America's challenge of today has forged man's destiny of tomorrow. And, as we leave the Moon at Taurus-Littrow, we leave as we came and, God willing, as we shall return, with peace and hope for all mankind. Godspeed the crew of Apollo 17." – Eugene A. Cernan, Apollo 17 Commander. Last man to walk on the moon, December 14, 1972. Mission insignia The circular patch is one of the most detailed of the Apollo series. The official NASA press release said: "The insignia is dominated by the image of Apollo, the Greek sun god. Suspended in space behind the head of Apollo is an American eagle of contemporary design, the red bars of the eagle's wing represent the bars in the U.S. flag; the three white stars symbolize the three astronaut crewmen. The background is deep blue space and within it are the Moon, the planet Saturn and a spiral galaxy or nebula. The Moon is partially overlaid by the eagle's wing suggesting that this is a celestial body that man has visited and in that sense conquered. The thrust of the eagle and the gaze of Apollo to the right and toward Saturn and the galaxy is meant to imply that man's goals in space will someday include the planets and perhaps the stars. The colors of the emblem are red, white and blue, the colors of the U.S. flag; with the addition of gold, to symbolize the golden age of space flight that will begin with this Apollo 17 lunar landing. The Apollo image used in this emblem was the Apollo of Belvedere sculpture now in the Vatican Gallery in Rome. This emblem was designed by artist Robert T. McCall in collaboration with the astronauts." The insignia is surrounded by a light gray band with names of the crew and the words APOLLO XVII. Spacecraft locations The Command Module America is currently on display at Space Center Houston in Houston, Texas. The Lunar Module Challenger impacted the Moon December 15, 1972 at 06:50:20.8 UT (1:50 AM EST) 19.96 N, 30.50 E. Media Depiction in fiction Portions of the Apollo 17 mission are dramatized in the miniseries From the Earth to the Moon episode entitled "Le Voyage dans la Lune". The novel Tyrannosaur Canyon by Douglas Preston opens with a depiction of the Apollo 17 moonwalks using quotes taken from the official mission transcript. Additionally, there have been fictional astronauts in film, literature and television who have been described as "the last man to walk on the moon," implying they were crew members on Apollo 17. One such character was Steve Austin in the television series The Six Million Dollar Man. In the 1972 novel Cyborg, upon which the series was based, Austin remembers watching the Earth "fall away during Apollo XVII." Caidin, Martin: Cyborg, page 15. Warner Paperback Library, 1972. In an episode of the series, Austin clearly states that he flew on "Apollo 17". Another example is the character of Captain Tanner played by Robert Duvall in the science fiction film Deep Impact. The mission patch for Apollo 17 was used for the mission patch for the NASA space ship Charybdis in an episode of "Star Trek: The Next Generation" entitled "The Royale". In WALL-E, the main characters flying away from Earth pass the Moon and the landing site of Apollo 17 (or perhaps one of the other "J" missions: Apollo 15 and 16). Behind the landing site one sees a large sign on the lunar surface exclaiming the future site of a shopping mall. See also Extra-vehicular activity Google Moon List of artificial objects on the Moon List of spacewalks Splashdown References NASA NSSDC Master Catalog Apollo 17 Info by NASA Apollo by the numbers: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA) Development of Manned Space Flight, American and Soviet NASA SP-4209 The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology Apollo Program Summary Report Apollo 17 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA historical data book Apollo 17 entry at Apollo Lunar Surface Journal - Provides an extensive insight of the mission, along with full transcripts and detailed interviews with the crewmembers. Lattimer, Dick (1985). 'All We Did was Fly to the Moon. Whispering Eagle Press. ISBN 0-9611228-0-3. External links Apollo 17 - entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica Apollo 17 - Final Reflections on Apollo Video as the crew wraps up the final Apollo mission Apollo 17 - Science Experiments Apollo 17 - Voice Transcript Pertaining to the Geology of the Landing Site Apollo landing Locations at Google Moon Apollo Lunar Surface VR Panoramas QTVR panoramas Apollo simulation for Orbiter spaceflight sim September 1973 National Geographic Magazine article Transcript of lifting off from the Moon Apollo 17 television transmissions ApolloTV.net Video | Apollo_17 |@lemmatized apollo:62 eleventh:1 man:12 space:8 mission:31 nasa:14 program:3 first:6 night:2 launch:5 u:3 human:1 spaceflight:3 sixth:1 final:4 lunar:26 land:9 est:2 december:16 conclude:1 remain:1 recent:1 moon:26 landing:8 flight:8 beyond:1 low:1 earth:12 orbit:5 crew:18 number:3 bracket:1 indicate:1 individual:1 prior:1 include:3 eugene:4 cernan:11 commander:5 ronald:1 e:5 evans:6 command:5 module:10 pilot:9 harrison:4 h:1 schmitt:18 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2,758 | Menachem_Begin | (, , , 16 August 1913 – 9 March 1992) became the sixth prime minister of the State of Israel. Before the independence, he was the leader of the Irgun, a revisionist breakaway from the larger mainstream Jewish paramilitary organization Haganah. He proclaimed a revolt, on February 1, 1944, against the British mandatory government, which was opposed by the Jewish Agency. He played a significant role in Jewish resistance against the British control in the waning years of the mandate, leading the more militant Zionists. Begin was elected to the first Knesset, as head of Herut, the party he founded, and was at first on the political fringe, embodying the opposition to the Mapai-led government and Israeli establishment. He remained in opposition in the eight consecutive elections (except for a national unity government around the Six-Day War), but became more acceptable to the political center. His 1977 electoral victory and premiership ended three decades of Labour Party political dominance. Begin’s most significant achievement as prime minister was signing a peace treaty with Egypt in 1979, for which he and Anwar Sadat shared the Nobel Prize for Peace. In the wake of the Camp David Accords, the Israel Defense Forces withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula and returned the Egyptian territories captured in the Six-Day War. Later, Begin’s government promoted the construction of Israeli settlements in the Israeli-occupied territories. Begin authorized the bombing of the Osirak nuclear plant in Iraq and the invasion of Lebanon in 1982 to fight PLO strongholds there, igniting the 1982 Lebanon War. As Israeli military involvement in Lebanon deepened, and the Sabra and Shatila massacre carried out by the Christian militia shocked world public opinion, Gwertzman, Bernard. Christian Militiamen Accused of a Massacre in Beirut Camps; U.S. Says the Toll is at Least 300. The New York Times. 19 September 1982. Begin grew increasingly isolated. Thompson, Ian. Primo Levi: A Life. 2004, page 436. As IDF forces remained mired in Lebanon and the economy suffered from hyperinflation, the public pressure on Begin mounted. Depressed by the death of his wife Aliza in November 1982, he gradually withdrew from public life, until his resignation in October 1983. Biography Menachem Begin was born to Zeev Dov and Hassia Begun in Brest-Litovsk, (Brisk), a town then part of the Russian Empire which was known for its Talmudic scholars. He was the youngest of three children. http://www.ibiblio.org/sullivan/bios/MenachemBegin-Bio.html On his mother's side he was descended from distinguished rabbis. His father, a timber merchant, was a community leader, a passionate Zionist, and an admirer of Theodor Herzl. The midwife who attended his birth was the grandmother of Ariel Sharon. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C07E0DC1F39F93AA25752C1A962948260 After a year of a traditional cheder education Begin started studying at a "Tachkemoni" school, associated with the religious Zionist movement. At 12, he joined the Zionist Socialist youth movement Hashomer Hatzair, but soon switched to Betar. At 14, he was sent to a Polish government school, where he studied he received a solid grounding in classical literature, and gained a lifelong love of classical works, which he was able to read in Latin Bernard Reich, Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa, Greenwood Press, Westport, 1990 p.71 . Begin began studying law at the University of Warsaw where he learned the oratory and rhetoric skills that became his trademark as a politician, and viewed as Demagogy by his critics Anita Shapira Begin on the Couch, Haaretz Books, in Hebrew . He graduated in 1935, but never practiced law. In these same years he became a key disciple of Vladimir "Ze'ev" Jabotinsky, the founder of the militant, nationalist Revisionist Zionism movement and its Betar youth wing. His rise within Betar was rapid: in the same year he graduated, at age 22, he shared the dais with his mentor during Betar's World Congress in Krakow. In 1937 he was the active head of Betar in Czechoslovakia and Poland, leaving just prior to the 1939 invasion. Exile to the Soviet Camp In September 1939, after Nazi Germany invaded Poland, Begin escaped to Vilnius, then located in eastern Poland. The town was shortly to be occupied by the Soviet Union, but from 28 October 1939, it was the capital of the Republic of Lithuania. Vilnius was a largely Jewish town; an estimated 40 percent of the population was Jewish, and the YIVO institute was located there. On 15 June 1940 the Soviet Union invaded Lithuania, ushering in mass persecution of Poles and Jews. An estimated 120,000 people were arrested by the NKVD and deported to Siberia. Thousands were executed with or without trial. NKVD mug shot of Menachem Begin, 1940 On 20 September 1940 Begin was arrested by the NKVD and detained in the Lukiškės Prison. He was accused of being an "agent of British imperialism" and sentenced to eight years in the Soviet gulag camps. On 1 June 1941 he was sent to the Pechora labor camps in the northern part of European Russia, where he stayed until May 1942. Much later in life, Begin would record and reflect upon his experiences in the interrogations and life in the camp in his memoir "White Nights". In June 1941, just after Germany attacked the Soviet Union, and following his release under the Sikorski-Mayski Agreement, Begin joined the Polish Army of Anders. He was later sent with the army to Palestine via the Persian Corridor. Upon arrival in August 1942, he received a proposal to take over a position in the Irgun, as Betar's Commissioner. He declined the invitation because he felt himself honour-bound to abide by his oath as a soldier and not to desert the Polish army, where he worked as an English translator. Begin was subsequently released from the Polish Army after the Irgun intervened unofficially on his behalf with senior Polish army officers. He then joined the Jewish national movement in the British Mandate of Palestine. Begin's father was among the 5,000 Brest Jews rounded up by the Nazis at the end of June 1941. Instead of being sent to a forced labor camp, they were shot or drowned in the river. His mother and older brother Herzl also died in the Holocaust. http://www.betar.co.uk/betaris/begin.php Begin was married to Aliza Arnold. They had three children: Binyamin, Leah and Hassia. Jewish underground Begin quickly made a name for himself, both as a fierce critic of dominant Zionist leadership for being too cooperative with British ‘colonialism’, and as a proponent of guerrilla tactics against the British, which he saw as a necessary means to achieve independence. In 1942 he joined the Irgun (Etzel), an underground Zionist group which had split from the main Jewish military organization, the Haganah, in 1931. http://www.bicom.org.uk/background/biographies/former-israeli-prime-ministers/menachem-begin In 1944 Begin assumed the organization's leadership, determined to force the British government to remove its troops entirely from Palestine. Citing that the British had reneged on their original promise of the Balfour Declaration, and that the White Paper of 1939 restricting Jewish immigration was an escalation of their pro-Arab policy, he decided to break with the Haganah. Soon after he assumed command, a formal 'Declaration of Revolt' was publicized, and armed attacks against British forces were initiated. Begin issued a call to arms and from 1944–48 the Irgun launched an all-out armed rebellion, perpetrating hundreds of attacks against British installations and posts. Begin financed these operations by extorting money from Zionist businessmen, and running bogus robbery scams in the local diamond industry, which enabled the victims to get back their losses from insurance companies. Yehuda Bauer, From Diplomacy to Resistance: A history of Jewish Palestine, Jewish Publication Society of America, Philadelphia, 1970 p.325. For several months in 1945–46, the Irgun’s activities were coordinated within the framework of the Hebrew Resistance Movement under the direction of the Haganah, but this fragile partnership collapsed following the Irgun’s bombing of the British administrative headquarters at the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, where 91 people, including British officers and troops as well as Arab and Jewish civilians, were killed. The attack was conducted as a response to the British actions on Black Sabbath, in which they arrested many Jews, and confiscated many important documents from the Jewish Agency. The attack on the King David Hotel was not meant to cause many deaths, as before the explosives went off, calls were placed by the Irgun to the King David Hotel. The issue of whether sufficient warning was given was subject to much controversy. Under Begin’s leadership, the Irgun continued to carry out operations such as breaking into Acre Prison, and the kidnapping and hanging of two British sergeants in response to the execution of several Irgun members by the British; this latter action caused the British to suspend any further executions of Irgun prisoners. Growing numbers of British forces were deployed to quell the Jewish uprising, yet Begin managed to elude captivity, at times disguised as a rabbi. MI5 placed a 'dead-or-alive' bounty of £10,000 on his head after Irgun threatened 'a campaign of terror against British officials', saying they would kill Sir John Shaw, Britain's Chief Secretary in Palestine. The Jewish Agency, headed by David Ben-Gurion, opposed the Irgun’s independent agenda, which it saw as a challenge to its authority as the representative body of the Jewish community in Palestine. Ben-Gurion openly denounced the Irgun as the “enemy of the Jewish People”, accusing it of sabotaging the political campaign for independence. In 1944, the Haganah actively pursued and handed over Irgun members to the British authorities in what became known as The Hunting Season; Begin’s instruction to his men to refrain from violent resistance prevented this from deteriorating into an armed intra-Jewish conflict. In November 1947, the UN adopted the Partition Plan for Palestine, and Britain announced its plans to fully withdraw from Palestine by May 1948. Begin, once again rejected the plan and remained in opposition to the mainstream Zionist leadership. In the years following the establishment of the State of Israel, the Irgun’s contribution to precipitating British withdrawal became a contested historic debate, as different factions vied for control over the emerging narrative of Israeli independence. Tom Segev, One Palestine, Complete: Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate, Henry Holt and Co. 2000, p. 490 Begin resented his being portrayed as a belligerent dissident. In his book ‘The Revolt’ (1951), Begin outlines the history of the Irgun’s fight against British rule. He quotes Colonel Archer-Cust, Assistant Chief Secretary of the British Government in Palestine, as having said in a lecture to the Royal Empire Society that 'The hanging of the two British Sergeants [an Irgun retaliation to British executions] did more than anything to get us out [of Palestine]' Altalena and the War of Independence Altalena on fire after being shelled near Tel-Aviv As the Israeli War of Independence broke, Irgun fighters joined forces with the Haganah and Lehi militia in fighting the Arab forces. Notable operations in which they took part were the battles of Jaffa and the Jordanian siege on the Jewish Quarter in the Old City of Jerusalem. One such operation was the Deir Yassin massacre of Palestinian villagers in April 1948. The day after the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel on 14 May 1948, Begin broadcast a speech on radio declaring that the Irgun was finally moving out of its underground status Begin's Speech on Saturday May 15th 1948 (Hebrew) . On June 1 Begin signed an agreement with the provisional government headed by David Ben Gurion, where the Irgun agreed to formally disband and to integrate its force with the newly formed Israel Defense Forces (IDF). However, tensions with the IDF persisted, culminating in the confrontation over the Altalena cargo ship, which secretly delivered weapons to the Irgun in June 1948. The government demanded that all the weapons be handed over to it unconditionally, in accordance with the agreement regarding the integration of the Irgun into the IDF. However Begin refused to comply. Rather than negotiating, Ben-Gurion was determined to exercise the state’s authority over military affairs. A violent confrontation between the IDF and members of the Irgun occurred and Ben Gurion eventually ordered the IDF to take the ship by gunfire, and it burnt off the shore of Tel Aviv. Begin was on board as the ship was being shelled. In a speech later he ordered his men not to retaliate in an attempt to prevent the crisis from spiraling into a civil war. For years later Begin saw the Altalena Affair as a defining moment and viewed the government actions against the Irgun as a great injustice Begin Speech on the Affair at the Knesset, 1959 . Political career Herut opposition years In August 1948, Begin and members of the Irgun High Command emerged from the underground and formed the right-wing political party Herut ("Freedom") party. Menahem Begin (1913-1992) The move countered the weakening attraction for the earlier revisionist party, Hatzohar, founded by his late mentor Vladimir Jabotinsky. Revisionist 'purists' alleged nonetheless that Begin was out to steal Jabotinsky's mantle and ran against him with the old party. The Herut party can be seen as the forerunner of today's Likud. In November 1948, Begin visited the US on a campaigning trip. During his visit, a letter signed by Albert Einstein, Sidney Hook, Hannah Arendt, and other prominent Americans and several rabbis was published which described Begin's Herut party as closely akin in its organization, methods, methods, political philosophy and social appeal to the Nazi and Fascist parties and accused his group (along with the smaller, militant, Stern Gang) of having inaugurated a reign of terror in the Palestine Jewish community. "The Gun and the Olive Branch" p 472-473, David Hirst, quotes Lilienthal, Alfred M., The Zionist Connection, What Price Peace?, Dodd, Mead and Company, New York, 1978, pp.350-3 - Albert Einstein joined other distinguished citizens in chiding these `Americans of national repute' for honoring a man whose party was `closely akin in its organization, methods, political philosophy and social appeal to the Nazi and Fascist parties'. See text at Harvard.eduand image here. Verified 5th December 2007. Einstein had already publicly denounced the Revisionists in 1939; at the same time Rabbi Stephen Wise denounced the movement as, "Fascism in Yiddish or Hebrew." See Rosen, Robert N., Saving the Jews: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Holocaust, Thunder's Mouth Press, New York, 2006, p. 318. In the first elections in 1949, Herut, with 11.5 percent of the vote, won 14 seats, while Hatzohar failed to break the threshold and disbanded shortly thereafter. This provided Begin with legitimacy as the leader of the Revisionist stream of Zionism. Between 1948 and 1977, under Begin, Herut and the alliances it formed (Gahal in 1965 and Likud in 1973) formed the main opposition to the dominant Mapai and later the Alignment (the forerunners of today's Labour Party) in the Knesset; Herut adopted a radical nationalistic agenda committed to the irredentist idea of Greater Israel. During those years, Begin was systematically delegitimized by the ruling party, and was often personally derided by Ben-Gurion who refused to either speak to or refer to him by name. Ben-Gurion famously coined the phrase 'without Herut and Maki' (Maki was the communist party), referring to his refusal to consider them for coalition, effectively pushing both parties and their voters beyond the margins of political consensus. The personal animosity between Ben-Gurion and Begin, going back to the hostilities over the Altalena Affair, underpinned the political dichotomy between Mapai and Herut. Begin was a keen critic of Mapai, accusing it of coercive Bolshevism and deep-rooted institutional corruption. Drawing on his training as a lawyer in Poland, he preferred wearing a formal suit and tie and evincing the dry demeanor of a legislator to the socialist informality of Mapai, as a means of accentuating their differences. One of the fiercest confrontations between Begin and Ben-Gurion revolved around the Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany, signed in 1952. Begin vehemently opposed the agreement, claiming that it was tantamount to a pardon of Nazi crimes against the Jewish people http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1230111698016&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FPrinter, By George . While the agreement was debated in the Knesset in January 1952, he led a passionate demonstration in Jerusalem in which he attacked the government, calling for a violent overthrow of the elected government [See his Speech (Hebrew) http://lib.cet.ac.il/Pages/item.asp?item=7188] . Incited by his speech, the crowd marched towards the Knesset (then at the Frumin Building on King George Street), throwing stones and injuring dozens of policemen and several Knesset members. Many held Begin personally responsible for the violence, and he was consequently barred from the Knesset for several months. His behavior was strongly condemned in mainstream public discourse, reinforcing his image as a provocateur. In a 1952 a group of of former Irgun members attempted to assassinate by a bomb package Konrad Adenauer, Federal Chancellor of West Germany. In 2006 one of the perpetrators claimed that Begin was the initiator of the attempt, with the goal of preventing the agreement. Menachem Begin plotted assassination attempt to kill German chancellor, The Guardian, 15 June 2006 Sudite: I sent the bomb on Begin's order, in Hebrew There are also claims, published in 2006, that Begin was involved Laden with pathos and evocations of the Holocaust, Begin's impassioned rhetoric appealed to many, but was deemed inflammatory and demagoguery by others. Gahal and unity government In the following years, Begin failed to gain electoral momentum, and Herut remained far behind Labor with a total of 17 seats until 1961. In 1965, Herut and the Liberal Party united to form the Gahal party under Begin’s leadership, but failed again to win more seats in the election that year. In 1966, during Herut's party convention, he was challenged by the young Ehud Olmert, who called for his resignation. Begin announced that he would retire from party leadership, but soon reversed his decision when the crowd pleaded with him to stay. At the outbreak of the Six-Day War in June 1967, Gahal joined a national unity government under Prime Minister Levi Eshkol of the Alignment, resulting in Begin serving in the cabinet for the first time, as a Minister without Portfolio. The arrangement lasted until 1970, when Begin and Gahal left the government (by this time led by Golda Meir) due to disagreements over renewing a cease-fire with Egypt along the Suez Canal. Newsweek May 30, 1977, The Zealot, But he quit in 1970 when Prime Minister Golda Meir, under pressure from Washington, renewed a cease-fire with Egypt along the Suez Canal. Likud chairmanship In 1973, Begin agreed to a plan by Ariel Sharon to form a larger bloc of opposition parties, made up from Gahal, the Free Centre, and other smaller groups. They came through with a tenuous alliance called the Likud ("Consolidation"). In the elections held later that year, two months after the Yom Kippur War, the Likud won a considerable share of the votes, though with 39 seats still remained in opposition. Yet the aftermath of the Yom Kippur War saw ensuing public disenchantment with the Alignment. Voices of criticism about the government's misconduct of the war gave rise to growing public resentment. Personifying the antithesis to the Alignment's socialist ethos, Begin appealed to many Mizrahi Israelis, mostly first and second generation Jewish immigrants from Arab countries, who felt they were continuously being treated by the establishment as second-class citizens. His open embrace of Judaism stood in stark contrast to the Alignment's secularism, which alienated Mizrahi voters and drew many of them to support Begin, becoming his burgeoning political base. In the years 1974-1977 Yitzhak Rabin's government suffered from instability due to infighting within the labor party (Rabin and Shimon Peres) and the shift to the right by the National Religious Party, as well as numerous corruption scandals. All these weakened the labor camp and allowed Begin to finally capture the center stage of Israeli politics. Prime Minister of Israel 1977 electoral victory Menachem Begin in 1978 On 17 May 1977 the Likud, headed by Begin, won the Knesset elections by a landslide, becoming the biggest party in the Knesset. Popularly known as the Mahapakh ("upheaval"), the election results had seismic ramifications as for the first time in Israeli history a party other than the Alignment/Mapai was in a position to form a government, effectively ending the left's hitherto unrivalled domination over Israeli politics. Likud's electoral victory signified a fundamental restructuring of Israeli society in which the founding socialist Ashkenazi elite was being replaced by a coalition representing marginalized Mizrahi and Jewish-religious communities, promoting a socially conservative and economically liberal agenda. Begin and Moshe Dayan exit from an aircraft at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, United States The Likud campaign leading up to the election centered on Begin's personality. Demonized by the Alignment as totalitarian and extremist, his self-portrayal as a humble and pious leader struck a chord with many who felt abandoned by the ruling party's ideology. In the predominantly Jewish Mizrahi working class urban neighborhoods and peripheral towns, the Likud won overwhelming majorities, while disillusionment with the Alignment's corruption prompted many middle and upper class voters to support the newly founded centrist Democratic Movement for Change ("Dash") headed by Yigael Yadin. Dash won 15 seats out of 120, largely at the expense of the Alignment, which was led by Shimon Peres and had shrunk from 51 to 32 seats. Well aware of his momentous achievement and employing his trademark sense for drama, when speaking that night in the Likud headquarters Begin quoted from the Gettysburg Address and the Torah, referring to his victory as a 'turning point in the history of the Jewish people'. With 43 seats, the Likud still required the support of other parties in order to reach a parliamentary majority that would enable it to form a government under Israel's proportionate representation parliamentary system. Though able to form a narrow coalition with smaller Jewish religious and ultra-orthodox parties, Begin also sought support from centrist elements in the Knesset to provide his government with greater public legitimacy. He controversially offered the foreign affairs portfolio to Moshe Dayan, a former IDF Chief of Staff and Defense Minister, and a prominent Alignment politician identified with the old establishment. Begin was sworn in as Prime Minister of Israel on 20 June 1977. Dash eventually joined his government several months later, thus providing it with the broad support of almost two thirds of the Knesset. Camp David accords main articles: Camp David Accords (1978) and Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty In 1978 Begin, aided by Foreign Minister Moshe Dayan and Defense Minister Ezer Weizman, negotiated the Camp David Accords, and in 1979 signed the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty with Egyptian President, Anwar Sadat. Under the terms of the treaty, brokered by US President, Jimmy Carter, Israel was to hand over the Sinai Peninsula in its entirety to Egypt. The peace treaty with Egypt was a watershed moment in Middle Eastern history, as it was the first time an Arab state recognized Israel’s legitimacy whereas Israel effectively accepted the land for peace principle as blueprint for resolving the Arab-Israeli conflict. Given Egypt’s prominent position within the Arab World, especially as Israel’s biggest and most powerful enemy, the treaty had far reaching strategic and geopolitical implications. Almost overnight, Begin’s public image of an irresponsible nationalist radical was transformed into that of a statesman of historic proportions. This image was reinforced by international recognition which culminated with him being awarded, together with Sadat, the Nobel Peace Prize in 1978. Yet while establishing Begin as a leader with broad public appeal, the peace treaty with Egypt was met with fierce criticism within his own Likud party. His devout followers found it difficult to reconcile Begin’s history as a keen promoter of the Greater Israel agenda with his willingness to relinquish occupied territory. Agreeing to the removal of Israeli settlements from the Sinai was perceived by many as a clear departure from Likud’s Revisionist ideology. Several prominent Likud members, most notably Yitzhak Shamir, objected to the treaty and abstained when it was ratified with an overwhelming majority in the Knesset, achieved only thanks to support from the opposition. A small group of hardliners within Likud, associated with Gush Emunim Jewish settlement movement, eventually decided to split and form the Tehiya party in 1979. They led the Movement for Stopping the Withdrawal from Sinai, violently clashing with IDF soldiers during the forceful eviction of Yamit settlement in April 1982. Despite the traumatic scenes from Yamit, political support for the treaty did not diminish and the Sinai was handed over to Egypt in 1982. Prime Minister Menachem Begin engages Zbigniew Brzezinski in a game of chess at Camp David, 1978 Begin was far less resolute in implementing the section of the Camp David Accord, which defined a framework for establishing autonomous Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. He appointed Agriculture Minister Ariel Sharon to implement a large scale expansion of Jewish settlements in the Israeli-occupied territories, a policy intended to make future territorial concessions in these areas effectively impossible. Begin refocused Israeli settlement strategy from populating peripheral areas in accordance with the Allon Plan, to building Jewish settlements in areas of Biblical and historic significance. When the settlement of Elon Moreh was established on the outskirts of Nablus in 1979, following years of campaigning by Gush Emunim, Begin declared that there are "many more Elon Morehs to come". Indeed during his term as Prime Minister dozens of new settlements were built, and Jewish population in the West Bank and Gaza more than quadrupled. According to data published by the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics, and collated by Peace Now, the number of settlers in the West Bank grew from 5000 in the early seventies to more than 20000 in 1983 Bombing Iraqi nuclear reactor Begin took Saddam Hussein's anti-Zionist and anti-Semitic threats very seriously and therefore took aim at Iraq. Israel attempted to negotiate with France so as not to provide Iraq with the nuclear reactor named Osirak or Tammuz 1, but to no avail. On June 7, 1981, Begin ordered the bombing and destruction of Osirak by the Israeli Air Force in a successful long-range operation called Operation Opera. Soon after, Begin enunciated what came to be known as the Begin doctrine: "On no account shall we permit an enemy to develop weapons of mass destruction (WMD) against the people of Israel." Many foreign governments, including the United States, condemned the operation, and the United Nations Security Council passed a unanimous resolution 487 condemning it. The Israeli left-wing opposition criticized it also at the time, but mainly for its timing relative to elections only three weeks later. Lebanon invasion On 6 June 1982, Begin’s government authorized the Israel Defense Forces' invasion of Lebanon, in response to the attempted assassination of the Israeli ambassador to the United Kingdom, Shlomo Argov. Operation Peace for Galilee’s stated objective was to force the PLO out of rocket range of Israel's northern border. Begin was hoping for a short and limited Israeli involvement that would destroy the PLO’s political and military infrastructure in southern Lebanon, effectively reshaping the balance of Lebanese power in favor of the Christian Militias who were allied with Israel. Nevertheless, fighting soon escalated into war with Palestinian and Lebanese militias, as well as the Syrian military, and the IDF progressed as far as Beirut, well beyond the 40 km limit initially authorized by the government. Israeli forces were successful in driving the PLO out of Lebanon and forcing its leadership to relocate to Tunisia, but the war ultimately failed in achieving security to Israel’s northern border, as well as imposing stability in Lebanon. Israeli entanglement in Lebanon intensified throughout Begin’s term, leading to a partial unilateral withdrawal in 1985, and finally ending in 2000. Like Begin, the Israeli public was expecting quick and decisive victory. Yet as this failed to arrive, disillusionment with the war, and concomitantly with his government, was growing. Begin continuously referred to the invasion as an inevitable act of survival, often comparing Yasser Arafat to Hitler, but its image as a war of necessity was gradually eroding. Within a matter of weeks into the war it emerged that for the first time in Israeli history there was no consensus over the IDF’s activity. Public criticism reached its peak following the Sabra and Shatila Massacre in September 1982, when tens of thousands gathered to protest in Tel Aviv in what was one of the biggest public demonstrations in Israeli history. The Kahan Commission, appointed to investigate the events, found the government indirectly responsible for the massacre, accusing Defense Minister Ariel Sharon of gross negligence. The commission’s report, published in February 1983, severely damaged Begin’s government, forcing Sharon to resign. As the Israeli quagmire in Lebanon seemed to grow deeper, public pressure on Begin to resign increased. Begin’s disoriented appearance on national television while visiting the Beaufort battle site raised concerns that he was being misinformed about the war’s progress. Asking Sharon whether PLO fighters had ‘machine guns’, Begin seemed out of touch with the nature and scale of the military campaign he had authorized. Almost a decade later, Haaretz reporter Uzi Benziman published a series of articles accusing Sharon of intentionally deceiving Begin about the operation’s initial objectives, and continuously misleading him as the war progressed. Sharon sued both the newspaper and Benziman for libel in 1991. The trial lasted 11 years, with one of the highlights being the deposition of Begin's son, Benny, in favor of the defendants. Sharon lost the case. Breaking the silence of cowards Haaretz, 23 August 2002, Accessed 26 April 2007 Retirement from public life Begin himself retired from politics in August 1983 and handed over the reins of the office of Prime Minister to his old friend-in-arms Yitzhak Shamir, who had been the leader of the Lehi resistance to the British. Begin had become deeply disappointed by the war in Lebanon because he had hoped to establish peace with Bashir Gemayel, who was assassinated. Instead, there were mounting Israeli casualties. The death of his wife Aliza in Israel while he was away on an official visit to Washington DC, added to his own mounting depression. After his wife's death, Begin would rarely leave his apartment, and then usually to visit her grave-site to say the traditional Kaddish prayer for the departed. His seclusion was watched over by his children and his lifetime personal secretary Yechiel Kadishai, who monitored all official requests for meetings. Death Begin died in Tel Aviv in 1992, followed by a simple ceremony and burial on the Mount of Olives. He asked to be buried there instead of Mount Herzl, where most Israeli leaders are laid to rest, because he wanted to be buried beside Meir Feinstein of Irgun and Moshe Barazani of Lehi, who committed suicide in jail while awaiting execution by the British. http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/846330.html Legacy In a 2005 poll, Begin was cited as the leader that Israelis missed the most, ahead of David Ben-Gurion and Yitzhak Rabin. Menachem Begin was a man of contradictions, BOOKS OF THE TIMES - New York Times who congratulated the first Jewish settler group in 1975 when it founded Elon Moreh, but also agreed to give up Sinai for peace with Egypt. Commemoration The Menachem Begin Heritage Center in Jerusalem is named after him, as is Begin Boulevard, a major Jerusalem thoroughfare. As a fictional character Begin appears in the early editions (but not the later ones) of Tintin au Pays de l'Or Noir, a graphic novel by Belgian artist and writer Hergé. Although Begin is not named, there can be no doubt that the leader of the Irgun, living in the guise of an Orthodox rabbi, is none other than Menachem Begin. Thompson, Harry, Tintin - ISBN 034052393X In the graphic novel, he mounts a daring rescue operation for one of his followers, a young Jewish man named Goldstein, apparently captured by the British. Actually, the young man is Tintin, Goldstein's doppelganger. In later editions of Tintin in the Land of Black Gold, Hergé eliminated all references to the Israelis and the British. (Compare the first and subsequent editions of Tintin au Pays de l'Or Noir. See also Thompson, Harry (1991) Tintin - Hergé & His Creation - ISBN 0-340-52393-X). Begin has been mentioned in rock band Pink Floyd's album The Final Cut. Begin appears briefly in the Harry Turtledove Worldwar series. Quotes "Free women and men everywhere must wage an incessant campaign so that these human values become a generally recognized and practised reality. We must regretfully admit that in various parts of the world this is not yet the case. Without those values and human rights the real peace of which we dream is jeopardized." (Nobel Prize Lecture, 10 December 1978) Nobel Lecture Nobelprize.org "The hour of decision has arrived. You know what I have done, and what all of us have done, to prevent war and bereavement. But our fate is that in the Land of Israel there is no escape from fighting in the spirit of self-sacrifice. Believe me, the alternative to fighting is Treblinka, and we have resolved that there would be no Treblinkas. This is the moment in which courageous choice has to be made. The criminal terrorists and the world must know that the Jewish people have a right to self-defense, just like any other people." Iron Wall, p. 404-405 (Knesset address prior to invasion of Lebanon, 5 June 1982) Published work The Revolt (ISBN 0-8402-1370-0) White Nights: The story of a prisoner in Russia (ISBN 0-06-010289-6) Further reading Ilan Peleg, Begin’s foreign policy, 1977-1983 : Israel’s move to the right, Greenwood Press, 1987 Eric Silver, Begin: The Haunted Prophet, Random House, 1984 Sasson Sofer, Begin: an anatomy of leadership, Basil Blackwell, 1988 Avi Shilon, Begin ,1913-1992 , 2007 References External links Official sites The Menachen Begin Center PM Sharon's Address at the Opening Ceremony for the Begin Heritage Centre Building 06/16/2004 Menachem Begin - The Sixth Prime Minister Official Site of the Prime Minister's Office Menachem Begin's biography Knesset website Miscellaneous links The Camp David Accords The Bombing of the King David Hotel Photo of Begin in Ultra-Orthodox garb while evading the British Irgun Web Page 1948 Letter of some Eminent Jews to New York Times Menachem Begin Obituary 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2,759 | Electronic_data_interchange | Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) refers to the structured transmission of data between organizations by electronic means. It is used to transfer electronic documents from one computer system to another (ie) from one trading partner to another trading partner. It is more than mere E-mail; for instance, organizations might replace bills of lading and even checks with appropriate EDI messages. It also refers specifically to a family of standards, including the X12 series. However, EDI also exhibits its pre-Internet roots, and the standards tend to focus on ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)-formatted single messages rather than the whole sequence of conditions and exchanges that make up an inter-organization business process. In 1992, a survey of Canadian businesses found at least 140 that had adopted some form of EDI, but that many (in the sample) "[had] not benefited from implementing EDI, and that they [had] in fact been disadvantaged by it." The National Institute of Standards and Technology in a 1996 publication defines Electronic Data Interchange as "the computer-to-computer interchange of strictly formatted messages that represent documents other than monetary instruments. EDI implies a sequence of messages between two parties, either of whom may serve as originator or recipient. The formatted data representing the documents may be transmitted from originator to recipient via telecommunications or physically transported on electronic storage media.". It goes on further to say that "In EDI, the usual processing of received messages is by computer only. Human intervention in the processing of a received message is typically intended only for error conditions, for quality review, and for special situations. For example, the transmission of binary or textual data is not EDI as defined here unless the data are treated as one or more data elements of an EDI message and are not normally intended for human interpretation as part of online data processing." EDI can be formally defined as 'The transfer of structured data, by agreed message standards, from one computer system to another without human intervention'. Most other definitions used are variations on this theme. Even in this era of technologies such as XML web services, the Internet and the World Wide Web, EDI is still the data format used by the vast majority of electronic commerce transactions in the world. Standards Generally speaking, EDI is considered to be a technical representation of a business conversation between two entities, either internal or external. Note, there is a perception that "EDI" constitutes the entire electronic data interchange paradigm, including the transmission, message flow, document format, and software used to interpret the documents. EDI is considered to describe the rigorously standardized format of electronic documents. The EDI standards were designed to be independent of communication and software technologies. EDI can be transmitted using any methodology agreed to by the sender and recipient. This includes a variety of technologies, including modem (asynchronous, and bisynchronous), FTP, Email, HTTP, AS1, AS2, etc. It is important to differentiate between the EDI documents and the methods for transmitting them. When they compared the bisynchronous protocol 2400 bit/s modems, CLEO devices, and value-added networks used to transmit EDI documents to transmitting via the Internet, some people equated the non-Internet technologies with EDI and predicted erroneously that EDI itself would be replaced along with the non-Internet technologies. These non-internet transmission methods are being replaced by Internet Protocols such as FTP, telnet, and E-mail, but the EDI documents themselves still remain. As more trading partners use the Internet for transmission, standards have emerged. In 2002, the IETF published RFC 3335, offering a standardized, secure method of transferring EDI data via e-mail. On July 12, 2005, an IETF working group ratified RFC4130 for MIME-based HTTP EDIINT (aka. AS2) transfers, and is preparing similar documents for FTP transfers (aka. AS3). While some EDI transmission has moved to these newer protocols the providers of the value-added networks remain active. EDI documents generally contain the same information that would normally be found in a paper document used for the same organizational function. For example an EDI 940 ship-from-warehouse order is used by a manufacturer to tell a warehouse to ship product to a retailer. It typically has a ship to address, bill to address, a list of product numbers (usually a UPC code) and quantities. It may have other information if the parties agree to include it. However, EDI is not confined to just business data related to trade but encompasses all fields such as medicine (e.g., patient records and laboratory results), transport (e.g., container and modal information), engineering and construction, etc. In some cases, EDI will be used to create a new business information flow (that was not a paper flow before). This is the case in the Advanced Shipment Notification (856) which was designed to inform the receiver of a shipment, the goods to be received and how the goods are packaged. There are four major sets of EDI standards: The UN-recommended UN/EDIFACT is the only international standard and is predominant outside of North America. The US standard ANSI ASC X12 (X12) is predominant in North America. The TRADACOMS standard developed by the ANA (Article Numbering Association) is predominant in the UK retail industry. The ODETTE standard used within the European automotive industry All of these standards first appeared in the early to mid 1980s. The standards prescribe the formats, character sets, and data elements used in the exchange of business documents and forms. The complete X12 Document List includes all major business documents, including purchase orders (called "ORDERS" in UN/EDIFACT and an "850" in X12) and invoices (called "INVOIC" in UN/EDIFACT and an "810" in X12). The EDI standard says which pieces of information are mandatory for a particular document, which pieces are optional and give the rules for the structure of the document. The standards are like building codes. Just as two kitchens can be built "to code" but look completely different, two EDI documents can follow the same standard and contain different sets of information. For example a food company may indicate a product's expiration date while a clothing manufacturer would choose to send color and size information. Standards are generally updated each year. Specifications Organizations that send or receive documents between each other are referred to as "trading partners" in EDI terminology. The trading partners agree on the specific information to be transmitted and how it should be used. This is done in human readable specifications (also called Message Implementation Guidelines). While the standards are analogous to building codes, the specifications are analogous to blue prints. (The specification may also be called a mapping but the term mapping is typically reserved for specific machine readable instructions given to the translation software.) Larger trading "hubs" have existing Message Implementation Guidelines which mirror their business processes for processing EDI and they are usually unwilling to modify their EDI business practices to meet the needs of their trading partners. Often in a large company these EDI guidelines will be written to be generic enough to be used by different branches or divisions and therefore will contain information not needed for a particular business document exchange. For other large companies, they may create separate EDI guidelines for each branch/division. Transmission Trading partners are free to use any method for the transmission of documents. In the past one of the more popular methods was the usage of a bisync modem to communicate through a value added network (VAN). Some organizations have used direct modem to modem connections and bulletin board systems (BBS), and recently there has been a move towards using some of the many Internet protocols for transmission, but most EDI is still transmitted using a VAN. In the healthcare industry, a VAN is referred to as a "clearinghouse". Value Added Networks In the most basic form, a VAN (value added network) acts as a regional post office. They receive transactions, examine the 'from' and the 'to' information, and route the transaction to the final recipient. VANs provide a number of additional services, e.g. retransmitting documents, providing third party audit information, acting as a gateway for different transmission methods, and handling telecommunications support. Because of these and other services VANs provide, businesses frequently use a VAN even when both trading partners are using Internet-based protocols. Healthcare clearinghouses perform many of the same functions as a VAN, but have additional legal restrictions that govern protected healthcare information. VANs also provide an advantage with certificate replacement in AS2 transmissions. Because each node in a traditionally business-related AS2 transmission usually involves a security certificate, routing a large number of partners through a VAN can make certificate replacement much easier. Internet/AS2 Until recently, the Internet transmission was handled by nonstandard methods between trading partners usually involving FTP or email attachments. There are also standards for embedding EDI documents into XML. Many organizations are migrating to this protocol to reduce costs. For example, Wal-Mart is now requiring its trading partners to switch to the AS2 protocol (Wal-Mart EDI Requirement). AS2 (Applicability Statement 2) is the draft specification standard by which vendor applications communicate EDI or other business-to-business data (such as XML) over the Internet using HTTP, a standard used by the World Wide Web. AS2 provides security for the transport payload through digital signatures and data encryption, and ensures reliable, non-repudiable delivery through the use of receipts. EDI via the Internet (Web EDI) The Internet, as with VAN providers, uses its own communications protocols to ensure that EDI documents are transmitted securely. The most popular protocols are File Transfer Protocol Secure (FTPS), Hyper Text Transport Protocol Secure (HTTPS), and AS2. The Internet has provided a means for any company, no matter how small or where they are located in the world, to become part of a major supply chain initiative hosted by a global retailer or manufacturing company. Many companies around the world have shifted production of labour intensive parts to low-cost, emerging regions such as China and Eastern Europe. Web-based EDI, or webEDI, allows a company to interact with its suppliers in these regions without the worrying of implementing a complex EDI infrastructure. In its simplest form, webEDI enables small to medium-sized businesses to receive, turn around, create and manage electronic documents using just a web browser. This service seamlessly transforms your data into EDI format and transmits it to your trading partner. Simple pre-populated forms enable businesses to communicate and comply with their trading partners' requirements using built-in business rules. Using a friendly web-based interface, EDI transactions can be received, edited and sent as easily as an email. You will also be able to receive EDI documents and send EDI invoices and shipping documents with no software to install. All you require is an Internet connection. WebEDI has the added advantages that it is accessible anywhere in the world and you do not need a dedicated IT person to manage any software installation. Even though VANs offer a very secure and reliable service to companies wishing to trade electronically, the Internet is making EDI more available to all. This is especially important in the emerging markets where IT awareness and infrastructure are very limited. WebEDI is traditionally based around the "hub and spoke'"model, with major trading partners or Application Service Providers (ASPs) being the hubs and smaller partners being the spokes. Hubs or ASPs implement EDI using email or virtual mailboxes Trading partners can send EDI messages directly to a web-enabled EDI messaging site, via the hub. EDI messages are simply sent using a web browser Systems that are currently being developed will enable EDI messages to be displayed in a web browser and directed via open standard XML, directly into the user's accounts system WebEDI-based users can interact with VANs without incurring the costs of setting up a dedicated VAN connection EDI Outsourcing Operating an EDI program is becoming increasingly complex as companies face a wider range of requirements from trading partners. Many companies have chosen to outsource their EDI needs to an integration service provider that offers the people, processes, and technology to operate a robust EDI program. People - Skilled people with both technical and business expertise who can support and deliver a B2B program that meets current and future business objectives Processes - Best-practice processes for implementing or extending the use of B2B e-commerce in an organization, managing a B2B program on an ongoing basis, and quickly and easily bringing new trading partners onto a B2B network Technology - The comprehensive infrastructure needed to exchange EDI transactions with partners, translate business documents between any of the many EDI e-commerce standards now in use, and provide reporting and visibility into B2B processes and networks Interpreting data Often missing from the EDI specifications (referred to as EDI Implementation Guidelines) are real world descriptions of how the information should be interpreted by the business receiving it. For example, suppose candy is packaged in a large box that contains 5 display boxes and each display box contains 24 boxes of candy packaged for the consumer. If an EDI document says to ship 10 boxes of candy it may not be clear whether to ship 10 consumer packaged boxes, 240 consumer packaged boxes or 1200 consumer packaged boxes. It is not enough for two parties to agree to use a particular qualifier indicating case, pack, box or each; they must also agree on what that particular qualifier means. EDI translation software provides the interface between internal systems and the EDI format sent/received. For an "inbound" document the EDI solution will receive the file (either via a Value Added Network or directly using protocols such as FTP or AS2), take the received EDI file (commonly referred to as a "mailbag"), validate that the trading partner who is sending the file is a valid trading partner, that the structure of the file meets the EDI standards and that the individual fields of information conforms to the agreed upon standards. Typically the translator will either create a file of either fixed length, variable length or XML tagged format or "print" the received EDI document (for non-integrated EDI environments). The next step is to convert/transform the file that the translator creates into a format that can be imported into a company's back-end business systems or ERP. This can be accomplished by using a custom program, an integrated proprietary "mapper" or to use an integrated standards based graphical "mapper" using a standard data transformation language such as XSLT. The final step is to import the transformed file (or database) into the company's back-end enterprise resource planning (ERP). For an "outbound" document the process for integrated EDI is to export a file (or read a database) from a company's back-end ERP, transform the file to the appropriate format for the translator. The translation software will then "validate" the EDI file sent to ensure that it meets the standard agreed upon by the trading partners, convert the file into "EDI" format (adding in the appropriate identifiers and control structures) and send the file to the trading partner (using the appropriate communications protocol). Another critical component of any EDI translation software is a complete "audit" of all the steps to move business documents between trading partners. The audit ensures that any transaction (which in reality is a business document) can be tracked to ensure that they are not lost. In case of a retailer sending a Purchase Order to a supplier, if the Purchase Order is "lost" anywhere in the business process, the effect is devastating to both businesses. To the supplier, they do not fulfill the order as they have not received it thereby losing business and damaging the business relationship with their retail client. For the retailer, they have a stock outage and the effect is lost sales, reduced customer service and ultimately lower profits. In EDI terminology "inbound" and "outbound" refer to the direction of transmission of an EDI document in relation to a particular system, not the direction of merchandise, money or other things represented by the document. For example, an EDI document that tells a warehouse to perform an outbound shipment is an inbound document in relation to the warehouse computer system. It is an outbound document in relation to the manufacturer or dealer that transmitted the document. Advantages of using EDI over paper systems EDI and other similar technologies save a company money by providing an alternative to, or replacing information flows that require a great deal of human interaction and materials such as paper documents, meetings, faxes, etc. Even when paper documents are maintained in parallel with EDI exchange, e.g. printed shipping manifests, electronic exchange and the use of data from that exchange reduces the handling costs of sorting, distributing, organizing, and searching paper documents. EDI and similar technologies allow a company to take advantage of the benefits of storing and manipulating data electronically without the cost of manual entry. Another advantage of EDI is reduced errors, such as shipping and billing errors, because EDI eliminates the need to rekey documents on the destination side. One very important advantage of EDI over paper documents is the speed in which the trading partner receives and incorporates the information into their system thus greatly reducing cycle times. For this reason, EDI can be an important component of just-in-time production systems. According to the 2008 Aberdeen report "A Comparison of Supplier Enablement around the Word", only 34% of purchase orders are transmitted electronically in North America. In EMEA, 36% of orders are transmitted electronically and in APAC, 41% of orders are transmitted electronically. They also report that the average paper requisition to order costs a company $37.45 in North America, $42.90 in EMEA and $23.90 in APAC. With an EDI requisition to order costs are reduced to $23.83 in North America, $34.05 in EMEA and 14.78 in APAC. Barriers to implementation There are a few barriers to adopting electronic data interchange. One of the most significant barriers is the accompanying business process change. Existing business processes built around slow paper handling may not be suited for EDI and would require changes to accommodate automated processing of business documents. For example, a business may receive the bulk of their goods by 1 or 2 day shipping and all of their invoices by mail. The existing process may therefore assume that goods are typically received before the invoice. With EDI, the invoice will typically be sent when the goods ship and will therefore require a process that handles large numbers of invoices whose corresponding goods have not yet been received. Another significant barrier is the cost in time and money in the initial set-up. The preliminary expenses and time that arise from the implementation, customization and training can be costly and therefore may discourage some businesses. The key is to determine what method of integration is right for your company which will determine the cost of implementation. For a business that only receives one P.O. per year from a client, fully integrated EDI may not make economic sense. In this case, businesses may implement inexpensive "rip and read" solutions or use outsourced EDI solutions provided by EDI "Service Bureaus". For other businesses, the implementation of an integrated EDI solution may be necessary as increases in trading volumes brought on by EDI force them to re-implement their order processing business processes. The key hindrance to a successful implementation of EDI is the perception many businesses have of the nature of EDI. Many view EDI from the technical perspective that EDI is a data format; it would be more accurate to take the business view that EDI is a system for exchanging business documents with external entities, and integrating the data from those documents into the company's internal systems. Successful implementations of EDI take into account the effect externally generated information will have on their internal systems and validate the business information received. For example, allowing a supplier to update a retailer's Accounts Payables system without appropriate checks and balances would be a recipe for disaster. Businesses new to the implementation of EDI should take pains to avoid such pitfalls. Increased efficiency and cost savings drive the adoption of EDI for most trading partners. But even if a company would not choose to use EDI on their own, pressures from larger trading partners (called hubs) often force smaller trading partners to use EDI. An example of this is Wal-Mart`s insistence on using EDI with all of its trading partners; any partner not willing to use EDI with Wal-Mart will not be able to do business with the company. Examples of Disadvantages of EDI United States Health Care Systems The United States health care system consists of thousands of different companies and other entities. In 1996, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) was enacted. In short, it set down standard transaction sets for specific EDI transactions and mandated electronic support for every insurance company in the United States for these transactions. While the benefits of EDI are numerous and only increase with increased volume, the drawbacks, though not directly related to EDI itself, include managerial problems in the support, maintenance and implementation of EDI transactions. Though an EDI standard exists for health care transactions, the standard allows for variation between implementation, which gives way to the existence of Companion Guides, detailing each company's variation North Dakota Medicaid Companion Guide . Each entity may have a different method of delivery, ranging from dial-up BBS systems Wisconsin Medicaid EDI Information ; mailing hard media such as a CD-ROM or tape backup; or FTP Nebraska Medicaid Submission Requirements . Some entities may elect not to support different methods of delivery depending on a trading partner's expected volume. Due to varying implementation on nearly all points of EDI including contact, registration, submission and testing of transactions between different entities in US health care, the existence of EDI clearinghouses has sprung up. An EDI clearinghouse is one entity agreeing to act as a middle-man between multiple entities and their end-clients, such as between medical providers and insurance companies they accept coverage from. They may act as a value-added network and attempt to conform their different supported entities to one submission standard. One such example is Emdeon. An EDI clearinghouse will not cover all health care entities, though they may cover a large portion, and they may not cover all HIPAA-mandated transactions for all of their supported entities. Because of the above points, one single computer application cannot handle all health care entities. Though this may not be necessary, it can lead to an obvious management headache as a company attempts to register itself with various EDI partners. This all comes at a massive cost in time and management as a company may attempt to support a broad range of transactions with a broad range of entities. This example is an extension of the lack of strict standards across implementations, transactions and methods. See also Amtrix cXML Xcbl E-business EDIFACT Enterprise application integration Facsimile HL7 RosettaNet Standard Carrier Alpha Codes TRADACOMS Workgroup for Electronic Data Interchange X12 X12 Document List X12 EDIFACT Mapping Freight payment service HIPAA References External links E-Procurement - Electronic Data Integration Comes of Age- Article from Finance Director Europe Journal EDI: An Introduction — a visiting fellow on Australian National University website. 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2,760 | Evolutionarily_stable_strategy | In game theory and behavioural ecology, an evolutionarily stable strategy Sometimes but grammatically incorrectly evolutionary stable strategy (ESS) is a strategy which, if adopted by a population of players, cannot be invaded by any alternative strategy that is initially rare. An ESS is an equilibrium refinement of the Nash equilibrium -- it is a Nash equilibrium which is "evolutionarily" stable meaning that once it is fixed in a population, natural selection alone is sufficient to prevent alternative (mutant) strategies from successfully invading. The ESS was developed in order to define a class of solutions to game theoretic problems, equivalent to the Nash equilibrium, but which could be applied to the evolution of social behaviour in animals. Nash equilibria may sometimes exist due to the application of rational foresight, which would be inappropriate in an evolutionary context. Teleological forces such as rational foresight cannot explain the outcomes of trial-and-error processes, such as evolution, and thus have no place in biological applications. The definition of an ESS excludes such Nash equilibria. First developed in 1973, the ESS has come to be widely used in behavioural ecology and economics, and has been used in anthropology, evolutionary psychology, philosophy, and political science. History Evolutionarily stable strategies were defined and introduced by John Maynard Smith and George R. Price in a 1973 Nature paper John Maynard Smith and George R. Price (1973), The logic of animal conflict. Nature 246: 15-18. . Such was the time taken in peer-reviewing the paper for Nature that this was preceded by a 1972 essay by Maynard Smith contained in a book of essays entitled On Evolution John Maynard Smith, Game Theory and The Evolution of Fighting in On Evolution (John Maynard Smith), On Evolution (John Maynard Smith) . The 1972 essay is sometimes cited instead of the 1973 paper, but while university libraries almost certainly contain copies of Nature, the book is more obscure. Nature papers are usually short and Maynard Smith published a lengthier paper in the Journal of Theoretical Biology in 1974 Maynard Smith, J (1974) The Theory of Games and the Evolution of Animal Conflicts. Journal of Theoretical Biology 47, 209-21 and a further explanation is to be found in Maynard Smith's 1982 book Evolution and the Theory of Games John Maynard Smith. (1982) Evolution and the Theory of Games. ISBN 0-521-28884-3 -- sometimes these are cited instead. In fact, the ESS has become so central to game theory that often no citation is given as it is assumed the reader has knowledge of it already and therefore no need for further reading. Maynard Smith mathematically formalised a verbal argument made by Price that he came across while peer-reviewing Price's paper, offering to make Price co-author of the Nature paper when it became apparent that the somewhat disorganised Price was not ready to revise his article to make it suitable for publication. The concept was derived from R.H. MacArthur MacArthur, R. H. (1965). in: Theoretical and mathematical biology T. Waterman & H. Horowitz, eds. Blaisdell: New York. and W.D. Hamilton's W.D. Hamilton (1967) Extraordinary sex ratios. Science 156, 477-488. work on sex ratios, derived from Fisher's principle, especially Hamilton's (1967) concept of an unbeatable strategy. Maynard Smith was jointly awarded the 1999 Crafoord Prize for his development of the concept of evolutionarily stable strategies, and the application of game theory to the evolution of behaviour The 1999 Crafoord Prize press release . The ESS was a major element used to analyze Evolution in Richard Dawkins' bestselling book The Selfish Gene in 1976. The ESS was first used in the social sciences by Robert Axelrod in his 1984 book The Evolution of Cooperation. Since that time, there has been widespread use in the social sciences, including work in anthropology, economics, philosophy, and political science. In these fields the primary interest is not in an ESS as the end of biological evolution, but as an end point in the process of cultural evolution or individual learning. In contrast, the ESS is used in evolutionary psychology primarily as a model for human biological evolution. Motivation The Nash equilibrium is the traditional solution concept in game theory. It is traditionally underwritten by appeals to the cognitive abilities of the players. It is assumed that players are aware of the structure of the game, are consciously attempting to maximize their payoffs, and are attempting to predict the moves of their opponents. In addition, it is presumed that all of this is common knowledge between the players. These facts are then used to explain why players will choose Nash equilibrium strategies. Evolutionarily stable strategies are motivated entirely differently. Here, it is presumed that the players are individuals with biologically encoded, heritable strategies. The individuals have no control over the strategy they play and need not even be capable of being aware of the game. The individuals reproduce and are subject to the forces of natural selection (with the payoffs of the game representing biological fitness). It is imagined that the alternative strategies of the game occasionally occur, via a process like mutation, and in order to be an ESS a strategy must be resistant to these mutations. Given the radically different motivating assumptions, it may come as a surprise that ESSes and Nash equilibria often coincide. In fact, every ESS corresponds to a Nash equilibrium, but there are some Nash equilibria that are not ESSes. Nash equilibria and ESS An ESS is a refined, which is to say modified form of, a Nash equilibrium (see next section for examples which contrast the two). A Nash equilibrium (in a two player game) is a strategy pair where, if all players adopt their respective parts, no player can benefit by switching to any alternative strategy. Let E(S,T) represent the payoff for playing strategy S against strategy T. The strategy pair (S, S) is a Nash equilibrium (in a two player game) if and only if the following holds for both players: E(S,S) ≥ E(T,S) for all T≠S This equilibrium definition allows for the possibility that strategy T is a neutral alternative to S (it scores equally well, but not better). A Nash equilibrium is presumed to be stable even if T scores equally, on the assumption that there is no long-term incentive for players to adopt T instead of S. This fact represents the point of departure of the ESS. Maynard Smith and Price specify two conditions for a strategy S to be an ESS. Either E(S,S) > E(T,S), or E(S,S) = E(T,S) and E(S,T) > E(T,T) for all T≠S. The first condition is sometimes called a strict Nash equilibrium; Harsanyi, J (1973) Oddness of the number of equilibrium points: a new proof. Int. J. Game Theory 2: 235–250. the second is sometimes referred to as "Maynard Smith's second condition". The meaning of this second condition is that although the adoption of strategy T is neutral with respect to the payoff against strategy S, the population of players who continue to play strategy S have an advantage when playing against T. There is also an alternative definition of ESS which, places a different emphasis on the role of the Nash equilibrium concept in the ESS concept. Following the terminology given in the first definition above, we have (adapted from Thomas, 1985): Thomas, B. (1985) On evolutionarily stable sets. J. Math. Biology 22: 105–115. E(S,S) ≥ E(T,S), and E(S,T) > E(T,T) for all T≠S. In this formulation, the first condition specifies that the strategy is a Nash equilibrium, and the second specifies that Maynard Smith's second condition is met. Note that the two definitions are not precisely equivalent: for example, each pure strategy in the coordination game below is an ESS by the first definition but not the second. One advantage to this alternative formulation is that the role of the Nash equilibrium condition in the ESS is more clearly highlighted. It also allows for a natural definition of related concepts such as a weak ESS or an evolutionarily stable set. Examples of differences between Nash Equilibria and ESSes In most simple games, the ESSes and Nash equilibria coincide perfectly. For instance, in the Prisoner's Dilemma there is only one Nash equilibrium and the strategy which composes (Defect) it is also an ESS. In some games, there may be Nash equilibria that are not ESSes. For example in Harm thy neighbor both (A, A) and (B, B) are Nash equilibria, since players cannot do better by switching away from either. However, only B is an ESS (and a strong Nash). A is not an ESS, B can neutrally invade a population of A strategists, whereupon it will come to predominate since B scores higher against A than A does against B. This dynamic is captured by Maynard Smith's second condition, since E(A, A) = E(B, A), but it is not the case that E(A,B) > E(B,B). Nash equilibria with equally scoring alternatives can be ESSes. For example, in the game Harm everyone, C is an ESS because it satisfies Maynard Smith's second condition. While D strategists may temporarily invade a population of C strategists by scoring equally well against C, they pay a price when they begin to play against each other; C scores better against D than does D. So here although E(C, C) = E(D, C), it is also the case that E(C,D) > E(D,D). As a result C is an ESS. Even if a game has pure strategy Nash equilibria, it might be the case that none of those pure strategies are ESS. Consider the Game of chicken. There are two pure strategy Nash equilibria in this game (Swerve, Stay) and (Stay, Swerve). However, in the absence of an uncorrelated asymmetry, neither Swerve nor Stay are ESSes. A third Nash equilibrium exists, a mixed strategy, which is an ESS for this game (see Hawk-dove game and Best response for explanation). This last example points to an important difference between Nash equilibria and ESS. Nash equilibria are defined on strategy sets (a specification of a strategy for each player) while ESS are defined in terms of strategies themselves. The equilibria defined by ESS must always be symmetric, and thus immediately reducing the possible equilibrium points. ESS vs. Evolutionarily Stable State In population biology, the two concepts of an evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS) and an evolutionarily stable state are closely-linked but describe different situations. An ESS is a strategy such that, if all the members of a population adopt it, no mutant strategy can invade filler . This idea is distinct from when a population is in an evolutionarily stable state, as this is when its genetic composition will be restored by selection after a disturbance, provided the disturbance is not too large. Whether a population has this property does not relate to genetic diversity, as the population can either be genetically monomorphic or polymorphic. filler An ESS is a strategy with the property that, once virtually all members of the population use it, then no 'rational' alternative exists. On the other hand, an evolutionarily stable state is a dynamic property of a population that returns to using a strategy, or mix of strategies, if it is perturbed from that initial state. The former concept fits within classical game theory, whereas the latter is a population genetics, dynamical system, or evolutionary game theory concept. Thomas (1984) Thomas, B. (1984) Evolutionary stability: states and strategies. Theor. Pop. Biol. 26 49-67. applies the term ESS to an individual strategy which may be mixed, and evolutionarily stable population state to a population mixture of pure strategies which may be formally equivalent to the mixed ESS. Prisoner's dilemma and ESS A common model of altruism and social cooperation is the Prisoner's dilemma. Here a group of players would collectively be better off if they could play Cooperate, but since Defect fares better each individual player has an incentive to play Defect. One solution to this problem is to introduce the possibility of retaliation by having individuals play the game repeatedly against the same player. In the so-called iterated Prisoner's dilemma, the same two individuals play the prisoner's dilemma over and over. While the Prisoner's dilemma has only two strategies (Cooperate and Defect), the iterated Prisoner's dilemma has a huge number of possible strategies. Since an individual can have different contingency plan for each history and the game may be repeated an indefinite number of times, there may in fact be an infinite number of such contingency plans. Three simple contingency plans which have received substantial attention are Always Defect, Always Cooperate, and Tit for Tat. The first two strategies do the same thing regardless of the other player's actions, while the later responds on the next round by doing what was done to it on the previous round -- it responds to Cooperate with Cooperate and Defect with Defect. If the entire population plays Tit-for-Tat and a mutant arises who plays Always Defect, Tit-for-Tat will outperform Always Defect -- the mutant will be eliminated. Tit for Tat is therefore an ESS, with respect to only these two strategies. On the other hand, an island of Always Defect players will be stable against the invasion of a few Tit-for-Tat players, but not against a large number of them. Robert Axelrod (1984) The Evolution of Cooperation ISBN 0-465-02121-2 If we introduce Always Cooperate, a population of Tit-for-Tat is no longer an ESS. Since a population of Tit-for-Tat players always cooperates, the strategy Always Cooperate behaves identically in this population. As a result, a mutant who plays Always Cooperate will not be eliminated. This demonstrates the difficulties in applying the formal definition of an ESS to games with large strategy spaces, and has motivated some to consider alternatives instead. ESS and human behavior The fields of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology attempt to explain animal and human behavior and social structures, largely in terms of evolutionarily stable strategies. Sociopathy (chronic antisocial/criminal behavior) has been suggested to be a result of a combination of two such strategies. Mealey, L. (1995). The sociobiology of sociopathy: An integrated evolutionary model. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18: 523-599. Although ESS were originally considered as stable states for biological evolution, it need not be limited to such contexts. In fact, ESS are stable states for a large class of adaptive dynamics. As a result, ESS can be used to explain human behaviors that lack any genetic influences. See also Evolutionary game theory Hawk-Dove game War of attrition (game) Fitness landscape References Further reading Hines, WGS (1987) Evolutionary stable strategies: a review of basic theory. Theoretical Population Biology 31: 195-272. . An 88-page mathematical introduction; see Section 3.8. Free online at many universities. Parker, G.A. (1984) Evolutionary stable strategies. In Behavioural Ecology: an Evolutionary Approach (2nd ed) Krebs, J.R. & Davies N.B., eds. pp 30-61. Blackwell, Oxford. . A comprehensive reference from a computational perspective; see Section 7.7. Downloadable free online. John Maynard Smith. (1982) Evolution and the Theory of Games. ISBN 0-521-28884-3. Classic reference. External links Evolutionarily Stable Strategies at Animal Behavior: An Online Textbook by Michael D. Breed. Game Theory and Evolutionarily Stable Strategies, Kenneth N. Prestwich's site at College of the Holy Cross. 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2,761 | Normed_vector_space | In mathematics, with 2- or 3-dimensional vectors with real-valued entries, the idea of the "length" of a vector is intuitive and can easily be extended to any real vector space Rn. The following properties of "vector length" are crucial. 1. The zero vector, 0, has zero length; every other vector has a positive length. if 2. Multiplying a vector by a positive number changes its length without changing its direction. See unit vector. for any scalar 3. The triangle inequality holds. That is, taking norms as distances, the distance from point A through B to C is never shorter than going directly from A to C, or the shortest distance between any two points is a straight line. for any vectors x and y. (triangle inequality) Their generalization for more abstract vector spaces, leads to the notion of norm. A vector space on which a norm is defined is then called a normed vector space. Definition A seminormed vector space is a pair (V,p) where V is a vector space and p a seminorm on V. A normed vector space is a pair (V,||·||) where V is a vector space and ||·|| a norm on V. We often omit p or ||·|| and just write V for a space if it is clear from the context what (semi) norm we are using. In a more general sense, a vector norm can be taken to be any real-valued vector that satisfies these three properties. The properties 1. and 2. together imply that if and only if . A useful variation of the triangle inequality is for any vectors x and y. This also shows that a vector norm is a continuous function. Topological structure If (V, ||·||) is a normed vector space, the norm ||·|| induces a notion of distance and therefore a topology on V. This distance is defined in the natural way: the distance between two vectors u and v is given by ||u−v||. This topology is precisely the weakest topology that makes ||·|| continuous. Furthermore, this natural topology is compatible with the linear structure of V in the following sense: The vector addition + : V × V → V is jointly continuous with respect to this topology. This follows directly from the triangle inequality. The scalar multiplication · : K × V → V, where K is the underlying scalar field of V, is jointly continuous. This follows from the triangle inequality and homogeneity of the norm. Similarly, for any semi-normed vector space we can define the distance between two vectors u and v as ||u−v||. This turns the seminormed space into a Pseudo-metric space (notice this is weaker than a metric) and allows the definition of notions such as continuity and convergence. To put it more abstractly every semi-normed vector space is a topological vector space and thus carries a topological structure which is induced by the semi-norm. Of special interest are complete normed spaces called Banach spaces. Every normed vector space V sits as a dense subspace inside a Banach space; this Banach space is essentially uniquely defined by V and is called the completion of V. All norms on a finite-dimensional vector space are equivalent from a topological point as they induce the same topology (although the resulting metric spaces need not be the same). And since any Euclidean space is complete, we can thus conclude that all finite-dimensional normed vector spaces are Banach spaces. A normed vector space V is locally compact if and only if the unit ball B = {x : ||x|| ≤ 1} is compact, which is the case if and only if V is finite-dimensional; this is a consequence of Riesz's lemma. (In fact, a more general result is true: a topological vector space is locally compact if and only if it is finite-dimensional. The point here is that we don't assume the topology comes from a norm.) The topology of a seminormed vector has many nice properties. Given a neighbourhood system around 0 we can construct all other neighbourhood systems as with . Moreover there exists a neighbourhood basis for 0 consisting of absorbing and convex sets. As this property is very useful in functional analysis, generalizations of normed vector spaces with this property are studied under the name locally convex spaces. Linear maps and dual spaces The most important maps between two normed vector spaces are the continuous linear maps. Together with these maps, normed vector spaces form a category. The norm is a continuous function on its vector space. All linear maps between finite dimensional vector spaces are also continuous. An isometry between two normed vector spaces is a linear map f which preserves the norm (meaning ||f(v)|| = ||v|| for all vectors v). Isometries are always continuous and injective. A surjective isometry between the normed vector spaces V and W is called a isometric isomorphism, and V and W are called isometrically isomorphic. Isometrically isomorphic normed vector spaces are identical for all practical purposes. When speaking of normed vector spaces, we augment the notion of dual space to take the norm into account. The dual V ' of a normed vector space V is the space of all continuous linear maps from V to the base field (the complexes or the reals) — such linear maps are called "functionals". The norm of a functional φ is defined as the supremum of |φ(v)| where v ranges over all unit vectors (i.e. vectors of norm 1) in V. This turns V ' into a normed vector space. An important theorem about continuous linear functionals on normed vector spaces is the Hahn-Banach theorem. Normed spaces as quotient spaces of seminormed spaces The definition of many normed spaces (in particular, Banach spaces) involves a seminorm defined on a vector space and then the normed space is defined as the quotient space by the subspace of elements of seminorm zero. For instance, with the Lp spaces, the function defined by is a seminorm on the vector space of all functions on which the Lebesgue integral on the right hand side is defined and finite. However, the seminorm is equal to zero for any function supported on a set of Lebesgue measure zero. These functions form a subspace which we "quotient out", making them equivalent to the zero function. Finite product spaces Given n seminormed spaces Xi with seminorms qi we can define the product space as with vector addition defined as and scalar multiplication defined as . We define a new function q for example as . which is a seminorm on X. The function q is a norm if and only if all qi are norms. More generally, for each real p≥1 we have the seminorm: For each p this defines the same topological space. A straightforward argument involving elementary linear algebra shows that the only finite-dimensional seminormed spaces are those arising as the product space of a normed space and a space with trivial seminorm. Consequently, many of the more interesting examples and applications of seminormed spaces occur for infinite-dimensional vector spaces. See also locally convex spaces, generalizations of seminormed vector spaces Banach spaces, normed vector spaces which are complete with respect to the metric induced by the norm inner product spaces, normed vector spaces where the norm is given by an inner product Finsler manifold | Normed_vector_space |@lemmatized mathematics:1 dimensional:8 vector:55 real:5 value:2 entry:1 idea:1 length:5 intuitive:1 easily:1 extend:1 space:69 rn:1 following:2 property:6 crucial:1 zero:6 every:3 positive:2 multiply:1 number:1 change:2 without:1 direction:1 see:2 unit:3 scalar:4 triangle:5 inequality:5 hold:1 take:3 norm:21 distance:7 point:4 b:2 c:2 never:1 short:2 go:1 directly:2 two:5 straight:1 line:1 x:5 generalization:3 abstract:1 lead:1 notion:4 define:14 call:6 normed:25 definition:3 seminormed:8 pair:2 v:37 p:5 seminorm:8 often:1 omit:1 write:1 clear:1 context:1 semi:4 use:1 general:2 sense:2 satisfy:1 three:1 together:2 imply:1 useful:2 variation:1 also:3 show:2 continuous:10 function:9 topological:6 structure:3 induce:4 therefore:1 topology:8 natural:2 way:1 u:4 give:4 precisely:1 weak:2 make:2 furthermore:1 compatible:1 linear:9 addition:2 jointly:2 respect:2 follow:2 multiplication:2 k:2 underlie:1 field:2 homogeneity:1 similarly:1 turn:2 pseudo:1 metric:4 notice:1 allow:1 continuity:1 convergence:1 put:1 abstractly:1 thus:2 carry:1 special:1 interest:1 complete:3 banach:7 sits:1 dense:1 subspace:3 inside:1 essentially:1 uniquely:1 completion:1 finite:8 equivalent:2 although:1 result:2 need:1 since:1 euclidean:1 conclude:1 locally:4 compact:3 ball:1 case:1 consequence:1 riesz:1 lemma:1 fact:1 true:1 assume:1 come:1 many:3 nice:1 neighbourhood:3 system:2 around:1 construct:1 moreover:1 exist:1 basis:1 consisting:1 absorb:1 convex:3 set:2 functional:2 analysis:1 study:1 name:1 map:8 dual:3 important:2 form:2 category:1 isometry:3 f:2 preserve:1 mean:1 always:1 injective:1 surjective:1 w:2 isometric:1 isomorphism:1 isometrically:2 isomorphic:2 identical:1 practical:1 purpose:1 speaking:1 augment:1 account:1 base:1 complex:1 functionals:2 φ:2 supremum:1 range:1 e:1 theorem:2 hahn:1 quotient:3 particular:1 involve:2 element:1 instance:1 lp:1 lebesgue:2 integral:1 right:1 hand:1 side:1 however:1 equal:1 support:1 measure:1 product:5 n:1 xi:1 seminorms:1 qi:2 new:1 q:2 example:2 generally:1 straightforward:1 argument:1 elementary:1 algebra:1 arise:1 trivial:1 consequently:1 interesting:1 application:1 occur:1 infinite:1 inner:2 finsler:1 manifold:1 |@bigram triangle_inequality:5 normed_vector:20 scalar_multiplication:2 seminormed_space:5 banach_space:6 dense_subspace:1 finite_dimensional:6 locally_compact:2 locally_convex:2 linear_functionals:1 hahn_banach:1 lebesgue_integral:1 lebesgue_measure:1 topological_space:1 infinite_dimensional:1 |
2,762 | Politics_of_Guernsey | Politics of Guernsey takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic British Crown dependency, whereby the Chief Minister is the head of government. Executive branch |Lieutenant Governor |Sir Fabian Malbon | |18 October 2005 |- |Bailiff |Geoffrey Rowland | |2005 |- |Chief Minister |Lyndon Trott | |2008 |} The Lieutenant Governor is the representative of the Crown. The official residence of the Lieutenant Governor is Government House, Queens Road, St Peter Port. Since 18 October 2005, the incumbent is Vice-Admiral Sir Fabian Malbon, born in Southsea, Portsmouth in 1946 and a serving naval officer 1965–2002. His last naval posting before retirement from the Royal Navy was deputy commander-in-chief of fleet. The Bailiff is the first civil officer in the Bailiwick of Guernsey, serving as president of the legislature and the Royal Court. Since 2004, Guernsey's head of government is the Chief Minister. The Bailiff is appointed by the Crown, and generally holds office until retirement age (65). He presides at the Royal Court, and takes the opinions of the Jurats, elected lay judges; he also presides over the States, and represents the Crown in all civil matters. Legislative branch The States of Guernsey, officially called the States of Deliberation, consists of 45 People's Deputies, elected from multi- or single-member districts every four years. There are also two representatives from Alderney, a self-governing dependency of the Bailiwick, but Sark sends no representative. There are also two non-voting members - the Attorney General and the Solicitor General both appointed by the monarch. Laws made the States are known as Projet(s) de Loi before they are passed and Loi or Law(s) afterwards (e.g. The Human Rights (Bailiwick of Guernsey) Law 2000. A Project de Loi is the equivalent of an English Bill, and a Law is the equivalent of an English Act of Parliament. Laws have no effect until promulgated as Orders-in-Council of the Crown. They are given the Royal Sanction at regular meetings of the Privy Council in London after, which they are returned to the Islands for formal registration at the Royal Court. The States also make delegated legislation known as Ordinances (Ordonnances) and Orders (Ordres) which do not require Royal Assent. Commencement orders are usually in the form of Ordinances. Political parties and elections Guernsey has no political parties with all representatives being elected as non-partisans. Judicial branch The legal system is derived from Norman French and English common law, justice being administered through a combination of Magistrates Court and the Royal Court. The Royal Court is presided over by the Bailiff and 12 Jurats (a permanent elected jury), the ultimate court of appeal being the Privy Council. Administrative divisions Each parish is administered by a Douzaine. Douzeniers are elected for a six year mandate, two Douzeniers being elected by parishioners at a Parish Meeting in November each year. The senior Douzenier is known as the Doyen. Two elected Constables carry out the decisions of the Douzaine, serving for between one and three years. The longest serving Constable is known as the Senior Constable and his or her colleague as the Junior Constable. Following the machinery of government changes in 2004, Guernsey has the following electoral districts, loosely based on the parish system: St. Peter Port North St. Peter Port South St. Sampson's Vale Castel South-East (St. Martin's and St. Andrew's) West (Torteval, Forest, St. Saviour's, St. Pierre-du-Bois) See also Policy Council of Guernsey Royal Commission on the Constitution (United Kingdom) | Politics_of_Guernsey |@lemmatized politics:1 guernsey:8 take:2 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:1 representative:5 democratic:1 british:1 crown:5 dependency:2 whereby:1 chief:4 minister:3 head:2 government:4 executive:1 branch:3 lieutenant:3 governor:3 sir:2 fabian:2 malbon:2 october:2 bailiff:4 geoffrey:1 rowland:1 lyndon:1 trott:1 official:1 residence:1 house:1 queen:1 road:1 st:8 peter:3 port:3 since:2 incumbent:1 vice:1 admiral:1 bear:1 southsea:1 portsmouth:1 serve:3 naval:2 officer:2 last:1 posting:1 retirement:2 royal:9 navy:1 deputy:2 commander:1 fleet:1 first:1 civil:2 bailiwick:3 president:1 legislature:1 court:7 appoint:2 generally:1 hold:1 office:1 age:1 preside:3 opinion:1 jurats:2 elect:7 lay:1 judge:1 also:5 state:5 represent:1 matter:1 legislative:1 officially:1 call:1 deliberation:1 consist:1 people:1 multi:1 single:1 member:2 district:2 every:1 four:1 year:4 two:4 alderney:1 self:1 govern:1 sark:1 send:1 non:2 vote:1 attorney:1 general:2 solicitor:1 monarch:1 law:6 make:2 know:4 projet:1 de:2 loi:3 pass:1 afterwards:1 e:1 g:1 human:1 right:1 project:1 equivalent:2 english:3 bill:1 act:1 parliament:1 effect:1 promulgate:1 order:3 council:4 give:1 sanction:1 regular:1 meeting:2 privy:2 london:1 return:1 island:1 formal:1 registration:1 delegated:1 legislation:1 ordinance:2 ordonnances:1 ordres:1 require:1 assent:1 commencement:1 usually:1 form:1 political:2 party:2 election:1 partisan:1 judicial:1 legal:1 system:2 derive:1 norman:1 french:1 common:1 justice:1 administer:2 combination:1 magistrate:1 permanent:1 jury:1 ultimate:1 appeal:1 administrative:1 division:1 parish:3 douzaine:2 douzeniers:2 six:1 mandate:1 parishioner:1 november:1 senior:2 douzenier:1 doyen:1 constable:4 carry:1 decision:1 one:1 three:1 long:1 serving:1 colleague:1 junior:1 follow:1 machinery:1 change:1 following:1 electoral:1 loosely:1 base:1 north:1 south:2 sampson:1 vale:1 castel:1 east:1 martin:1 andrew:1 west:1 torteval:1 forest:1 saviour:1 pierre:1 du:1 bois:1 see:1 policy:1 commission:1 constitution:1 united:1 kingdom:1 |@bigram crown_dependency:1 dependency_whereby:1 lieutenant_governor:3 vice_admiral:1 commander_chief:1 bailiwick_guernsey:2 legislative_branch:1 projet_de:1 privy_council:2 royal_assent:1 judicial_branch:1 bailiff_jurats:1 appeal_privy:1 du_bois:1 |
2,763 | Economy_of_Iraq | Iraq's economy is dominated by the petroleum sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. In the 1980s, financial problems caused by massive expenditures in the eight-year war with Iran and damage to oil export facilities by Iran led the government to implement austerity measures, borrow heavily, and later reschedule foreign debt payments; Iraq suffered economic losses of at least $80 billion from the war. Christopher Parker and Pete W. Moore After the end of hostilities in 1988, oil exports gradually increased with the construction of new pipelines and restoration of damaged facilities. Current GDP per capita of Iraq grew 56% in the '60s reaching a peak growth of 57% in the '70s. However, the current GDP per capita shrank by 23% in the '80s amid the Iran-Iraq War. Economic sanctions of the 1990s Iraq's seizure of Kuwait in August 1990, subsequent international economic sanctions, and damage from military action by an international coalition beginning in January 1991 drastically reduced economic activity. The government's policies of supporting large military and internal security forces and of allocating resources to key supporters of the regime have exacerbated shortages. The implementation of the UN's Oil for Food program in December 1996 has helped improve economic conditions. For the first six six-month phases of the program, Iraq was allowed to export limited amounts of oil in exchange for food, medicine, and other humanitarian goods. In December 1999, the UN Security Council authorized Iraq to export as much oil as required to meet humanitarian needs. Oil exports are now about three-quarters their prewar level. Per capita food imports have increased significantly, while medical supplies and health care services are steadily improving. Per capita output and living standards are still well below the prewar level, but any estimates have a wide range of error (citation needed). Iraq's economy is characterized by a heavy dependence on oil exports and an emphasis on development through central planning. Prior to the outbreak of the war with Iran in September 1980, Iraq's economic prospects were bright. Oil production had reached a level of 560,000 m³ (3.5 million barrels) per day, and oil revenues were 21 billion in 1979 and 27 G$ in 1980. At the outbreak of the war, Iraq had amassed an estimated 35 billion in foreign exchange reserves. The Iran–Iraq War depleted Iraq's foreign exchange reserves, devastated its economy, and left the country saddled with a foreign debt of more than $40 billion. After hostilities ceased, oil exports gradually increased with the construction of new pipelines and the restoration of damaged facilities. Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, subsequent international sanctions, and damage from military action by an international coalition beginning in January 1991 drastically reduced economic activity. Government policies of diverting income to key supporters of the regime while sustaining a large military and internal security force further impaired finances, leaving the average Iraqi citizen facing desperate hardships. Implementation of the UN oil-for-food program in December 1996 improved conditions for the average Iraqi citizen. Since 1999, Iraq was authorized to export unlimited quantities of oil to finance humanitarian needs including food, medicine, and infrastructure repair parts. Oil exports fluctuate as the regime alternately starts and stops exports, but, in general, oil exports have now reached three-quarters of their pre-Gulf War levels; per capital output and living standards remain well below pre-Gulf War levels. The economic sanctions were fully lifted in 24 May 2003, shortly after Saddam Hussein was overthrown. This resulted in economic growth of 53% topping the list of the world's fastest growing economy. Sanctions Iraq's seizure of Kuwait in August 1990, subsequent international economic sanctions, and damage from the ensuing Gulf War of 1991 drastically reduced economic activity. Although government policies supporting large military and internal security forces and allocating resources to key supporters of the Ba'ath Party government hurt the economy, implementation of the United Nations' corruption-plagued oil-for-food program in December 1996 was to have improved conditions for the average Iraqi citizen. In December 1999, the UN Security Council authorised Iraq to export under the program as much oil as required to meet humanitarian needs. Iraq changed its oil reserve currency from the US dollar to the euro in 2000. Oil exports were more than three-quarters of the pre-war level. However, 28% of Iraq's export revenues under the program were deducted to meet UN Compensation Fund and UN administrative expenses. The drop in GDP in 2001 was largely the result of the global economic slowdown and lower oil prices. Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the economy to a great extent shut down; attempts are underway to revive it from the damages of war and rampant crime. After the Fall of Saddam Hussein Since the peak of 1980, the nominal GDP of Iraq has steadily shrunk to merely $12.3 billion in 2000. However removal of sanctions, after the overthrow of Saddam, had immediate effect. The nominal GDP had reached $55.4 billion by 2007 due to increase in oil output as well as international prices. In 2006, the real GDP growth was estimated at almost 17 percent . Paul Bremer, chief executive of Iraq, planned to restructure Iraq's state owned economy with free market thinking. Order 39 laid out the framework for full privatization in Iraq, except for "primary extraction and initial processing" of oil, and permitted 100% foreign ownership of Iraqi assets. Paul Bremer also ordered a flat tax rate of 15% and allowed foreign corporations to repatriate all profits earned in Iraq. Opposition from senior Iraqi officials, together with the poor security situation, meant that Bremer's privatization plan was not implemented during his tenure, though his orders remain in place. In addition to approximately 200 other state owned businesses, privatization of the oil industry was scheduled to begin sometime in late 2005, though it is opposed by the Federation of Oil Unions in Iraq. Business storefront signs in downtown Baghdad, Iraq in April 2005. Bremer's transitional government featured figures close to the George W. Bush administration, such as grain-trading industry lobbyist Dan Amstutz, who was put in charge of agricultural policy in Iraq. One of the key economic challenges was Iraq's immense foreign debt, estimated at $125 billion. Although some of this debt was derived from normal export contracts that Iraq had failed to pay for, some was a result of military and financial support during Iraq's war with Iran. The Jubilee Iraq campaign argued that much of these debts were odious (illegitimate). However, as the concept of odious debt is not accepted, trying to deal with the debt on those terms would have embroiled Iraq in legal disputes for years. Iraq decided to deal with its debt more pragmatically and approached the Paris Club of official creditors. In a December 2006 Newsweek International article, a study by Global Insight in London was reported to show "that Civil war or not, Iraq has an economy, and—mother of all surprises—it's doing remarkably well. Real estate is booming. Construction, retail and wholesale trade sectors are healthy, too, according to [the report]. The U.S. Chamber of Commerce reports 34,000 registered companies in Iraq, up from 8,000 three years ago. Sales of secondhand cars, televisions and mobile phones have all risen sharply. Estimates vary, but one from Global Insight puts GDP growth at 17 percent last year and projects 13 percent for 2006. The World Bank has it lower: at 4 percent this year. But, given all the attention paid to deteriorating security, the startling fact is that Iraq is growing at all." Between and of Iraq’s declared oil production over the past four years could have been siphoned off through corruption or smuggling, according to a US Study from May 12 2007. National quality mark of Iraq Opportunity Cost of Conflict A report by a political think tank based in Mumbai, India has calculated the peace dividend for the Middle East and consequently the economic cost of conflict in the region by country. According to the report, the opportunity cost of conflict for the region from 1991-2010 has been a whopping $12 trillion (12,000,000,000).Iraq has suffered the largest loss. Its GDP could have been more than 30 times its present size. If we measure Iraq's oopportunity loss since 1980, before the Iran Iraq war and the Persian Gulf War with Kuwait, the losses are even greater - Iraq's GDP could have been more than 50 times its projected GDP in 2010. In other words, had there been peace in Iraq, every Iraqi citizen would be earning over $9,600 instead of the $2,300 in 2010 Excerpts from the report on the 'Cost of Conflict in the Middle East' by Strategic Foresight Group, January 2009 . Industry Traditionally, Iraq’s manufacturing activity has been closely connected to the oil industry. The major industries in that category have been petroleum refining and the manufacture of chemicals and fertilizers. Before 2003, diversification was hindered by limitations on privatization and the effects of the international sanctions of the 1990s. Since 2003, security problems have blocked efforts to establish new enterprises. The construction industry is an exception; in 2000 cement was the only major industrial product not based on hydrocarbons. The construction industry has profited from the need to rebuild after Iraq’s several wars. In the 1990s, the industry benefited from government funding of extensive infrastructure and housing projects and elaborate palace complexes. Primary sectors Agriculture Historically, 50 to 60 percent of Iraq’s arable land has been under cultivation. Because of ethnic politics, valuable farmland in Kurdish territory has not contributed to the national economy, and inconsistent agricultural policies under Saddam Hussein discouraged domestic market production. Despite its abundant land and water resources, Iraq is a net food importer. Under the UN Oil for Food program, Iraq imported large quantities of grains, meat, poultry, and dairy products. The government abolished its farm collectivization program in 1981, allowing a greater role for private enterprise in agriculture. The international Oil-for-Food program (1997–2003) further reduced farm production by supplying artificially priced foreign foodstuffs. The military action of 2003 did little damage to Iraqi agriculture; because of favorable weather conditions, in that year grain production was 22 percent higher than in 2002. Although growth continued in 2004, experts predicted that Iraq will be an importer of agricultural products for the foreseeable future. Long-term plans call for investment in agricultural machinery and materials and more prolific crop varieties—improvements that did not reach Iraq’s farmers under the Hussein regime. In 2004 the main agricultural crops were wheat, barley, corn, rice, vegetables, dates, and cotton, and the main livestock outputs were cattle and sheep. The Agricultural Cooperative Bank, capitalized at nearly 1 G$ - by 1984, targets its low-interest, low-collateral loans to private farmers for mechanization, poultry projects, and orchard development. Large modern cattle, dairy, and poultry farms are under construction. Obstacles to agricultural development include labour shortages, inadequate management and maintenance, salinization, urban migration, and dislocations resulting from previous land reform and collectivization programs. Importation of foreign workers and increased entry of women into traditionally male labour roles have helped compensate for agricultural and industrial labour shortages exacerbated by the war. A disastrous attempt to drain the southern marshes and introduce irrigated farming to this region merely destroyed a natural food producing area, while concentration of salts and minerals in the soil due to the draining left the land unsuitable for agriculture. Forestry, fishing, and mining Throughout the twentieth century, human exploitation, shifting agriculture, forest fires, and uncontrolled grazing denuded large areas of Iraq’s natural forests, which in 2005 are almost exclusively confined to the northeastern highlands. Most of the trees found in that region are not suitable for lumbering. In 2002 a total of 112,000 cubic meters of wood were harvested, nearly half of which was used as fuel. Despite its many rivers, Iraq’s fishing industry has remained relatively small and based largely on marine species in the Persian Gulf. In 2001 the catch was 22,800 tons. Aside from hydrocarbons, Iraq’s mining industry has been confined to extraction of relatively small amounts of phosphates (at Akashat), salt, and sulfur (near Mosul). Since an awesome productive period in the 1970s, the mining industry has been hampered by the Iran–Iraq War (1980–88), the sanctions of the 1990s, and the economic collapse of 2003. Energy As one of the three most oil-rich countries in the world, Iraq has the resources for complete energy independence. By world standards, production costs for Iraqi oil are relatively low. However, three wars (Iraq-Iran War from 1980-1988, Gulf War 1991 and the Iraqi Invasion of 2003) in addition to the UN sanctions - which lasted for twelve years from 1991 to 2003, left the industry’s infrastructure in poor condition. The lifting of sanctions in 2003 allowed repairs to begin. However, since 2003 oil pipelines and installations have been sabotaged persistently. In 2004 Iraq had eight oil refineries, the largest of which were at Baiji, Basra, and Daura. Sabotage and technical problems at the refineries forced Iraq to import fuels, liquid petroleum gas, and other refined products from nearby countries. In October 2004, for example, Iraq spent US$60 million for imported gasoline. In late 2004 and early 2005, regular sabotage of plants and pipelines reduced export and domestic distribution of oil, particularly to Baghdad. Nationwide fuel shortages and power outages resulted. In 2004 plans called for increased domestic utilization of natural gas to replace oil and for use in the petrochemical industry. However, because most of Iraq’s gas output is associated with oil, output growth depends on developments in the oil industry. As much as 90 percent of Iraq’s power generating and distribution systems were destroyed in the Persian Gulf War of 1991, and full recovery never occurred. In mid-2004, Iraq had an estimated 5,000 megawatts of power-generating capacity, compared with 7,500 megawatts of demand. At that time, the transmission system included 17,700 kilometers of line. In 2004 plans called for construction of two new power plants and restoration of existing plants and transmission lines to ease the blackouts and economic hardship caused by this shortfall, but sabotage and looting held capacity below 6,000 megawatts. In 2004 the World Bank estimated that US$12 billion would be needed for near-term restoration, and the Ministry of Electricity estimated that US$35 billion would be necessary to rebuild the system fully. In 2007, hydrocarbon industries accounted for well over 70 per cent of the Iraqi economy and 95 per cent of the government's revenues. Diversification of the economy into non-hydrocarbon industries remain a long-term issue. Services Finance Iraq’s financial services have been the subject of post-Hussein reforms. The 17 private banks established during the 1990s were limited to domestic transactions and attracted few private depositors. Those banks and two main state banks were badly damaged by the international embargo of the 1990s. To further privatize and expand the system, in 2003 the Coalition Provisional Authority removed restrictions on international bank transactions and freed the Central Bank of Iraq (CBI) from government control. In its first year of independent operation, the CBI received credit for limiting Iraq’s inflation. In 2004 three foreign banks received licenses to do business in Iraq. Private Security Because of the danger posed by Iraq’s ongoing insurgency, the security industry has been a uniquely prosperous part of the services sector. Often run by former U.S. military personnel, in 2005 at least 26 companies offered personal and institutional protection, surveillance, and other forms of security. Retail In the early post-Hussein period, a freewheeling retail trade in all types of commodities straddled the line between legitimate and illegitimate commerce, taking advantage of the lack of income tax and import controls. Tourism The Iraqi tourism industry, which in peaceful times has profited from Iraq’s many places of cultural interest (earning US$14 million in 2001), has been completely dormant since 2003. Despite conditions, in 2005 the Iraqi Tourism Board maintained a staff of 2,500 and 14 regional offices. Telecommunications During 2003-8, mobile phone subscriptions had expanded over hundredfold to 10 million nationwide, reported the Brookings Institute. Labor force In 2002 Iraq’s labor force was estimated at 6.8 million people. Recent figures on labor participation by sector are not available. In 1996 some 66.4 percent of the labor force worked in services, 17.5 percent in industry, and 16.1 percent in agriculture. In 2004 estimates of Iraq’s unemployment ranged from 30 percent to 60 percent. +Nationwide unemployment rate since May, 2003 "Reconstructing Iraq", International Crisis Group, Report, September 2, 2004, p. 16, footnote 157. Month UnemploymentRateNation-wide 2003-05 May N/A 2003-06 June 50-60% 2003-07 July N/A 2003-08 August 50-60% 2003-09 September N/A 2003-10 October 40-50% 2003-11 November N/A 2003-12 December 45-55% 2004-01 to 05 (January - May) 30-45% 2004-06 to 11 (June - November) 30-40% 2004-12 December 28-40% 2005-01 to 10 (January - October) 27-40% 2005-11 to 12 (November - December) 25-40% 2006-01 to 12 (January - December) 25-40% 2007-01 to 12 (January - December) 25-40% 2008-01 to 12 (January - December) 25-40% 2009-01 (January) 23-38% The CPA has referred to a 25% unemployment rate, the Iraqi Ministry of Planning mentioned a 30% unemployment rate, whereas the Iraqi Ministry of Social Affairs claims it to be 48%. Other sources are claiming a 20% unemployment rate and a probably 60% under-employment rate. The actual figure is problematic because of high participation in black-market activities and poor security conditions in many populous areas. In central Iraq, security concerns discouraged the hiring of new workers and the resumption of regular work schedules. At the same time, the return of Iraqis from other countries increased the number of job seekers. In late 2004, most legitimate jobs were in the government, the army, the oil industry, and security-related enterprises. Under Saddam Hussein Hussein, many of the highest-paid workers were employed by the greatly overstaffed government, whose overthrow disrupted the input of these people to the economy. In 2004 the U.S. Agency for International Development committed US$1 billion for a worker-training program. In early 2004, the minimum wage was US$70 per month. External trade Iraqi exports in 2006 From the 1990s until 2003, the international trade embargo restricted Iraq’s export activity almost exclusively to oil. In 2003 oil accounted for about US$7.4 billion of Iraq’s total US$7.6 billion of export value, and statistics for earlier years showed similar proportions. After the end of the trade embargo in 2003 expanded the range of exports, oil continued to occupy the dominant position: in 2004 Iraq’s export income doubled (to US$16.5 billion), but oil accounted for all but US$340 million (2 percent) of the total. In late 2004, sabotage significantly reduced oil output, and experts forecast that output, hence exports, would be below capacity in 2005 as well. In 2004 the chief export markets were the United States (which accounted for nearly half), Italy, France, Jordan, Canada, and the Netherlands. In 2004 the value of Iraq’s imports was US$21.7 billion, incurring a trade deficit of about US$5.2 billion. In 2003 the main sources of Iraq’s imports were Turkey, Jordan, Vietnam, the United States, Germany, and Britain. Because of Iraq’s inactive manufacturing sector, the range of imports was quite large, including food, fuels, medicines, and manufactured goods. 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2,764 | Factors_of_production | In economics, factors of production (or productive inputs) are the resources employed to produce goods and services. They facilitate production but do not become part of the product (as with raw materials) or significantly transformed by the production process (as with fuel used to power machinery). To 19th century economists, the factors of production were land (natural resources, gifts from nature), labor (the ability to work), and capital goods (human-made tools and equipment). Recent textbooks have added entrepreneurship and "human capital" (labor's education and skills). "Land" can include ecosystems while sometimes the overall state of technology is seen as a factor of production. Parkin, Michael and Esquivel, Gerardo, Macroeconomía, Addison Wesley, 5ed (1999), p. 160. In any event, it is the scarcity of the factors of production which poses humanity's economic problem, often forcing us to choose between competing goals. The number and definition of factors varies, depending on theoretical purpose, empirical emphasis, or school of economics. Milton Friedman (2007), Price Theory, pp. 201-02. Differences are most stark when it comes to deciding which factor is the most important. For example, in the Austrian view -- often shared by neoclassical and other "free market" economists -- the primary factor of production is the time of the entrepreneur, which, when combined with other factors, determines the amount of output of a particular good or service. However, other authors argue that "entrepreneurship" is nothing but a specific kind of labor or human capital and should not be treated separately. The Marxian school goes further, seeing labor (in general, including entrepreneurship) as the primary factor of production, since it is required to produce capital goods and to utilize the gifts of nature. It is unlikely that this difference of opinions between the "Austrians" and the Marxists will be ended soon. But this debate is more about basic economic theory (the role of the factors in the economy) than it is about the definition of the factors of production. Historical schools and factors In the interpretation of the currently dominant view of classical economic theory developed by neoclassical economists, the term "factors" did not exist until after the classical period and is not to be found in any of the literature of that time. Classical price theory follows "costs of reproduction" and does not allow for "factor" gains." [T]he great questions of Rent, Wages, and Profits must be explained by the proportions in which the whole produce is divided between landlords, capitalists, and labourers, and which are not essentially connected with the doctrine of value." (Ricardo, David,1820; 1951, "The Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo", edited by Piero Sraffa, 10 Volumes, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1951–1955, VIII, p. 197. Physiocracy In French Physiocracy, the main European school of economics before Adam Smith, the productive process is explained as the interaction between participating classes of the population. These classes are therefore the factors of production within physiocracy: capital, entrepreneurship, land, and labor. The farmer labors on land (sometimes using "crafts") to produce food, fiber, and the like. The artisan labors to produce important capital goods (crafts) to be used by the other economic actors. The landlord is only a consumer of food and crafts and produces nothing at all. The merchant labors to export food in exchange for foreign imports. Classical The classical economics of Smith, Ricardo, and their followers focuses on physical resources in defining its factors of production, and discusses the distribution of cost and value among these factors. Adam Smith and David Ricardo referred to the "component parts of price" Adam Smith (1776), The Wealth of Nations, B.I, Ch.6, Of the Component Parts of the Price of Commodities in paragraph I.6.9. as the costs of using: Land or natural resource – naturally-occurring goods such as water, air, soil, minerals, flora and fauna that are used in the creation of products. The payment for land use and the received income of a land owner is rent. Labor – human effort used in production which also includes technical and marketing expertise. The payment for someone else's labor and all income received from ones own labor is wages. Labour can also be classified as the physical and mental contribution of an employee to the production of the good(s). The capital stock – human-made goods (or means of production) which are used in the production of other goods. These include machinery, tools and buildings. The classical economists also employed the word "capital" in reference to money. Money however was not considered to be a factor of production in the sense of capital stock, since it is not used to directly produce any good. The return to loaned money or to loaned stock was styled as interest while the return to the actual proprietor of capital stock (tools, etc) was styled as profit. See Returns (economics) Marxian Marx considered the "elementary factors of the labor-process" or "productive forces" to be: Labor ("work itself") The subject of labor (objects transformed by labor) The instruments of labor (or means of production). "Das Kapital," chapter 7, section 1. The "subject of labor" refers to natural resources and raw materials, including land. The "instruments of labor" are tools, in the broadest sense. They include factory buildings, infrastructure, and other human-made objects that facilitate labor's production of goods and services. This view seems similar to the classical perspective described above. But unlike the classical school and many economists today, Marx made a clear distinction between labor actually done and an individual's "labor power" or ability to work. Labor done is often referred to nowadays as "effort" or "labor services." Labor-power might be seen as a stock which can produce a flow of labor. Labor, not labor power, is the key factor of production for Marx and the basis for Marx's labor theory of value. The hiring of labor power only results in the production of goods or services ("use-values") when organized and regulated (often by the "management"). How much labor is actually done depends on the importance of conflict or tensions within the labor process. Neoclassical economics Neoclassical economics, the currently dominant school of economics, started with the classical factors of production of land, labor, and capital. However, it developed an alternative theory of value and distribution. Many of its practitioners have added a fourth factor of production. Further distinctions Further distinctions from classical and neoclassical microeconomics include the following: Capital – This has many meanings, including the financial capital raised to operate and expand a business. In much economics, however, "capital" (without any qualification) means goods that can help produce other goods in the future, the result of investment. It refers to machines, roads, factories, schools, infrastructure, and office buildings which humans have produced in order to produce goods and services. Fixed capital – This includes machinery, factories, equipment, new technology, factories, buildings, computers, and other goods that are designed to increase the productive potential of the economy for future years. Nowadays, many consider computer software to be a form of fixed capital and it is counted as such in the National Income and Product Accounts of the United States and other countries. This type of capital does not change due to the production of the good. Working capital – This includes the stocks of finished and semi-finished goods that will be economically consumed in the near future or will be made into a finished consumer good in the near future. These are often called inventories. The phrase "working capital" has also been used to refer to liquid assets (money) needed for immediate expenses linked to the production process (to pay salaries, invoices, taxes, interests...) Either way, the amount or nature of this type of capital usually changed during the production process. Financial capital - This is simply the amount of money the initiator of the business has invested in it. "Financial capital" often refers to his or her net worth tied up in the business (assets minus liabilities) but the phrase often includes money borrowed from others. A fourth factor? As mentioned, recent authors have added to the classical list. For example, J.B. Clark saw the co-ordinating function in production and distribution as being served by entrepreneurs; Frank Knight introduced managers who co-ordinate using their own money (financial capital) and the financial capital of others. In contrast, many economists today consider "human capital" (skills and education]] as the fourth factor of production, with entrepreneurship as a form of human capital. Yet others refer to intellectual capital. More recently, many have begun to see "social capital" as a factor, as contributing to production of goods and services. Entrepreneurship Consider entrepreneurship as a factor of production, leaving debate aside. In markets, entrepreneurs combine the other factors of production, land, labor, and capital in order to make a profit. Often these entrepreneurs are seen as innovators, developing new ways to produce and new products. In a planned economy, central planners decide how land, labor, and capital should be used to provide for maximum benefit for all citizens. Of course, just as with market entrepreneurs, the benefits may mostly accrue to the entrepreneurs themselves. The word has been used in other ways. The sociologist C. Wright Mills refers to "new entrepreneurs" who work within and between corporate and government bureaucracies in new and different ways. "White Collar: The American Middle Classes," 1956. Oxford: Galaxy Books, pp. 94-100. Others (such as those practicing public choice theory) refer to "political entrepreneurs," i.e., politicians and other actors. Much controversy rages about the benefits produced by entrepreneurship. (Wasn't the person who invented crack cocaine an entrepreneur?) But the real issue is about how well institutions they operate in (markets, planning, bureaucracies, government) serve the public. This concerns such issues as the relative importance of market failure and government failure. Human capital Contemporary analysis distinguishes tangible, physical, or nonhuman capital goods from other forms of capital such as human capital. Human capital is embodied in a human being and is acquired through education and training, whether formal or on the job. Human capital is important in modern economic theory. Education is a key element in explaining economic growth over time (see growth accounting). It is also often seen as the solution to the "Leontief paradox" in international trade. Intellectual capital A more recent coinage is intellectual capital, used especially as to information technology, recorded music, written material. This intellectual property is protected by copyrights, patents, and trademarks. This view posits a new Information Age, which changes the roles and nature of land, labour, and capital. During the Information Age (circa 1971-1991), the Knowledge Age (circa 1991 to 2002), and the Intangible Economy (2002-present) many see the primary factors of production as having become less concrete. These factors of production are now seen as knowledge, collaboration, process-engagement, and time quality. According to economic theory, a "factor of production" is used to create value and allow economic performance. As the four "modern-day" factors are all essentially abstract, the current economic age has been called the Intangible Economy. Intangible factors of production are subject to network effects and the contrary economic laws such as the law of increasing returns. It is therefore important to differentiate between conventional (tangible) economics and intangible economics when discussing issues related to factors of production which change according to the economic era that society is experiencing. For example, land was a key factor of production in the Agricultural Age. Social capital Social capital is often hard to define, but to one textbook it is: the stock of trust, mutual understanding, shared values, and socially held knowledge that facilitates the social coordination of economic activity. Neva Goodwin, Julie A. Nelson, Frank Ackerman, and Thomas Weisskopf, 2005. "Microeconomics in Context," p. 124 Knowledge, ideas, and values, and human relationships are transmitted as part of the culture. This type of capital cannot be owned by individuals and is instead part of the common stock owned by humanity. But they often crucial to maintaining a peaceful society in which normal economic transactions and production can occur. Another kind of social capital can be owned individually. Joel Sobel. 2002. Can We Trust Social Capital? Journal of Economic Literature. 40(1) March, pp. 139-54. This kind of individual asset involves reputation, what accountants call "goodwill," and/or what others call "street cred," along with fame, honor, and prestige. It fits with Pierre Bourdieu’s definition of "social capital" as: an attribute of an individual in a social context. One can acquire social capital through purposeful actions and can transform social capital into conventional economic gains. The ability to do so, however, depends on the nature of the social obligations, connections, and networks, available to you. quoted in Sobel. This means that the value of individual social assets that Bourdeiu points to depend on the current "social capital" as defined above. See also Cost of production theory of value Factor world Labor theory of value Microeconomics Production, costs, and pricing Production theory basics Productivity world Resource-Based View References Condensed Version of AP U.S. History Book. 2007 External links Factors of production with definition and explanation in clear terms For German-speaking visitors: see also Produktionsfaktoren in the Lexikon der sozialoekologischen Marktwirtschaft | Factors_of_production |@lemmatized economics:11 factor:36 production:41 productive:4 input:1 resource:6 employ:2 produce:13 good:21 service:7 facilitate:3 become:2 part:5 product:4 raw:2 material:3 significantly:1 transform:3 process:7 fuel:1 use:16 power:5 machinery:3 century:1 economist:6 land:13 natural:3 gift:2 nature:5 labor:35 ability:3 work:7 capital:48 human:15 made:1 tool:4 equipment:2 recent:3 textbook:2 add:3 entrepreneurship:8 education:4 skill:2 include:11 ecosystem:1 sometimes:2 overall:1 state:2 technology:3 see:12 parkin:1 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2,765 | Narrow_gauge_railway | A narrow gauge railway (or narrow gauge railroad) is a railway that has a track gauge narrower than the of standard gauge railways. Most existing narrow gauge railways have gauges of or less. Overview Comparison of standard gauge (blue) and one common narrow gauge (red) width. A train at Bad Bubendorf station on the gauge Waldenburgerbahn between Liestal and Waldenburg in Switzerland. Typical industrial gauge tracks seen here at theLeighton Buzzard Narrow Gauge Railway Since narrow gauge railways are usually built with smaller radius curves and smaller structure gauges, they can be substantially cheaper to build, equip, and operate than standard gauge or broad gauge railways, particularly in mountainous terrain. The lower costs of narrow gauge railways mean they are often built to serve industries and communities where the traffic potential would not justify the costs of building a standard or broad gauge line. Narrow gauge railways also have specialized use in mines and other environments where a very small structure gauge makes a very small loading gauge necessary. On the other hand, standard gauge or broad gauge railways generally have a greater haulage capacity and allow greater speeds than narrow gauge systems. Historically, many narrow gauge railways were built as part of specific industrial enterprises and were primarily industrial railways rather than general carriers. Some common uses for these industrial narrow gauge railways were mining, logging, construction, tunnelling, quarrying, and the conveying of agricultural products. Extensive narrow gauge networks were constructed in many parts of the world for these purposes. Significant sugarcane railways still operate in Cuba, Fiji, Java, the Philippines and in Queensland in Australia. Narrow gauge railway equipment remains in common use for the construction of tunnels. The other significant reason for narrow gauge railways to be constructed was to take advantage of reduced construction costs in mountainous or difficult terrain, hence the national railway systems of countries such as Indonesia, Japan and New Zealand are primarily or solely narrow gauge. Trench railways of the World War I western front demonstrate a brief military application of this advantage. Non-industrial narrow gauge mountain railways are or were common in the Rocky Mountains of the United States and the Pacific Cordillera of Canada, in Mexico, Switzerland, the former Yugoslavia, Greece, India, and Costa Rica. Another country with a notable national railway built to narrow gauge is South Africa where the "Cape gauge" of is the most common gauge. In India, the narrow gauge system is slowly being converted to broad gauge, although some of India's most famous railways, the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway and Kalka-Shimla Railway are both narrow gauge. All (metre gauge) railways are being converted to (broad gauge) under the Unigauge project. History of narrow gauge railways Woodcut from De re metallica showing narrow gauge railway in mine, 1556 The earliest recorded railway is shown in the De re metallica of 1556, which shows a mine in the Czech Republic with a railway of approximately gauge. During the 16th century railways were mainly restricted to hand-pushed narrow gauge lines in mines throughout Europe. During the 17th century mine railways were extended to provide transportation above ground. These lines were industrial, connecting mines with nearby transportation points, usually canals or other waterways. These railways were usually built to the same narrow gauge as the mine railways from which they developed. Advantages of narrow gauge Narrow gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are usually lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives (smaller loading gauge) as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels (smaller structure gauge) and tighter curves. Narrow gauge is thus often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. It is also used in sparsely populated areas where the potential demand is too low for broader gauge railways to be economically viable. This is the case in most of Australia and Southern Africa, where extremely old soils can support only population densities too low for standard gauge to be viable. There are many narrow gauge street tramways, particularly in Europe where gauge tramways are common. Narrow gauge allows tighter turning than gauge or gauge in restricted city streets . The tighter turning circle make balloon loops at the end of routes easier, which in turn allows the use of unidirectional trams with a driver's cab at one end only, and doors on one side, allowing more space for passengers . Extensive narrow gauge railway systems served the front-line trenches of both sides in World War I. After the end of the war the surplus equipment from these created a small boom in narrow gauge railway building in Europe. For temporary railways that will be removed after short term use, such as for construction, the logging industry, the mining industry or large scale construction projects, especially in confined spaces, such as the Channel Tunnel a narrow gauge railway is substantially cheaper and easier to install and remove. This use of such railways has almost vanished due to the capabilities of modern trucks. In many countries narrow gauge railways were built as "feeder" or "branch" lines to feed traffic to more important standard gauge lines, due to their lower construction costs. The choice was often not between a narrow gauge railway and a standard gauge one, but between a narrow gauge railway and none at all. Disadvantages of narrow gauge Narrow gauge railways cannot interchange equipment such as freight and passenger cars freely with the standard gauge or broad gauge railways they link with, unless they exchange bogies. That means that narrow gauge lines have a built-in cost of transshipping people and freight to the mainline railway system. The cost of transshipment can be a substantial drain on the finances of a railway because it involves expensive and time consuming manual labour or substantial capital expenditure. Some bulk commodities, such as coal, ore and gravel, can be mechanically transshipped, but this still incurs time penalties and these mechanical devices are often complex to maintain. One solution to the problem of transshipment is bogie exchange between cars. Another solution to this problem is the roll-block system. Although successfully deployed in some countries such as Germany and Austria, this technique came too late for the majority of narrow gauge lines. Transfer of containers is also an option. The problem of interchangeability is less serious for regions that have a large system of narrow gauge lines, such as northern Spain, and does not exist in those countries in which a narrow gauge is standard, eg the Cape gauge in New Zealand, South Africa and the Australian island state of Tasmania or the metre gauge in Malaysia and Thailand. Of course, it exists for railways in those countries that have a gauge other than the locally predominant one. The problem of interchangeability is more serious in North America because a continent-wide system of freight car interchange developed. All the standard gauge railways in North America use the same standard couplings and air brakes, which means that freight cars can be freely interchanged between railways from Northern Canada to Southern Mexico. Railways which need more freight cars can simply borrow them from other railways during peak periods, while the railways who own the cars receive payments for them at rates set by common agreement. Peak demand, particularly for grain shipment, occurs in different parts of North America at different times, so freight cars are shuffled back and forth across the continent to wherever they are needed. Motive power can also be interchanged, which sometimes results in Mexican locomotives pulling Canadian freight cars and vice versa. Narrow gauge railways could not participate in this system, which meant that they usually had to own several times as much rolling stock as equivalent standard gauge railways, and they did not receive any cash flow for surplus equipment during periods of low demand. These problems also existed for railways with a broader gauge than the regional standard, but all North American broad gauge railways were converted to standard gauge by 1910, (see Rail gauge in North America). Since most narrow gauge railways were undercapitalized to begin with, increased costs and lower revenues eventually resulted in nearly all North American narrow gauge railways either going bankrupt or being converted to standard gauge. In many cases, larger railways subsidized the conversion of connecting short-line railways to standard gauge. Another problem with narrow gauge railways is that they lacked room to grow - their cheap construction was bought at the price of being engineered only for their initial traffic demands. While a standard or broad gauge railway could more easily be upgraded to handle heavier, faster traffic, many narrow gauge railways were impractical to improve. Speeds and loads hauled could not increase, so traffic density was significantly limited. Narrow gauge railways can be built to handle increased speed and loading, but at the price of removing most of the narrow gauge's cost advantage over standard or broad gauge. Because of the reduced stability of narrower gauge, narrow gauge trains are not able to run at nearly the same high speeds as those networks with broader gauges unless the tracks are aligned with greater precision. However in Japan and Queensland, Australia, recent permanent way improvements have allowed trains on gauge tracks to run at and higher. Queensland Rail's tilt train is presently the fastest train in Australia, despite the gauge it runs on. Standard gauge or broad gauge trains can run at up to ; this is most evident in the case of the Japanese Shinkansen, a network of standard gauge lines built solely for high speed rail in a country where narrow gauge is the predominant standard. The current speed record for standard gauge lines is , set by TGV East, a high-speed train operating from Paris to Champagne and other cities in France and Switzerland. Exceptions to the rule The heavy duty narrow gauge railways in Australia (eg Queensland), South Africa and New Zealand, show that if the track is built to a heavy-duty standard, a performance almost as good as a standard gauge line is possible. 200-car trains operate on the Sishen-Saldanha railway in South Africa, and high-speed tilt-trains in Queensland (see below). Another example of a heavy-duty narrow gauge line is EFVM in Brazil. gauge, it has over-100-pound rail and a loading gauge almost as large as US non-excess-height lines. It sees locomotives and 200+ car trains. In South Africa and New Zealand, the loading gauge is similar to the restricted British loading gauge, and in New Zealand some British Rail Mark 2 carriages have been rebuilt with new bogies for use by Tranz Scenic (Wellington-Palmerston North service), Tranz Metro (Wellington-Masterton service) and Veolia (Auckland suburban services). It is possible to build standard and even broad gauge lines cheaply to light railway standards with short radii (tight curves) and steep grades, instead of building narrow gauge lines. The trains operate at lower speeds and with lower capacities. This allows through-routeing of rolling stock, and simplifies later upgrading. Gauges used There are many narrow gauges in use or formerly used between gauge and gauge. They fall into three broad categories: Medium gauge railways Railways built on gauges between and are sometimes referred to as "medium-gauge" railways. In those parts of the world where the railways were built to British standards, this meant most commonly a gauge of or the "Cape gauge", while those built to American standards were normally . Railways built to European metric standards were most commonly of or "metre gauge" and gauge. These larger narrow gauges are capable of hauling most traffic with little difficulty and are thus suitable for large-scale "common carrier" applications, although their ultimate speed and load limits are lower than for standard gauge. In many countries, gauges in this range are the local standard. Two foot gauge railways A gauge train on the Leighton Buzzard Light Railway in England. The next natural "grouping" of narrow gauge railways covers the range from just below to just below , although the majority are between and . These lightweight lines can be built at a substantial cost saving over medium or standard gauge railways, but are generally restricted in their carrying capacity. The majority of these were built in mountainous areas and most were to carry mineral traffic from mines to ports or standard gauge raiways. Many were industrial lines rather than common carriers, though there were exceptions such as the extensive lines built in the former Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the "Maine two footer" lines in New England. Trench railways of World War I produced the greatest concentration of two foot gauge railways observed to date. The most common metric gauges in this group are and . Minimum gauge railways Gauges below were rare, but did exist. In Britain, Sir Arthur Heywood developed gauge estate railways, while in France Decauville produced a range of industrial railways running on and tracks, most commonly in such restricted environments such as underground mine railways. A number of gauge railways were built in Britain to serve ammunition depots and other military facilities, particularly during the First World War. Narrow gauge railways less than gauge are known as minimum gauge railways. Narrow gauge worldwide Europe Austria The first railway in Austria was the narrow gauge line from Gmunden in the Salzkammergut to Budweis, now in the Czech Republic, this was gauge. Some two dozen lines were built in gauge , a few in gauge. The first was the Steyrtalbahn. Others were built by provincial governments, some lines are still in common carrier use and a number of others are preservation projects. The tramway network in Innsbruck is also metre gauge; in Linz the rather unusual gauge of is in use. Train of the Mariazellerbahn in Lower Austria Bulgaria From the 19th into the early 20th there were many and gauge railways in Bulgaria, but today, only 245 km remain. This is the Septemvri - Dobrinishte line, where the highest railway station on the Balkan peninsula is situated. The line although in a worn out condition, is still actively used - the trains are pulled by Henschel locos. One of the old steam locomotives has been restored recently and is used occasionally for hauling tourist trains. The extensive Sofia tramway network is 1009 mm metre gauge. Two old steam locos at Bansko station on the same line Belarus Belarus has one operating gauge Children's railway, located in Minsk. Locos - TU2. Some industrial narrow gauge railways can still be found in Belarus particularly associated with the peat extraction industry. Belgium The Vicinal or Buurtspoor were a system of narrow gauge local railways or tramways covering the whole country and having a greater routage than the mainline railway system. They were gauge and the system included electrified city lines as well as rural lines using steam locomotives and railcars; half of the system was electrified. Many lines carried freight. Only the coastal line and two routes near Charleroi are still in commercial use, four museums hold significant collections of former SNCV/NMBS rolling stock, one of which is the ASVi museum in Thuin. The tramway networks in Antwerp and Ghent are also metre gauge. The Stoomcentrum Maldegem has a gauge line laid on the former standard gauge trackbed to Donk. Czech Republic Several lines were built in the nineteenth century. The most notable lines are Obrataň-Jindřichův Hradec-Nová Bystřice and Třemešná ve Slezsku-Osoblaha, that are still in operation. Estonia Four museums lines and some industrial peat railways remain in Estonia. The Lavassaare railway museum houses a large collection of steam and diesel locomotives with a 2 km long gauge railway. There is a museum with a gauge, 500 m long line in Avinurme which houses one locomotive and a collection of wagons. An underground museum with a short electric line is located in Kivioli. A former military railway line with a gauge is located on Naissaar Island. Finland The vast majority of Finnish narrow gauge railways were owned and operated by private companies. There are only a few instances where narrow gauge railways were in direct connection with each other, and those interchanges did not last for long. The railways never formed a regional rail traffic network, but were only focused on maintaining connections between the national broad gauge railway network and the off-line industries. One of the longest common carriers was the Lovisa-Wesijärvi railway (1900–1960) that operated a 80-kilometre (50-mile) line between Lahti and Loviisa. Other notable ones were the Hyvinkää–Karkkila railway that operated a 46-kilometre (28-mile) line, and the Jokioinen railway that operated a 23-kilometre (14-mile) line until 1974, being the last common carrier narrow gauge railway. Other lines were notably shorter. The common gauges were and , with a few railways built with and gauges. Narrow gauge tourist and heritage lines of and gauge still operate. Lovisa-Wesijärvi Railway (LWR) 2-8-0 steam locomotive number 6 (built in 1909) in running order on Jokioinen Museum Railway, Finland. France The French National Railways used to run a considerable number of lines, a few of which still operate mostly in tourist areas, such as the St Gervais-Vallorcine (Alps) and the "Train Jaune" (yellow train) in the Pyrenees. The original French scheme was that every sous-prefecture should be rail connected. Extensive near gauge lines were also built for the sugar-beet industry in the north often using ex-military equipment after the First World War. Decauville was a famous French manufacturer of industrial narrow gauge railway equipment and equipped one of the most extensive regional narrow gauge railway, the Chemins de Fer du Calvados. Corsica has a narrow gauge network of two lines following the coast line, that are connected by one line crossing the island through highly mountaineous terrain. The petit train d'Artouste, a tourist line in the Pyrenees, uses gauge. Germany A number of narrow gauge lines survive, largely as a consequence of German reunification, in the former East Germany where some of them form part of the public transport system as active commercial carriers. Most extensive of those still employing steam traction is the Harz mountain group of metre-gauge lines, the Harzer Schmalspurbahnen. Other notable lines are the Zittau-Oybin-Jonsdorf line in Saxony, the Mollibahn and the Rügensche Kleinbahn on the Isle of Rügen on the Baltic coast and the Radebeul-Radeburg line, Weisseritztalbahn in the suburbs of Dresden. Although most rely on the tourist trade, in some areas they provide significant employment as steam traction is particularly labour intensive. In the Western part of Germany, Selfkantbahn (close to Heinsberg near Aachen) and Brohltalbahn (Linz/Rhine) are the best known ones, offering services in summer weekends. See also Narrow gauge railways in Saxony Greece The Peloponnese narrow gauge network length is about 914 km. Of this, gauge is used for 892 km. This is the network that connects major cities in the Peloponnese. The remaining 22 km form the Diakofton-Kalavryta rack railway, which uses gauge. The Peloponnese network has suffered various setbacks, ranging from the abandonment of entire lines (such as the Pyrgos-Katakolon railway) to inefficient management on part of the public Greek railway operator, OSE, which resulted in poor quality of services and rolling stock). Currently major restoration works are carried out, which have resulted in parts of the line having been closed. Additionally, the reactivation of certain lines that were closed down during the latter half of the 20th century is planned, mainly the Pyrgos-Katakolon line and in parts of western Greece (around Agrinion and Messologgi). Another small railway that uses narrow gauge is the Mt. Pelion railway, originally from Volos to Milies. Currently parts of the line are operational during the summer, mainly for excursions. There was also a metre gauge network in Thessaly. This has now been replaced with single track standard gauge lines from Volos to Larissa and Palaiofarsalos to Kalampaka. However, the old narrow gauge tracks remain in place between Velestino and Palaiofarsalos via Aerino, so that occasional special excursion trains use them. A metric line network existed in Attica, operated by Attica Railways and later by SPAP. The line ran from the center of Athens to Kifissia with a branch from Heraklion to Lavrion, serving the suburbs and towns of the region as well as Dionysos marble quarries and Lavrion mines. The line to Kifissia closed in 1938 and was reopened as standard gauge in the 1950s, operated by ISAP. The line to Lavrion closed in 1957 due to political pressures from the road transport lobby. Sections of the Lavrion line still survive and there are plans to reopen the southern part (Koropi-Lavrion) as an electrified standard gauge suburban line. Development of open lignite mines for electricity production led to the construction of industrial railway networks in Ptolemais, Western Macedonia ( industrial gauge, electrified) and Aliveri, Evoia Island (metric gauge). These networks are no longer active, as the lignite mines they served are exhausted. The railway in Diakofto-Kalavryta and the in Volos-Milies (the current operational line is Lechonia-Milies, since the part Volos-Lechonia was abandoned) are heritage railways. The network of Peloponnese, however, is a busy passenger line, although there are no longer freight trains. A major project has started to construct new lines in the busiest parts of Peloponnese and rebuild the century old tracks in the remaining. The branch lines from Asprohoma to Messini and from Pyrgos to Katakolo were re-openned for passenger services in September and April 2007 respectively and the Argos to Nafplio line is expected to follow, when services are reinstated on the Korinthos to Tripolis line in late 2008. It is the only extensive and authoritative source for the history of Greek railways. Contains brief history, simple line maps ans extensive list of rolling stock until 1997. A bridge on the Pelion Railway, Greece ALCo locomotive of Hellenic State Railways at Corinth Old Railway Station Hungary The former Kingdom boasted a narrow gauge network thousands of kilometres in length, most of it using gauge and constructed between 1870 and 1920. Landlords, mines, agricultural and forest estates established their own branch lines which, as they united into regional networks, increasingly played a role in regional passenger traffic. Following the Treaty of Trianon some railways were cut by the new border, many remained on the territory of Romania, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. Due to a lack of intact roads, following World War II in many places narrow-gauge railway was the only reasonable way to get around. In 1968 the Communist government started to implement a policy to dismantle the narrow-gauge network in favour of road traffic. Freight haulage on the few remaining lines continued to decline until 1990 from when a patchwork of railways was gradually taken over by associations and forest managements for tourist purposes. State Railways operate narrow-gauge railways at Nyíregyháza and Kecskemét that continue to play a role in regional transport. Children aged 10 to 14 provide services at the Budapest Children's Railway. Széchenyi Museum Railway in Nagycenk Mátra Railway in Gyöngyös Zsuzsi Scenic Railway Debrecen Ireland Several narrow gauge systems once existed in Ireland. In County Donegal an extensive network existed, with two companies operating from Derry – the Londonderry & Lough Swilly Railway (L&LSR) and the County Donegal Railways (CDRJC). Well known was the West Clare Railway – in County Clare, which saw diesel locomotion before closure. The Cavan & Leitrim Railway (C&LR) operated in what is now the border area of County Cavan and County Leitrim. Some smaller narrow gauge routes also existed in County Antrim and also County Cork – notably the Cork Blackrock & Passage Railway. Apart from small heritage venues, the Irish narrow gauge today only survives in the bogs of the Midlands as part of Bord na Móna's extensive industrial network for transporting harvested peat to distribution centres or power plants. See also: History of rail transport in Ireland Guinness brewery locomotive Italy Narrow gauge railways in Italy are (or were) mainly build with gauge, with some gauge lines and with a few other gauges. In Sardinia, a network of narrow gauge lines (950 mm) was built, to complement the standard-gauge main network which covered the main cities and ports. The lines were: Siliqua-San Giovanni Suergiu-Calasetta (dismantled) Iglesias-Monteponi-San Giovanni Suergiu (dismantled) Monteponi-Portovesme (dismantled) Cagliari-Mandas-Isili-Sorgono Mandas-Gairo-Arbatax (tourist service only) Gairo-Jerzu (dismantled) Isili-Villamar-Villacidro (dismantled)Villamar-Ales (dismantled) Macomer-Bosa (dismantled between Bosa Marina and Bosa) (tourist service only) Macomer-Tirso-Nuoro Tirso-Ozieri (dismantled) Sassari-Alghero, Sassari-Sorso Sassari-Tempio Pausania-Luras-Palau (tourist service only) Luras-Monti (dismantled). Of the lines which are still present, only Cagliari-Mandas-Isili Sassari-Alghero Sassari-Sorso Sassari-Nulvi Macomer-Nuoro still carry regular passenger services, operated by Ferrovie della Sardegna (Railways of Sardinia). The others only operate a scenic tourist service known as Trenino verde (small green train) In Sicily, the Ferrovia Circumetnea ( gauge) runs around the Mount Etna. Other narrow gauge lines operated, the most important of which was the Castelvetrano-Porto Empedocle, but are now closed. In Trento only the narrow gauge lines from Trento to Malè and Marilleva are still operating by Trentino Trasporti. In Bolzano-Bozen (Alto Adige/South Tyrol) there are two gauge lines: the Rittnerbahn, or Ferrovia del Renon, a very nice rural tramway and the Laas-Lasa feight private railway to marble cave, that use a funicular too. There are two tourist mines using gauge trains. Between Naples and Sorrento, around the base of Mt. Vesuvius, the Circumvesuviana railway operates frequent services on tracks. In the Puglia and Basilicata regions there are some lines connecting Bari, Potenza, Matera and Avigliano. These are owned by Ferrovie Apulo Lucane. In Calabria there are the Catanzaro Lido-Catanzaro-Cosenza line, with a branch to Camigliatello Silano, and two lines from Gioia Tauro. All are owned by Ferrovie della Calabria. The Genova-Casella is a line. The Trieste-Opicina is a tramway with a funicular. Railcar on the Ferrovia del Renon Isle of Man Both main railways in the Isle of Man are of gauge. The Isle of Man Steam Railway to the southwest is operated largely as a tourist attraction but the Manx Electric Railway to the northeast is a commercially operated railway system though its operation is closer to that of a tramway than a railway. The Snaefell Mountain Railway, climbs the island's main peak and has a gauge of ; it is the sole operating Fell Incline Railway System in the world. The Isle of Man Steam Railway Latvia There are one public, one museum and some industrial peat railways. A public narrow gauge railway of around 30 km long joins the towns of Gulbene and Aluksne (two trains per day). More: http://www.banitis.lv. There is a museum railway in Ventspils. The gauge is and the length is a 2 km circle. The locomotives are former "Brigadelok" steam locomotives. From 1918 until the early 1960s they ran a regular service from Ventspils along the coast to Mazirbe and further down to Talsi and Stende. The peat companies mainly use , but there also exist and gauge railways. Lithuania 158.8 km of narrow gauge lines remain, although only 68.4 km of them (serving five stations) are regularly used, employing 12 locomotives. They are included in the Registry of Immovable Cultural Heritage Sites of Lithuania. More about this line: http://www.siaurukas.eu/ . There also still exist many peat factories, which have private narrow gauge railways for transportation peat from field to factory. Norway In Norway, a number of main lines were in the 19th century built with narrow gauge, , to save cost in a sparsely populated mountainous country. This included Norway's first own long-distance line, Rørosbanen, connecting Oslo and Trondheim, 1877. Some secondary railways also had this gauge. These railways have been rebuilt to standard gauge or closed down. Some private railways had and one had . A few railways partly still are operated as museum railways, specifically Thamshavnbanen, Urskog-Hølandsbanen and Setesdalsbanen. The tramway in Trondheim, Gråkallbanen is also narrow gauge. The Thamshavnbanen museum Poland There are hundreds of kilometres of , , 785 mm, and narrow gauge lines in Poland. The metre gauge lines are mostly found in the northwest part of the country in Pomerania, while lines are found only in the Upper Silesia region. is the most commonly used narrow gauge; it is used, for example, in the Rogów Narrow Gauge Railway (Rogowska Kolej Wąskotorowa). Some narrow gauge lines in Poland still operate as common carriers (for example the lines operated by SKPL, the Association of Local Railway Haulage), while others survive as tourist attractions. One of the finest of the latter is the narrow gauge railway (Żnińska Kolej Powiatowa) running from Żnin via Wenecja (Polish Venice) and famous Biskupin to Gąsawa in the Pałuki region. Railway traditions of Pałuki date back to July 1894 when the first two lines were opened. In the past, there have also been , and lines. A recreational line 4.2 km long still operates in the Amusement-Recreation Park in Chorzów, Upper Silesia. A similar line, Kolejka Parkowa Maltanka, operates in Poznań. Some of Poland's narrow gauge railways are maintained by volunteers; one organization dedicated to preserving narrow gauge railways is the FPKW, the Polish Narrow Gauge Railways Foundation . Kolejka Parkowa Maltanka - gauge in Poznań The Narrow Gauge Railway in Żnin - the steam locomotive Px38-805 called "Leon" Portugal Portugal had hundreds of km of gauge railways, including: Linha do Porto à Póvoa e Famalicão - Closed. Some of the old trackbed is now used by the Oporto's Metropolitan railcars. Linha de Guimarães - Closed between Guimarães and Fafe, converted into a bike way. The rest is now broad gauge. Linha do Tâmega. Linha do Corgo. Linha do Tua. Linha do Sabor. Linha do Vouga (closed in Sernada do Vouga - Viseu, working in Aveiro - Sernada do Vouga - Albergaria-a-Velha - Oliveira de Azeméis - Espinho). Linha do Dão. Four passenger services are known to still be in operation. The Tamega Line runs between Livração and Amarante in the District of Porto and runs near the River Tâmega. The Corgo line runs from Regua, on the Douro River to Vila Real. The line previously ran to Chaves and the track is still in situ in 2008. There is a small Railway Museum at Chaves. The Tua Line runs north from Tua to Bragança and previously ran to Mirandela. This line is the least used and may close soon but was still operating in spring 2008. The line was closed temporarily on 10 April 2008 after a landslide which cause the derailment of a light inspection vehicle near Santa Luzia station, and it's unknown when the line will reopen. Finally a line still runs from the Porto to Lisbon main line at Espinho to Sernada do Vouga and back to the same main line at Aveiro, Linha do Vouga. This line has a museum at Macinhata do Vouga whilst the main workshops are at Sernada do Vouga. This line may also shut at any time. Railcar of Linha do Tâmega sits in Amarante station. Rail Station of Sernada do Vouga Romania Romanian narrow-gauge tracks usually use a gauge, though there were also some gauge locomotives manufactured at Reşita . Several old narrow-gauge railways in Romania are being renovated for tourist purposes: the one in the Vaser Valley (Maramureş County) is now well known, the line from Abrud to Campeni is sporadically operating and other renovation projects have made tentative steps and may commence regular operations in the near future, such as the Sibiu-Agnita railway, which has been declared as a historical monument and is now starting to be restored by volunteers. More information can be found under "mocăniţă", the term by which such railways are often called in Romanian. Vasar Valley Mocăniţă Mariuţa Russia In Russia, narrow gauge is most often or . gauge is found only in the southern part of Sakhalin, where railways were built by the Japanese. A complete list of Russian and other ex-Soviet Narrow Gauge railways. Slovakia Bratislava municipal transport system uses gauge for trams, while Košice transport system uses standard gauge . Railways, however use standard gauge making Bratislava tram and railways networks incompatible with each other. There is a discussion regarding transforming Bratislava's tram gauge to standard gauge to allow trams to use the railways tracks to increase transportation capabilities of Bratislava's public transportation system. The most notable tourist lines in operation are the gauge Čiernohronská železnica and Oravsko-kysucká lesná železnica - Vychylovka. Another notable narrow gauge tracks include: the Štrbské Pleso - Štrba rack railway and the Tatra Electric Railway (both gauge) in the Tatra mountains and the gauge railway from Trenčianska Teplá to Trenčianske Teplice. Čierny Hron Railway at the station in Čierny Balog The Logging Back Swath Railway Slovenia The narrow gauge railway line called "Konjičanka" was build in the valley of Dravinja, connecting Poljčane and Slovenske Konjice. Serbia The narrow gauge railway line in Mokra Gora on the northern slopes of mountain Zlatibor in Serbia climbs a 300 metre ascent using an unusual loop in the form of the figure 8 – the popular "Šargan Eight". The Šargan Eight in Mokra Gora, Zlatibor (Serbia) Spain In Spain there is an extensive system of gauge railways, in the north of the country, operated by FEVE (Ferrocarriles Españoles de Vía Estrecha, Spanish narrow gauge railways) and EuskoTren (Eusko Trenbideak, Basque Railways). At the centre of this system is a metre gauge line which runs for 650 km (400 miles) along the entire length of Spain's north coast. FEVE and EuskoTren form the longest narrow gauge network in Europe. Also near Madrid, on the mountain range of Guadarrama runs a mountain train through a short but extremely sinuous track, operated by Renfe. Separate metre gauge railways are operated by the FGC (Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya, Catalan regional government railways) from Barcelona to Manresa and Igualada, the FGV (Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat Valenciana, Valencian regional government railways) around the city of Valencia, and the SFM (Serveis Ferroviaris de Mallorca) on the island of Majorca. Also on the island of Majorca, the FS (Ferrocarril de Sóller) operates a gauge electrified railway and connecting tramway. Also the Euskotran in Bilbao, which is not a "light rail", is unusual in new tramway and light rail systems opened in the last twenty-five years in having adopted metre gauge. EuskoTran is part of EuskoTren, the Basque regional government rail company. This company also owns several bus lines. Metro Bilbao started in 1995 on EuskoTren track and has a metre gauge. Electric unit 3500, operated by FEVE, arriving to the Muros de Nalón station, on the way to OviedoEuskoTran (BasqueTram) in Bilbao Sweden Sweden once had some fairly extensive narrow gauge networks, but most narrow gauge railways are now closed. Some were converted to standard gauge (the latest one the line between Berga and Kalmar in the 1970s) and some remains as heritage railways. The most common narrow gauge, (3 Swedish feet), existed only in Sweden. A smaller gauge network existed, and gauge was used mostly by smaller, industrial railways. The only commercial narrow gauge railway left is the Roslagsbanan suburban railway in north-eastern Stockholm (891 mm gauge). A branch line, the Långängsbanan, was built and run for some years as an isolated standard gauge tramway in anticipation of a planned conversion of the main line to raise its capacity, but those plans came to naught and the branch was rebuilt to narrow gauge; it is now closed. The longest other remaining narrow gauge railway is the 891 mm line between Åseda, Hultsfred and Västervik. 70 km between Hultsfred and Västervik as well as the shorter sections between Virserum-Hjortöström and Åseda-Hultanäs are served by tourist trains in the summer, including 4 km of dual gauge track. Sweden also had the unique gauge Köping-Uttersberg-Riddarhyttan Railway. Still other but lesser used gauges in the country were , and . The Roslagsbanan railway, Stockholm Switzerland Switzerland boasts an extensive network of metre gauge railways, many of which interchange traffic (most prominent is the Rhaetian Railway). They are concentrated in the more heavily mountainous areas. The Jungfraubahn terminates at the highest station in Europe. Dual gauge (combined metre- and standard gauge trackway) also exists in many areas. Also, nearly all street tramways in Switzerland were and still are also metre gauge. A train at Bad Bubendorf station on the gauge Waldenburgerbahn between Liestal and Waldenburg in Switzerland. United Kingdom The United Kingdom once had a large number of narrow gauge railways which were mostly isolated from each other. The first locomotive-hauled railway in the world was the narrow gauge Penydarren Tramway in south Wales. Most of the lines were originally built to haul minerals or agricultural products over short distances, though many also carried passengers. The longest passenger line was the combined Welsh Highland and Ffestiniog railways at 36 miles/57.9 km. Only a few of these lines survive as commercial common carriers. The great majority of the remaining narrow gauge lines operate purely as tourist attractions, and a number of new narrow gauge tourist lines have been built in recent years. The sole passenger-carrying exception is the Glasgow Subway, an underground metro line that operates on a gauge. The Talyllyn Railway holds the distinction of being the first railway in the world of any gauge to be run entirely by volunteers. In addition a few private industrial narrow gauge railways remain, mainly serving the coal and peat extraction industries. Amongst the most well-known narrow gauge lines in Britain are the Ffestiniog - now the oldest independent railway company in the world - the Corris, the Vale of Rheidol, the Romney Hythe and Dymchurch Railway, which runs on a gauge of 15 inches from Hythe in Kent to Dungeness some 14 miles away. The main station and company headquarters is based at Romney, Kent, and the Welshpool & Llanfair in Wales, and the Lynton & Barnstaple in England. Unique amongst British railways is the rack-and-pinion Snowdon Mountain Railway which climbs to just below the summit of Wales' highest peak. A train on the Welsh Highland Railway. Double Fairlie locomotive David Lloyd George on the Ffestiniog Railway. North America Canada Although many railways of central and eastern Canada were initially built to a broad gauge, there were several railways, especially on Canada's Atlantic coast, which were built as individual narrow gauge lines. The first public passenger carrying narrow gauge railways in North America were in Ontario, the Toronto Grey and Bruce Railway and the Toronto and Nipissing Railway, opening in the summer of 1871. The Ontario lines were over 300 miles (480 km) in length, and both were built with the objective of connecting with a future Pacific railway. They were acquired and converted to standard gauge in 1881 and eventually became part of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Construction on the Newfoundland Railway took place between 1881 and 1898. It became part of the Canadian National Railways (CNR) when Newfoundland became part of Canada in 1949. The White Pass and Yukon Railroad which was completed in 1900 at the end of the Klondike gold rush is Canada's last remaining narrow gauge carrier. It no longer carries freight, but is the busiest tourist railroad in North America. Its tracks connect to no other railroad but do connect to the cruise ship docks at Skagway, Alaska, which provide it with most of its passengers Newfoundland Railway stamp Mexico Various narrow gauge lines operated around Mexico City. A famous one operated in Morelos State. There were also dozens of private narrow gauge lines built to service the mining district. The Yucatán Peninsula region of Mexico has a network of narrow gauge lines, established before the region was linked by rail to the rest of Mexico in the 1950s. Only the main line connecting Mérida to central Mexico has been widened to standard gauge. United States Many narrow gauge railways were built in the United States. The most extensive and well known systems were the gauge lines through the Rocky Mountain states of Colorado and New Mexico. For a while the majority of the railway mileage in these states was narrow gauge. In Maine, a network of gauge lines served the rural economy between the 1870s and 1940s. Across the US, industrial narrow gauge railways were used, perhaps the best known being the gauge logging lines of the western states of Oregon and California. In Pennsylvania, the gauge coal-hauling East Broad Top Railroad is the oldest surviving 3 foot gauge in the United States hauling excursion trains during the summer months. Today a few lines survive as heritage railways and tourist attractions. USG Corporation operates an industrial gauge line at Plaster City, California and narrow gauge railways are still used for some tunneling and mining work. Shay logging locomotive in California A steam locomotive of the C&TS RR Central America Costa Rica See also Railways in Costa Rica Costa Rican railways are gauge and mostly gauge. El Salvador El Salvador ran gauge steam trains into the 1970s. How much of this survived a civil war, earthquake and hurricane is unknown. See also Railways in El Salvador Guatemala gauge, Ferrovías Guatemala Haiti Haiti has had two different gauges on its railways. 130 km of rural line between Port-au-Prince, Saint-Marc, and Verrettes (1905–about 1960s) used gauge. Tramlines in Port-au-Prince (1878–1888 and 1896–1932), which was the first known track in Haiti, and a total of 80 km of rural line west to Léogâne and east to Manneville (1896–1950s(?)) used gauge. Totalling over 100 km of track, the plantation railways in the north and north-east most likely used . There were at least four separate isolated lines. The story of the demise of one Haitian railroad is that it was sold and physically picked up, and shipped to Asia during the Papa Doc period (approx. 1957–1971). Other gauges may have been used on the plantation tracks in the north and north-east of Haiti. The CIA fact book suggests that in the 1990s there were only 40 km of abandoned track left(?). History of Haitian railways. Panama Mule Locos haul ships through the locks in the Panama Canal (Gauge???) See also Transport in Panama South America Metre and gauge lines are found in South America. Some of the -gauge lines cross international borders, though not as efficiently as they might. Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil and Chile have gauge lines. Colombia and Peru have gauge lines. Argentina railways are found in the northern half of the country. The Old Patagonian Express (La Trochita) is a 402 km-long narrow gauge railway in the Andean foothills of Patagonia, now running as two portions of its original length. However, all the track is preserved. The Southern Fuegian Railway (End of the World Train) on a track is considered the southernmost operating railway in the world. The Rainforest Ecological Train is a environmentally-friendly train that runs through the forest inside Iguazú National Park in the north of the province of Misiones of Argentina and there is also a coal railway, Red de Ferrocarril Industrial de Rio Turbio, that operates between Rio Turbio and Rio Gallegos on track gauge. Bolivia All railways in Bolivia are gauge. Brazil See Rail transport in Brazil In Brazil, almost all the lines are gauge, with the exception of a few lines in the states of São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and Mato Grosso. Vale (ex-CVRD) also has a line with 1.6 m gauge, from Carajás (PA) to São Luís (MA). The Estrada de Ferro Oeste de Minas gauge lines once operated in Minas Gerais, centered around the city of São João del-Rey. This network at one time had over 770 km of railway in operation, but only about 13 km remain in operation as a steam powered tourist railway. Other small narrow gauge lines include the Rio de Janeiro streetcar (Bonde de Santa Teresa), with approximately 13 km of gauge, and a very short industial railway near Bertioga built to gauge. A number of industrial (a gauge Portland Cement line near São Paulo, for example) and agricultural (rubber plantations, sugar plantations, logging) railways also existed in Brazil in a number of narrow gauges, but few of those survive today. Anhumas station of the Campinas-SP Chile Meter gauge railways are found in the northern half of the country. The Ferrocarril de Antofagasta a Bolivia was originally built to gauge, as were a number of mining and nitrate railways. Colombia Most of the railways in Colombia are gauge. Ecuador The railways in Ecuador are cape gauge. This is a famous route, the one that zig zags past the chilling canyon of the Devil's Nose. Floods, landslides and government neglect have put this operation in doubt, but they are working to restore the railway. The recently elected president Rafael Correa declared the state of emergency of the national railway. He has secured funding for a master plan to restore it to its previous glory. In the first phase of this plan, the Ecuadorian government will invest over US $283 million to completely repair the country's existing railway system and infrastructure, such as bridges, walls and stations. The government will also purchase new locomotives. A second phase seek the building of new railway lines to connect the country with Brazil and Venezuela. Currently two Baldwin locomotives are ready to work, depending on track and traffic. There are also a number of diesel railbuses and some Alsthom diesel locomotives available. The railway from Guayaquil to Quito featured in the 1983 BBC television series Great Little Railways. Peru The Cuzco-Quillibama line in Peru is gauge. The other narrow gauge line (Huancayo-Huancavelica) will be converted to standard gauge. The Cusco-Machu Picchu railway Uruguay There were four big narrow gauge lines in Uruguay: Puerto del Sauce (now Juan Lacaze)-Terminal: , (1901-1959), Piriapolis-Pan de Azucar: (1903-1958), km 393-Arrozal 33: and km 110-Cantera Burgueño: . All were dismantled. There were also several quarry lines of gauge, among them the famous INDARE sand line. Around 300 m of that sand line is preserved and also a lot of steam locomotives. One of those is in working order. Also, a new narrow gauge line, of around 1 km, with two diesel locomotives from the former km 110-Cantera Burgueño line, was constructed in a park on the town of Santiago Vazquez, in the West of Montevideo. Asia Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka inherited a diversity of rail gauges, some of which was . Indian Railways has adopted Project unigauge, which seeks to systematically convert most of its narrower gauge railways to . Southeast Asia The railways of Southeast Asia, including Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar and Malaysia are predominantly gauge. The proposed ASEAN Railway would be a standard-gauge or dual-gauge, using both metre and standard gauge regional railway networks, linking Singapore at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, through the Association of Southeast Asian Nations region Malaysia, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam to the standard-gauge railway network of the People's Republic of China. Indonesia's railways are predominantly . China Some of the railway network of the People's Republic of China is gauge. Many narrow gauge railways existed in China. Metre gauge railways were popular in China in several regions before 1949. The gauge Kunming-Hekou Railway (previously known as Sino-Vietnamese Railway) was built by French colonists between Vietnam and China. In Manchuria, lumber industries built narrow gauge railways into the forests, mostly of gauge. Hong Kong Preserved Kowloon-Canton Railway locomotive In Hong Kong the Kowloon-Canton Railway was partially laid to and gauge during its construction in 1910 but was very soon converted to standard gauge. The Sha Tau Kok Railway was gauge for much of its existence. The famous Hong Kong Tramways are gauge, and the territory's metro, the MTR, runs on 1432 mm gauge except for the standard gauge KCR network it operates under a lease. India India has a substantial network of narrow gauge railways. The majority of these are gauge, totalling approximately 17,000 km of track. There are some gauge railways, and a few that use gauge; these are known as "narrow gauge" (as opposed to "metre gauge") lines in India. In 1999 the gauge Darjeeling Himalayan Railway was officially designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It runs from Siliguri to Darjeeling in the state of West Bengal. The Darjeeling Himalyan Railway The Kalka Shimla Railway Indonesia Indonesia had large numbers of narrow gauge railways supporting industry, mainly sugar cane plantations in Java. , sugar cane production in Java has been declining and the railways are now largely closed or used for tourism. Most of the current active railways in Indonesia use the Cape gauge . Japan Except for the high-speed Shinkansen lines, all of Japan Railways Group's network is narrow gauge, built at . Some companies, such as Kintetsu, Keisei Electric Railway, Keihin Electric Express Railway, Hankyu Railway, Toei Asakusa Line, Tokyo Metro's Ginza Line and Marunouchi line, use standard gauge. Tokyo's Keio Electric Railway network and the Toei Shinjuku metro line, which operate through services, use an exceptional gauge. This gauge is also used on the Tokyo and Hakodate tramways. There are some dual gauge lines which allow Shinkansen trains to travel on narrow gauge branches. Japan adopted as a standard narrow gauge for minor, forestry and industrial lines. However, most of these narrow gauge lines were abandoned and currently only four lines remain in operation. Modern Japan Railways freight locomotive Malaysia Malaysia's oldest railway systems are solely gauge, a standard that has been adopted since the British colonial government laid down the first railway lines in 1885. Keretapi Tanah Melayu, the main railway operator in Peninsular Malaysia, uses metre gauge for the main west and east coast intercity lines, as well as railway lines spanning Singapore, from the Johor-Singapore Causeway to the Tanjong Pagar railway station. Existing metre gauge lines are also used for KTM Komuter, the country's commuter rail service, which links Kuala Lumpur with neighbouring suburbs. However, standard gauge is used by the newer light rail operators in Kuala Lumpur city (Putra LRT, Star LRT) as well as the privately operated Express Rail Link to the airport. In Sabah, the North Borneo Railway ("Keretapi Negeri Sabah") runs a metre gauge line from Kota Kinabalu up to Tenom in the Crocker Ranges, via Beaufort. Steam trains are also used in this route. A KTMB train Philippines Except for the Light Rail Transit (LRT) and Metro Rail Transit (MRT) systems in Metro Manila, which have both been constructed to the international standard gauge, the Philippine National Railways ("PNR") uses the "Cape Gauge" of . The PNR currently opertes only one line: from Manila to the southern Luzon city of Legaspi. Until the 1980s a more extensive network existed going as far north as San Fernando in La Union province. There are plans to restore the La Union line and to build new lines connecting Manila to Batangas and the international airport. There are also a number of industrial narrow gauge steam railways operating in the sugar cane industry. These are concentrated on the islands of Negros and Panay. The Visayas region is the main center for the sugar cane lines; some of the mills, such as La Carlotta Milling in Negros, run charter trains for tourists. Abandoned lines exists on the islands of Cebu, abandoned in the 1950s or 1960s, Mindanao, and Panay, closed in the 1990s. There are plans to restore the Panay Rail line which connects Roxas City with Iloilo. Taiwan Taiwan started to build up railway in the Qing dynasty using gauge. The Japanese colonial government, which ruled from 1895 to 1945, continued using . The system is now under Taiwan Railway Administration. The new Taipei Rapid Transit System and the metro system under construction in Kaohsiung use standard gauge. The Taiwan High Speed Rail (HSR) which started operation in January 2007 also uses standard gauge. An isolated gauge line on the east coast was regauged to when the line was interconnected. The Alishan forest railway is narrow gauge . Except for the high speed railway and the metro systems in Taipei and Kaohsiung, all of Taiwan's railway network is narrow gauge, built at . The isolated east coast railways that used gauge were converted to when the lines were linked to the west coast system. A narrow gauge Alishan Forest Railway stretches 72 km and connects the city of Chiayi to the mountain resort of Alishan. The line serves mainly as a tourist attraction and offers breathtaking mountain views. On September 7, 2006, Taiwanese government declared a plan to update to the standard gauge system. It's not the first time that this plan was proposed. In fact, some of the facilities have allowed for standard gauge conversion such as the underground tunnels constructed since the late 1980s. Many experts criticize the proposal as prohibitively expensive if not impossible as all locomotives, passenger and freight cars must be converted to standard gauge. Taiwan narrow gauge service Middle East Until 1932 a narrow gauge train ran from Cairo through Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Persia (later Iran) and Iraq. The tracks and stations are mostly tourist sites, with some sections refurbished and run as a tourist attraction. The train was notorious for being slow, and failing to go uphill Thailand While the Northern Line was originally build as standard gauge, the line was regauged after 1919 and the State Railway of Thailand now operates entirely on gauge, including international through services to Malaysia. However, standard gauge is used by the Bangkok Skytrain and the Bangkok Metro and the new Bangkok airport link due to be open in August 2009. Thailand Railway metre gauge locomotive Africa Narrow gauge railways are common in Africa, where great distances, challenging terrain and low funding have made the narrow gauges attractive. Many nations, particularly in southern Africa, including the extensive South African Railway network (Spoornet), use a gauge. Metre gauge is also common, as in the case of the Uganda Railway. There used to be extensive and gauge networks in countries such as Morocco, Congo, Angola, Namibia and South Africa, but these have mostly been dismantled. Because Africa is divided into many countries, railways built by different governments tend not to link up with each other, each country's lines connecting its outlands with its own port. Incompatible gauges are therefore not obvious. For example, a link from Nigeria to Cameroon would join to . The railways of South Africa and many other African countries, including Angola, Botswana, Congo, Ghana, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Zambia and Zimbabwe, use gauge, sometimes referred to as Cape gauge. Kenya, Uganda and others use gauge lines. In Tanzania former East African Railways lines are metre gauge while the Tazara line is Eritrea Further north, the Eritrean Railway is in the midst of resurrecting its narrow gauge railway, a relic of its former Italian colonial days that was abandoned and heavily damaged during Eritrea's war of independence. Neighbouring railways (should they ever connect) are in Sudan and in Ethiopia. Cameroon During the First World War when Cameroon was a German possession, a network of gauge Feldbahn railways were built. These eventually extended to around 150 km of track serving rubber and palm oil plantations. The gauge is now in use. Morocco Morocco had from 1912 - 1935 one of the largest gauge network in Africa with total length of more than 1700 kilometres. After the treaty of Algeciras where the representatives of Great Powers agreed not to build any standard gauge railway in Morocco until the standard gauge Tangier - Fez Railway being completed, the French had begun to built military gauge lines in their part of Morocco French Morocco. South Africa Originally standard gauge, the railways of the then Cape Colony changed to narrow gauge , sometimes known as Cape gauge, for cost-cutting reasons. However, with the development of a strong economy, with heavy export coal and iron ore traffic, and electrification of most main lines, South Africa, like Queensland, operates several narrow gauge trains that outdo most standard gauge and all broad gauge trains. In fact, in 1989 the Sishen-Saldanha line set a world record by carrying the biggest train in history, 7.2 km long containing 660 wagons pulled by 15 locomotives and weighing 71,232 tonnes. However, the proposed Gautrain railway between Johannesburg and Pretoria will operate on standard gauge, and will thus not be capable of using any of the country's existing rail network. The Avontuur Railway operates between Port Elizabeth and Avontuur in South Africa. It is the longest gauge route in the world at a length of 285 km. It is operated by the South African railway company Spoornet. The line is commonly known as the Apple Express. A modern commuter service near Cape Town Class 19D locomotive at Pretoria Oceania Australia Queensland, Tasmania, Western Australia and parts of South Australia adopted gauge to cover greater distances at lower costs. Most industrial railways are built to gauge. Three different rail gauges are currently in wide use in Australia, and there is little prospect of full standardisation. Before 1901, each of the six British colonies was responsible for rail transport infrastructure. Queensland, Western Australia, and Tasmania constructed for narrow gauge railways. The other colonies built either standard gauge or broad gauge railways, maintaining only limited narrow gauge rail lines, except for South Australia, which built both narrow and broad gauge. As a result of this legacy, Australian railways are a mix of all three gauges. In 1865, the Queensland Railways was the first mainline narrow gauge railway in the world . Its tracks would eventually extend to around 9000 km. Queensland Rail operates the QR Tilt Train, with a maximum speed of 165 km/h. This train currently holds the Australian Railway Speed Record of 210.7 km/h. Queensland also has extensive sugar cane tramways of gauge. Following the success of the narrow gauge in Queensland, several narrow gauge lines were built in South East Australia. From the 1920s onwards several of these were converted to broad gauge. Inspired by the success of the narrow gauge in Queensland, Western Australia adopted the same gauge. Until closure in 1958 Perth had the only narrow gauge tramway network of any considerable extent in mainland Australia. The Northern Territory adopted narrow gauge when it was still part of South Australia, and a North-South transcontinental line was planned from Adelaide to Darwin in the 1870s. In the event this line was never completed, and due to flood damage and lack of traffic, the narrow gauge line was closed. Four common carrier lines in Victoria were built to the narrow gauge standard, to serve local farming and forestry communities. Sections of two lines (Belgrave to Gembrook and Thomson to Walhalla) have been restored as tourist railways. Sugar train near Mossman in 1995 Puffing Billy train at Lakeside station New Zealand See also: Rail transport in New Zealand New Zealand adopted narrow gauge (cape gauge) due to the need to cross mountainous terrain in the country's interior. This terrain has necessitated a number of complicated engineering feats, notably the Raurimu Spiral. There are 1787 bridges and 150 tunnels in less than 4,000 km of track. Around 500 km of this track is electrified, on the North Island Main Trunk, between Palmerston North and Hamilton. Much like Australia, there was initially no uniformity in track gauges in New Zealand. This was because the construction of railways was undertaken by the various provinces of New Zealand rather than the central government. The Canterbury Provincial Railways opened New Zealand's first railway in 1863 and used a broad gauge of , while Southland built the Bluff and Kingston Branches to , and short segments of railway were also constructed in the Auckland and Northland Regions. Eventually, under the public works schemes of Premier Julius Vogel, the railways of New Zealand were made to adhere to a gauge. The first gauge railway in New Zealand was the Dunedin and Port Chalmers Railway, which opened on 1 January 1873. Today, the network connects most major New Zealand cities, and is around 4,000 km in length. See also Rail transport by country Standard gauge Broad gauge Rail gauge Feldbahn Heeresfeldbahn Railroad switch (points) List of medium gauges used around the world List of narrow gauges used around the world List of minimum gauges used around the world Military railways Minimum gauge railway Ridable miniature railway War Department Light Railways External links Narrow Gauge Talk Forum-The place where Narrow Gauge Fans go to talk! Anyone is welcome to sign up, its free! We'll enjoy your company and the many things you may have to offer Jane's World Railways (hard copy) Railway Gauge Width Polish Narrow Gauge Railways Narrow Gauge Heaven - this site has a large photo gallery of narrow gauge railways Parovoz - Russian narrow gauge railways Narrow Gauge Railway Museum - based at the Talyllyn Railway in Wales. Cy Crumley ET&WNC Narrow Gauge Photo Collection Narrow Gauge in Austria Expo Narrow Gauge - model railway exhibition Narrow Gauge North - Annual Model Railway Exhibition 'The Narrow Gauge for Us' Charles Cooper's Railway Pages 'Narrow Gauge Through the Bush' Charles Cooper's Railway Pages 'Toronto Grey and Bruce' R L Kennedy's Old Time Trains Narrow Gauge books References P.J.G. Ransom. Narrow Gauge Steam - Its origins and worldwide development, Oxford Publishing Co., 1996, ISBN 0-86093-533-7 P. Whitehouse, J. Snell. Narrow Gauge Railways of the British Isles, David & Charles, 1994, ISBN C-7153-0196-9 Railroads of Colorado: Your Guide to Colorado's Historic Trains and Railway Sites, Claude Wiatrowski, Voyageur Press, 2002, hardcover, 160 pages, ISBN 0-89658-591-3 Keith Chester. "East European Narrow Gauge" 1995 "Narrow Gauge Through the Bush - Ontario's Toronto Grey and Bruce and Toronto and Nipissing Railways"; Rod Clarke; pub. Beaumont and Clarke, with the Credit Valley Railway Company, Streetsville, Ontario, 2007. ISBN 978-0-9784406-0-2 "The Narrow Gauge For Us - The Story of the Toronto and Nipissing Railway"; Charles Cooper; pub. The Boston Mills Press; Erin, Ontario, 1982. "Narrow Gauge Railways of Canada"; Omer Lavallee; pub. Railfair, Montreal, 1972. "Narrow Gauge Railways of Canada"; Omer Lavallee, expanded and revised by Ronald S Ritchie; pub. Fitzhenry and Whiteside, Markham, Ontario, 2005. "The Toronto Grey and Bruce Railway 1863-1884; Thomas F McIlwraith; pub. Upper Canada Railway Society, Toronto, 1963. "Steam Trains to the Bruce"; Ralph Beaumont; pub. The Boston Mills Press; Cheltenham, Ontario, 1977 "Running Late on the Bruce"; Ralph Beaumont & James Filby; pub The Boston Mills Press, Cheltenham, Ontario, 1980 | Narrow_gauge_railway |@lemmatized narrow:191 gauge:475 railway:347 railroad:8 track:33 standard:74 existing:1 less:6 overview:1 comparison:1 blue:1 one:29 common:20 red:2 width:2 train:48 bad:2 bubendorf:2 station:18 waldenburgerbahn:2 liestal:2 waldenburg:2 switzerland:7 typical:1 industrial:24 see:12 theleighton:1 buzzard:2 since:5 usually:7 build:60 small:18 radius:2 curve:3 structure:3 substantially:2 cheap:3 equip:2 operate:52 broad:25 particularly:7 mountainous:7 terrain:7 low:12 cost:13 mean:4 often:7 serve:12 industry:10 community:2 traffic:14 potential:2 would:4 justify:1 line:204 also:51 specialize:1 use:77 mine:15 environment:2 make:5 load:5 necessary:1 hand:2 generally:2 great:10 haulage:3 capacity:4 allow:9 speed:15 system:33 historically:1 many:25 part:23 specific:1 enterprise:1 primarily:2 rather:4 general:1 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2,766 | Dementia_praecox | Dementia praecox ("premature dementia") is a term first used in 1891 in this Latin form by Arnold Pick (1851-1924), a professor of psychiatry at the German branch of Charles University in Prague. His brief clinical report described the case of a person with a psychotic disorder resembling hebephrenia (see below). It was popularized by German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926) in 1896 in his first detailed description of a condition that would eventually be reframed and relabeled as schizophrenia. It refers to a chronic, deteriorating psychotic disorder characterized by rapid cognitive disintegration, usually beginning in the late teens or early adulthood. The primary disturbance in dementia praecox is not one of mood (as is the case in manic-depressive illness), but of thinking or cognition. Cognitive disintegration refers to a disruption in cognitive or mental functioning such as in attention, memory, and goal-directed behavior. From the outset, dementia praecox was viewed by Kraepelin as a progressively degenerating disease from which no one recovered. However, by 1913, and more explicitly by 1920, Kraepelin admitted that although there seemed to be a residual cognitive defect in most cases, the prognosis was not as uniformly dire as he had stated in the 1890s. History First use of the term The term demence precoce was used to describe a psychotic disorder by the French physician Benedict-Augustin Morel in 1853, and later used in his 1860 textbook, Traité des maladies mentales. Morel used the term to define a disorder that first struck men in their teenage or young adult years, after which their intellectual functioning rapidly deteriorated. Morel saw this mental disorder as being within the larger context of his theory of degeneration. These young men were beginning a rapid intellectual deterioration that would result in total disability and possible death. Morel described an entire category of psychotic disorders that ended in dementia, and as a result he may be regarded as the first alienist or psychiatrist to develop a diagnostic system based on presumed outcome rather than on the current presentation of signs and symptoms. Morel, however, did not conduct any long-term or quantitative research on the course and outcome of dementia praecox (Kraepelin would be the first in history to do that) so this prognosis was based on speculation. It is impossible to discern whether the brief description of the disorder described by Morel was equivalent to the disorder later called dementia praecox by Pick and Kraepelin. Nor is there any reason to conclude that either of these men used Morel as a source of inspiration for their concepts. The time component In 1863, Karl Kahlbaum (1828-1899) of Danzig, Prussia published Die Gruppierung der psychischen Krankheiten (The Classification of Psychiatric Diseases). In this book, Kahlbaum described a class of progressively degenerating psychotic disorders that he grouped under the term "Vesania typical" (typical insanity). In 1866 Kahlbaum became the director of a private psychiatric clinic in Görlitz, Prussia, a small town near Dresden. He was accompanied by his younger assistant, Ewald Hecker (1843-1909), and together they conducted a series of research studies on young psychotic patients that would become a major influence on the development of modern psychiatry. Together Kahlbaum and Hecker were the first to describe and name such syndromes as dysthymia, cyclothymia, paranoia, catatonia, and hebephrenia. Perhaps their most lasting contribution to psychiatry was the introduction of the "clinical method" from medicine to the study of mental diseases, a method which is now known as psychopathology. Other than Morel’s description of his degeneration theory, the element of time had largely been missing from definitions of mental disorders. Psychiatrists made assumptions about prognosis that were not based on careful observation of the changing symptoms of patients over time. Psychiatrists and other physicians who wrote about the insane arbitrarily invented names for insanities and described their characteristic signs and symptoms based on a short-term, cross-sectional observation period of their lunatic patients. When the element of time was added to the concept of diagnosis, a diagnosis became more than just a description of a collection of symptoms: diagnosis now also defined prognosis (course and outcome). An additional feature of the clinical method was that the characteristic symptoms that define syndromes should be described without any prior assumption of brain pathology (although such links would be made later as scientific knowledge progressed). Karl Kahlbaum first made his appeal for the adoption of the clinical method in psychiatry in his 1874 book on catatonia. Without Kahlbaum and Hecker there would be no dementia praecox. The quantitative component In 1891 Emil Kraepelin left his position at the university in Dorpat (now Tartu, Estonia) to become a professor and director of the psychiatric clinic at the University in Heidelberg, Germany. Convinced of the value of Kahlbaum’s suggestions for a more exact qualitative clinical method in psychiatry, Kraeplin realized that by adding a quantitative component to such a research program he could place psychiatry on a more scientific foundation. Quantification helped to eliminate any subjective biases on the part of the researcher. He began the first such research program of this nature in the history of psychiatry at Heidelberg in 1891, collecting data about every new patient that was admitted to the clinic (not just interesting cases, as had been the case in the past) and summarizing them on specially prepared index cards, his famous Zahlkarten. He had been keeping data on such cards since 1887. In his posthumously published Memoirs (first published in German 61 years after his death) Kraepelin described his method: . . . after the first thorough examination of a new patient, each of us had to throw in a note [in a "diagnosis box"] with his diagnosis written on it. After a while, the notes were taken out of the box, the diagnoses were listed, and the case was closed, the final interpretation of the disease was added to the original diagnosis. In this way, we were able to see what kind of mistakes had been made and were able to follow-up the reasons for the wrong original diagnosis (p. 61). Kraepelin was obsessed with finding patterns in the data on these cards, at times taking them home with him or on vacation. In 1893, two years after starting his more rigorous research program in Heidelberg, the 4th edition of Kraepelin’s textbook, Psychiatrie, reflected some preliminary impressions derived from the analysis of his cards. Clinical syndromes involved not only a diagnosis according to signs and symptoms, but also included course and outcome. In that edition he introduced a class of psychotic disorders he called "psychic degenerative processes." Three of these came directly from the work of Kahlbaum and Hecker: dementia paranoides (a sudden-onset, degenerative form of Kahlbaum’s paranoia; catatonia (directly from Kahlbaum’s 1874 monograph on the subject); and dementia praecox, which was essentially Hecker’s hebephrenia (as described in 1871). Dementia precox was hebephrenia and would remain so in Kraepelin’s thinking for 6 more years. In March 1896 the 5th edition of Kraepelin’s textbook appeared. In it, Kraepelin stated that he was confident of the value of his clinical method of using qualitative and quantitative data collected over a long period of observation of patients as a way of developing a diagnosis that included prognosis (course and outcome): What convinced me of the superiority of the clinical method of diagnosis (followed here) over the traditional one, was the certainty with which we could predict (in conjunction with our new concept of disease) the future course of events. Thanks to it the student can now find his way more easily in the difficult subject of psychiatry. (preface, p. v) In the 1896 5th edition, dementia praecox (still essentially hebephrenia), dementia paranoides, and catatonia are separate psychotic disorders included among "metabolic disorders leading to dementia." Kraepelin's influence on the next century In the 6th edition of Psychiatrie of 1899, Kraepelin reordered the psychiatric universe for the next century by grouping most of the insanities into two large categories, dementia praecox and manic-depressive illness. They were distinguished by the following characteristics: (1) dementia praecox was primarily a disorder of intellectual functioning, manic-depressive illness was primarily a disorder of affects or mood; (2) dementia praecox had a uniformly deteriorating course and a poor prognosis, manic-depressive insanity had a course of acute exacerbations followed by complete remissions with no lasting deterioration of intellectual functioning; and (3) there were no recoveries from dementia praecox, whereas in manic-depressive illness there were many complete recoveries. In 1899 dementia praecox took its now-familiar form as a heterogeneous class of psychotic disorders comprising hebephrenic, catatonic, and paranoid forms. These forms have persisted until today through Eugen Bleuler’s schizophrenia of 1908 (to which he added a fourth form, dementia simplex, or simple schizophrenia], and the main types of schizophrenia in DSM-IV-TR (the paranoid, catatonic and disorganized types, with the latter retaining its historical designation as the hebephrenic type in ICD-10 [1992]). Change in prognosis In the 7th edition of 1904 there was little change in the description of dementia praecox, but Kraepelin does admit for the first time that in a small number of cases that recovery from dementia praecox might occur. The 8th edition of Kraepelin’s Psychiatrie was a four-volume opus, each of which appeared in different years between 1909 and 1915. In this edition dememtia praecox became one of the "endogenous dementias." It is in the 1913 third volume (second part) of this edition that Kraepelin adjusts his concept of prognosis to admit that a partial remission of symptoms occurred in approximately 26 percent of his patients. This brought dementia praecox in line with Eugen Bleuler’s claims about schizophrenia, which he had insisted from the start (in 1908) that (a) in many cases there was no fateful progressive deterioration, that (b) in some cases the symptoms did indeed remit for periods of time, and (c) that there were cases of complete recovery. The 8th edition of 1913 is also notable for the fact that Kraepelin increased the number of forms of dementia to 11. However, the three classical original subtypes would remain as the most influential description of this disorder for the century that followed. The 8th edition of Psychiatrie was that last Kraepelin would produce in his lifetime. He was working on a 9th edition with Johannes Lange (1891-1938) but died in 1926 before it could be completed. Lange finished the bulk of it and published it in 1927. Addition of etiology Kraepelin realized that the state of scientific knowledge was such that definitive claims about the cause of dementia praecox could not be made. Heredity clearly played a role, as Kraepelin and his research associates had demonstrated this in their quantitative research. As a result of following the clinical method suggested by Kahlbaum, Kraepelin set aside claims about underlying brain disease or specific neuropathology in diagnostic descriptions of mental disorders. However, from the 5th edition of 1896 to the third volume of the 8th edition of 1913 it was clear that Kraepelin believed that dementia praecox was caused by a poisoning of the brain, and “autointoxication,” probably arising from the sex glands after puberty. Universality of the disease Kraepelin believed that dementia praecox was not a culture-bound syndrome and that it represented a disease process that could be found all over the world. Kraepelin himself loved to travel, and in Asia he observed that dementia praecox was similar to the European form of the illness in Chinese, Japanese, Tamil and Malay patients, leading him to suggest in the 8th edition of Psychiatrie that, "we must therefore seek the real cause of dementia praecox in conditions which are spread all over the world, which thus do not lie in race or in climate, in food or in any other general circumstance of life . . . ." Treatment Without knowing the cause of dementia praecox or manic-depressive illness, Kraepelin repeatedly stated that there could be no treatments specific to these conditions. Treatment for these insanities was the same for any institutionalized patient with any diagnosis: the occasional use of drugs (opiates, barbiturates, and so on) to alleviate acute episodes of distress, prolonged baths (greatly admired by Kraepelin as a humane method of calming patients), and occupational activities (if possible). Kraepelin himself had experimented with hypnosis early in his career and found it lacking. Psychotherapy as such was not part of the medical cognition of Kraepelin. In fact, Kraepelin detested both Freud and Jung for introducing diagnostic terms and forms of treatment that had no empirical basis. Kraepelin did, however experiment for a while with organotherapy -- the injection of glandular extract from the thyroid, gonads and other organs -- but without success. This experimental therapy was a rational treatment based on his presumed cause of dementia praecox -- an autointoxication arising from the sex glands. Use of term spreads By 1899 Kraepelin himself had counted almost 20 German-language publications which made reference to his new diagnostic term, dementia praecox. In the decade after 1899 the number of German-language publications using Kraepelin’s categories of dementia praecox and manic-depressive illness as a basis for clinical speculation and experimental research exploded. German-language psychiatric concepts were always introduced much faster in America (than, say, Britain) where émigré German, Swiss and Austrian physicians essentially created American psychiatry. Swiss-emigree Adolf Meyer (1866-1950), arguably the most influential psychiatrist in America for the first half of the 20th century, published the first critique of dementia praecox in an 1896 book review of the 5th edition of Kraepelin’s textbook. But it was not until 1900 that the first three American publications regarding dementia praecox appeared, one of which was a translation of a few sections of Kraepelin’s 6th edition of 1899 on dementia praecox. Adolf Meyer was the first to apply the new diagnostic term in America. He used it at the Worcester Lunatic Hospital in Massachusetts in the fall of 1896. Both dementia praecox (in its three classic forms) and ‘manic-depressive psychosis’ gained wider popularity in the larger institutions in the eastern United States after being included in the official nomenclature of diseases and conditions for record-keeping at Bellevue Hospital in New York City in 1903. The term lived on due to its promotion in the publications of the National Committee on Mental Hygiene (founded in 1909) and the Eugenics Records Office (1910). But perhaps the most important reason for the longevity of Kraepelin’s term was its inclusion in 1918 as an official diagnostic category in the uniform system adopted for comparative statistical record-keeping in all American mental institutions, The Statistical Manual for the Use of Institutions for the Insane. Its many revisions served as the official diagnostic classification scheme in America until 1952 when the first edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, or DSM-I, appeared. Dementia praecox disappeared from official psychiatry with the publication of DSM-I, replaced by the Bleuler/Meyer hybridization ‘schizophrenic reaction.’ The reception of dementia praecox as an accepted diagnosis in British psychiatry came much slower, perhaps only taking hold around the time of the First World War. There was substantial opposition to the use of the term "dementia" as misleading, partly due to findings of remission and recovery. Some argued that existing diagnoses such as "delusional insanity" or "adolescent insanity" were better or more clearly defined. In France an older psychiatric tradition regarding the psychotic disorders predated Kraepelin, and the French never fully adopted Kraepelin’s classification system. Instead the French maintained an independent classification system throughout the 20th century. After 1980, when DSM-III totally reshaped psychiatric diagnosis, French psychiatry began to finally alter its views of diagnosis to converge with the North American system. Kraepelin thus finally conquered France via America. From dementia praecox to schizophrenia Because so many influential American physicians began to take psychoanalysis seriously after Freud and Jung attended a conference at Clark University in 1909, psychogenic theories of dementia praecox and, by 1920, Bleuler’s schizophrenia were openly accepted. Until 1910 Bleuler had been peripherally connected through Jung to Freud’s psychoanalytic movement, and this eased the adoption of his broader version of dementia praecox (schizophrenia) in America over Kraepelin’s more narrow and prognostically more negative one. The term "schizophrenia" was first applied by American alienists and neurologists in clinical settings around the year 1918. It is first mentioned in The New York Times in 1925. Until 1952 the terms dementia praecox and schizophrenia were used interchangeably in American psychiatry, with occasional use of the hybrid terms "dementia praecox (schizophrenia)" or "schizophrenia (dementia praecox)." Diagnostic manuals Editions of the Diagnostic and Statistic Manual of Mental Disorders since the first in 1952 had reflected views of schizophrenia as "reactions" or "psychogenic" (DSM-I), or as manifesting Freudian notions of "defense mechanisms" (as in DSM-II of 1968 in which the symptoms of schizophrenia were interpreted as "psychologically self-protected"). The diagnostic criteria were wide, including either concepts that no longer exist or that are now labeled as personality disorders (for example, schizotypal personality disorder) There was also no mention of the dire prognosis Kraepelin had made. Schizophrenia seemed to be more prevalent and more treatable than either Kraepelin or Bleuler would have allowed. Conclusions As a direct result of the effort to construct Research Diagnostic Criteria (RDC) in the 1970s that were independent of any clinical diagnostic manual, Kraepelin’s ideas began to return to prominence. For research purposes, the definition of schizophrenia returned to the narrow range allowed by Kraepelin’s dementia praecox. Furthermore, the disorder was a progressively deteriorating one once again, with the notion that recovery, if it happened at all, was rare. This revision of schizophrenia became the basis of the diagnostic criteria in DSM-III. Some of the psychiatrists who worked to bring about this revision referred to themselves as the "neo-Krapelinians." Bibliography G. E. Berrios, Luque, Rogelio, and Villagran, Jose M. Schizophrenia: a conceptual history. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 2003, 3: 111-140. Burgmair, Wolfgang & Eric J. Engstrom & Matthias Weber, et al., eds. Emil Kraepelin. 7 vols. Munich: Belleville, 2000-2008. Vol. VII: Kraepelin in Munich, Teil II: 1914-1926 (2008, forthcoming) Vol. VI: Kraepelin in Munich, Teil I: 1903-1914 (2006), ISBN 3-933510-95-3 Vol. V: Kraepelin in Heidelberg, 1891-1903 (2005), ISBN 3-933510-94-5 Vol. IV: Kraepelin in Dorpat, 1886-1891 (2003), ISBN 3-933510-93-7 Vol. III: Briefe I, 1868-1886 (2002), ISBN 3-933510-92-9 Vol. II: Kriminologische und forensische Schriften: Werke und Briefe (2001), ISBN 3-933510-91-0 Vol. I: Persönliches, Selbstzeugnisse (2000), ISBN 3-933510-90-2 Engels, Huub (2006). Emil Kraepelins Traumsprache 1908-1926. annotated edition of Kraepelin's dream speech in the mentioned period. ISBN 978-90-6464-060-5. Hippius, Hanns, and Muller, Norbert (2008). The work of Emil Kraepelin and his research group in Munchen. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 258 (Suppl. 2), 3-11. Ion, R.M. and Beer, M.D. (2002a) The British reaction to dementia praecox 1893-1913. Part 1. History of Psychiatry, 13, 285-304. Ion, R.M., and Beer, M.D. (2002b) The British reaction to dementia praecox 1893-1913. Part 2. History of Psychiatry, 13, 419-431. Emil Kraepelin. Psychiatrie: Ein Lehrbuch fur Studirende und Aerzte. Sechste, vollstandig umgearbeitete Auflage. Leipzig: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1899. Kraepelin, E. Psychiatry: A Textbook for Students and Physicians. 2 volumes. Edited by Jacques Quen. Translated by Helga Metoui and Sabine Ayed. Canton, Massachusetts: Science History Publications, 1990 [translation of the 1899 sixth edition]. Kraepelin, Emil. Memoirs. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1987. Richard Noll. Kraepelin's 'lost biological psychiatry"? Autointoxication, organotherapy and surgery for dementia praecox. History of Psychiatry, 2007, 18 (3): 301-319. Noll, Richard. Introduction: From dementia praecox to schizophrenia. Classic Text 72: “Non-Dementia Non-Praecox: Note on the Advantages to Mental Hygiene of Extripating a Term,” by E.E. Southard (1919). History of Psychiatry, 2007, 18(4): 483-502. Noll, Richard. Infectious insanities, surgical solutions: Bayard Taylor Holmes, dementia praecox and laboratory science in early twentieth-century America. Part 1 and Part 2. History of Psychiatry, 2006, 17 (2): 183-204; 17 (3): 299-311. Noll, Richard. The blood of the insane. History of Psychiatry, 2006, 17 (4): 395-418. Noll, Richard. Chicago’s Dr. Bayard Taylor Holmes: A forgotten pioneer in the history of biological psychiatry. Chicago Medicine, 2006 (Spring), 109: 28-32. Noll, Richard. Historical Review: Autointoxication and focal infection theories of dementia praecox. World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 2004, 5: 66-72. Noll, Richard. Dementia Praecox Studies [letter to the editor and historical note]. Schizophrenia Research, 2004, 68:103-104. Noll, Richard. The American reaction to dementia praecox, 1900. History of Psychiatry, 2004, 15: 127-128. Noll, Richard. Styles of psychiatric practice: Clinical evaluations of the same patient by James Jackson Putnam, Adolf Meyer, August Hoch, Emil Kraepelin and Smith Ely Jelliffe. History of Psychiatry, 1999, 10: 145-189. Pick, Arnold. Ueber primare chronische Demenz (so. Dementia praecox) im jugendlichen Alter. Prager medicinische Wochenschrift, 1891, 16: 312-315. 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2,767 | Dioscoreales | Dioscoreales is a botanical name for an order of flowering plants. Of necessity it contains the family Dioscoreaceae. In the APG II system, of 2003, this order was placed in the clade monocots and comprised the families Burmanniaceae, Dioscoreaceae and Nartheciaceae. Under the APG system of 1998, the order was placed in the clade monocots and comprised the families Burmanniaceae, Dioscoreaceae, Taccaceae, Thismiaceae and Trichopodaceae In APG II, the family Thismiaceae has been included in family Burmanniaceae and the families Taccaceae and Trichopodaceae have been included in family Dioscoreaceae. Therefore the change is not as large as might appear, and the only plants to have moved across the borders of the order are those belonging to family Nartheciaceae. The Cronquist system, of 1981, did not recognise such an order, but placed most such plants in order Liliales in subclass Liliidae in class Liliopsida (monocotyledons) of division Magnoliophyta (angiosperms). Under the Dahlgren system, Dioscoreales was placed in the superorder Lilianae in subclass Liliidae (monocotyledons) of class Magnoliopsida (angiosperms) and comprised the families Dioscoreaceae, Petermanniaceae, Rhipogonaceae, Smilacaceae, Stemonaceae, Taccaceae, Trichopodaceae and Trilliaceae. External links NCBI Taxonomy Browser Dioscoreales: Air potatoes and Bat flowers | Dioscoreales |@lemmatized dioscoreales:3 botanical:1 name:1 order:6 flower:2 plant:3 necessity:1 contain:1 family:9 dioscoreaceae:5 apg:3 ii:2 system:4 place:4 clade:2 monocot:2 comprise:3 burmanniaceae:3 nartheciaceae:2 taccaceae:3 thismiaceae:2 trichopodaceae:3 include:2 therefore:1 change:1 large:1 might:1 appear:1 move:1 across:1 border:1 belong:1 cronquist:1 recognise:1 liliales:1 subclass:2 liliidae:2 class:2 liliopsida:1 monocotyledon:2 division:1 magnoliophyta:1 angiosperms:1 dahlgren:1 superorder:1 lilianae:1 magnoliopsida:1 angiosperm:1 petermanniaceae:1 rhipogonaceae:1 smilacaceae:1 stemonaceae:1 trilliaceae:1 external:1 link:1 ncbi:1 taxonomy:1 browser:1 air:1 potato:1 bat:1 |@bigram clade_monocot:2 external_link:1 ncbi_taxonomy:1 |
2,768 | George_Benson | George Benson (born March 22, 1943 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) allmusic Biography is an American musician, whose recording career began at the age of twenty-one as a jazz guitarist. He is also known as a Pop, R&B, and scat singer. Biography Early career Benson was born and raised in the Hill District in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and attended the defunct Connelly High School before dropping out. Benson started out playing straight-ahead instrumental jazz with organist Jack McDuff. Benson got his first experience playing with his several-year stint with McDuff's group. At the age of 21, Benson recorded his first album as leader, The New Boss Guitar, with Brother Jack McDuff on organ. Benson's next recording was It's Uptown with the George Benson Quartet with Lonnie Smith on organ and Ronnie Cuber on baritone sax.. Benson followed it up with The George Benson Cookbook, also with Lonnie Smith and Ronnie Cuber. Miles Davis employed Benson in the mid 1960s; Benson played guitar on "Paraphernalia", which appeared on the trumpeter's 1967 Columbia release, Miles in the Sky. He went to Verve Records afterwards. Then, Creed Taylor signed him up for his CTI label, where he recorded numerous albums with jazz heavyweights guesting to limited financial success. Benson also did versions of The Beatles's 1969 album Abbey Road called The Other Side of Abbey Road, released in 1969, and "White Rabbit", originally written and recorded by San Francisco rockgroup Jefferson Airplane, around this time. 1970s and 1980s {{Listen |filename=George_Benson_-_Breezin.ogg |title=George Benson "Breezin'" (1976) |description=Title track sample from George Benson's Breezin album |format=Ogg}} By the mid to late 1970s, as he recorded for Warner Bros. Records after recently signing with them, a whole new audience began to discover Benson for the first time. With the 1976 release Breezin', Benson began to put his vocal on tracks such as "This Masquerade". Benson had used his vocals on songs earlier in his career, notably his rendition of "Here Comes the Sun" on the Other Side of Abbey Road album. He was part of psychedelic soul group Harlem Underground Band during the 1970s, whose song "Smokin' Cheeba Cheeba" was featured in Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas.<ref name="Breezin">[http://www.amazon.com/dp/B000002KHU Breezin''' album information]</ref> "This Masquerade" won a Grammy Award for Record of the Year and the live take of "On Broadway", recorded two years later from the 1978 release Weekend in L.A., also won a Grammy). Benson made it into the Pop and R&B Top Ten with the song "Give Me the Night", produced by Quincy Jones. On Warner Bros., Benson accumulated three other platinum LPs and two gold albums. VH1 - Artists bio He also recorded the original version of "Greatest Love of All" for the 1977 Muhammad Ali bio-pic, The Greatest, which was later recorded as a cover by Whitney Houston. During this time Benson recorded with the German conductor, Claus Ogerman. Ogerman website Later and current career {{Listen |filename=George_Benson_-_This_Masquerade.ogg |title=George Benson - "This Masquerade" |description=Sample track from George Benson's Breezin album (1976) |format=Ogg}} In 1985 Benson and guitarist Chet Atkins went on the smooth jazz charts with their collaboration "Sunrise", one of two songs from the duo released on Atkins' disc Stay Tuned. In 1992, Benson appeared on Jack McDuff's Colour Me Blue album. George Benson toured with Al Jarreau in America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand to promote their 2006 album Givin' It Up. He played during the second Monsoon Cup in Terengganu in 2006 and also Malaysia's 50th Merdeka celebration alongside Al Jarreau in 2007. In May 2008, for the first time Benson took part in Mawazine Festival in Morocco Benson continues to tour the world performing over 100 shows a year. Benson lives a private life in Arizona, where he is a member of the Jehovah's Witnesses. http://www.adherents.com/largecom/fam_jw.html 2009 sees Benson back in the studio recording a new album, with David Paich and Steve Lukather of Toto. http://www.stevelukather.net/News.aspx Discography Albums 1964: George Benson/Jack McDuff (Prestige) 1964: The New Boss Guitar (Prestige) 1965: Benson Burner (Columbia) 1965: It's Uptown (Columbia) 1966: The George Benson Cookbook (Columbia) 1966: Willow Weep for Me (CBS) 1967: Blue Benson (Verve) - Jazz #23 1968: Giblet Gravy (Verve) 1968: Goodies (Verve) 1969: Shape of Things to Come (A&M) - R&B #38, Jazz #11 1969: Tell It Like It Is (A&M) - US #145, R&B #43, Jazz #16 1969: The Other Side of Abbey Road (A&M) - US #125, R&B #18 1970: I Got a Woman & Some Blues (A&M) 1971: Beyond the Blue Horizon (CTI) - Jazz #15 1972: White Rabbit (CTI) - Jazz #7 1973: Jazz on a Sunday Afternoon, Vol. 1 (Accord) 1973: Jazz on a Sunday Afternoon, Vol. 2 (Accord) 1973: Witchcraft (Jazz Hour) 1974: Body Talk (CTI) - Jazz #10 1975: Bad Benson (CTI) - US #78, Jazz #1 1976: Good King Bad (CTI) - US #51, R&B #18, Jazz #3 1976: Benson & Farrell (CTI) - US #100, R&B #27, Jazz #3 1976: Breezin' (Warner Bros.) - US #1, R&B #1, Jazz #1 1977: In Concert-Carnegie Hall (CTI) - US #122, R&B #43, Jazz #6 1977: In Flight (Warner Bros.) - US #9, R&B #2, Jazz #1 1978: Space Album (CTI) 1978: Weekend in L. A. (Warner Bros.) - US #5, R&B #1, Jazz #1 1979: Livin' Inside Your Love (Warner Bros.) - US #7, R&B #4, Jazz #1 1979: Take Five (CTI) 1980: Cast Your Fate to the Wind (CTI) 1980: Give Me the Night (Warner Bros.) - US #3, R&B #1, Jazz #1 1981: GB (CTI) 1981: The George Benson Collection (Warner Bros.) - US #14, R&B #5, Jazz #1 1983: In Your Eyes (Warner Bros.) - US #27, R&B #6, Jazz #1 1983: Pacific Fire (CTI) 1984: 20/20 (Warner Bros.) - US #45, R&B #20, Jazz #3 1984: Live in Concert (Design) 1985: The Electrifying George Benson (Affinity) 1986: While the City Sleeps... (Warner Bros.) - US #77, R&B #21, Jazz #8 1987: Collaboration (with Earl Klugh) (Warner Bros.) - US #59, R&B #28, Jazz #1 1988: Twice the Love (Warner Bros.) - US #76, R&B #17, Jazz #10 1989: Tenderly (Warner Bros.) - US #140, Jazz #1 1990: Big Boss Band (Warner Bros.) - Jazz #3 1991: Midnight Moods (Warner Bros.) 1992: The Essence of George Benson (Columbia) 1993: Love Remembers (Warner Bros.) - R&B #50, Jazz #1 1994: The Most Exciting New Guitarist on the Jazz Scene (Sony) 1995: The Best of George Benson (Warner Bros.) - Jazz #14 1996: California Dreamin' (Sony) 1996: Lil Darlin' (Thunderbolt) 1996: That's Right (GRP) - US #150, R&B #33, Jazz #1 1998: Standing Together (GRP) - R&B #47, Jazz #1 1998: Masquerade (Thunderbolt) 1999: The Masquerade Is Over (Jazz Hour) 2000: Live at Casa Caribe (Columbia River) 2000: Absolute Benson (GRP) - US #125, R&B #24, Jazz #1 2001: All Blues (Bianco) 2002: Blue Bossa (Prestige Elite) 2002: After Hours (Universe) 2003: Irreplaceable (GRP) 2003: The Greatest Hits of All (Rhino) - US #138, R&B #74, Jazz #3 2004: Golden Legends Live (St. Clair) 2005: Jazz After Hours with George Benson (Performax) 2005: Best of George Benson Live (GRP) - Jazz #4 2006: Givin' It Up (with Al Jarreau) (Concord) - US #58, R&B #14, Jazz #1 2007: Live from Montreux (Immortal) Singles 1975: "Supership" - UK #30 1976: "This Masquerade" - US Pop #10, US R&B #3 1976: "Breezin'" - US Pop #63, US R&B #55 1977: "Everything Must Change" - US R&B #34 1977: "Nature Boy" - UK #26 1977: "Gonna Love You More" - US Pop #71, US R&B #41 1977: "The Greatest Love of All" - US Pop #24, US R&B #2, UK #27 1978: "On Broadway" - US Pop #7, US R&B #2 1978: "Lady Blue" - US R&B #39 1979: "Love Ballad" - US Pop #18, US R&B #3, UK #29 1979: "Unchained Melody" - US R&B #55 1980: "Give Me the Night" - US Pop #4, US R&B #1, UK #7, NLD #8 1980: "Love X Love" - US Pop #61, US R&B #9, UK #10 1981: "Love All the Hurt Away" (with Aretha Franklin) - US Pop #46, US R&B #6 1981: "Turn Out the Lamplight" - US R&B #33 1981: "What's On Your Mind" - UK #45 1981: "Turn Your Love Around" - US Pop #5, US R&B #1, UK #29 1982: "Never Give Up on a Good Thing" - US Pop #52, US R&B #16, UK #14 1983: "Inside Love (So Personal)" - US Pop #43, US R&B #3, UK #57 1983: "Lady Love Me (One More Time)" - US Pop #30, US R&B #21, UK #11 1983: "Feel Like Makin' Love" - UK #28 1983: "In Your Eyes" - UK #7 1984: "Late At Night" - UK #86 1984: "20/20" - US Pop #48, US R&B #15, UK #29 1985: "Beyond The Sea (La Mer)" - UK #60 1985: "I Just Wanna Hang Around You" - US Pop #102, US R&B #24, UK #93 1985: "New Day" - US R&B #87 1985: "No One Emotion" - UK #76 1986: "Kisses in the Moonlight" - US R&B #13 UK #60 1986: "Shiver" - US R&B #16, UK #19 1987: "Teaser" - UK #45 1988: "Twice the Love" - US R&B #23, UK #91 1998: "Standing Together" - US R&B #62 2004: "Cell phone" References External links Tour dates George Benson Canadian Smooth Jazz Awards George Benson George Benson official homepage "Twelve Essential George Benson Recordings" by Bobby Broom (Jazz.com) George Benson Guitar Tabs George Benson 2006 Interview with Al Jarreau on Sidewalks Entertainment'' Interview with George Benson Recorded by NPR's KJZZ | George_Benson |@lemmatized george:23 benson:49 bear:2 march:1 pittsburgh:2 pennsylvania:2 allmusic:1 biography:2 american:1 musician:1 whose:2 record:14 career:4 begin:3 age:2 twenty:1 one:4 jazz:43 guitarist:3 also:6 know:1 pop:17 r:49 b:49 scat:1 singer:1 early:1 raise:1 hill:1 district:1 attend:1 defunct:1 connelly:1 high:1 school:1 drop:1 start:1 play:3 straight:1 ahead:1 instrumental:1 organist:1 jack:4 mcduff:5 get:2 first:4 experience:1 playing:1 several:1 year:4 stint:1 group:2 album:13 leader:1 new:7 bos:3 guitar:4 brother:1 organ:2 next:1 recording:2 uptown:2 quartet:1 lonnie:2 smith:2 ronnie:2 cuber:2 baritone:1 sax:1 follow:1 cookbook:2 mile:2 davis:1 employ:1 mid:2 paraphernalia:1 appear:2 trumpeter:1 columbia:6 release:5 sky:1 go:2 verve:4 afterwards:1 creed:1 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2,769 | Ismail_Khan | Ismail Khan (born 1946), an ethnic Tajik from Herat, Afghanistan, was a powerful Mujahedeen commander in the Soviet War in Afghanistan, and then a key member of the Northern Alliance, later the Governor of Herat Province and is now the Minister of Energy for the country. He is a key member the political party Jamiat-e Islami and the new party United National Front. Resistance against communists Ismail Khan assessing mujahideen troops during the anti-Soviet jihad. In March 1979 Khan was a Captain in the Afghan National Army based in the western city of Herat. He led the Herat garrison in a revolt against Soviet political advisors based in Herat. The communist government led by Nur Mohammed Taraki responded, pulverizing the city using Soviet supplied bombers and killing an estimated 24,000 citizens in less than a week. Ismail Khan, Herat, and Iranian Influence by Thomas H. Johnson, Strategic Insights, Volume III, Issue 7 (July 2004) This event marked the opening salvo of the rebellion which led to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979. Ismail Khan escaped to the countryside where he started to assemble a local mujahideen army, which was widely supported by the population of Herat. Coll, Steve. Ghost Wars. pg 40. 2004, Penguin Books. During the ensuing war, he became the leader of the western command of Burhanuddin Rabbani's Jamiat-e-Islami. With Ahmad Shah Massoud, he was one of the most respected mujahideen leaders. In 1992, two years after the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, the mujahideen captured Herat, and Ismail Khan became Governor. Resistance against the Taliban In 1995, he successfully defended his province against the Taliban, in cooperation with Massoud. He even attacked the Taliban stronghold of Kandahar, but was repulsed. Later, an ally of the Jamiat, Uzbek General Abdul Rashid Dostum changed sides, and attacked Herat. Ismail Khan was forced to flee to Iran with 8,000 men and the Taliban took over Herat. Two years later, while organising opposition to the Taliban in Faryab area, he was betrayed and captured by Abdul Malik, then one of Dostum's deputies, who had switched to the Taliban's side. Then in March 1999 he escaped from Kandahar prison. During the U.S. intervention in Afghanistan, he fought against the Taliban within the United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan (Northern Alliance) and thus regained his position as Governor of Herat. Post-Taliban Era Ismail Khan in 2004 While Kabul was and is still struggling, Ismail Khan achieved wonders in terms of reconstruction with the city of Herat. Supporters say he brought about security, built numerous schools and provided opportunities for small businesses to flourish and because of these achievements, he is well loved by the people of Herat. Opponents counter that Herat has always had a stronger human resource base, greater culture and relatively higher stability than many other parts of Afghanistan, and so the credit for reconstruction in the city cannot be rightly claimed by Ismail Khan, who simply happened to preside over it. Moreover, he refused to pay any taxes gathered from border crossings into the central Treasury and thus directly contributed to the weakening of the Afghan state. Ismael Khan was also an important member of United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan (UNIFSA). During his tenure as Governor, Ismail Khan ruled his province like a private fiefdom. This has led to increasing tensions with the Afghan Transitional Administration. In particular, he refused to pass on to the government the revenues gained from custom taxes on goods from Iran and Turkmenistan. This money has been used to rebuild Herat after the war, but also to maintain his personal army. Profile: Ismail Khan, BBC News(September 2004) The United States, which supports Hamid Karzai, have viewed Ismail Khan's ties with Iran with concern, and advocated ousting him. Why Bush’s Afghanistan problem won’t go away, Seymour M. Hersh, The New Yorker(2004-04-12) In March 2004, the central government sent units of its newly trained Afghan National Army to assert its authority over Herat. This led to clashes with Ismail Khan's men during which 100 people were killed. Among these was Ismail Khan's son, Mirwais Sadiq, then Minister of Civil Aviation. Under constant pressure both from the government and local rivals, Ismail Khan was sacked in September 2004. As a conciliatory gesture, President Karzai appointed him as Minister of Energy in his cabinet. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation reported in 2004 that just prior to the Presidential elections Amanullah Khan had won what local reports called a "major victory" over Ismail Khan's own militia. The report repeated speculation that Amanullah Khan may have received support from the central government in Kabul. Testimony requested by a Guantanamo captive Guantanamo captive Abdul Razzaq Hekmati requested Ismail Khan's testimony, when he was called before a Combatant Status Review Tribunal. Ismail Khan, like Afghan Minister of Defense Rahim Wardak, was one of the high profile Afghans that those conducting the Tribunals ruled were "not reasonably available" to give a statement on a captive's behalf because they could not be located. Hekmati had played a key role in helping Ismail Khan escape from the Taliban in 1999. Hekmati stood accused of helping Taliban leaders escape from the custody of Hamid Karzai's government. Carlotta Gall and Andy Worthington interviewed Ismail Khan for a new New York Times article after Hekmati died of cancer in Guantanamo. According to the New York Times Ismail Khan said he personally buttonholed the American ambassador to tell him that Hekmati was innocent, and should be released. In contrast, Hekmati was told that the State Department had been unable to locate Khan. Controversy Ismail Khan is a controversial figure. Reporters Without Borders has charged him with muzzling the press and ordering attacks on journalists. hr-media@hrea.org - Afghanistan: Radio Free Afghanistan journalist attacked and expelled fro Also Human Rights Watch has accused him of human rights abuses. Afghanistan: Torture and Political Repression in Herat, John Sifton (November 5, 2002) After the fall of the Taliban when Ismail Khan regained control of Herat, he established an Islamic police, who would beat anyone who was found drinking and then parade them through the city with their heads shaved. Nevertheless, he remains a popular figure in Afghanistan. There are several reasons for this. First of all, unlike other mujahideen commanders, Khan has not been linked to large-scale massacres and atrocities such as those committed after the capture of Kabul in 1992. Moreover, during his Governorship, Herat province has enjoyed relative peace and prosperity. Herat is traditionally a trading city, and generally regarded as the most prosperous in Afghanistan. With the money drawn from customs revenues, Khan has rebuilt much of the damage done by the Soviets and the Taliban. He has repaved roads, rebuilt schools and provided opportunities for small businesses to flourish, earning himself the gratitude of the Heratis. His popularity can be ascertained by the fact that, at the news of his dismissal, rioting broke out in the streets of Herat. Notes and references External links Official site of Amir Mohammad Ismail Strategic Insights - Ismail Khan, Herat, and Iranian Influence BBC Profile: Ismail Khan GlobalSecurity.org - General Mohammad Ismail Khan BBC interview with Ismail Khan in 2004 (on Youtube) | Ismail_Khan |@lemmatized ismail:28 khan:34 born:1 ethnic:1 tajik:1 herat:22 afghanistan:14 powerful:1 mujahedeen:1 commander:2 soviet:7 war:4 key:3 member:3 northern:2 alliance:2 later:3 governor:4 province:4 minister:4 energy:2 country:1 political:3 party:2 jamiat:3 e:2 islami:2 new:5 united:4 national:3 front:3 resistance:2 communist:2 assess:1 mujahideen:5 troop:1 anti:1 jihad:1 march:3 captain:1 afghan:6 army:4 base:3 western:2 city:6 lead:5 garrison:1 revolt:1 advisor:1 government:6 nur:1 mohammed:1 taraki:1 respond:1 pulverize:1 use:2 supplied:1 bomber:1 kill:2 estimate:1 citizen:1 less:1 week:1 iranian:2 influence:2 thomas:1 h:1 johnson:1 strategic:2 insight:2 volume:1 iii:1 issue:1 july:1 event:1 mark:1 opening:1 salvo:1 rebellion:1 invasion:1 december:1 escape:4 countryside:1 start:1 assemble:1 local:3 widely:1 support:3 population:1 coll:1 steve:1 ghost:1 pg:1 penguin:1 book:1 ensue:1 become:2 leader:3 command:1 burhanuddin:1 rabbani:1 ahmad:1 shah:1 massoud:2 one:3 respected:1 two:2 year:2 withdrawal:1 capture:3 taliban:12 successfully:1 defend:1 cooperation:1 even:1 attack:4 stronghold:1 kandahar:2 repulse:1 ally:1 uzbek:1 general:2 abdul:3 rashid:1 dostum:2 change:1 side:2 force:1 flee:1 iran:3 men:2 take:1 organise:1 opposition:1 faryab:1 area:1 betray:1 malik:1 deputy:1 switch:1 prison:1 u:1 intervention:1 fight:1 within:1 islamic:3 salvation:2 thus:2 regain:2 position:1 post:1 era:1 kabul:3 still:1 struggle:1 achieve:1 wonder:1 term:1 reconstruction:2 supporter:1 say:2 bring:1 security:1 build:1 numerous:1 school:2 provide:2 opportunity:2 small:2 business:2 flourish:2 achievement:1 well:1 love:1 people:2 opponent:1 counter:1 always:1 strong:1 human:3 resource:1 great:1 culture:1 relatively:1 high:2 stability:1 many:1 part:1 credit:1 cannot:1 rightly:1 claim:1 simply:1 happen:1 preside:1 moreover:2 refuse:2 pay:1 tax:2 gather:1 border:2 crossing:1 central:3 treasury:1 directly:1 contribute:1 weakening:1 state:3 ismael:1 also:3 important:1 unifsa:1 tenure:1 rule:2 like:2 private:1 fiefdom:1 increase:1 tension:1 transitional:1 administration:1 particular:1 pass:1 revenue:2 gain:1 custom:2 good:1 turkmenistan:1 money:2 rebuild:2 maintain:1 personal:1 profile:3 bbc:3 news:2 september:2 hamid:2 karzai:3 view:1 tie:1 concern:1 advocate:1 oust:1 bush:1 problem:1 win:2 go:1 away:1 seymour:1 hersh:1 yorker:1 send:1 unit:1 newly:1 train:1 assert:1 authority:1 clash:1 among:1 son:1 mirwais:1 sadiq:1 civil:1 aviation:1 constant:1 pressure:1 rival:1 sack:1 conciliatory:1 gesture:1 president:1 appoint:1 cabinet:1 australian:1 broadcasting:1 corporation:1 report:3 prior:1 presidential:1 election:1 amanullah:2 call:2 major:1 victory:1 militia:1 repeat:1 speculation:1 may:1 receive:1 testimony:2 request:2 guantanamo:3 captive:3 razzaq:1 hekmati:6 combatant:1 status:1 review:1 tribunal:2 defense:1 rahim:1 wardak:1 conduct:1 reasonably:1 available:1 give:1 statement:1 behalf:1 could:1 locate:2 play:1 role:1 help:2 stand:1 accuse:2 custody:1 carlotta:1 gall:1 andy:1 worthington:1 interview:2 york:2 time:2 article:1 die:1 cancer:1 accord:1 personally:1 buttonhole:1 american:1 ambassador:1 tell:2 innocent:1 release:1 contrast:1 department:1 unable:1 controversy:1 controversial:1 figure:2 reporter:1 without:1 charge:1 muzzle:1 press:1 order:1 journalist:2 hr:1 medium:1 hrea:1 org:2 radio:1 free:1 expel:1 fro:1 right:2 watch:1 abuse:1 torture:1 repression:1 john:1 sifton:1 november:1 fall:1 control:1 establish:1 police:1 would:1 beat:1 anyone:1 find:1 drinking:1 parade:1 head:1 shave:1 nevertheless:1 remain:1 popular:1 several:1 reason:1 first:1 unlike:1 link:2 large:1 scale:1 massacre:1 atrocity:1 commit:1 governorship:1 enjoy:1 relative:1 peace:1 prosperity:1 traditionally:1 trading:1 generally:1 regard:1 prosperous:1 drawn:1 much:1 damage:1 repaved:1 road:1 rebuilt:1 earn:1 gratitude:1 heratis:1 popularity:1 ascertain:1 fact:1 dismissal:1 riot:1 break:1 street:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 official:1 site:1 amir:1 mohammad:2 globalsecurity:1 youtube:1 |@bigram ismail_khan:27 e_islami:2 burhanuddin_rabbani:1 ahmad_shah:1 shah_massoud:1 abdul_rashid:1 rashid_dostum:1 bbc_news:1 hamid_karzai:2 broadcasting_corporation:1 presidential_election:1 amanullah_khan:2 atrocity_commit:1 external_link:1 globalsecurity_org:1 |
2,770 | Transport_in_Hong_Kong | Hong Kong has a highly developed and sophisticated transportation network, encompassing both public and private transport. Over 90% of the daily journeys are on public transport, making it the highest in the world. Lam, William H.K. [2003] (2003). Advanced Modeling for Transit Operations and Service Planning. Elsevier publishing. ISBN 0080442064 Since 1997, an electronic money system, namely the Octopus card, has been introduced to provide an alternative to the traditional banknotes and coins. Available for purchase in every Mass Transit Railway station, the Octopus card now is the payment method of choice for not only public transport (such as trains, buses, trams, ferries and minibuses), but also widely used at parking meters, convenience stores, supermarkets, fast-food restaurants, and some vending machines. Automated pedestrian transport Escalators and moving pavements Central-Mid-Levels escalator. Hong Kong Island is dominated by steep, hilly terrain, which required the development of unusual methods of transport up and down the slopes. In Central and Western district, there is an extensive system of zero-fare escalators and moving pavements. The Mid-levels Escalator is the longest outdoor covered escalator system in the world, operating downhill until 10 am for commuters going to work, and then operating uphill until midnight. The Mid-levels Escalator consists of 20 escalators and 3 moving pavements. It is 800 metres long, and climbs 135 vertical metres. Total travel time is 20 minutes, but most people walk while the escalator moves to shorten the travel time. Due to its vertical climb, the same distance is equivalent to several miles of zigzagging roads if travelled by car. Daily traffic exceeds 35,000 people. It has been operating since 1993 and cost HK$ 240 million (USD $30 million) to build. A second Mid-Levels escalator set is planned in Sai Ying Pun. Rail transport Hong Kong has an extensive train network. Public transport trains are operated by the MTR Corporation Limited (MTR). The MTR operates the metro network within inner urban Hong Kong, Kowloon Peninsula and northern part of Hong Kong Island with newly developed areas, Tsuen Wan, Tseung Kwan O, Tung Chung, Hong Kong Disneyland, the Hong Kong International Airport, the northeastern and northwestern parts of the New Territories. The Hong Kong Tramways operates a tram service exclusively on northern Hong Kong Island. The Peak Tram connects Central, Hong Kong's CBD, with the Victoria Peak. Mass Transit Railway MTR during peak hours. There are altogether ten lines in the MTR system, with a total of 82 railway stations and 68 light rail stops. The ten lines are , , , , , , , , the and the . Eight of the lines provide ordinary metro services, whereas the Airport Express provides a direct link from the Hong Kong International Airport into the city centre, while the Disneyland Resort Line exclusively takes passengers to Hong Kong Disneyland. The Light Rail possesses many characteristics of a tramway, including running on streets with other traffic (at grades) on some of its tracks and providing services for the public in New Territories West, including Tuen Mun and Yuen Long. All trains and most MTR stations are air conditioned. Tramways A broken tram may cause serious traffic congestion. The Hong Kong Tramways is the tram (streetcar) system run exclusively with double deckers. The electric tram system was proposed in 1881; however nobody was willing to invest in a system at the time. In August 1901, the Second Tramway Bill was introduced and passed into law as the 1902 Tramway Ordinance. Hong Kong Tramway Electric Company Limited, a British company, was authorised to take the responsibilities in construction and daily operation. It was soon taken over by another company, Electric Tranction Company of Hong Kong Limited and then the name was changed to Hong Kong Tramways Company Limited in 1910. The Peak Tram. The rail system is 13 kilometres (8 miles) long, with a total track length of 30 km (18.6 miles), and it runs together with other vehicles on the street. Its operation relies on the 550V direct current (d.c.) from the overhead cables, on 3'6" gauge (1067 mm) tracks. The trams provide service to only parts of Hong Kong Island: they run on a double track along the northern coast of Hong Kong Island from Kennedy Town to Shau Kei Wan, with a single clockwise-running track of about 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) around Happy Valley Racecourse. Funicular railways The Peak Tram is a funicular railway service which was inaugurated in 1888. It carries both tourists and residents to the upper levels of Hong Kong Island. It provides the most direct route to Victoria Peak and offers scenic views over Victoria Harbour and the skyscrapers of Hong Kong. Road transport Buses Image of a KMB low floor double decker with wheelchair accessibility Bus services have a long history in Hong Kong. In 2009, five companies operate franchised public bus services. There are also a variety of non-franchised public buses services, including feeder bus services to railway stations operated by the railway companies, and residents' services for residential estates (particularly those in the New Territories). The five franchised bus companies are: Kowloon Motor Bus Company (1933) Limited; Citybus Limited; Long Win Bus Company Limited; New World First Bus Services Limited; and New Lantao Bus Company (1973) Limited. Founded in 1933, the Kowloon Motor Bus Company (1933) Limited (KMB) is one of the largest privately-owned public bus operators in the world. KMB's fleet consist of about 4,300 buses on 420 routes and a staff of over 13,000 people. In 1979, Citybus began its operation in Hong Kong with one double-decker, providing shuttle service for the Hong Kong dockyard. It later expanded into operating a residential bus route between City One, Shatin and Kowloon Tong MTR station. New World First Bus Services Limited was established in 1998, taking over China Motor Bus's franchise to provide bus services on Hong Kong Island together with Citybus. NWFB's owner company later bought Citybus, but the two companies have basically been operating independently. Public light buses Green LPG minibus on its route Public light buses (小巴) (widely referred to as minibuses, or sometimes maxicabs, a de facto share taxi) run the length and breadth of Hong Kong, through areas which the standard bus lines can not or do not reach as frequently, quickly or directly. Minibuses carry a maximum of 16 passengers; no standees are allowed. The Hong Kong Transport Department (HKTD) allows and licenses the operation of two types of public light buses - (1) green minibuses that have route numbers, stop at designated stops and whom have their fares, service and frequency regulated by the HKTD; and (2) red minibuses that may or may not have regular routes, may or may not be numbered, may or may not have fixed stops and whose fares and service levels are not regulated by HKTD. HKTD Public Light Bus Policy. Accessed 11 December 2006 Red minibuses do often provide more convenient supplementary transportation services for riders which aren't serviced by green minibuses or other public buses, and are thus quite popular to use. Where green minibus drivers are paid fixed wages to drive their routes, red minibus drivers often rely on their pick-up fares for a living and thus are often seen to be more aggressive drivers. The prevalence of aggressive driving has resulted in the HKTD making it mandatory for Hong Kong minibuses to be equipped with large read-out speedometers which allow passengers to track the speed at which minibus drivers operate. Currently, if minibuses exceed 80km/h, the speedometer will sound an audible warning signal (begin beeping) to the driver and passengers. If the minibus exceeds 100km/h, the beeping will turn into a sustained tone. However, it is almost without exception that this warning signal is ignored by both the driver and passengers. The HKTD has also regulated, after a series of minibus accidents, that all new minibuses brought into service after August 2005 have safety belts installed, and riders use these safety belts when riding in a minibus. Taxis Red taxis serve urban areas , there were 18,138 taxis in Hong Kong, 15,250 of which were urban taxis, 2,838 New Territories taxis, and 50 Lantau taxis. Every day, they serve 1.1 million, 207,900, and 1,400 passengers respectively. Taxis carry an average of one million passengers each day, occupying about 12% of the daily patronage carried by all modes of public transport in Hong Kong. Most of the taxis in Hong Kong run on LPG (liquified petroleum gas) to reduce emissions. In August 2000 a one-off cash grant was paid to taxi owners who replaced their diesel taxi with an LPG one. By the end of 2003, over 99.8% of the taxi fleet in Hong Kong ran on LPG. Since August 2001, all newly purchased taxis run on LPG. Taxi fare is charged according to the taximeter; however, additional charges on the faretable may apply, such as road tolls and luggage fees. Red urban taxis are the most expensive, while blue Lantau taxis are the cheapest. The standard of service among different kinds of taxis is mostly the same. The reason for having three types of taxis is to ensure service availability in less populated regions, as running in the urban centre is considered to be more profitable. Private cars There are 517,000 cars licensed in Hong Kong, 64% of which are private cars. As of 2003 the US Department of State reports that there are 523,767 licensed vehicles in Hong Kong and about 1,911 kilometers of roads, or 274 vehicles per kilometer of road. In terms of private car ownership, the number of cars per capita is half that of Singapore and one-third that of Taiwan. Private cars are most popular in newly developed areas such as Lantau and areas near the boundary with mainland China, as there are fewer public transportation options, and more parking spaces compared to other areas of Hong Kong. Most cars are right hand drive models, from Japanese or European manufacturers. Hong Kong does not allow left hand drive vehicles to be primarily registered in Hong Kong. However, Hong Kong registered vehicles may apply for secondary mainland Chinese registration plates, and these can be driven across the boundary to mainland China; likewise, left hand drive cars seen in Hong Kong are usually primarily registered in mainland China and carry supplementary Hong Kong registration plates. Cars are subjected to a first-time registration tax, which varies from 35% to over 100%, based on the size and value of the car. The level of vehicle taxation was increased by a law passed on 2 June 1982 to discourage private car ownership, Legco doubts on car curbs, South China Morning Post, 3 June 1982 and also as an incentive to buy smaller, more efficient cars, as these have less tax levied on them. First-time registration tax was doubled, annual licensing fees were increased by 300%, and $0.7 duty was imposed on each litre of on light oils. Michael Chugani, Legco doubts on car curbs, South China Morning Post, 20 May 1982 In addition to the heavy traffic at times, parking may be problematic. Due to high urban density, there are not many filling stations; Petrol in Hong Kong averages around US$1.55 per litre, of which around half the cost is taxes. It was suggested in the news that that the government had deliberately impeded the use of new environmentally friendly diesel engines by allowing only light goods vehicles to be fuelled by diesel. While it cannot be determined why exactly the government does not allow private cars to be fuelled by diesel, it has been pointed out that the government does receive a tax that is 150% of the actual fuel cost. This is mostly to discourage car ownership for environmental reasons. Mottershead, Terri. [2004] (2004). Sustainable Development in Hong Kong. HK University. ISBN 9622094910 There is a waiting list for local driving tests, while a full (private car) driver's license valid for 10 years costs around US$115. Residents of Hong Kong holding foreign licenses can get a Hong Kong drivers license if they present a valid license from a "recognised" country. Private car owners often provide taxi service for a nominal fee. The term white card describes these drivers. Maritime transport Ferries Meridian Star of Hong Kong Star Ferry A fast ferry of New World First Ferry A triple decker ferry of New World First Ferry Internal routes Most ferry services are provided by licensed ferry operators. , there were 27 regular licensed passenger ferry services operated by 11 licensees, serving outlying islands, new towns and inner-Victoria Harbour. Two of the routes operated by the Star Ferry are franchised. Additionally, 78 "kai-to" ferries are licensed to serve remote coastal settlements. The following companies operate ferry services in Hong Kong: Star Ferry: Central to Tsim Sha Tsui Wanchai to Tsim Sha Tsui Central to Hung Hom Wanchai to Hung Hom Harbour Tour (Circular between Tsim Sha Tsui, Central, Wan Chai, and Hung Hom) New World First Ferry: Central to Cheung Chau, Mui Wo, and Peng Chau Tsim Sha Tsui, Mui Wo, Cheung Chau (Weekends Only) Peng Chau, Mui Wo, Chi Ma Wan, and Cheung Chau North Point to Hung Hom and Kowloon City Tuen Mun to Tung Chung Hong Kong & Kowloon Ferry: Lamma Island to Central and Aberdeen Chuen Kee Ferry: Lamma Island to Aberdeen HKR International Limited: Discovery Bay Transportation Services - Discovery Bay to Central Park Island Transport Company Ltd.: Ma Wan to Central Ma Wan to Tsuen Wan Fortune Ferry (富裕小輪) North Point to Kwun Tong Coral Sea Ferry (珊瑚海船務) Sai Wan Ho to Kwun Tong External routes Fastferry hydrofoil and catamaran service is available at all times of the week between Hong Kong and Macau. TurboJet provides 24-hour services, connecting Central and Macau. Its highest frequency is 15 minutes. It also provides the following regular services: Hong Kong International Airport to Shenzhen Airport / Macau / Guangzhou (East River Guangzhou Ferry Terminal) Tsim Sha Tsui to Guangzhou Macau to Shenzhen Airport Tsim Sha Tsui to Macau New World First Ferry (Macau) provides an 17-hour service daily between Tsim Sha Tsui and Macau, with the highest frequency of 30 minutes. Chu Kong Passenger Transport (CKS) connects Hong Kong to cities in Guangdong province, including Zhuhai (Jiuzhou), Shenzhen (Shekou), Zhongshan(Zhongshan Kong), Lianhua Shan (Panyu), Jiangmen, Gongyi, Sanbu, Gaoming, Heshan, Humen, Nanhai, Shunde, Doumen. Other Gondola lift There are two gondola lift systems in Hong Kong: Ocean Park, Hong Kong Island - A 1.5 km in-park cable car system between Nam Long Shan Headland and Wong Chuk Hang, opened in 1977. Ngong Ping Cable Car on Lantau Island, a 5.7 km cableway between Tung Chung MTR station and Ngong Ping Terminal near Po Lin Monastery, opened on 18 September 2006. Infrastructure Ports and harbours |Victoria Harbour The port of Hong Kong has always been a key factor in the development and prosperity of the special administrative region, which is strategically located on the Far East trade routes and is in the geographical centre of the fast-developing Asia-Pacific Basin. The sheltered harbour provides good access and a safe haven for vessels calling at the port from around the world. In terms of tonnage of shipping using its facilities, cargo handled and the number of passengers carried, Hong Kong is undoubtedly one of the major ports of the world. The Victoria Harbour is one of the busiest ports in the world. An average of 220,000 ships visit the harbour each year, including both oceanliners and river vessels, for both goods and passengers. The container port in Hong Kong is one of the busiest in the world. The Kwai Chung Terminal operates 24 hours a day. Together with other facilities in Victoria Harbour, they handled more than in 2003. Some 400 container liners serve Hong Kong weekly, connecting to over 500 destinations around the world. Airports Inside Hong Kong International Airport Hong Kong only has one active international airport. The famous former Hong Kong International Airport at Kai Tak was retired in favour of the recently constructed Hong Kong International Airport, also known as Chek Lap Kok International Airport. The airport now serves as a transport hub for East Asia, and as the hub for Cathay Pacific Airways, Dragonair, Hong Kong Express, Hong Kong Airlines (former CR Airways), and Air Hong Kong. Ferry services link the airport with several piers in Pearl River Delta, where immigrations and customs are exempted. The airport is the third busiest airport for passenger traffic in Asia, and the world's second busiest airport for cargo traffic in 2003. In terms of international traffic, the airport is the third busiest for passenger traffic and the busiest for cargo since its operation in 1998. It is popular with travellers — from 2001 to 2005 Hong Kong International Airport has been voted the world's best airport in an annual survey of several million passengers worldwide by Skytrax. According to the Guinness World Records, the passenger terminal of the HKIA is the world's largest airport terminal building, with a covered area of 550,000 m² and recently increased to 570,000 m². The Airport Core Programme was the most expensive airport project in the world. Shek Kong Airfield, located near Yuen Long, is a military airfield for the People's Liberation Army, which is of limited operating capabilities due to surrounding terrains. The only aircraft operating on the airfield are PLA's Z-9 helicopters, which is the license-built version of the Eurocopter Dauphin. Heliports Hong Kong has three heliports. Shun Tak Heliport (ICAO: VHST) is located in the Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Terminal, by the Shun Tak Centre, in Sheung Wan, on Hong Kong Island. Another is located in Southwest Kowloon, near Kowloon station. The other is located inside Hong Kong International Airport. Heli Express operates regular helicopter service between Macao Heliport (ICAO:VMMH) on the Macau Ferry Terminal in Macau and the Shun Tak Helipot. There are around 16 flights daily. Flights take approximately 20 minutes in the eight-seater aircraft. There are also a number of helipads across the territory, including the roof of the Peninsula Hotel (which is the only rooftop helipad in the territory, excluding the rooftop heliport of Shun Tak Centre and those in hospitals) and Cheung Chau Island, between Tung Wan Beach and Kwun Yam Beach. Highways There are a total of 1,831 km of paved highways in Hong Kong. These roads are built to British standards with maximum of three lanes with hard shoulders. There are 9 roads classified as highways in Hong Kong and re-numbered from 1 to 9 in 2004. Route 1 to 3 are in north-south direction and crossing three Cross-Harbour Tunnels while others are in east-west direction: Route 1: Southern District <> Causeway Bay <> Tsim Sha Tsui <> Mong Kok <> Sha Tin Route 2: Eastern District <> Kwun Tong <> Wong Tai Sin <> Sha Tin Route 3: Central & Western District <> Tai Kok Tsui <> Sham Shui Po <> Kwai Tsing <> Tsuen Wan <> Yuen Long Route 4: Eastern District <> Causeway Bay <> Wan Chai <> Central & Western District Route 5: Kowloon City <> Wong Tai Sin <> Sham Shui Po <> Kwai Tsing <> Tsuen Wan Route 7: Tseung Kwan O <> Kwun Tong <> Wong Tai Sin <> Sham Shui Po <> Kwai Tsing Route 8: Sha Tin <> Kwai Tsing <> Lantau Island North <> Tung Chung <> Airport Route 9: Circular Route linking the whole New Territories ( Sha Tin, Tai Po, Northern District, Yuen Long, Tuen Mun, Tsuen Wan ) Route 10: Tuen Mun <> Nam Tei (Divided from Route 9) <> Ha Tsuen <> Deep Bay <> Shenzhen Bay Bridge <> Shenzhen Bay Border Crossing <> Mainland China Route 6 (Hong Kong) is an unbuilt and proposed highway. There are 120 CCTV cameras monitoring traffic on these highways and connecting roads which is available on demand (now TV) and on Transport Department's Website. Highways in Hong Kong use two types of barrier system for divided highways. Older roads use metal guard rails and newer roads use the British Concrete step barrier. All signage on highways and roads in Hong Kong are bilingual (traditional Chinese below and English above). Street signs use black text on a white background. Highway and directional signage are white lettering on blue or green background. Bus lanes There are approximately 22 km of bus priority lanes. Bridges and tunnels Toll plaza of Cross Harbour Tunnel at Hung Hom, Kowloon Tsing Ma Bridge at night There are 15 vehicular tunnels (3 currently under construction) in Hong Kong. They include three cross-harbour tunnels and nine road tunnels. The other road tunnels and bridges which are proposed or under construction are: Nam Wan Tunnel (under construction) Stonecutters Bridge (under construction) Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge (Proposed) Ports of entry This is a list of ports of entry (i.e. immigration control points) in Hong Kong. Airport and heliports Hong Kong International Airport Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Terminal Land Vehicles and people Lok Ma Chau Man Kam To Sha Tau Kok Shenzhen Bay People Lo Wu Lok Ma Chau Spur Line Railway Hung Hom Sea Macau Ferry Terminal China Ferry Terminal Ocean Terminal Tuen Mun Ferry Pier Western Immigration Anchorage Eastern Immigration Anchorage Tuen Mun Immigration Anchorage References See also List of streets and roads in Hong Kong List of airports and heliports in Hong Kong List of buildings, sites and areas in Hong Kong Media of Hong Kong Victoria Harbour crossings Hong Kong Link Hong Kong car number plates External links Wang L H, "In Search of a Sustainable Transport Development Strategy for Hong Kong" Hong Kong Highways Department Hong Kong Transport Department Vehicular tunnels in Hong Kong E & E Bus Transport Statistics - Census and Statistics Department | Transport_in_Hong_Kong |@lemmatized hong:87 kong:90 highly:1 developed:1 sophisticated:1 transportation:4 network:3 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2,771 | HTML | HTML, an acronym for HyperText Markup Language, is the predominant markup language for web pages. It provides a means to describe the structure of text-based information in a document—by denoting certain text as links, headings, paragraphs, lists, etc.—and to supplement that text with interactive forms, embedded images, and other objects. HTML is written in the form of "tags" that are surrounded by angle brackets. HTML can also describe, to some degree, the appearance and semantics of a document, and can include embedded scripting language code (such as JavaScript) that can affect the behavior of Web browsers and other HTML processors. History of HTML Origins Tim Berners-Lee In 1980, physicist Tim Berners-Lee, who was an independent contractor at CERN, proposed and prototyped ENQUIRE, a system for CERN researchers to use and share documents. In 1989, Berners-Lee and CERN data systems engineer Robert Cailliau each submitted separate proposals for an Internet-based hypertext system providing similar functionality. The following year, they collaborated on a joint proposal, the WorldWideWeb (W3) project, Tim Berners-Lee, "Information Management: A Proposal." CERN (March 1989, May 1990). http://www.w3.org/History/1989/proposal.html which was accepted by CERN. In his personal notes Tim Berners-Lee, "Design Issues" http://www.w3.org/DesignIssues/ from 1990 he lists Tim Berners-Lee, "Design Issues" http://www.w3.org/DesignIssues/Uses.html , "some of the many areas in which hypertext is used", and puts an encyclopaedia first. First specifications The first publicly available description of HTML was a document called HTML Tags, first mentioned on the Internet by Berners-Lee in late 1991. It describes 22 elements comprising the initial, relatively simple design of HTML. Thirteen of these elements still exist in HTML 4. HTML is a text and image formatting language used by web browsers to dynamically format web pages. The semantics of many of its tags can be traced to early text formatting languages such as runoff. Runoff was developed in the early 1960s for the CTSS (Compatible Time-Sharing System) operating system, and its formatting commands were derived from the commands used by typesetters to manually format documents. Runoff was later incorporated into the UNIX operating system in more advanced formatting programs such as roff, nroff, and troff. Berners-Lee considered HTML to be, at the time, an application of SGML, but it was not formally defined as such until the mid-1993 publication, by the IETF, of the first proposal for an HTML specification: Berners-Lee and Dan Connolly's "Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)" Internet-Draft, which included an SGML Document Type Definition to define the grammar. The draft expired after six months, but was notable for its acknowledgment of the NCSA Mosaic browser's custom tag for embedding in-line images, reflecting the IETF's philosophy of basing standards on successful prototypes. Similarly, Dave Raggett's competing Internet-Draft, "HTML+ (Hypertext Markup Format)", from late 1993, suggested standardizing already-implemented features like tables and fill-out forms. After the HTML and HTML+ drafts expired in early 1994, the IETF created an HTML Working Group, which in 1995 completed "HTML 2.0", the first HTML specification intended to be treated as a standard against which future implementations should be based. Published as Request for Comments 1866, HTML 2.0 included ideas from the HTML and HTML+ drafts. There was no "HTML 1.0"; the 2.0 designation was intended to distinguish the new edition from previous drafts. Further development under the auspices of the IETF was stalled by competing interests. Since 1996, the HTML specifications have been maintained, with input from commercial software vendors, by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). However, in 2000, HTML also became an international standard (ISO/IEC 15445:2000). The last HTML specification published by the W3C is the HTML 4.01 Recommendation, published in late 1999. Its issues and errors were last acknowledged by errata published in 2001. Version history of the standard HTML version timeline November 1995 HTML 2.0 was published as IETF RFC 1866. Supplemental RFCs added capabilities: November 1995: RFC 1867 (form-based file upload) May 1996: RFC 1942 (tables) August 1996: RFC 1980 (client-side image maps) January 1997: RFC 2070 (internationalization) In June 2000, all of these were declared obsolete/historic by RFC 2854. January 1997 HTML 3.2 was published as a W3C Recommendation. It was the first version developed and standardized exclusively by the W3C, as the IETF had closed its HTML Working Group in September 1997. HTML 3.2 dropped math formulas entirely, reconciled overlap among various proprietary extensions, and adopted most of Netscape's visual markup tags. Netscape's blink element and Microsoft's marquee element were omitted due to a mutual agreement between the two companies. The ability to include mathematical formulas in HTML wasn't standardized until years later in MathML. December 1997 HTML 4.0 was published as a W3C Recommendation. It offers three "flavors": Strict, in which deprecated elements are forbidden, Transitional, in which deprecated elements are allowed, Frameset, in which mostly only frame related elements are allowed; Initially code-named "Cougar", HTML 4.0 adopted many browser-specific element types and attributes, but at the same time sought to phase out Netscape's visual markup features by marking them as deprecated in favor of style sheets. April 1998 HTML 4.0 was reissued with minor edits without incrementing the version number. December 1999 HTML 4.01 was published as a W3C Recommendation. It offers the same three flavors as HTML 4.0, and its last errata were published May 12, 2001. May 2000 ISO/IEC 15445:2000 https://www.cs.tcd.ie/15445/15445.HTML ("ISO HTML", based on HTML 4.01 Strict) was published as an ISO/IEC international standard. As of mid-2008, HTML 4.01 and ISO/IEC 15445:2000 are the most recent versions of HTML. Development of the parallel, XML-based language XHTML occupied the W3C's HTML Working Group through the early and mid-2000s. Drafts October 1991 HTML Tags, an informal CERN document listing twelve HTML tags, was first mentioned in public. November 1992. July 1993 Hypertext Markup Language Hypertext Markup Language: A Representation of Textual Information and MetaInformation for Retrieval and Interchange was published by the IETF as an Internet-Draft (a rough proposal for a standard). It expired in January 1994. November 1993 HTML+ was published by the IETF as an Internet-Draft and was a competing proposal to the Hypertext Markup Language draft. It expired in May 1994. April 1995 (authored March 1995) HTML 3.0 was proposed as a standard to the IETF, but the proposal expired five months later without further action. It included many of the capabilities that were in Raggett's HTML+ proposal, such as support for tables, text flow around figures, and the display of complex mathematical formulas. A demonstration appeared in W3C's own Arena browser. HTML 3.0 did not succeed for several reasons. The pace of browser development, as well as the number of interested parties, had outstripped the resources of the IETF. Netscape continued to introduce HTML elements that specified the visual appearance of documents, contrary to the goals of the newly-formed W3C, which sought to limit HTML to describing logical structure. Microsoft, a newcomer at the time, played to all sides by creating its own tags, implementing Netscape's elements for compatibility, and supporting W3C features such as Cascading Style Sheets. January 2008 HTML5 was published as a Working Draft by the W3C. Although its syntax closely resembles that of SGML, HTML 5 has abandoned any attempt to be an SGML application, and has explicitly defined its own "html" serialization, in addition to an alternative XML-based XHTML 5 serialization. XHTML versions XHTML is a separate language that began as a reformulation of HTML 4.01 using XML 1.0. It continues to be developed: XHTML 1.0, published January 26, 2000 as a W3C Recommendation, later revised and republished August 1, 2002. It offers the same three flavors as HTML 4.0 and 4.01, reformulated in XML, with minor restrictions. XHTML 1.1, published May 31, 2001 as a W3C Recommendation. It is based on XHTML 1.0 Strict, but includes minor changes, can be customized, and is reformulated using modules from Modularization of XHTML, which was published April 10, 2001 as a W3C Recommendation. XHTML 2.0, is still a W3C Working Draft. XHTML 2.0 is incompatible with XHTML 1.x and, therefore, would be more accurate to characterize as an XHTML-inspired new language than an update to XHTML 1.x. XHTML5, which is an update to XHTML 1.x, is being defined alongside HTML5 in the HTML5 draft. HTML markup HTML markup consists of several key components, including elements (and their attributes), character-based data types, and character references and entity references. Another important component is the document type declaration, which specifies the Document Type Definition. As of HTML 5, no Document Type Definition will need to be specified, and will only determine the layout mode. The Hello world program, a common computer program employed for comparing programming languages, scripting languages, and markup languages is made of 9 lines of code in HTML, albeit line breaks and the <!DOCTYPE> tag, or the document type declaration, are optional: <!DOCTYPE html> <html> <head> <title>Hello HTML</title> </head> <body> <p>Hello World!</p> </body> </html> This Document Type Declaration is in HTML5 format. If the <!DOCTYPE> tag is not included, the layout mode defaults to "quirks mode." Elements See HTML elements for more detailed descriptions. Elements are the basic structure for HTML markup. Elements have two basic properties: attributes and content. Each attribute and each element's content has certain restrictions that must be followed for a HTML document to be considered valid. An element usually has a start tag (e.g. <element-name>) and an end tag (e.g. <code></element-name></code>). The element's attributes are contained in the start tag and content is located between the tags (e.g. <code><element-name attribute="value">Content</element-name></code>). Some elements, such as <br>, do not have any content and must not have a closing tag. Listed below are several types of markup elements used in HTML. Structural markup describes the purpose of text. For example, <h2>Golf</h2> establishes "Golf" as a second-level heading, which would be rendered in a browser in a manner similar to the "HTML markup" title at the start of this section. Structural markup does not denote any specific rendering, but most Web browsers have standardized on how elements should be formatted. Text may be further styled with Cascading Style Sheets (CSS). Presentational markup describes the appearance of the text, regardless of its function. For example <b>boldface</b> indicates that visual output devices should render "boldface" in bold text, but gives no indication what devices which are unable to do this (such as aural devices that read the text aloud) should do. In the case of both <b>bold</b> and <i>italic</i>, there are elements which usually have an equivalent visual rendering but are more semantic in nature, namely <strong>strong emphasis</strong> and <em>emphasis</em> respectively. It is easier to see how an aural user agent should interpret the latter two elements. However, they are not equivalent to their presentational counterparts: it would be undesirable for a screen-reader to emphasize the name of a book, for instance, but on a screen such a name would be italicized. Most presentational markup elements have become deprecated under the HTML 4.0 specification, in favor of CSS based style design. Hypertext markup links parts of the document to other documents. HTML up through version XHTML 1.1 requires the use of an anchor element to create a hyperlink in the flow of text: <a>Wikipedia</a>. However, the href attribute must also be set to a valid URL so for example the HTML code, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/">Wikipedia</a>, will render the word "Wikipedia" as a hyperlink.To link on an image, the anchor tag use the following syntax: Attributes Most of the attributes of an element are name-value pairs, separated by "=", and written within the start tag of an element, after the element's name. The value may be enclosed in single or double quotes, although values consisting of certain characters can be left unquoted in HTML (but not XHTML). Leaving attribute values unquoted is considered unsafe. In contrast with name-value pair attributes, there are some attributes that affect the element simply by their presence in the start tag of the element (like the ismap attribute for the img element ). Most elements can take any of several common attributes: The id attribute provides a document-wide unique identifier for an element. This can be used by stylesheets to provide presentational properties, by browsers to focus attention on the specific element, or by scripts to alter the contents or presentation of an element. The class attribute provides a way of classifying similar elements for presentation purposes. For example, an HTML document might use the designation class="notation" to indicate that all elements with this class value are subordinate to the main text of the document. Such elements might be gathered together and presented as footnotes on a page instead of appearing in the place where they occur in the HTML source. An author may use the style non-attributal codes presentational properties to a particular element. It is considered better practice to use an element’s id or class attributes to select the element with a stylesheet, though sometimes this can be too cumbersome for a simple ad hoc application of styled properties. The title attribute is used to attach subtextual explanation to an element. In most browsers this attribute is displayed as what is often referred to as a tooltip. The generic inline element span can be used to demonstrate these various attributes: <span id="anId" class="aClass" style="color:blue;" title="Hypertext Markup Language">HTML</span> This example displays as HTML; in most browsers, pointing the cursor at the abbreviation should display the title text "Hypertext Markup Language." Most elements also take the language-related attributes lang and dir. Character and entity references As of version 4.0, HTML defines a set of 252 character entity references and a set of 1,114,050 numeric character references, both of which allow individual characters to be written via simple markup, rather than literally. A literal character and its markup counterpart are considered equivalent and are rendered identically. The ability to "escape" characters in this way allows for the characters < and & (when written as < and &, respectively) to be interpreted as character data, rather than markup. For example, a literal < normally indicates the start of a tag, and & normally indicates the start of a character entity reference or numeric character reference; writing it as & or & or & allows & to be included in the content of elements or the values of attributes. The double-quote character ("), when used to quote an attribute value, must also be escaped as " or " or " when it appears within the attribute value itself. The single-quote character ('), when used to quote an attribute value, must also be escaped as ' or ' (should NOT be escaped as ' except in XHTML documents) when it appears within the attribute value itself. However, since document authors often overlook the need to escape these characters, browsers tend to be very forgiving, treating them as markup only when subsequent text appears to confirm that intent. Escaping also allows for characters that are not easily typed or that aren't even available in the document's character encoding to be represented within the element and attribute content. For example, the acute-accented e (é), a character typically found only on Western European keyboards, can be written in any HTML document as the entity reference é or as the numeric references é or é. The characters comprising those references (that is, the &, the ;, the letters in eacute, and so on) are available on all keyboards and are supported in all character encodings, whereas the literal é is not. Data types HTML defines several data types for element content, such as script data and stylesheet data, and a plethora of types for attribute values, including IDs, names, URIs, numbers, units of length, languages, media descriptors, colors, character encodings, dates and times, and so on. All of these data types are specializations of character data. Document type declaration HTML documents are required to start with a Document Type Declaration (informally, a “doctype”). In browsers, the function of the doctype is selecting the rendering mode—particularly to avoid the quirks mode. The original purpose of the doctype is to enable validation based on Document Type Definition (DTD) with SGML tools. The DTD to which the DOCTYPE refers contains machine-readable grammar specifying the permitted and prohibited content for a document conforming to such a DTD. Browsers do not read the DTD, however. HTML5 validation is not DTD-based, so in HTML5 the doctype does not refer to a DTD. An example of an HTML 4 doctype: <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd"> This declaration references the Strict DTD of HTML 4.01, which does not have presentational elements like <font>, leaving formatting to Cascading Style Sheets and the span and div tags. SGML-based validators read the DTD in order to properly parse the document and to perform validation. In modern browsers, the HTML 4.01 Strict doctype activates standards layout mode for CSS as opposed to quirks mode. In addition, HTML 4.01 provides Transitional and Frameset DTDs. The Transitional DTD was intended to gradually phase in the changes made in the Strict DTD, while the Frameset DTD was intended for those documents which contained frames. Semantic HTML There is no official specification called "Semantic HTML". Semantic HTML refers to a practice to create documents with HTML that contain only the author's intended meaning, without any reference to how this meaning is presented. It is part of the idea of separation of presentation and content. For example, the emphasis element (<em>) and the italics element (<i>) are functionally identical at default, but have two different meanings. The meaning behind the markup is important in semantic HTML. CSS is typically used to create presentational effects for semantic HTML. With CSS, a designer can create the content with the appropriate, semantic markup and then use CSS to alter the appearance of their markup. The idea is that strictly presentational elements (such as italics or bold lettering) should not be used in the code and that any use of presentational elements should have some meaning attached to it, such as a citation. The benefit of semantic HTML is that presentation of the text will be consistently applied, so long as the proper markup is consistently applied. Moreover, it allows for easy change of presentation, by simply editing the style sheets as well as being able to transfer the text from one site to another. The main disadvantage is that HTML does not contain enough markup tags to describe every single conceivable description or meaning. As such, people will typically use the division (<div>) tag along with a set of pre-defined classes or IDs to properly mark up text for their intended meaning. If the designer has a glut of sections or meanings that don't fit well with HTML's markup, they may be forced to use a lot of division (<div>) tags, which could easily obfuscate the code. Delivery of HTML HTML documents can be delivered by the same means as any other computer file; however, they are most often delivered either by HTTP from a Web server or by e-mail. HTTP The World Wide Web is composed primarily of HTML documents transmitted from Web servers to Web browsers using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). However, HTTP is used to serve images, sound, and other content in addition to HTML. To allow the Web browser to know how to handle each document it receives, other information is transmitted along with the document. This metadata usually includes the MIME type (e.g. text/html or application/xhtml+xml) and the character encoding (see Character encodings in HTML). In modern browsers, the MIME type that is sent with the HTML document may affect how the document is initially interpreted. A document sent with the XHTML MIME type is expected to be well-formed XML, and syntax errors may cause the browser to fail to render it. The same document sent with the HTML MIME type might be displayed successfully, since some browsers are more lenient with HTML. The W3C recommendations state that XHTML 1.0 documents that follow guidelines set forth in the recommendation's Appendix C may be labeled with either MIME Type. The current XHTML 1.1 Working Draft also states that XHTML 1.1 documents should be labeled with either MIME type. HTML e-mail Most graphical e-mail clients allow the use of a subset of HTML (often ill-defined) to provide formatting and semantic markup not available with plain text. This may include typographic information like coloured headings, emphasized and quoted text, inline images and diagrams. Many such clients include both a GUI editor for composing HTML e-mail messages and a rendering engine for displaying them. Use of HTML in e-mail is controversial because of compatibility issues, because it can help disguise phishing attacks, because it can confuse spam filters and because the message size is larger than plain text. Naming conventions The most common filename extension for files containing HTML is .html. A common abbreviation of this is .htm, which originated because some early operating systems and file systems, such as DOS and FAT, limited file extensions to three letters. See 8.3 filename. HTML Application Current flavors of HTML Since its inception, HTML and its associated protocols gained acceptance relatively quickly. However, no clear standards existed in the early years of the language. Though its creators originally conceived of HTML as a semantic language devoid of presentation details, practical uses pushed many presentational elements and attributes into the language, driven largely by the various browser vendors. The latest standards surrounding HTML reflect efforts to overcome the sometimes chaotic development of the language and to create a rational foundation for building both meaningful and well-presented documents. To return HTML to its role as a semantic language, the W3C has developed style languages such as CSS and XSL to shoulder the burden of presentation. In conjunction, the HTML specification has slowly reined in the presentational elements. There are two axes differentiating various flavors of HTML as currently specified: SGML-based HTML versus XML-based HTML (referred to as XHTML) on one axis, and strict versus transitional (loose) versus frameset on the other axis. SGML-based versus XML-based HTML One difference in the latest HTML specifications lies in the distinction between the SGML-based specification and the XML-based specification. The XML-based specification is usually called XHTML to distinguish it clearly from the more traditional definition; however, the root element name continues to be 'html' even in the XHTML-specified HTML. The W3C intended XHTML 1.0 to be identical to HTML 4.01 except where limitations of XML over the more complex SGML require workarounds. Because XHTML and HTML are closely related, they are sometimes documented in parallel. In such circumstances, some authors conflate the two names as (X)HTML or X(HTML). See e.g., XHTML#Relationship to HTML Like HTML 4.01, XHTML 1.0 has three sub-specifications: strict, loose, and frameset. Aside from the different opening declarations for a document, the differences between an HTML 4.01 and XHTML 1.0 document—in each of the corresponding DTDs—are largely syntactic. The underlying syntax of HTML allows many shortcuts that XHTML does not, such as elements with optional opening or closing tags, and even EMPTY elements which must not have an end tag. By contrast, XHTML requires all elements to have an opening tag or a closing tag. XHTML, however, also introduces a new shortcut: an XHTML tag may be opened and closed within the same tag, by including a slash before the end of the tag like this: . The introduction of this shorthand, which is not used in the SGML declaration for HTML 4.01, may confuse earlier software unfamiliar with this new convention. To understand the subtle differences between HTML and XHTML, consider the transformation of a valid and well-formed XHTML 1.0 document that adheres to Appendix C (see below) into a valid HTML 4.01 document. To make this translation requires the following steps: The language for an element should be specified with a lang attribute rather than the XHTML xml:lang attribute. XHTML uses XML's built in language-defining functionality attribute. Remove the XML namespace (xmlns=URI). HTML has no facilities for namespaces. Change the document type declaration from XHTML 1.0 to HTML 4.01. (see DTD section for further explanation). If present, remove the XML declaration. (Typically this is: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>). Ensure that the document’s MIME type is set to text/html. For both HTML and XHTML, this comes from the HTTP Content-Type header sent by the server. Change the XML empty-element syntax to an HTML style empty element ( to ). Those are the main changes necessary to translate a document from XHTML 1.0 to HTML 4.01. To translate from HTML to XHTML would also require the addition of any omitted opening or closing tags. Whether coding in HTML or XHTML it may just be best to always include the optional tags within an HTML document rather than remembering which tags can be omitted. A well-formed XHTML document adheres to all the syntax requirements of XML. A valid document adheres to the content specification for XHTML, which describes the document structure. The W3C recommends several conventions to ensure an easy migration between HTML and XHTML (see HTML Compatibility Guidelines). The following steps can be applied to XHTML 1.0 documents only: Include both xml:lang and lang attributes on any elements assigning language. Use the empty-element syntax only for elements specified as empty in HTML. Include an extra space in empty-element tags: for example <br /> instead of . Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty (for example, <div><code></div></code>, not ). Omit the XML declaration. By carefully following the W3C’s compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML 1.0 and have been made compatible in this way, the W3C permits them to be served either as HTML (with a text/html MIME type), or as XHTML (with an application/xhtml+xml or application/xml MIME type). When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, which adheres strictly to the XML specifications for parsing the document's contents. Transitional versus Strict The latest SGML-based specification HTML 4.01 and the earliest XHTML version include three sub-specifications: Strict, Transitional (once called Loose), and Frameset. The Strict variant represents the standard proper, whereas the Transitional and Frameset variants were developed to assist in the transition from earlier versions of HTML (including HTML 3.2). The Transitional and Frameset variants allow for presentational markup whereas the Strict variant encourages the use of style sheets through its omission of most presentational markup. The primary differences which make the Transitional variant more permissive than the Strict variant (the differences are the same in HTML 4 and XHTML 1.0) are: A looser content model Inline elements and plain text (#PCDATA) are allowed directly in: body, blockquote, form, noscript and noframes Presentation related elements underline (u) strike-through (s) center font basefont Presentation related attributes background and bgcolor attributes for body element. align attribute on div, form, paragraph (p), and heading (h1...h6) elements align, noshade, size, and width attributes on hr element align, border, vspace, and hspace attributes on img and object elements align attribute on legend and caption elements align and bgcolor on table element nowrap, bgcolor, width, height on td and th elements bgcolor attribute on tr element clear attribute on br element compact attribute on dl, dir and menu elements type, compact, and start attributes on ol and ul elements type and value attributes on li element width attribute on pre element Additional elements in Transitional specification menu list (no substitute, though unordered list is recommended; may return in XHTML 2.0 specification) dir list (no substitute, though unordered list is recommended) isindex (element requires server-side support and is typically added to documents server-side) applet (deprecated in favor of object element) The language attribute on script element (presumably redundant with type attribute, though this is maintained for legacy reasons). Frame related entities frameset element (used in place of body for frameset DTD) frame element iframe noframes target attribute on anchor, client-side image-map (imagemap), link, form, and base elements Frameset versus transitional In addition to the above transitional differences, the frameset specifications (whether XHTML 1.0 or HTML 4.01) specifies a different content model: <html> <head> <title></title> <!-- other head elements --> </head> <!-- frameset replaces body --> <frameset> <!-- frame definitions --> <frame></frame> <!-- , ... --> <!-- optional: alternate page body for frames-incompatible user agents --> <noframes> <body></body> </noframes> </frameset> </html> Summary of flavours As this list demonstrates, the loose flavours of the specification are maintained for legacy support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support. Rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions. The primary achievement in the move from XHTML 1.0 to XHTML 1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification. The strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML 1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML 1.1 specification. Likewise someone looking for the loose (transitional) or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML 1.1 support (much of it is contained in the legacy or frame modules). The modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable. So for example XHTML 1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML (a presentational and semantic math language based on XML) and XForms—a new highly advanced web-form technology to replace the existing HTML forms. In summary, the HTML 4.01 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clear written specification based on SGML. XHTML 1.0, ported this specification, as is, to the new XML defined specification. Next, XHTML 1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML 2.0 will be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach. Hypertext features not in HTML HTML lacks some of the features found in earlier hypertext systems, such as typed links, source tracking, fat links, and more. Even some hypertext features that were in early versions of HTML have been ignored by most popular web browsers until recently, such as the link element and in-browser Web page editing. Sometimes Web services or browser manufacturers remedy these shortcomings. For instance, wikis and content management systems allow surfers to edit the Web pages they visit. See also Breadcrumb (navigation) HTML decimal character rendering HTML elements List of computer standards List of document markup languages Microformats The HTML Sourcebook: The Complete Guide to HTML (historical reference from 1995) References External links HTML 4.01, the last valid specification Dave Raggett's Introduction to HTML Empty elements in SGML, HTML, XML, and XHTML HTML and Programming Code Examples HTML Tutorials HTML.net HTML Dog be-x-old:HTML | HTML |@lemmatized html:179 acronym:1 hypertext:15 markup:36 language:29 predominant:1 web:16 page:6 provide:7 mean:2 describe:8 structure:4 text:25 base:27 information:5 document:60 denote:2 certain:3 link:8 heading:4 paragraph:2 list:11 etc:1 supplement:1 interactive:1 form:13 embed:2 image:8 object:3 write:7 tag:35 surround:2 angle:1 bracket:1 also:12 degree:1 appearance:4 semantics:2 include:20 embedded:1 scripting:1 code:14 javascript:1 affect:3 behavior:1 browser:25 processor:1 history:3 origin:1 tim:5 berners:9 lee:9 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2,772 | Jan_Hus | Fr. Jan Hus (, alternative spellings John Hus, Jan Huss, John Huss) (c. 1372 Husinec, Bohemia – 6 July 1415 Konstanz) was a Czech Catholic priest, philosopher, reformer, and master at Charles University in Prague. He was famous for being burned at the stake for his heretical views on the Church. Background He was greatly influenced by the teachings of John Wycliffe. After the King of England, Richard II, married Anne of Bohemia, they traveled back to Bohemia where they carried Wycliffe's ideas with them. Once Hus adopted Wycliffe's ideas, he proposed to reform the church in Bohemia just as Wycliffe had in England. While some of his followers became known as Hussites, his more radical followers were called Taborites. The Taborites rejected any ideas the Roman church had that were not Biblically founded. Later, in about 1450, some of the Taborites founded a group known as the Bohemian Brethren. The Moravian church further developed this group in Germany. The Moravians (so-called because they fled from Moravia in Czech lands) were one of the first Protestant charismatic communities, who sent more missionaries per head than any other Protestant denomination in history, and were responsible later for the conversion of John Wesley. The Roman Catholic Church considered the teachings of John Hus heretical; consequently Hus was excommunicated in 1411, condemned by the Council of Constance, and burned at the stake in 1415. Hus was a key contributor to the Protestant movement whose teachings had a strong influence on the states of Europe and on Martin Luther himself. The Hussite Wars resulted in the Basel Compacts which allowed for a reformed church in the Kingdom of Bohemia - almost a century before such developments would take place in the Lutheran Reformation. Hus's extensive writings earn him a prominent place in Czech literary history. He is also responsible for introducing the use of diacritics (especially the háček) into Czech spelling in order to represent each sound by a single symbol. Today, the Jan Hus Memorial can be seen at the Prague Old Town Square (Czech Staroměstské náměstí). Jan Hus Day (Den upálení mistra Jana Husa) on 6 July, the anniversary of the execution of Jan Hus, is one of the public holidays in the Czech Republic. He is also commemorated as a martyr in the Calendar of Saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on that day. Today most Czechs describe themselves as non-religious, and among Christians more are Roman Catholics than Hussites, http://www.czso.cz/sldb/sldb2001.nsf/tabx/CZ0000 nonetheless Jan Hus is a national hero. Early years Fr. Jan Hus was born in Husinec in southern Bohemia. His date of birth has been thought to be between 1369 to 1373. Working backward from the year of his ordination, the best estimate is the year 1372. Very little is known of his parents and family. Papal schism The University of Prague around 1408 was being torn apart by the ongoing papal schism, in which Pope Gregory XII and Avignon Pope Benedict XIII both laid claim to the papacy. King Wenceslaus felt Pope Gregory XII might interfere with his plans to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor; thus, he renounced Gregory and ordered his prelates to observe a strict neutrality toward both popes, and said he expected the same of the university. Archbishop Zbyněk Zajíc remained faithful to Gregory. At the university, only the "Bohemian nation" (one of four voting blocs), with Hus as its leader and spokesman, avowed neutrality. Kutná Hora At the instigation of Hus and other Bohemian leaders, Wenceslaus issued a decree (while in the city of Kutná Hora) that the Bohemian nation should now have three votes (instead of one) in all affairs of the university, while the foreign nations (Bavarian, Saxon, and Polish) should have only one vote. As a consequence somewhere between five thousand and twenty thousand foreign doctors, masters, and students left the university in 1409. This exodus resulted in the founding of the University of Leipzig, among others. Thus, Prague university lost its international importance and became a Czech school. The emigrants also spread news of the Bohemian "heresies" throughout the rest of Europe. The Archbishop Zbyněk Zajíc became isolated and Hus was at the height of his fame. He became a rector of the Czech university, and enjoyed the favor of the court. At around this time the doctrinal views of the English theologian John Wycliffe, (1320s-1384), were becoming widely influential. Alexander V becomes Pope In 1409, in an attempt to end the papal schism, the Council of Pisa met to elect a new pope. This did not succeed, and the pope they elected, Alexander V, did not end loyalty to the other two popes. The Roman Catholic Church now considers Alexander V an antipope. Hus, his followers, and Wenceslaus transferred their allegiance to Alexander V. Under pressure from Wenceslaus, Archbishop Zbyněk Zajíc eventually did the same. Zajíc then brought his complaints before Alexander V's Papal See, accusing the Wycliffites of ecclesiastical disturbances. Excommunication of Hus Alexander V issued his papal bull of 20 December 1409, which empowered the Archbishop to proceed against Wycliffism. All books of Wycliffe were to be given up, his doctrines revoked, and free preaching discontinued. After the publication of the bull in 1410, Hus appealed before Alexander V, but in vain. All books and valuable manuscripts of Wycliffe were burned, and Alexander V excommunicated Hus and his adherents. Riots ensued in parts of Bohemia. The government took the side of Hus, and the power of his adherents increased from day to day. He continued to preach in the Bethlehem Chapel (a church building in Prague), and became bolder and bolder in his accusations against the Church. The churches of the city were put under the ban, and the interdict was pronounced against Prague, but without result. Indulgences Archbishop Zbyněk Zajíc died in 1411, and with his death the religious movement in Bohemia entered a new phase, where the disputes concerning indulgences assumed great importance. Crusade against Naples Antipope John XXIII succeeded Pope Alexander V after his death in 1410. In 1411, John issued a crusade against King Ladislaus of Naples, the protector of Gregory XII. This crusade was preached in Prague as well, and preachers of indulgences urged people to crowd the churches and give their offerings. This developed a traffic in indulgences that to some were a sign of the corruption of the church. Condemnation of indulgences and Crusade Hus spoke out against indulgences, but he could not carry with him the men of the university. In 1412 a dispute took place, on which occasion Hus delivered his address Quaestio magistri Johannis Hus de indulgentiis. It was taken literally from the last chapter of Wycliffe's book, De ecclesia, and his treatise, De absolutione a pena et culpa. The pamphlet stated that no pope or bishop had the right to take up the sword in the name of the Church; he should pray for his enemies and bless those that curse him; man obtains forgiveness of sins by real repentance, not through money. The doctors of the theological faculty replied, but without success. A few days afterward some of Hus's followers, led by Vok Voksa z Valdštejna, burnt the Papal bulls. Hus, they said, should be obeyed rather than the Church, which they considered a fraudulent mob of adulterers and Simonists. Response In response, three men from the lower classes who openly called the indulgences a fraud were beheaded. They were later considered the first martyrs of the Hussite Church. In the meantime, the faculty had condemned the forty-five articles anew and added several other heretical theses which had originated with Hus. The king forbade the teaching of these articles, but neither Hus nor the university complied with the ruling, requesting that the articles should be first proven to be un-scriptural. Further dissensions The tumults at Prague had stirred up a sensation, unpleasant for the Roman party; papal legates and Archbishop Albik tried to persuade Hus to give up his opposition to the papal bulls, and the king made an unsuccessful attempt to reconcile the two parties. Call for arrest of Hus In the meantime the clergy of Prague, through Michael de Causis, had brought their complaints before the Pope, and he ordered the Cardinal of St. Angelo to proceed against Hus without mercy. The cardinal put Hus under the great church ban. He was to be seized and delivered to the archbishop, and his chapel was to be destroyed. This was followed by stricter measures against Hus and his adherents, and in turn counter-measures of the Hussites, including an appeal by Hus that Jesus Christ, and not the Pope, was the supreme judge. This intensified the excitement among the people, and Wenceslaus forced Hus to leave Prague, but his departure did little to quell the ongoing excitement. Attempted reconciliation The king made great efforts to harmonize the opposing parties. In 1412 he convoked the heads of his kingdom for a consultation, and at their suggestion ordered a synod to be held at Český Brod on 2 February 1412. It did not take place there, but in the palace of the archbishops at Prague, in order to exclude Hus from participation. Propositions were made to restore peace in the Church, with Hus requiring that Bohemia should have the same freedom in regard to ecclesiastical affairs as other countries and that approbation and condemnation should therefore be announced only with the permission of the state power. This is wholly the doctrine of Wycliffe (Sermones, iii. 519, etc.). There followed treatises from both parties, but no harmony was obtained. "Even if I should stand before the stake which has been prepared for me," Hus wrote at the time, "I would never accept the recommendation of the theological faculty." The synod did not produce any results, but the King ordered a commission to continue the work of reconciliation. The doctors of the university required from Hus and his adherents an approval of their conception of the Church, according to which the Pope is the head, the Cardinals are the body of the Church, and all regulations of the Church must be obeyed. Hus protested vigorously against this conception since it made the Pope and cardinals solely the Church. Nevertheless the Hussite party seems to have made a great effort toward reconciliation. To the article that the Roman Church must be obeyed, they added only "so far as every pious Christian is bound." Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán Páleč protested against this addition and left the convention. The king exiled them, along with two other spokesmen. Writings of Hus and Wycliffe Of the writings occasioned by these controversies, those of Hus on the Church, entitled De Ecclesia, were written in 1413 and have been most frequently quoted and admired or criticized, and yet their first ten chapters are but an epitome of Wycliffe's work of the same title, and the following chapters are but an abstract of another of Wycliffe's works (De potentate papae) on the power of the pope. Wycliffe had written his book to oppose the common view that the Church consisted only of the clergy, and Hus now found himself making the same point. He wrote his work at the castle of one of his protectors in Kozí Hrádek, and sent it to Prague, where it was publicly read in the Bethlehem chapel. It was answered by Stanislav ze Znojma and Páleč with treatises of the same title. After the most vehement opponents of Hus had left Prague, his adherents occupied the whole ground. Hus wrote his treatises and preached in the neighborhood of Kozí Hrádek. Bohemian Wyclifism was carried into Poland, Hungary, Croatia, and Austria; but at the same time the papal court was not inactive. In January of 1413, a general council assembled in Rome which condemned the writings of Wycliffe and ordered them to be burned. Council of Constance To put an end to the papal schism and to take up the long desired reform of the Church, a general council was convened for 1 November 1414, at Constance. The Emperor Sigismund of Luxemburg, brother of Wenceslaus, and heir to the Bohemian crown, was anxious to put an end to religious dissension within the church; Hus likewise was willing to make an end of all dissensions, and followed the request of Sigismund to go to Constance. From the sermons which he took along, it is evident that he purposed to convert the assembled fathers to his own principal doctrines. Sigismund promised him safe conduct, guaranteeing his safety for the duration of his journey; as a secular ruler he would not have been able to make any guarantees for the safety of Hus in a Papal court, a fact that Hus would have been aware of. However Hus was probably reckoning that a guarantee of safe conduct was also a sign of patronage by the king and that therefore he could rely on royal support during the proceedings. Imprisonment and preparations for trial It is unknown whether Hus knew what his fate would be; he assembled testimonials of his orthodoxy to show the council, but nevertheless made his will before setting out. He started on his journey on 11 October 1414; on 3 November 1414, he arrived at Constance, and on the following day the bulletins on the church doors announced that Michal z Německého Brodu would be the opponent of Hus, "the heretic." In the meantime, Hus's opponents were persuading Sigismund that a promise of safe conduct to a heretic was not legally binding. In the beginning Hus was at liberty, living at the house of a widow, but after a few weeks his opponents succeeded in imprisoning him, on the strength of a rumor — more than likely spread by themselves — that he intended to flee. He was first brought into the residence of a canon, and then, on 8 December 1414, into the dungeon of the Dominican monastery. Sigismund was greatly angered, as the guarantor of Hus's safety, and threatened the prelates with dismissal, but when it was hinted that in such a case the council would be dissolved, he gave in. Even though Sigismund had given Hus safe conduct, the prelates and bishops convinced him that he could not be bound by promises to a heretic. On 4 December 1414, John XXIII had entrusted a committee of three bishops with a preliminary investigation against Hus. As was common practice, witnesses for the prosecution were heard, but Hus was not allowed an advocate for his defense. His situation became worse after the downfall of the antipope, who had left Constance to evade the necessity of abdicating. Up to that time, Hus had been the captive of John XXIII and in constant communication with his friends, but now he was delivered to the Archbishop of Constance and brought to his castle, Gottlieben on the Rhine. Here he remained for seventy-three days, separated from his friends, chained day and night, poorly fed, and tortured by disease. Trial On 5 June 1415, he was tried for the first time, and for that purpose was transferred to a Franciscan monastery, where he spent the last weeks of his life. He acknowledged the writings on the Church against Znojma, Páleč, as well as Stanislaus of Znaim as his own, and declared himself willing to recant if his errors should be proven to him from the Bible. Hus conceded his veneration of Wycliffe, and said that he could only wish his soul might some time attain unto that place where Wycliffe's was. On the other hand, he denied having defended Wycliffe's doctrine of The Lord's Supper or the forty-five articles; he had only opposed their summary condemnation. King Wenceslaus admonished him to deliver himself up to the mercy of the Council, as he did not desire to protect a heretic. At the last trial, on 8 June 1415, there were read to him thirty-nine sentences, twenty-six of which had been excerpted from his book on the Church, seven from his treatise against Páleč, and six from that against Stanislav ze Znojma. The danger of some of these doctrines to worldly power was explained to the emperor to incite him against Hus. Hus again declared himself willing to submit if he could be convinced of errors. He desired only a fair trial and more time to explain the reasons for his views. If his reasons and Bible texts did not suffice, he would be glad to be instructed. This declaration was considered an unconditional surrender, and he was asked to confess: that he had erred in the theses which he had hitherto maintained; that he renounced them for the future; that he recanted them; and that he declared the opposite of these sentences. He asked to be exempted from recanting doctrines which he had never taught; others, which the assembly considered erroneous, he was willing to revoke; to act differently would be against his conscience. These words found no favorable reception. After the trial on 8 June, several other attempts were made to induce him to recant, but he resisted all of them. The attitude of Sigismund was due to political considerations — he looked upon the return of Hus to his country as dangerous, and thought the terror of execution might improve the situation. Condemnation and execution The condemnation took place on 6 July 1415, in the presence of the assembly of the Council in the Cathedral. After the performance of High Mass and Liturgy, Hus was led into the church. The Bishop of Lodi delivered an oration on the duty of eradicating heresy; then some theses of Hus and Wycliffe and a report of his trial were read. Refusals to recant Map of the area where Hus was burnt at the stake An Italian prelate pronounced the sentence of condemnation upon Hus and his writings. Hus protested, saying that even at this hour he did not wish anything, but to be convinced from Holy Scripture. He fell upon his knees and asked God with a low voice to forgive all his enemies. Then followed his degradation — he was enrobed in priestly vestments and again asked to recant; again he refused. With curses his ornaments were taken from him, his priestly tonsure was destroyed, and the sentence was pronounced that the Church had deprived him of all rights and delivered him to the secular powers. Then a high paper hat was put upon his head, with the inscription "Haeresiarcha" (meaning the leader of a heretical movement). Hus was led away to the stake under a strong guard of armed men. At the place of execution he knelt down, spread out his hands, and prayed aloud. Some of the people asked that a confessor should be given him, but one priest exclaimed that a heretic should neither be heard nor given a confessor. The executioners undressed Hus and tied his hands behind his back with ropes, and his neck with a chain to a stake around which wood and straw had been piled up so that it covered him to the neck. At the last moment, the imperial marshal, Von Pappenheim, in the presence of the Count Palatine, asked him to recant and thus save his own life, but Hus declined with the words "God is my witness that I have never taught that of which I have by false witnesses been accused. In the truth of the Gospel which I have written, taught, and preached, I will die today with gladness." Spiezer Chronik, 1485 He was then burnt at the stake. Allegedly with the execution in process, the executors had some problems scaling up the fire. An old woman came closer to the bonfire and threw a relatively small amount of brushwood on it. Hus, seeing it, then said, "Sancta Simplicitas!" (Holy Simplicity!) This sentence or its Czech equivalent ("svatá prostota!" or in vocative form "svatá prostoto!") is – more or less ironically – is still used to comment upon a stupid action based on a person's unbelievable naivity. Dying prophecy Amongst Hus's last words are allegedly that, "in a hundred years, God will raise up a man whose calls for reform cannot be suppressed." Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses of Contention to a church door in Wittenberg 102 years later. Hus's scholarship and teachings The Czechs, who in his lifetime had loved Hus as their prophet and apostle, now adore him as their saint and martyr, a national hero. He left only a few reformatory writings in the proper sense of the word, most of his works being polemical treatises against Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán Páleč. He translated the Trialogus, and was very familiar with his works on the body of the Lord, on the Church, on the power of the pope, and especially with his sermons. There are reasons to suppose that Wycliffe's doctrine of the Lord's Supper had spread to Prague as early as 1399, with strong evidence that students returning from England had brought the work back with them. It gained an even wider circulation after it had been prohibited in 1403, and Hus preached and taught it, although it is possible that he simply repeated it without advocating it. But the doctrine was seized eagerly by the radical party, the Taborites, who made it the central point of their system. The book on the Church and on the power of the pope contains the essence of the doctrine of Hus. According to it, the Church is not that hierarchy which is generally designated as Church; the Church is the entire body of those who from eternity have been predestined for salvation. Christ, not the pope, is its head. It is no article of faith that one must obey the pope to be saved. Neither external membership in the Church nor churchly offices and dignities are a surety that the persons in question are members of the true Church. To some, Hus's efforts were predominantly designed to rid the Church of its ethical abuses, rather than a campaign of sweeping theological change. To others, the seeds of the reformation are clear in Hus's and Wycliffe's writings. It is interesting to note that in the time of Luther, Wycliffe was considered the beginning, Hus the middle and Luther the end of the Reformation movement. In explaining the plight of the average Christian in Bohemia, Hus wrote, “One pays for confession, for mass, for the sacrament, for indulgences, for churching a woman, for a blessing, for burials, for funeral services and prayers. The very last penny which an old woman has hidden in her bundle for fear of thieves or robbery will not be saved. The villainous priest will grab it.” (Macek, 16) After Hus's death, his followers, then known as Hussites, split off into several groups including the Utraquists, Taborites and Orphans. Nearly six centuries later in 1999, Pope John Paul II expressed "deep regret for the cruel death inflicted" on Hus. The pope then went on to suggest an inquiry as to whether Hus might be cleared of heresy. A church and a theatre in Manhattan, located at 351 East 74th Street, are named for Hus: respectively the Jan Hus Presbyterian Church and the Jan Hus Playhouse. Although the church and theatre share a single building and management, the Playhouse's productions are usually non-religious or non-denominational. Also,a commemorative statue to Jan Hus was erected in the Union Cemetery in Bohemia, Long Island by Czech immigrants to the New York area in 1893. The statue was the first memorial in the United States to honor a foreigner. Although Hus was a Catholic priest, he is pictured bearded, without tonsure. Although he described himself as small and fat, he is pictured tall and slender. Meyers Lexikon used this convention, which was echoed by Czech academic painter Václav Brožík. Famous followers of Jan Hus Jerome of Prague, Hus's friend and devoted follower shared his fate, although he did not suffer death till nearly a year later, on 23 May 1416 in Constance. Jan Kardinál z Rejnštejna (1375–1428) () Jan Žižka z Trocnova a Kalicha (c. 1360 - 1424), Czech general and Hussite leader Matěj z Knína (died 26 March 1410) (in German: Matthäus von Knin) Mikuláš Biskupec z Pelhřimova (1385 Poděbrady – 1460 Poděbrady) (in Latin: Nicolaus Pilgramensis, in German: Nikolaus von Pelgrims) Gallery Further reading . . . Matthew Spinka: 'John Hus at the Council of Constance' Columbia University Press, 1965 (Includes the eye-witness account by Peter of Mladonovice) Count Lützow: 'Life & Times of Master John Hus' E.P. Dutton & Co. London 1909. Josef Macek: The Hussite Movement in Bohemia. Orbis, Praha 1958. (Marxist interpretation of the Hussite Revolution) Philip Schaff-Herzog: Encyclopedia of Religion Richard Friedenthal: Jan Hus. Der Ketzer und das Jahrhundert der Revolutionskriege. 2. Auflage 1987, ISBN 3-492-10331-6 Fudge, Thomas A. 'The Magnificent Ride: The First Reformation in Hussite Bohemia' St. Andrews Studies in Reformation History. Aldershot, Hants ; Brookfield, Vt.: Ashgate, 2008. See also Orthographia bohemica, a treatise thought to have been written by Jan Hus. References External links Hussitism and the heritage of Jan Hus - Official WebSite of the Czech Republic Final Declaration written on 1 July 1415 - Modern History Sourcebook, Fordham Jesuit University, New York Letters of John Huss Written During His Exile and Imprisonment; with Martin Luther's Preface, by Jan Hus, François Paul Émile Boisnormand de Bonnechose, tr. Campbell Mackenzie, Edinburgh, William Whyte & Co., 1846. - Google Books. 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2,773 | Protestantism | Protestantism is a movement within Christianity that originated in the sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation. It is considered to be one of the three principal traditions within Christianity, together with Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Protestantism is associated with the belief that the Bible (rather than church tradition or ecclesiastical interpretations of the Bible) O'Gorman, Robert T. and Faulkner, Mary. The Complete Idiot's Guide to Understanding Catholicism. 2003, page 317. is the final source of authority for all Christians. Protestantism has both conservative and liberal theological strands within it. Its style of public worship tends to be simpler and less elaborate than that of Roman Catholic, Anglican and Orthodox Christians, sometimes radically so, though there are exceptions to this tendency. Examples of denominations within Protestantism include the Lutheran, Methodist, and Baptist churches. Meaning and origin of the term Protestant iconoclasm: the Beeldenstorm during the Dutch reformation. The word Protestant is derived from the Latin protestari Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 11th edition Article 52364.(http://www.diclib.com/) dicitnoary.reference.com(http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/protestant) meaning publicly declare which refers to the letter of protestation by Lutheran princes against the decision of the Diet of Speyer in 1529, which reaffirmed the edict of the Diet of Worms in 1521, banning Luther's documents. Since that time, the term Protestantism has been used in many different senses, often as a general term merely to signify that they are not Roman Catholics. While churches which historically emerged directly or indirectly from the Protestant Reformation generally constitute traditional Protestantism, in common usage the term is often used to refer to any Christian church other than the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. This usage is imprecise, however, as there are non-Roman Catholic and non-Eastern Orthodox churches which predate the Reformation (notably Oriental Orthodoxy). Other groups, such as the Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses, reject traditional Protestantism as another deviation from Christianity, while perceiving themselves to be restorationists. Fundamental principles The three fundamental principles of traditional Protestantism are the following: Supremacy of the Bible The belief in the Bible as the sole infallible authority. Justification by Faith Alone The subjective principle of the Reformation is justification by faith alone, or, rather, by free grace through faith operative in good works. It has reference to the personal appropriation of the Christian salvation, and aims to give all glory to Christ, by declaring that the sinner is justified before God (i.e. is acquitted of guilt, and declared righteous) solely on the ground of the all-sufficient merits of Christ as apprehended by a living faith, in opposition to the theory — then prevalent, and substantially sanctioned by the Council of Trent — which makes faith and good works co-ordinate sources of justification, laying the chief stress upon works. Protestantism does not depreciate good works; but it denies their value as sources or conditions of justification, and insists on them as the necessary fruits of faith, and evidence of justification. Johann Jakob Herzog, Philip Schaff, Albert. The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. 1911, page 419. http://books.google.com/books?id=AmYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA419 Universal Priesthood of BelieversThe universal priesthood of believers implies the right and duty of the Christian laity not only to read the Bible in the vernacular, but also to take part in the government and all the public affairs of the Church. It is opposed to the hierarchical system, which puts the essence and authority of the Church in an exclusive priesthood, and makes ordained priests the necessary mediators between God and the people.Major groupings Trinitarian Protestant denominations are divided according to the position taken on Baptism: "Mainline Protestants", a North American phrase, are Christians who trace their tradition's lineage to Lutheranism, or Calvinism. These groups are often considered to be part of the Magisterial Reformation and traditionally have adhered to the central doctrines and principles of the Reformation. Lutheranism, Calvinism, and a Zwinglian theology are typically mainline, and as denominations, "mainline" is typically seen as referring to Methodists, Presbyterians, Free Presbyterians and Lutherans, all large denominations with significant liberal, conservative wings. Anabaptists were so named from the fact that they re-baptised converts. According to the Edinburg Cyclopedia this name dates as far back as Tertullian, who was born just fifty years after the Apostle John; by about 1600 they were referred to simply as Baptists. Many Baptists do not claim to be Protestant, as this claims a heritage from the Protestant Reformation which came through the Roman Catholic Church, of which the Anabaptists were never a part. Today, denominations such as the Brethren, Mennonites, Hutterites, and Amish eschew infant baptism and have historically been Peace churches. Typically, independent Pentecostal and Charismatic denominations, and the house church movement belong in this category too. Certain Protestant denominations do not practise Baptism sacramentally, including the Quakers and the Shakers. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/subdivisions/quakers_2.shtml These denominations view Baptism as part of a process on ongoing renewal. Antecedents of these beliefs may be found in Strigolniki theology. Normatively, the Salvation Army do not practise Baptism. There are many independent, non-aligned or non-denominational trinitarian congregations that may take any one of these or no particular position on Baptism. Some religious movements, such as Restorationists, Nontrinitarian movements, or the New Religious Movements, which share certain characteristics of the Protestant churches, are termed 'Protestant' by outsiders, even though neither mainstream Trinitarian Christians, nor the groups themselves, would consider the designation appropriate. Denominations Protestants often refer to specific Protestant churches and groups as denominations to imply that they are differently named parts of the whole church. This "invisible unity" is assumed to be imperfectly displayed, visibly: some denominations are less accepting of others, and the basic orthodoxy of some is questioned by most of the others. Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. Because the five solas are the main tenets of the Protestant faith, many Non-denominational churches are also Protestant churches. The actual number of distinct Protestant denominations is hard to calculate, but has been estimated to be over thirty thousand. Various ecumenical movements have attempted cooperation or reorganization of Protestant churches, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions, as there is no overarching authority to which any of the sects owe allegiance, which can authoritatively define the faith. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith, while differing in many secondary doctrines, although what is major and what is secondary is a matter of idiosyncratic belief. There are "over 33,000 denominations in 238 countries" and every year there is a net increase of around 270 to 300 denominations. World Christian Encyclopedia (2nd edition). David Barrett, George Kurian and Todd Johnson. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001 According to David Barrett's study (1970), there are 8,196 denominations within Protestantism. There are about 800 million Protestants worldwide, Jay Diamond, Larry. Plattner, Marc F. and Costopoulos, Philip J. World Religions and Democracy. 2005, page 119.( also in PDF file, p49), saying "Not only do Protestants presently constitute 13 percent of the world's population—about 800 million people—but since 1900 Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America." among approximately 1.5 billion Christians. "between 1,250 and 1,750 million adherents, depending on the criteria employed": McGrath, Alister E. Christianity: An Introduction. 2006, page xv1. "2.1 thousand million Christians": Hinnells, John R. The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion. 2005, page 441. These include 170 million in North America, 160 million in Africa, 120 million in Europe, 70 million in Latin America, 60 million in Asia, and 10 million in Oceania. Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the magisterial Reformation and the Puritan Reformation in England. Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning later movements in the same groups. Only general families are listed here (due to the above-stated multitude of denominations); some of these groups do not consider themselves as part of the Protestant movement, but are generally viewed as such by the public at large: Adventists Anglicans Anabaptist Baptist Calvinist Charismatic Congregational Lutheran Methodist / Wesleyan Nazarene Pentecostal Plymouth Brethren Presbyterian Religious Society of Friends (Quaker) Reformed Restoration movement Seventh-day Adventist Waldensians Theological tenets of the reformation The Five Solas are five Latin phrases -(or slogans) that emerged during the Protestant Reformation and summarize the Reformers' basic theological beliefs in opposition to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church of the day. The Latin word sola means "alone", "only", or "single" in English. The five solas were what the Reformers believed to be the only things needed in their respective opinions for Christian salvation. The Bible was taught to be the only authority. Listing them as such was also done with a view to excluding other things that in the Reformers' respective views hindered or were unnecessary for salvation. This formulation was intended to distinguish between what were viewed as deviations in the Christian church and the essentials of Christian life and practice. In these opinions they differed from the universal consensus of Christians in historical Christianity. Solus Christus: Christ alone. The Protestants characterize the dogma concerning the Pope as Christ's representative head of the Church on earth, the concept of meritorious works, and the Catholic idea of a treasury of the merits of saints, as a denial that Christ is the only mediator between God and man. Catholics, on the other hand, maintained the traditions of Judaism on these questions, and appealed to the universal consensus of Christian tradition, that Peter and his successors were mandated by Jesus Christ as his vicars on earth after his ascension, to keep his followers united.(Matt. 16:18, 1 Cor. 3:11, Eph. 2:20, 1 Pet. 2:5–6, Rev. 21:14). Sola scriptura: Scripture alone. Protestants believe that the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church obscure the teachings of the Bible with church tradition and Papal doctrine. Protestants therefore see Scripture as the sole authority in matters of faith and practice. Catholics believe that the Holy Spirit (according to Scripture) guides the Church into the fullness of truth and therefore led the Catholic Church into a more sophisticated understanding of revelation in history, (Matthew 10:19; Mark 13:11; Luke 12:11, 21:14). This places the Roman Catholic magisterium over Scripture. Sola fide: Faith alone. Protestants believe that faith in Christ alone is enough for eternal salvation as described in , whereas Catholics believe that the phrases "faith without works is dead", (as stated in ) and "Ye see then how that by works a man is justified, and not by faith only" (); points to the justified person needing to persevere in charity. Protestants, pointing to the same scripture, believe that practicing good works merely attest to one's faith in Christ and his teachings. Sola gratia: Grace alone. Protestants perceived Roman Catholic salvation to be dependent upon the grace of God and the merits of one's own works. The Reformers posited that salvation is a gift of God (i.e., God's act of free grace), dispensed by the Holy Spirit owing to the redemptive work of Jesus Christ alone. Consequently, they argued that a sinner is not accepted by God on account of the change wrought in the believer by God's grace, and that the believer is accepted without regard for the merit of his works — for no one deserves salvation. Catholics believed that faith was not just a belief, but a way of life, and in both lay salvation, not faith alone. (Matt.7:21) Soli Deo gloria: Glory to God alone All glory is due to God alone, since salvation is accomplished solely through his will and action—not only the gift of the all-sufficient atonement of Jesus on the cross but also the gift of faith in that atonement, created in the heart of the believer by the Holy Spirit. The reformers believed that human beings—even saints canonized by the Roman Catholic Church, the popes, and the ecclesiastical hierarchy—are not worthy of the glory that was accorded them. On these bases they considered themselves justified in forming new denominations that differ from the Catholic Church, rather than sharing its mission. Christ's presence in the Lord's Supper The Protestant movement began to coalesce into several distinct branches in the mid-to-late sixteenth century. One of the central points of divergence was controversy over the Lord's Supper. Early Protestants generally rejected the Roman Catholic dogma of transubstantiation, which teaches that the bread and wine used in the sacrificial rite of the Mass lose their natural substance by being transformed into the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ. They disagreed with one another concerning the manner in which Christ is present in Holy Communion. The Reformed closest to Calvin emphasize the real presence, or sacramental presence, of Christ, saying that the sacrament is a means of saving grace through which only the elect believer actually partakes of Christ, but merely WITH the Bread & Wine rather than in the Elements. Calvinists deny the Lutheran assertion that Christ makes himself present to the believer in the elements of the sacrament, but affirm that Christ is united to the believer through faith—toward which the supper is an outward and visible aid, this is often referred to as dynamic presence. Why this aid is necessary in addition to faith differs according to the believer. Some Protestants (such as the Salvation Army) do not believe it is necessary at all. A Protestant holding a popular simplification of the Zwinglian view, without concern for theological intricacies as hinted at above, may see the Lord's Supper merely as a symbol of the shared faith of the participants, a commemoration of the facts of the crucifixion, and a reminder of their standing together as the Body of Christ (a view referred to somewhat derisively as memorialism). Catholicism Contrary to how the Protestant reformers were often characterized, the concept of a catholic, or universal, Church was not brushed aside during the Protestant Reformation. To the contrary, the visible unity of the Catholic Church was an important and essential doctrine of the Reformation. The Magisterial Reformers, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli, believed that they were reforming a corrupt and heretical Catholic Church. Each of them took very seriously the charges of schism and innovation, denying these charges and maintaining that it was the medieval Roman Catholic Church that had left them. The visible church, in the idea of the Scottish theologians, is "catholic", rather than "Catholic". You have not an indefinite number of Parochial, or Congregational, or National churches, constituting, as it were, so many ecclesiastical individualities, but one great spiritual republic, of which these various organizations form a part, notwithstanding that they each have very different opinions. The visible church is not a genus, so to speak, with so many species under it. It is thus you may think of the State, but the visible church is a totum integrale, it is an empire, with an ethereal emperor, rather than a visible one. The churches of the various nationalities constitute the provinces of this empire; and though they are so far independent of each other, yet they are so one, that membership in one is membership in all, and separation from one is separation from all... This conception of the church, of which, in at least some aspects, we have practically so much lost sight, had a firm hold of the Scottish theologians of the seventeenth century. Dr. James Walker in The Theology of Theologians of Scotland. (Edinburgh: Rpt. Knox Press, 1982) Lecture iv. pp.95-6. Wherever the Magisterial Reformation, which received support from the ruling authorities, took place, the result was a reformed national church envisioned to be a part of the whole visible Holy catholic Church described in the creeds, but disagreeing, in certain important points of doctrine and doctrine-linked practice, with what had until then been considered the normative reference point on such matters, namely the See of Rome. The Reformed Churches thus believed in a form of Catholicity, founded on their doctrines of the five solas and a visible ecclesiastical organization based on the 14th and 15th century Conciliar movement, rejecting the Papacy and Papal Infallibility in favor of Ecumenical councils, but rejecting the Council of Trent. Catholic unity therefore became not one of doctrine and identity, but one of invisible character, wherein the unity was one of faith in Jesus Christ, not common identity, belief, and collaborative action. Today there is a growing movement of Protestants, especially of the Reformed tradition, that reject the designation "Protestant" because of its negative "anti-catholic" connotations, preferring the designation "Reformed", "Evangelical" or even "Reformed Catholic" expressive of what they call a "Reformed Catholicity" reformedcatholicism.com and defending their arguments from the traditional Protestant Confessions. The Canadian Reformed Magazine 18 (September 20–27, October 4–11, 18, November 1, 8, 1969) http://spindleworks.com/library/faber/008_theca.htm The official Roman Catholic view on the matter is that the Protestant communities do not form a Church, but rather that they are mere ecclesial communities because they do not all have true sacraments and authentic apostolic succession. On June 29, 2007 the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, under the presidency of William Cardinal Levada signed an official document called "Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church". Radical Reformation Unlike mainstream Evangelical (Lutheran), Reformed (Zwinglian and Calvinist) Protestant movements, the Radical Reformation, which had no state sponsorship, generally abandoned the idea of the "Church Visible" as distinct from the "Church Invisible". It was a rational extension of the State-approved Protestant dissent, which took the value of independence from constituted authority a step further, arguing the same for the civic realm. Church leaders such as Hubmaier and Hofmann preached the invalidity of infant baptism, advocating baptism as following conversion, called "believer's baptism", instead. In the view of many associated with the Radical Reformation, the Magisterial Reformation had not gone far enough, with radical reformer, Andreas von Bodenstein Karlstadt, for example, referring to the Lutheran theologians at Wittenberg as the "new papists". The Magisterial Reformation. A more political side of the Radical Reformation can be seen in the thought and practice of Hans Hut, although typically Anabaptism has been associated with pacifism. Early Anabaptists were severely persecuted by both Calvinist and Catholic civil authorities. Movements within Protestantism Evolution of major branches and movements within Protestantism Pietism and Methodism The German Pietist movement, together with the influence of the Puritan Reformation in England in the seventeenth century, were important influences upon John Wesley and Methodism, as well as new groups such as the Religious Society of Friends ("Quakers") and the Moravian Brethren from Herrnhut, Saxony, Germany. The practice of a spiritual life, typically combined with social engagement, predominates in classical Pietism, which was a protest against the doctrine-centeredness Protestant Orthodoxy of the times, in favor of depth of religious experience. Many of the more conservative Methodists went on to form the Holiness movement, which emphasized a rigorous experience of holiness in practical, daily life. Evangelicalism Beginning at the end of eighteenth century, several international revivals of Pietism (such as the Great Awakening and the Second Great Awakening) took place across denominational lines, largely in the English-speaking world. Their teachings and successor groupings are referred to generally as the Evangelical movement. The chief emphases of this movement were individual conversion, personal piety and Bible study, public morality often including Temperance and Abolitionism, de-emphasis of formalism in worship and in doctrine, a broadened role for laity (including women) in worship, evangelism and teaching, and cooperation in evangelism across denominational lines. Adventism Adventism, as a movement, began in the United States in middle nineteenth century. The Adventist family of churches are regarded today as conservative Protestants. "Adventist and Sabbatarian (Hebraic) Churches" section (p. 256–276) in Frank S. Mead, Samuel S. Hill and Craig D. Atwood, Handbook of Denominations in the United States, 12th edn. Nashville: Abingdon Press Modernism, Sunderianism and Liberalism Modernism, Liberalism and Sunderianism do not constitute rigorous and well-defined schools of theology, but are rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of the Age of Enlightenment. New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology. Pentecostalism Pentecostalism, as a movement, began in the United States early in the twentieth century, starting especially within the Holiness movement. Seeking a return to the operation of New Testament gifts of the Holy Spirit, speaking in tongues as evidence of the "baptism of the Holy Ghost" or to make the unbeliever believe became the leading feature. Divine healing and miracles were also emphasized. Pentecostalism swept through much of the Holiness movement, and eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations in the United States. A later "charismatic" movement also stressed the gifts of the Spirit, but often operated within existing denominations, rather than by coming out of them. Fundamentalism In reaction to liberal Bible critique, fundamentalism arose in the twentieth century, primarily in the United States, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism. Fundamentalism placed primary emphasis on the authority and sufficiency of the Bible, and typically advised separation from error and cultural conservatism as an important aspect of the Christian life. Neo-orthodoxy A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity, associated primarily with Karl Barth, neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called "Crisis theology", according to the influence of philosophical existentialism on some important segments of the movement; also, somewhat confusingly, sometimes called neo-evangelicalism. New Evangelicalism Evangelicalism is a movement from the middle of the twentieth century, that reacted to perceived excesses of Fundamentalism, adding to concern for biblical authority, an emphasis on liberal arts, cooperation among churches, Christian Apologetics, and non-denominational evangelization. Paleo-Orthodoxy Paleo-orthodoxy is a movement similar in some respects to Neo-evangelicalism but emphasising the ancient Christian consensus of the undivided Church of the first millennium AD, including in particular the early Creeds and councils of the church as a means of properly understanding the Scriptures. This movement is cross-denominational and the theological giant of the movement is United Methodist theologian Thomas Oden. Ecumenism The ecumenical movement has had an influence on mainline churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the Edinburgh Missionary Conference. Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Since 1948, the World Council of Churches has been influential, but ineffective in creating a united Church. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe; but schisms still far outnumber unifications. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the Church of South India, the Church of North India, The US-based United Church of Christ, The United Church of Canada, Uniting Church in Australia and the United Church of Christ in the Philippines which have rapidly declining memberships. There has been a strong engagement of Orthodox churches in the ecumenical movement, though the reaction of individual Orthodox theologians has ranged from tentative approval of the aim of Christian unity to outright condemnation of the perceived effect of watering down Orthodox doctrine. A Protestant baptism is held to be valid in a Catholic church because it is generally Trinitarian in nature. However, Protestant ministers are not mutually recognized. Therefore, laymen who convert are not re-baptized, although ministers are re-ordained as clergymen (cf Apostolicae Curae). In 1999, the representatives of Lutheran World Federation and Roman Catholic Church signed The Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, apparently resolving the conflict over the nature of Justification which was at the root of the Protestant Reformation, although some conservative Lutherans did not agree to this resolution. This is understandable, since there is no compelling authority within them. On July 18, 2006 Delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration. Founders: the first Protestant major reformers and theologians Twelfth century Peter Waldo, French reformer, founder of the earliest Protestant church, the Waldensians Fourteenth century John Wycliffe, English reformer, the "Morning Star of the Reformation". Fifteenth century Jan Hus, Catholic Priest and Professor, father of an early Protestant church (Moravianism), Czech reformist/dissident; burned to death in Constance, Holy Roman Empire in 1415 by Roman Catholic Church authorities for unrepentant and persistent heresy. After the devastation of the Hussite Wars some of his followers founded the Unitas Fratrum in 1457, "Unity of Brethren", which was renewed under the leadership of Count Zinzendorf in Herrnhut, Saxony in 1722 after its almost total destruction in the 30 Years War and Counter Reformation. Today it is usually referred to in English as the Moravian Church, in German the Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine. Sixteenth century Jacobus Arminius, Dutch theologian, founder of school of thought known as Arminianism. Heinrich Bullinger, successor of Zwingli, leading reformed theologian. John Calvin, French theologian, Reformer and resident of Geneva, Switzerland, he founded the school of theology known as Calvinism. Balthasar Hubmaier, influential Anabaptist theologian, author of numerous works during his five years of ministry, tortured at Zwingli's behest, and executed in Vienna. John Knox, Scottish Calvinist reformer. Abaomas Kulvietis, jurs and a professor at Königsberg Albertina University, as well as a Reformer of the Lithuanian church. Martin Luther, church reformer, Father of Protestantism Challenges to Authority: The Renaissance in Europe: A Cultural Enquiry, Volume 3, by Peter Elmer, page 25. "What ELCA Lutherns Believe." Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. 26 July 2008 <http://archive.elca.org/communication/brief.html>. , theological works guided those now known as Lutherans. Philipp Melanchthon, early Lutheran leader. Menno Simons, founder of Mennonitism. John Smyth, early Baptist leader. Huldrych Zwingli, founder of Swiss reformed tradition. See also Anti-Catholicism Anti-Protestantism Black Legend Christian eschatology Christian Flag Christian timeline for Renaissance & Reformation History of Protestantism List of Protestant churches Protestant Reformation Protestant work ethic Islam and Protestantism References External links Supporting "Is Sola Scriptura a Protestant Concoction?" by Greg Bahnsen Critical Catholic websites on sola scriptura "Protestantism" from the 1917 Catholic Encyclopedia "Why Only Catholicism Can Make Protestantism Work" by Mark Brumley Miscellaneous The Future of American Protestantism from Catalyst (United Methodist perspective) Protestantism - Christianity in View be-x-old:Пратэстанцтва | Protestantism |@lemmatized protestantism:21 movement:34 within:10 christianity:8 originate:1 sixteenth:3 century:14 protestant:53 reformation:27 consider:6 one:16 three:2 principal:1 tradition:8 together:3 roman:17 catholicism:5 eastern:3 orthodoxy:8 associate:4 belief:9 bible:10 rather:9 church:71 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2,774 | Hamilton,_Ontario | Hamilton () (2006 population 504,559; UA population 647,634; CMA population 692,911) is a port city in the Canadian province of Ontario. Conceived by George Hamilton when he purchased the Durand farm shortly after the War of 1812, Hamilton has become the centre of a densely populated and industrialized region at the west end of Lake Ontario known as the Golden Horseshoe. On January 1, 2001 the new City of Hamilton was formed through the amalgamation of the former city and the other constituent lower-tier municipalities of the Regional Municipality of Hamilton-Wentworth with the upper-tier regional government. Residents of the city are known as Hamiltonians. Since 1981, the metropolitan area has been listed as the ninth largest in Canada and the third largest in Ontario. Hamilton is located in Southern Ontario roughly 70 km southwest of Toronto. http://gocanada.about.com/od/toronto/tp/torontodaytrips.htm About.com: Canada Travel Traditionally, the local economy has been led by the steel and heavy manufacturing industries. Within the last decade, there has been a shift towards the service sector, particularly health sciences. The Hamilton Health Sciences corporation employs nearly 10,000 staff and serves approximately 2.2 million people in the region. Hamilton is home to the Royal Botanical Gardens, the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum, the Bruce Trail, McMaster University and several colleges. The Canadian Football Hall of Fame can be found downtown right beside Hamilton City Hall and across town to the east, the Canadian Football League's Hamilton Tiger-Cats play at Ivor Wynne Stadium. The Erland Lee (Museum) Home (c. 1808) is a National Historic Site of Canada on the Canadian Register of Historic Places. http://www.historicplaces.ca/visit-visite/affichage-display.aspx?id=9357 Canadian Register of Historic Places. An Ontario Historical Plaque in front of the Erland Lee Museum was erected by the province to commemorate the First Women's Institute's role in Ontario's heritage. Ontario Plaque Partly because of its diverse locations, numerous TV and film productions have been filmed in Hamilton, regulated by the Hamilton Film and Television Office. A growing arts and culture sector garnered media attention in a 2006 Globe and Mail news article, entitled "Go West, Young Artist," which focused on the growing art scene in Hamilton. The article highlighted local art galleries, recording studios and independent film production. History United Empire Loyalists In pre-colonial times, the Neutral Indians used much of the land but were gradually driven out by the Five (later Six) Nations (Iroquois) who were allied with the British against the Huron and their French allies. A member of the Iroquois Confederacy provided the route and name for Mohawk Road, which originally included King street in the lower city. In 1784, about 10,000 United Empire Loyalists settled in Upper Canada (what is now southern Ontario), chiefly in Niagara, around the Bay of Quinte, and along the St. Lawrence River between Lake Ontario and Montreal. They were soon followed by many more Americans, some of them not so much ardent loyalists but attracted nonetheless by the availability of inexpensive, arable land. At the same time, large numbers of Iroquois loyal to Britain arrived from the United States and were settled on reserves west of Lake Ontario. The town of Hamilton was conceived by George Hamilton (a son of a Queenston entrepreneur and founder, Robert Hamilton), when he purchased farm holdings of James Durand, the local Member of the British Legislative Assembly, shortly after the War of 1812. Nathaniel Hughson, a property owner to the north, cooperated with George Hamilton to prepare a proposal for a courthouse and jail on Hamilton's property. Hamilton offered the land to the crown for the future site. Durand was empowered by Hughson and Hamilton to sell property holdings which later became the site of the town. As he had been instructed, Durand circulated the offers at York during a session of the Legislative Assembly and a new Gore District was established of which the Hamilton town site was a member. Grand Lodge of Canada Initially, this town was not the most important centre of the Gore District. A permanent jail was not constructed until 1832 when a cut-stone design was completed on one of the two squares created in 1816, Prince's Square. Subsequently, the first police board and the town limits were defined by statute on February 13, 1833. Statutes of Upper Canada, 1833 3° William IV pg. 58-68. Chapter XVII An act to define the Limits of the Town of Hamilton, in the District of Gore, and to establish a Police and Public Market therein. Official City status was achieved on June 9, 1846 by an act of Parliament, 9 Victoria Chapter 73. As the city grew, several prominent buildings were constructed in the late 19th century, including the Grand Lodge of Canada in 1855, (Requires navigation to article). , West Flamboro Methodist Church in 1879 (later purchased by Dufferin Masonic Lodge in 1893 ), a public library in 1890, and the Right House department store in 1893. The first commercial telephone service in Canada, the first telephone exchange in the British Empire, and the second telephone exchange in all of North America all were established in the city between 1877–78. |Scottish Rite Castle Though suffering through the Hamilton Street Railway strike of 1906, with industrial businesses expanding, Hamilton's population doubled between 1900 and 1914. Two steel manufacturing companies, Stelco and Dofasco, were formed in 1910 and 1912, respectively, and Procter & Gamble and the Beech-Nut Packing Company opened manufacturing plants in 1914 and 1922, respectively, their first outside the US. Population and economic growth continued until the 1960s, with the 1929 construction of the city's first high-rise building, the Pigott Building, the move of McMaster University from Toronto to Hamilton, the opening of the second Canadian Tire store in Canada in 1934, an airport in 1940, a Studebaker assembly line in 1948, the Burlington Bay James N. Allan Skyway in 1958, and the first Tim Hortons store in 1964. Since then, many of the large industries have moved or shut down operations and the economy has shifted more toward the service sector, such as transportation, education, and health services. On January 1, 2001 the new city of Hamilton was formed from the amalgamation of the Regional Municipality of Hamilton-Wentworth and its six municipalities: Hamilton, Ancaster, Dundas, Flamborough, Glanbrook, and Stoney Creek. Before amalgamation, the "old" City of Hamilton had 331,121 Hamiltonians divided into 100 neighbourhoods. The new amalgamated city has 490,268 people in over 200 neighbourhoods. Geography Niagara Escarpment & the Great Lakes Hamilton is located in Southern Ontario on the western end of the Niagara Peninsula and wraps around the westernmost part of Lake Ontario; most of the city, including the downtown section, is on the south shore. Hamilton is situated in the geographic centre of the Golden Horseshoe and is roughly the midway point between Toronto and Buffalo, New York. Its major physical features are Hamilton Harbour, marking the northern limit of the city, and the Niagara Escarpment running through the middle of the city across its entire breadth, bisecting the city into 'upper' and 'lower' parts. According to all records from local historians, this district was called "Attiwandaronia" by the native Neutral people. The first aboriginals to settle in the Hamilton area called the bay Macassa, meaning beautiful waters. Hamilton is one of 11 cities showcased in the book, "Green City: People, Nature & Urban Places" by Quebec author Mary Soderstrom, which examines the city as an example of an industrial powerhouse co-existing with nature. Soderstrom credits Thomas McQuesten and family in the 1930s who "became champions of parks, greenspace and roads" in Hamilton. Burlington Bay is a natural harbour with a large sandbar called the Beachstrip. This sandbar was deposited during a period of higher lake levels during the last ice age, and extends southeast through the central lower city to the escarpment. Hamilton's deep sea port is accessed by ship canal through the beach strip into the harbour and is traversed by two bridges, the QEW's Burlington Bay James N. Allan Skyway and the lower Canal Lift Bridge. (Requires navigation to relevant articles.) Between 1788 and 1793, the townships at the Head-of-the-Lake were surveyed and named. The area was first known as The Head-of-the-Lake for its location at the western end of Lake Ontario. John Ryckman, born in Barton township (where present day downtown Hamilton is), described the area in 1803 as he remembered it: "The city in 1803 was all forest. The shores of the bay were difficult to reach or see because they were hidden by a thick, almost impenetrable mass of trees and undergrowth...Bears ate pigs, so settlers warred on bears. Wolves gobbled sheep and geese, so they hunted and trapped wolves. They also held organized raids on rattlesnakes on the mountainside. There was plenty of game. Many a time have I seen (sic) a deer jump the fence into my back yard, and there were millions of pigeons which we clubbed as they flew low." Webster's Falls at Spencer Gorge / Webster's Falls Conservation Area George Hamilton, a settler and local politician, established a town site in the northern portion of Barton Township in 1815. He kept several east–west roads which were originally Indian trails, but the north–south streets were on a regular grid pattern. Streets were designated "East" or "West" if they crossed James Street or Highway 6. Streets were designated "North" or "South" if they crossed King Street or Highway 8. The overall design of the townsite, likely conceived in 1816, was commonplace. George Hamilton employed a grid street pattern used in most towns in Upper Canada and throughout the American frontier. The eighty original lots had frontages of fifty feet; each lot faced a broad street and backed onto a twelve foot lane. It took at least a decade for all of the original lots to be sold, but the construction of the Burlington Canal in 1823, and a new court-house in 1827, encouraged Hamilton to add more blocks around 1828–9. At this time, he included a market square in an effort to draw commercial activity onto his lands, but the natural growth of the town was to the north of Hamilton's plot. The Hamilton Conservation Authority owns, leases or manages about of land with the City operating of parkland at 310 locations. Many of the parks are located along the Niagara Escarpment, which runs from Tobermory at the tip of the Bruce Peninsula in the north, to Queenston at the Niagara River in the south, and provides views of the cities and towns at the western end of Lake Ontario. The hiking path Bruce Trail runs the length of the escarpment. Hamilton is home to more than 100 waterfalls and cascades, most of which are on or near the Bruce Trail as it winds through the Niagara Escarpment. Hamilton Conservation Authority Climate Average temperatures and Precipitation as recorded at the John C. Munro Hamilton International Airport, located 15 km south of downtown Hamilton on the upper Mountain. The Airport's open, rural location and higher altitude (240m vs. 85m ASL downtown) result in lower temperatures there than the more sheltered, built-up areas of the city, generally a difference of 1-3°C with the biggest differences at night and in the winter. One exception is on early spring afternoons, when colder than air lake temperatures keep shoreline areas signifcantly cooler, particularly when there an east or north-east onshore wind. Hamilton's location on a embayment at the southwestern corner of Lake Ontario with an escarpment dividing upper and lower parts of the city can result in noticeable disparities in weather over short distances. Demographics City population (1816-2006) According to the 2006 Canadian Census, more than one-fifth of the local population was not born in Canada. This is the third highest such proportion in Canada after Toronto at 49%, and Vancouver at 39%. Between 2001 and 2006, the foreign-born population increased by 7.7% while the total population of the Hamilton census metropolitan area (CMA) grew by 4.3%. The share of Canada's recent immigrants who settle in Hamilton has remained unchanged since 2001 at 1.9%. Hamilton was home to 20,800 immigrants who arrived in Canada between 2001 and 2006, half of whom were born in Asia and the Middle East, while nearly one-quarter (23%) were from Europe. Hamilton also had a high proportion of people with English, Scottish and Irish ancestry. Nearly three in ten residents reported English as their sole ethnic origin or as one of their ancestral origins. As well, nearly one in five reported Scottish ancestry either alone or in combination with another ethnic origin. The top countries of birth for the newcomers living in Hamilton in the 1990s were: former Yugoslavia, Poland, India, China, the Philippines, and Iraq. The city proper of Hamilton was home to 67,845 visible minorities in 2006, representing 13.6% of its population, up from 10.9% in 2001. StatCan 2006 Visible minorities comprised 22.8% of Ontario's population, primarily due to high proportions in Toronto . The population is 84.8% White, 3.0% South Asian/East Indian, 2.8% Black, 1.9% Chinese, 1.5% Aboriginal, 1.2% Southeast Asian, 1.1% Latin American, 1.1% Arab, 0.8% Filipino, and 1.8% Other. Statistics Canada: 2006 Community Profiles Children aged 14 years and under accounted for 17.8% of the population while those 65 years of age and older constituted 14.9%, resulting in an average age of 39.6 years. The most described religion in Hamilton is Christianity although other religions brought by immigrants are also growing. The 2001 census indicates that 77.56% of the population adheres to a Christian denomination, Protestants constituting 37.08% of the population, while Roman Catholics number 35.48% (significantly lower than the national average) with Christ the King Cathedral as the seat of the Diocese of Hamilton. The remaining 5.0% consists of Orthodox and independent Christian churches. The largest non-Christian religion is Islam with 12,880 adherents or 1.96% of the total population. Other religions, including Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism, constitute less than one percent each. Those with no religious affiliation accounted for 115,510 (17.63%) in 2001. Environics Analytics, a geodemographic marketing firm that created 66 different "clusters" of people complete with profiles of how they live, what they think and what they consume, sees a future Hamilton with younger upscale Hamiltonians—who are tech savvy and university educated—choosing to live in the downtown and surrounding areas rather than just visiting intermittently. More two and three storey townhouses and apartments will be built on downtown lots; small condos will be built on vacant spaces in areas such as Dundas and Westdale to accommodate newly retired seniors; and more retail and commercial zones will be created. The city is also expected to grow by more than 28,000 people and 18,000 households by the year 2012. Ethnic origin Population StatCan06 English 138,125 Canadian 107,780 Scottish 98,375 Irish 80,740 Italian 58,800 German 47,960 Ethnic origin Population French 42,070 Polish 27,775 Dutch 25,720 Ukrainian 18,730 Portuguese 14,115 North American Indian 11,970 Economy Lloyd D. Jackson Square (Mall), Commerce Place Complex The most important economic activity in Ontario is manufacturing, and the Toronto–Hamilton region is the most highly industrialized section of the country. The area from Oshawa, Ontario around the west end of Lake Ontario to Niagara Falls, with Hamilton at its centre, is known as the Golden Horseshoe and has a population of approximately 8.1 million people. The phrase was first used by Westinghouse President, Herbert H. Rogge, in a speech to the Hamilton Chamber of Commerce, on January 12, 1954. "Hamilton in 50 years will be the forward cleat in a golden horseshoe of industrial development from Oshawa to the Niagara River...150 miles long and wide...It will run from Niagara Falls on the south to about Oshawa on the north and take in numerous cities and towns already there, including Hamilton and Toronto." With sixty percent of Canada's steel being produced in Hamilton by Stelco and Dofasco, the city has become known as the Steel Capital of Canada. After nearly declaring bankruptcy, Stelco returned to profitability in 2004 and on August 26, 2007 United States Steel Corporation acquired Stelco for $38.50 (Canadian) in cash per share, owning more than 76 percent of Stelco's outstanding shares. Dofasco, in 1999, was the most profitable steel producer in North America and in 2000, the most profitable in Canada. It currently has approximately 7,300 employees at its Hamilton plant and produces over four million tons of steel annually, representing about 30% of Canada's flat rolled sheet steel shipments. Dofasco is one of North America's most profitable steel companies, and Dofasco was named to the Dow Jones Sustainability World Index in 2006 for the seventh year in a row. Dofasco produces steel products for the automotive, construction, energy, manufacturing, pipe and tube, appliance, packaging and steel distribution industries. Dofasco is currently a stand alone subsidiary of Arcelor Mittal, the world's largest steel producer. Previously ordered by the U.S. Department of Justice to divest itself of the Canadian company, Arcelor Mittal has now been allowed to retain Dofasco provided it sells several of its American assets instead. Originally, in the 1940s the John C. Munro Hamilton International Airport was used as a wartime air force training station. Today TradePort International Corporation manages and operates the John C. Munro Hamilton International Airport. Under TradePort management, passenger traffic at the Hamilton terminal has increased from 90,000 in 1996 to approximately 900,000 in 2002. The airport's mid-term target for growth in its passenger service is five million air travelers annually. The air cargo sector of the airport has 24-7 operational capability and strategic geographic location, allowing its capacity to increase by 50% since 1996; 91,000 metric tonnes (100,000 tons) of cargo passed through the airport in 2002. Courier companies with operations at the airport include United Parcel Service and Cargojet Canada. In 2003, the city began developing a 30-year growth management strategy which called, in part, for a massive aerotropolis industrial park centred around Hamilton Airport. The aerotropolis proposal, now known as the Airport Employment Growth District, is touted as a solution to the city's shortage of employment lands. Hamilton turned over operation of the airport to TradePort International Corp. in 1996. In 2007, YVR Airport Services (YVRAS), which runs the Vancouver International Airport, took over 100 per cent ownership of TradePort in a $13-million deal. The airport is also home to the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum. A report by Hemson Consulting identified an opportunity to develop of greenfields (the size of the Royal Botanical Gardens) that could generate an estimated 59,000 jobs by 2031. A proposed aerotropolis industrial park at Highway 6 and 403, has been debated at City Hall for years. Opponents feel the city needs to do more investigation about the cost to taxpayers before embarking on the project. Government Bay Street Federal Building Citizens of Hamilton are represented by three tiers of government. The federal representation consists of five members of parliament serving in the Parliament of Canada. At the provincial tier, there are five elected members who serve in the Legislature of Ontario. The municipal tier consists of one mayor, elected city wide, and 15 city councillors, elected individually by each of the 15 ward divisions, to serve on the Hamilton City Council. Additionally, at the municipal tier, each ward elects a school board trustee for each of the school boards serving in their respective area. Hamilton City Hall. Municipal elections in Hamilton occur every four years, the last one falling on November 13, 2006. The next election will occur on November 8, 2010. The Hamilton City Council is granted authority to govern by the province through the Municipal Act of Ontario. The Province of Ontario has supervisory privilege over the municipality and the power to redefine, restrict or expand the powers of all municipalities in Ontario. Further, the province provides oversight of Hamilton City Council through the Ontario Municipal Board. The Criminal Code of Canada is the chief piece of legislation defining criminal conduct and penalty. The Hamilton Police Service is chiefly responsible for the enforcement of federal and provincial law. Although the Hamilton Police Service has authority to enforce, bylaws passed by the Hamilton City Council are mainly enforced by Provincial Offences Officers employed by the City of Hamilton. Education Mohawk College (Fennell campus) Hamilton is home to several post-secondary institutions that have created numerous direct and indirect jobs in education and research. McMaster University moved to the city in 1930 and today has over 22,000 enrolled students, of whom almost two-thirds come from outside the immediate Hamilton region. Brock University of St. Catharines, Ontario has a satellite campus used primarily for teacher education located in Hamilton. Colleges in Hamilton include: McMaster Divinity College, a Christian seminary affiliated with the Baptist Convention of Ontario and Quebec since 1957. McMaster Divinity College is located on the McMaster University campus, and is affiliated with the University. The Divinity College was created as part of the process of passing governance of the University as a whole from the BCOQ to a privately chartered, publicly funded arrangement. Mohawk College, a college of applied arts and technology since 1967 with 10,000 full time, 40,000 part time, and 3,000 apprentice students. Columbia International College, a private boarding university-preparatory school founded in 1979, with approximately 1,200 students currently. Redeemer University College, a private Christian liberal arts and science university opened in 1982, with about 800 students currently. McMaster University Medical Centre Public education for students from kindergarten through high school is administered by three school boards. The Hamilton-Wentworth District School Board manages approximately 120 public schools, while the Hamilton-Wentworth Catholic District School Board operates 60 schools in the greater Hamilton area. The Conseil scolaire de district du Centre-Sud-Ouest operates one elementary and one secondary school (École secondaire Georges-P.-Vanier), and the Conseil scolaire de district catholique Centre-Sud operates two elementary schools and one secondary school. Calvin Christian School/Hamilton District Christian High School is a private K-12 school in the area. Hillfield Strathallan College is located on the West Hamilton mountain and is a CAIS member, non-profit school for children from early Montessori ages through grade twelve. The Dundas Valley School of Art is an independent art school which has serviced the Hamilton region since 1964. Students range in age from 4 years old to senior citizens and enrollment as of February 2007 was close to 4,000. In 1998, a new full time diploma programme was launched as a joint venture with McMaster University. The faculty and staff are highly regarded regional artists. The Hamilton Conservatory for the Arts is home to many of the area's talented young actors, dancers, musicians, singers and visual artists. The school is equipped with a keyboard studio, spacious dance studios, art and sculpting studios, gallery space and a 300 seat recital hall. HCA offers over 90 programs for ages 3–93, creating a “united nations” of arts under one roof. Culture Dundurn Castle Hamilton has built on its historical and social background with attractions including the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum, the HMCS Haida National Historic Site (Canada's most famous warship and the last remaining Tribal Class in the world), Dundurn Castle (the residence of a Prime Minister of Upper Canada), the Royal Botanical Gardens, the Canadian Football Hall of Fame, the African Lion Safari park, and the Cathedral of Christ the King. Founded in 1914, the Art Gallery of Hamilton is Ontario's third largest public art gallery. The Gallery has over 9,000 works in its permanent collection that focus on three areas: 19th-century European, Historical Canadian and Contemporary Canadian. The McMaster Museum of Art, founded on campus in 1967, houses McMaster University’s collection of more than 6,000 works of art, including exhibitions on the historical and contemporary work and the Herman Levy collection of Impressionist painting. Growth in the arts and culture sector has garnered high level media attention for Hamilton. A Globe and Mail article in 2006, entitled "Go West, Young Artist," focused on the growing art scene in Hamilton. The Factory: Hamilton Media Arts Centre, opened up a new home on James Street North in 2006. Art galleries are springing up on many streets across the City: James Street, Locke Street and King Street, to name a few. This, coupled with growth in the downtown condo market which is drawing people back to the core, is having an impact on the cultural fabric of the city. The opening of the Downtown Arts Centre on Rebecca Street has spurred further creative activities in the core. The Community Centre for Media Arts (CCMA) continues to operate in downtown Hamilton. The CCMA works with marginalized populations and combines new media services such as website development, graphic design, video, and information technology, with arts education and skills development programming. Invest in Hamilton, Economic Development Review 2005, Wednesday, June 28, 2006, "City Remains Committed To Growing Arts & Culture" Page H20 Sports Ivor Wynne Stadium Copps Coliseum, York Boulevard, looking East The Canadian Football Hall of Fame museum + Professional teams Club League Venue Established Championships Hamilton Tiger-Cats Canadian Football League Ivor Wynne Stadium 1950 The Tiger-Cats trace their origins to the founding of the Hamilton Foot Ball Club in 1869. See 15 Hamilton Bulldogs American Hockey League Copps Coliseum 1996 1 + Amateur and junior clubs Club League Venue Established Championships Hamilton Avalanche W-League of the United Soccer Leagues Brian Timmis Stadium 2006 0 Hamilton Red Wings Ontario Provincial Junior A Hockey Dave Andreychuk Mountain Arena 1973 1 Hamilton Hornets R.F.C. Niagara Rugby Union Mohawk Sports Park 1954 0 Hamilton Wildcats Australian Rules Football League Mohawk Sports Park 1997 0 Hamilton Thunderbirds Inter County Baseball League Bernie Arbour Memorial Stadium 2005 0 Hamilton was the host of Canada's first major international athletic event, the first Commonwealth Games (then called the British Empire Games) in 1930. Hamilton bid unsuccessfully for the Commonwealth Games in 2010, losing out to New Delhi in India. The Around the Bay Road Race circumnavigates Hamilton Harbour or Burlington Bay. Although it is not a proper marathon, it is the longest continuously held long distance foot race in North America, and is a qualifier for the Boston Marathon The local newspaper also hosts the amateur Spectator Indoor Games. Hamilton has representation in two professional sports leagues, the Canadian Football League and the American Hockey League. Its major sports complexes include Ivor Wynne Stadium and Copps Coliseum; Hamilton is also home to the Canadian Football Hall of Fame museum. The museum hosts an annual induction event in a week long celebration that includes school visits, a golf tournament, a formal induction dinner and concludes with the Hall of Fame game involving the local CFL Hamilton Tiger-Cats at Ivor Wynne Stadium. In addition to team sports, Hamilton is also home to an auto race track, Flamboro Speedway and Canada's fastest half-mile harness horse racing track, Flamboro Downs. Another auto race track, Cayuga International Speedway, is located near Hamilton in the Haldimand County community of Nelles Corners, situated between Hagersville and Cayuga. Hamilton hosted an NHL team in the 1920s called the Hamilton Tigers. The team folded after a player's strike in 1925. Research in Motion CEO Jim Balsillie has shown interest in bringing an NHL team to southern Ontario. The NHL's Phoenix Coyotes filed for bankruptcy in 2009 and have included within their Chapter 11 reorganization a plan to sell the team to Balsillie and move the team and its operations to Hamilton, Ontario. However, due to legal issues, the move of the coyotes to the Hamilton area seem improbable. Sister cities Hamilton is a sister city with Flint, Michigan, and its young amateur athletes compete in the Canusa Games, held alternatively in the two cities since 1958. Flint and Hamilton hold the distinction of having the oldest continuous sister-city relationship between a U.S. and Canadian city, since 1957. Sister cities with Hamilton include: Flint, Michigan (U.S.) Fukuyama (Japan) Ma'anshan, Anhui (China) Mangalore (India) Monterrey (Mexico) Racalmuto, Sicily (Italy) Sarasota, Florida (U.S.) Shawinigan, Quebec Valle Peligna, Abruzzo (Italy) Other City Relationships: Porto Alegre, (Brazil) References | Hamilton,_Ontario |@lemmatized hamilton:119 population:20 ua:1 cma:2 port:2 city:54 canadian:21 province:5 ontario:30 conceive:3 george:6 purchase:3 durand:4 farm:2 shortly:2 war:3 become:4 centre:11 densely:1 populated:1 industrialized:2 region:5 west:9 end:5 lake:13 know:6 golden:4 horseshoe:4 january:3 new:10 form:3 amalgamation:3 former:2 constituent:1 lower:1 tier:6 municipality:6 regional:4 wentworth:4 upper:8 government:3 resident:2 hamiltonians:3 since:9 metropolitan:2 area:17 list:1 ninth:1 large:8 canada:26 third:4 locate:8 southern:4 roughly:2 km:2 southwest:1 toronto:8 http:2 gocanada:1 com:2 od:1 tp:1 torontodaytrips:1 htm:1 travel:1 traditionally:1 local:8 economy:3 lead:1 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2,775 | Augustin-Jean_Fresnel | Augustin-Jean Fresnel ( fray-, ; 10 May 1788 – 14 July 1827), was a French physicist who contributed significantly to the establishment of the theory of wave optics. Fresnel studied the behaviour of light both theoretically and experimentally. He is perhaps best known as the inventor of the Fresnel lens, first adopted in lighthouses while he was a French commissioner of lighthouses, and found in many applications today. Biography Fresnel was the son of an architect, born at Broglie (Eure). His early progress in learning was slow, and he still could not read when he was eight years old. At thirteen he entered the École Centrale in Caen, and at sixteen and a half the École Polytechnique, where he acquitted himself with distinction. From there he went to the École des Ponts et Chaussées. He served as an engineer successively in the departments of Vendée, Drôme and Ille-et-Vilaine; but having supported the Bourbons in 1814 he lost his appointment on Napoleon's return to power. On the second restoration of the monarchy, he obtained a post as engineer in Paris, where much of his life from that time was spent. His researches in optics, continued until his death, appear to have begun about the year 1814, when he prepared a paper on the aberration of light, which, however, was not published. In 1818 he wrote a memoir on diffraction for which in the ensuing year he received the prize of the Académie des Sciences at Paris. He was in 1823 unanimously elected a member of the academy, and in 1825 he became a member of the Royal Society of London, which in 1827, at the time of his last illness, awarded him the Rumford Medal. In 1819 he was nominated a commissioner of lighthouses, for which he was the first to construct a special type of lens, now called a Fresnel lens, as substitutes for mirrors. Fresnel died of tuberculosis at Ville-d'Avray, near Paris. His labours in the cause of optical science received during his lifetime only scant public recognition, and some of his papers were not printed by the Académie des Sciences till many years after his death. But as he wrote to Young in 1824: in himself "that sensibility, or that vanity, which people call love of glory" had been blunted. "All the compliments," he says, "that I have received from Arago, Laplace and Biot never gave me so much pleasure as the discovery of a theoretic truth, or the confirmation of a calculation by experiment." Research His discoveries and mathematical deductions, building on experimental work by Thomas Young, extended the wave theory of light to a large class of optical phenomena. In 1817, Young had proposed a small transverse component to light, while yet retaining a far larger longitudinal component. Fresnel, by the year 1821, was able to show via mathematical methods that polarization could be explained only if light was entirely transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever. His use of two plane mirrors of metal, forming with each other an angle of nearly 180°, allowed him to avoid the diffraction effects caused (by the apertures) in the experiment of F. M. Grimaldi on interference. This allowed him to conclusively account for the phenomenon of interference in accordance with the wave theory. With François Arago he studied the laws of the interference of polarized rays. He obtained circularly polarized light by means of a rhombus of glass, known as a Fresnel rhomb, having obtuse angles of 126° and acute angles of 54°. See also Fresnel equations Fresnel diffraction Fresnel integral Fresnel lantern Fresnel lens Fresnel rhomb Fresnel zone Fresnel zone plate Fresnel number Fresnel drag Fizeau experiment Huygens-Fresnel principle External link and reference | Augustin-Jean_Fresnel |@lemmatized augustin:1 jean:1 fresnel:19 fray:1 may:1 july:1 french:2 physicist:1 contribute:1 significantly:1 establishment:1 theory:3 wave:3 optic:2 study:2 behaviour:1 light:6 theoretically:1 experimentally:1 perhaps:1 best:1 know:2 inventor:1 lens:4 first:2 adopt:1 lighthouse:3 commissioner:2 find:1 many:2 application:1 today:1 biography:1 son:1 architect:1 bear:1 broglie:1 eure:1 early:1 progress:1 learning:1 slow:1 still:1 could:2 read:1 eight:1 year:5 old:1 thirteen:1 enter:1 école:3 centrale:1 caen:1 sixteen:1 half:1 polytechnique:1 acquit:1 distinction:1 go:1 des:3 ponts:1 et:2 chaussées:1 serve:1 engineer:2 successively:1 department:1 vendée:1 drôme:1 ille:1 vilaine:1 support:1 bourbon:1 lose:1 appointment:1 napoleon:1 return:1 power:1 second:1 restoration:1 monarchy:1 obtain:2 post:1 paris:3 much:2 life:1 time:2 spend:1 research:2 continue:1 death:2 appear:1 begin:1 prepare:1 paper:2 aberration:1 however:1 publish:1 write:2 memoir:1 diffraction:3 ensue:1 receive:3 prize:1 académie:2 science:3 unanimously:1 elect:1 member:2 academy:1 become:1 royal:1 society:1 london:1 last:1 illness:1 award:1 rumford:1 medal:1 nominate:1 construct:1 special:1 type:1 call:2 substitute:1 mirror:2 die:1 tuberculosis:1 ville:1 avray:1 near:1 labour:1 cause:2 optical:2 lifetime:1 scant:1 public:1 recognition:1 print:1 till:1 young:3 sensibility:1 vanity:1 people:1 love:1 glory:1 blunt:1 compliment:1 say:1 arago:2 laplace:1 biot:1 never:1 give:1 pleasure:1 discovery:2 theoretic:1 truth:1 confirmation:1 calculation:1 experiment:3 mathematical:2 deduction:1 build:1 experimental:1 work:1 thomas:1 extend:1 large:2 class:1 phenomenon:2 propose:1 small:1 transverse:2 component:2 yet:1 retain:1 far:1 longitudinal:2 able:1 show:1 via:1 method:1 polarization:1 explain:1 entirely:1 vibration:1 whatsoever:1 use:1 two:1 plane:1 metal:1 form:1 angle:3 nearly:1 allow:2 avoid:1 effect:1 aperture:1 f:1 grimaldi:1 interference:3 conclusively:1 account:1 accordance:1 françois:1 law:1 polarized:1 ray:1 circularly:1 polarize:1 mean:1 rhombus:1 glass:1 rhomb:2 obtuse:1 acute:1 see:1 also:1 equation:1 integral:1 lantern:1 zone:2 plate:1 number:1 drag:1 fizeau:1 huygens:1 principle:1 external:1 link:1 reference:1 |@bigram augustin_jean:1 jean_fresnel:1 fresnel_lens:3 école_centrale:1 école_polytechnique:1 académie_des:2 rumford_medal:1 external_link:1 |
2,776 | Constantine_Kanaris | Konstantinos Kanaris (1790-1877) Athens, National Historical Museum. Constantine Kanaris (or Canaris, Greek: Κωνσταντίνος Κανάρης) (1793 or 1795September 14, 1877) was a Greek admiral, freedom fighter and politician. Early life He was born on the Aegean Sea island of Psara as a son of Michael and Maria Kanaris. His exact year of birth is unknown. The official records of the Hellenic Navy give it as 1795 but modern Greek historians believe that 1793 is more probable. Michael Kanaris, his father, had served several terms as the island's Elder. Constantine was left an orphan at a young age. Having to support himself, he chose to became a seaman like most members of his family since the beginning of the 18th century. He was hired as a boy in the brig of his uncle Dimitris Bourekas. Constantine Kanaris. Military career The destruction of the Turkish flagship at Chios by Kanaris. Constantine gained his fame during the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829). Unlike most other prominent figures of the War, he had never been initiated in the Filiki Eteria (Friendly Society), which played a significant role in the revolution against the Ottoman Empire, primarily by secret recruitment of supporters against the Empire. By early 1821, it had gained enough support to declare a revolution. This declaration seems to have surprised Constantine, who was absent at Odessa. He returned to Psara in haste and was there when the island joined the Revolution on April 10, 1821. The island formed its own fleet of ships and the famed seamen of Psara, already known for their successful naval combats against pirates and their well-equipped ships, proved to be effective at full naval war. Constantine soon distinguished himself as a fire ship captain. Notably at Chios, where on the night of June 6/June 7, 1822 forces under his command destroyed the flagship of the Turkish admiral Nasuhzade Ali Pasha (or Kara-Ali Pasha) in revenge for the Chios Massacre. The admiral was holding a celebration, while Kanaris and his men managed to place a fire ship next to it. When the flagships' powder keg caught fire, all men aboard were instantly killed. The Ottoman casualties consisted of 2000 men, both naval officers and common sailors, as well as Kara-Ali himself. Constantine led three further successful attacks against the Turkish fleet in 1822–1824. He was famously said to have encouraged himself by murmuring "Konstanti, you are going to die" every time he was approaching a Turkish warship on the fire boat he was about to detonate. Konstantinos Kanaris (1790-1877) Athens, Photographic Archive of Hellenic Literary and Historical Museum. Egypt was technically a province of the Ottoman Empire at the time but its viceroy Mohammad Ali (1769–1849), had earned enough power to act independently from the Sultan and had formed his own army and naval fleet. It was headed by his adoptive son Ibrahim Pasha (1789–1848). The latter had hired a number of veteran French officers - who had served under Emperor Napoleon I and were discharged from the French army following his defeat - to help organise the new army. By 1824, it counted 100,000 men and was both better organised and better equipped than the Sultan's army. Sultan Mahmud II offered to the viceroy the command of Crete, if he agreed to send part of this army against the Greeks. They quickly reached an agreement. The Egyptian army, under the personal command of Ibrahim Pasha, started a successful campaign in both land and sea against the relatively ill-equipped, disorganized and outnumbered Greeks. Among other victories, the Egyptian fleet managed to capture Psara on June 21, 1824. A part of the population managed to flee the island, but those who didn't were either sold into slavery or slaughtered. The island was deserted and surviving islanders were scattered through what is now Southern Greece. After the destruction of his home island, Constantine continued to lead his men into attacks with minor successes. Despite them, Ibrahim Pasha would be virtually undefeated until the Battle of Navarino of October 20, 1827. Then the Turkish-Egyptian fleet was destroyed by the combined naval forces of Britain, France and Russia, that had taken the Greeks under their "protection". Following the end of the war and the independence of Greece, Constantine became an officer of the new Greek Navy, reaching the rank of Admiral, and later became a prominent politician. Political career Kanaris served as Minister in various governments and then as Prime Minister from March 11-April 11, 1844. He served a second term (October 27, 1848December 24, 1849) and a third (May 28, 1854July 29, 1854). In 1862, he was one of the few War of Independence veterans that helped in the bloodless revolution that deposed King Otto of Greece and put Prince William of Denmark on the Greek throne as King George I of Greece. Under George I, he served as a prime minister for a fourth term (March 17 April 28, 1864), fifth term (August 7, 1864February 9, 1865) and sixth and last term (June 7September 2, 1877). Following his death his government remained in power until September 14, 1877 without agreeing on a replacement at its head. He was buried in the First Cemetery of Athens, where most Greek prime ministers and celebrated figures are also buried. After his death he was honored as a national hero. To honour Kanaris, the Hellenic Navy named, in 18 December 1941, a Hunt III type destroyer after him. The Kanaris L51, the former HMS Hatherleigh, was transferred to Greece from the Royal Navy in July 1, 1972. A destroyer, the HNS Kanaris (D-212) (formerly USS Stickell (DD-888)), and in November 29, 2002 a frigate FFG Kanaris (F 464) (a Elli (F 450) class frigate) were also named after him. Family In 1817, he married Despoina Maniatis. They had seven children: Nicholas Kanaris, (1818–1848) Themistocles Kanaris, (1819–1851) Miltiades Kanaris, (1822–1899) - Admiral, member of the Greek Parliament, and government minister Lycurgus Kanaris, (1826–1865) - Lawyer Maria Kanari, (1828–1847) Aristides Kanaris, (1831–1863) - Navy officer Thrasybulos Kanaris, (1834–1898) - Admiral There was a speculation, raisen by Wilhelm II himself, that Wilhelm Canaris was a descendant of Constantine Kanaris, but it was proven untrue. External links Listed among other Major Figures of the Greek War of Independence The History of the Grand Lodge of Greece Explains the Origins of the Philiki Etairia Short profile of Mohammad Ali, Viceroy of Egypt Short Profile of Ibrahim Pasha Statue of K. 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2,777 | Harley-Davidson | Harley-Davidson Motor Company (, formerly HDI ) is an American manufacturer of motorcycles based in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The company sells heavyweight (over 750 cc) motorcycles designed for cruising on the highway. Harley-Davidson motorcycles (popularly known as "Harleys") have a distinctive design and exhaust note. They are especially noted for the tradition of heavy customization that gave rise to the chopper-style of motorcycle. Harley-Davidson attracts a loyal brand community, with licensing of the Harley-Davidson logo accounting for almost 5% of the company's net revenue ($41 million in 2004). Harley-Davidson supplies many American police forces with their motorcycle fleets. In 2003, the Buell Motorcycle Company became a wholly-owned subsidiary of Harley-Davidson, the same year that Harley-Davidson celebrated its 100th birthday. In August 2008, Harley-Davidson purchased the Italian motorcycle manufacturer MV Agusta. History The beginning In 1901, William S. Harley, age 21, drew up plans for a small engine with a displacement of and four-inch (102 mm) flywheels. The engine was designed for use in a regular pedal-bicycle frame. Over the next two years Harley and his childhood friend Arthur Davidson labored on their motor-bicycle using the northside machine shop at the home of their friend, Henry Melk. It was finished in 1903 with the help of Arthur's brother, Walter Davidson. Upon completion the boys found their power-cycle unable to conquer Milwaukee's modest hills without pedal assistance. Will Harley and the Davidsons quickly wrote off their first motor-bicycle as a valuable learning experiment. Herbert Wagner, 2003. At the Creation: Myth, Reality, and the Origin of the Harley-Davidson Motorcycle, 1901–1909 (Madison: Wisconsin Historical Society Press), pp.22-28, 42-44. Work immediately began on a new and improved second-generation machine. This first "real" Harley-Davidson motorcycle had a bigger engine of with flywheels weighing . The machine's advanced loop-frame pattern was similar to the 1903 Milwaukee Merkel motorcycle (designed by Joseph Merkel, later of Flying Merkel fame.) The bigger engine and loop-frame design took it out of the motorized-bicycle category and would help define what a modern motorcycle should contain in the years to come. The boys also received help with their bigger engine from outboard motor pioneer Ole Evinrude, who was then building gas engines of his own design for automotive use on Milwaukee's Lake Street. The prototype of the new loop-frame Harley-Davidson was assembled in a 10- by 15-foot (3 by 5 meter) shed in the Davidson family backyard. Most of the major parts, however, were made elsewhere, including some probably fabricated at the West Milwaukee railshops where oldest brother William A. Davidson was then toolroom foreman. This prototype machine was functional by 8 September 1904 when it competed in a Milwaukee motorcycle race held at State Fair Park. It was ridden by Edward Hildebrand and placed fourth. This is the first documented appearance of a Harley-Davidson motorcycle in the historical record. Wagner, 2003. pp.45-62. In January 1905, small advertisements were placed in the "Automobile and Cycle Trade Journal" that offered bare Harley-Davidson engines to the do-it-yourself trade. By April, complete motorcycles were in production on a very limited basis. That year the first Harley-Davidson dealer, Carl H. Lang of Chicago, sold three bikes from the dozen or so built in the Davidson backyard shed. (Some years later the original shed was taken to the Juneau Avenue factory where it would stand for many decades as a tribute to the Motor Company's humble origins. Unfortunately, the first shed was accidentally destroyed by contractors in the early 1970s during a clean-up of the factory yard.) In 1906, Harley and the Davidsons built their first factory on Chestnut Street (later Juneau Avenue). This location remains the Motor Company's corporate headquarters today. The first Juneau Avenue plant was a 40 by single-story wooden structure. That year around 50 motorcycles were produced. 1907 model. Harley-Davidson 1000 cc HT 1916 In 1907, William S. Harley graduated from the University of Wisconsin-Madison with a degree in mechanical engineering. That year additional factory expansion came with a second floor and later with facings and additions of Milwaukee pale yellow ("cream") brick. With the new facilities production increased to 150 motorcycles in 1907. The company was officially incorporated that September. They also began selling their motorcycles to police departments around this time, a market that has been important to them ever since. Wagner, 2003. pp.68-81, 118. Production in 1905 and 1906 were all single-cylinder models with 26.84 cubic inch (440 cc) engines. In February 1907 a prototype model with a 45-degree V-Twin engine was displayed at the Chicago Automobile Show. Although shown and advertised, very few V-Twin models were built between 1907 and 1910. These first V-Twins displaced 53.68 cubic inches (880 cc) and produced about 7 horsepower (5 kW). This gave about double the power of the first singles. Top speed was about 60 mph (97 km/h). Production jumped from 450 motorcycles in 1908 to 1,149 machines in 1909. Wagner, 2003. pp.124-25. By 1911 some 150 makes of motorcycles had already been built in the United States – although just a handful would survive the 1910s. In 1911, an improved V-Twin model was introduced. The new engine had mechanically operated intake valves, as opposed to the "automatic" intake valves used on earlier V-Twins that opened by engine vacuum. With a displacement of 49.48 cubic inches (810 cc), the 1911 V-Twin was smaller than earlier twins, but gave better performance. After 1913 the majority of bikes produced by Harley-Davidson would be V-Twin models. By 1913, the yellow brick factory had been demolished and on the site a new 5-story structure of reinforced concrete and red brick had been built. Begun in 1910, the red brick factory with its many additions would take up two blocks along Juneau Avenue and around the corner on 38th Street. Despite the competition, Harley-Davidson was already pulling ahead of Indian and would dominate motorcycle racing after 1914. Production that year swelled to 16,284 machines. Ralph Hepburn on his Harley racing bike in this 1919 photo. World War I In 1917, the United States entered World War I and the military demanded motorcycles for the war effort. Harleys had already been used by the military in border skirmishes with Pancho Villa but World War I was the first time the motorcycle had been adopted for combat service. Harley-Davidson provided over 20,000 machines to the military forces during World War I. The 1920s Harley-Davidson 1000 cc HT 1923 By 1920, Harley-Davidson was the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world. Their motorcycles were sold by dealers in 67 countries. Production was 28,189 machines. In 1921, a Harley-Davidson, ridden by Otto Walker, was the first motorcycle ever to win a race at an average speed of over 100 mph (160 km/h). During the 1920s, several improvements were put in place, such as a new 74 cubic inch (1200cc) V-Twin, introduced in 1922, and the "Teardrop" gas tank in 1925. A front brake was added in 1928. In the late summer of 1929, Harley-Davidson introduced its 45 cubic inch flathead V-Twin to compete with the Indian 101 Scout and the Excelsior Super X. This was the "D" model, produced 1929-31, popularly known as the "three cylinder Harley" because the generator was upright and parallel to the front cylinder. The bore (2.745", 69.72mm) and stroke (3.8125", 96.84mm) would continue in almost all versions of the 750 engine (exceptions: XA, XR750). The Great Depression Harley-Davidson 1200 cc SV 1931 The Great Depression began a few months after the introduction of their 45 cubic inch model. Harley-Davidson's sales plummeted from 21,000 in 1929 to less than 4,000 in 1933. In order to survive, the company manufactured industrial powerplants based on their motorcycle engines. They also designed and built a three-wheeled delivery vehicle called the Servi-Car, which remained in production until 1973. Harley-Davidson WL In the mid-'30s, Alfred Rich Child opened a production line in Japan with the 74ci VL, which became Rikuo after the parent company severed its business relations with Harley-Davidson. The Motorcycle Hall of Fame Museum - 1958 Rikuo RT2: Harley-Davidson’s Japanese connection An 80 cubic inch flathead engine was added to the line in 1935, by which time the single cylinder motorcycles had been discontinued. Mitchel, p. 92 In 1936, the "Knucklehead" engine was introduced. By 1937, all the flathead engines were equipped with the dry-sump oil recirculation, system similar to that which had been initially introduced on the 61E and 61EL "Knucklehead" OHV models. The revised 74 cubic inch V and VL models were renamed U and UL, the 80 cubic inch VH and VLH to be renamed UH and ULH, and the 45 cubic inch R to be renamed W, continuing the D model bore & stroke through 1952. Mitchel, pp. 94–95 In 1941, the 74 cubic inch "Knucklehead" was introduced as the F and the FL. The 80 cubic inch flathead UH and ULH models were discontinued after 1941, and only the 74" U & UL were produced 1942-48. World War II Harley copied the BMW R71 to produce its XA model. One of only two American cycle manufacturers to survive the Great Depression, Harley-Davidson again produced large numbers of motorcycles for the US Army in World War II and resumed civilian production afterwards, producing a range of large V-twin motorcycles that were successful both on racetracks and for private buyers. Harley-Davidson, on the eve of World War II, was already supplying the Army with a military-specific version of its 45" WL line, called the WLA. (The A in this case stood for "Army".) Upon the outbreak of war, the company, along with most other manufacturing enterprises, shifted to war work. Over 90,000 military motorcycles, mostly WLAs and WLCs (the Canadian version) would be produced, many to be provided to allies. Smithsonian magazine, August 2003, pg. 34 - "Wild Thing", Robert F. Howe Harley-Davidson received two Army-Navy ‘E’ Awards, one in 1943 and the other in 1945, which were awarded for Excellence in Production. Harley produced the WLC for the Canadian military. Shipments to the Soviet Union under the Lend-Lease program numbered at least 30,000. The WLAs produced during all four years of war production generally have 1942 serial numbers. Production of the WLA stopped at the end of World War II, but was resumed from 1950 to 1952 for use in the Korean War. The U.S. Army also asked Harley-Davidson to produce a new motorcycle with many of the features of BMW's side-valve and shaft-driven R71. Harley largely copied the BMW engine and drive train and produced the shaft-driven 750 cc 1942 Harley-Davidson XA. This shared no dimensions, no parts and no design concepts (exept side valves) with any prior Harley-Davidson engine. Due to the superior cooling of an opposed twin, Harley's XA cylinder heads ran 100 °F (55 °C) cooler than its V-twins. The XA never entered full production: the motorcycle by that time had been eclipsed by the Jeep as the Army's general purpose vehicle, and the WLA—already in production—was sufficient for its limited police, escort, and courier roles. Only 1,000 were made and the XA never went into full production. It remains the only shaft-driven Harley-Davidson ever made. Small Harleys - Hummers and Aermacchis Harley-Davidson Hummer As part of war reparations, Harley-Davidson acquired the design of a small German motorcycle, the DKW RT125 which they adapted, manufactured, and sold from 1947 to 1966. Various models were made, including the Hummer from 1955 to 1959, but they are all colloquially referred to as "Hummers" at present. BSA in the United Kingdom took the same design as the foundation of their BSA Bantam. 1971 Aermacchi Harley-Davidson Turismo Veloce In 1960, Harley-Davidson consolidated the Model 165 and Hummer lines into the Super-10, introduced the Topper scooter, and bought fifty percent of Aeronautica Macchi's motorcycle division. Wilson, H. "The Encyclopedia of the Motorcycle" p. 252 Dorling-Kindersley Limited, 1995 ISBN 0 7513 0206 6 Importation of Aermacchi's 250 cc horizontal single began the following year. The bike bore Harley-Davidson badges and was marketed as the Harley-Davidson Sprint. Wilson, H. "The Encyclopedia of the Motorcycle" p. 74 Dorling-Kindersley Limited, 1995 ISBN 0 7513 0206 6 Mitchel, p. 187 After the Pacer and Scat models were discontinued at the end of 1965, the Bobcat became the last of Harley-Davidson's American-made two-stroke motorcycles. The Bobcat was manufactured only in the 1966 model year. Mitchel, p. 193 Harley-Davidson's entry in the lightweight two-stroke market for 1967 was the M-65, built by Aermacchi and offered in base form with a semi-step thru frame and tank and as the M-65S (Sport) with a larger tank (later used on the 1968 Rapido). The company re-entered the 125 cc two-stroke market in 1968 with the introduction of the Aermacchi-built Rapido, a 125 cc bike to replace the American-made 2-stroke bikes. Mitchel, p. 218 The engine of the Sprint was increased to 350 cc in 1969 and would remain that size until 1974, when it was replaced by the 250 cc two-stroke SX. Mitchel, p. 215 Harley-Davidson purchased full control of Aermacchi's motorcycle production in 1974 and continued making two-stroke motorcycles there until 1978, when they sold the facility to Cagiva. Tarnished reputation AMF H-D Electra Glide In 1952, following their application to the US Tariff Commission for a 40% tax on imported motorcycles, Harley-Davidson was charged with restrictive practices. Hollywood also damaged Harley's image with many outlaw biker gang films produced from the 1950s through the 1970s, following the 1947 Hollister, CA biker riot on July 4. "Harley-Davidson" for a long time was synonymous with the Hells Angels and other outlaw motorcyclists. In 1969, American Machinery and Foundry (AMF) bought the company, streamlined production, and slashed the workforce. This tactic resulted in a labor strike and a lower quality of bikes. The bikes were expensive and inferior in performance, handling, and quality to Japanese motorcycles. Sales declined, quality plummeted, and the company almost went bankrupt. The "Harley-Davidson" name was mocked as "Hardly Ableson", "Hardly Driveable," and "Hogly Ferguson", and the nickname "Hog" became pejorative. Restructuring and revival 1998 Harley-Davidson FXSTC In 1981, AMF sold the company to a group of thirteen investors led by Vaughn Beals and Willie G. Davidson for $80 million. Smithsonian magazine, August 2003, pg. 36 - "Wild Thing", Robert F. Howe Inventory was strictly controlled using the Just In Time system. In the early eighties, Harley-Davidson claimed that Japanese manufacturers were importing motorcycles into the US in such volume as to harm or threaten to harm domestic producers. After an investigation by the US International Trade Commission, President Reagan imposed in 1983 a 45% tariff on imported bikes and bikes over 700 cc engine capacity. Harley Davidson subsequently rejected offers of assistance from Japanese motorcycle makers. - 7/83 US Imposes 45% Tariff on Imported Motorcycles - Two American Legends: Ford and Harley-Davidson Rather than trying to match the Japanese, the new management deliberately exploited the "retro" appeal of the machines, building motorcycles that deliberately adopted the look and feel of their earlier machines and the subsequent customizations of owners of that era. Many components such as brakes, forks, shocks, carburetors, electrics and wheels were outsourced from foreign manufacturers and quality increased, technical improvements were made, and buyers slowly returned. To remain profitable Harley continues to increase the amount of overseas-made parts it uses, while being careful not to harm its valuable "American Made" image. Ford F-150 crew cab Harley-Davidson edition The "Sturgis" model, boasting a dual belt-drive, was introduced. By 1990, with the introduction of the "Fat Boy", Harley once again became the sales leader in the heavyweight (over 750 cc) market. At the time of the Fat Boy model introduction a story rapidly spread that its silver paint job and other features were inspired by the World War II American B-29 bomber; and that the Fat Boy name was a combination of the names of the atom bombs (Fat Man and Little Boy) that were dropped on Nagasaki and Hiroshima respectively. However, the Urban Legend Reference Pages lists this story as an urban legend. 1994 saw the replacement of the FXR frame with the Dyna, though it was revived briefly in 1999 and 2000 for special limited editions. In 1999, Ford Motor Company added a Harley-Davidson edition to the Ford F-Series F-150 line, complete with the Harley-Davidson logo. This truck was an extended-cab for model year 1999. In 2000, Ford changed the truck to a crew cab and in 2002 added a super-charged engine (5.4 L) which continued until 2003. In 2004, the Ford/Harley was changed to a Super-Duty, which continues through 2006. Ford again produced a Harley-Davidson Edition F-150 for their 2006 model-year, as well. Building started on $75 million 130,000 square-foot (12,000 m2) Harley-Davidson Museum in the Menomonee River Valley on June 1, 2006. It opened in 2008 and houses the company's vast collection of historic motorcycles and corporate archives, along with a restaurant, café and meeting space. The Business Journal (Milwaukee) - Harley-Davidson kick-starts $75M museum project Claims of stock price manipulation Harley Davidson Inc (NYSE:HOG) stock price (source: ZenoBank.com) During its period of peak demand, during the late 1990s and early 2000s, Harley-Davidson embarked on a program of expanding the number of dealerships throughout the country. At the same time, its current dealers typically had waiting lists that extended up to a year for some of the most popular models. Harley-Davidson, like the auto manufacturers, records a sale not when a consumer buys their product, but rather when it is delivered to a dealer. Therefore, it is possible for the manufacturer to inflate sales numbers by requiring dealers to accept more inventory than desired in a practice called channel stuffing. When demand softened following the unique 2003 model year, this news lead to a dramatic decline in the stock price. In April 2004 alone, the price of HOG shares dropped from over $60 to under $40. Immediately prior to this decline, retiring CEO Jeffrey Bleustein profited $42 million on the exercise of employee stock options. Harley-Davidson was named as a defendant in numerous class action suits filed by investors who claimed they were intentionally defrauded by Harley-Davidson's management and directors. By January 2007, the price of Harley-Davidson shares reached $70. 2007 workers' strike On February 2, 2007, upon the expiration of their union contract, about 2,700 employees at Harley-Davidson Inc.'s largest manufacturing plant in York, PA went on strike after failing to agree on wages and health benefits. During the pendency of the strike, the company refused to pay for any portion of the striking employees' health care. The day before the strike, after the union voted against the proposed contract and to authorize the strike, the company shut down all production at the plant. The York facility employs more than 3,200 workers, both union and non-union. Harley-Davidson announced on February 16, 2007, that it had reached a labor agreement with union workers at its largest manufacturing plant, a breakthrough in the two-week-old strike. The strike disrupted Harley-Davidson’s national production and had ripple effects as far away as Wisconsin, where 440 employees were laid off, and many Harley suppliers also laid off workers because of the strike. Agreement in India In a landmark agreement reached during discussions between the U.S. Trade Representative, Susan Schwab, and the Minister for Commerce and Industry of India, Kamal Nath, on April 12, 2007 at New Delhi, Harley-Davidson motorcycles will be allowed access to the Indian market in exchange for the export of Indian mangoes. India had not specified emission standards for motorcycles over 500 cc displacement, effectively prohibiting the import of Harley-Davidson motorcycles, along with most models of other manufacturers, such as Yamaha Motor Company Ltd. and Suzuki Motor Corporation. The company placed a hold on plans to export their motorcycles to India, due to import duties of 60% and taxes of 30%, which effectively doubled the cost of the motorcycles for the Indian consumer. MV Agusta Group acquisition On July 11, 2008 Harley-Davidson announced they had signed a definitive agreement to acquire the MV Agusta Group for $109M USD (€70M). MV Agusta Group contains two lines of motorcycles: the high-performance MV Agusta brand and the lightweight Cagiva brand. The acquisition was completed on August 8. Harley-Davidson Completes Acquisition of MV Agusta Harley-Davidson engines V-twin in a HD Road King The classic Harley-Davidson engines are two-cylinder, V-twin engines with the pistons mounted in a 45° "V". The crankshaft has a single pin, and both pistons are connected to this pin through their connecting rods. This design causes the pistons to fire at uneven intervals. This is due to an engineering tradeoff to create a large, high-torque engine in a small space. This design choice is entirely vestigial from an engineering standpoint, but has been sustained because of the strong connection between the distinctive sound and the Harley-Davidson brand. This design, which is covered under several United States patents, gives the Harley-Davidson V-twin its unique choppy "potato-potato" sound. To simplify the engine and reduce costs, the V-twin ignition was designed to operate with a single set of points and no distributor, which is known as a dual fire ignition system, causing both spark plugs to fire regardless of which cylinder was on its compression stroke, with the other spark plug firing on its cylinder's exhaust stroke, effectively "wasting a spark." The exhaust note is basically a throaty growling sound with some popping. The 45 degree design of the engine thus creates a plug firing sequencing as such: The first cylinder fires, the second (rear) cylinder fires 315° later, then there is a 405° gap until the first cylinder fires again, giving the engine its unique sound. Harley-Davidson has used various ignition systems throughout its history - be it the early points/condenser system, (Big Twin up to 1978 and Sportsters 1970 to 1978), magneto ignition system used on 1958 to 1969 Sportsters, early electronic with centrifugal mechanical advance weights, (all models 1978 and a half to 1979), or the late electronic with transistorized ignition control module, more familiarly known as the black box or the brain, (all models 1980 to present). Starting in 1995, the company introduced Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI) as an option for select models. With the introduction of the 2007 product line, EFI is now standard on all models, including Sportsters. In 1991, Harley-Davidson began to participate in the Sound Quality Working Group, founded by Orfield Labs, Bruel and Kjaer, TEAC, Yamaha, Sennheiser, SMS and Cortex. This was the nation's first group to share research on psychological acoustics. Later that year, Harley-Davidson participated in a series of sound quality studies at Orfield Labs, based on recordings taken at the Talladega Superspeedway, with the objective to lower the sound level for EU standards while analytically capturing the "Harley Sound." This research resulted in the bikes that were introduced in compliance with EU standards for 1998. On 1 February 1994, the company filed a sound trademark application for the distinctive sound of a Harley-Davidson motorcycle engine: "The mark consists of the exhaust sound of applicant's motorcycles, produced by V-twin, common crankpin motorcycle engines when the goods are in use". Nine of Harley-Davidson's competitors filed comments opposing the application, arguing that cruiser-style motorcycles of various brands use a single-crankpin V-twin engine which produce a similar sound. These objections were followed by litigation. In August 2001, the Company dropped efforts to federally register its trademark. However, legal counsel for the company claims that the Harley-Davidson still holds trademark rights in the sound even without a registration. Electra Glide "Ultra Classic" in Bristol The Big V-Twins F-head, also known as JD, pocket valve and IOE (intake over exhaust), 1914-29 (1,000 cc), and 1922-29 (1,200 cc) Flathead, 1930–1948 (1,200 cc) and 1935-41 (1,300 cc). Knucklehead, 1936-47 61 cubic inches (1,000 cc), and 1941-47 74 cubic inches (1,200 cc) Panhead, 1948-52 61 cubic inches (1,000 cc), and 1948-65, 74 cubic inches (1,200 cc) Shovelhead, 1966-85, 74 cubic inches (1,200 cc) and 82 cubic inches (1,345 ccm) since late 1978 Evolution (aka "Evo" and "Blockhead"), 1984-99, 80 cubic inches (1,340 cc) Twin Cam 88 (aka "Fathead") 1999–2006, 88 cubic inches (1,443 cc) Twin Cam 88B (counter balanced version of the Twin Cam 88) 2000–2006, 88 cubic inches (1,443 cc) Twin Cam 96, 2007–present, 96 cubic inches (1,584 cc) Twin Cam 103, 1999–2006, 2009, 103 cubic inches (1690 cc) (engines for C.V.O. models) Twin Cam 110, 2007–present, 110 cubic inches (1802 cc) (engines for C.V.O. models) Evolution Sportster cruising around downtown Buenos Aires The Small V-Twins D Model, 1929-31, 750 cc R Model, 1932-36, 750 cc W Model, 1937-52, 750 cc, solo (2 wheel) frame only) G (Servi-Car) Model, 1932-73, 750 cc K Model, 1952-53, 750 cc KH Model, 1954-56, 900 cc Ironhead, 1957–1971 (900 cc), 1971-85 (1000 cc) Evolution, 1986–present, 883, 1,100 and 1,200 cc V-Rod on the show room floor The Revolution engine The Revolution engine is based on the VR-1000 Superbike race program, developed by Harley-Davidson's Powertrain Engineering team and Porsche Engineering in Stuttgart, Germany. It is a liquid cooled, dual overhead cam, internally counterbalanced 60 degree V-twin engine with a displacement of 69 cubic inches (1130 cc), producing at 8250 rpm at the crank, with a redline of 9000 rpm. It was introduced for the new V-Rod line in 2001 for the 2002 model year, starting with the single VRSCA (V-Twin Racing Street Custom) model. A 1250 cc Screamin' Eagle version of the Revolution engine was made available for 2005, and was present thereafter in a single production model from 2005–2007. In 2008, the 1250 cc Revolution Engine became standard for the entire VRSC line. Harley-Davidson claims at the crank for the 2008 VRSCAW model. The VRXSE Destroyer is equipped with a stroker (75 mm crank) Screamin’ Eagle Revolution Engine, producing over . Model designations Harley model designations are a sequence of letters and numbers, combined in limited ways. The sequences can be long, as in the 2006 model designation FLHTCUSE. The first letter may be one of the following: K ('50s flathead small twin), E, F (1936-* single cam OHV big twin), U, V (1930-48 four cam flathead big twin), D, G, R, W (flathead small twin), X (Sportster OHV), or V (VRSC) since 1984 only F (Big Twin), X (Sportster) and V (V_ROD) have been used regularly. Letters are appended singly or in pairs, as follows: B (BLACKED OUT ie street bob, night train, and crossbones models), C (Classic or Custom), CW (Custom Wide (2008 Soft tail Rocker)) D (Dyna chasis or Soft Tail Duece), E (Electric start), F (Fat Boy (1990–present); Fat Bob (2008–present) or Foot-shift (1972 and prior)), H (HANDLE BAR/ FRONT END MOUNTED FAIRING. ie bat wing fairing/quick release windsheild.), I (Fuel injection), L ((16" FRONT WHEEL WITH FLOOR BOARDS until 2009 where the 16" is found only on FLHTCU and FLHRC models, all other 2009 models have 17" front wheels),and Low Rider)), N {(Nostalgia as in Soft Tail Deluxe) and Nightster in Sportster family} P (Police), R (Race, Road King, or Rubber-mount), S (Sport, Springer, or Standard), ST (Softail), T (FRAME MOUNTED FAIRING), WG (Wide Glide), SE (Screamin’ Eagle), U (Ultra) X ((19'-21' FRONT WHEEL NO FLOORBOARDS. except 2008 FXDF which has a 16" front wheel and no floor boards), sport in Dyna Models, and street glide in Touring Models.) XT (sport touring Dyna Model). Custom Vehicle Operations models can also have a number (2,3,4) added. Note that these conventions for model designations are broken regularly by the company. Current model designations 2001 883 Sportster Hugger Sportster With the exception of the street-going XR1000 of the 1980s and the XR1200, all Sportsters made for street use have the prefix XL in their model designation. For the Sportster Evolution engines used since the mid 1980s, there have been two engine sizes. Motorcycles with the smaller engine are designated XL883, while those with the larger engine were initially designated XL1100. When the size of the larger engine was increased from 1,100 cc to 1,200 cc, the designation was changed accordingly from XL1100 to XL1200. Subsequent letters in the designation refer to model variations within the Sportster range, e.g. the XL883C refers to an 883 cc Sportster with cruiser or custom styling, while the XL1200S designates the now-discontinued 1200 Sportster Sport. Dyna models utilize the big-twin engine (F), small-diameter telescopic forks similar to those used on the Sportster (X), and the Dyna chassis (D). Therefore, all Dyna models have designations that begin with FXD, e.g., FXDWG (Wide Glide) and FXDL (Low Rider). Softail models utilize the big-twin engine (F) and the Softail chassis (ST). Softail models that use small-diameter telescopic forks similar to those used on the Sportster (X) have designations that begin with FXST, e.g., FXSTB (Night Train), FXSTD (Deuce), and FXSTS (Standard). Softail models that use large-diameter telescopic forks similar to those used on the touring bikes (L) have designations beginning with FLST, e.g., FLSTF (Fat Boy), FLSTC (Heritage Softail Classic), and FLSTN (Softail Deluxe - "N" is for Nostalgic). Softail models that use Springer forks with a wheel have designations that begin with FXSTS, e.g., FXSTS (Springer Softail) and FXSTSB (Bad Boy). Softail models that use Springer forks with a wheel have designations that begin with FLSTS, e.g., FLSTSC (Springer Classic) and FLSTSB (Cross Bones). Touring models use Big-Twin engines and large-diameter telescopic forks. All Touring designations begin with the letters FL, e.g., FLHR (Road King) and FLTR (Road Glide). Revolution models utilize the Revolution engine (VR), and the street versions are designated Street Custom (SC). After the VRSC prefix common to all street Revolution bikes, the next letter denotes the model, either A (base V-Rod), B (discontinued), D (Night Rod), R (Street Rod), SE (CVO Special Edition), or X. Further differentiation within models are made with an additional letter, e.g., VRSCDX denotes the Night Rod Special. The factory drag bike, the VRXSE Destroyer, uses X instead of SC to denote a non-street bike and SE to denote a CVO Special Edition Model families Modern Harley-branded motorcycles fall into one of five model families: Touring, Softail, Dyna, Sportster and VRSC. Model families are distinguished by the frame, engine, suspension, and other characteristics. Touring Hamburg Police Electra Glide. The touring family, also known as "dressers", includes three Road King models and five Glide models offered in various trim. The Road Kings have a "retro cruiser" appearance and most models are equipped with a large clear windshield. Road Kings are reminiscent of big-twin models from the 1940s and '50s. Glides can be identified by their full front fairings. Most Glides sport a unique fairing referred to as the "Batwing" due to its unmistakable shape. The Road Glide has a different front end, referred to as the "Sharknose". The Sharknose includes a unique, dual front headlight. Touring models are distinguishable by their large saddlebags (usually with a top box as well), rear coil-over air suspension and are the only models to offer full fairings with Radios/CBs. All touring models use the same frame, first introduced with a Shovelhead motor in 1980, and carried forward with only modest upgrades until 2009, when it was extensively redesigned. The frame is distinguished by the location of the steering head in front of the forks and was the first H-D frame to rubber mount the drivetrain to isolate the rider from the vibration of the big V-twin. Although all touring models weigh in excess of , they are remarkably easy to handle at low speeds and high, and give the most comfortable and relaxing ride of any Harley. The frame was modified for the 1994 model year when the oil tank went under the transmission and the battery was moved inboard from under the right saddlebag to under the seat. In 1997, the frame was again modified to allow for a larger battery under the seat and to lower seat height. In 2007, Harley introduced the 96 cubic inch motor, as well the 6 speed transmission to give the rider better speeds on the highway. In years past, these touring models have become favorites with several local, and state police agencies, such as the Chicago Police Department, the Los Angeles Police Department, the Iowa State Patrol, and several others. In 2006, Harley introduced the FLHX, a bike designed by Willie G. Davidson to be his personal ride, to its touring line. In 2008, Harley added anti-lock braking systems and cruise control as a factory installed option on all touring models. For the 2009 model year, Harley-Davidson has redesigned the entire touring range with several changes, including a new frame, new swingarm, a completely revised engine-mounting system, front wheels for all but one model, a six-gallon gas tank, and a 2-1-2 exhaust. The changes result in greater load carrying capacity, better handling, a smoother engine, longer range and less exhaust heat transmitted to the rider and passenger. 2009 Harley-Davidson 2009 model line Also released for the 2009 model year is the FLHTUCTG Tri Glide Ultra Classic, the first three-wheeled Harley since the Servi-Car was discontinued in 1973. The model features a unique frame and a 103 cid engine exclusive to the trike. 2009 Harley-Davidson Tri Glide Ultra Classic Softail 2002 Softail Heritage Classic. These big-twin motorcycles capitalize on Harley's strong value on tradition. With the rear-wheel suspension invisible on the bottom of the frame, they are visually similar to the "hardtail" choppers popular in the 1960s and 1970s, as well as from their own earlier history. In keeping with that tradition, Harley offers Softail models with "springer" front ends and "heritage" styling that incorporate design cues from throughout their history. Dyna 2005 Dyna Super Glide Custom. Dyna motorcycles feature big-twin engines and traditional styling. They can be distinguished from the Softail by the traditional coil-over suspension that connects the swingarm to the frame, and from the Sportster by their larger engines. On these models, the transmission also houses the engine's oil reservoir. In 2006, Harley-Davidson released a line-up of five Dyna models: Super Glide, Super Glide Custom, Street Bob, Low Rider, and Wide Glide. In 2008, the "Fat Bob" was re-introduced to the Dyna line-up featuring aggressive styling, including a new 2-1-2 exhaust, twin headlamps, a 180 mm rear tire and a 130 mm front tire. The Dyna family uses the 88 cubic inch twin cam from 99-06. From 07-and on the displacement was increased to 96 cubic inches. This was the result of the factory increasing the stroke to 4 3/8" inches. Sportster 2002 Sportster 883 Custom Introduced in 1957, the Sportster is the longest-running model family in the Harley-Davidson lineup. They were conceived as racing motorcycles, and were popular on dirt and flat-track race courses through the 1960s and '70s. Smaller and lighter than the other Harley models, contemporary Sportsters make use of 883 or 1,200 cc Evolution engines and, though often modified, remain similar in appearance to their racing ancestors. Up until the 2003 model year, the engine on the Sportster was rigidly mounted to the frame. The 2004 Sportster had a new frame accommodating a rubber-mounted engine. Although this made the bike heavier and reduced the available lean angle, it reduced the amount of vibration transmitted to the frame and the rider. Motorcycle Cruiser First Ride: 2004 Harley-Davidson Sportster Motorcycles The rubber mounted engine provides a significantly smoother ride for rider and passenger, allowing longer trips. 2009 XR1200 Sportster In the 2007 model year, Harley-Davidson celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Sportster and produced a collectors' edition called the XL50 1200 Custom, of which only 2000 were made for sale worldwide. Each motorcycle was individually numbered and came in one of two colors, Mirage Pearl Orange or Vivid Black. Also in 2007, electronic fuel injection was introduced to the Sportster family, and the Nightster model was introduced. In 2009, Harley-Davidson added the Iron 883 to the Sportster line, the newest in the Dark Custom series. In the 2008 model year, Harley-Davidson released the XR1200 Sportster in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. The XR1200 had an Evolution engine tuned to produce 91 bhp, four-piston dual front disc brakes, and an aluminum swing arm. Motorcyclist featured the XR1200 on the cover of its July 2008 issue, and was generally positive about it in their "First Ride" story, in which Harley-Davidson was repeatedly asked to sell it in the United States. The XR1200 was released in the United States in 2009 in a special color scheme including Mirage Orange highlighting its dirt-tracker heritage. The first 750 XR1200's in 2009 were pre-ordered and came with a number 1 tag for the front of the bike, autographed by Kenny Coolbeth and Scott Parker and a thank you/welcome letter from the MoCo, signed by Bill Davidson. VRSC V-Rod in a gravel driveway. Introduced in 2001, the VRSC family bears little resemblance to Harley's more traditional lineup. Competing against Japanese and American muscle bikes and seeking to expand its market appeal, the "V-Rod" makes use of an engine developed jointly with Porsche that, for the first time in Harley history, incorporates fuel injection, overhead cams, and liquid cooling. The V-Rod is visually distinctive, easily identified by the 60-degree V-Twin engine, the radiator and the hydroformed frame members that support the round-topped air cleaner cover. Based on the VR-1000 racing motorcycle, it continues to be a platform around which Harley-Davidson builds drag-racing competition machines. The V-Rod has gathered an enthusiastic following in the U.S., Europe and Australia, and an annual Rally at the Kansas City production facility has been organized by Max Millender and the members of a 21,000+ member strong internet discussion forum www.1130cc.com. Bill Davidson has presented Mr Millender with a signed airbox cover to recognize the contribution the forum has made to the VRSC platform which continues to evolve with models like the Night Rod Special (VRSCDX). In 2008, Harley added anti-lock braking systems as a factory installed option on all VRSC models. Harley also increased the displacement of the stock engine from 1130cc (69ci) to 1250cc (73.6ci), which had only been previously available from Screamin' Eagle, and added a slipper clutch as standard equipment. VRSC Models Include: VRSCA: V-Rod (2002–2006), VRSCAW: V-Rod (2007–2008), VRSCB: V-Rod (2004–2005), VRSCD: Night Rod (2006–2008), VRSCDX: Night Rod Special (2007–2008), VRSCSE: Screamin' Eagle CVO V-Rod (2005), VRSCSE2: Screamin' Eagle CVO V-Rod (2006), VRSCR: Street Rod (2006–2007), VRSCX: Screamin' Eagle Tribute V-Rod (2007), V-Rod Muscle (2009). VRXSE The VRXSE V-Rod Destroyer is Harley-Davidson's production drag racing motorcycle, constructed to run the quarter mile in under ten seconds. It is based on the same revolution engine that powers the VRSC line, but the VRXSE uses the Sceamin' Eagle 1300cc "stroked" incarnation, featuring a 75 mm crankshaft, 105 mm Pistons, and 58 mm throttle bodies. The V-Rod Destroyer is not a street legal motorcycle. Environmental record The Environmental Protection Agency conducted emissions-certification and representative emissions test in Ann Arbor, Michigan, in 2005. Subsequently, Harley-Davidson produced an "environmental warranty." The warranty warrants the first and following owners after, that each vehicle is designed and built free of defects in materials and workmanship that cause the vehicle to not meet EPA standards. Representative Emissions Test 9 March 2005 retrieved May 14, 2008 In 2005, the EPA and the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection confirmed Harley-Davidson to be the first corporation to voluntarily enroll in the One Clean-Up Program. This program is designed for the clean-up of the affected soil and groundwater at the former York Naval Ordnance Plant. The program is backed by the state and local government along with participating organizations and corporations. Former York Naval Ordnance Plant 2005. Retrieved 14 May 2008 Paul Gotthold, Director of Operations for the EPA, congratulated the Motor Company: Harley-Davidson has also purchased most of Castalloy, which is a South Australian producer of cast motorcycle wheels and hubs. The South Australian government has set forth "protection to the purchaser (Harley-Davidson) against environmental risks." Harley-Davidson's purchase of Castalloy assets 2008. Retrieved 14 May 2008 Factory tours & museum Harley-Davidson offers factory tours at four of its manufacturing sites, and a museum opened in 2008: Harley-Davidson USA: The Great American Factory Tour Harley-Davidson USA: Museum Customized by Harley-Davidson Wauwatosa, Wisconsin - Powertrain Operations: Sportster and Buell powertrains, Screamin' Eagle performance parts, and remanufacturing. York, Pennsylvania - Vehicle Operations: Manufacturing site for Touring class, Softail, and custom vehicles. Tomahawk, Wisconsin - Tomahawk Operations: Facility that makes sidecars, saddlebags, windshields, and more. Kansas City, Missouri - Vehicle and Powertrain Operations: Manufacturing site of Sportster and other vehicles. Milwaukee, Wisconsin - Harley-Davidson Museum: Archive; exhibits of people, products, culture and history; restaurant & café; and museum store. Harley-Davidson culture Replica of the "Captain America" bike from the film Easy Rider According to a recent Harley-Davidson study, in 1987 half of all Harley riders were under age 35. Now, only 15% of Harley buyers are under 35, [http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/06_45/b4008069.htm Business Week - Harley Just Keeps On Cruisin'] and as of 2005, the median age had risen to 46.7. Harley-Davidson Riders Settle Into Middle Age, Times Community Newspapers Bumpy ride for Harley as competitors improve, customers age, SavannaNow Packs of Easy Riders Attract More Golden Agers, Coastal Senior Chart, source: Harley-Davidson The income of the average Harley-Davidson rider has risen, as well. In 1987, the median household income of a Harley-Davidson rider was $38,000. By 1997, the median household income for those riders had more than doubled, to $83,000. Harley Over The Hill? KU School of Journalism and Mass Communications Harley-Davidson motorcycles has long been associated with the sub-cultures of the: Biker Motorcycle club Outlaw Bikers/One Percenters Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs Origin of "Hog" nickname Beginning in 1920, a team of farm boys, including Ray Weishaar, who became known as the "hog boys," consistently won races. The group had a hog, or pig as their mascot. Following a win, they would put the pig (a real one) on their Harley and take a victory lap. Harley-Davidson - History In 1983, the Motor Company formed a club for owners of its product taking advantage of the long-standing nickname by turning "hog" into the acronym H.O.G., for Harley Owners Group. Harley-Davidson attempted to trademark "hog", but lost a case against an independent Harley-Davidson specialist, The Hog Farm of West Seneca, NY, in 1999 when the appellate panel ruled that "hog" had become a generic term for large motorcycles and was therefore unprotectable as a trademark. On August 15, 2006, Harley-Davidson Inc. had its NYSE ticker symbol changed from HDI to HOG. Harley-Davidson Riders Club of Great Britain Harley-Davidson 2004 HeritageThe Harley-Davidson Riders Club of Great Britain (est 1949) was the first British riders club (as opposed to motorcycle club) and organized national rallies and ride-outs from the outset. The 1982 rally began a popular run of events, probably due to the good fortune of having William G. Davidson attending his first rally outside the U.S., in Great Britain. He is thought to have been more than curious to discover how the secret "Evolution Motor" had found its world exclusive on the cover of the spring edition of the HDRCGB magazine, the "Harleyquin", but having a forgiving nature, Willie G. returned in 1984, along with Vaughn Beals and Len Thomson to officially show off the Evolution engine by bringing a test ride fleet to the second Brighton International Super Rally run by H.D.R.C.G.B.. The demonstration rides were the first at any European Rally. The club now has circa 1800 members throughput the U. K. U.S.A. and Europe not forgetting their founder member in Australia. The club is split into regions and most hold rallies during the summer culminating in the clubs International Rally. Harley Owners Group Harley-Davidson established the Harley Owners Group (abbreviated H.O.G.) in 1983 in response to a growing desire by a new breed of Harley riders for an organized way to share their passion and show their pride. In 1991, H.O.G. went international, with the first official European H.O.G. Rally in Cheltenham, England. Today, more than one million members and more than 1400 chapters worldwide make H.O.G. the largest factory-sponsored motorcycle organization in the world. H.O.G. benefits include organized group rides, exclusive products and product discounts, insurance premium discounts, and the Hog Tales newsletter. A one year full membership is included with the purchase of a new, unregistered Harley-Davidson. In 2008, H.O.G. celebrated its 25 anniversary on conjunction with the Harley 105th in Milwaukee Wisconsin. Anniversary Celebrations Beginning with Harley-Davidson's 90th anniversary in 1993, Harley-Davidson has had celebratory rides to Milwaukee called the "Ride Home". Ride Home This new tradition has continued every 5 years, and is referred to unofficially as "Harleyfest," in line with Milwaukee's other festivals (Summerfest, German fest, Festa Italiana, etc.). This event bring Harley riders from all around the world. Harleyfest Example The most recent event, "The 105th" was held on August 28-31. The 105th The 105th anniversary celebration saw events held in Milwaukee, Waukesha, Racine, and Kenosha counties, in Southeast Wisconsin. See also Harley-Davidson Museum Motorcycling Motorcycle safety Notes References Bach, Sharon, & Ostermann, Ken, eds. 1993. The Legend Begins: Harley-Davidson Motorcycles, 1903–1969 (Harley-Davidson, Inc.) Wagner, Herbert, 2003. At the Creation: Myth, Reality, and the Origin of the Harley-Davidson Motorcycle, 1901–1909 (Wisconsin Historical Society Press) External links Official Harley-Davidson Inc. Corporate website Library of Congress celebrating 100 years Harley-Davidson Harley-Davidson VIN decoder Harley-Davidson Model 42WLA ' Liberator ' Labor Hall of Fame Honorees (2004) Motorcycle Classics article on controversial 1977 Harley-Davidson Confederate Edition | Harley-Davidson |@lemmatized harley:173 davidson:140 motor:14 company:27 formerly:1 hdi:2 american:11 manufacturer:9 motorcycle:80 base:8 milwaukee:13 wisconsin:10 sell:8 heavyweight:2 cc:47 design:19 cruise:3 highway:2 popularly:2 know:7 harleys:3 distinctive:4 exhaust:8 note:5 especially:1 tradition:4 heavy:1 customization:1 give:7 rise:3 chopper:2 style:3 attract:2 loyal:1 brand:6 community:2 licensing:1 logo:2 accounting:1 almost:3 net:1 revenue:1 million:5 supply:2 many:8 police:8 force:2 fleet:2 buell:2 become:9 wholly:1 subsidiary:1 year:27 celebrate:4 birthday:1 august:7 purchase:5 italian:1 mv:6 agusta:6 history:7 beginning:1 william:4 age:5 draw:1 plan:2 small:13 engine:65 displacement:6 four:5 inch:30 mm:7 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2,778 | Maastricht | Maastricht ( in Dutch and locally; sometimes ; Limburgish (incl. Maastrichtian) Mestreech ; French Maëstricht (archaic)) is a city and a municipality in the Dutch province of Limburg, of which it is the capital. The city is situated on both sides of the Meuse river (Dutch: Maas) in the south-eastern part of the Netherlands, near the Belgian and German borders. The city is part of the Meuse-Rhine Euroregion, a Euregio whose other main cities include Aachen, Germany and Hasselt and Liège in respectively Dutch-speaking and French-speaking Belgium. Nowadays, Maastricht is widely known as a centre of tradition, history and culture VVV Maastricht , and popular with tourists for shopping and recreation. It is the location for various educational, with some partial to fully anglophone, establishments including the Maastricht University (including the University College Maastricht), the Maastricht School of Management, parts of Zuyd University of Applied Sciences (including the Maastricht Conservatory, Academy of Dramatic Arts Maastricht and Hotelschool Maastricht) and starting August 2009 a United World College. Consequently the city has a large international student population. Etymology Its name is derived from Latin Trajectum ad Mosam or Mosae Trajectum, meaning "Mosa-crossing", and refers to the bridge over the Meuse river built by the Romans during the reign of Augustus Caesar. "Oldest city of the Netherlands" dispute There is some discussion as to whether Maastricht is the oldest city of the Netherlands: By some Nijmegen is considered to be the oldest mainly because it was the first settlement in the Netherlands to receive Roman city rights. Maastricht never received Roman city rights but as a settlement it may be considerably older. The Maastricht claim is furthermore based on the city's unbroken chain of habitation since Roman times. A large number of archeological finds confirms this. Nijmegen has a gap in its history: There is practically no evidence of habitation in the early Middle Ages. History A view of the public park in Maastricht. Paleolithic remains have been found to the west of Maastricht, between 8,000 and 25,000 years old. Celts lived here at least 500 years before the Romans came, at a spot where the river Meuse was shallow and therefore easy to cross. The Romans later built a bridge and a large road to connect the capitals of the Nervians and Tungri, Bavay and Tongeren, with the capital of the Ubians, Cologne. A 13th-century town-gate: the Helpoort or Hell's Gate. Saint Servatius was the first bishop of the Netherlands. His tomb, in the crypt at the Basilica of Saint Servatius, is a favoured place of pilgrimage: Pope John Paul II visited it in 1985. The golden gilt shrine containing some of the saint's relics is carried around the town every seven years. The city remained an early Christian bishopric until it lost this position to nearby Liège in the 8th century. Middle Ages In the early Middle Ages Maastricht was part of the heartland of the Carolingian Empire. It later developed into a city of dual authority, a condominium, with both the Prince-Bishopric of Liège and the Duchy of Brabant holding joint sovereignty over the city. It received city rights in 1204. The role of the Dukes was occupied by the Dutch States General from 1632 onwards when the city was taken from the Spanish by Frederik Hendrik. The important strategic location of Maastricht in the Dutch Republic resulted in an impressive array of fortifications around the city. Bulwark of the Netherlands The most famous Siege of Maastricht occurred here during the month of June, 1673 as part of the Franco-Dutch War, because French battle supply lines were being threatened. During this siege, one of history's most famous military engineers, Vauban, synthesized the methods of attacking strong places, in order to break down the fortifications surrounding Maastricht. His introduction of a systematic approach by parallels resulted in a rapid breaching of the city's fortifications. (This technique, in principle, has remained until the 20th century the standard method of attacking a fortress.) After the breaching of the fortifications occurred, Louis XIV's troops started to surround the city of Maastricht. Under the leadership of Captain-Lieutenant Charles de Batz de Castelmore, also known as Comte d'Artagnan, the historical basis for Alexandre Dumas' D'Artagnan Romances, the First Company of Mousquetaires du Roi prepared to storm a rampart located in front of one of the city's gates. D'Artagnan was killed by a musket shot on 25 June 1673 during a night attack on the Tongerse Gate (this event was portrayed in Dumas' novel The Vicomte de Bragelonne). Maastricht surrendered to French troops on 30 June. The French troops occupied the Dutch city from 1673 to 1678. It was subsequently restored to Dutch rule. The French again took the city in 1748 as part of the War of Austrian Succession, and again the city was restored to the Dutch that same year. The French would return once more in 1794, when they annexed the city to what would become the French Empire. Maastricht became the capital of the French département of Meuse-Inférieure. Part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands Map of the Netherlands in 1843 after Belgian independence and retrocession of Limburg. After the Napoleonic era, Maastricht became a part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815 and the capital of the newly formed Province of Limburg. When the southern provinces sought independence from the North to form Belgium in 1830, the garrison in Maastricht remained loyal to the Dutch king, though the surrounding countryside came under Belgian control. Arbitration by the Great Powers in 1831 awarded the city and the eastern part of Limburg, despite being geographically and culturally closer to Belgium, to the Netherlands and the rest to Belgium. The North and the South did not initially agree to this and it would not be until the 1839 Treaty of London that this arrangement became permanent. Because of the resulting eccentric location Maastricht often remained more focused on Belgium and Germany than on the rest of the Netherlands. Due to its proximity to the Walloon industrial basin, Maastricht industrialised earlier than most of the Netherlands. It thus retained a distinct non-Dutch character until the First World War forced the city to look northwards. 20th century The city did not escape World War II: it was quickly taken by the Germans on May 10 1940 during the Battle of Maastricht, but on September 14 1944, Maastricht was the first Dutch city to be liberated by allied forces. The latter half of the century saw a decline of the traditional industries and a shift to more services-oriented economy. Maastricht University was founded in 1976. In 1992, the Maastricht treaty was negotiated and signed here, leading to the creation of the European Union and the Euro. Gnesotto, N. (1992). European union after Minsk and Maastricht. International Affairs. 68(2), 223-232. 21st century In recent years, several international conferences were held in Maastricht, like the OSCE-summit in 2003, and several other gatherings during the Dutch chairmanship of the European Union in 2004. Under current mayor Gerd Leers, Maastricht has launched a campaign against various drug-related problems. The popular and often-praised Leers instigated a controversial plan to move several of the coffee shops - where soft drugs can be purchased in limited quantities - from the center to locations on the outskirts of Maastricht, in a bid to stop (foreign) buyers from entering the city and causing trouble. However, the plan did not go down well with neighboring municipalities, who fear the problems may simply come their way. As of July 2008, it is uncertain if the so-called 'coffee corner' will indeed be created on the periphery of Maastricht, a determined mayor notwithstanding. Coffee Corner: Dagblad de Limburger On a more positive note, large parts of the city center were thoroughly refurbished under Mayor Leers, including the area near the railway station, the Market Square, the Entre Deux shopping center and the Maasboulevard. Maastricht looks notably fresher as a result and more large-scale projects are underway, such as the redevelopment of the Sphinx and Belvedère areas. Institutions and education Administration of the Dutch province of Limburg; Rijksarchief Limburg - archive of the province of Limburg; Maastricht School of Management; Maastricht University (Dutch: Universiteit Maastricht) also including: University College Maastricht United World College Maastricht - a United World College due to open in August 2009; Zuyd University of Applied Sciences (Dutch: Hogeschool Zuyd, also has departments in Sittard and Heerlen) also including: Academy of Dramatic Arts Maastricht (Dutch: Toneelacademie Maastricht) Academy of Fine Arts Maastricht (Dutch: Academie Beeldende Kunsten Maastricht) Hotelschool Maastricht Maastricht Conservatory (Dutch: Conservatorium Maastricht) Economic aspect Centre Céramique, the public library of Maastricht. Private companies settled in Maastricht include: ENCI - First Dutch Cement Industry Hewlett-Packard - previously Indigo Mercedes-Benz Customer Assistance Center Maastricht N.V. - customer contact center for Europe Pie Medical Imaging - manufacturer of medical equipment Sappi - South African pulp and paper company Vodafone - voice and data services for mobile phones CardioTek - manufacturer of medical equipment for Cardiac electrophysiology procedures EDS - manufacturer of electronic data systems DHL - European financial services centre BioPartner Center Maastricht - Community of Life Science spin-off companies Neighbourhoods The Lang Grachtje street in Maastricht. Maastricht consists of over 40 neighbourhoods. These are in alphabetical order: Amby Beatrixhaven, Belfort, Belvedère, Biesland, Binnenstad (the city centre), Borgharen, Boschpoort, Boschstraatkwartier, Bosscherveld, Brusselsepoort Caberg, Campagne, Céramique Daalhof, De Heeg Eyldergaard Hazendans, Heer, Heugem, Heugemerveld Itteren Jekerdal, Jekerkwartier Kommelkwartier Limmel Malberg, Malpertuis, Mariaberg Nazareth Oud-Caberg Pottenberg Randwyck Scharn, Sint Maartenspoort, Sint Pieter, Statenkwartier Villapark Vroendaal Wittevrouwenveld, Wolder, Wyck, Wyckerpoort Neighbourhoods have a number which corresponds to the postal code. Amby, Borgharen, Heer, Itteren, Limmel, Oud-Caberg, Scharn, Sint Pieter and Wolder all used to be separate municipalities or villages until they were annexed by Maastricht. Politics + Election results of 2006: council seats Party Seats Compared to 2002 PvdA 13 +5 CDA 7 -4 GroenLinks 5 0 VVD 3(4) -1 SP 3 +1 Senioren 3 0 D66 2 0 Stadsbelangen 2 -1 Liberalen Maastricht 1 0 Total 39 – The mayor of Maastricht is the Christian Democrat Gerd Leers. His party, the CDA, became the largest party in the city council after the 2002 municipal elections, when they made up the coalition together with PvdA, VVD and GroenLinks. The 2006 municipal elections saw a political landslide from right to left all over the Netherlands, and Maastricht was no exception. The present coalition still kept its majority, but the shift to the left made Maastricht one of the 39 Dutch municipalities in which an all-left-wing coalition of PvdA, GroenLinks and SP has become possible. Another factor that contributed to this situation in Maastricht, was the 2005 enduring disagreement within the VVD between the traditional and progressive members. September 2006, this lead to the establishment of the Liberalen Maastricht. Previously the VVD forced one of its members to leave the party, just a month after the 2006 municipal elections. One issue that brought Maastricht in the news circa 2005-2006, was the supply of cannabis to coffeeshops. Under the so-called gedoogbeleid, the sale of cannabis is allowed under certain conditions, but the supply is not. This results in a paradox and obvious illegal activities including private plantations. Mayor Leers therefore proposed to let the government take over the growing of cannabis. However, the Netherlands are bound by international laws and a complication for Maastricht is its proximity to Belgium and Germany, making drug tourism a much-discussed problem. Sports In football, Maastricht is represented by MVV (Maastrichtse Voetbal Vereniging), currently playing in the Dutch first division - which is actually the second for the top-level division is known as Eredivisie or Honorary division. MVV plays in the Geusselt stadium near the A2 motorway. Maastricht is also home to the Maastricht Wildcats, an American Football League team and member of the AFBN (American Football Bond Nederland). Maastricht has been the traditional starting place of the annual Amstel Gold Race - the only Dutch cycling classic - since 1998. From 1991 to 2002, the race also finished in Maastricht, but since then the finale takes places on the Cauberg in Valkenburg. Transportation By car Maastricht is mainly served by the A2 and the A79 motorways. The city can be reached from Brussels and Cologne in approximately 1 hour and from Amsterdam in about 2.5 hours. The A2 motorway that runs through Maastricht is heavily congested and increasingly causes air pollution in the urban area. A large tunnel currently being planned should solve these problems by 2016. A2 tunnel fors duurder: Dagblad de Limburger Due to the high number of visitors, parking in the city centre forms a major problem during weekends and bank holidays despite several large underground car parks. Parking fees are therefore deliberately kept high in order to incite visitors to use public transport or 'park & ride' facilities further away from the centre. By train Maastricht central station The Dutch Railways serves both the main station of Maastricht and a station located near the business and university district (Maastricht Randwyck). A railway branch passes through Maastricht that runs south to Liège, Belgium and north into the rest of The Netherlands, where it has a branch to Heerlen. Intercity trains to the city of Alkmaar or Schagen in the province of North-Holland connect Maastricht directly with Eindhoven, Den Bosch, Utrecht, Amsterdam, and several other cities. Commuter trains furthermore cover the regional area, and an international intercity train connects Maastricht with Liège and Brussels in Belgium. A tramway linking the Belgian city of Hasselt with Maastricht is expected to be opened by 2012. The exact route of the line through the city centre is currently being decided. Tramlijn: Dagblad de Limburger By airplane Maastricht is served by nearby Maastricht Aachen Airport - often known as Beek locally - with scheduled flights to Alicante, Girona, Pisa and popular holiday destinations (e.g. Turkey) during the summer season. The airport is located about 10 kilometres north of Maastricht's centre. By boat Maastricht has a river port on the Meuse river, and is connected with Belgium and the rest of the Netherlands through the Juliana Canal and the Zuid-Willemsvaart. By bus Various buslines serve the vast majority of the city and its suburbs. The regional bus network furthermore stretches to most of parts of Southern-Limburg as well as to Hasselt, Tongeren and Liège in Belgium, and Aachen in Germany. Culture & tourism Events & Festivals in Maastricht Carnival (Dutch: Carnaval, Limburgish and Maastrichtian: Vastelaovend) - a traditional 3-day festival in the southern part of the Netherlands (Feb/March). 11de van de 11de - the official start of the carnival season (November 11). KunstTour - an annual art festival. Amstel Gold Race - an annual large international cycling race with start in Maastricht (April). TEFAF - The European Fine Art Fair is the world's leading art and antiques fair (March). Preuvenemint - a large culinary event held on the Vrijthof square (August). Winterland - a winter-themed fun fair and Christmas market held on the Vrijthof square (December/January). Inkom - the traditional opening of the academic year and introduction for new students of Maastricht University (August). Maastrichts Mooiste - an annual running and walking event. Jazz Maastricht - a jazz festival formerly known as Jeker Jazz. Jumping Indoor Maastricht - an international concours hippique. André Rieu Vrijthof concerts- the famous Maastricht violin player and orchestra director André Rieu traditionally gives a series of concerts on Vrijthof square (Summer). Furthermore, the Maastricht Exposition and Congress Centre (MECC) hosts many events throughout the year. Museums in Maastricht Bonnefanten Museum - the foremost museum for old masters and contemporary fine art in the province of Limburg. Natuurhistorisch Museum - exhibits collections relating to geology, paleontology and the flora and fauna of Limburg. Spanish Government Museum - features several period rooms with 17th and 18th-century furnishings, silverwork, porcelain, pottery, glassware and so forth, and a collection of 17th and 18th-century Dutch paintings. Derlon Hotel Museum - a museum with Roman remains, uniquely preserved in the basement underneath a hotel. Sights of Maastricht Maastricht is known for its picturesque squares, romantic streets, and historical buildings. The main sights include: The Vrijthof square with Saint Servatius Basilica. The Fortress of Sint Pieter on the hill of the same name. The small Jeker river runs through the city. City Fortifications, including: Helpoort - a 13th century town gate, the oldest in the Netherlands. fragments of the first and second medieval city walls. Hoge Fronten (English: High Fronts) or Linie van Du Moulin - remnants of 17th-18th century fortifications with a number of well-preserved bastions and the early 19th century [fortress] Fort Willem. Casemates - underground network of tunnels, built as sheltered emplacements for guns and cannons. These tunnels run for several miles underneath the city's fortifications. Guided tours available. Markt - the Market Square was completely refurbished in 2006-2007 and is now virtually traffic free. Sights include: town hall - built in the 17th century by Pieter Post. Mosae Forum - a brandnew shopping centre and civic building designed by Jo Coenen and Bruno Albert. Included in Mosae Forum are MosaeGusto!, a 3.500 m² fine food market and Citroën Miniature Cars, the world's largest exposition of Citroën miniature cars inside Mosae Forum parking garage . Entre Deux - a recently rebuilt shopping centre which has won several international awards. Entre Deux It includes a book store located inside a former Dominican church. In 2008 British newspaper The Guardian proclaimed this the world's most beautiful bookshop. Top shelves: The Guardian Onze-Lieve-Vrouwe Plein - picturesque tree-lined square with an abundance of pavement cafes. Sights: Onze-Lieve-Vrouw Basilica - 11th-century Basilica Minor. Derlon Museumkelder - a small museum in the basement of the hotel Derlon with mainly Roman remains. the Inner City - city centre and main shopping district, including Stokstraatkwartier, Maastrichter Brugstraat, Grote and Kleine Staat, and Wolfstraat. Maastricht is known for its cafés, pubs and restaurants. Vrijthof - the best-known square in the city. Sights: Theater aan het Vrijthof - main city theatre. Sint-Servaas Basiliek - Romanesque church of Saint Servatius. Sint-Janskerk - sandstone Gothic church dedicated to Saint John the Baptist with distinctive red tower. Sint-Pietersberg - a modest hill just South of the city, peaking at 171 metres above sea level. Sights: Fort Sint-Pieter - an 18th-century fortress fully restored in 2008. "Grotten Sint-Pietersberg (caves) - sandstone (marl) quarry with vast network of manmade tunnels. Guided tours available.Ruine Lichtenberg - a farmstead containing a ruined medieval castle keep.D'n Observant - artificial hilltop atop Sint-Pietersberg. Bassin - an old and completely restored inner harbour with restaurants and cafés. Parks - there are various parks in Maastricht. The more interesting ones: Stadspark - the main public park on the West bank of the river. Monsigneur Nolenspark - extension of Stadspark with remnants of medieval city walls. Aldenhofpark - another extension of Stadspark with statue of d'Artagnan. Charles Eykpark - modern park between the public library and Bonnefantenmuseum on the East bank of the Meuse river Griendpark - modern park on the East bank of the river with inline-skating and skateboarding course. The tourist information office (VVV) is located in the so-called Dinghuis - the 15th-century former town hall and law courts building at the intersection of Grote Staat and Kleine Staat. Natives of Maastricht See also People from Maastricht'' Jan Pieter Minckeleers (1748-1824) - scientist and inventor of coal gas lighting. Peter Debye (1884-1966) - Nobel prize winning chemist. Gerard Bergholtz (1939) - football player for MVV and the Netherlands André Rieu (1949) - violinist. Fred Rompelberg (1945) - cyclist and current holder of the World Speed Record Cycling. Sjeng Kerbusch (1947-1991) - behavior geneticist Benny Neyman (1951-2008) - singer. Maxime Verhagen (1956) - politician. Bram Moszkowicz (1960) - prominent Dutch lawyer. Boudewijn Zenden (1976) - football player. Ad Wijnands (1959) - cyclist, Tour de France stage winner Pieter van den Hoogenband (1978) - swimmer and triple Olympic champion. Sister Cities Liège, Belgium Koblenz, Germany Rama, Nicaragua See also Jewish Maastricht Impressions References External links General City of Maastricht, official site (Dutch) City of Maastricht, official site (English) Destadmaastricht.com All you want to know about Maastricht, esp. current projects like Entre-Deux and Mosae Forum Famous inhabitants of Maastricht Tourism Tourist Board, Dutch, English, French or German MaastrichtNet, Agenda for Maastricht with English Section Highlights of the Week Maastricht360.nl, 360° view of Maastricht FoToL.nl, pictures of Maastricht Bonnefanten Museum Maastricht Underground History Zicht op Maastricht (Official website about the history of Maastricht) Maastricht in Roman times Churches of Maastricht News report of alleged find of musketeer skeletons Webpage about Maastricht fortifications Webpage about the 1632 siege Webpage about the 1673 siege D’Artagnan’s death at the 1673 siege of Maastricht, an article by H. Reuvers in Crossroads, 19 December 2006 The history of carnival in Maastricht, an article by H. Reuvers in Crossroads, 31 January 2007 Higher education and research Maastricht University Maastricht Graduate School of Governance Maastricht Economic and social Research and training centre on Innovation and Technology - United Nation University Center for European Studies (CES) Zuyd University (University of Applied Sciences) Academie van Bouwkunst Maastricht (Academy of Architecture) Conservatorium Maastricht (Academy of Music) Toneelacademie Maastricht (School of Dramatic Arts) Academie Beeldende Kunsten Maastricht (Fine Arts School) Hogere Hotel School (higher hotel school) Maastricht School of Management Jan van Eyck Academie (post-graduate art school) Resources for expatriates Crossroads English-language website for expatriates in Maastricht, published by the European Journalism Centre International Women's Club South Limburg a non profit international women's organisation with over 200 members in South Limburg Maastricht International Playgroup a non-profit organisation 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2,779 | Telecommunications_in_Brunei | Communications in Brunei. Telecommunications Telephones Telephone service throughout the country is excellent. International service is good to Europe, US and East Asia Main lines in use: 90,000 (2002) Mobile phones:250,000 (2007) Mobile Subscribers: 177,300 (2003E) Satellite earth stations: 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean). Digital submarine cable links to Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines. Radio Broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 10, shortwave 0 (1998) Radios: 362,712 (2000) Television Broadcast stations: 2 (1997) Televisions: 216,223 (2000) Internet Internet Service Providers: 2 (2003), Brunet (part of Jabatan Telekom Brunei) and Simpurnet of DSTCom Country code: .bn Broadband access Brunei's internet service is monopolized by a recently corporated company TelBru under their "Brunet" department. ADSL speeds range from 512 kbit/s to the maximum speed of 1 Mbit/s through ADSL broadband. 1 Mbit/s was only recently introduced in 2006 and priced at BND$128 per month (Equivalent to Singapore currency). It is known that the Brunei's broadband ranging from 512 kbit/s to 1 Mbit/s is one the most expensive in the world. The limited market in Brunei means that development in the telecommunications sector is stagnant. Currently only about 11000 users out of a population of 380,000 have any connection to the Internet. However, more and more users are subscribing to 3G Mobile services. Broadband coverage has spanned the whole of Brunei since the release of "E-Speed 2". Pricing of ADSL service in Brunei See also Brunei | Telecommunications_in_Brunei |@lemmatized communication:1 brunei:8 telecommunication:2 telephone:2 service:6 throughout:1 country:2 excellent:1 international:1 good:1 europe:1 u:1 east:1 asia:1 main:1 line:1 use:1 mobile:3 phone:1 subscriber:1 satellite:1 earth:1 station:3 intelsat:1 indian:1 ocean:2 pacific:1 digital:1 submarine:1 cable:1 link:1 malaysia:1 singapore:2 philippine:1 radio:2 broadcast:2 fm:1 shortwave:1 television:2 internet:4 provider:1 brunet:2 part:1 jabatan:1 telekom:1 simpurnet:1 dstcom:1 code:1 bn:1 broadband:4 access:1 monopolize:1 recently:2 corporated:1 company:1 telbru:1 department:1 adsl:3 speed:3 range:2 kbit:2 maximum:1 mbit:3 introduce:1 price:1 bnd:1 per:1 month:1 equivalent:1 currency:1 know:1 one:1 expensive:1 world:1 limited:1 market:1 mean:1 development:1 sector:1 stagnant:1 currently:1 user:2 population:1 connection:1 however:1 subscribe:1 coverage:1 span:1 whole:1 since:1 release:1 e:1 pricing:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram mobile_phone:1 mobile_subscriber:1 station_intelsat:1 pacific_ocean:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 |
2,780 | Chapter_11,_Title_11,_United_States_Code | Chapter 11 is a chapter of the United States Bankruptcy Code, which permits reorganization under the bankruptcy laws of the United States. Chapter 11 bankruptcy is available to every business, whether organized as a corporation or sole proprietorship, and to individuals, although it is most prominently used by corporate entities. In contrast, Chapter 7 governs the process of a liquidation bankruptcy, while Chapter 13 provides a reorganization process for the majority of private individuals. Chapter 11 in General When a business is unable to service its debt or pay its creditors, the business or its creditors can file with a federal bankruptcy court for protection under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 11. In Chapter 7 the business ceases operations, a trustee sells all of its assets, and then distributes the proceeds to its creditors. Any residual amount is returned to the owners of the company. In Chapter 11, in most instances the debtor remains in control of its business operations as a debtor in possession, and is subject to the oversight and jurisdiction of the court. Joseph Swanson and Peter Marshall, Houlihan Lokey and Lyndon Norley, Kirkland & Ellis International LLP (2008). A Practitioner's Guide to Corporate Restructuring. City & Financial Publishing, 1st edition ISBN: 9781905121311 Features of Chapter 11 bankruptcy Chapter 11 bankruptcy retains many of the features present in all, or most bankruptcy proceedings in the United States. It also provides additional tools for debtors as well. Most importantly, 11 U.S.C. § 1108 empowers the trustee to operate the debtor's business. In Chapter 11, unless appointed for cause, the debtor acts as trustee of the business. Bankruptcy affords the debtor in possession a number of mechanisms to restructure its business. A debtor in possession can acquire financing and loans on favorable terms by giving new lenders first priority on the business' earnings. The court may also permit the debtor in possession to reject and cancel contracts. Debtors are also protected from other litigation against the business through the imposition of an automatic stay. While the automatic stay is in place, most litigation against the debtor is stayed, or put on hold, until it can be resolved in bankruptcy court, or resumed in its original venue. If the business's debts exceed its assets, the bankruptcy restructuring results in the company's owners being left with nothing; instead, the owners' rights and interests are ended and the company's creditors are left with ownership of the newly reorganized company. All creditors are entitled to be heard by the court. The court is ultimately responsible for determining whether the proposed plan of reorganization complies with the bankruptcy law. The chapter 11 plan Chapter 11 is reorganization, as opposed to liquidation. Debtors may "emerge" from a Chapter 11 bankruptcy within a few months or within several years, depending on the size and complexity of the bankruptcy. The Bankruptcy Code accomplishes this objective through the use of a bankruptcy plan. With some exceptions, the plan may be proposed by any party in interest. Interested creditors then vote for a plan. Upon its confirmation, the plan becomes binding and identifies the treatment of debts and operations of the business for the duration of the plan. Debtors in Chapter 11 have the exclusive right to propose a plan of reorganization for a period of time (in most cases 120 days). After that time has elapsed, creditors may also propose plans. Plans must satisfy a number of criteria in order to be "confirmed" by the bankruptcy court. Among other things, creditors must vote to approve the plan of reorganization. If a plan cannot be confirmed, the court may either convert the case to a liquidation under Chapter 7, or, if in the best interests of the creditors and the estate, the case may be dismissed resulting in a return to the status quo before bankruptcy. If the case is dismissed, creditors will look to nonbankruptcy law in order to satisfy their claims. Automatic stay As with other forms of bankruptcy, petitions filed under Chapter 11 invoke the automatic stay of § 362. The automatic stay requires all creditors to cease collection attempts, and makes post-petition debt collection void. Under some circumstances, creditors or the United States Trustee can ask the court to convert the case to a liquidation under Chapter 7, or to appoint a trustee to manage the debtor's business. The court will grant a motion to convert to Chapter 7 or appoint a trustee if either of these actions is in the best interest of all creditors. Sometimes a company will liquidate under Chapter 11, in which the pre-existing management may be able to help get a higher price for divisions or other assets than a Chapter 7 liquidation would be likely to achieve. Appointment of a trustee requires some wrongdoing or gross mismanagement on the part of existing management, and is relatively rare. Executory contracts Some contracts, known as executory contracts, may be rejected if canceling them would be financially favorable to the company and its creditors. Such contracts may include labor union contracts, supply or operating contracts (with both vendors and customers), and real estate leases. The standard feature of executory contracts is that each party to the contract has duties remaining under the contract. In the event of a rejection, the remaining parties to the contract become unsecured creditors of the debtor. Priority Chapter 11 follows the same priority scheme as other bankruptcy chapters. The priority structure is defined primarily by § 507 of the Bankruptcy Code (.) As a general rule secured creditors—creditors who have a security interest, or collateral, in the debtor's property—will be paid before unsecured creditors. Unsecured creditors' claims are prioritized by § 507. For instance the claims of suppliers of products or employees of a company may be paid before other unsecured creditors are paid. Each priority level must be paid in full before the next lowest priority level may receive payment. Section 1110 Section 1110 () generally provides a secured party with an interest in an aircraft the ability to take possession of the equipment within 60 days after a bankruptcy filing unless the airline cures all defaults. More specifically, the right of the lender to take possession of the secured equipment is not hampered by the automatic stay provisions of the U.S. Bankruptcy Code. Stock If the company's stock is publicly traded, a Chapter 11 filing generally causes it to be delisted from its primary stock exchange if listed on the New York Stock Exchange, the American Stock Exchange, or the NASDAQ. On the NASDAQ the identifying fifth letter "Q" at the end of a stock symbol indicates the company is in bankruptcy (formerly the "Q" was placed in front of the pre-existing stock symbol; a celebrated example was Penn Central, whose symbol was originally "PC" and became "QPC" after the company filed Chapter 11 in 1970). Many stocks that are delisted quickly resume listing as over-the-counter (OTC) stocks. In the overwhelming majority of cases, the Chapter 11 plan, when confirmed, terminates the shares of the company, rendering shares valueless. Individuals may file Chapter 11, but due to the complexity and expense of the proceeding, this option is rarely chosen by debtors who are eligible for Chapter 7 or Chapter 13 relief. Rationale In enacting Chapter 11 of the Bankruptcy code, Congress concluded that it is sometimes the case that the value of a business is greater if sold or reorganized as a going concern than the value of the sum of its parts if the business's assets were to be sold off individually. It follows that it may be more economically efficient to allow a troubled company to continue running, cancel some of its debts, and give ownership of the newly reorganized company to the creditors whose debts were canceled. Alternatively, the business can be sold as a going concern with the net proceeds of the sale distributed to creditors ratably in accordance with statutory priorities. In this way, jobs may be saved, the (previously mismanaged) engine of profitability which is the business is maintained (presumably under better management) rather than being dismantled, and, as a proponent of a chapter 11 plan is required to demonstrate as a precursor to plan confirmation, the business's creditors end up with more money than they would in a Chapter 7 liquidation. Criticism Some critics have claimed that Chapter 11 bankruptcy is excessively lenient in giving a needless "escape hatch" to the incompetent management of a failing company, damaging the efficiency of the economy as a whole and allowing poor managers to continue managing. It is unusual for the management of a company in Chapter 11 to be fired, as it is usually assumed that the present management team knows far more about the company and its customers than would a new set of management. These critics note that in Europe, bankruptcy law is far less lenient for failing companies. Another efficiency criticism is that a company undergoing Chapter 11 bankruptcy is effectively operating under the "protection" of the court until it emerges, in some cases giving the bankrupt company a great advantage against its competitors, distorting the market and harming more competitive businesses. Where a key market participant (or more than one) goes into Chapter 11, it can also result in significant over-capacity in the industry. The most-cited recent example is the airline industry in the United States; in 2006 over half the industry's seating capacity was on airlines that were in Chapter 11. These airlines were able to stop making debt payments, freeing up cash to expand routes or weather a price war against competitors — all with the bankruptcy court's approval. This is especially important in the airline industry as fixed capital costs for the airplanes (and the debt on those costs) make up such a large part of the airlines' expenditures. Others criticize the process on the basis that, by forestalling the creditors' rights to enforce their security in the event of non-payment, it reduces the economic value of collateral in the United States, and thereby increases the cost of secured lending. However, studies on the subject seem to reach different conclusions on the extent of this, or indeed whether it is in fact the case at all in practice. Statistics Bankruptcy frequency Chapter 11 bankruptcy cases dropped by 60% from 1991 to 2003. One 2007 study (January 24, 2007), "Small Firms Spurn Chapter 11", Wall Street Journal, page B6B found this was because businesses were turning to bankruptcy-like proceedings under state law, rather than the federal bankruptcy proceedings, including those under chapter 11. Insolvency proceedings under state law, the study stated, are currently faster, less expensive, and more private, with some states not even requiring court filings. However, a 2005 study claimed the drop may have been due to an increase in the incorrect classification of many bankruptcies as "consumer cases" rather than "business cases". Cases involving more than US$50 million in assets are almost always handled in federal bankruptcy court, and not in bankruptcy-like state proceeding. Largest bankruptcies The largest bankruptcy in history was of the US investment bank Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc., which listed $639 billion in assets as of its Chapter 11 filing in 2008. The 15 largest corporate bankruptcies as of April, 2009: Bankruptcydata.com Company Bankruptcy date Total Assets pre-bankruptcy Total assets pre-bankruptcy at today's value Filing court district Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc. 2008-09-15 $639,063,000,000 $ NY-S Washington Mutual 2008-09-26 $327,913,000,000 $ DE Worldcom Inc. 2002-07-21 $103,914,000,000 $ NY-S Enron Corp.* 2001-02-12 $63,392,000,000 $ NY-S Conseco, Inc. 2002-12-18 $61,392,000,000 $ IL-N Chrysler http://www.chapter11blog.com/chapter11/2009/04/affidavit-of-cfo-filed-in-chrysler-chapter-11.html 2009-04-30 $39,300,000,000 $ NY Texaco, Inc. 1987-04-12 $35,892,000,000 $ NY-S Financial Corp. of America 1988-09-09 $33,864,000,000 $ CA-C Refco Inc. 2005-10-17 $33,333,172,000 $ NY-S Global Crossing Ltd. 2002-01-28 $30,185,000,000 $ NY-S Pacific Gas and Electric Co. 2001-04-06 $29,770,000,000 $ CA-N UAL Corp. 2002-12-09 $25,197,000,000 $ IL-N Delta Air Lines, Inc. 2005-09-14 $21,801,000,000 $ NY-S Delphi Corporation, Inc. 2005-10-08 $22,000,000,000 $ NY Adelphia Communications 2002-06-25 $21,499,000,000 $ NY-S MCorp 1989-03-31 $20,228,000,000 $ TX-S Mirant Corporation 2003-07-14 $19,415,000,000 $ TX-N * The Enron assets were taken from the 10-Q filed on 2001-11-19. The company announced that the annual financials were under review at the time of filing for Chapter 11. Notes Similar programs in other countries For similar programs in the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, see Administration (insolvency). External links Internet Bankruptcy Library Bankruptcy Research Data US changes bankruptcy protection laws, via BBC News. Complete Title 11 (ZIP file), via www.house.gov 15 Largest Corporate Bankruptcies, via www.bankruptcydata.com Bankruptcy FAQ question and answer forum, via www.faqfarm.com Graphical view of the procedure under the Bankruptcy Code post BAPCPA | Chapter_11,_Title_11,_United_States_Code |@lemmatized chapter:45 united:7 state:11 bankruptcy:47 code:6 permit:2 reorganization:6 law:7 available:1 every:1 business:21 whether:3 organize:1 corporation:3 sole:1 proprietorship:1 individual:3 although:1 prominently:1 use:2 corporate:4 entity:1 contrast:1 govern:1 process:3 liquidation:6 provide:3 majority:2 private:2 general:2 unable:1 service:1 debt:8 pay:5 creditor:24 file:9 federal:3 court:15 protection:3 either:3 cease:2 operation:3 trustee:7 sell:4 asset:9 distribute:2 proceeds:2 residual:1 amount:1 return:2 owner:3 company:21 instance:2 debtor:16 remain:3 control:1 possession:6 subject:2 oversight:1 jurisdiction:1 joseph:1 swanson:1 peter:1 marshall:1 houlihan:1 lokey:1 lyndon:1 norley:1 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2,781 | Condom | A condom is a device most commonly used during sexual intercourse. It is put on a man's erect penis and physically blocks ejaculated semen from entering the body of a sexual partner. Condoms are used to prevent pregnancy and transmission of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs—such as gonorrhea, syphilis, and HIV). Because condoms are waterproof, elastic, and durable, they are also used in a variety of secondary applications. These range from creating waterproof microphones to protecting rifle barrels from clogging. In the modern age, condoms are most often made from latex, but some are made from other materials such as polyurethane, or lamb intestine. A female condom is also available, most often made of polyurethane. As a method of contraception, male condoms have the advantage of being inexpensive, easy to use, having few side-effects, and of offering protection against sexually transmitted diseases. With proper knowledge and application technique—and use at every act of intercourse—users of male condoms experience a 2% per-year pregnancy rate. Condoms have been used for at least 400 years. Since the nineteenth century, they have been one of the most popular methods of contraception in the world. Collier, pp.173-174 While widely accepted in modern times, condoms have generated some controversy. Improper disposal of condoms contributes to litter problems, and the Roman Catholic Church generally opposes condom use. Family Values Versus Safe Sex: A Reflection by His Eminence, Alfonson Cardinal López Trujillo, President, Pontifical Council for the Family, December 1, 2003 History A page from De Morbo Gallico (The French Disease), Gabriele Falloppio's treatise on syphilis. Published in 1564, it describes what is possibly the first use of condoms. Before the 19th century Whether condoms were used in ancient civilizations is debated by archaeologists and historians. Collier, p.11 In ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, pregnancy prevention was generally seen as a woman's responsibility, and the only well documented contraception methods were female-controlled devices. Collier, pp.17,23 In Asia before the fifteenth century, some use of glans condoms (devices covering only the head of the penis) is recorded. Condoms seem to have been used for contraception, and to have been known only by members of the upper classes. In China, glans condoms may have been made of oiled silk paper, or of lamb intestines. In Japan, they were made of tortoise shell or animal horn. Collier, pp.60-61 In 16th century Italy, Gabriele Falloppio wrote a treatise on syphilis. The earliest documented strain of syphilis, first appearing in a 1490s outbreak, caused severe symptoms and often death within a few months of contracting the disease. Fallopio's treatise is the earliest uncontested description of condom use: it describes linen sheaths soaked in a chemical solution and allowed to dry before use. The cloths he described were sized to cover the glans of the penis, and were held on with a ribbon. Collier, pp.51,54-55 Fallopio claimed that an experimental trial of the linen sheath demonstrated protection against syphilis. After this, the use of penis coverings to protect from disease is described in a wide variety of literature throughout Europe. The first indication that these devices were used for birth control, rather than disease prevention, is the 1605 theological publication De iustitia et iure (On justice and law) by Catholic theologian Leonardus Lessius, who condemned them as immoral. Collier, p.56 In 1666, the English Birth Rate Commission attributed a recent downward fertility rate to use of "condons", the first documented use of that word (or any similar spelling). Collier, pp.66-68 A condom made from animal intestine circa 1900. In addition to linen, condoms during the Renaissance were made out of intestines and bladder. In the late 15th century, Dutch traders introduced condoms made from "fine leather" to Japan. Unlike the horn condoms used previously, these leather condoms covered the entire penis. Collier, p.61 From at least the 18th century, condom use was opposed in some legal, religious, and medical circles for essentially the same reasons that are given today: condoms reduce the likelihood of pregnancy, which some thought immoral or undesirable for the nation; they do not provide full protection against sexually transmitted infections, while belief in their protective powers was thought to encourage sexual promiscuity; and they are not used consistently due to inconvenience, expense, or loss of sensation. Collier, p.73 Collier, pp.86-88,92 Despite some opposition, the condom market grew rapidly. In the 18th century, condoms were available in a variety of qualities and sizes, made from either linen treated with chemicals, or "skin" (bladder or intestine softened by treatment with sulphur and lye). Collier, pp.94-95 They were sold at pubs, barbershops, chemist shops, open-air markets, and at the theater throughout Europe and Russia. Collier, pp.90-92,97,104 They later spread to America, although in every place there were generally used only by the middle and upper classes, due to both expense and lack of sexual education. Collier, pp.116-121 1800 through 1920s The early nineteenth century saw contraceptives promoted to the poorer classes for the first time. Writers on contraception tended to prefer other methods of birth control. Feminists of this time period wanted birth control to be exclusively in the hands of women, and disapproved of male-controlled methods such as the condom. Collier, pp.129,152-153 Other writers cited both the expense of condoms and their unreliability (they were often riddled with holes, and often fell off or broke), but they discussed condoms as a good option for some, and as the only contraceptive that also protected from disease. Collier, pp.88,90,125,129-130 Legal obstacles to manufacture and promotion of contraceptives were passed in many countries. Collier, pp.144,163-164,168-171,193 Still, condoms were promoted by traveling lecturers and in newspaper advertisements, using euphemisms in places where such ads were illegal. Collier, pp.127,130-132,138,146-147 Instructions on how to make condoms at home were distributed in the United States and Europe. Collier, pp.126,136 Despite social and legal opposition, at the end of the nineteenth century the condom was the Western world's most popular birth control method. A World War I-era U.S. military poster warning of dangers of prostitution. Beginning in the second half of the nineteenth century, American rates of sexually transmitted diseases skyrocketed. Causes cited by historians include effects of the American Civil War, and the ignorance of prevention methods promoted by the Comstock laws. Collier, pp.137-138,159 To fight the growing epidemic, sexual education classes were introduced to public schools for the first time, teaching about venereal diseases and how they were transmitted. They generally taught that abstinence was the only way to avoid sexually transmitted diseases. Collier, pp.179-180 Condoms were not promoted for disease prevention; the medical community and moral watchdogs considered STDs to be punishment for sexual misbehavior. The stigma on victims of these diseases was so great that many hospitals refused to treat people who had syphilis. Collier, p.176 The German military was the first to promote condom use among its soldiers, beginning in the later 1800s. Collier, pp.169,181 Early twentieth century experiments by the American military concluded that providing condoms to soldiers significantly lowered rates of sexually transmitted diseases. Collier, pp.180-183 During World War I, the United States and (at the beginning of the war only) Britain were the only countries with soldiers in Europe who did not provide condoms and promote their use. Collier, pp.187-190 In the decades after World War I, there continued to be social and legal obstacles to condom use in place in the U.S. and Europe. Collier, pp.208-210 Founder of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud opposed all methods of birth control on the grounds that their failure rates were too high. Freud was especially opposed to the condom because it cut down on sexual pleasure. Some feminists continued to oppose male-controlled contraceptives such as condoms. In 1920 the Church of England's Lambeth Conference condemned all "unnatural means of conception avoidance." London's Bishop Arthur Winnington-Ingram complained of the huge number of condoms discarded in alleyways and parks, especially after weekends and holidays. Collier, pp.211-2 However, European militaries continued to provide condoms to their members for disease protection, even in countries where they were illegal for the general population. Collier, pp.213-4 Through the 1920s, catchy names and slick packaging became an increasingly important marketing technique for many consumer items, including condoms and cigarettes. Collier, p.197 Quality testing became more common, involving filling each condom with air followed by one of several methods intended to detect loss of pressure. Collier, pp.204,206,221-2 Worldwide, condoms sales doubled in the 1920s. Collier, p.210 Rubber and manufacturing advances The rubber vulcanization process was patented by Charles Goodyear in 1844. The first rubber condom was produced in 1855. For many decades, rubber condoms were manufactured by wrapping strips of raw rubber around penis-shaped molds, then dipping the wrapped molds in a chemical solution to cure the rubber. Collier, p.148 In 1912, a German named Julius Fromm developed a new, improved manufacturing technique for condoms: dipping glass molds into a raw rubber solution. Called cement dipping, this method required adding gasoline or benzene to the rubber to make it liquid. Collier, p.200 Latex, rubber suspended in water, was invented in 1920. Latex condoms required less labor to produce than cement-dipped rubber condoms, which had to be smoothed by rubbing and trimming. Because it used water to suspend the rubber instead of gasoline and benzene, it eliminated the fire hazard previously associated with all condom manufacturers. Latex condoms also performed better for the consumer: they were stronger and thinner than rubber condoms, and had a shelf life of five years (compared to three months for rubber). Collier, pp.199-200 Until the twenties, all condoms were individually hand-dipped by semiskilled workers. Throughout the decade of the 1920s, advances in automation of condom assembly line were made. The first fully automated line was patented in 1930. Major condom manufacturers bought or leased conveyor systems, and small manufacturers were driven out of business. Collier, pp.201-3 The skin condom, now significantly more expensive than the latex variety, became restricted to a niche high-end market. Collier, p.220 1930 to present In 1930 the Anglican Church's Lambeth Conference sanctioned the use of birth control by married couples. In 1931 the Federal Council of Churches in the U.S. issued a similar statement. Collier, p.227 The Roman Catholic Church responded by issuing the encyclical Casti Connubii affirming its opposition to all contraceptives, a stance it has never reversed. Collier, pp.228-9 In the 1930s, legal restrictions on condoms began to be relaxed. Collier, pp.216,226,234 During this period, two of the few places where condoms became more restricted were Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany (limited sales as disease preventatives were still allowed). Collier, pp.252,254-5 During the Depression, condom lines by Schmid gained in popularity: that company still used the cement-dipping method of manufacture. Unlike the latex variety, these condoms could be safely used with oil-based lubricants. And while less comfortable, older-style rubber condoms could be reused and so were more economical, a valued feature in hard times. Collier, pp.217-9 More attention was brought to quality issues in the 1930s, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration began to regulate the quality of condoms sold in the United States. Collier, pp.223-5 Throughout World War II, condoms were not only distributed to male U.S. military members, but also heavily promoted with films, posters, and lectures. Collier, pp.236-8,259 European and Asian militaries on both sides of the conflict also provided condoms to their troops throughout the war, even Germany which outlawed all civilian use of condoms in 1941. Collier, pp.252-4,257-8 In part because condoms were readily available, soldiers found a number of non-sexual uses for the devices, many of which continue to be utilized to this day. After the war, condom sales continued to grow. From 1955–1965, 42% of Americans of reproductive age relied on condoms for birth control. In Britain from 1950–1960, 60% of married couples used condoms. The birth control pill became the world's most popular method of birth control in the years after its 1960 debut, but condoms remained a strong second. The U.S. Agency for International Development pushed condom use in developing countries to help solve the "world population crises": by 1970 hundreds of millions of condoms were being used each year in India alone. Collier, pp.267-9,272-5 In the 1960s and 1970s quality regulations tightened, Collier, pp.267,285 and more legal barriers to condom use were removed. Collier, pp.276-9 In Ireland, legal condom sales were allowed for the first time in 1978. Collier, pp.329-30 Advertising, however was one area that continued to have legal restrictions. In the late 1950s, the American National Association of Broadcasters banned condom advertisements from national television: this policy remained in place until 1979. Collier, pp.273-4,285 After learning in the early 1980s that AIDS can be a sexually transmitted infection, the use of condoms was encouraged to prevent transmission of HIV. Despite opposition by some political, religious, and other figures, national condom promotion campaigns occurred U.S. and Europe. Collier, pp.299,301,306-7,312-8 These campaigns increased condom use significantly. Collier, pp.309-317 Due to increased demand and greater social acceptance, condoms began to be sold in a wider variety of retail outlets, including in supermarkets and in discount department stores such as Wal-Mart. Collier, p.305 Condom sales increased every year until 1994, when media attention to the AIDS pandemic began to decline. Collier, pp.303-4 The phenomenon of decreasing use of condoms as disease preventatives has been called prevention fatigue or condom fatigue. Observers have cited condom fatigue in both Europe and North America. As one response, manufacturers have changed the tone of their advertisements from scary to humorous. New developments continue to occur in the condom market, with the first polyurethane condom—branded Avanti and produced by the manufacturer of Durex—introduced in the 1990s, Collier, pp.324-5 and the first custom sized-to-fit condom, called TheyFit, introduced in 2003. Worldwide condom use is expected to continue to grow: one study predicted that developing nations would need 18.6 billion condoms in 2015. Collier, p.342 For the boom of the condom industry, it appears there is no end in sight. Etymology and other terms The term condom first appears in the early 18th century. Its etymology is unknown. In popular tradition, the invention and naming of the condom came to be attributed to an associate of England's King Charles II, one "Dr. Condom" or "Earl of Condom". There is however no evidence of the existence of such a person, and condoms had been used for over one hundred years before King Charles II ascended to the throne. Collier, pp.54,68 A variety of Latin etymologies have been proposed, including condon (receptacle), condamina (house), and cumdum (scabbard or case). Collier, pp.70-71 It has also been speculated to be from the Italian word guantone, derived from guanto, meaning glove. William E. Kruck wrote an article in 1981 concluding that, "As for the word 'condom', I need state only that its origin remains completely unknown, and there ends this search for an etymology." Modern dictionaries may also list the etymology as "unknown". Other terms are also commonly used to describe condoms. In North America condoms are also commonly known as prophylactics, or rubbers. In Britain they may be called French letters. Additionally, condoms may be referred to using the manufacturer's name. Varieties Most condoms have a reservoir tip or teat end, making it easier to accommodate the man's ejaculate. Condoms come in different sizes, from oversized to snug and they also come in a variety of surfaces intended to stimulate the user's partner. Condoms are usually supplied with a lubricant coating to facilitate penetration, while flavoured condoms are principally used for oral sex. As mentioned above, most condoms are made of latex, but polyurethane and lambskin condoms are also widely available. Materials Natural latex An unrolled latex condom Latex has outstanding elastic properties: Its tensile strength exceeds 30 MPa, and latex condoms may be stretched in excess of 800% before breaking. In 1990 the ISO set standards for condom production (ISO 4074, Natural latex rubber condoms), and the EU followed suit with its CEN standard (Directive 93/42/EEC concerning medical devices). Every latex condom is tested for holes with an electrical current. If the condom passes, it is rolled and packaged. In addition, a portion of each batch of condoms is subject to water leak and air burst testing. Latex condoms used with oil-based lubricants (e.g. vaseline) are likely to break or slip off due to loss of elasticity caused by the oils. Synthetic The most common non-latex condoms are made from polyurethane. Condoms may also be made from other synthetic materials, such as AT-10 resin, and most recently polyisoprene. Polyurethane condoms tend to be the same width and thickness as latex condoms, with most polyurethane condoms between 0.04 mm and 0.07 mm thick. Polyurethane is also the material of many female condoms. Polyurethane can be considered better than latex in several ways: it conducts heat better than latex, is not as sensitive to temperature and ultraviolet light (and so has less rigid storage requirements and a longer shelf life), can be used with oil-based lubricants, is less allergenic than latex, and does not have an odor. Polyurethane condoms have gained FDA approval for sale in the United States as an effective method of contraception and HIV prevention, and under laboratory conditions have been shown to be just as effective as latex for these purposes. However, polyurethane condoms are less elastic than latex ones, and may be more likely to slip or break than latex, and are more expensive. Polyisoprene is a synthetic version of natural rubber latex. While significantly more expensive, it has the advantages of latex (such as being softer and more elastic than polyurethane condoms) without the protein which is responsible for latex allergies. Lambskin Condoms made from one of the oldest condom materials, labeled "lambskin" (made from lamb intestines) are still available. They have a greater ability to transmit body warmth and tactile sensation, when compared to synthetic condoms, and are less allergenic than latex. However, there is an increased risk of transmitting STDs compared to latex because of pores in the material, which are thought to be large enough to allow infectious agents to pass through, albeit blocking the passage of sperm. Lambskin condoms are also significantly more expensive than other types. Spermicidal Some latex condoms are lubricated at the manufacturer with a small amount of a nonoxynol-9, a spermicidal chemical. According to Consumer Reports, spermicidally lubricated condoms have no additional benefit in preventing pregnancy, have a shorter shelf life, and may cause urinary-tract infections in women. In contrast, application of separately packaged spermicide is believed to increase the contraceptive efficacy of condoms. Nonoxynol-9 was once believed to offer additional protection against STDs (including HIV) but recent studies have shown that, with frequent use, nonoxynol-9 may increase the risk of HIV transmission. The World Health Organization says that spermicidally lubricated condoms should no longer be promoted. However, they recommend using a nonoxynol-9 lubricated condom over no condom at all. As of 2005, nine condom manufacturers have stopped manufacturing condoms with nonoxynol-9, Planned Parenthood has discontinued the distribution of condoms so lubricated, and the Food and Drug Administration has proposed a warning regarding this issue. Female Female condom Female condoms have been available since 1988. They are larger and wider than male condoms but equivalent in length. They have a flexible ring-shaped opening, and are designed to be inserted into the vagina. They also contain an inner ring which aids insertion and helps keep the condom from sliding out of the vagina during coitus. One line of female condoms is made from polyurethane or nitrile polymer. A competing manufacturer makes a line of female condoms out of latex. A newer version of the female condom has a sponge at the closed end, which helps to anchor it inside the vagina. Textured Textured condoms include studded and ribbed condoms which can provide extra sensations to both partners. The studs or ribs can be located all-over on either the inside, outside, or both; alternatively, they are located in specific sections to provide directed stimulation to either the g-spot or perineum. Many textured condoms which advertise "mutual pleasure" also have a bulb-shape at the top, to provide extra stimulation to the male. Studded condoms should be avoided with anal intercourse as it can irritate and possibly tear the walls of the anus. Some women experience irritation during vaginal intercourse with studded condoms. Other A collection condom is used to collect semen for fertility treatments or sperm analysis. These condoms are designed to maximize sperm life. An anti-rape condom is worn by the female. It is designed to cause pain to the attacker, hopefully allowing the victim a chance to escape. A spray-on condom is intended to be easier to apply and more successful in preventing the transmission of diseases. Time; Spray-On Condoms: Still a Hard Sell (accessed April 26, 2009) Some condom-like devices are intended for entertainment only, such novelty condoms may not provide protection against pregnancy and STDs. One kind of these is edible condoms. Effectiveness In preventing pregnancy The effectiveness of condoms, as of most forms of contraception, can be assessed two ways. Perfect use or method effectiveness rates only include people who use condoms properly and consistently. Actual use, or typical use effectiveness rates are of all condom users, including those who use condoms improperly, inconsistently, or both. Rates are generally presented for the first year of use. Most commonly the Pearl Index is used to calculate effectiveness rates, but some studies use decrement tables. Kippley, p.141 The typical use pregnancy rate among condom users varies depending on the population being studied, ranging from 10–18% per year. Kippley (1996), p.146, which cites: The perfect use pregnancy rate of condoms is 2% per year. Condoms may be combined with other forms of contraception (such as spermicide) for greater protection. Several factors account for typical use effectiveness being lower than perfect use effectiveness: mistakes on the part of those providing instructions on how to use the method mistakes on the part of the user conscious user non-compliance with instructions. For instance, someone might be given incorrect information on what lubricants are safe to use with condoms, mistakenly put the condom on improperly, or simply not bother to use a condom. In preventing STDs A giant "condom" on the Obelisk of Buenos Aires, Argentina, part of an awareness campaign for the 2005 World AIDS Day Condoms are widely recommended for the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). They have been shown to be effective in reducing infection rates in both men and women. While not perfect, the condom is effective at reducing the transmission of HIV, genital herpes, genital warts, syphilis, chlamydia, gonorrhea, and other diseases. According to a 2000 report by the National Institutes of Health, correct and consistent use of latex condoms reduces the risk of HIV/AIDS transmission by approximately 85% relative to risk when unprotected, putting the seroconversion rate (infection rate) at 0.9 per 100 person-years with condom, down from 6.7 per 100 person-years. The same review also found condom use significantly reduces the risk of gonorrhea for men. A 2006 study reports that proper condom use decreases the risk of transmission for human papillomavirus by approximately 70%. Another study in the same year found consistent condom use was effective at reducing transmission of herpes simplex virus-2 also known as genital herpes, in both men and women. Although a condom is effective in limiting exposure, some disease transmission may occur even with a condom. Infectious areas of the genitals, especially when symptoms are present, may not be covered by a condom, and as a result, some diseases can be transmitted by direct contact. The primary effectiveness issue with using condoms to prevent STDs, however, is inconsistent use. Condoms may also be useful in treating potentially precancerous cervical changes. Exposure to human papillomavirus, even in individuals already infected with the virus, appears to increase the risk of precancerous changes. The use of condoms helps promote regression of these changes. In addition, researchers in the UK suggest that a hormone in semen can aggravate existing cervical cancer, condom use during sex can prevent exposure to the hormone. Causes of failure Condoms may slip off the penis after ejaculation, break due to improper application or physical damage (such as tears caused when opening the package), or break or slip due to latex degradation (typically from usage past the expiration date, improper storage, or exposure to oils). The rate of breakage is between 0.4% and 2.3%, while the rate of slippage is between 0.6% and 1.3%. Even if no breakage or slippage is observed, 1–2% of women will test positive for semen residue after intercourse with a condom. "Double bagging," using two condoms at once, also increases the risk of condom failure. Different modes of condom failure result in different levels of semen exposure. If a failure occurs during application, the damaged condom may be disposed of and a new condom applied before intercourse begins - such failures generally pose no risk to the user. One study found that semen exposure from a broken condom was about half that of unprotected intercourse; semen exposure from a slipped condom was about one-fifth that of unprotected intercourse. Standard condoms will fit almost any penis, although many condom manufacturers offer "snug" or "magnum" sizes. Some manufacturers also offer custom sized-to-fit condoms, with claims that they are more reliable and offer improved sensation/comfort. Some studies have associated larger penises and smaller condoms with increased breakage and decreased slippage rates (and vice versa), but other studies have been inconclusive. Experienced condom users are significantly less likely to have a condom slip or break compared to first-time users, although users who experience one slippage or breakage are more likely to suffer a second such failure. An article in Population Reports suggests that education on condom use reduces behaviors that increase the risk of breakage and slippage. A Family Health International publication also offers the view that education can reduce the risk of breakage and slippage, but emphasizes that more research needs to be done to determine all of the causes of breakage and slippage. Among people who intend condoms to be their form of birth control, pregnancy may occur when the user has sex without a condom. The person may have run out of condoms, or be traveling and not have a condom with them, or simply dislike the feel of condoms and decide to "take a chance." This type of behavior is the primary cause of typical use failure (as opposed to method or perfect use failure). Another possible cause of condom failure is sabotage. One motive is to have a child against a partner's wishes or consent. Some commercial sex workers from Nigeria reported clients sabotaging condoms in retaliation for being coerced into condom use. Placing pinholes in the tip of the condom is believed to significantly impact their effectiveness. Kippley (1996) pp.306-307 Prevalence The prevalence of condom use varies greatly between countries. Most surveys of contraceptive use are among married women, or women in informal unions. Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world: in that country, condoms account for almost 80% of contraceptive use by married women. On average, in developed countries, condoms are the most popular method of birth control: 28% of married contraceptive users rely on condoms. In the average less-developed country, condoms are less common: only 6-8% of married contraceptive users choose condoms. Data from surveys 1997–2007. Condom use for disease prevention also varies. Among gay men in the United States, one survey found that 35% had used two condoms at the same time, a practice called "double bagging". (While intended to provide extra protection, double bagging actually increases the risk of condom failure.) Use How to put on a condom Male condoms are usually packaged inside a foil wrapper, in a rolled-up form, and are designed to be applied to the tip of the penis and then unrolled over the erect penis. It is important that about some space be left in the tip of the condom so that semen has a place to collect; otherwise it may be forced out of the base of the device. After use, it is recommended the condom be wrapped in tissue or tied in a knot, then disposed of in a trash receptacle. Some couples find that putting on a condom interrupts sex, although others incorporate condom application as part of their foreplay. Some men and women find the physical barrier of a condom dulls sensation. Advantages of dulled sensation can include prolonged erection and delayed ejaculation; disadvantages might include a loss of some sexual excitement. Role in sex education Condoms are often used in sexual education programs, because they have the capability to reduce the chances of pregnancy and the spread of some sexually transmitted diseases when used correctly. A recent American Psychological Association (APA) press release supported the inclusion of information about condoms in sex education, saying "comprehensive sexuality education programs... discuss the appropriate use of condoms", and "promote condom use for those who are sexually active." In the United States, teaching about condoms in public schools is opposed by some religious organizations. Planned Parenthood, which advocates family planning and sexual education, argues that no studies have shown abstinence-only programs to result in delayed intercourse, and cites surveys showing that 75% of American parents want their children to receive comprehensive sexuality education including condom use. Infertility treatment Common procedures in infertility treatment such as semen analysis and intrauterine insemination (IUI) require collection of semen samples. These are most commonly obtained through masturbation, but an alternative to masturbation is use of a special collection condom to collect semen during sexual intercourse. Collection condoms are made from silicone or polyurethane, as latex is somewhat harmful to sperm. Many men prefer collection condoms to masturbation, and some religions prohibit masturbation entirely. Also, compared with samples obtained from masturbation, semen samples from collection condoms have higher total sperm counts, sperm motility, and percentage of sperm with normal morphology. For this reason, they are believed to give more accurate results when used for semen analysis, and to improve the chances of pregnancy when used in procedures such as intracervial or intrauterine insemination. Adherents of religions that prohibit contraception, such as Catholicism, may use collection condoms with holes pricked in them. Condom therapy is sometimes prescribed to infertile couples when the female has high levels of antisperm antibodies. The theory is that preventing exposure to her partner's semen will lower her level of antisperm antibodies, and thus increase her chances of pregnancy when condom therapy is discontinued. However, condom therapy has not been shown to increase subsequent pregnancy rates. Other uses Condoms excel as multipurpose containers because they are waterproof, elastic, durable, and will not arouse suspicion if found. Ongoing military utilization begun during World War II includes: Tying a non-lubricated condom over the muzzle of the rifle barrel in order to prevent barrel fouling by keeping out detritus. Ambrose, Stephen. D-Day The OSS used condoms for a plethora of applications, from storing corrosive fuel additives and wire garrotes (with the T-handles removed) to holding the acid component of a self-destructing film canister, to finding use in improvised explosives. OSS Product Catalog, 1944 Navy SEALs have used doubled condoms, sealed with neoprene cement, to protect non-electric firing assemblies for underwater demolitions—leading to the term "Dual Waterproof Firing Assemblies." Couch, D (2001). The Warrior Elite: The forging of SEAL Class 228. ISBN 0-609-60710-3 Other uses of condoms include: Condoms can be used to hold water in emergency survival situations. A broken photo probably of a condom carrying water Condoms have also been used in many cases to smuggle cocaine and other drugs across borders and into prisons by filling the condom with drugs, tying it in a knot and then either swallowing it or inserting it into the rectum. These methods are very dangerous; if the condom breaks, the drugs inside can cause an overdose. "A 41-year-old man has been remanded in custody after being stopped on Saturday by customs officials at the Norwegian border at Svinesund. He had a kilo of cocaine in his stomach." Smuggler hospitalised as cocaine condom bursts In Soviet gulags, condoms were used to smuggle alcohol into the camps by prisoners who worked outside during daylight. While outside, the prisoner would ingest an empty condom attached to a thin piece of rubber tubing, the end of which was wedged between his teeth. The smuggler would then use a syringe to fill the tubing and condom with up to three litres of raw alcohol, which the prisoner would then smuggle back into the camp. When back in the barracks, the other prisoners would suspend him upside down until all the spirit had been drained out. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn records that the three litres of raw fluid would be diluted to make seven litres of crude vodka, and that although such prisoners risked an extremely painful and unpleasant death if the condom burst inside them, the rewards granted them by other prisoners encouraged them to run the risk. In his book entitled Last Chance to See, Douglas Adams reported having used a condom to protect a microphone he used to make an underwater recording. According to one of his travelling companions, this is standard BBC practice when a waterproof microphone is needed but cannot be procured. Condoms are used by engineers to keep soil samples dry during soil tests. Condoms are used in the field by engineers to initially protect sensoring equipment embedded in the steel or aluminium nose-cones of CPT (Cone Penetration Test) probes when entering the surface to conduct soil resistance tests to determine the bearing strength of soil. personal experience of L. Gow working on Chek Lap Kok airport platform/reclamation project 1992-94. Condoms are used as a one way valve by paramedics when performing a chest decompression in the field. The decompression needle is inserted through the condom, and inserted into the chest. The condom folds over the hub allowing air to exit the chest, but preventing it from entering. Debate and criticism Disposal and environmental impact Used condom thrown on the street Experts, such as AVERT, recommend condoms be disposed of in a garbage receptacle, as flushing them down the toilet may cause plumbing blockages and other problems. While biodegradable, latex condoms damage the environment when disposed of improperly. According to the Ocean Conservancy, condoms, along with certain other types of trash, cover the coral reefs and smother sea grass and other bottom dwellers. The United States Environmental Protection Agency also has expressed concerns that many animals might mistake the litter for food. Condoms made of polyurethane, a plastic material, do not break down at all. The plastic and foil wrappers condoms are packaged in are also not biodegradable. However, the benefits condoms offer are widely considered to offset their small landfill mass. Frequent condom or wrapper disposal in public areas such as a parks have been seen as a persistent litter problem. Position of the Roman Catholic Church The Roman Catholic Church directly condemns any artificial birth control or sexual acts, aside from intercourse between married heterosexual partners. However, the use of condoms to combat STDs is not specifically addressed by Catholic doctrine, and is currently a topic of debate among theologians and high-ranking Catholic authorities. A few, such as Belgian Cardinal Godfried Danneels, believe the Catholic Church should actively support condoms used to prevent disease, especially serious diseases such as AIDS. However, to date statements from the Vatican have argued that condom-promotion programs encourage promiscuity, thereby actually increasing STD transmission. The Roman Catholic Church is the largest organized body of any world religion. This church has hundreds of programs dedicated to fighting the AIDS epidemic in Africa, but its opposition to condom use in these programs has been highly controversial. Health issues Dry dusting powders are applied to latex condoms before packaging to prevent the condom from sticking to itself when rolled up. Previously, talc was used by most manufacturers, but cornstarch is currently the most popular dusting powder. Talc is known to be toxic if it enters the abdominal cavity (i.e. via the vagina). Cornstarch is generally believed to be safe, however some researchers have raised concerns over its use. Nitrosamines, which are potentially carcinogenic in humans, are believed to be present in a substance used to improve elasticity in latex condoms. A 2001 review stated that humans regularly receive 1,000 to 10,000 times greater nitrosamine exposure from food and tobacco than from condom use and concluded that the risk of cancer from condom use is very low. However, a 2004 study in Germany detected nitrosamines in 29 out of 32 condom brands tested, and concluded that exposure from condoms might exceed the exposure from food by 1.5- to 3-fold. Cultural factors Cultural attitudes toward gender, contraception, and sex affect condom use and perceptions about condoms around the world. In less-developed countries and among less-educated populations, misperceptions about how disease transmission and conception work may negatively affect the use of condoms. In cultures with more traditional gender roles, women may feel uncomfortable demanding that their partners use condoms. Latino immigrants in the United States often face barriers to condom use. A study on female HIV prevention published in the Journal of Sex Health Research asserts that Latino women often lack the attitudes needed to negotiate safe sex due to traditional gender-role norms in the Latino community, and may be afraid to bring up the subject of condom use with their partners. Women who participated in the study often reported that their male partners would be angry or possibly violent at the suggestion that they use condoms. A similar phenomenon has been noted in a survey of low-income African-American women; the women in this study also reported a fear of violence at the suggestion that condoms be used. A telephone survey conducted by Rand Corporation and Oregon State University and published in the Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes showed that belief in AIDS conspiracy theories among black men is linked to rates of condom use; as conspiracy beliefs grew, consistent condom use dropped. Female use of condoms was not similarly affected. In the Muslim world, condom use is a hotly-debated issue. In Kenya, Muslim clergy have campaigned against condom use as a means of preventing HIV transmission and pregnancy. Many shop owners refuse to stock condoms, which are often only available at government health centers. Some women believe that condoms are "for prostitutes" and that respectable women should not use them. Some Muslim clergy even promote the idea that condoms are deliberately laced with HIV. Among the Massai in Tanzania, condom use is hampered by an aversion to "wasting" sperm, which is given sociocultural importance beyond reproduction. Sperm is believed to be an "elixir" to women and to have beneficial health effects. Massai women believe that, after conceiving a child, they must have sexual intercourse repeatedly so that the additional sperm aids the child's development. Frequent condom use is also considered by some Massai to cause impotence. Major manufacturers One analyst described the size of the condom market as something that "boggles the mind". Numerous small manufacturers, nonprofit groups, and government-run manufacturing plants exist around the world. Collier, pp.322,328 Within the condom market, there are several major contributors, among them both for-profit businesses and philanthropic organizations. Most large manufacturers have ties to the business that reach back to the end of the 19th century. Julius Schmid, Inc. was founded in 1882 and began the Shieks and Ramses brands of condoms. Collier, pp.154-156 The London Rubber Company began manufacturing latex condoms in 1932, under the Durex brand. Collier, pp.199,201,218 Both companies are now part of Seton Scholl Limited. Youngs Rubber Company, founded by Merle Youngs in late nineteenth century America, introduced the Trojan line of condoms Collier, p.191 now owned by Church and Dwight. Collier, pp.323-4 Dunlop Rubber began manufacturing condoms in Australia in the 1890s. In 1905, Dunlop sold its condom-making equipment to one of its employees, Eric Ansell, who founded Ansell Rubber. In 1969, Ansell was sold back to Dunlop. Collier, p.327 In 1987, English business magnate Richard Branson contracted with Ansell to help in a campaign against HIV and AIDS. Ansell agreed to manufacture the Mates brand of condom, to be sold at little or no profit in order to encourage condom use. Branson soon sold the Mates brand to Ansell, with royalty payments made annually to the charity Virgin Unite. Collier, pp.309, 311. The Healthcare Foundation, started by Virgin Group, changed names in 2004. In addition to its Mates brand, Ansell currently manufactures Lifestyles for the U.S. market. Collier, p.333 In 1934 the Kokusia Rubber Company was founded in Japan. It is now known as the Okamoto Rubber Manufacturing Company. Collier, p.257 In 1970 Tim Black and Philip Harvey founded Population Planning Associates (now known as Adam & Eve). Population Planning Associates was a mail-order business that marketed condoms to American college students. Black and Harvey used the profits from their company to start a non-profit organization Population Services International, Collier, pp.286-7, 337-9 and Harvey later also founded another nonprofit company, DKT International that annually sells millions of condoms at discounted rates in developing countries around the world. Public policy During the last quarter of the 20th century, third world governments, such as India, began procuring condoms on a large scale to facilitate national population control schemes by reselling them at subsidised prices. Government of India procured almost 2 billion condoms in 2004 (p.9, pdf) Research The Invisible Condom, developed at Université Laval in Québec, Canada, is a gel that hardens upon increased temperature after insertion into the vagina or rectum. In the lab, it has been shown to effectively block HIV and herpes simplex virus. The barrier breaks down and liquefies after several hours. As of 2005, the invisible condom is in the clinical trial phase, and has not yet been approved for use. Also developed in 2005 is a condom treated with an erectogenic compound. The drug-treated condom is intended to help the wearer maintain his erection, which should also help reduce slippage. If approved, the condom would be marketed under the Durex brand. As of 2007, it was still in clinical trials. Collier, p.345 As reported on Swiss television news Schweizer Fernsehen on November 29, 2006, the German scientist Jan Vinzenz Krause of the Institut für Kondom-Beratung ("Institute for Condom Consultation") in Germany recently developed a spray-on condom and is test-marketing it. Krause says that one of the advantages to his spray-on condom, which is reported to dry in about 5 seconds, is that it is perfectly formed to each penis. See also Condom machine Spray-on condom References Footnotes External links Male Latex Condoms and Sexually Transmitted Diseases — from the US Center for Disease Control. 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2,782 | Gro_Harlem_Brundtland | () (born Gro Harlem, 20 April, 1939) is a Norwegian politician, diplomat, and physician, and an international leader in sustainable development and public health. She is a former Prime Minister of Norway, and has served as the Director General of the World Health Organization. She now serves as a Special Envoy on Climate Change for the United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2008 she became the recipient of the Thomas Jefferson Foundation Medal in Architecture. Domestic career Born in Oslo, Brundtland was educated as a Medical Doctor (cand. med.) at the University of Oslo in 1963, and Master of Public Health at Harvard University in 1965. From 1966 to 1969, she worked as a physician at the Directorate of Health (Helsedirektoratet), and from 1969 she worked as a doctor in Oslo's public school health service. She was Norwegian Minister for Environmental Affairs from 1974 to 1979, and became Norway's first — and to date only — female Prime Minister. She served as Prime Minister from February to October in 1981. Brundtland became Norwegian Prime Minister for two subsequent terms from 9 May 1986 until 16 October 1989 (This cabinet was internationally renowned for its large percentage of female ministers. Eight of the eighteen total were female,) and from 3 November 1990 until 25 October 1996, when she resigned and retired from Norwegian politics, and was succeeded by Thorbjørn Jagland. She resigned as leader of the Norwegian Labour Party in 1992. Gro Harlem Brundtland is a member of Human-Etisk Forbund, the Norwegian Humanist Association. International career In 1983, Brundtland was invited by then United Nations Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar to establish and chair the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), widely referred to as the Brundtland Commission, developing the broad political concept of sustainable development in the course of extensive public hearings that were distinguished by their inclusiveness and published its report Our Common Future in April 1987. The Brundtland Commission provided the momentum for the 1992 Earth Summit/UNCED, that was headed by Maurice Strong, who had been a prominent member of the Brundtland Commission. The Brundtland Commission also provided momentum for Agenda 21. Brundtland was elected Director-General of the World Health Organization in May 1998. In this capacity, Brundtland adopted a far-reaching approach to public health, establishing a Commission on Macroeconomics and Health, chaired by Jeffrey Sachs, and addressing violence as a major public health issue. Brundtland spearheaded the movement, now worldwide, to achieve the abolition of cigarette smoking by education and persuasion. Under her leadership, the World Health Organization was one of the first major employers to require freedom from tobacco addiction as a condition of employment. Brundtland was recognized in 2003 by Scientific American as their Policy Leader of the Year for coordinating a rapid worldwide response to stem outbreaks of SARS. Brundtland was succeeded on 21 July 2003 by Jong-Wook Lee. In 1994. Brundtland was awarded the Charlemagne Prize of the city of Aachen. In 2004 the British newspaper The Financial Times listed Brundtland the 4th most influential European over the last 25 years, behind Pope John Paul II, Mikhail Gorbachev and Margaret Thatcher. In 2006 Brundtland was a member of the Panel of Eminent Persons who reviewed the work of UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.) In May 2007, the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon named Brundtland, as well as Ricardo Lagos (the former president of Chile), and Han Seung-soo (the former foreign minister of South Korea), to serve as UN Special Envoys for Climate Change. U.N. Envoys Seek Input on Climate Change, The Guardian, 10 May 2007 Brundtland's hallmark political activities have been chronicled by her husband, Arne Olav Brundtland, in his two bestsellers, Married to Gro (ISBN 82-516-1647-6) and the sequel, Still married to Gro (ISBN 82-05-30726-1). Brundtland now works for Pepsi as a consultant. Pepsi-Gro slår tilbake: - Latterlig., VG nett, 12 December 2007 Gro Harlem Brundtland is a member of the Council of Women World Leaders, an International network of current and former women presidents and prime ministers whose mission is to mobilize the highest-level women leaders globally for collective action on issues of critical importance to women and equitable development. The Elders On 18 July 2007 in Johannesburg, South Africa, Nelson Mandela, Graça Machel, and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders to contribute their wisdom, independent leadership and integrity to tackle some of the world's toughest problems. Nelson Mandela announced the formation of this new group, The Elders, in a speech he delivered on the occasion of his 89th birthday. Archbishop Tutu will serve as the Chair of The Elders. The founding members of this group include Brundtland, Graça Machel, Kofi Annan, Ela Bhatt, Jimmy Carter, Li Zhaoxing, Mary Robinson and Muhammad Yunus. “This group can speak freely and boldly, working both publicly and behind the scenes on whatever actions need to be taken,” Mandela commented. “Together we will work to support courage where there is fear, foster agreement where there is conflict, and inspire hope where there is despair.” The Elders will be independently funded by a group of Founders, including Richard Branson, Peter Gabriel, Ray Chambers; Michael Chambers; Bridgeway Foundation; Pam Omidyar, Humanity United; Amy Robbins; Shashi Ruia, Dick Tarlow; and The United Nations Foundation. Gro Harlem Brundtland has attended the Bilderberg meetings, and she is a member of the Club of Madrid. The Club of Madrid an independent organization dedicated to strengthening democracy around the world by drawing on the unique experience and resources of its Members – 66 democratic former heads of state and government. Biography She married Arne Olav Brundtland on 9 December 1960. A Humanist family, they have four children. They own a house in the south of France. Brundtland has claimed to suffer from electrical sensitivity. Controversy over cancer treatment payments Brundtland received an operation for uterine cancer in 2002 at Ullevål University Hospital VG.no:Betalte operasjon i 2002 . In 2008 it became known that during 2007 she had received two treatments at Ullevål, paid for by Norwegian public expenditures. Since she had previously notified the Norwegian authorities that she had changed residence to France, she was no longer entitled to benefits of Norwegian social security. Following intense media attention surrounding the matter, Brundtland decided to change residence once more, back to Norway, and she also announced that she would be paying for the treatments herself. VG.no:Gro flytter hjem References External links Gro Harlem Brundtland at Club of Madrid Feature on Gro Harlem Brundtland by the International Museum of Women. 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2,783 | Bacardi | Bacardi is a family-controlled spirits company, best known as a producer of rums, including Bacardi Superior and Bacardi 151. The company sells in excess of 200 million bottles per year in nearly 100 countries. Bacardi & Company Limited Company Profile from Yahoo! The company's sales in 2007 were $5.5 billion USD, up from $4.9 billion USD in 2006. Bacardi is headquartered in Hamilton, Bermuda and has a 16-member board of directors led by the original founder's great-great grandson, Facundo L. Bacardi. The President Bernard F. Ramirez and Co-President Charles M. Hernandez, also play a large part in production and sales. First century Facundo Bacardí, a wine merchant, was born in Sitges, Catalonia, Spain in 1814 and emigrated to Cuba in 1830. During this period, rum was cheaply made and not considered a refined drink, one rarely sold in upscale taverns. Don Facundo began attempting to "tame" rum. After experimenting with several techniques he hit upon filtering the rum through charcoal, which removed impurities. In addition to this, Facundo aged the rum in oak barrels, which had the effect of "mellowing" the drink. Moving from the experimental stage to a more commercial endeavor, he and his brother José set up shop in a Santiago de Cuba distillery they bought in 1862; that distillery housed an alembic made of copper and cast iron, and was in a building in whose rafters lived fruit bats. Our heritage: the early years from the company's corporate website The 1890s were turbulent times for the company. Emilio Bacardi, eldest son of Don Facundo, was exiled from Cuba for having fought in the rebel army against Spain in the Cuban War of Independence. Emilio's brothers, Facundo and José, and his brother-in-law Henri (Don Enrique) Schueg, remained in Cuba with the difficult task of sustaining the company during a period of war. The women in the family were refugees in Kingston, Jamaica. After the war and the U.S. occupation of Cuba, "The Original Cuba Libre" and the Daiquiri were both born with Bacardi rum. In 1899, US- General Leonard Wood appointed Emilio Bacardi Mayor of Santiago de Cuba. The Bacardi Building in Havana, Cuba. In 1912, Emilio Bacardi traveled to Egypt where he purchased a mummy for the future Emilio Bacardi Moreau Municipal Museum in Santiago de Cuba, a mummy still on display. In Santiago, his brother Facundo M. Bacardi continued to manage the company along with Schueg, who began the company's international expansion by opening new bottling plants in Barcelona and New York City. The New York plant was soon shut down due to Prohibition, yet during this time Cuba became a hotspot for US tourists. In the 1920s, Emilio opened a new distillery in Santiago. During this decade, the art deco Bacardi building was built in Havana and the third generation of the Bacardi family was entering the business. Facundo Bacardi invited US-Americans (still subject to Prohibition) to "Come to Cuba and bathe in Bacardi rum." A new product was introduced: Hatuey beer. The "Cathedral Of Rum" at the Distillery in Puerto Rico near San Juan. Bacardi's transition into an international brand was due mostly to Schueg's "business genius"; Schueg "branded Cuba as the home of rum, and Bacardi as the king of rums" and moved production overseas, first to Puerto Rico (which enabled rum to be sold tariff-free in the U.S. after Prohibition), and then to Mexico. Rum and Revolution an August 2008 review of Bacardi and the Long Fight for Cuba (ISBN 067001978X) from The Washington Post Those changes were accompanied by a new brand name: Ron Bacardi ("Ron" is the Spanish word for rum). Several trademark disputes went to court during this time regarding uses of the Bacardi name on rum produced outside of Cuba. During the World War II years the company was led by Schueg's son-in-law José 'Pepin' Bosch. Pepin founded Bacardi Imports in New York City, and was named Cuba's Minister of the Treasury in 1949. Castro Bosch and other Bacardi family members initially supported the Cuban revolutionaries, including Fidel Castro and the broader M-26-7 movement: Bosch personally donated tens of thousands of dollars to the movement, and acted as an intermediary between the revolutionaries and the CIA to assuage the latter's concerns. Family members, employees and facilities were put to use by the movement, and the company supported the revolution publicly with advertisements and parties. But their support turned to opposition as the pro-Soviet Che Guevara wing of the movement began to dominate, and as Castro turned dictatorial. The Bacardi family (and hence, the company) maintained a fierce opposition to Fidel Castro's revolution in Cuba in the 1960s. The Bacardi family and company left Cuba after it became clear that Castro was serious about his pledges for change; in particular, in nationalizing and banning all private property on the island as well as all bank accounts. However, the company had started foreign branches a few years prior to the revolution; the company moved the all important Bacardi international trademarks out of the country to the Bahamas prior to the revolution as a well as constructing a plant in Puerto Rico after the prohibition era to save in import taxes for rum being imported to the US. This helped the company survive after the communist government nationalized all Bacardi assets in the country. Bacardi family members had close ties to the US political elite, as well as organizations of state such as the CIA. The family funded various Cuban exile organizations such as CANF. Embittered Bacardi helmsman Jose Pepin Bosch bought a surplus B-26 bomber with the hopes of bombing Cuban oil refineries (the bold plan was foiled when a picture of the bomber appeared on the front page of The New York Times). He was also allegedly involved in the CIA plot to assassinate Fidel Castro; documents uncovered during Congressional investigations into John F. Kennedy's death bring to light a message outlining how he had plans to assassinate Castro, his brother (Raúl Castro) and Che Guevara. The RECE (Cuban Representation in Exile) also receives funding from Bacardi family members. More recently, Bacardi lawyers were influential in the drafting of the 1996 Helms-Burton Act which sought to extend the scope of the United States embargo against Cuba. The Helms-Burton Act from thinkquest.org/ In 1999 Otto Reich, a lobbyist in Washington on behalf of Bacardi Rum, drafted section 211 of the 1999 Omnibus appropriations act, a bill that became known as the Bacardi Act. Section 211 denied trademark protection to Cuban businesses products expropriated after the Cuban revolution, a provision keenly sought by the Bacardi family. The act was aimed primarily at Havana Club brand in America, which had been registered by the Cuban government. Ann Louise Bardach: Cuba Confidential. Penguin books 2002. p131 Section 211 has been challenged un-successfully by the Cuban government and the European Union in US courts; however, the act has been ruled illegal by the WTO (August 2001). The U.S. Congress has yet to re-examine the matter. Bacardi and Cuba today The Bacardi building in Midtown Miami on Biscayne Boulevard Bacardi drinks are not found in Cuba today. The main brand of rum in Cuba is called Havana Club, a formerly private company nationalized by the government. Havana Club was not a Bacardi brand, though Bacardi later bought the brand from the original owners, the Arechabala family, who had it seized from them by Castro's government after the revolution without compensation. Suit Seeks to Block Bacardi From Selling Havana Club Rum, an August 2006 Daily Business Review article via law.com In partnership with French company Pernod Ricard, Havana Club is sold all over the world, except for the United States and its territories. Bacardi, despite having no business tie (in terms of production) to Cuba today, have decided to re-emphasize their Cuban heritage in recent years. This is mainly due to commercial reasons; facing increased competition in the Rum market from the now international brand Havana Club, the company concluded that it was important for sales to associate their rum with Cuba. TV adverts with slogans of 'Welcome to the Latin Quarter' are but one example of this. In 1998, under the distinctive bat logo, the phrase "company founded in Santiago de Cuba in 1862" was added. Bacardi has faced criticism and legal problems for supposedly attempting to falsely convince consumers they were purchasing rum made in Cuba rather than just marking its heritage. Bacardi adverts in Spain, since 1966, had described a popular combination of rum and coke as "rum and coke". However, after 1998, it began to describe the drink as Cuba Libre - literally translated as "free Cuba" which is the original name of the drink and how it's mostly called in Latin America. In this instance, Bacardi faced a legal ruling from the Spanish Association of Advertising Users which forced the company to stop the advert. They concluded that it could "mislead the viewer as to the true nature of the product" as the advert contained so many pieces of Caribbean imagery, one might conclude it came from Cuba (Ospina, p79). Bacardi continues to fight a war in the courts with the Cuban government of the rights to trademarks around the world. The Bacardi legacy lives on in Santiago and Havana through their grand buildings and historic significance. The Bacardi Building (Edificio Bacardi) in Old Havana is regarded as one of the finest art deco buildings in Latin America. Brands Bacardi has made several acquisitions to diversify away from the eponymous Bacardi rum brand. In 1992 Bacardi acquired Martini & Rossi, the famous Italian producer of Martini vermouth and sparkling wines. In 1998, the company acquired Dewar's scotch and Bombay Sapphire gin for $2 billion. Bacardi acquired the Cazadores tequila brand in 2001, and in 2004 purchased Grey Goose, a French made vodka, from Sidney Frank for $2 billion. In 2006, Bacardi purchased New Zealand vodka brand 42 Below. Other associated brands include the U.S. version of Havana Club, Drambuie Scotch whisky liqueur, Disaronno Amaretto, Eristoff vodka and B&B and Bénédictine liqueurs. Hemingway connection Ernest Hemingway ordered his daiquiris with Bacardi White Label rum and mentions Hatuey beer in two of his works: To Have and Have Not and The Old Man and the Sea. References Bibliography Gjelten, Tom. Bacardi and the Long Fight for Cuba: The Biography of a Cause (Viking: 2008). External links Bacardi Rum, official website Bacardi Limited, company website Map of Distillery in Puerto Rico from Google Maps | Bacardi |@lemmatized bacardi:58 family:12 control:1 spirit:1 company:24 best:1 know:2 producer:2 rum:26 include:3 superior:1 sell:5 excess:1 million:1 bottle:2 per:1 year:5 nearly:1 country:3 limit:2 profile:1 yahoo:1 sale:3 billion:4 usd:2 headquarter:1 hamilton:1 bermuda:1 member:5 board:1 director:1 lead:2 original:4 founder:1 great:2 grandson:1 facundo:8 l:1 president:2 bernard:1 f:2 ramirez:1 co:1 charles:1 hernandez:1 also:3 play:1 large:1 part:1 production:3 first:2 century:1 bacardí:1 wine:2 merchant:1 bear:2 sitges:1 catalonia:1 spain:3 emigrate:1 cuba:30 period:2 cheaply:1 make:4 consider:1 refined:1 drink:5 one:4 rarely:1 upscale:1 tavern:1 begin:4 attempt:2 tame:1 experiment:1 several:3 technique:1 hit:1 upon:1 filter:1 charcoal:1 remove:1 impurity:1 addition:1 age:1 oak:1 barrel:1 effect:1 mellow:1 move:3 experimental:1 stage:1 commercial:2 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2,784 | John_Stevens_Cabot_Abbott | John Stevens Cabot Abbott (September 19, 1805 June 17, 1877), an American historian, pastor, and pedagogical writer, was born in Brunswick, Maine. He was a brother of Jacob Abbott, and was associated with him in the management of Abbott's Institute, New York City, and in the preparation of his series of brief historical biographies. Dr. Abbott graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825, prepared for the ministry at Andover Theological Seminary, and between 1830 and 1844, when he retired from the ministry in the Congregational Church, preached successively at Worcester, Roxbury and Nantucket, all in Massachusetts. Owing to the success of a little work, The Mother at Home, he devoted himself, from 1844 onwards, to literature. He was a voluminous writer of books on Christian ethics, and of popular histories, which were credited with cultivating a popular interest in history. He is best known as the author of the widely popular History of Napoleon Bonaparte (1855), in which the various elements and episodes in Napoleon's career are described. Abbott takes a very favourable view towards his subject throughout. Also among his principal works are: History of the Civil War in America (1863-1866), and The History of Frederick II, Called Frederick the Great (New York, 1871). In general, except that he did not write juvenile fiction, his work in subject and style closely resembles that of his brother, Jacob Abbott. He died at Fair Haven, Connecticut. In 1910, a series of twenty short biographies of historical characters by J. S. C. and Jacob Abbott, was published. Their brother, Gorham Dummer Abbott, was also an author. External links Works by John Stevens Cabot Abbott at Internet Archive The History of Napoleon Bonaparte by John S.C. Abbott Sources | John_Stevens_Cabot_Abbott |@lemmatized john:3 stevens:2 cabot:2 abbott:10 september:1 june:1 american:1 historian:1 pastor:1 pedagogical:1 writer:2 bear:1 brunswick:1 maine:1 brother:3 jacob:3 associate:1 management:1 institute:1 new:2 york:2 city:1 preparation:1 series:2 brief:1 historical:2 biography:2 dr:1 graduate:1 bowdoin:1 college:1 prepare:1 ministry:2 andover:1 theological:1 seminary:1 retire:1 congregational:1 church:1 preach:1 successively:1 worcester:1 roxbury:1 nantucket:1 massachusetts:1 owe:1 success:1 little:1 work:4 mother:1 home:1 devote:1 onwards:1 literature:1 voluminous:1 book:1 christian:1 ethic:1 popular:3 history:6 credit:1 cultivate:1 interest:1 best:1 know:1 author:2 widely:1 napoleon:3 bonaparte:2 various:1 element:1 episode:1 career:1 describe:1 take:1 favourable:1 view:1 towards:1 subject:2 throughout:1 also:2 among:1 principal:1 civil:1 war:1 america:1 frederick:2 ii:1 call:1 great:1 general:1 except:1 write:1 juvenile:1 fiction:1 style:1 closely:1 resemble:1 die:1 fair:1 connecticut:1 twenty:1 short:1 character:1 j:1 c:2 publish:1 gorham:1 dummer:1 external:1 link:1 internet:1 archive:1 source:1 |@bigram jacob_abbott:3 bowdoin_college:1 theological_seminary:1 napoleon_bonaparte:2 closely_resemble:1 external_link:1 |
2,785 | Intergovernmentalism | The term Intergovernmentalism can mean different things: A decision-making method It is usually said that intergovernmentalism refers to the decision-making methods in international organisations, where power is possessed by the member states and decisions are often but not always made by unanimity. Independent appointees of the governments or elected representatives have solely advisory or implementational functions. Intergovernmentalism is used by most international organizations today. In the context of the European Union, intergovernmentalism means that members of national governments take EU legislative and executive decisions amongst themselves, either by majority vote or by unanimity. These are immediately binding, which implies they do not pass through national parliaments, amendments on the EU treaties being an exception. An anomaly exists in the Bundesrat of Germany, the upper house in the German federal system, where seats are held by the governments of the Länder. This way intergovernmentalism does not conflict with federalism. The opposite method of decision-making in political communities is supranationalism. A theory of regional integration The theory is applied on European integration which rejects the idea of neofunctionalism. The theory, initially proposed by Stanley Hoffmann suggests that national governments control the level and speed of European integration. Any increase in power at supranational level, he argues, results from a direct decision by governments. He believed that integration, driven by national governments, was often based on the domestic political and economic issues of the day. The theory rejects the concept of the spill-over effect that neofunctionalism proposes. He also rejects the idea that supranational organisations are on an equal level (in terms of political influence) as national governments. Intergovernmentalism (a definition) An approach to integration that treats states, and national Governments in particular, as the primary actors in the integration process. Various intergovernmentalist approaches have been developed in the literature and these claim to be able to explain both periods of radical change in the European Union (because of the converging governmental preferences) and periods of inertia (due to the diverging national interests). Intergovernmentalism is distinguishable from realism and neorealism because of its recognition of both the significance of institutionalisation in international politics and the impact of processes of domestic politics upon governmental preferences. See also Liberal intergovernmentalism Supranationalism Federation Continental Union Continentalism Union of South American Nations European Union African Union Union for the Mediterranean Mundialization | Intergovernmentalism |@lemmatized term:2 intergovernmentalism:8 mean:2 different:1 thing:1 decision:6 make:3 method:3 usually:1 say:1 refers:1 international:3 organisation:2 power:2 possess:1 member:2 state:2 often:2 always:1 unanimity:2 independent:1 appointee:1 government:8 elect:1 representative:1 solely:1 advisory:1 implementational:1 function:1 use:1 organization:1 today:1 context:1 european:5 union:7 national:7 take:1 eu:2 legislative:1 executive:1 amongst:1 either:1 majority:1 vote:1 immediately:1 bind:1 imply:1 pass:1 parliament:1 amendment:1 treaty:1 exception:1 anomaly:1 exists:1 bundesrat:1 germany:1 upper:1 house:1 german:1 federal:1 system:1 seat:1 hold:1 länder:1 way:1 conflict:1 federalism:1 opposite:1 making:1 political:3 community:1 supranationalism:2 theory:4 regional:1 integration:6 apply:1 reject:3 idea:2 neofunctionalism:2 initially:1 propose:1 stanley:1 hoffmann:1 suggest:1 control:1 level:3 speed:1 increase:1 supranational:2 argue:1 result:1 direct:1 believe:1 drive:1 base:1 domestic:2 economic:1 issue:1 day:1 concept:1 spill:1 effect:1 proposes:1 also:2 equal:1 influence:1 definition:1 approach:2 treat:1 particular:1 primary:1 actor:1 process:2 various:1 intergovernmentalist:1 develop:1 literature:1 claim:1 able:1 explain:1 period:2 radical:1 change:1 converge:1 governmental:2 preference:2 inertia:1 due:1 diverge:1 interest:1 distinguishable:1 realism:1 neorealism:1 recognition:1 significance:1 institutionalisation:1 politics:2 impact:1 upon:1 see:1 liberal:1 federation:1 continental:1 continentalism:1 south:1 american:1 nation:1 african:1 mediterranean:1 mundialization:1 |@bigram decision_making:1 |
2,786 | Houston | Houston () is the fourth-largest city in the United States and the largest city within the state of Texas. As of the 2007 U.S. Census estimate, the city has a population of 2.2 million within an area of 600 square miles (1,600 km²). Houston is the seat of Harris County and the economic center of the metropolitan area—the metropolitan area in the U.S. with a population of 5.7 million. Houston was founded on August 30, 1836 by brothers Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen on land near the banks of . The city was incorporated on June 5, 1837 and named after then-President of the Republic of Texas—former General Sam Houston—who had commanded at the Battle of San Jacinto, which took place 25 miles (40 km) east of where the city was established. The burgeoning port and railroad industry, combined with oil discovery in 1901, has induced continual surges in the city's population. In the mid-twentieth century, Houston became the home of the Texas Medical Center—the world's largest concentration of healthcare and research institutions—and NASA's Johnson Space Center, where the Mission Control Center is located. Rated as a beta world city, Houston's economy has a broad industrial base in the energy, manufacturing, aeronautics, transportation, and health care sectors and is a leading center for building oilfield equipment; only New York City is home to more Fortune 500 headquarters in the city limits. The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled and second in total cargo tonnage handled. U.S. Port Ranking by Cargo Volume 2004. Port Industry Information, American Association of Port Authorities. 2004. Retrieved on 2007-01-15. The city has a multicultural population with a large and growing international community. It is home to many cultural institutions and exhibits—attracting more than 7 million visitors a year to the Houston Museum District. Houston has an active visual and performing arts scene in the Theater District and is one of few U.S. cities that offer year-round resident companies in all major performing arts. "", Greater Houston Partnership. Retrieved on 2009-03-21. History Sam Houston In August 1836, John Kirby Allen and Augustus Chapman Allen, two real estate entrepreneurs from New York City, purchased 6,642 acres (27 km²) of land along Buffalo Bayou with the intent of founding a city. The Allen brothers decided to name the city after Sam Houston, the popular general at the Battle of San Jacinto, who was elected President of Texas in September 1836. Houston was granted incorporation on June 5, 1837, with James S. Holman becoming its first mayor. Houston, Texas. Handbook of Texas Online. Retrieved on 2007-01-10. In the same year, Houston became the county seat of Harrisburg County (now Harris County) and the temporary capital of the Republic of Texas. In 1840, the community established a chamber of commerce in part to promote shipping and waterborne business at the newly created port on Buffalo Bayou. Born on the Bayou: city's murky start. John Perry, City Savvy Online Edition. Published Summer 2006. Retrieved on 2007-02-06 Houston, circa 1873 By 1860, Houston had emerged as a commercial and railroad hub for the export of cotton. Railroad spurs from the Texas inland converged in Houston, where they met rail lines to the ports of Galveston and Beaumont. During the American Civil War, Houston served as a headquarters for General John Bankhead Magruder, who used the city as an organization point for the Battle of Galveston. After the Civil War, Houston businessmen initiated efforts to widen the city's extensive system of bayous so the city could accept more commerce between downtown and the nearby port of Galveston. By 1890 Houston was the railroad center of Texas. In 1900, after Galveston was struck by a devastating hurricane, efforts to make Houston into a viable deepwater port were accelerated. J.H.W. Stele to Sayers, September 11-12, 1900. Texas State Library & Archives Commission, Retrieved on August 31, 2007 The following year, oil discovered at the Spindletop oil field near Beaumont prompted the development of the Texas petroleum industry. In 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt approved a $1 million improvement project for the Houston Ship Channel. By 1910 the city's population had reached 78,800, almost doubling from a decade before. An integral part of the city were African Americans, who numbered 23,929 or nearly one-third of the residents. They were developing a strong professional class based then in the Fourth Ward. President Woodrow Wilson opened the deepwater Port of Houston in 1914, seven years after digging began. By 1930, Houston had become Texas's most populous city and Harris the most populous county. When World War II started, tonnage levels at the port decreased and shipping activities were suspended; however, the war did provide economic benefits for the city. Petrochemical refineries and manufacturing plants were constructed along the ship channel because of the demand for petroleum and synthetic rubber products during the war. Ellington Field, initially built during World War I, was revitalized as an advanced training center for bombardiers and navigators. The M. D. Anderson Foundation formed the Texas Medical Center in 1945. After the war, Houston's economy reverted to being primarily port-driven. In 1948, several unincorporated areas were annexed into the city limits, which more than doubled the city's size, and Houston proper began to spread across the region. In 1950, the availability of air conditioning provided impetus for many companies to relocate to Houston resulting in an economic boom and producing a key shift in the city's economy toward the energy sector. How Air Conditioning Changed America. The Old House Web, Retrieved on April 4, 2007 A Short History. Houston Geological Auxiliary, Retrieved on April 4, 2007 The space shuttle, atop its Boeing 747 SCA, flying over Johnson Space Center The increased production of the local shipbuilding industry during World War II spurred Houston's growth, as did the establishment in 1961 of NASA's "Manned Spacecraft Center" (renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in 1973), which created the city's aerospace industry. The Astrodome, nicknamed the "Eighth Wonder of the World," opened in 1965 as the world's first indoor domed sports stadium. During the late 1970s, Houston experienced a population boom as people from Rust Belt states moved to Texas in large numbers. The new residents came for the numerous employment opportunities in the petroleum industry, created as a result of the Arab Oil Embargo. The population boom ended abruptly in the mid-1980s, as oil prices fell precipitously. The space industry also suffered in 1986 after the Space Shuttle Challenger exploded shortly after launch. The late 1980s saw a recession adversely affecting the city's economy. Since the 1990s, as a result of the recession, Houston has made efforts to diversify its economy by focusing on aerospace and health care/biotechnology and by reducing its dependence on the petroleum industry. In 1997, Houstonians elected Lee P. Brown as the city's first African American mayor. Hurricane Rita evacuation. (With contraflow lane reversal.) In June 2001, Tropical Storm Allison dumped up to of rain on parts of Houston, causing the worst flooding in the city's history; the storm cost billions of dollars in damage and killed 20 people in Texas. By December of that same year, Houston-based energy company Enron collapsed into the second-largest ever U.S. bankruptcy during an investigation surrounding fabricated partnerships that were allegedly used to hide debt and inflate profits. In August 2005, Houston became a shelter to more than 150,000 people from New Orleans who evacuated from Hurricane Katrina. One month later, approximately 2.5 million Houston area residents evacuated when Hurricane Rita approached the Gulf Coast, leaving little damage to the Houston area. This event marked the largest urban evacuation in the history of the United States. 8th Congressional District of Texas 2007 Appropriations Project Requests. Congressman Kevin Brady, 8th District of Texas. Retrieved on 2007-01-10. Geography A simulated-color image of Houston According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 601.7 square miles (1,558.4 km²); this comprises 579.4 square miles (1,500.7 km²) of land and 22.3 square miles (57.7 km²) of water. Most of Houston is located on the gulf coastal plain, and its vegetation is classified as temperate grassland and forest. Much of the city was built on forested land, marshes, swamp, or prairie, which are all still visible in surrounding areas. Flatness of the local terrain, when combined with urban sprawl, has made flooding a recurring problem for the city. Flood Forecasting for the Buffalo Bayou Using CRWR-PrePro and HEC-HMS. Center for Research in Water Resources, The University of Texas at Austin Retrieved on 2007-01-10. Downtown stands about 50 feet (15 m) above sea level, Downtown Houston, Texas. TopoQuest.com Retrieved on 2008-07-05. and the highest point in far northwest Houston is about 125 feet (38 m) in elevation. USGS Satsuma (TX) Topo Map. TopoQuest.com. 2008. Retrieved on 2008-07-05. Note: The boundaries of the City of Houston are shown as "HOUSTON CORP BDY" along the dotted line. Super Neighborhood# 1-Willowbrook. City of Houston. Retrieved on 2007-01-11. The city once relied on groundwater for its needs, but land subsidence forced the city to turn to ground-level water sources such as Lake Houston and Lake Conroe. . United States Geological Survey. Retrieved on 2007-01-11. Houston has four major bayous passing through the city. Buffalo Bayou runs through downtown and the Houston Ship Channel, and has three tributaries: White Oak Bayou, which runs through the Heights neighborhood and towards downtown; Braes Bayou, which runs along the Texas Medical Center; and Sims Bayou, which runs through the south of Houston and downtown Houston. The ship channel continues past Galveston and then into the Gulf of Mexico. Geology Underpinning Houston's land surface are unconsolidated clays, clay shales, and poorly cemented sands up to several miles deep. The region's geology developed from river deposits formed from the erosion of the Rocky Mountains. These sediments consist of a series of sands and clays deposited on decaying organic matter that, over time, transformed into oil and natural gas. Beneath the layers of sediment is a water-deposited layer of halite, a rock salt. The porous layers were compressed over time and forced upward. As it pushed upward, the salt dragged surrounding sediments into salt dome formations, often trapping oil and gas that seeped from the surrounding porous sands. The thick, rich, sometimes black, surface soil is suitable for rice farming in suburban outskirts where the city continues to grow. Harris County. Handbook of Texas Online. Retrieved on 2007-01-10. RICE CULTURE. Handbook of Texas Online. Retrieved on 2007-01-10. The Houston area has over 150 active faults (estimated to be 300 active faults) Richard Engelkeimer, Shuhab Khan, Carl Norman. "", University of Houston. Retrieved on 2006-12-14. with an aggregate length of up to 310 miles (500 km), Earl R. Verbeek, Karl W. Ratzlaff, Uel S. Clanton. "Faults in Parts of North-Central and Western Houston Metropolitan Area, Texas", United States Geological Survey, 2005-09-16. Retrieved on 2006-12-14. Principal Active Faults. Houston Area, Texas, U.S. Department of Agriculture, May 1984. Retrieved on 2006-12-14. including the Long Point-Eureka Heights Fault System which runs through the center of the city. There have been no significant historically recorded earthquakes in Houston, but researchers do not discount the possibility of such quakes occurring in the deeper past, nor in the future. Land in some communities southeast of Houston is sinking because water has been pumped out from the ground for many years. It may be associated with slip along faults; however, the slippage is slow and not considered an earthquake, where stationary faults must slip suddenly enough to create seismic waves. Texas Earthquakes, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, July 2001. Retrieved on 2007-08-29. These faults also tend to move at a smooth rate in what is termed "fault creep," which further reduces the risk of an earthquake. Climate Allen's Landing after Tropical Storm Allison, June 2001 Houston's climate is classified as humid subtropical (Cfa in Köppen climate classification system). Spring supercell thunderstorms sometimes bring tornados to the area. Prevailing winds are from the south and southeast during most of the year, bringing heat across the continent from the deserts of Mexico and moisture from the Gulf of Mexico. During the summer months, it is common for the temperature to reach over 90 °F (32 °C), with an average of 99 days per year above 90 °F (32 °C). "Monthly Averages for Houston, Texas", The Weather Channel. Retrieved on 2006-12-14. "National Climatic Data Center", National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, United States Department of Commerce, 2004-06-23. Retrieved on 2006-12-14. However, the humidity results in a heat index higher than the actual temperature. Summer mornings average over 90 percent relative humidity and approximately 60 percent in the afternoon. "Average Relative Humidity", Department of Meteorology at the University of Utah. Retrieved on 2006-12-14. Winds are often light in the summer and offer little relief, except near the immediate coast. WIND - AVERAGE SPEED (mph). Department of Meteorology, University of Utah. 1993. Retrieved on 2007-01-10 To cope with the heat, people use air conditioning in nearly every vehicle and building in the city; in fact, in 1980 Houston was described as the "most air-conditioned place on earth". A MOMENT IN BUILDING. BLUEPRINTS, Volume X, Number 3, Summer 1992. National Building Museum. Retrieved on 2007-01-11. Scattered afternoon thunderstorms are common in the summer. The hottest temperature ever recorded in Houston was 109 °F (43 °C) on September 4, 2000. "History for Houston Intercontinental, Texas on Monday, September 4, 2000", Weather Underground, 2000-09-04. Retrieved on 2006-12-14. Winters in Houston are fairly temperate. The average high in January, the coldest month, is 63 °F (17 °C), while the average low is 41 °F (5 °C). Snowfall is generally rare. Recent snow events in Houston include a storm on December 24, 2004 where 1.0 inches (2.5 cm) fell and more recent snowfalls on December 10 and December 24, 2008. The coldest temperature ever recorded in Houston was 5 °F (−15 °C) on January 23, 1940. Houston Extremes Data and Annual Summaries. National Weather Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Published 2007-01-05. Retrieved on 2007-01-11. Houston receives a high amount of rainfall annually, averaging about 48 inches a year. These rains tend to cause floods over portions of the city. On September 13, 2008, Hurricane Ike made landfall in Galveston becoming the third most destructive hurricane on record behind Katrina and Andrew. Houston has excessive ozone levels and is ranked among the most ozone-polluted cities in the United States. "State of the Air 2005, National and Regional Analysis ", American Lung Association, 2005-03-25. Retrieved on 2006-02-17. Ground-level ozone, or smog, is Houston’s predominant air pollution problem, with the American Lung Association rating the metropolitan area's ozone level as the 6th worst in the United States in 2006. "State of the Air 2006, 25 Most Ozone-Polluted Cities ", American Lung Association. Retrieved on 2006-04-02. The industries located along the ship channel are a major cause of the city's air pollution. "Summary of the Issues", Citizens League for Environmental Action Now , 2004-08-01. Retrieved on 2006-02-17. Cityscape Houston was incorporated in 1837 under the ward system of representation. The ward designation is the progenitor of the nine current-day Houston City Council districts. Locations in Houston are generally classified as either being inside or outside the Interstate 610 Loop. The inside encompasses the central business district and many residential neighborhoods that predate World War II. More recently, high-density residential areas have been developed within the loop. The city's outlying areas, suburbs and enclaves are located outside of the loop. Beltway 8 encircles the city another 5 miles (8 km) farther out. Though Houston is the largest city in the United States without formal zoning regulations, it has developed similarly to other Sun Belt cities because the city's land use regulations and legal covenants have played a similar role. Regulations include mandatory lot size for single-family houses and requirements that parking be available to tenants and customers. Such restrictions have had mixed results. Though some have blamed the city's low density, urban sprawl, and lack of pedestrian-friendliness on these policies, the city's land use has also been credited with a bounty of affordable housing, sparing Houston the worst effects of the 2008 real estate crisis. The city issued 42,697 building permits in 2008 and was ranked first in the list of healthiest housing markets for 2009, according to Builder magazine. Voters rejected efforts to have separate residential and commercial land-use districts in 1948, 1962, and 1993. Consequently, rather than a single central business district as the center of the city's employment, multiple districts have grown throughout the city in addition to downtown which include Uptown, Texas Medical Center, Midtown, Greenway Plaza, Energy Corridor, Westchase, and Greenspoint. Government and politics Houston City Hall The city of Houston has a strong mayoral form of municipal government. Houston is a home rule city and all municipal elections in the state of Texas are nonpartisan. The City's elected officials are the mayor, city controller and 14 members of the city council. As of 2009, the mayor of Houston is William "Bill" White, a Democrat elected on a nonpartisan ballot who is serving his third and final term (due to term limits). Houston's mayor serves as the city's chief administrator, executive officer, and official representative. He is responsible for the general management of the city and for seeing that all laws and ordinances are enforced. As the result of a 1991 referendum in Houston, a mayor is elected for a two-year term, and can be elected to as many as three consecutive terms. The current city council line-up of nine district based and five at-large positions was based on a U.S. Justice Department mandate which took effect in 1979. At-large council members represent the entire city. Under the current city charter, if the population in the city limits goes past 2.1 million residents, the current nine-member city council districts will be expanded with the addition of two city council districts. The city of Houston has been criticized for running the worst recycling program among the United States' 30 largest cities. In October 2008, the city's Sustainable Growth Committee, Chaired by Council Member Peter Brown, initiated a program to recycle heavy organic yard waste which is expected to salvage annually, enough to fill the Chase Tower, the city's tallest structure. Crime Police services are provided by the Houston Police Department. Houston's murder rate ranked 46th of U.S. cities with a population over 250,000 in 2005 (per capita rate of 16.3 murders per 100,000 population). "," Morgan Quitno. Retrieved on November 29, 2006. The city's murder rate, however, ranked 3rd among U.S. cities with a population of 1,000,000 or more. Even those statistics were believed to be higher after local TV news investigator Mark Greenblatt found the Houston Police Department under-counted 2005 homicides. Officially counting just two more of the city's murders would have bumped up the city's murder rate to second place. http://www.khou.com/news/defenders/investigate/stories/khou071119_tj_murdercount.1d78917e.html While nonviolent crime in the city dropped by 2 percent in 2005 compared to 2004, the number of homicides rose by 23.5 percent. Since 2005, Houston has been experiencing a spike in crime, which is due in part to an influx of people from New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina. After Katrina, Houston's murder rate increased 70 percent in November and December 2005 compared to levels in 2004. The city recorded 336 murders in 2005, Villafranca, Armando. "Houston violent crime to be studied", Houston Chronicle, November 23, 2006, p. 3. Retrieved 2006-12-17. compared to 272 in 2004. "", Texas Department of Public Safety, 2004. Retrieved 2006-12-17. Houston's homicide rate per 100,000 residents increased from 16.33 in 2005 to 17.24 in 2006. O'Hare, Peggy. "", Houston Chronicle, 2007-01-01. Retrieved on January 1, 2007 The number of murders in the city increased to 379 in 2006. In 1996, there were about 380 gangs with 8,000 members; of which 2,500 were juveniles. Economy Houston Ship Channel Data from city-data.com Houston is recognized worldwide for its energy industry—particularly for oil and natural gas—as well as for biomedical research and aeronautics. Renewable energy sources—wind and solar—are also becoming popular economic bases in Houston. The ship channel is also a large part of Houston's economic base. Because of these strengths, Houston is designated as a beta world city by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network. Five of the six supermajor energy companies maintain a large base of operations in Houston (international headquarters of ConocoPhillips; US operational headquarters of Exxon-Mobil; US headquarters for international companies Shell Oil (US subsidiary of Royal Dutch Shell located in The Hague, Netherlands), and BP whose international headquarters are in London, England). Specifically, the headquarters of Shell Oil Company, the US affiliate of Royal Dutch Shell, is located at One Shell Plaza. While ExxonMobil maintains its small, global headquarters in Irving, Texas, its upstream and chemical divisions as well as most operational divisions, are located in Houston. Chevron has offices in Houston, having acquired a 40 story building intended to be the headquarters of Enron. The company's Chevron Pipe Line Company subsidiary is headquartered in Houston, and more divisions are being consolidated and moved to Houston each year. Houston is headquarters for the Marathon Oil Corporation, Apache Corporation, and Citgo and alternative energy companies such as Horizon Wind Energy. Greater Houston is a leading center for building oilfield equipment. "", Greater Houston Partnership. Retrieved on 2009-03-21. Much of Houston's success as a petrochemical complex is due to its busy man-made ship channel, the Port of Houston. "", The Port of Houston Authority, 2007-05-15. Retrieved on 2007-05-27. The port ranks first in the United States in international commerce, and is the tenth-largest port in the world. "General Information", The Port of Houston Authority, 2007-05-15. Retrieved on 2007-05-27. Unlike most places, where high oil and gasoline prices are seen as harmful to the economy, they are generally seen as beneficial for Houston as many are employed in the energy industry. The Houston–Sugar Land–Baytown MSA's Gross Area Product (GAP) in 2008 was $440.4 billion, "", Greater Houston Partnership. Retrieved on 2009-03-21. slightly larger than Belgium’s, Malaysia’s, Venezuela’s or Sweden’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). When comparing Houston's economy to a national economy, only 21 countries other than the United States have a gross domestic product exceeding Houston's regional gross area product. Houston's MSA Gross Area Product for 2007 is estimated to be 416.6 billion, up 13.8 percent from 2006. Mining, which in Houston is almost entirely exploration and production of oil and gas, accounts for 26.3% of Houston's GAP, up sharply in response to high energy prices and a decreased worldwide surplus of oil production capacity; followed by engineering services, health services, and manufacturing. "", Greater Houston Partnership. Retrieved on 2009-03-21. The Houston area added 42,400 private-sector jobs between November 2007 and November 2008 and registered the nation’s largest gain in private-sector employment among the nation's cities, according to employment statistics of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. The unemployment rate in the city was 3.8% in April 2008, the lowest level in eight years while the job growth rate was 2.8%. In 2006, the Houston metropolitan area ranked first in Texas and third in the U.S. within the Category of "Best Places for Business and Careers" by Forbes magazine. Badenhausen, Kurt. "2006 Best Places for Business and Careers", Forbes, 2006-05-04. Retrieved on 2006-12-15. Foreign governments have established 89 consular offices in metropolitan Houston. Forty foreign governments maintain trade and commercial offices here and 23 active foreign chambers of commerce and trade associations. "", Greater Houston Partnership. Retrieved on 2009-03-21. Twenty-five foreign banks representing 13 nations operate in Houston, providing financial assistance to the international community. In 2008, Houston received top ranking on Kiplinger's Personal Finance Best Cities of 2008 list which ranks cities on their local economy, employment opportunities, reasonable living costs and quality of life. The city ranked fourth for highest increase in the local technological innovation over the preceding 15 years, according to Forbes magazine. In the same year, the city ranked second on the annual Fortune 500 list of company headquarters, ranked first for Forbes Best Cities for College Graduates, and ranked first on Forbes list of Best Cities to Buy a Home. Demographics The annual Houston International Festival spotlights a different culture each year Houston is a diverse and international city, in part because of its many academic institutions and strong industries. Over 90 languages are spoken in the city. "Houston Facts and Figures", City of Houston. Retrieved on 2006-12-15. Houston has among the youngest populations in the nation, . East-West Gateway Council of Governments. 2006. Retrieved on 2007-01-11. Page 25 in PDF File, labeled as page 21. Houston city, Texas. 2005 American Community Survey Data Profile Highlights, United States Census Bureau. 2005. Retrieved on 2007-01-12. United States and States R0101. Median Age of the Total Population: 2005. 2005 American Community Survey, United States Census Bureau. 2005. Retrieved on 2007-01-12. partly due to an influx of immigrants into Texas. The Face of Texas Jobs, People, Business, Change. D'Ann Petersen and Laila Assanie, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas. October 2005. Retrieved on 2007-01-11. The city has the third-largest Hispanic and third-largest Mexican American population in the United States. An estimated 400,000 illegal immigrants reside in the Greater Houston area. Houston has one of the largest communities of Indian-Americans and Pakistani-Americans in the United States. The Nigerian community in Houston, estimated to be over 2 percent of the city's population, is the largest in the United States. According to the 2007 U.S. Census estimates, Houston's population was 55 percent White (28 percent non-Hispanic-White), 24.7 percent Black or African American, 0.6 percent American Indian and Alaska native, 5.5 percent Asian, 0.1 percent native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 15.2 percent some other race, 1.1 percent two or more races, 41.7 percent Hispanic or Latino of any race (mostly Mexican). As of the census of 2000, there were 1,953,631 people and the population density was 3,371.7 people per square mile (1,301.8/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 49.27 percent White, 25.31 percent Black, 5.31 percent Asian, 0.44 percent American Indian, 0.06 percent Pacific Islander, 16.46 percent from some other race, and 3.15 percent from two or more races. Persons of Hispanic origin—who may be of any race—accounted for 37 percent of the population while non-Hispanic whites made up 30.8 percent. Houston has a large population of immigrants from Asia, including the largest Vietnamese-American population in Texas and third-largest in the United States, with 85,000 people in 2006. Some parts of the city with high populations of Vietnamese and Chinese residents have Chinese and Vietnamese street signs, in addition to English ones. Houston has two Chinatowns: the original located in Downtown, and the more recent one north of Bellaire Boulevard in the southwest area of the city. The city has a Little Saigon in Midtown and Vietnamese businesses located in the southwest Houston Chinatown. A "Little India" community referred to as the "Harwin District" exists along Hillcroft. "South Asian businesses venture into Houston's suburbs," Houston Chronicle, February 16, 2008 Houston has a large gay community concentrated primarily in Montrose, Neartown and Houston Heights. It is estimated that the Houston metropolitan area has the twelfth-largest number of lesbian, gay and bisexual individuals in the United States. Gary J. Gates . The Williams Institute on Sexual Orientation Law and Public Policy, UCLA School of Law October, 2006. Retrieved April 20, 2007. Culture Houston Art Car Parade Houston is a multicultural city with a large and growing international community. The metropolitan area is home to an estimated 1.1 million (21.4 percent) residents who were born outside the United States, with nearly two-thirds of the area's foreign-born population from south of the United States–Mexico border. Additionally, more than one in five foreign-born residents are from Asia. The city is home to the nation’s third largest concentration of consular offices, representing 86 countries. Houston received the official nickname of "Space City" in 1967 because it is the location of NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. Other nicknames often used by locals include "Magnolia City," "Clutch City," and "H-Town." Many annual events celebrate the diverse cultures of Houston. The largest and longest running is the annual Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo, held over 20 days from late February to early March. Another large celebration is the annual night-time Houston Pride Parade, held at the end of June. Other annual events include the Houston Greek Festival, The Original Greek Festival, Houston, Texas. 2006. Retrieved on 2007-01-10. Warning: Automatic sound file. Art Car Parade, the Houston Auto Show, the Houston International Festival, the Westheimer Block Party The Houston International Festival. 2007. Retrieved on 2007-01-10. and the Bayou City Art Festival, which is considered to be one of the top five art festivals in the United States. Arts and theatre Wortham Center in the Theater District of Downtown Houston has an active visual and performing arts scene. The Theater District is located downtown and is home to nine major performing arts organizations and six performance halls. It is the second-largest concentration of theater seats in a downtown area in the United States. Ramsey, Cody. "In a state of big, Houston is at the top", Texas Monthly, September 2002. Retrieved December 10, 2002. "About Houston Theater District", Houston Theater District. Retrieved on 2006-12-16. Houston is one of few United States cities with permanent, professional, resident companies in all major performing arts disciplines: opera (Houston Grand Opera), ballet (Houston Ballet), music (Houston Symphony Orchestra), and theater (The Alley Theatre). "Performing Arts Venues", Houston Theater District. Retrieved on 2006-12-16. Houston is also home to many local folk artists, art groups and various smaller progressive arts organizations. "A Brief History of the Art Car Museum", ArtCar Museum of Houston. Retrieved on 2006-12-16. Houston attracts many touring Broadway acts, concerts, shows, and exhibitions for a variety of interests. 2006 fall edition of International Quilt Festival attracts 53,546 to Houston. Quilts., Inc. Press release published 2006-11-30. Retrieved on 2007-01-12. The Museum District has many popular cultural institutions and exhibits, which attract more than 7 million visitors a year. Houston Museum District. Greater Houston Convention and Visitors Bureau. Retrieved on 2007-02-18. Notable facilities located in the district include The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston Museum of Natural Science, the Contemporary Arts Museum Houston, the Station Museum of Contemporary Art, Holocaust Museum Houston, and the Houston Zoo. Houston Museum District Day. Texas Monthly. 2006. Retrieved on 2007-01-10. Museum District. Contemporary Arts Museum Houston. Retrieved on 2007-01-10. Houston Museum District. Greater Houston Convention and Visitors Bureau. Retrieved on 2007-01-10. Located in the nearby Montrose area are The Menil Collection and Rothko Chapel. Hobby Center for the Performing Arts Bayou Bend, located in River Oaks, is a facility of the Museum of Fine Arts that houses one of America's best collections of decorative art, paintings and furniture. Bayou Bend is the former home of Houston philanthropist Ima Hogg. Many venues scattered across Houston regularly host local and touring rock, blues, country, hip hop and Tejano musical acts. There has never been a widely renowned music scene in Houston. Artists seem to relocate to other parts of the United States once attaining some level of success. A notable exception to the rule is Houston hip-hop, which celebrates the unique southern flavor and attitude of its roots. This has given rise to a strong, independent hip-hop music scene, influencing and influenced by the larger Southern hip hop and gangsta rap communities. Many Houstonian hip-hop artists have attained commercial success. Many non-hip hop artists that have come from Houston include the pop and R&B girl group Destiny's Child, hard Southern rock band ZZ Top, sixties psychedelic rock band Red Krayola, folk-country singer/songwriter Lyle Lovett, pop singer Hilary Duff, singer and actor Patrick Swayze, and indie-piano rock band Blue October. Houston also once had fledgling blues and folk scenes in the sixties and seventies with blues performers such as Lightnin' Hopkins, Clarence "Gatemouth" Brown, "Texas" Johnny Brown, Johnny "Guitar" Watson, Albert Collins, Johnny Copeland, and Joe "Guitar" Hughes many of whom recorded with the hometown music label Peacock Records. Folk artists in the city in the sixties and seventies such as Townes Van Zandt, Rodney Crowell, Steve Earle and Guy Clark also called Houston home for many years playing at long standing venues like Anderson Fair and the Old Quarter Acoustic Cafe. The eighties and nineties produced punk and alternative rock such as Dirty Rotten Imbeciles, Verbal Abuse, Really Red, Culturcide, the Pain Teens and the outside musician Jandek. The new millennium has seen a continuance of Houston Noise Bands with contemporary performers such as Jana Hunter and Indian Jewelry. Tourism and recreation Reflection pool in Hermann Park The Theater District is a 17-block area in the center of downtown Houston that is home to the Bayou Place entertainment complex, restaurants, movies, plazas, and parks. Bayou Place is a large multilevel building containing full-service restaurants, bars, live music, billiards, and art house films. The Houston Verizon Wireless Theater stages live concerts, stage plays, and stand-up comedy; and the Angelika Film Center presents art, foreign and independent films. Angelika Houston. Angelika Film Center. Retrieved on 2007-01-10. Houston is home to 337 parks including Hermann Park, which houses the Houston Zoo and the Houston Museum of Natural Science, Terry Hershey Park, Lake Houston Park, Memorial Park, Tranquility Park, Sesquicentennial Park, Discovery Green and Sam Houston Park (which contains restored and reconstructed homes which were originally built between 1823 and 1905). The Heritage Society: Walk into Houston's Past. The Heritage Society. Retrieved on 2007-01-10. Of the 10 most populous U.S. cities, Houston has the most total area of parks and green space: . Continental Magazine, March 2008. p.67. The city also has over 200 additional green spaces—totaling over that are managed by the city—including the Houston Arboretum and Nature Center. The Williams Waterwall serves as a popular tourist attraction and sits in Uptown Houston. The Houston Civic Center was replaced by the George R. Brown Convention Center—one of the nation's largest—and the Jesse H. Jones Hall for the Performing Arts, home of the Houston Symphony Orchestra and Society for the Performing Arts. The Sam Houston Coliseum and Music Hall have been replaced by the Hobby Center for the Performing Arts. Space Center Houston is the official visitors’ center of NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. Here one will find many interactive exhibits including moon rocks, a shuttle simulator, and presentations about the history of NASA's manned space flight program. Other tourist attractions include the Galleria (Texas's largest shopping mall located in the Uptown District), Old Market Square, the Downtown Aquarium, and Sam Houston Race Park. Sports Revelers at "The Main Event" held downtown during Super Bowl XXXVIII Houston has teams for nearly every major professional sport. The Houston Astros (MLB), Houston Texans (NFL), Houston Rockets (NBA), Houston Dynamo (MLS), Houston Aeros (AHL), Houston Wranglers (WTT), Houston Takers (ABA), Houston Energy (IWFL), Houston Leones (PDL), and the H-Town Texas Cyclones (NWFA) all call Houston home. Minute Maid Park (home of the Astros) and Toyota Center (home of the Rockets, and Aeros) are located in a revived area of downtown. The city has the Reliant Astrodome, the first domed stadium in the world; it also holds the NFL's first retractable-roof stadium, Reliant Stadium. Other sports facilities in Houston include Hofheinz Pavilion, Reliant Arena (former home of the Comets), and Robertson Stadium (both used for University of Houston collegiate sports, the latter also for the Houston Dynamo), and Rice Stadium (home of the Rice University Owls football team). The infrequently used Reliant Astrodome hosted World Wrestling Entertainment's WrestleMania X-Seven on April 1, 2001, where an attendance record of 67,925 was set. "WrestleMania X-Seven Sets Revenue, Attendance Records", World Wrestling Entertainment, Inc., 2001-04-02. Retrieved 2006-12-16. The city also hosted WrestleMania XXV at Reliant Stadium on April 5, 2009. Houston has hosted major recent sporting events, including the 2004 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, the 2000 IHL All-Star Game, the 2005 World Series, the 2005 Big 12 Conference football championship game, the 2006 NBA All-Star Game, the U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships from 2001–2006, and the Tennis Masters Cup in 2003 and 2004, as well as the annual Shell Houston Open golf tournament. Starting in 2009, Houston will host the final official event in the LPGA golf season, the Stanford Financial Tour Championship. The city hosts the annual NCAA College Baseball Minute Maid Classic every February and NCAA football's Texas Bowl in December. Houston has hosted the Super Bowl championship game twice. Super Bowl VIII was played at Rice Stadium in 1974 and Super Bowl XXXVIII was played at Reliant Stadium in 2004. From 1998 to 2001, the CART auto racing series held a yearly race, the Grand Prix of Houston, on downtown streets. After a five-year hiatus, CART's successor series, Champ Car, revived the race for 2006 and 2007 on the streets surrounding the Reliant Park complex. However, Champ Car merged with the rival Indy Racing League (IRL) in 2008, discontinuing the Houston race in the process. Media Houston is served by the Houston Chronicle, its only major daily newspaper with wide distribution. The Hearst Corporation, which owns and operates the Houston Chronicle, bought the assets of the Houston Post—its long-time rival and main competition—when Houston Post ceased operations in 1995. The Houston Post was owned by the family of former Lieutenant Governor Bill Hobby of Houston. The only other major publication to serve the city is the Houston Press—a free alternative weekly with a weekly readership of more than 300,000. Among leading media personalities in Houston were Ray Miller, host of The Eyes of Texas, a cultural anthology series broadcast for nearly three decades over KPRC-TV, the NBC affiliate as well as Marvin Zindler. In the late 1960s, Miller hired Kay Bailey Hutchison, a Galveston native as the first woman newswoman in Texas. She later served in the Texas House of Representatives and the United States Senate. Architecture The JPMorgan Chase Tower stands as the tallest building in Texas. Houston's skyline has been ranked fourth most impressive in the United States; Gramsbergen, Egbert, Kazmierczak, Paul. "The World's Best Skylines", 2006-12-11. Retrieved on 2006-12-16. it is the third-tallest skyline in the United States and one of the top 10 in the world. "Calculated Average Height of the Ten Tallest (CAHTT)", UltrapolisProject.com. Retrieved on 2007-07-01. Houston has a seven-mile (11 km) system of tunnels and skywalks linking buildings in downtown which contain shops, restaurants, and convenience stores. This system enables pedestrians to avoid the intense summer heat and heavy rain showers while walking from one building to another. In the 1960s, Downtown Houston consisted of a modest collection of mid-rise office structures, but has since grown into one of the largest skylines in the United States. Downtown was on the threshold of a boom in 1970 with huge projects being launched by real estate developers with the energy industry boom. A succession of skyscrapers were built throughout the 1970s—many by real estate developer Gerald D. Hines—culminating with Houston's tallest skyscraper, the 75-floor, -tall JPMorgan Chase Tower (formerly the Texas Commerce Tower), which was completed in 1982. It is the tallest structure in Texas, 10th-tallest building in the United States and the 30th-tallest skyscraper in the world based on height to roof. In 1983, the 71-floor, -tall Wells Fargo Bank Plaza (formerly Allied Bank Plaza) was completed, which became the second-tallest building in Houston and Texas. Based on height to roof, it is the 13th-tallest in the United States and the 36th-tallest in the world. As of 2007, downtown Houston had over 43 million square feet (4,000,000 m²) of office space. Fast Facts, Downtown Houston. Houstondowntown.com 2006. Retrieved on 2007-01-10. Centered on Post Oak Boulevard and Westheimer Road, the Uptown District boomed during the 1970s and early 1980s when a collection of mid-rise office buildings, hotels, and retail developments appeared along Interstate 610 west. Uptown became one of the most impressive instances of an edge city. The highest achievement of Uptown was the construction of the 64-floor, -tall, Philip Johnson and John Burgee designed landmark Williams Tower (known as the Transco Tower until 1999). At the time, it was believed to the be the world's tallest skyscraper outside of a central business district. The Uptown District is also home to other buildings designed by noted architects such as I. M. Pei, César Pelli, and Philip Johnson. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, there was a mini-boom of mid-rise and high-rise residential tower construction, with several over 30 stories tall. Residential Real Estate. Uptown-houston.com Retrieved on 2007-01-11. In 2002, Uptown had more than 23 million square feet (2,100,000 m²) of office space with 16 million square feet (1,500,000 m²) of Class A office space. Commercial Real Estate. Uptown-houston.com Retrieved on 2007-01-10. Transportation Interstate 10 and Interstate 45 near Downtown Houston's freeway system is made up of of freeways and expressways in a ten-county metropolitan area. "", Greater Houston Partnership. Retrieved on 2009-03-21. Its highway system uses a hub-and-spoke freeway structure serviced by multiple loops. The innermost loop is Interstate 610, which encircles downtown, the medical center, and many core neighborhoods with around a diameter. Beltway 8 and its freeway core, the Sam Houston Tollway, form the middle loop at a diameter of roughly . A proposed highway project, State Highway 99 (The Grand Parkway), would form a third loop outside of Houston. Currently, only two out of eleven segments of State Highway 99 have been completed. Houston also lies along the route of the proposed Interstate 69 NAFTA superhighway that would link Canada, the U.S. industrial Midwest, Texas, and Mexico. Other spoke freeways either planned or under construction include the Fort Bend Parkway, Hardy Toll Road, Crosby Freeway, and the future Alvin Freeway. Houston's freeway system is monitored by Houston TranStar—a partnership of four government agencies that are responsible for providing transportation and emergency management services to the region. Houston TranStar was the first center in the nation to combine transportation and emergency management centers, and the first to bring four agencies (Texas Department of Transportation, Harris County, Texas, Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County, Texas and the City of Houston) together to share their resources. About Houston TranStar. Houston TranStar. 2008. Retrieved on 2008-02-17. METRO light rail along the Main Street Corridor in Downtown The Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County, Texas, or METRO, provides public transportation in the form of buses, light rail, and lift vans. METRO's various forms of public transportation still do not connect many of the suburbs to the greater city. METRO began light rail service on January 1, 2004 with the inaugural track running about 8 miles (13 km) from the , which traverses through the and terminates at . METRO is currently in the design phase of a 10-year expansion plan that will add five more lines to the existing system. Amtrak, the national rail passenger system, provides service to Houston via the , which stops at a train station on the north side of the downtown area. The station saw 14,891 boardings and alightings in fiscal year 2008. George Bush Intercontinental Airport Houston is served by two commercial airports, serving 52 million passengers in 2007. The larger is George Bush Intercontinental Airport (IAH), the eighth-busiest in the United States for total passengers, and sixteenth-busiest worldwide. Bush Intercontinental currently ranks third in the United States for non-stop domestic and international service with 182 destinations. About George Bush Intercontinental Airport. Houston Airport System. Retrieved on 2007-01-11. In 2006, the United States Department of Transportation named George Bush Intercontinental Airport the fastest-growing of the top ten airports in the United States. Houston is the headquarters of Continental Airlines and Bush Intercontinental is Continental Airlines' largest hub. The airline offers more than 700 daily departures from Houston. Facts and Figures. Houston Airport System. 2007. Retrieved on 2007-02-28. In early 2007, Bush Intercontinental Airport was named a model "port of entry" for international travelers by U.S. Customs and Border Protection. The Houston Air Route Traffic Control Center stands on the George Bush Intercontinental Airport grounds. The second-largest commercial airport in Houston is William P. Hobby Airport (named Houston International Airport until 1967). The airport operates primarily small to medium-haul flights and is the only airport in Houston served by Southwest Airlines and JetBlue Airways. Houston's aviation history is showcased in the 1940 Air Terminal Museum located in the old terminal building on the west side of Hobby Airport. The airport has been recognized with two awards for being one of the top five performing airports in the world and for customer service by Airports Council International. Houston's third municipal airport is Ellington Airport (a former U.S. Air Force base) that is used by military, government, NASA, and general aviation sectors. The Federal Aviation Administration and the state of Texas selected the "Houston Airport System as Airport of the Year" for 2005, largely because of its multi-year, $3.1 billion airport improvement program for both major airports in Houston. Healthcare and medicine Texas Medical Center Houston is the seat of the internationally renowned Texas Medical Center, which contains the world's largest concentration of research and healthcare institutions. All 47 member institutions of the Texas Medical Center are non-profit organizations. They provide patient and preventive care, research, education, and local, national, and international community well-being. Employing more than 73,600 people, institutions at the medical center include 13 hospitals and two specialty institutions, two medical schools, four nursing schools, and schools of dentistry, public health, pharmacy, and virtually all health-related careers. It is where one of the first—and still the largest—air emergency service, Life Flight, was created, and a very successful inter-institutional transplant program was developed. More heart surgeries are performed at the Texas Medical Center than anywhere else in the world. Some of the academic and research health institutions in the center include Baylor College of Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, The Methodist Hospital, Texas Children's Hospital and The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center. The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center has consistently ranked as one of the top two U.S. hospitals specializing in cancer care by U.S. News & World Report since 1990. Houston is the home of the Menninger Clinic,a renowned psychiatric treatment center affiliated with Baylor College of Medicine and The Methodist Hospital System. Education There are 17 school districts serving the city. The Houston Independent School District (HISD) is the seventh-largest in the United States. "Houston ISD automates lunch", eSchool News online, 2006-02-21. Retrieved on 2006-12-16. HISD has 112 campuses that serve as magnet or vanguard schools—specializing in such disciplines as health professions, visual and performing arts, and the sciences. There are also many charter schools that are run separately from school districts. In addition, some public school districts also have their own charter schools. The Houston area is home to more than 300 private schools, Private Schools. Houston-Texas-Online. 2004. Retrieved on 2007-01-10. Houston Private Schools. HoustonAreaWeb.com. Retrieved on 2007-01-10. School Art Participation. Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo. Retrieved on 2007-01-10. many of which are accredited by Texas Private School Accreditation Commission (TEPSAC) recognized agencies. The Houston Area Independent Schools, or HAIS, offer education from a variety of different religious as well as secular viewpoints. About HAIS. Houston Area Independent Schools. 2007. Retrieved on 2007-03-27. The Houston area Catholic schools are operated by the Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston. Colleges and universities University of Houston Houston has more than sixty colleges, universities and other degree-granting institutions with a total enrollment of approximately 360,000 students. There are four public universities engaged in research and development in Houston. The University of Houston (UH) is Texas's third-largest public research university with more than 36,000 students from 130 countries. With over 300 degree programs and 40 research centers and institutes, UH is the flagship institution of the University of Houston System (UHS) and is one of the most ethnically diverse research university in the country. Its law school——ranked No. 55 (Tier 1) of the "Top 100 Law Schools" in 2008 by U.S. News & World Report. UH has the only optometry school and one of six pharmacy programs in Texas. The (UHCL) is an upper-level university with 89 degree programs and an enrollment of 7,700 located adjacent to NASA's Johnson Space Center. The (UHD) is an open admissions university with an enrollment of 12,300 offering 46 degree programs. Texas Southern University (TSU) is a historically black four-year university with a pharmacy program and the Thurgood Marshall School of Law. Houston is home to many private institutions of higher learning—ranging from liberal arts colleges to a nationally recognized Tier One research university. is one of the leading teaching and research universities of the United States and ranked the nation's 17th-best overall university by U.S. News & World Report. Two private liberal arts colleges are Houston Baptist University (HBU) and University of St. Thomas (UST). Founded in 1923, South Texas College of Law is a private and oldest law school in Houston located in Downtown. "A Chronological History of South Texas College of Law", South Texas College of Law, 2005. Retrieved on 2006-12-16. There are three community college districts with campuses in Houston. The Houston Community College System serves most of Houston and is the fourth-largest community college system in the United States. "Houston Community College Distance Education Program," Houston Community College. Retrieved on 2006-12-16. The northwestern through northeastern parts of the city are served by various campuses of the Lone Star College System while the southeastern portion of Houston is served by San Jacinto College. Notes Further reading Houston, New York Has a Problem, City Journal, Summer 2008 172 Years of Historic Houston Houstonhistory.com. 2007. Retrieved on 2007-01-13. A thumb-nail history of the city of Houston, Texas, from its founding in 1836 to the year 1912, published 1912, hosted by the Portal to Texas History, republished 2007 by Copano Bay Press. True stories of old Houston and Houstonians: historical and personal sketches / by S. O. Young., published 1913, hosted by the Portal to Texas History, republished 2007 by Copano Bay Press. . . . External links City of Houston official website 172 Years of Historic Houston Greater Houston Convention & Visitors Bureau Greater Houston Partnership Greater Houston Transportation and Emergency Management Center Houston Public Library official website Houston Downtown District Uptown Houston District Midtown Houston District Houston Airport System Greater Houston Preservation Alliance Houston Wilderness Organization be-x-old:Г'юстан | Houston |@lemmatized houston:304 fourth:5 large:43 city:126 united:39 state:51 within:4 texas:76 u:25 census:6 estimate:7 population:22 million:12 area:36 square:9 mile:11 seat:4 harris:7 county:10 economic:5 center:50 metropolitan:11 found:3 august:4 brother:2 augustus:2 chapman:2 allen:6 john:5 kirby:2 land:12 near:4 bank:5 incorporate:2 june:5 name:5 president:4 republic:2 former:5 general:6 sam:7 command:1 battle:3 san:3 jacinto:3 take:2 place:8 km:5 east:2 establish:3 burgeon:1 port:18 railroad:4 industry:13 combine:3 oil:14 discovery:2 induce:1 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2,787 | Banda_Islands | The Banda Islands () are a volcanic group of ten small volcanic islands in the Banda Sea, about 140 km south of Seram island and about 2000 km east of Java, and are part of the Indonesian province of Maluku. The main town and administrative centre is Bandanaira, located on the island of the same name. They rise out of 4–6 km deep ocean and have a total land area of approximately 180 km². They have a population of about 15,000. Until the mid 19th century the Banda Islands were the world's only source of the spices nutmeg and mace, produced from the nutmeg tree. The islands are also popular destinations for scuba diving and snorkeling. History Pre-European history Before the arrival of Europeans, Banda had an oligarchic form of government led by orang kaya ('powerful men') and the Bandanese had an active and independent role in trade throughout the archipelago. Banda was the world's only source of nutmeg and mace, spices used as flavourings, medicines, preserving agents, that were at the time highly valued in European markets; sold by Arab traders to the Venetians for exorbitant prices. The traders did not divulge the exact location of their source and no European was able to deduce their location. The first written accounts of Banda are in Suma Oriental, a book written by the Portuguese apothecary Tomé Pires who based in Malacca from 1512 to 1515 but who visited Banda several times. On his first visit, he interviewed the Portuguese and the far more knowledgeable Malay sailors in Malacca. He estimated the early sixteenth century population to be 2500-3000. He reported the Bandanese as being part of an Indonesia-wide trading network and the only native Malukan long-range traders taking cargo to Malacca, although shipments from Banda were also being made by Javanese traders. In addition to the production of nutmeg and mace, Banda maintained significant entrepot trade; goods that moved through Banda included cloves from Ternate and Tidore in the north, bird of paradise feathers from the Aru Islands and western New Guinea, massoi bark for traditional medicines, and slaves. In exchange, Banda predominantly received rice and cloth; namely light cotton batik from Java, calicoes from India and ikat from the Lesser Sundas. In 1603, an average quality sarong-sized cloth traded for eighteen kilograms of nutmeg. Some of these textiles were then on-sold, ending up in Halmahera and New Guinea. Coarser ikat from the Lesser Sundas was traded for sago from the Kei Islands, Aru [[and Seram. ]] The Portuguese In August 1511 on behalf of the king of Portugal, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca, which at the time was the hub of Asian trade. In November of that year, after having secured Malacca and learning of the Bandas' location, Albuquerque sent an expedition of three ships led by his good friend António de Abreu to find them. Malay pilots, either recruited or forcibly conscripted, guided them via Java, the Lesser Sundas and Ambon to Banda, arriving in early 1512. Hannard (1991), page 7; The first Europeans to reach the Bandas, the expedition remained in Banda for about one month, purchasing and filling their ships with Banda's nutmeg and mace, and with cloves in which Banda had a thriving entrepôt trade. Hannard (1991), page 7 D'Abreu sailed through Ambon while his second in command Francisco Serrão went ahead towards Maluku islands, was shipwrecked and ended up in Ternate. Distracted by hostilities else where in the archipelago, such as Ambon and Ternate, the Portuguese did not return until 1529; a Portuguese trader Captain Garcia landed troops in the Bandas. Five of the Banda islands were within gunshot of each other and he realised that a fort on the main island Neira would give him full control of the group. The Bandanese were however hostile to such a plan and their warlike antics were both costly and tiresome to Garcia whose men were attacked when they attempted to build a fort. From then on, the Portuguese were infrequent visitors to the islands preferring to buy their nutmeg from traders in Malacca. Unlike other eastern Indonesian islands, such as Ambon, Solor, Ternate and Morotai, the Bandanese displayed no enthusiasm for Christianity or the Europeans who brought it in the sixteenth century, and no serious attempt was made to Christianise the Bandanese. Maintaining their independence, the Bandanese never allowed the Portuguese to build a fort or a permanent post in the islands. Ironically though, it was this lack of ports which brought the Dutch to trade at Banda instead of the clove islands of Ternate and Tidore. The coming of the Dutch Fort Nassau in 1646 The Dutch followed the Portuguese to Banda but were to have a much more dominating and lasting presence. Dutch-Bandanese relations were mutually resentful from the outset, with Holland’s first merchants complaining of Bandanese reneging on agreed deliveries and price, and cheating on quantity and quality. For the Bandanese, on the other hand, although they welcomed another competitor purchaser for their spices, the items of trade offered by the Dutch—heavy woollens, and damasks, unwanted manufactured goods, for example—were usually unsuitable in comparison to traditional trade products. The Javanese, Arab and Indian, and Portuguese traders for example brought indispensable items along steel knives, copper, medicines and prized Chinese porcelain. As much as the Dutch disliked dealing with the Bandanese, the trade was a highly profitable one with spices selling for 300 times the purchase price in Banda. This amply justified the expense and risk in shipping them to Europe. It is even likely that the resulting boom helped finance an artistic renaissance in Holland supporting the likes of Rembrandt van Rijn. The allure of such profits saw an increasing number of Dutch expeditions; it was soon seen that competition from each would eat into all their profits. Thus the competitors united to form the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) (the ‘Dutch East Indies Company). Hannard (1991) Until the early seventeenth century the Bandas were ruled by a group of leading citizens, the orang kaya (literally 'rich men'), each of these was a head of district. At the time nutmeg was one of the "fine spices" kept expensive in Europe by disciplined manipulation of the market, but a desirable commodity for Dutch traders in the ports of India as well; economic historian Fernand Braudel notes that India consumed twice as much as Europe Braudel 1984, p. 219 . A number of Banda’s orang kaya were persuaded (or deceived) by the Dutch to sign a treaty granting the Dutch a monopoly on spice purchases. Even though the Bandanese had little understanding of the significance of the treaty known as 'The Eternal Compact', or that not all Bandanese leaders had signed, it would later be used to justify Dutch troops being brought in to defend their monopoly. The Bandanese soon grew tired of the Dutch actions; the low prices, the useless trade items, and the enforcement of Dutch sole rights to the purchase of the coveted spices. The end of the line for the Bandanese came in 1609 when the Dutch reinforced Fort Nassau on Bandanaira Island. The orang kaya called a meeting with the Dutch admiral and forty of his highest-ranking men and ambushed and killed them all. English-Dutch rivalry Fort Belgica in 1824 While Portuguese and Spanish activity in the region had weakened, the English had built fortified trading posts on tiny Ai and Run islands, ten to twenty kilometres from the main Banda Islands. With the British paying higher prices, they were significantly undermining Dutch aims for a monopoly, and as Dutch-British tensions increased, the Dutch built, in 1611, the larger and more strategic Fort Belgica, above Fort Nassau. In 1615, the Dutch invaded Ai with 900 men and the British retreated to Run where they regrouped. That same night, the British launched a surprise counter-attack on Ai retaking the island and killing 200 Dutchmen. A year later, a much stronger Dutch force attacked Ai which itself was initially hampered by cannonade fire, but after a month of siege the defenders ran out of ammunition and were slaughtered. The Dutch strengthened the fort renaming it 'Fort Revenge'. European control of the Bandas was still contested up until 1667 when, under the Treaty of Breda (1667), the British traded the small island of Run for Manhattan, giving the Dutch full control of the Banda archipelago. On August 9th, 1810. The British captured the Islands and accepted their surrender from the Dutch after engaging the Fortifications in action by Captain C. Cole, with the British warships of HMS Caroline thirty-six guns, HMS Piedmontaise, thirty-eight guns, Captain Foote and the HMS Barracouta, eighteen guns. Captain Kenah, having on board about one hundred men of the Madras European Regiment after sailing from Madras with supplies for Amboyna, recently captured by the British. Massacre of the Bandanese Newly-appointed VOC governor-general Jan Pieterszoon Coen set about enforcing Dutch monopoly over the Banda’s spice trade. In 1621 well-armed soldiers were landed on Bandaneira Island and within a few days they had also occupied neighbouring and larger Lontar. The orang kaya were forced at gunpoint to sign an unfeasibly arduous treaty, one that was in fact impossible to keep, thus providing Coen an excuse to use superior Dutch force against the Bandanese. The Dutch quickly noted a number of alleged violations of the new treaty, in response to which Coen launched a punitive massacre. Japanese mercenaries were hired to deal with the orang kaya, forty of whom were beheaded with their heads impaled and displayed on bamboo spears. The population of the Banda Islands prior to Dutch conquest is generally estimated to have been around 13-15,000 people, some of whom were Malay and Javanese traders, as well as Chinese and Arabs. The actual numbers of Bandanese who were killed, forcibly expelled or fled the islands in 1621 remain uncertain. But readings of historical sources suggest around one thousand Bandanese likely survived in the islands, and were spread throughout the nutmeg groves as forced labourers Hanna 1991, p.54; Loth 1995, p.18 . The Dutch subsequently re-settled the islands with imported slaves, convicts and indentured labourers (to work the nutmeg plantations), as well as immigrants from elsewhere in Indonesia. Most survivors fled as refugees to the islands of their trading partners, in particular Keffing and Guli Guli in the Seram Laut chain and Kei Besar. Shipments of surviving Bandanese were also sent to Batavia (Jakarta) to work as slaves in developing the city and its fortress. Some 530 of these individuals were later returned to the islands because of their much-needed expertise in nutmeg cultivation (something sorely lacking among newly-arrived Dutch settlers) Hanna 1991, p.55; Loth 1995, p.24) . Whereas up until this point the Dutch presence had been simply as traders, that was sometimes treaty-based, the Banda conquest marked the start of the first overt colonial rule in Indonesia albeit under the auspices of the VOC. VOC Monopoly Banda Neira in 1724 Having decimated the islands' population, Coen divided the productive land of approximately half a million nutmeg trees into sixty-eight 1.2-hectare perken. These land parcels were then handed to Dutch planters known as perkeniers of which 34 were on Lontar, 31 on Ai and 3 on Neira. With few Bandanese left to work them, slaves from elsewhere were brought in. Now enjoying control of the nutmeg production the VOC paid the perkeniers 1/122nd of the Dutch market price for nutmeg, however, the perkeniers still profited immensely building substantial villas with opulent imported European decorations. The outlying island of Run was harder for the VOC to control and they exterminated all nutmeg trees there. The production and export of nutmeg was a VOC monopoly for almost two hundred years. Fort Belgica, one of many forts built by the Dutch East India Company, is one of the largest remaining European forts in Indonesia. Religious violence between Christians and Muslims, spilling over from intercommunal conflict in Ambon affected the islands in the late 1990s. The disturbance and resulting deaths damaged the previously prosperous tourism industry.Witton, Patrick (2003). Indonesia. Melbourne: Lonely Planet. ISBN 1-74059-154-2 Geography There are seven inhabited islands and several that are uninhabited. The inhabited islands are: The active volcano Gunung Api in the Banda Islands Main group: Banda Neira, or Naira, the island with the administrative capital and a small airfield (as well as accommodation for visitors). Gunung Api, an active volcano with a peak of about 650 m Banda Besar is the largest island, 12 km long and 3 km wide. It has three main settlements, Lonthoir, Selamon and Waer. Some distance to the west: Pulau Ai or Pulau Ay Pulau Run, further west again. To the east: Pulau Pisang, also known as Syahrir. To the southeast: Pulau Hatta formerly Rosengain or Rozengain Others, possibly small and/or uninhabited, are: Nailaka, a short distance northeast of Pulau Run Batu Kapal Manuk, an active volcano Pulau Keraka or Pulau Karaka (Crab Island) Manukang Hatta Reef Bandanese culture Most of the present-day inhabitants of the Banda Islands are descended from migrants and plantation labourers from various parts of Indonesia, as well as from indigenous Bandanese. They have inherited aspects of pre-colonial ritual practices in the Bandas that are highly valued and still performed, giving them a distinct and very local cultural identity. In addition, Bandanese speak a distinct Malay Dialect which has several features distinguishing it from Ambonese Malay, the better-known and more widespread dialect that forms a lingua franca in central and southeast Maluku. Bandanese Malay is famous in the region for its unique, lilting accent, but it also has a number of locally identifying words in its lexicon, many of them borrowings or loanwords from Dutch. Gunung Api as seen from Fort Belgica on Banda Neira.Note people at left. Examples : fork : forok (Dutch vork) ants : mir (Dutch mier) spoon : lepe (Dutch lepel) difficult : lastek (Dutch lastig) floor : plur (Dutch vloer) porch: stup (Dutch stoep) Banda Malay shares many Portuguese loanwords with Ambonese Malay not appearing in the national language, Indonesian. But it has comparatively fewer, and they differ in pronunciation. Examples : turtle : tetaruga (Banda Malay); totoruga (Ambonese Malay) (from Portuguese tartaruga) throat : gargontong (Banda Malay); gargangtang (Ambonese Malay) (from Portuguese garganta) Finally, and most noticeably, Banda Malay uses some distinct pronouns. The most immediately distinguishing is that of the second person singular familiar form of address: pané. The descendants of some of the Bandanese who fled Dutch conquest in the seventeenth century live in the Kai Islands (Kepulauan Kei) to the east of the Banda group, where a version of the original Banda language is still spoken in the villages of Banda Eli and Banda Elat on Kai Besar Island. While long integrated into Kei Island society, residents of these settlements continue to value the historical origins of their ancestors. See also History of Indonesia Maluku Islands List of Indonesian earthquakes 1938 Banda Sea earthquake 2005 Banda Sea earthquake List of volcanoes in Indonesia#Banda_Sea External links Capture of Banda Neira by the British Royal Navy 1810 Banda Sea Islands moist deciduous forests References General Braudel, Fernand. 1984. The Perspective of the World. In: Civilization and Capitalism, vol. III. Lape, Peter. 2000. Political dynamics and religious change in the late pre-colonial Banda Islands, Eastern Indonesia. World Archaeology 32(1):138-155. Loth, Vincent C. 1995. Pioneers and perkerniers:the Banda Islands in the seventeenth century. Cakalele 6: 13-35. Villiers, John. 1981. Trade and society in the Banda Islands in the sixteenth century. Modern Asian Studies 15(4):723-750. Winn, Phillip. 1998. Banda is the Blessed Land: sacred practice and identity in the Banda Islands, Maluku. Antropologi Indonesia 57:71-80. Winn, Phillip. 2001. Graves, groves and gardens: place and identity in central Maluku, Indonesia. The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology 2 (1):24-44. Winn, Phillip. 2002. Everyone searches, everyone finds: moral discourse and resource use in an Indonesian Muslim community. Oceania 72(4):275-292. Further reading The author Giles Milton's book Nathaniel's Nutmeg: How One Man's Courage Changed the Course of History (Sceptre books, Hodder and Stoughton, London) gives a vivid account of aspects of the struggle for possession of the Banda Islands, in particular the earliest British role. 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2,788 | Carolina_parakeet | The Carolina Parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis Conuropsis, from "Conurus", an obsolete name of the genus Aratinga (cf. conure and see also Synonyms above), and "-opsis", "of similar appearance to". carolinensis, "from Carolina". ) was the only parrot species native to the eastern United States. It was found from the Ohio Valley to the Gulf of Mexico, and lived in old forests along rivers. It was the only species at the time classified in the genus Conuropsis. It was called puzzi la née ("head of yellow") or pot pot chee by the Seminole and kelinky in Chikasha (Snyder & Russell, 2002). The last wild specimen was killed in Okeechobee County in Florida in 1904, and the last captive bird died at the Cincinnati Zoo on February 21, 1918. This was the male specimen "Incas", who died within a year of his mate "Lady Jane." Coincidentally, Incas died in the same aviary cage as the last Passenger Pigeon, "Martha", had done nearly four years prior. "Birder's World" It was not until 1939, however, that it was determined that the Carolina parakeet had become extinct. At some date between 1937 and 1955, three parakeets resembling this species were sighted and filmed in the Okefenokee Swamp of Georgia. However, the American Ornithologists Union concluded after analyzing the film, that they had probably filmed feral parakeets. Additional reports of the bird were made in Okeechobee County in Florida until the late 1920s, but these are not supported by specimens. The species may have appeared as a very rare vagrant in places as far north as Southern Ontario. A few bones, including a pygostyle found at the Calvert Site in Southern Ontario came from the Carolina Parakeet. The possibility remains open that this particular specimen was taken to Southern Ontario for ceremonial purposes (Godfrey 1986). Reasons for extinction Illustration by Charles R. Knight. The Carolina Parakeet died out because of a number of different threats. To make space for more agricultural land, large areas of forest were cut down, taking away its habitat. The colorful feathers (green body, yellow head, and red around the bill) were in demand as decorations in ladies' hats, and the birds were kept as pets. Even though the birds bred easily in captivity, little was done by owners to increase the population of tamed birds. Finally, they were killed in large numbers because farmers considered them a pest, although many farmers valued them for controlling invasive cockleburs. It has also been hypothesized that the introduced honeybee helped contribute to its extinction by taking a good number of the bird's nesting sites. A factor that contributed to their extinction was the unfortunate flocking behavior that led them to return immediately to a location where some of the birds had just been killed. This led to even more being shot by hunters as they gathered about the wounded and dead members of the flock. Illustration by Gustav Mutzel. This combination of factors extirpated the species from most of its range until the early years of the 20th century. However, the last populations were not much hunted for food or feathers, nor did the farmers in rural Florida consider them a pest as the benefit of the birds' love of cockleburs clearly outweighed the minor damage they did to the small-scale garden plots. The final extinction of the species is somewhat of a mystery, but the most likely cause seems to be that the birds succumbed to poultry disease, as suggested by the rapid disappearance of the last, small, but apparently healthy and reproducing flocks of these highly social birds. If this is true, the very fact that the Carolina Parakeet was finally tolerated to roam in the vicinity of human settlements proved its undoing (Snyder & Russell, 2002). The Louisiana subspecies of the Carolina Parakeet, C. c. ludovicianus, ludovicianus, "from Louisiana". was slightly different in color to the parent species, being more bluish-green and generally of a somewhat subdued coloration, and went extinct in much the same way, but at a somewhat earlier date (early 1910s). The Appalachians separated these birds from the eastern C. c. carolinensis In museums A stuffed specimen of Conuropsis carolinensis at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences About 720 skins and 16 skeletons are housed in museums around the world (Luther, 1996). Of the 49 supposed egg specimens McKinley (1977) accepted 20 as certainly and 7 as probably correctly assigned to this species. Five eggs collected in Florida on April 30, 1927 were controversially attributed to this species (FSM 87234 - 3 eggs - and 89434 - 2 eggs). These are not accepted as valid by McKinley (1977) based on their small size and early date of collection, but molecular analysis could possibly determine whether these are in fact eggs of Carolina Parakeets. Mounted specimen of Conuropsis carolinensis, Museum Wiesbaden, Germany A fossil parrot, Conuropsis fratercula fratercula, from Latin for "little brother". This was a smaller bird, three-quarters the size of the Carolina Parakeet. , was described based on a single humerus from the Miocene Sheep Creek Formation (possibly late Hemingfordian, c.16 mya, possibly later) of Snake Creek, Nebraska (Wetmore, 1926). However, it is not altogether certain that this species is correctly assigned to Conuropsis (Olson, 1985), but some authors consider it a paleosubspecies of the Carolina Parakeet. This is almost certainly erroneous given the long distance in time, and probably based on a misunderstanding of the original description. Therein, C. fratercula is called a "new subspecies" but fratercula is consistently applied as a species-level name throughout the publication, and the fossil is correctly referenced thus in the discussion: "The present species is of peculiar interest as it represents the first known parrotlike bird to be described as a fossil from North America." (Wetmore 1926; italics added) Parakeets in the United States Although the extinction of the Carolina Parakeet represents the irrevocable loss of eastern North America's only truly indigenous parrot, from the 1960s onwards, an introduced species, Myiopsitta monacha, the Monk Parakeet, or Quaker Parrot, began establishing flocks in several states, including New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Illinois, Ohio (Cincinnati area), Kentucky (Northern/Greater Cincinnati area), Florida, Louisiana, and Texas through accidental or intentional releases. Smaller feral colonies of several other species of parrots and parakeets have since established themselves in various locations of the USA, including downtown Pasadena, California. Large flocks are well noted in the San Diego region, particularly in El Cajon, Ca. and the Ocean Beach area. The African Lovebird has established itself in parts of the Phoenix, Arizona metro area. The Mexican Thick-billed Parrot also used to range into Arizona before its population declined in the 20th century; attempts to reintroduce them have until now not met with any lasting success. References Database entry includes justification for why this species is listed as extinct Godfrey, W. Earl (1986). The Birds of Canada. (Revised Edition) Page 303. National Museum of Natural History. ISBN 0-660-10758-9 Luther, Dieter (1996): Die ausgestorbenen Vögel der Welt (Die neue Brehm-Bücherei 424) (4th ed.). [in German] Westarp-Wissenschaften, Magdeburg; Spektrum, Heidelberg. ISBN 3-89432-213-6 McKinley, Daniel (1977): Eggs of the Carolina Parakeet: a preliminary review. Bird-Banding 48(1): 25–37. PDF fulltext Olson, Storrs L. (1985): The fossil record of birds: Section VIII. K. Psittaciformes. In: Farner, D.S.; King, J.R. & Parkes, Kenneth C. (eds.): Avian Biology 8: 120-121. Academic Press, New York. Snyder, N. F. R. & Russell, K. (2002): Carolina Parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis). In: Poole, A. & Gill, F. (eds.): The Birds of North America 667. The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA. Wetmore, Alexander (1926): Descriptions of additional fossil birds from the Miocene of Nebraska. American Museum Novitates 211: 1-5. PDF fulltext Footnotes External links World Parrot Trust Parrot Encyclopedia - Species Profiles The Carolina Parrot from John James Audubon's Birds of America 3D view of specimen RMNH 110.043 at Naturalis, Leiden (requires QuickTime browser plugin). | Carolina_parakeet |@lemmatized carolina:15 parakeet:17 conuropsis:8 carolinensis:6 conurus:1 obsolete:1 name:2 genus:2 aratinga:1 cf:1 conure:1 see:1 also:3 synonyms:1 opsis:1 similar:1 appearance:1 parrot:9 specie:15 native:1 eastern:3 united:2 state:3 find:2 ohio:2 valley:1 gulf:1 mexico:1 live:1 old:1 forest:2 along:1 river:1 time:2 classify:1 call:2 puzzi:1 la:1 née:1 head:2 yellow:2 pot:2 chee:1 seminole:1 kelinky:1 chikasha:1 snyder:3 russell:3 last:5 wild:1 specimen:8 kill:3 okeechobee:2 county:2 florida:5 captive:1 bird:20 die:6 cincinnati:3 zoo:1 february:1 male:1 incas:1 within:1 year:3 mate:1 lady:2 jane:1 coincidentally:1 inca:1 aviary:1 cage:1 passenger:1 pigeon:1 martha:1 nearly:1 four:1 prior:1 birder:1 world:3 however:4 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2,789 | Deed_poll | A deed poll (plural: deeds poll) is a legal document binding only to a single person or several persons acting jointly to express an active intention. It is, strictly speaking, not a contract because it binds only one party and expresses an intention instead of a promise. The most common use is a name change through a deed of change of name (often simply referred to as a deed poll). A similar document to a Deed Poll is a Master Title Deed, used mainly for recording a change of title, eg from Mrs to Dr etc. Deeds poll and Master Title Deeds are used for this purpose in countries including England and Wales, the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland, New Zealand (until September 1995), Evidence of Identity Standard NZ Department of Internal Affairs, June 2006, Version 1.0, ISBN 0–478–24462–2, page 123) Hong Kong and Singapore However, in some jurisdictions, you may simply start using a new name without any formal legal process being required. The usual requirement is that the new name must be used exclusively and that the change was not made with intent to defraud. Such jurisdictions did include Australia where name change by deed poll was possible, but now is done by completing a "Change of Name form" . In England and Wales a Deed Poll can also be used to change a child's name However a child's name should only be changed by Deed Poll if all parental responsibility holders have given their consent for the name change to take place. . This involves the child's parents executing the Deed Poll on the child's behalf. Another common use is to partition land into different sections. For example, a piece of land may be partitioned (or carved out), by a deed poll, into Section A and the Remaining Portion thereof. This form of deed poll is commonly used in Hong Kong, where the development and redevelopment of land is rapid and flourishing. Origin of the term The term "deed", also known in this context as a "specialty", is common to signed written agreements not supported by consideration: the seal (even if not a literal wax seal but only a notional one referred to by the execution formula, "signed, sealed and delivered", or even merely "executed as a deed") is deemed to be the consideration necessary to support the contract between the parties to the deed. "Poll" is an archaic legal term referring to documents with straight edges; these distinguished a deed binding only one person from one affecting more than a single person (an "indenture", so named during the time when such agreements would be written out repeatedly on a single sheet, then irregularly torn or "indented" so that each party had a document with corresponding tears, to discourage forgery). References External links Enrolment of Deeds and other Documents at the Department of Constitutional Affairs website. | Deed_poll |@lemmatized deed:19 poll:12 plural:1 legal:3 document:5 bind:3 single:3 person:4 several:1 act:1 jointly:1 express:2 active:1 intention:2 strictly:1 speak:1 contract:2 one:4 party:3 instead:1 promise:1 common:3 use:8 name:10 change:9 often:1 simply:2 refer:3 similar:1 master:2 title:3 mainly:1 record:1 eg:1 mr:1 dr:1 etc:1 purpose:1 country:1 include:2 england:2 wale:1 republic:1 ireland:2 northern:1 new:3 zealand:1 september:1 evidence:1 identity:1 standard:1 nz:1 department:2 internal:1 affair:2 june:1 version:1 isbn:1 page:1 hong:2 kong:2 singapore:1 however:2 jurisdiction:2 may:2 start:1 without:1 formal:1 process:1 require:1 usual:1 requirement:1 must:1 exclusively:1 make:1 intent:1 defraud:1 australia:1 possible:1 complete:1 form:2 wales:1 also:2 child:4 parental:1 responsibility:1 holder:1 give:1 consent:1 take:1 place:1 involve:1 parent:1 execute:2 behalf:1 another:1 partition:2 land:3 different:1 section:2 example:1 piece:1 carve:1 remain:1 portion:1 thereof:1 commonly:1 development:1 redevelopment:1 rapid:1 flourish:1 origin:1 term:3 know:1 context:1 specialty:1 sign:2 write:2 agreement:2 support:2 consideration:2 seal:3 even:2 literal:1 wax:1 notional:1 execution:1 formula:1 deliver:1 merely:1 deem:1 necessary:1 archaic:1 straight:1 edge:1 distinguish:1 affect:1 indenture:1 time:1 would:1 repeatedly:1 sheet:1 irregularly:1 tear:2 indented:1 correspond:1 discourage:1 forgery:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 enrolment:1 constitutional:1 website:1 |@bigram deed_poll:12 hong_kong:2 england_wales:1 external_link:1 |
2,790 | Neutron_star | A neutron star is a type of remnant that can result from the gravitational collapse of a massive star during a Type II, Type Ib or Type Ic supernova event. Such stars are composed almost entirely of neutrons, which are subatomic particles without electrical charge and roughly the same mass as protons. Neutron stars are very hot and are supported against further collapse because of the Pauli exclusion principle. This principle states that no two neutrons (or any other fermionic particle) can occupy the same quantum state simultaneously. A typical neutron star has a mass between 1.35 and about 2.1 solar masses, with a corresponding radius of about 12 km if the Akmal-Pandharipande-Ravenhall (APR) Equation of state (EOS) is used. A neutron star's density increases as its mass increases, and, for most Equations of State (EOS), its radius decreases in a non-linear way. For example, EOS radius predictions for a 1.35 M star are: FPS 10.8 km, UU 11.1 km, APR 12.1 km, and L 14.9 km. For a more massive 2.1 M star radius predictions are: FPS undefined, UU 10.5 km, APR 11.8 km, and L 15.1 km. (NASA mass radius graph) In contrast, the Sun's radius is about 60,000 times that. Neutron stars have overall densities predicted by the APR EOS of 3.7 (2.6 times Solar density) to 5.9 kg/m³ (4.1 times Solar density), 3.7 kg m-3 derives from mass 2.68 kg / volume of star of radius 12 km; 5.9 kg m-3 derives from mass 4.2 kg / volume of star radius 11.9 km which compares with the approximate density of an atomic nucleus of 3 kg/m³. NB 3 kg/m³ is 3 g/cm³ The neutron star's density varies from below 1 kg/m³ in the crust increasing with depth to above 6 or 8 kg/m³ deeper inside. In general, compact stars of less than 1.44 solar masses, the Chandrasekhar limit, are white dwarfs; above 2 to 3 solar masses (the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit), a quark star might be created, however this is uncertain. Gravitational collapse will always occur on any star over 5 solar masses, inevitably producing a black hole. Formation As the core of a massive star is compressed during a supernova, and collapses into a neutron star, it retains most of its angular momentum. Since it has only a tiny fraction of its parent's radius (and therefore its moment of inertia is sharply reduced), a neutron star is formed with very high rotation speed, and then gradually slows down. Neutron stars are known to have rotation periods between about 1.4 ms to 30 seconds. The neutron star's compactness also gives it very high surface gravity, up to 7 m/s² with typical values of a few m/s² (that is more than 1011 times of that of Earth). One measure of such immense gravity is the fact that neutron stars have an escape velocity of around 100,000 km/s, about 33% of the speed of light. Matter falling onto the surface of a neutron star would be accelerated to tremendous speed by the star's gravity. The force of impact would likely destroy the object's component atoms, rendering all its matter identical, in most respects, to the rest of the star Properties Gravitational light deflection at a neutron star, Due to relativistic light deflection more than half of the surface is visible (each chequered patch here represents 30 degrees by 30 degrees). The radius of the star depicted here is double the size of its Schwarzschild-Radius. The gravitational field at the star's surface is about 2 times stronger than on Earth. The escape velocity is about 100,000 km/s, which is about one third the speed of light. Such a strong gravitational field acts as a gravitational lens and bends the radiation emitted by the star such that parts of the normally invisible rear surface become visible. German Wikipedia (in German): The gravitational binding energy of a neutron star with two solar masses is equivalent to the total conversion of one solar mass to energy (From the law of mass-energy equivalence, E=mc2). That energy was released during the supernova explosion. A neutron star is so dense that one teaspoon (5 millilitres) of its material would have a mass over 5×1012 kg. 5 ml of a 10 km radius neutron star's average density material masses 5 cm3 x 1.1 x 10^12kgcm-3, or 5.5x10^12 kg or 5500000000 tonne, about 15 times the total mass of the human world population;5 ml of a 20 km radius star would mass 5 cm3 x 8.35 x 10^10kgcm-3, or about 400 million tonne or about the mass of all humans The resulting force of gravity is so strong that if an object were to fall from just one meter high it would only take one microsecond to hit the surface of the neutron star, and would do so at around 2000 kilometres per second, or 4.3 million miles per hour. Miscellaneous Facts The temperature inside a newly formed neutron star is from around 1011 to 1012 Kelvin. However, the huge number of neutrinos it emits carries away so much energy that the temperature falls within a few years to around 1 million Kelvin.. Even at 1 million Kelvin, most of the light generated by a neutron star is in X-rays. In visible light, neutron stars probably radiate approximately the same energy in all parts of visible spectrum, and therefore appear white. The equation of state (EOS) for a Neutron star is still not known . It is assumed that it differs significantly from that of a White Dwarf, whose EOS is that of a degenerate gas which can be described in close agreement with special relativity. However, with a neutron star the increased effects of general relativity can no longer be ignored. Several EOS have been proposed (FPS, UU, APR, L, SLy, and others) and current research is still attempting to constrain the theories to make predictions of neutron star matter. NASA. Neutron Star Equation of State Science Retrieved 2008-09-15 This means that the relation between density and mass is not fully known, and this causes uncertainties in radius estimates. For example, a 1.5 solar mass neutron star could have a radius of 10.7, 11.1, 12.1 or 15.1 kilometres (for EOS FPS, UU, APR or L respectively). All EOS show that neutronium compresses with pressure. Structure A model of a neutron star's internal structure Cross-section of neutron star. Densities are in terms of ρ0 the saturation nuclear matter density, where nucleons begin to touch. Patterned after Haensel et al. , page 12 Current understanding of the structure of neutron stars is defined by existing mathematical models, but it might be possible to infer through studies of neutron-star oscillations. Similar to asteroseismology for ordinary stars, the inner structure might be derived by analyzing observed frequency spectra of stellar oscillations. On the basis of current models, the matter at the surface of a neutron star is composed of ordinary atomic nuclei as well as electrons. It is possible that atomic cores at the surface are iron nuclei, due to iron's high binding energy per nucleon. V. S. Beskin (1999). "Radiopulsars". УФН. T.169, №11, p.1173-1174 It is also possible that heavy element cores, such as Iron, simply drown beneath the surface, leaving only light nuclei like Helium and Hydrogen cores. If the surface temperature exceeds 106 Kelvin (as in the case of a young pulsar), the surface should be fluid instead of the solid phase observed in cooler neutron stars (temperature <106 Kelvin). The "atmosphere" of the star is roughly one meter thick, and its dynamic is fully controled by the stars magnetic field. Below the atmosphere one encounters a solid "crust". This crust is extremely hard and very smooth (with maximum surface irregularities of ~5 mm), because of the extreme gravitational field. neutron star Proceeding inward, one encounters nuclei with ever increasing numbers of neutrons; such nuclei would decay quickly on Earth, but are kept stable by tremendous pressures. Proceeding deeper, one comes to a point called neutron drip where free neutrons leak out of nuclei. In this region, there are nuclei, free electrons, and free neutrons. The nuclei become smaller and smaller until the core is reached, by definition the point where they disappear altogether. The exact nature of the superdense matter in the core is still not well understood. While this theoretical substance is referred to as neutronium in science fiction and popular literature, the term "neutronium" is rarely used in scientific publications, due to ambiguity over its meaning. The term neutron-degenerate matter is sometimes used, though not universally as the term incorporates assumptions about the nature of neutron star core material. Neutron star core material could be a superfluid mixture of neutrons with a few protons and electrons, or it could incorporate high-energy particles like pions and kaons in addition to neutrons, or it could be composed of strange matter incorporating quarks heavier than up and down quarks, or it could be quark matter not bound into hadrons. (A compact star composed entirely of strange matter would be called a strange star.) However, so far, observations have neither indicated nor ruled out such exotic states of matter. History of discoveries The first direct observation of a neutron star in visible light. The neutron star is RX J185635-3754. The neutron subatomic particle was discovered in 1932 by Sir James Chadwick. By bombarding the hydrogen atoms in paraffin with emissions from beryllium that was itself being bombarded with alpha particles, he demonstrated that these emissions contained a neutral particle that had about the same mass as a proton. In 1935 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery. In 1933, Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky proposed the existence of the neutron star, only a year after Chadwick's discovery of the neutron. Even before the discovery of neutron, in 1931, neutron stars were anticipated by Lev Landau, who wrote about stars where "atomic nuclei come in close contact, forming one gigantic nucleus" (published in 1932: ). However, the widespread opinion that Landau predicted neutron stars proves to be wrong: for details, see P. Haensel, A. Y. Potekhin, & D. G. Yakovlev (2007). Neutron Stars 1: Equation of State and Structure (New York: Springer), page 2. In seeking an explanation for the origin of a supernova, they proposed that the neutron star is formed in a supernova. Supernovae are suddenly appearing dying stars in the sky, whose luminosity in the optical might outshine an entire galaxy for days to weeks. Baade and Zwicky correctly proposed at that time that the release of the gravitational binding energy of the neutron stars powers the supernova: "In the supernova process mass in bulk is annihilated". If the central part of a massive star before its collapse contains (for example) 3 solar masses, then a neutron star of 2 solar masses can be formed. The binding energy E of such a neutron star, when expressed in mass units via the mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc², is 1 solar mass. It is ultimately this energy that powers the supernova. In 1965, Antony Hewish and Samuel Okoye discovered "an unusual source of high radio brightness temperature in the Crab Nebula". This source turned out to be the Crab Nebula neutron star that resulted from the great supernova of 1054 CE. In 1967, Iosif Shklovsky examined the X-ray and optical observations of Scorpius X-1 and correctly concluded that the radiation comes from a neutron star at the stage of accretion. In 1967, Jocelyn Bell and Antony Hewish discovered regular radio pulses from the location of the Hewish and Okoye radio source. This pulsar was later interpreted as originating from an isolated, rotating neutron star. The energy source of the pulsar is the rotational energy of the neutron star. The largest number of known neutron stars are of this type (See Rotation-powered pulsar). In 1971, Riccardo Giacconi, Herbert Gursky, Ed Kellogg, R. Levinson, E. Schreier, and H. Tananbaum discovered 4.8 second pulsations in an X-ray source in the constellation Centaurus, Cen X-3. They interpreted this as resulting from a rotating hot neutron star. The energy source is gravitational and results from a rain of gas falling onto the surface of the neutron star from a companion star or the interstellar medium (See Accretion-powered pulsar). In 1974, Antony Hewish was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his decisive role in the discovery of pulsars" without Samuel Okoye and Jocelyn Bell who shared in the discovery. Rotation Neutron stars rotate extremely rapidly after their creation due to the conservation of angular momentum; like a spinning ice skater pulling in their arms, the slow rotation of the original star's core speeds up as it shrinks. A newborn neutron star can rotate several times a second; sometimes, when they orbit a companion star and are able to accrete matter from it, they can increase this to several hundred times per second, distorting into an oblate spheroid shape despite their own immense gravity (an equatorial bulge). Over time, neutron stars slow down because their rotating magnetic fields radiate energy; older neutron stars may take several seconds for each revolution. The rate at which a neutron star slows its rotation is usually constant and very small: the observed rates of decline are between 10-10 and 10-21 seconds for each rotation. Therefore, for a typical slow down rate of 10-15 seconds per rotation, a neutron star now rotating in 1 second will rotate in 1.000003 seconds after a century, or 1.03 seconds after 1 million years. A "starquake", or "stellar quake" Sometimes a neutron star will spin up or undergo a glitch, a rapid and unexpected increase of its rotation speed (of a similar, extremely small, scale as the constant slowing down). Glitches are thought to be the effect of a starquake - as the rotation of the star slows down, the shape becomes more spherical. Due to the stiffness of the 'neutron' crust, this happens as discrete events as the crust ruptures, similar to tectonic earthquakes. After the starquake, the star will have a smaller equatorial radius, and since angular momentum is conserved, rotational speed increases. Recent work, however, suggests that a starquake would not release sufficient energy for a neutron star glitch; it has been suggested that glitches may instead be caused by transitions of vortices in the superfluid core of the star from one metastable energy state to a lower one. Neutron stars may "pulse" due to particle acceleration near the magnetic poles, which are not aligned with the rotation axis of the star. Through mechanisms not yet entirely understood, these particles produce coherent beams of radio emission. External viewers see these beams as pulses of radiation whenever the magnetic pole sweeps past the line of sight. The pulses come at the same rate as the rotation of the neutron star, and thus, appear periodic. Neutron stars which emit such pulses are called pulsars. The most rapidly rotating neutron star currently known, PSR J1748-2446ad, rotates at 716 revolutions per second. [astro-ph/0601337] A Radio Pulsar Spinning at 716 Hz A recent paper reported the detection of an X-ray burst oscillation (an indirect measure of spin) at 1122 Hz from the neutron star XTE J1739-285. University of Chicago Press - Millisecond Variability from XTE J1739285 - 10.1086/513270 However, at present this signal has only been seen once, and should be regarded as tentative until confirmed in another burst from this star. Population and distances At present there are about 2000 known neutron stars in the Milky Way and the Magellanic Clouds, the majority of which have been detected as radio pulsars. The population of neutron stars is concentrated along the disk of the Milky Way although the spread perpendicular to the disk is fairly large. The reason for this spread is that neutron stars are born with high speeds (400 km/s) as a result of an imparted momentum-kick from an asymmetry during the supernova explosion process. The closest known neutron star is RX J185635-3754. Observations in 2000 using the Hubble Space Telescope show it to be about 200 light-years away in the southern constellation Corona Australis. While its surface temperature is 600,000 K, it radiates primarily in the X-Ray region. That and its small diameter makes it a very dim object of 26th magnitude in visable light. Hubble Sees Bare Neutron Star Streaking Across Space Binary neutron stars About 5% of all neutron stars are members of a binary system. The formation and evolution scenario of binary neutron stars is a rather exotic and complicated process. Tauris & van den Heuvel (2006), in Compact Stellar X-ray Sources. Eds. Lewin and van der Klis, Cambridge University Press http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006csxs.book..623T The companion stars may be either ordinary stars, white dwarfs or other neutron stars. According to modern theories of binary evolution it is expected that neutron stars also exist in binary systems with black hole companions. Such binaries are expected to be prime sources for emitting gravitational waves. Neutron stars in binary systems often emit X-rays which is caused by the heating of material (gas) accreted from the companion star. Material from the outer layers of a (bloated) companion star is sucked towards the neutron star as a result of its very strong gravitational field. As a result of this process binary neutron stars may also coalesce into black holes if the accretion of mass takes place under extreme conditions. Compact Stellar X-ray Sources (2006). Eds. Lewin and van der Klis, Cambridge University Press Subtypes Neutron star Protoneutron star (PNS), theorized. Neutrino-Driven Protoneutron Star Winds, Todd A. Thompson. Radio-quiet neutron stars Radio loud neutron star Single pulsars–general term for neutron stars that emit directed pulses of radiation towards us at regular intervals (due to their strong magnetic fields). Rotation-powered pulsar ("radio pulsar") Magnetar–a neutron star with an extremely strong magnetic field (1000 times more than a regular neutron star), and long rotation periods (5 to 12 seconds). Soft gamma repeater (SGR) Anomalous X-ray pulsar (AXP) Binary pulsars Low-mass X-ray binaries (LMXB) Intermediate-mass X-ray binaries (IMXB) High-mass X-ray binaries (HMXB) Accretion-powered pulsar ("X-ray pulsar") X-ray burster–a neutron star with a low mass binary companion from which matter is accreted resulting in irregular bursts of energy from the surface of the neutron star. Millisecond pulsar (MSP) ("recycled pulsar") Sub-millisecond pulsar Binary Sub-Millisecond Pulsar and Rotating Core Collapse Model for SN1987A, Nakamura, T., 1989. Exotic star Quark star–currently a hypothetical type of neutron star composed of quark matter, or strange matter. As of 2008, there are three candidates. Preon star–currently a hypothetical type of neutron star composed of preon matter. As of 2008, there is no evidence for the existence of preons. Q star–currently a hypothetical type of heavy neutron star with an exotic state of matter. As of 2008, there is no evidence for their existence. Giant nuclei A neutron star has some of the properties of an atomic nucleus, including density, and being made of nucleons. In popular scientific writing, neutron stars are therefore sometimes described as giant nuclei. However, in other respects, neutron stars and atomic nuclei are quite different. In particular, a nucleus is held together by the strong force, while a neutron star is held together by gravity. It is generally more useful to consider such objects as stars. Examples of neutron stars PSR J0108-1431 - closest neutron star LGM-1 - the first recognized radio-pulsar PSR B1257+12 - the first neutron star discovered with planets (a millisecond pulsar) SWIFT J1756.9-2508 - a millesecond pulsar with a stellar-type companion with planetary range mass (below brown dwarf) PSR B1509-58 source of the "Hand of God" photo shot by the Chandra X-ray Observatory. See also Fuzzball (string theory) Magnetar Millisecond pulsar Neutron Neutron stars in fiction Neutronium, Neutron-degenerate matter Preon matter, Preon-degenerate matter Pulsar Quark matter, Quark-degenerate matter Radio quiet neutron stars Rotating radio transients References External links Introduction to neutron stars Neutron Stars for Undergraduates and its Errata NASA on pulsars "NASA Sees Hidden Structure Of Neutron Star In Starquake". SpaceDaily.com. April 26 2006 "Mysterious X-ray sources may be lone neutron stars". New Scientist. "Massive neutron star rules out exotic matter". New Scientist. According to a new analysis, exotic states of matter such as free quarks or BECs do not arise inside neutron stars. "Neutron star clocked at mind-boggling velocity". New Scientist. 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2,791 | Fyodor_Dostoyevsky | Fyodor Mikhaylovich Dostoyevsky (, Fёdor Mihajlovič Dosto'evskij , sometimes transliterated Dostoevsky, Dostoievsky, Dostojevskij, Dostoevski or Dostoevskii loose phonetic pronunciation: fyo-dor mi-(c)hail-o-vitch dos-tai-evs-key) ( – ) was a Russian writer, essayist and philosopher, perhaps most recognized today for his novels Crime and Punishment and The Brothers Karamazov. Dostoyevsky is considered to be one of Europe's major novelists. His literary output explores human psychology in the troubled political, social and spiritual context of 19th-century Russian society. Considered by many as a founder or precursor of 20th century existentialism, his Notes from Underground (1864), written in the embittered voice of the anonymous "underground man", was called by Walter Kaufmann the "best overture for existentialism ever written." Existentialism from Dostoyevsky to Sartre Walter Kaufmann ISBN 0452009308 page 12 Biography Family origins Mariinsky Hospital in Moscow, Dostoyevsky's birthplace. Dostoyevsky's mother was Russian. His paternal ancestors were from a place called Dostoyeve, natives of the guberniya (province) of Minsk, not far from Pinsk. The last name of the paternal family is assumed to be 'Rdishev' prior to its assumption of the township eponym 'Dostoyevsky'. According to one account, Dostoyevsky's paternal ancestors were Polonized nobles (szlachta) of Russian origin and went to war bearing Polish Radwan Coat of Arms. Dostoyevsky (Polish "Dostojewski") Radwan armorial bearings were drawn for the Dostoyevsky Museum in Moscow. Early life Dostoyevsky was the second of six children born to Mikhail and Maria Dostoyevsky The Best Short Stories of Dostoevsky: Translated with an Introduction by David Magarshack. New York: The Modern Library, Random House; 1971. . Dostoyevsky's father Mikhail was a retired military surgeon and a violent alcoholic, who had practiced at the Mariinsky Hospital for the Poor in Moscow. The hospital was located in one of the city's worst areas; local landmarks included a cemetery for criminals, a lunatic asylum, and an orphanage for abandoned infants. This urban landscape made a lasting impression on the young Dostoyevsky, whose interest in and compassion for the poor, oppressed and tormented was apparent. Though his parents forbade it, Dostoyevsky liked to wander out to the hospital garden, where the suffering patients sat to catch a glimpse of sun. The young Dostoyevsky loved to spend time with these patients and hear their stories. There are many stories of Dostoyevsky's father's despotic treatment of his children. After returning home from work, he would take a nap while his children, ordered to keep absolutely silent, stood by their slumbering father in shifts and swatted at any flies that came near his head. However, it is the opinion of Joseph Frank, a biographer of Dostoyevsky, that the father figure in The Brothers Karamazov is not based on Dostoyevsky's own father. Letters and personal accounts demonstrate that they had a fairly loving relationship. The young Dostoyevsky, in a portrait of Trutovsky, 1847 Shortly after his mother died of tuberculosis in 1837, Dostoyevsky and his brother were sent to the Military Engineering Academy at Saint Petersburg. Fyodor's father died in 1839. Though it has never been proven, it is believed by some that he was murdered by his own serfs. Notes from the Underground Coradella Collegita Bookshelf edition, About the Author. According to one account, they became enraged during one of his drunken fits of violence, restrained him, and poured vodka into his mouth until he drowned. A similar account appears in "Notes From the Underground." Another story holds that Mikhail died of natural causes, and a neighboring landowner invented the story of his murder so that he might buy the estate inexpensively. Some have argued that his father's personality had influenced the character of Fyodor Pavlovich Karamazov, the "wicked and sentimental buffoon", father of the main characters in his 1880 novel The Brothers Karamazov, but such claims fail to withstand the scrutiny of many critics. Dostoyevsky had epilepsy and his first seizure occurred when he was nine years old. epilepsy.com Famous authors with epilepsy. Epileptic seizures recurred sporadically throughout his life, and Dostoyevsky's experiences are thought to have formed the basis for his description of Prince Myshkin's epilepsy in his novel The Idiot and that of Smerdyakov in The Brothers Karamazov, among others. At the Saint Petersburg Academy of Military Engineering, Dostoyevsky was taught mathematics, a subject he despised. However, he also studied literature by Shakespeare, Pascal, Victor Hugo and E.T.A. Hoffmann. Though he focused on areas different from mathematics, he did well on the exams and received a commission in 1841. That year, he is known to have written two romantic plays, influenced by the German Romantic poet/playwright Friedrich Schiller: Mary Stuart and Boris Godunov. The plays have not been preserved. Dostoyevsky described himself as a "dreamer" when he was a young man, and at that time revered Schiller. However, in the years during which he yielded his great masterpieces, his opinions changed and he sometimes poked fun at Schiller. Beginnings of a literary career Dostoyevsky was made a lieutenant in 1842, and left the Engineering Academy the following year. He completed a translation into Russian of Balzac's novel Eugénie Grandet in 1843, but it brought him little or no attention. Dostoyevsky started to write his own fiction in late 1844 after leaving the army. In 1845, his first work, the epistolary short novel, Poor Folk, published in the periodical The Contemporary (Sovremennik), was met with great acclaim. As legend has it, the editor of the magazine, poet Nikolai Nekrasov, walked into the office of liberal critic Vissarion Belinsky and announced, "a new Gogol has arisen!" Belinsky, his followers, and many others agreed. After the novel was fully published in book form at the beginning of the next year, Dostoyevsky became a literary celebrity at the age of 24. In 1846, Belinsky and many others reacted negatively to his novella, The Double, a psychological study of a bureaucrat whose alter ego overtakes his life. Dostoyevsky's fame began to cool. Much of his work after Poor Folk met with mixed reviews and it seemed that Belinsky's prediction that Dostoyevsky would be one of the greatest writers of Russia was mistaken. Exile in Siberia Statue of Dostoyevsky in Omsk. Dostoyevsky was arrested and imprisoned on April 23, 1849 for being a part of the liberal intellectual group, the Petrashevsky Circle. Tsar Nicholas I after seeing the Revolutions of 1848 in Europe was harsh on any sort of underground organization which he felt could put autocracy into jeopardy. On November 16 that year Dostoyevsky, along with the other members of the Petrashevsky Circle, was sentenced to death. After a mock execution, in which he and other members of the group stood outside in freezing weather waiting to be shot by a firing squad, Dostoyevsky's sentence was commuted to four years of exile with hard labor at a katorga prison camp in Omsk, Siberia. Dostoyevsky described later to his brother the sufferings he went through as the years in which he was "shut up in a coffin." Describing the dilapidated barracks which, as he put in his own words, "should have been torn down years ago", he wrote: He was released from prison in 1854, and was required to serve in the Siberian Regiment. Dostoyevsky spent the following five years as a private (and later lieutenant) in the Regiment's Seventh Line Battalion, stationed at the fortress of Semipalatinsk, now in Kazakhstan. While there, he began a relationship with Maria Dmitrievna Isayeva, the wife of an acquaintance in Siberia. They married in February 1857, after her husband's death. Post-prison maturation as a writer Dostoyevsky (right) and the Kazakhstani scholar Shokan Walikhanuli in 1859 Dostoyevsky's experiences in prison and the army resulted in major changes in his political and religious convictions. Firstly, his ordeal somehow caused him to become disillusioned with 'Western' ideas; he repudiated the contemporary Western European philosophical movements, and instead paid greater tribute in his writing to traditional, rural-based, rustic Russian 'values' exemplified in the Slavophil concept of sobornost. But even more significantly, he had what his biographer Joseph Frank describes as a conversion experience in prison, which greatly strengthened his Christian, and specifically Orthodox, faith (Dostoyevsky would later depict his conversion experience in the short story, The Peasant Marey (1876)). Dostoyevsky now displayed a much more critical stance on contemporary European philosophy and turned with intellectual rigour against the Nihilist and Socialist movements; and much of his post-prison work—particularly the novel, The Possessed and the essays, The Diary of a Writer—contains both criticism of socialist and nihilist ideas, as well as thinly-veiled parodies of contemporary Western-influenced Russian intellectuals (Timofey Granovsky), revolutionaries (Sergey Nechayev), and even fellow novelists (Ivan Turgenev). Dostoevsky the Thinker James P. Scanlan. Dostoevsky the Thinker. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002. xiii, pp. 251 Dostoevsky's View of Evil Reprinted from In Communion, April 1998. In social circles, Dostoyevsky allied himself with well-known conservatives, such as the statesman Konstantin Pobedonostsev. His post-prison essays praised the tenets of the Pochvennichestvo movement, a late-19th century Russian nativist ideology closely aligned with Slavophilism. Dostoyevsky's post-prison fiction abandoned the European-style domestic melodramas and quaint character studies of his youthful work in favor of dark, more complex story-lines and situations, played-out by brooding, tortured characters—often styled partly on Dostoyevsky himself—who agonized over existential themes of spiritual torment, religious awakening, and the psychological confusion caused by the conflict between traditional Russian culture and the influx of modern, Western philosophy. This, nonetheless, does not take from the debt which Dostoyevsky owed to the earlier (Western influenced within Russia Gogol) writers whose work grew from out of the irrational and anti-authoritarian spiritualist ideas contained within the Romantic movement which had immediately preceded Dostoyevsky in Europe. However, Dostoyevsky's major novels focused on the idea that utopias and positivist ideas being utilitarian were unrealistic and unobtainable. Later literary career Dostoyevsky in 1863. In December 1859, Dostoyevsky returned to Saint Petersburg, where he ran a series of unsuccessful literary journals, Vremya (Time) and Epokha (Epoch), with his older brother Mikhail. The latter had to be shut down as a consequence of its coverage of the Polish Uprising of 1863. That year Dostoyevsky traveled to Europe and frequented the gambling casinos. There he met Apollinaria Suslova, the model for Dostoyevsky's "proud women," such as the two characters named Katerina Ivanovna, in Crime and Punishment and The Brothers Karamazov. Dostoyevsky was devastated by his wife's death in 1864, which was followed shortly thereafter by his brother's death. He was financially crippled by business debts; furthermore, he made the voluntary decision to assume the responsibility of his deceased brother's outstanding debts, and he also provided for his wife's son from her earlier marriage and his brother's widow and children. Dostoyevsky sank into a deep depression, frequenting gambling parlors and accumulating massive losses at the tables. Dostoyevsky in 1872 Dostoyevsky suffered from an acute gambling compulsion as well as from its consequences. By one account Crime and Punishment, possibly his best known novel, was completed in a mad hurry because Dostoyevsky was in urgent need of an advance from his publisher. He had been left practically penniless after a gambling spree. Dostoyevsky wrote The Gambler simultaneously in order to satisfy an agreement with his publisher Stellovsky who, if he did not receive a new work, would have claimed the copyrights to all of Dostoyevsky's writings. Motivated by the dual wish to escape his creditors at home and to visit the casinos abroad, Dostoyevsky traveled to Western Europe. There, he attempted to rekindle a love affair with Suslova, but she refused his marriage proposal. Dostoyevsky was heartbroken, but soon met Anna Grigorevna Snitkina, a twenty-year-old stenographer. Shortly before marrying her in 1867, he dictated The Gambler to her. This period resulted in the writing of what are generally considered to be his greatest books. From 1873 to 1881 he published the Writer's Diary, a monthly journal full of short stories, sketches, and articles on current events. The journal was an enormous success. Dostoyevsky is also known to have influenced and been influenced by the philosopher Vladimir Sergeyevich Solovyov. Solovyov is noted as the inspiration for the characters Ivan Karamazov and Alyosha Karamazov. Zouboff, Peter, Solovyov on Godmanhood: Solovyov’s Lectures on Godmanhood Harmon Printing House: Poughkeepsie, New York, 1944; see Czeslaw Milosz’s introduction to Solovyov’s War, Progress and the End of History. Lindisfarne Press: Hudson, New York 1990. In 1877, Dostoyevsky gave the keynote eulogy at the funeral of his friend, the poet Nekrasov, to much controversy. On June 8, 1880, shortly before he died, he gave his famous Pushkin speech at the unveiling of the Pushkin monument in Moscow. az.lib.ru In his later years, Fyodor Dostoyevsky lived for a long time at the resort of Staraya Russa in northwestern Russia, which was closer to Saint Petersburg and less expensive than German resorts. He died on February 9 (January 28 O.S.), 1881 of a lung hemorrhage associated with emphysema and an epileptic seizure. He was interred in Tikhvin Cemetery at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in Saint Petersburg. Forty thousand mourners attended his funeral. Dostoevsky, Fyodor; Introduction to The Idiot, Wordsworth Ed. Ltd, 1996. His tombstone reads "Verily, Verily, I say unto you, Except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone: but if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit." from John 12:24, which is also the epigraph of his final novel, The Brothers Karamazov. Works and influence Dostoyevsky in 1879 Dostoyevsky's influence has been acclaimed by a wide variety of writers. American novelist Ernest Hemingway cited Dostoyevsky as a major influence on his work in his autobiographical novella A Moveable Feast. In a book of interviews with Arthur Power (Conversations with James Joyce), James Joyce praised Dostoyevsky's influence: In her essay The Russian Point of View, Virginia Woolf stated that, Dostoyevsky displayed a nuanced understanding of human psychology in his major works. He created an opus of vitality and almost hypnotic power, characterized by feverishly dramatized scenes where his characters are frequently in scandalous and explosive atmospheres, passionately engaged in Socratic dialogues. The quest for God, the problem of Evil and suffering of the innocents haunt the majority of his novels. Dostoyevsky beside the Library Moscow Dostoyevsky beside the birthplace Moscow His characters fall into a few distinct categories: humble and self-effacing Christians (Prince Myshkin, Sonya Marmeladova, Alyosha Karamazov, Starets Zosima), self-destructive nihilists (Svidrigailov, Smerdyakov, Stavrogin, Ivan Karamazov, the underground man), cynical debauchees (Fyodor Karamazov, Dmitri Karamazov), and rebellious intellectuals (Raskolnikov, Ivan Karamazov, Ippolit); also, his characters are driven by ideas rather than by ordinary biological or social imperatives. In comparison with Tolstoy, whose characters are realistic, the characters of Dostoyevsky are usually more symbolic of the ideas they represent, thus Dostoyevsky is often cited as one of the forerunners of Literary Symbolism in specific Russian Symbolism (see Alexander Blok). Dostoyevsky's novels are compressed in time (many cover only a few days) and this enables the author to get rid of one of the dominant traits of realist prose, the corrosion of human life in the process of the time flux—his characters primarily embody spiritual values, and these are, by definition, timeless. Other obsessive themes include suicide, wounded pride, collapsed family values, spiritual regeneration through suffering (the most important motif), rejection of the West and affirmation of Russian Orthodoxy and Tsarism. Literary scholars such as Bakhtin have characterized his work as 'polyphonic': unlike other novelists, Dostoyevsky does not appear to aim for a 'single vision', and beyond simply describing situations from various angles, Dostoyevsky engendered fully dramatic novels of ideas where conflicting views and characters are left to develop unevenly into unbearable crescendo. Dostoyevsky's tomb at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery. Dostoyevsky and the other giant of late 19th century Russian literature, Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy, never met in person, even though each praised, criticized and influenced the other (Dostoyevsky remarked of Tolstoy's Anna Karenina that it was a "flawless work of art"; Henri Troyat reports that Tolstoy once remarked of Crime and Punishment that, "Once you read the first few chapters you know pretty much how the novel will end up"). There was, however, a meeting arranged, but there was a confusion about where the meeting place was and they never rescheduled. Tolstoy reportedly burst into tears when he learnt of Dostoyevsky's death. A copy of The Brothers Karamazov was found on the nightstand next to Tolstoy's deathbed at the Astapovo railway station. Since their time, the two are considered by the critics and public as two of the greatest novelists produced by the world. Dostoyevsky has also been noted as having expressed anti-Semitic sentiments. In the recent biography by Joseph Frank, The Mantle of the Prophet, Frank spent much time on A Writer's Diary—a regular column which Dostoyevsky wrote in the periodical The Citizen from 1873 to the year before his death in 1881. Frank notes that the Diary is "filled with politics, literary criticism, and pan-Slav diatribes about the virtues of the Russian Empire, [and] represents a major challenge to the Dostoyevsky fan, not least on account of its frequent expressions of antisemitism." Dostoevsky's leap of faith This volume concludes a magnificent biography which is also a cultural history. Orlando Figes. Sunday Telegraph (London). Pg. 13. September 29, 2002. Frank, in his foreword that he wrote for the book Dostoevsky and the Jews, attempts to place Dostoyevsky as a product of his time. Frank notes that Dostoyevsky did make antisemitic remarks, but that Dostoyevsky's writing and stance by and large was one where Dostoyevsky held a great deal of guilt for his comments and positions that were antisemitic. Dostoevsky and the Jews (University of Texas Press Slavic series) (Hardcover) 2 Joseph Frank, "Foreword" pg. xiv. by David I. Goldstein ISBN 0292715285 Steven Cassedy, for example, alleges in his book, Dostoevsky's Religion, that much of the points made that depict Dostoyevsky’s views as an anti-Semite, do so by denying that Dostoyevsky expressed support for the equal rights of and for the Russian Jewish population, a position that was not widely supported in Russia at the time. Cassedy also notes that this criticism of Dostoyevsky also appears to deny his sincerity in the statements that Dostoyevsky made, that he was for equal rights for the Russian Jewish populace, and the Serfs of his own country (since neither group at that point in history had equal rights). Cassedy further notes that the criticism maintains that Dostoyevsky was insincere when he stated that he did not hate Jewish people and was not an Anti-Semite. According to Cassedy, this position was maintained without taking into consideration Dostoyevsky's expressed desire to peacefully reconcile Jews and Christians into a single universal brotherhood of all mankind. In 2008, Dostoyevsky was elected to be one of 12 most notable personalities in Russian history by votes of Russia TV channel audience. His promoter in the TV show called Name of Russia was Russian Ambassador to NATO Dmitriy Rogozin. Dostoyevsky and Existentialism With the publication of Crime and Punishment in 1866, Fyodor Dostoyevsky became one of Russia's most prominent authors in the nineteenth century. Dostoyevsky has also been called one of the founding fathers of the philosophical movement known as existentialism. In particular, his Notes from Underground, first published in 1864, has been depicted as a founding work of existentialism. For Dostoyevsky, is the rebellion of the people against the idea that reason guides everything. And thus, reason is the ultimate principle of guidance for neither history nor mankind. Having been exiled to the city of Omsk (Siberia) in 1849, Dostoyevsky focused heavily on notions of suffering and despair in many of his works. Nietzsche referred to Dostoyevsky as "the only psychologist from whom I have something to learn: he belongs to the happiest windfalls of my life, happier even than the discovery of Stendhal." He said that Notes from the Underground "cried truth from the blood." According to Mihajlo Mihajlov's "The great catalyzer: Nietzsche and Russian neo-Idealism", Nietzsche constantly refers to Dostoyevsky in his notes and drafts throughout the winter of 1886-1887. Nietzsche also wrote abstracts of several of Dostoyevsky's works. Freud wrote an article titled Dostoevsky and Parricide that asserts that the greatest works in world literature are all about parricide (though he is critical of Dostoyevsky's work overall, the inclusion of The Brothers Karamazov in a set of the three greatest works of literature is remarkable). List of works Novels (1846) Bednye lyudi (Бедные люди); English translation: Poor Folk (1849) Netochka Nezvanova (Неточка Незванова); English translation: Netochka Nezvanova (1861) Unizhennye i oskorblennye (Униженные и оскорбленные); English translation: The Insulted and Humiliated (1862) Zapiski iz mertvogo doma (Записки из мертвого дома); English translation: The House of the Dead (1864) Zapiski iz podpolya (Записки из подполья); English translation: Notes from Underground (1866) Prestuplenie i nakazanie (Преступление и наказание); English translation: Crime and Punishment (1867) Igrok (Игрок); English translation: The Gambler (1869) Idiot (Идиот); English translation: The Idiot (1872) Besy (Бесы); English translation: The Possessed (1875) Podrostok (Подросток); English translation: The Raw Youth (1881) Brat'ya Karamazovy (Братья Карамазовы); English translation: The Brothers Karamazov Novellas and short stories (1846) Dvojnik (Двойник. Петербургская поэма); English translation: The Double: A Petersburg Poem (1847) Roman v devyati pis'mah (Роман в девяти письмах); English translation: Novel in Nine Letters (1847) "Gospodin Prokharchin" (Господин Прохарчин); English translation: "Mr. Prokharchin" (1847) "Hozyajka" (Хозяйка); English translation: "The Landlady" (1848) "Polzunkov" (Ползунков); English translation: "Polzunkov" (1848) "Slaboe serdze" (Слабое сердце); English translation: "A Weak Heart" (1848) "Chuzhaya zhena i muzh pod krovat'yu" (Чужая жена и муж под кроватью); English translation: "The Jealous Husband" (1848) "Chestnyj vor" (Честный вор); English translation:) "An Honest Thief" (1848) "Elka i svad'ba" (Елка и свадьба); English translation: "A Christmas Tree and a Wedding" (1848) Belye nochi (Белые ночи); English translation: White Nights (1857) "Malen'kij geroj" (Маленький герой); English translation: "The Little Hero" (1859) "Dyadyushkin son" (Дядюшкин сон); English translation: "The Uncle's Dream" (1859) Selo Stepanchikovo i ego obitateli (Село Степанчиково и его обитатели); English translation: The Village of Stepanchikovo (1862) "Skvernyj anekdot" (Скверный анекдот); English translation: "A Nasty Story" (1865) "Krokodil" (Крокодил); English translation: "The Crocodile" (1870) "Vechnyj muzh" (Вечный муж); English translation: "The Eternal Husband" (1873) "Bobok" (Бобок); English translation: "Bobok" (1876) "Krotkaja" (Кроткая); English translation: "A Gentle Creature" (1876) "Muzhik Marej" (Мужик Марей); English translation: "The Peasant Marey" (1876) "Mal'chik u Hrista na elke" (Мальчик у Христа на елке); English translation: "The Heavenly Christmas Tree" (1877) "Son smeshnogo cheloveka" (Сон смешного человека); English translation: "The Dream of a Ridiculous Man" Non-fiction Winter Notes on Summer Impressions (1863) A Writer's Diary (Дневник писателя) (1873–1881) See also Albert Camus Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Anti-Catholicism Determinism Existentialism Free will Hesychasm History of Eastern Christianity History of the Eastern Orthodox Church History of the Russian Orthodox Church Ivan Ilyin Jean-Paul Sartre Lev Shestov Mikhail Bakhtin Mikhail Epstein Negative theology Nihilism Nikolai Berdyaev Nikolai Lossky Nikolay Strakhov Philokalia Russian Philosophy Russian Orthodox Church Søren Kierkegaard Voluntarism Vasily Rozanov Vladimir Sergeyevich Solovyov References External links FyodorDostoevsky.com - The definitive Dostoevsky fan site: discussion forum, essays, e-texts, photos, biography, quotes, and links. Fyodor Dostoevsky's brief biography and works Selected Dostoevsky e-texts from Penn Librarys digital library project Full texts of some Dostoevsky's works in the original Russian Another site with full texts of Dostoevsky's works in Russian Fyodor Dostoyevsky - Biography, ebooks, quotations, and other resources Dostoevsky Research Station ALEXANDER II AND HIS TIMES: A Narrative History of Russia in the Age of Alexander II, Tolstoy, and Dostoevsky Dostoevsky, Joseph Frank. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1979-2003 (5 volumes). Dostoyevsky 'Bookweb' on literary website The Ledge, with suggestions for further reading. 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2,792 | MV_Tampa | The ship MV Tampa was built in Korea by Hyundai Heavy Industries for the carrying of shipping containers or cars. It was launched in 1984 and is currently owned by the Norwegian based Wilhelmsen Lines Shipowning. Tampa affair In August 2001, under Captain Arne Rinnan, a diplomatic dispute brewed between Australia, Norway, and Indonesia after Tampa had rescued 438 Afghans from a distressed fishing vessel in international waters. The Afghans wanted passage to nearby Christmas Island. The Australian government sought to prevent this by refusing Tampa entry into Australian waters, insisting on their disembarkment elsewhere, and deploying the SASR to board the ship. At the time of the incident, Tampa carried AUD$20 million worth of cargo and 27 crew. Nansen refugee award The crew of the Tampa received the Nansen Refugee Award for 2002 from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) for their efforts to follow international principles of saving people in distress at sea, despite repeated threats of imprisonment and confiscation of the ship from the Australian government. Cocaine smuggling bust In October 2006, the Tampa was one of two Wilhelmsen ships involved in a cocaine-smuggling operation intercepted by the New Zealand Customs Service and the Australian Federal Police. Twenty-seven kilograms of cocaine was allegedly attached to the side of the two cargo ships bound for Australia in purpose-built metal pods, although New Zealand authorities stated they did not believe the ship's crew or owners were involved. Use as Mythbusters test model In the 2006 episode "Whirlpool/Snowplow" of the TV show Mythbusters, a 1:350 scale model of the MV Tampa was assembled, weighted with lead shot to simulate a full load of cargo, and used as a scale scientific test bed vehicle for determining whether ocean whirlpools are capable of sinking a large container ship. References See also Children overboard affair Mandatory detention in Australia Ruddock v Vadarlis Further reading Decision of Justice North, Federal Court of Australia 11 September 2001 Decision of Full Court overturning decision of Justice North, 18 September 2001 David Marr & Marian Wilkinson Dark Victory. ISBN 1-74114-447-7 Ian McPhedran "The Amazing SAS". ISBN 0-7322-7981-X News.com.au: Reflections by Julian Burnside on Tampa with public comments published to coincide with 5 year anniversary of the event Daniel Ross, Violent Democracy, ch. 5. External links NauruWire, an Australia based site Update on status of detainees. Accessed 25 June 2005. MV Tampa Details of the MV Tampa from Wilhelmsen Lines Shipowning, Norway, the vessels owner. | MV_Tampa |@lemmatized ship:8 mv:4 tampa:11 build:2 korea:1 hyundai:1 heavy:1 industry:1 carrying:1 container:2 car:1 launch:1 currently:1 norwegian:1 base:2 wilhelmsen:3 line:2 shipowning:2 affair:2 august:1 captain:1 arne:1 rinnan:1 diplomatic:1 dispute:1 brew:1 australia:5 norway:2 indonesia:1 rescue:1 afghan:2 distressed:1 fishing:1 vessel:2 international:2 water:2 want:1 passage:1 nearby:1 christmas:1 island:1 australian:4 government:2 seek:1 prevent:1 refuse:1 entry:1 insist:1 disembarkment:1 elsewhere:1 deploy:1 sasr:1 board:1 time:1 incident:1 carry:1 aud:1 million:1 worth:1 cargo:3 crew:3 nansen:2 refugee:3 award:2 receive:1 united:1 nation:1 high:1 commissioner:1 unhcr:1 effort:1 follow:1 principle:1 save:1 people:1 distress:1 sea:1 despite:1 repeat:1 threat:1 imprisonment:1 confiscation:1 cocaine:3 smuggle:1 bust:1 october:1 one:1 two:2 involve:2 smuggling:1 operation:1 intercept:1 new:2 zealand:2 custom:1 service:1 federal:2 police:1 twenty:1 seven:1 kilogram:1 allegedly:1 attach:1 side:1 bound:1 purpose:1 metal:1 pod:1 although:1 authority:1 state:1 believe:1 owner:2 use:2 mythbusters:2 test:2 model:2 episode:1 whirlpool:2 snowplow:1 tv:1 show:1 scale:2 assemble:1 weight:1 lead:1 shot:1 simulate:1 full:2 load:1 scientific:1 bed:1 vehicle:1 determine:1 whether:1 ocean:1 capable:1 sink:1 large:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 child:1 overboard:1 mandatory:1 detention:1 ruddock:1 v:1 vadarlis:1 far:1 read:1 decision:3 justice:2 north:2 court:2 september:2 overturn:1 david:1 marr:1 marian:1 wilkinson:1 dark:1 victory:1 isbn:2 ian:1 mcphedran:1 amazing:1 sa:1 x:1 news:1 com:1 au:1 reflection:1 julian:1 burnside:1 public:1 comment:1 publish:1 coincide:1 year:1 anniversary:1 event:1 daniel:1 ross:1 violent:1 democracy:1 ch:1 external:1 link:1 nauruwire:1 site:1 update:1 status:1 detainee:1 access:1 june:1 detail:1 |@bigram mv_tampa:4 commissioner_refugee:1 external_link:1 |
2,793 | Politics_of_Indonesia | The politics of Indonesia takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Indonesia is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two People's Representative Councils. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The 1945 constitution provided for a limited separation of executive, legislative, and judicial power. The governmental system has been described as "presidential with parliamentary characteristics." King, Blair. A Inside Indonesia:Constitutional tinkering: The search for consensus is taking time] access date 2009-05-23 Following the Indonesian 1998 Revolution and the resignation of President Suharto, several political reforms were set in motion via amendments to the Constitution of Indonesia, which resulted in changes to all branches of government. Reform process Map showing the parties/organisations with the largest vote share per province in Indonesia's elections from 1971 to 2004. A constitutional reform process lasted from 1999 to 2001, with four constitutional amendments producing important changes. Denny Indrayana (2008), pp. 360-361 Among these are term limits of up to two five-year terms for the President and Vice President, and measures to institute checks and balances. The highest state institution is the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR), whose functions included electing the president and vice president (since 2004 the president has been elected directly by the people), establishing broad guidelines of state policy, and amending the constitution. The 695-member MPR includes all 550 members of the People's Representative Council (DPR) (the House of Representatives) plus 130 "regional representatives" elected by the twenty-six provincial parliaments and sixty-five appointed members from societal groups Denny Indrayana (2008), pp. 361-362 The DPR, which is the premier legislative institution, originally included 462 members elected through a mixed proportional/district representational system and thirty-eight appointed members of the armed forces (TNI) and police (POLRI). TNI/POLRI representation in the DPR and MPR ended in 2004. Societal group representation in the MPR was eliminated in 2004 through further constitutional change. Denny Indrayana (2008), pp. 293-296 Having served as rubberstamp bodies in the past, the DPR and MPR have gained considerable power and are increasingly assertive in oversight of the executive branch. Under constitutional changes in 2004, the MPR became a bicameral legislature, with the creation of the Dewan Perwakilan Daerah (DPD), in which each province is represented by four members, although its legislative powers are more limited than those of the DPR. Through his appointed cabinet, the president retains the authority to conduct the administration of the government. Denny Indrayana (2008), pp. 265, 361, 441 A general election in June 1999 produced the first freely elected national, provincial, and regional parliaments in over forty years. In October 1999 the MPR elected a compromise candidate, Abdurrahman Wahid, as the country's fourth president, and Megawati Sukarnoputri — a daughter of Sukarno, the country's first president — as the vice president. Megawati's PDI-P party had won the largest share of the vote (34%) in the general election, while Golkar, the dominant party during the Soeharto era, came in second (22%). Several other, mostly Islamic parties won shares large enough to be seated in the DPR. Further democratic elections took place in 2004 and 2009. laft|The Indonesian political system before and after the constitutional amendments Executive branch |President |Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono |PD |20 October 2004 |- |Vice-president |Jusuf Kalla |Golkar |20 October 2004 |} The president and vice president are selected by vote of the citizens for five-year terms. Prior to 2004, they were chosen by People's Consultative Assembly. The last election was held 20 September 2004. The president heads the United Indonesia Cabinet (Kabinet Indonesia Bersatu) The President of Indonesia is directlyelected for a maximum of two five-year terms, and is the head of state, commander-in-chief of Indonesian armed forces and responsible for domestic governance and policy-making and foreign affairs. The president appoints a cabinet, who do not have to be elected members of the legislature. Denny Indrayana (2008), pp. 361, 443, 440 Legislative branch The legislative building complex where the MPR, DPR and DPD meet The People's Representative Council (, DPR) has 550 members, elected for a five year term by proportional representation in multi-member constituencies. The other chamber of the People's Consultative Assembly(, MPR) is the Regional Representatives Council (, DPR). Following elections in 2004, the MPR became a bicameral parliament, with the creation of the DPD as its second chamber in an effort to increase regional representation. Denny Indrayana (2008), pp. 264-265, 367 Political parties and elections The General Election Committee (, KPU ) is the body responsible for running both parliamentary and presidential elections in Indonesia. Prior to the General Election of 2004, the KPU was made up of members who were also members of political parties, however members of the KPU must now be non-partisan. Judicial branch The Indonesian Supreme Court () is the highest level of the judicial branch. Its judges are appointed by the president. The Constitutional Court rules on constitutional and political matters (), while a Judicial Commission () oversees the judges. Denny Indrayana (2008), p266 - 267 Foreign relations During the regime of president Suharto, Indonesia built strong relations with the United States and had difficult relations with the People's Republic of China owing to Indonesia's anti-communist policies and domestic tensions with the Chinese community. It received international condemnation for its annexation of East Timor in 1978. Indonesia is a founding member of the Association of South East Asian Nations, and thereby a member of both ASEAN+3 and the East Asia Summit. Since the 1980s, Indonesia has worked to develop close political and economic ties between South East Asian nations, and is also influential in the Organization of the Islamic Conference. Indonesia was heavily criticized between 1998 and 1999 for allegedly suppressing human rights in East Timor, and for supporting violence against the East Timorese following the latter's secession and independence in 1999. Since 2001, the government of Indonesia has co-operated with the U.S. in cracking down on Islamic fundamentalism and terrorist groups. See also Government Administration in Indonesia Foreign relations of Indonesia List of Presidents of Indonesia List of Vice Presidents of Indonesia Flag of Indonesia Constitution of Indonesia References Further reading Denny Indrayana (2008) Indonesian Constitutional Reform 1999-2002: An Evaluation of Constitution-Making in Transition, Kompas Book Publishing, Jakarta ISBN 978-979-709-394-5 O'Rourke, Kevin. 2002. Reformasi: the struggle for power in post-Soeharto Indonesia. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-86508-754-8 Schwarz, Adam. 2000. A nation in waiting: Indonesia's search for stability''. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3650-3 External links Republic of Indonesia - National portal | Politics_of_Indonesia |@lemmatized politics:1 indonesia:24 take:3 place:2 framework:1 presidential:3 representative:7 democratic:2 republic:3 whereby:1 president:22 head:4 state:5 government:7 multi:2 party:7 system:4 executive:5 power:6 exercise:1 legislative:6 vest:1 two:3 people:8 council:4 judiciary:1 independent:1 legislature:3 constitution:5 provide:1 limited:2 separation:1 judicial:4 governmental:1 describe:1 parliamentary:2 characteristic:1 king:1 blair:1 inside:1 constitutional:9 tinkering:1 search:2 consensus:1 time:1 access:1 date:1 follow:3 indonesian:5 revolution:1 resignation:1 suharto:2 several:2 political:6 reform:4 set:1 motion:1 via:1 amendment:3 result:1 change:4 branch:6 process:2 map:1 show:1 organisation:1 large:3 vote:3 share:3 per:1 province:2 election:10 last:2 four:2 produce:2 important:1 denny:8 indrayana:8 pp:6 among:1 term:5 limit:1 five:5 year:5 vice:6 measure:1 institute:1 check:1 balance:1 high:2 institution:2 consultative:3 assembly:3 mpr:10 whose:1 function:1 include:3 elect:8 since:3 directly:1 establish:1 broad:1 guideline:1 policy:3 amend:1 member:14 dpr:9 house:1 plus:1 regional:4 twenty:1 six:1 provincial:2 parliament:3 sixty:1 appoint:5 societal:2 group:3 premier:1 originally:1 mixed:1 proportional:2 district:1 representational:1 thirty:1 eight:1 armed:1 force:2 tni:2 police:1 polri:2 representation:4 end:1 eliminate:1 serve:1 rubberstamp:1 body:2 past:1 gain:1 considerable:1 increasingly:1 assertive:1 oversight:1 become:2 bicameral:2 creation:2 dewan:1 perwakilan:1 daerah:1 dpd:3 represent:1 although:1 cabinet:3 retain:1 authority:1 conduct:1 administration:2 general:4 june:1 first:2 freely:1 national:2 forty:1 october:3 compromise:1 candidate:1 abdurrahman:1 wahid:1 country:2 fourth:1 megawati:2 sukarnoputri:1 daughter:1 sukarno:1 pdi:1 p:1 win:2 golkar:2 dominant:1 soeharto:2 era:1 come:1 second:2 mostly:1 islamic:3 enough:1 seat:1 far:2 laft:1 susilo:1 bambang:1 yudhoyono:1 pd:1 jusuf:1 kalla:1 select:1 citizen:1 prior:2 choose:1 hold:1 september:1 united:2 kabinet:1 bersatu:1 directlyelected:1 maximum:1 commander:1 chief:1 arm:1 responsible:2 domestic:2 governance:1 making:2 foreign:3 affair:1 building:1 complex:1 meet:1 constituency:1 chamber:2 effort:1 increase:1 committee:1 kpu:3 run:1 make:1 also:3 however:1 must:1 non:1 partisan:1 supreme:1 court:2 level:1 judge:2 rule:1 matter:1 commission:1 oversee:1 relation:4 regime:1 build:1 strong:1 difficult:1 china:1 owe:1 anti:1 communist:1 tension:1 chinese:1 community:1 receive:1 international:1 condemnation:1 annexation:1 east:6 timor:2 founding:1 association:1 south:2 asian:2 nation:3 thereby:1 asean:1 asia:1 summit:1 work:1 develop:1 close:1 economic:1 tie:1 influential:1 organization:1 conference:1 heavily:1 criticize:1 allegedly:1 suppress:1 human:1 right:1 support:1 violence:1 timorese:1 latter:1 secession:1 independence:1 co:2 operate:1 u:1 crack:1 fundamentalism:1 terrorist:1 see:1 list:2 flag:1 reference:1 read:1 evaluation:1 transition:1 kompas:1 book:1 publishing:1 jakarta:1 isbn:3 rourke:1 kevin:1 reformasi:1 struggle:1 post:1 crow:1 nest:1 nsw:1 allen:1 unwin:1 schwarz:1 adam:1 wait:1 stability:1 boulder:1 westview:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 portal:1 |@bigram judiciary_independent:1 constitutional_amendment:2 denny_indrayana:8 indrayana_pp:6 vice_president:6 consultative_assembly:3 bicameral_legislature:1 abdurrahman_wahid:1 president_megawati:2 megawati_sukarnoputri:1 commander_chief:1 foreign_affair:1 legislative_branch:1 proportional_representation:1 bicameral_parliament:1 presidential_election:1 judicial_branch:2 supreme_court:1 east_timor:2 east_timorese:1 islamic_fundamentalism:1 allen_unwin:1 westview_press:1 external_link:1 |
2,794 | Capybara | Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris (capybara). University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved on December 16, 2007. In page 57, Darwin says "The largest gnawing animal in the world, the Hydrochærus Capybara (the water-hog), is here also common." See it also in The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online ), also known as capibara, chigüire in Venezuela, ronsoco in Peru, chigüiro, and carpincho in Spanish, J Forero-Montana, J Betancur, J Cavelier. "Dieta del capibara Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris (cavia: Hydrochaeridae) en Caño Limón, Arauca, Colombia", Rev. biol. trop, Jun. 2003, vol.51, no.2, pp. 571–578. ISSN 0034-7744. PDF available (English translation) Capybara Natural History. JunglePhotos.com. Retrieved on December 16, 2007. "Trip to South America gives new meaning to outdoors life" from inRich.com (Link last retrieved/verified 17 January 2008) and capivara in Portuguese, is the largest living rodent in the world. Capybara. San Francisco Zoo. Retrieved on December 17, 2007. Its closest relatives are agouti, chinchillas, coyphillas, and guinea pigs. Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris). Chester Zoo (UK). Retrieved on December 17, 2007 Its common name, derived from Kapiÿva in the Guarani language, means "master of the grasses" Capybara. Bristol Zoo Gardens (UK). Retrieved on December 16, 2007. while its scientific name, hydrochaeris, is Greek for "water hog". Capybaras have heavy, barrel-shaped bodies and short heads with reddish-brown fur on the upper part of their body that turns yellowish-brown underneath. Adult capybaras may grow to in length, and weigh up to . Capybara Facts. Smithsonian National Zoological Park. Retrieved on December 16, 2007. Hattiesburg Zoo, Hattiesburg, Mississippi (Capybara exhibit marker) The Encyclopædia Britannica (1910) Capybara (from Google Books) Capybara. Palm Beach Zoo. Retrieved on December 17, 2007. The top recorded weight is 105.4 kg (232 lbs). http://www.waza.org/virtualzoo/factsheet.php?id=110-020-001-001&view=Rodents%20and%20Hares&main=virtualzoo Capybaras have slightly webbed feet, no tail, Capybara. British Broadcasting Corp.: Science and Nature: Animals. Retrieved on December 16, 2007. and 20 teeth. Capybara fact sheet Their back legs are slightly longer than their front legs and their muzzles are blunt with eyes, nostrils, and ears on top of their head. Females are slightly heavier than males. Fossil record and other species Life restoration of the extinct Protohydrochoerus Though now extinct, there once existed a larger capybara called Neochoerus pinckneyi. Other fossil cavys that were eight times the size of modern capybaras have been informally called "capybaras" but were actually dinomyids related to the pacarana. Capybara fact sheet There is also a "lesser capybara", Hydrochoerus isthmius. Development Capybaras reach sexual maturity within 22 months British Broadcasting Corp., Science and Nature: Animals (Capybara) and breed when conditions are perfect, which can be once per year (such as in Brazil) or throughout the year (such as in Venezuela and Colombia). The male pursues a female and mounts when the female stops in water. Capybara gestation is 130–150 days and usually produces a litter of four capybara babies, but may produce between two and eight in a single litter. The Encyclopædia Britannica (1910) Capybara (from Google Books) Birth is on land and the female will rejoin the group within a few hours of delivering the newborn capybaras, who will join the group as soon as they are mobile. Within a week the young can eat grass, but will continue to suckle - from any female in the group - until weaned at about 16 weeks. Youngsters will form a group within the main group. The rainy season of April and May mark the peak breeding season. Like other rodents, the front teeth of capybaras grow continually to compensate for the constant wearing-down from eating grasses; their cheek teeth also grow continuously. When fully grown, a capybara will have coarse hair that is sparsely spread over their skin, making the capybara prone to sunburn. To prevent this, they may roll in mud to protect their skin from the sun. Capybara have an extremely efficient digestive system that sustains the animal while 75% of its diet encompasses only 3-6 species of plants. Capybara Foraging and Feeding Behavior Habitat Capybara are semi-aquatic mammals found wild in much of South America (including Panama, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Venezuela, Brazil, Argentina, Guyana, Suriname, French Guyana, Uruguay, Peru, and Paraguay) in densely forested areas near bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers, swamps, ponds and marshes, such as flooded savannah and along rivers in tropical forest. They roam in home ranges of 25–50 acres (10–20 ha). Many escapees from captivity can also be found in similar watery habitats around the world, including (July 2008) the River Arno in Florence, Italy. Diet Capybara is an herbivore (more specifically, a graminivore), grazing mainly on grasses and aquatic plants, as well as fruit and tree bark. An adult capybara will eat 6 to 8 pounds (2.7 to 3.6 kg) of grasses per day. Capybara's jaw hinge is non-perpendicular and they thus chew food by grinding back and forth rather than side-to-side. Capybaras are coprophagous, meaning they eat their own faeces as a source of bacterial gut flora and in order to help digest the cellulose in the grass that forms their normal diet and extract the maximum protein from their food. Additionally, they may regurgitate food to masticate the food again, similar to cud-chewing by a cow. Behavior Capybara lounging in a shallow pool in captivity Capybaras are social animals, usually found in groups, between 10 and 30 (though larger groups of up to 100 sometimes can be formed), controlled by a dominant male (who will have a prominent scent gland on his nose used for smearing his scent on the grasses in his territory.) They communicate through a combination of scent and sound, being very vocal animals with purrs and alarm barks, whistles and clicks, squeals and grunts. Capybaras are excellent swimmers and can survive completely underwater for up to five minutes, an ability they will use to evade predators. If necessary, a Capybara can sleep underwater, keeping its nose just at the waterline. During midday, as temperatures increase, Capybaras wallow in water to keep cool and then graze in late afternoons and early evenings. They sleep little, usually dozing off and on throughout the day and grazing into and through the night. Predators Exhibit: anaconda swallowing a capybara They have a lifespan of 4-8 years in the wild but average a life less than four years as they are "a favourite food of jaguar, puma, ocelot, eagle and caiman". The capybara is the preferred prey of the anaconda, the heaviest snake on Earth, which can reach a length of 7.5 metres. Conservation Capybara are not on the IUCN list and so not considered a threatened species; their population is stable through most of their South American ranges, though in some areas hunting has reduced their numbers. Capybaras are hunted for their meat and pelts in some areas, and otherwise killed by humans who see their grazing as competition for livestock. The skins are particularly prized for making fine gloves because of its unusual characteristic of stretching in just one direction. Smith, N. J. H. (1981). "Caimans capybaras otters manatees and man in amazonia." Biological Conservation 19(3): 177-187. In some areas they are farmed, which has the effect of ensuring that the wetland habitats are protected. Their survival is aided by their ability to breed rapidly. Capybaras can be found in many areas in zoos and parks, Jerusalem Biblical Zoo - Capybara Saint Louis Zoo, Capybara Palm Beach Zoo, Capybara Philadelphia Zoo, Overview & Mission San Diego Zoo San Francisco Zoo, Capybara Smithsonian National Zoological Park, Capybara facts Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens, Capybara sometimes allowed to roam freely and may live for 12 years in captivity. British Broadcasting Corp., Science and Nature: Animals (Capybara) Bristol Zoo Gardens (UK) Capybara Human interaction A group of capybaras at Hato La Fe in the Los Llanos region of Venezuela Capybaras are gentle and will usually allow humans to pet and hand-feed them. Capybara skin is tough, and thus in some areas where capybaras are wild, they are hunted for meat and their skin, which is turned into a high-quality leather, while some ranchers hunt them for fear of the competition for grazing. The meat is said to look and taste like pork. The Capybara meat is dried and salted, then shredded and seasoned. Lipske, Michael. The Ranchers' Favorite Rodent. National Wildlife Federation (Feb/Mar 2006, vol. 44 no. 2) Considered a delicacy, it is often served with rice and plantains. During the Christian celebration of Lent, capybara meat is especially popular as it is claimed that the Catholic church, in a special dispensation, classified the animal as a fish in the 16th century. (cf. Barnacle goose) There are differing accounts of how the dispensation arose. The most cited refers to a group of 16th Century missionaries who made a request which implied that the semi-aquatic capybara might be a "fish" and also hinted that there would be an issue with starvation if the animal weren't classified as suitable for Lent. Ellsworth, Brian. "In Days Before Easter, Venezuelans Tuck Into Rodent-Related Delicacy". New York Sun(March 24, 2005) See also Related news "Rodent of unusual size discovered: Uruguayan skull points to 'rat' that weighed a tonne." By Rachel Courtland. Published online 15 January 2008. Nature Publishing Group. Last retrieved 15 January 2008. "One-tonne rat discovered in Uruguay" Guardian News and Media Limited. Last retrieved 15 January 2008. "Giant rat that once roamed the earth" Times Online, The Times and The Sunday Times. Last retrieved 15 January 2008. "'Biggest ever' rodent fossil discovered" by Catherine Brahic. NewScientist.com news service. Last retrieved 15 January 2008. "Discovered: a rodent bigger than a bull" By Roger Highfield, Science Editor. Telegraph Media Group Limited. Last retrieved 15 January 2008. "Scientists find giant rodent fossil in Latin America" from The Hindu Last retrieved 17 January 2008. "One Ton Capybara Found in South America" from TransWorld News Last retrieved 17 January 2008. "Bull-Size Rodent Discovered -- Biggest Yet" from National Geographic News Last retrieved 17 January 2008. "Scientists find 2,000 pound rodent - luckily it's a fossil" from Canada.com Last retrieved 17 January 2008. References | Capybara |@lemmatized capybara:62 hydrochoerus:4 hydrochaeris:6 university:1 michigan:1 museum:1 zoology:1 animal:10 diversity:1 web:2 retrieve:17 december:8 page:1 darwin:2 say:2 large:4 gnawing:1 world:3 hydrochærus:1 water:5 hog:2 also:8 common:2 see:3 complete:1 work:1 charles:1 online:3 know:1 capibara:2 chigüire:1 venezuela:4 ronsoco:1 peru:2 chigüiro:1 carpincho:1 spanish:1 j:4 forero:1 montana:1 betancur:1 cavelier:1 dieta:1 del:1 cavia:1 hydrochaeridae:1 en:1 caño:1 limón:1 arauca:1 colombia:3 rev:1 biol:1 trop:1 jun:1 vol:2 pp:1 issn:1 pdf:1 available:1 english:1 translation:1 natural:1 history:1 junglephotos:1 com:4 trip:1 south:4 america:4 give:1 new:2 mean:3 outdoors:1 life:3 inrich:1 link:1 last:10 retrieved:1 verify:1 january:11 capivara:1 portuguese:1 living:1 rodent:11 san:3 francisco:2 zoo:14 close:1 relative:1 agouti:1 chinchilla:1 coyphillas:1 guinea:1 pig:1 chester:1 uk:3 name:2 derive:1 kapiÿva:1 guarani:1 language:1 master:1 grass:7 bristol:2 garden:3 scientific:1 greek:1 heavy:3 barrel:1 shaped:1 body:3 short:1 head:2 reddish:1 brown:2 fur:1 upper:1 part:1 turn:2 yellowish:1 underneath:1 adult:2 may:6 grow:4 length:2 weigh:2 fact:4 smithsonian:2 national:4 zoological:2 park:3 hattiesburg:2 mississippi:1 exhibit:2 marker:1 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 google:2 book:2 palm:2 beach:2 top:2 record:2 weight:1 kg:2 lb:1 http:1 www:1 waza:1 org:1 virtualzoo:2 factsheet:1 php:1 id:1 view:1 main:2 slightly:3 foot:1 tail:1 british:3 broadcast:3 corp:3 science:4 nature:4 teeth:3 sheet:2 back:2 leg:2 long:1 front:2 muzzle:1 blunt:1 eye:1 nostril:1 ear:1 female:5 male:3 fossil:5 specie:3 restoration:1 extinct:2 protohydrochoerus:1 though:3 exist:1 call:2 neochoerus:1 pinckneyi:1 cavy:1 eight:2 time:4 size:3 modern:1 informally:1 actually:1 dinomyids:1 relate:2 pacarana:1 lesser:1 isthmius:1 development:1 reach:2 sexual:1 maturity:1 within:4 month:1 breed:2 condition:1 perfect:1 per:2 year:5 brazil:2 throughout:2 pursue:1 mount:1 stop:1 gestation:1 day:4 usually:4 produce:2 litter:2 four:2 baby:1 two:1 single:1 birth:1 land:1 rejoin:1 group:11 hour:1 deliver:1 newborn:1 join:1 soon:1 mobile:1 week:2 young:1 eat:4 continue:1 suckle:1 wean:1 youngster:1 form:3 rainy:1 season:3 april:1 mark:1 peak:1 breeding:1 like:2 continually:1 compensate:1 constant:1 wearing:1 cheek:1 continuously:1 fully:1 coarse:1 hair:1 sparsely:1 spread:1 skin:5 make:3 prone:1 sunburn:1 prevent:1 roll:1 mud:1 protect:2 sun:2 extremely:1 efficient:1 digestive:1 system:1 sustain:1 diet:3 encompass:1 plant:2 foraging:1 feed:2 behavior:2 habitat:3 semi:2 aquatic:3 mammal:1 find:7 wild:3 much:1 include:2 panama:1 costa:1 rica:1 ecuador:1 bolivia:1 argentina:1 guyana:2 suriname:1 french:1 uruguay:2 paraguay:1 densely:1 forest:2 area:6 near:1 lake:1 river:3 swamp:1 pond:1 marsh:1 flooded:1 savannah:1 along:1 tropical:1 roam:3 home:1 range:2 acre:1 ha:1 many:2 escapee:1 captivity:3 similar:2 watery:1 around:1 july:1 arno:1 florence:1 italy:1 herbivore:1 specifically:1 graminivore:1 graze:3 mainly:1 well:1 fruit:1 tree:1 bark:2 pound:2 jaw:1 hinge:1 non:1 perpendicular:1 thus:2 chew:1 food:5 grind:1 forth:1 rather:1 side:2 coprophagous:1 faeces:1 source:1 bacterial:1 gut:1 flora:1 order:1 help:1 digest:1 cellulose:1 normal:1 extract:1 maximum:1 protein:1 additionally:1 regurgitate:1 masticate:1 cud:1 chewing:1 cow:1 lounging:1 shallow:1 pool:1 social:1 sometimes:2 control:1 dominant:1 prominent:1 scent:3 gland:1 nose:2 use:2 smear:1 territory:1 communicate:1 combination:1 sound:1 vocal:1 purr:1 alarm:1 whistle:1 click:1 squeal:1 grunt:1 excellent:1 swimmer:1 survive:1 completely:1 underwater:2 five:1 minute:1 ability:2 evade:1 predator:2 necessary:1 sleep:2 keep:2 waterline:1 midday:1 temperature:1 increase:1 capybaras:2 wallow:1 cool:1 late:1 afternoon:1 early:1 evening:1 little:1 doze:1 grazing:2 night:1 anaconda:2 swallow:1 lifespan:1 average:1 less:1 favourite:1 jaguar:1 puma:1 ocelot:1 eagle:1 caiman:1 preferred:1 prey:1 snake:1 earth:2 metre:1 conservation:2 iucn:1 list:1 consider:2 threatened:1 population:1 stable:1 american:1 hunting:1 reduce:1 number:1 hunt:3 meat:5 pelt:1 otherwise:1 kill:1 human:3 competition:2 livestock:1 particularly:1 prize:1 fine:1 glove:1 unusual:2 characteristic:1 stretch:1 one:3 direction:1 smith:1 n:1 h:1 caimans:1 otter:1 manatee:1 man:1 amazonia:1 biological:1 farm:1 effect:1 ensure:1 wetland:1 survival:1 aid:1 rapidly:1 jerusalem:1 biblical:1 saint:1 louis:1 philadelphia:1 overview:1 mission:1 diego:1 jacksonville:1 allow:2 freely:1 live:1 interaction:1 hato:1 la:1 fe:1 los:1 llanos:1 region:1 gentle:1 pet:1 hand:1 tough:1 high:1 quality:1 leather:1 rancher:2 fear:1 look:1 taste:1 pork:1 dry:1 salt:1 shred:1 lipske:1 michael:1 favorite:1 wildlife:1 federation:1 feb:1 mar:1 delicacy:2 often:1 serve:1 rice:1 plantain:1 christian:1 celebration:1 lent:2 especially:1 popular:1 claim:1 catholic:1 church:1 special:1 dispensation:2 classify:2 fish:2 century:2 cf:1 barnacle:1 goose:1 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2,795 | Ostrogoths | Mosaic depicting the palace of Theodoric the Great in his palace chapel of San Apollinare Nuovo The Ostrogoths () were a branch of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe that played a major role in the political events of the late Roman Empire. The other branch was the Visigoths. The Ostrogoths established a relatively short-lived successor state of Rome in Italy and the Balkans, even briefly incorporating most of Hispania and southern Gaul. They reached their zenith under their Romanised king Theodoric the Great, who patronised such late Roman figures as Boethius and Cassiodorus, in the first quarter of the sixth century. By mid-century, however, they had been conquered by Rome in the Gothic War (535–554), a war with devastating consequences for Italy. Divided Goths: Greuthungi and Ostrogothi The division of the Goths is first attested in 291. Wolfram, 24. The Tervingi are first attested around that date, the Greuthungi, Vesi, and Ostrogothi are all attested no earlier than 388. The Greuthungi are first named by Ammianus Marcellinus, writing no earlier than 392 and perhaps later than 395, and basing his account of the words of a Tervingian chieftain who is attested as early as 376. The Ostrogoths are first named in a document dated September 392 from Milan. Claudian mentions that they together with the Gruthungi inhabit Phrygia. Wolfram, 387 n52. According to Herwig Wolfram, the primary sources either use the terminology of Tervingi/Greuthungi or Vesi/Ostrogothi and never mix the pairs. All four names were used together, but the pairing was always preserved, as in Gruthungi, Austrogothi, Tervingi, Visi. Wolfram, 25. That the Tervingi were the Vesi/Visigothi and the Greuthungi the Ostrogothi is also supported by Jordanes. Heather, 52–57, 300–301. He identified the Visigothic kings from Alaric I to Alaric II as the heirs of the fourth-century Tervingian king Athanaric and the Ostrogothic kings from Theodoric the Great to Theodahad as the heirs of the Greuthungian king Ermanaric. This interpretation, however, though very common among scholars today, is not universal. According to the Jordanes' Getica, around 400 the Ostrogoths were ruled by Ostrogotha and derived their name from this "father of the Ostrogoths", but modern historians often assume the converse, that Ostrogotha was named after the people. Both Herwig Wolfram and Thomas Burns conclude that the terms Tervingi and Greuthungi were geographical identifiers used by each tribe to describe the other. Burns, 44. This terminology therefore dropped out of use after the Goths were displaced by the Hunnic invasions. In support of this, Wolfram cites Zosimus as referring to a group of "Scythians" north of the Danube who were called "Greuthungi" by the barbarians north of the Ister. Wolfram, 387 n57. Wolfram concludes that this people was the Tervingi who had remained behind after the Hunnic conquest. He further believes that the terms "Vesi" and "Ostrogothi" were used by the peoples to boastfully describe themselves. On this understanding, the Greuthungi and Ostrogothi were more or less the same people. The nomenclature of Greuthungi and Tervingi fell out of use shortly after 400. In general, the terminology of a divided Gothic people disappeared gradually after they entered the Roman Empire. The term "Visigoth", however, was an invention of the sixth century. Cassiodorus, a Roman in the service of Theodoric the Great, invented the term "Visigothi" to match that of "Ostrogothi", which terms he thought of as "western Goths" and "eastern Goths" respectively. The western-eastern division was a simplification and a literary device of sixth-century historians where political realities were more complex. Wolfram, 26. Furthermore, Cassiodorus used the term "Goths" to refer only to the Ostrogoths, whom he served, and reserved the geographical term "Visigoths" for the Gallo-Spanish Goths. This usage, however, was adopted by the Visigoths themselves in their communications with the Byzantine Empire and was in use in the seventh century. Other names for the Goths abounded. A "Germanic" Byzantine or Italian author referred to one of the two peoples as the Valagothi, meaning "Roman Goths". In 484 the Ostrogoths had been called the Valameriaci (men of Valamir) because they followed Theodoric, a descendant of Valamir. This terminology survived in the Byzantine East as late as the reign of Athalaric, who was called του Ουαλεμεριακου (tou Oualemeriakou) by John Malalas. Wolfram, 389 n67. Etymology "Greuthungi" may mean "steppe dwellers" or "people of the pebbly coasts". The root greut- is probably related to the Old English greot, meaning "flat". Burns, 30. This is supported by evidence that geographic descriptors were commonly used to distinguish people living north of the Black Sea both before and after Gothic settlement there and by the lack of evidence for an earlier date for the name pair Tervingi-Greuthungi than the late third century. Wolfram387–388 n58. That the name "Greuthungi" has pre-Pontic, possibly Scandinavian, origins still has support today. It may mean "rock people", to distinguish the Ostrogoths from the Gauts (in what is today Sweden). Jordanes does refer to an Evagreotingi (Greuthung island) in Scandza, but this may be legend. It has also been suggested that it may be related to certain place names in Poland, but this has met with little support. "Ostrogothi" means "Goths of (or glorified by) the rising sun". This has been interpreted as "gleaming Goths" or "east Goths". History Foundation The Goths were a single nation mentioned in several sources up to the 3rd century when they apparently split into at least two groups, the Greuthungi in the east and Tervingi in the west. Both tribes shared many aspects, especially recognizing a patron deity that the Romans named Mars. This so-called "split" or, more appropriately, resettlement of western tribes into the Roman province of Dacia was a natural result of population saturation of the area north of the Black Sea. The Goths there established a vast and powerful kingdom, during the 3rd and 4th centuries, between the Danube and the Dniepr in what is now Romania, Moldavia and western Ukraine (see Chernyakhov culture; Gothic runic inscriptions). This was a multi-tribal state ruled by a Gothic elite but inhabited by many other interrelated but multi-tongue tribes including the Iranic speaking Sarmatians, the Germanic speaking Gepids, the Thracian speaking Dacians, other minor Celtic and Thracian tribes and possibly early Slavs. Hunnic invasions The rise of the Huns around 370 overwhelmed the Gothic kingdoms. Many of the Goths migrated into Roman territory in the Balkans, while others remained north of the Danube under Hunnic rule. They became one of the many Hunnic vassals fighting in Europe, as in the Battle of Chalons in 451. Several uprisings against the Huns were suppressed. The collapse of Hunnic power in the 450s led to further violent upheaval in the lands north of the Danube, during which most of the Goths resident in the area migrated to the Balkans. It was this group that became known as the Ostrogoths. Gothic was still spoken sporadically in Crimea as late as the 16th century: the Crimean Gothic language. Post-Hunnic movements Their recorded history begins with their independence from the remains of the Hunnic Empire following the death of Attila the Hun in 453. Allied with the former vassal and rival, the Gepids and the Ostrogoths led by Theodemir broke the Hunnic power of Attila's sons in the Battle of Nedao in 454. The Ostrogoths now entered into relations with the Empire, and were settled on lands in Pannonia. During the greater part of the latter half of the 5th century, the East Goths played in south-eastern Europe nearly the same part that the West Goths played in the century before. They were seen going to and fro, in every conceivable relation of friendship and enmity with the Eastern Roman power, until, just as the West Goths had done before them, they passed from the East to the West. Kingdom in Italy Map of Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy and the Balkans The greatest of all Ostrogothic rulers, the future Theodoric the Great (whose name means "leader of the people") of Ostrogothic Kingdom, was born to Theodemir in or about 454, soon after the Battle of Nedao. His childhood was spent at Constantinople as a diplomatic hostage, where he was carefully educated. The early part of his life was taken up with various disputes, intrigues and wars within the Byzantine empire, in which he had as his rival Theodoric Strabo, a distant relative of Theodoric the Great and son of Triarius. This older but lesser Theodoric seems to have been the chief, not the king, of that branch of the Ostrogoths which had settled within the Empire at an earlier time. Theodoric the Great, as he is sometimes distinguished, was sometimes the friend, sometimes the enemy, of the Empire. In the former case he was clothed with various Roman titles and offices, as patrician and consul; but in all cases alike he remained the national Ostrogothic king. Theodoric is also known for his attainment of support from the Catholic church, which he gained by appeasing the pope in 520. During his reign, Theodoric, who was Arian, allowed “freedom of religion” which had not been done before. However, he did try to appease the pope and tried to keep his alliance with the church strong. He saw the pope as an authority not only in the church but also over Rome. Theodoric sought to revive Roman culture and government and in doing so, profit the Italian people. Cantor, 109. It was in both characters together that he set out in 488, by commission from the Byzantine emperor Zeno, to recover Italy from Odoacer. By 493 Ravenna was taken, where Theodoric would set up his capital. It was also at this time that Odoacer was killed by Theodoric's own hand. Ostrogothic power was fully established over Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia and the lands to the north of Italy. In this war the Ostrogoths and Visigoths began again to unite, if we may accept the witness of one writer that Theodoric was helped by Visigothic auxiliaries. The two branches of the nation were soon brought much more closely together; after he was forced to become regent of the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse, the power of Theodoric was practically extended over a large part of Gaul and over nearly the whole of the Iberian peninsula. Theodoric also attempted to forge an alliance with the Frankish and Burgundian kingdoms by means of a series of diplomatic marriages. This strengthening of power eventually led the Byzantine emperor to fear that Theodoric would become too strong, and motivated his subsequent alliance with the Frankish king, Clovis I, to counter and ultimately overthrow the Ostrogoths. A time of confusion followed the death of Alaric II, the son-in-law of Theodoric, at the Battle of Vouillé. The Ostrogothic king stepped in as the guardian of his grandson Amalaric, and preserved for him all his Iberian and a fragment of his Gaul dominion. Toulouse passed to the Franks but the Goth kept Narbonne and its district and Septimania, which was the last part of Gaul held by the Goths and kept the name of Gothia for many ages. While Theodoric lived, the Visigothic kingdom was practically united to his own dominion. He seems also to have claimed a kind of protectorate over the Germanic powers generally, and indeed to have practically exercised it, except in the case of the Franks. The Ostrogothic dominion was now again as great in extent as and far more splendid than it could have been in the time of Hermanaric; however it was now of a wholly different character. The dominion of Theodoric was not a barbarian but a civilized power. His twofold position ran through everything. He was at once national king of the Goths, and successor, though without any imperial titles, of the West Roman emperors. The two nations, differing in manners, language and religion, lived side by side on the soil of Italy; each was ruled according to its own law, by the prince who was, in his two separate characters, the common sovereign of both. It is believed that between 200,000 to 250,000 Ostrogoths settled in Italy but these are guesses and the numbers may have been much lower or higher. The picture of Theodoric's rule is drawn for us in the state papers drawn up, in his name and in the names of his successors, by his Roman minister Cassiodorus. The Goths seem to have been thick on the ground in northern Italy; in the south they formed little more than garrisons. In Theodoric's theory the Goth was the armed protector of the peaceful Roman; the Gothic king had the toil of government, while the Roman consul had the honour. All the forms of the Roman administration went on, and the Roman policy and culture had great influence on the Goths themselves. The rule of the prince over distinct nations in the same land was necessarily despotic; the old Germanic freedom was necessarily lost. Such a system needed a Theodoric to carry it on. It broke in pieces after his death. War with Rome (535–554) Upon the death of Theodoric in 526 the Ostrogoths and Visigoths were again separated. The few instances in which they are found acting together after this time are as scattered and incidental as they were before. Amalaric succeeded to the Visigothic kingdom in Iberia and Septimania. Provence was added to the dominion of the new Ostrogothic king Athalaric, the grandson of Theodoric through his daughter Amalasuntha. Both were unable to settle disputes among Gothic elites. Theodahad, cousin of Amalasuntha and nephew of Theodoric through his sister, took over and slew them; however the usurping ushered in more bloodshed. Three more rulers stepped in during the next five years. The weakness of the Ostrogothic position in Italy now showed itself. Byzantine emperor Justinian I had always strived to restore as much of the West Roman Empire as he could and certainly would not pass up the opportunity. In 535, he commissioned Belisarius to attack the Ostrogoths. Belisarius quickly captured Sicily and then crossed into Italy where he captured Naples and Rome in 536 and then marched north, taking Mediolanum (Milan) and the Ostrogoth capital of Ravenna in 540. At this point Justinian offered the Goths a generous settlement — too generous by far in Belisarius' eyes — the right to keep an independent kingdom in the Northwest of Italy, and the demand that they merely give half of all their treasure to the empire. Belisarius conveyed the message to the Goths, although he himself withheld from endorsing it. They, on the other hand felt there must be a snare somewhere. The Goths did not trust Justinian, but because Belisarius had been so well-mannered in his conquest they trusted him a little more, and agreed to take the settlement only if Belisarius endorsed it. This condition made for something of an impasse. A faction of the Gothic nobility pointed out that their own king Witiges, who had just lost, was something of a weakling and they would need a new one. Eraric, the leader of the group, endorsed Belisarius and the rest of the kingdom agreed, so they offered him their crown. Belisarius was a soldier, not a statesman, and still loyal to Justinian. He made as if to accept the offer, rode to Ravenna to be crowned, and promptly arrested the leaders of the Goths and reclaimed their entire kingdom — no halfway settlements — for Byzantium. This upset Justinian greatly: the Persians had been attacking in the east, and he wanted a stable neutral country separating his western border from the Franks, who weren't so friendly. Belisarius was sent to face the Persians and therefore left John, a Byzantine officer, to govern Italy temporarily. In 545 Belisarius then returned to Italy, where he found the situation had changed greatly. Eraric was slain and the pro-Roman faction of Gothic elite had been toppled. In 541 the Ostrogoths had elected a new leader Totila; this Goth nationalist and brilliant commander had recaptured all of northern Italy and even driven the Byzantines out of Rome. Belisarius took the offensive, tricked Totila into yielding Rome along the way, but then lost it again after a jealous Justinian, fearful of Belisarius' power, starved him of supplies and reinforcements. Belisarius was forced to go on the defensive, and in 548, Justinian relieved him in favor of the eunuch general Narses, of whom he was more trustful. Totila was slain in the Battle of Taginae in July 552 and his followers Teia, Aligern, Scipuar, and Gibal were all killed or surrendered in the Battle of Mons Lactarius in October 552 or 553. Widin, the last attested member of the Gothic army revolted in late 550s, with minimal military help from the Franks. His uprising was fruitless; the revolt ended with Widin captured and brought to Constantinople for punishment in 561 or 562. With that final defeat,the remaining Ostrogoths went back north and (re)settled in south Austria.The Ostrogothic name wholly died... The nation had practically evaporated with Theodoric's death. "The leadership of western Europe therefore passed by default to the Franks. Consequently, Ostrogothic failure and Frankish success were crucial for the development of early medieval Europe", for Theodoric had made it "his intention to restore the vigor of Roman government and Roman culture". Cantor, 105–107. The chance of forming a national state in Italy by the union of Roman and Germanic elements, such as those which arose in Gaul, in Iberia, and in parts of Italy under Lombard rule, was thus lost. As a result the Goths hold a different place in Iberian memory from that which they hold in Italian memory: In Italy the Goth was but a momentary invader and ruler, while in Iberia the Goth supplies an important element in the modern nation. That element has been neither forgotten nor despised. Part of the unconquered region of northern Iberia, the land of Asturias, kept for a while the name of Gothia, as did the Gothic possessions in Gaul. Ostrogothic culture Ostrogoth ear jewels, Metropolitan Museum of Art Of Gothic literature in the Gothic language we have the Bible of Ulfilas and some other religious writings and fragments. Of Gothic legislation in Latin we have the edict of Theodoric of the year 500, and the Variae of Cassiodorus may pass as a collection of the state papers of Theodoric and his immediate successors. Among the Visigothic written laws had already been put forth by Euric. Alaric II put forth a Breviarium of Roman law for his Roman subjects; but the great collection of Visigothic laws dates from the later days of the monarchy, being put forth by King Reccaswinth about 654. This code gave occasion to some well-known comments by Montesquieu and Gibbon, and has been discussed by Savigny (Geschichte des romischen Rechts, ii. 65) and various other writers. They are printed in the Monumenta Germaniae, leges, tome i. (1902). Of special Gothic histories, besides that of Jordanes, already so often quoted, there is the Gothic history of Isidore, archbishop of Seville, a special source of the history of the Visigothic kings down to Suinthila (621-631). But all the Latin and Greek writers contemporary with the days of Gothic predominance make their constant contributions. Not for special facts, but for a general estimate, no writer is more instructive than Salvian of Marseilles in the 5th century, whose work, De Gubernatione Dei, is full of passages contrasting the vices of the Romans with the virtues of the "barbarians", especially of the Goths. In all such pictures we must allow a good deal for exaggeration both ways, but there must be a groundwork of truth. The chief virtues that the Roman Catholic presbyter praises in the Arian Goths are their chastity, their piety according to their own creed, their tolerance towards the Catholics under their rule, and their general good treatment of their Roman subjects. He even ventures to hope that such good people may be saved, not withstanding their heresy. This image must have had some basis in truth, but it is not very surprising that the later Visigoths of Iberia had fallen away from Salvian's somewhat idealistic picture. Ostrogothic rulers Amal Dynasty Valamir (not yet in Italy) Theodemir (not yet in Italy) Theodoric the Great 493–526 Athalaric 526–534 Theodahad 534–536 Later kings Witiges 536–540 Ildibad 540–541 Eraric 541 Baduela 541–552 (also known as Totila) Theia 552–553 (also known as Teiam or Teja) Notes Sources Amory, Patrick. People and Identity in Ostrogothic Italy, 489–554. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0 52152 635 3. Burns, Thomas S. A History of the Ostrogoths. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984. ISBN 0 253 32831 4. Cantor, Norman F. The Civilization of the Middle Ages. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0 06 092553 1. Heather, Peter. The Goths. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1996. Heather, Peter. "Theoderic, king of the Goths." Early Medieval Europe, Volume 4, Issue 2 (Sep., 1995), pp. 145–173. Mierow, Charles Christopher (translator). The Gothic History of Jordanes. In English Version with an Introduction and a Commentary. 1915. Reprinted by Evolution Publishing, 2006. ISBN 1 889758 77 9. Wallace-Hadrill, John Michael. The Barbarian West, 400–1000. 3rd ed. London: Hutchison, 1967. Wolfram, Herwig. History of the Goths. Thomas J. Dunlap, trans. 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2,796 | Muttiah_Muralitharan | Muttiah Muralitharan (, born 17 April 1972 in Kandy, Sri Lanka), often referred to as Murali, is a Sri Lankan cricketer who was rated the greatest Test match bowler ever by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack in 2002. Muralitharan is the highest wicket-taker in both Test cricket Cricinfo, Highest Test Wicket-takers and in One Day Internationals (ODIs) Cricinfo, Highest ODI Wicket-takers . He took the wicket of Gautham Gambhir on 5 February 2009 in Colombo, to surpass Wasim Akram's ODI record of 502 wickets. Muralitharan became the highest wicket-taker in Test cricket when overtook the previous record-holder Shane Warne on 3 December 2007 in longer version of the game. Muralitharan had previously held the record when he surpassed Courtney Walsh's 519 wickets in 2004. But he suffered a shoulder injury later that year and was then overtaken by Warne. Averaging over six wickets per Test, Muralitharan is one of the most successful bowlers in the game and the greatest player for Sri Lanka. He plays domestic cricket for the Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic Club, and plays in the Indian Premier League for Chennai Super Kings. Muralitharan's career has been beset with controversy; his bowling action called into question on a number of occasions by umpires and sections of the cricket community. After biomechanical analysis in non-match conditions, Muralitharan's action was cleared by the International Cricket Council, first in 1996 and again in 1999. The legality of his doosra was first called into question in 2004. This delivery was found to exceed the ICC elbow extension limit by nine degrees, five degrees being the limit for spinners at that time. Based on official studies into bowling actions, ICC revised the elbow flexion limits applying to all bowlers in 2005. Muralitharan's doosra falls within the revised limits. In February 2009, after becoming cricket’s highest wicket-taker in both forms of the game Muttiah Muralitharan hinted that he may retire at the conclusion of the 2011 World Cup. He stated “I think I am fit in my body and mind, I am enjoying my cricket and want to play more. But after the next World Cup, I will have nothing left to achieve in the game. The World Cup should mark the end of my career.” Early years and personal life Muralitharan was born in the village of Nattarampotha in Kundasale (near Kandy), the eldest of the four sons to Sinnasamy Muttiah and Lakshmi. Muralitharan's father Sinnasamy Muttiah, runs a successful biscuit-making business. When he was nine years old Muralitharan was sent to St.Anthony’s College, Kandy, a private school run by Benedictine monks. He began his cricketing career as a medium pace bowler but on the advice of his school coach, Sunil Fernando, he took up off-spin when he was fourteen years old. He soon impressed and went on to play for four years in the school First XI. In those days he played as an all-rounder and batted in the middle order. In his final two seasons at St Anthony's College he took over one hundred wickets and in 1990/1 was named as the 'Bata Schoolboy Cricketer of the Year'. After leaving school he joined Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic Club and was selected for the Sri Lanka A tour of England in 1991. He played in five games but failed to capture a single wicket. On his return to Sri Lanka he impressed against Allan Border's Australian team in a practice game and then went on to make his Test debut at R. Premadasa Stadium in the Second Test Match of the series. When his grandfather died at the age of 104 in July 2004, Muralitharan returned home from a tour of India to attend his funeral. Periyasamy Sinasamy's first wish to see Muralitharan claiming the world record for the most Test wickets was realised (passing the record set by Courtney Walsh), but not his desire to live to see his grandson married. Muralitharan's grandmother had passed away one month earlier at the age of 97. Muralitharan's manager, Kushil Gunasekera stated that "Murali's family is closely knit and united. They respect traditional values. The late grandfather enjoyed a great relationship with Murali." Muralitharan married Madhimalar Ramamurthy, an Indian national, on 21 March 2005. Madhimalar is the daughter of late Dr S. Ramamurthy of Malar Hospitals, and his wife Dr Nithya Ramamurthy. Their first child, Naren, was born in January 2006. Lanka NewspapersWorld Cup to be Murali`s swansong? Ethnic background Muttiah Muralitharan is the the first and only Tamil of Indian origin to represent Sri Lanka in international cricket. Muralitharan's paternal grandfather Periyasamy Sinasamy came from South India to work in the tea plantations of central Sri Lanka in 1920. Sinasamy later returned to India with his daughters and settled in Tiruchirapalli. However his sons, including Muralitharan's father Muttiah, remained in Sri Lanka. " Spelling and meaning of name Even though his name has been widely romanised as Muralitharan since the commencement of his career, the cricketer himself prefers to romanise his name as Muralidaran. In 2007, when Cricket Australia decided to unveil the new Warne-Muralidaran Trophy, to be contested between Australia and Sri Lanka, Muralitharan was requested to clarify how his name should be spelt. Cricket Australia spokesman Peter Young confirmed that "the spelling he's given is Muralidaran". The first day cover involving Muralitharan bears an official seal captioned as "The highest wicket taker in Test cricket, MUTHIAH MURALIDARAN, First Day of Issue 03.12.2007, Camp Post Office, Asgiriya International Cricket Stadium, Kandy". The name Muralitharan means "the bearer of the flute", which is a synonym for Lord Krishna, who used to play upon his bamboo flute while looking after his cattle. Domestic cricket In Sri Lanka In domestic cricket, Muralitharan has played for two first-class Sri Lankan sides, Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic Club in the Premier Trophy and Central Province in the Provincial Championship. His record has been exceptional - 234 wickets at 14.51 runs in 46 matches. In England He has also played county cricket in England, mainly for Lancashire (from 1999 until 2007) where he appeared in twenty eight first-class games for the club. He played five first class games for Kent during the 2003 season. His bowling record in English domestic cricket is also exceptional - 236 wickets at 15.62 runs in 33 matches. Despite his efforts, he has not been on a title winning first-class domestic team in either the Premier Trophy or the County Championship. He is unusual amongst the majority of current Test players in that he has played in more Test matches than other first-class games (116 tests and 99 other first class matches as of 30 November 2007). In India In February 2008, Muralitharan was slated to play Twenty20 cricket for Chennai Super Kings in the Indian Premier League (IPL) . He was bought for $600,000 by India Cements, the Chennai franchisee of the IPL, through a bidding process. Chennai Super Kings were the runners up in the inaugural edition of the IPL, losing to Rajasthan Royals in the final. Muralitharan captured 11 wickets in 15 games, at an economy rate of 6.96 an over. Muralitharan, was contracted to represent Bengal in the 2008-09 Ranji Trophy tournament. He was expected to play about four matches in the tournament's second division - the Plate League. International career Bowling style and career progress A graph showing Muralitharan's test career bowling statistics and how they have varied over time. Muralitharan is the first wrist-spinning off-spinner in the history of the game. He bowls marathon spells, yet he is usually on the attack. His unique bowling action begins with an open-chested short run-up, and culminates with an extremely wristy release which had him mistaken for a leg-spinner early in his career by Allan Border. Aside from his off-break, his main deliveries are a fast topspinner which goes straight on, and the doosra, a surprise delivery which turns from leg to off (the opposite direction of his stock delivery) with no easily discernible change of action. His newest variation is a version of Shane Warne's slider, which is flicked out the side of his hand and rushes onto batsmen like a flipper. His super-flexible wrist makes him especially potent and guarantees him turn on any surface. Since his debut in 1992, Muralitharan has taken over 750 Test wickets and over 500 One Day International wickets, becoming the first player to take 1,000 wickets combined in the two main forms of international cricket. Test cricket Emerging years On 28 August 1992 at the age of 20, Muralitharan made his debut against Australia at the Khettarama Stadium and claimed 3 for 141. Craig McDermott was his first Test wicket. His freakish action and his angular run-up showed that this was no run-of-the-mill spinner. During his first Test, there was one dismissal which convinced many of Muralitharan's special powers. Tom Moody's leg-stump was dislodged when he shouldered arms to a delivery that pitched at least two feet outside the off-stump. The youthful Muralitharan went from strength to strength, playing a major part in Sri Lanka's back-to-back Test victories against England and New Zealand in 1992-93. It was at this point in his career that he struck a close bond with his leader, mentor and one time business partner, the authoritative captain Arjuna Ranatunga. This relationship formed the bedrock of his success and meant that there were few doubts about his status as the team's sole wicket-taker. Ranatunga was thoroughly convinced that Muralitharan's precocious talent would signal a new era in Sri Lanka's short Test history. In August 1993 at Moratuwa, Muralitharan captured 5 for 104 in South Africa's first innings, his first five-wicket haul in Tests. His wickets include Kepler Wessels, Hansie Cronje and Jonty Rhodes. Muralitharan has continued to baffle batsman outside the shores of Sri Lanka, irrespective of the team's performance. In Sri Lanka's humiliating drubbing at the hands of India in 1993-94, where all three Tests were innings defeats, Muralitharan was the sole success, with 12 wickets in the rubber. His perseverance in the face of some astronomical scores by the fearsome quartet of Mohammed Azharuddin, Sachin Tendulkar, Navjot Sidhu and Vinod Kambli was in sharp contrast to the submission with which his team-mates played the series. It was in New Zealand in March 1995 that Muralitharan displayed his qualities as a match-winner on any surface. In Sri Lanka's first triumph on foreign soil, Muralitharan confused the crease-bound New Zealanders on a grassy pitch in Dunedin. The Sri Lankan manager Duleep Mendis' claim that Muralitharan can turn the ball on concrete was confirmed. On the eve of his tour of Pakistan later that year, doubts were cast on his ability to trouble subcontinental batsmen. By taking 19 wickets in the series and delivering a historic 2-1 victory, the off-spinner silenced the doubters. The Pakistanis, who had negotiated Warne's leg-breaks in the previous home series, were never at ease against him. Prior to the eventful Boxing Day test of 1995, Muralitharan had captured 80 wickets in 22 tests at an unflattering average of 32.74. Even at that point in his career he was the leading wicket taker for Sri Lanka having gone past Rumesh Ratnayake's aggregate of 73 wickets. Boxing day test 1995 During the second Test between Sri Lanka and Australia at the Melbourne Cricket Ground on Boxing Day 1995, Australian umpire Darrell Hair called Sri Lankan spinner Muttiah Muralitharan for throwing in front of a crowd of 55,239. The off-spinner, was no-balled seven times in three overs by Hair, who believed the then 23 year old was bending his arm and straightening it in the process of delivery; an illegal action in cricket. The drama unfolded midway through the second session of play. Muralitharan had bowled two overs before lunch from umpire Steve Dunne's or the Members' End of the ground with umpire Hair at square leg and these passed without incident. At 2:34pm he took up the attack from umpire Hair's or the southern end. Muralitharan's third over was a maiden with all deliveries again passed as legitimate but in his fourth Hair no-balled him twice for throwing on the fourth and sixth balls. The umpire continued to call him three times in his fifth over on the second, fourth and sixth balls. While the bowler stood with his hands on his hips perplexed, the five calls provoked an immediate response by the Sri Lankan captain Arjuna Ranatunga who left the field at 3:03pm in order to take advice from his team management. He returned at 3:08pm and continued with Muralitharan who was called two more times in his sixth over on the second and sixth balls. At 3:17pm Ranatunga removed the bowler from the attack, although he reintroduced him at 3:30pm at umpire Dunne's end. Although Hair reports in his book, "Decision Maker", that at the end of the tea break he stated that he would call Muralitharan no matter which end he bowled he did not do so. Muralitharan completed another twelve overs without further no-balls and, after bowling Mark Waugh, finished the day with figures of 18-3-58-1. The controversy bubbled on during the two-day long Australian innings. After being no-balled Muralitharan bowled a further 32 overs from umpire Steve Dunne's end without protest from either Dunne or Hair, at square leg. The Sri Lankan camp was outraged after the incident, but the ICC leapt to Hair's defence, outlining a list of steps they had taken in the past to determine, without result, the legitimacy of Muralitharan's action. By calling Muralitharan from the bowlers' end Hair overrode what is normally regarded as the authority of the square leg umpire in adjudicating on throwing. Dunne would have had to break convention to support his partner. At the end of the match the Sri Lankans requested from the ICC permission to confer with Hair in order to find out exactly how to remedy the problem with their bowler. Despite the game's controlling body agreeing to it, the Australian Cricket Board vetoed it on the grounds that it might lead to umpires being quizzed by teams after every game and meant that the throwing controversy would continue into the World Series Cup during the coming week. The Sri Lankans were disappointed they didn't get an explanation and decided they would continue playing their bowler in matches not umpired by Hair and wanted to know whether other umpires would support or reject Hair's judgement. Muralitharan's action was cleared by the ICC after biomechanical analysis at the University of Western Australia and at the University of Hong Kong in 1996. They concluded that his action created the 'optical illusion of throwing'. Mid career On March 16, 1997 Muralitharan became the first Sri Lankan to reach 100 Test wickets, when he dismissed Stephen Fleming in the second innings of the Hamilton Test. In January 1998, Muralitharan took his first ten-wicket haul against Zimbabwe in the first Test at Kandy. Sri Lanka won by eight wickets and Muralitharan had figures of 12 for 117. In August that same year Muralitharan produces his career-best Test match figures of 16 for 220, in the one-off Test against England. In England's second innings Muralitharan bowled a marathon 54.2 overs to pick up 9 for 65 runs, the other wicket being a run out. Ben Hollioake becomes his 200th Test wicket. Sri Lanka won by ten wickets, their first Test victory in England. After breaking the world record for the most test wickets in 2007, Muralitharan commented that his 1998 performance at the Oval against England, was his career highlight. He stated "Everyone thought I was a good bowler then and I didn't look back from there." Playing his 58th Test, Muralitharan claimed his 300th Test wicket when he dismissed Shaun Pollock in the first Test in Durban, in December 2000. Only Dennis Lillee reached the milestone faster, in his 56th Test. On 4 January 2002 in Kandy Muralitharan might have finished with the best-ever figures for a single innings, but after he had claimed nine wickets against Zimbabwe Russel Arnold dropped a catch at short leg. He missed out on the tenth when Chaminda Vaas dismissed Henry Olonga caught behind amid stifled appeals. Muralitharan follows up his 9 for 51 in the first innings with 4 for 64 in the second, equalling Richard Hadlee's record of 10 ten-wicket match hauls, but needing 15 fewer Tests to do so. On 15 January 2002 playing in his 72nd Test, Muralitharan became the fastest to reach the 400-wicket landmark when he bowled Olonga in the third Test in Galle. On 16 March 2004 Muralitharan became the fastest and the youngest bowler to reach 500 wickets during the second Test between Sri Lanka and Australia played in Kandy. In his 87th Test, he bowled Kasprowicz to claim his 500th victim just 4 days after Warne reached the landmark on the fifth day of the first Test between the two teams at Galle. Warne took 108 Tests to reach 500. Muralitharan took 4-48 on the first day of the second Test as Australia was skittled for 120 in the first innings. Passing Walsh and Warne Muttiah Muralitharan receives a guard of honour from his team mates, after breaking Courtney Walsh's record in Harare, Zimbabwe 2004. In May 2004, Muralitharan overtook West Indian Courtney Walsh's record of 519 Test match wickets to become the highest wicket-taker. Zimbabwe's Mluleki Nkala becomes Muralitharan's 520th scalp in Tests. Muralitharan held the record until Shane Warne claimed it in October 2004. Warne surpassed Sri Lankan Muttiah Muralitharan's mark of 532 wickets by dismissing India's Irfan Pathan. Warne said he enjoyed his duel with Muralitharan, who was sidelined following shoulder surgery at the time. After an outstanding year Muralitharan was adjudged as the Wisden Leading Cricketer in the World in 2006. In six Tests, he took 60 wickets. He took ten in each of four successive matches, the second time he has performed such a feat. The opponents for his 60-wicket haul were England away, South Africa at home and New Zealand away: serious opposition. In all, Muralitharan took 90 wickets in 11 Tests in the calendar year. In July 2007, Muttiah Muralitharan become the second bowler after Australia's Shane Warne to capture 700 Test wickets. The off-spinner reached the landmark when he had Bangladesh's last man Syed Rasel caught in the deep by Farveez Maharoof on the fourth day of the third and final Test at the Asgiriya stadium in Kandy. The dismissal signalled Sri Lanka's victory by an innings and 193 runs to give the host a 3-0 sweep of the series. Muralitharan finished with six wickets in each innings to claim 10 wickets or more in a Test for the 20th time. However, he was unable to pass Warne's record of 708 wickets when Sri Lanka toured Australia in November 2007, capturing just 4 wickets in two test matches. Muralitharan reclaimed the record for most Test wickets during the first Test against England at Kandy on 3 December 2007. The spinner, bowled England's Paul Collingwood to claim his 709th Test victim and overtaking Shane Warne in the process.. Muralitharan reached the mark in his 116th Test - 29 fewer than Warne - and had conceded only 21.77 runs per wicket compared to the Australian's 25.41. This was Muralitharan's 61st 5-wicket haul. Warne believes that Muralitharan will take "1,000 wickets" before he retires. Former record holder Courtney Walsh has also opined that this is possible if Muralitharan retains his hunger for wickets. Muralitharan himself believes there is a possibility that he will reach this milestone. Beyond the world record In July 2008, Muttiah Muralitharan and Ajantha Mendis made a mockery of India's strong batting reputation as Sri Lanka won the first Test by a record innings and 239 runs in Colombo. Muralitharan finished the match with 11 wickets for 110, as India were shot out for 138 in their second innings after conceding a lead of 377 on the fourth day. He was brilliantly supported by debutant Ajantha Mendis, an unorthodox spinner with plenty of variation, who took eight wickets in his debut match. Muttiah Muralitharan believes the emergence of young spinner Ajantha Mendis will help prolong his own career. Muralitharan, 36, and 23-year-old Mendis formed a formidable partnership in the first Test thrashing of India, taking 19 of the 20 wickets between them. "If he keeps performing this way, he will definitely take a lot of wickets in international cricket. Now that he has come, I think I can play Test cricket a few more years. Bowling 50 overs in a test innings is very hard. Now if I bowl only 30-35 and he bowls more than me, the job will get easier for me." Performance analysis Table: Test bowling performanceA Summary of Muralitharan's Test bowling performance against all opponents.VersusOMRW5w10wBestAvgS/RE/RAustralia685.399212859516 for 5936.0769.73.1Bangladesh351.491908761036 for 1811.9527.82.6England1102.03482247112849 for 6520.0659.02.0India956.3200264388628 for 8730.0365.22.8New Zealand630.2184144969516 for 8721.0054.82.3Pakistan713.1170184279516 for 7123.3254.22.6South Africa984.422123111041147 for 8422.2256.82.4West Indies622.3143160982938 for 4619.6245.62.6Zimbabwe786.5259146787629 for 5116.8654.31.9Overall (9)683317151660475665219 for 5121.9654.22.4 Muttiah Muralitharan's greatness lies in the fact that even when batsmen read his deliveries, it is still difficult for them to successfully play them. Like many bowlers he didn't start on the international scene a finished product, every trick in place, every nuance worked out, with only the minor detail of wicket-taking to follow. It took him 27 Tests to claim 100 wickets; the hundred wicket milestones thereafter came in 15, 16, 14, 15, 14 and 12 Tests respectively. His bowling ability wasn't created behind closed doors, but one that evolved out in the open in front of thousands of spectators. In July 2007, Muralitharan achieved a career peak Test Bowling Rating of 920, based on the LG ICC Player Rankings. This is the highest ever rating achieved by a spin bowler in test cricket. This also puts him in 4th place in the LG ICC Best-Ever Test bowling ratings. Muralitharan has the unique distinction of getting 10 or more wickets in a match against all other 9 Test playing nations as well as capturing over 50 wickets against each of them. He has also obtained 7 or more wickets in an innings against 5 nations, namely England, India, South Africa, West Indies and Zimbabwe (refer to table above). He currently holds the highest wickets/match ratio (6.1) for any bowler with over 200 Test wickets and has also represented Sri Lanka in 118 tests of the 175 that they have played (67.4%). As a match-winner, Muralitharan has no rival. In the 45 Tests that Sri Lanka have won with him in the team, he has taken a phenomenal 373 wickets - that's more than eight per match - at an average of 15 and a strike rate of 41. Only Warne, with 510, and Glenn McGrath (414) have taken more wickets in wins. Muralitharan's record has few blemishes, but the two teams he hasn't quite conquered have been Australia and India. He had a disappointing series in Australia in late 2007, averaging 100 runs per wicket, whilst in the eight Tests he has played in India, he has only managed 31 wickets at 39.58 apiece. The other criticism sometimes levelled by some against Muralitharan is the number of wickets he has taken against cricketing minnows Bangladesh and Zimbabwe. He has done exceptionally well against them, but remove those matches from his career numbers, and the statistics still look very good. Against teams excluding Bangladesh and Zimbabwe, Muralitharan has taken 572 wickets in 97 tests at an average of 24.05, which is still superior to Warne's career average of 25.41. Muralitharan has won 18 Man of the Match awards in Test cricket. Another comparison of Muralitharan's bowling record against other successful international bowlers is their career record away from home. Muralitharan has received criticism that he has enjoyed great success on home soil, taking wickets on pitches that are more spin-friendly than other international pitches. A quick analysis of his Test record of matches played outside Sri Lanka shows that from 52 matches he has taken 278 wickets at an average of 26.24 runs per wicket, with a strike rate of 60.1 balls per wicket. Similarly, spin bowling rival Shane Warne retired with a slightly superior 'away' record of 362 wickets from 73 matches, at an average of 25.50 and a strike rate of 56.7. Due to the variabilities of Test cricket such as grounds played at and opposition played against it is difficult to compare the quality of the top level players and, as such, is very difficult and subjective. Test wicket milestones 1st: Craig McDermott lbw 9 vs Australia - Match #1 - Test #1195 50th: Navjot Sidhu caught Ruwan Kalpage 43 vs India - Match #13 - Test #1247 100th: Stephen Fleming bowled 59 vs New Zealand - Match #27 - 1359 150th: Guy Whittall caught sub (Mahela Jayawardene) 17 vs Zimbabwe - Match #36 - Test #1395 200th: Ben Hollioake lbw 0 vs England - Match #42 - Test #1423 250th: Naved Ashraf lbw 27 vs Pakistan - Match #51 - Test #1489 300th: Shaun Pollock caught Tillakaratne Dilshan 11 vs South Africa - Match #58 - Test #1526 350th: Mohammad Sharif caught and bowled 19 vs Bangladesh - Match #66 - Test #1561 400th: Henry Olonga bowled 0 vs Zimbabwe - Match #72 - Test #1585 450th: Daryl Tuffey caught Sanath Jayasuriya 1 vs New Zealand - Match #80 - Test #1644 500th: Michael Kasprowicz bowled 0 vs Australia - Match #87 - Test #1688 520th: Mluleki Nkala caught Mahela Jayawardene 24 vs Zimbabwe - Match #89 - Test #1698 - Breaks Courtney Walsh's world record 550th: Khaled Mashud caught Thilan Samaraweera 2 vs Bangladesh - Match #94 - Test #1764 600th: Khaled Mashud caught Lasith Malinga 6 vs Bangladesh - Match #101 - Test #1786 650th: Makhaya Ntini caught Farveez Maharoof 13 vs South Africa - Match #108 - Test #1812 700th: Syed Rasel caught Farveez Maharoof 4 vs Bangladesh - Match #113 - Test #1839 709th: Paul Collingwood bowled 45 vs England - Match #116 - Test #1851 - Breaks Shane Warne's world record 750th: Sourav Ganguly stumped Prasanna Jayawardene 16 vs India - Match #122 - Test #1884 Five wickets in an innings Muralitharan has taken five or more wickets in an innings on 66 occasions in test cricket, which is a world record. In comparison Shane Warne who is in second place has performed the feat 37 times. Cricinfo, Tests - Most 5 Wickets in an Innings Table: Five wickets in an inningsA list of occasions Muralitharan has taken of five or more wickets in a test Innings.#DateVersusGroundInningsBowling125 Aug 1993South AfricaDe Soysa Park1st5 for 10426 Sep 1993South AfricaSinhalese Sports Gr1st5 for 101318 Jan 1994IndiaK.D. Singh Stadium1st5 for 162411 Mar 1995New ZealandMcLean Park2nd5 for 64515 Sep 1995PakistanIqbal Stadium1st5 for 68611 Sep 1996ZimbabwePremadasa Stadium2nd5 for 33719 Apr 1997PakistanPremadasa Stadium1st6 for 98813 Jun 1997West IndiesAntigua Rec Ground1st5 for 34920 Jun 1997West IndiesAmos Vale Ground2nd5 for 113107 Jan 1998ZimbabweAsgiriya Stadium1st5 for 23117 Jan 1998ZimbabweAsgiriya Stadium2nd7 for 941227 Mar 1998South AfricaSupersport Park1st5 for 631327 May 1998New ZealandPremadasa Stadium1st5 for 901410 Jun 1998New ZealandSinhalese Sports Gr2nd5 for 301527 Aug 1998EnglandThe Oval1st7 for 1551627 Aug 1998EnglandThe Oval2nd9 for 651722 Sep 1999AustraliaGalle Stadium1st5 for 71185 Mar 2000PakistanArbab Niaz Stadium2nd6 for 711914 Jun 2000PakistanSinhalese Sports Gr1st5 for 1152020 Jul 2000South AfricaGalle Stadium1st6 for 872120 Jul 2000South AfricaGalle Stadium2nd7 for 84226 Aug 2000South AfricaSinhalese Sports Gr2nd5 for 682326 Dec 2000South AfricaKingsmead1st5 for 1222426 Dec 2000South AfricaKingsmead2nd6 for 392514 Aug 2001IndiaGalle Stadium2nd5 for 492629 Aug 2001IndiaSinhalese Sports Gr1st8 for 87276 Sep 2001BangladeshSinhalese Sports Gr1st5 for 13286 Sep 2001BangladeshSinhalese Sports Gr2nd5 for 982913 Nov 2001West IndiesGalle Stadium1st6 for 1263013 Nov 2001West IndiesGalle Stadium2nd5 for 443121 Nov 2001West IndiesAsgiriya Stadium2nd6 for 81324 Jan 2002ZimbabweAsgiriya Stadium1st9 for 513312 Jan 2002ZimbabweGalle Stadium1st5 for 673430 May 2002EnglandEdgbaston1st5 for 1433521 Jul 2002BangladeshP Saravanamuttu Stad1st5 for 393621 Jul 2002BangladeshP Saravanamuttu Stad2nd5 for 59373 May 2003New ZealandAsgiriya Stadium2nd5 for 493820 Jun 2003West IndiesBeausejour Stadium1st5 for 138392 Dec 2003EnglandGalle Stadium1st7 for 46408 Mar 2004AustraliaGalle Stadium1st6 for 59418 Mar 2004AustraliaGalle Stadium2nd5 for 1534216 Mar 2004AustraliaAsgiriya Stadium2nd5 for 1734324 Mar 2004AustraliaSinhalese Sports Gr1st5 for 123446 May 2004ZimbabweHarare Sports Club1st6 for 454513 Jul 2005West IndiesSinhalese Sports Gr2nd6 for 364622 Jul 2005West IndiesAsgiriya Stadium2nd8 for 464712 Sep 2005BangladeshPremadasa Stadium2nd6 for 184810 Dec 2005IndiaFeroz Shah Kotla1st7 for 1004928 Feb 2006BangladeshChittagong Div. Stad2nd6 for 54508 Mar 2006BangladeshShaheed Chandu Stad.1st5 for 79513 Apr 2006PakistanAsgiriya Stadium1st5 for 395225 May 2006EnglandEdgbaston1st6 for 86532 Jun 2006EnglandTrent Bridge2nd8 for 705427 Jul 2006South AfricaSinhalese Sports Gr2nd6 for 131554 Aug 2006South AfricaP Saravanamuttu Stad1st5 for 128564 Aug 2006South AfricaP Saravanamuttu Stad2nd7 for 975715 Dec 2006New ZealandBasin Reserve2nd6 for 875825 Jun 2007BangladeshSinhalese Sports Gr1st5 for 155911 Jul 2007BangladeshAsgiriya Stadium1st6 for 286011 Jul 2007BangladeshAsgiriya Stadium2nd6 for 54611 Dec 2007EnglandAsgiriya Stadium1st6 for 55629 Dec 2007EnglandSinhalese Sports Gr1st5 for 116633 Apr 2008West IndiesQueen's Park1st5 for 796423 Jul 2008IndiaSinhalese Sports Gr1st5 for 84 6523 Jul 2008IndiaSinhalese Sports Gr2nd6 for 266626 Dec 2008BangladeshShere Bangla Stadium1st6 for 49 One day internationals Career summary On 12 August 1993 Muralitharan made his One Day International (ODI) debut against India at the Khettarama Stadium and took 1 for 38 off ten overs. Praveen Amre was his first ODI wicket. On 27 October 2000 in Sharjah, Muralitharan captured 7 for 30 against India, which were then the best bowling figures in One Day Internationals. In 9 April 2002 Muralitharan achieved a career peak ODI Bowling Rating of 913, based on the LG ICC Player Rankings. This is the highest ever rating achieved by a spin bowler in One Day Internationals. This also puts him in 4th place in the LG ICC Best-Ever ODI bowling ratings. In 2006, Muralitharan had the second (now third) highest number of runs (99) hit off him in a One Day International Innings. The Australians, especially Adam Gilchrist, attacked Muralitharan's bowling more than usual that day. It is also to be noted that Muralitharan does not have a great record against the Australians in ODIs and this was proved again as he was ineffective in the finals of the 2007 World Cup; his chief tormentor again being Gilchrist. Cricinfo - Records - One-Day Internationals - Most runs conceded in an innings Muralitharan has played in four Cricket World Cup tournaments, in 1996, 1999, 2003 and 2007. He has captured 53 World Cup wickets in 31 matches, and has represented Sri Lanka in two World Cup finals. In 1996 Muralitharan was part Sri Lanka's World Cup winning team that defeated Australia in Lahore, Pakistan. Muralitharan also played in the 2007 World Cup final, when Australia defeated Sri Lanka in Bridgetown, Barbados. He picked up 23 wickets in the 2007 World Cup, and finished as the second highest wicket taker in the tournament behind Glenn McGrath. Muttiah Muralitharan was left out of the Sri Lankan one-day squad to tour West Indies in April 2008. The chairman of selectors Ashantha De Mel clarifying the non-selection stated that "We know he (Muralitharan) can still play in the next World Cup if he is properly looked after, so we want to use him sparingly to preserve him for the big games and the World Cup coming up in the Asian sub-continent where Muralitharan will be a threat." Sri Lanka leave out Muralitharan BBC News retrieved 13 March 2008 Muralitharan has the highest number of career wickets in One Day Internationals, having overtaken Wasim Akram on 5 February 2009. Akram took 502 wickets in 356 matches. On 3 February 2009, Muralitharan dismissed Yuvraj Singh in his 327th match, the third ODI against India in Colombo to equal Akram's record. He has won 13 Man of the Match awards in this form of the game. Best bowling performances Table: Best ODI bowling performancesMuralitharan's best ODI bowling performances - A List of 4 or more wickets in a match.DateVersusGroundWkts6 Apr 1995BangladeshSharjah Stadium4 for 2328 Sep 1996KenyaGymkhana Club Ground4 for 181 Oct 1996South AfricaNairobi Club Ground4 for 3515 Apr 1998PakistanWillowmoore Park5 for 2320 Aug 1998EnglandLord's5 for 3415 Dec 1999ZimbabweHarare Sports Club4 for 1614 Jul 2000South AfricaPremadasa Stadium5 for 4427 Oct 2000IndiaSharjah Stadium7 for 3031 Jan 2001New ZealandMcLean Park5 for 3023 Mar 2001EnglandRangiri Dambulla Std4 for 2912 Dec 2001ZimbabwePremadasa Stadium4 for 329 Apr 2002New ZealandSharjah Stadium5 for 916 Sep 2002NetherlandsPremadasa Stadium4 for 1515 Jan 2003AustraliaBrisbane Cricket Gr4 for 2724 Feb 2003KenyaGymkhana Club Ground4 for 2818 May 2003PakistanRangiri Dambulla Std5 for 2322 Apr 2004ZimbabweQueens Sports Club4 for 3229 Apr 2004ZimbabweHarare Sports Club5 for 2320 Oct 2006New ZealandBrabourne Stadium4 for 2318 Apr 2007IrelandQueen's Park (New)4 for 1924 Apr 2007New ZealandSabina Park4 for 3130 Jun 2008BangladeshNational Stadium5 for 3120 Nov 2008ZimbabweHarare Sports Club4 for 1430 Nov 2008ZimbabweHarare Sports Club5 for 29 Abuse in Australia Muttiah Muralitharan who has been routinely heckled by Australian crowds, bowling in a One Day International against Australia at Brisbane in early 2006. Muralitharan has voiced his frustration at routinely being heckled by Australian crowds who accuse him of throwing - one common jeer directed at him was "No Ball!". Following the then Australian Prime Minister John Howard's statement that Muralitharan was a "chucker" , in 2004, Muralitharan indicated that he would skip future tours to Australia. Tom Moody, the former Sri Lanka coach and former Australian test cricketer, said he was embarrassed by the derogatory reaction and negative attention directed towards Muttiah Muralitharan by Australian crowds. Moody stated that "As an Australian when I have been with the Sri Lankan team in Australia, or playing against them in the World Cup, it's the only situation we find in the whole of the cricketing world where we have this disgraceful slant on a cricketer". During the 2008 CB series in Australia, some members of the Sri Lankan contingent including Muralitharan, were the target of an egg throwing incident in Hobart. The Sri Lankan cricket selector Don Anurasiri was hit by an egg, while Muralitharan and two others were verbally abused by a car-load of people as they were walking from a restaurant back to the hotel. Due to the incident taking place at night, it is unclear whether Muralitharan was indeed the target of the culprits. Even though the Australian coach of the Sri Lankan team, Trevor Bayliss, down-played the incident as "a non-event", Cricket Australia tightened security around the team. In response to this episode Muralitharan was quoted as saying "When you come to Australia, you expect such incidents". World records and achievements Muttiah Muralitharan holds a number of world records, and several firsts: The most Test wickets (770 wickets as of 06 May 2009). Cricinfo - Records - Test matches - Most wickets in career The most One-Day International wickets (505 wickets as of 06 May 2009). - Records - One-Day Internationals - Most wickets in career The highest number of international wickets in Tests and ODIs combined (1275 wickets as of 06 May 2009). Cricinfo - Players and Officials - Muttiah Muralitharan The most 5-wicket hauls in an innings at Test level (66). Cricinfo, Tests - Most 5 Wickets in an Innings The most 10-wicket hauls in a match at Test level (21). He is the only player to take 10 wickets/match against every Test playing nation. Cricinfo, Tests - Most 10 Wickets in a Match Fastest to 350, Cricinfo, Tests - Fastest to 350 Career Wickets 400, Cricinfo, Tests - Fastest to 400 Career Wickets 450, Cricinfo, Tests - Fastest to 450 Career Wickets 500, Cricinfo, Tests - Fastest to 500 Career Wickets 550, Cricinfo, Tests - Fastest to 550 Career Wickets 600, Cricinfo, Tests - Fastest to 600 Career Wickets 650 Cricinfo, Tests - Fastest to 650 Career Wickets and 700 Cricinfo, Tests - Fastest to 700 Career Wickets Test wickets, in terms of matches played. Only player to take 10 wickets in a Test in four consecutive matches. He has achieved this feat twice. Cricinfo, Tests - 10 Wickets in Most Consecutive Matches Only player to take 50 or more wickets against every Test playing nation. Muralitharan and Jim Laker (England), are the only bowlers to have taken 9 wickets in a Test innings twice. 7 wickets in an innings against the most countries (5). Cricinfo, Tests - 7 Wickets in an Innings against Most Countries Most Test wickets taken bowled (157), Cricinfo, Tests - Most Wickets Taken Bowled stumped (41) Cricinfo, Tests - Most Wickets Taken Stumped and caught & bowled (31). Cricinfo, Tests - Most Wickets Taken Caught and Bowled Bowled by Muralitharan (b Muralitharan) is the most common dismissal in Test cricket (excluding run out). Most successful bowler/fielder (non-wicket keeper) combination - c. Mahela Jayawardene b. Muttiah Muralitharan (67). Cricinfo, Tests - Most Wickets by Same Fielder/Bowler Combination Most Man of the Series awards in Test cricket (11). Cricinfo,Tests - Most player-of-the-series awards One of only six bowlers who have dismissed all the eleven batsmen in a Test match. Jim Laker, Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan, Geoff Dymock, Abdul Qadir and Waqar Younis are the others. Cricinfo, Dismissing all eleven batsmen in a match Most test wickets in a single ground. Muralitharan is the only bowler to capture 100-plus Test wickets at two venues, the Sinhalese Sports Club Ground in Colombo and the Asgiriya Stadium in Kandy. Cricinfo, Most wickets on a single ground The only bowler to take 75 or more wickets in a calendar year on three occasions, achieving it in 2000, 2001 and 2006. Cricket awards Wisden leading cricketer in the world Man of match in test cricket Table: Man of match in test cricketMuttiah Muralitharan has won 19 Man Of Match awards in test cricket.#DateVersusGroundInnsBattingBowlingCatches115 Sep 1995PakistanIqbal Stadium1st*85 for 6802nd*102 for 83227 Jan 1998ZimbabweAsgiriya Stadium1st175 for 2302ndDNB7 for 940327 Aug 1998EnglandThe Oval1st307 for 15512ndDNB9 for 65045 Mar 2000PakistanArbab Niaz Stadium1st224 for 7712nd*26 for 710520 Jul 2000South AfricaGalle Stadium1st*26 for 8702ndDNB7 for 84166 Aug 2000South AfricaSinhalese Sports Gr1st*03 for 7002ndDNB6 for 680729 Aug 2001IndiaSinhalese Sports Gr1stDNB8 for 8702ndDNB3 for 109086 Sep 2001BangladeshSinhalese Sports Gr1stDNB5 for 1302nd DNB5 for 981913 Nov 2001West IndiesGalle Stadium1st146 for 12612ndDNB5 for 4421021 Nov 2001West IndiesAsgiriya Stadium1st44 for 5402ndDNB6 for 810114 Jan 2002ZimbabweAsgiriya Stadium1st19 for 5102ndDNB4 for 6401221 Jul 2002BangladeshP Saravanamuttu Stad1st05 for 3902ndDNB5 for 590132 Dec 2003EnglandGalle Stadium1st387 for 4602nd134 for 470146 May 2004ZimbabweHarare Sports Club1st266 for 4512ndDNB2 for 3721512 Sep 2005BangladeshPremadasa Stadium1st33 for 4202ndDNB6 for 180162 Jun 2006EnglandTrent Bridge1st333 for 6202nd28 for 7001725 Jun 2007BangladeshSinhalese Sports Gr1stDNB5 for 1512ndDNB4 for 8711811 Jul 2007BangladeshAsgiriya Stadium1stDNB6 for 2822ndDNB6 for 5401923 Jul 2008IndiaSinhalese Sports Gr1stDNB6 for 8412ndDNB6 for 260 Man of match in one day internationals Table: Man of match in one day internationalsMuttiah Muralitharan has won 13 Man Of Match awards in one day internationals.#DateVersusGroundBattingBowlingCatches112 Aug 1993IndiaPremadasa StadiumDNB1 for 380228 Sep 1996KenyaGymkhana Club GroundDNB4 for 180320 Aug 1998EnglandLord'sDNB5 for 341414 Jul 2000South AfricaPremadasa StadiumDNB5 for 440527 Oct 2000IndiaSharjah StadiumDNB7 for 301631 Jan 2001New ZealandMcLean Park*15 for 301723 Mar 2001EnglandRangiri Dambulla StdDNB4 for 291818 May 2003PakistanRangiri Dambulla Std195 for 23197 Jun 2003West IndiesKensington Oval33 for 1701020 Oct 2006New ZealandBrabourne StadiumDNB4 for 2301123 Mar 2007IndiaQueen's ParkDNB3 for 4121220 Nov 2008ZimbabweHarare Sports ClubDNB4 for 1401330 Nov 2008ZimbabweHarare Sports Club55 for 290 Recognition In 2002, Wisden carried out a statistical analysis of all Test matches in an effort to rate the greatest cricketers in history, and Muralitharan was ranked as the best Test bowler of all time. However, two years earlier, Muralitharan was not named as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Century. Former Australian captain Steve Waugh called him "the Don Bradman of bowling". Murali is Don Bradman of bowlers: Steve Waugh Muralitharan was selected as the Wisden Leading Cricketer in the World in 2000 and in 2006. On 15 November 2007, the Warne-Muralidaran Trophy was unveiled named after the two leading wicket-takers in Test cricket, Shane Warne and Muralitharan. The trophy displays images of the two spin bowlers' hands each holding a cricket ball. This trophy will be contested between Australia and Sri Lanka in all future Test series. On 3 December 2007, just hours after Muttiah Muralitharan became Test cricket's leading Test wicket-taker, Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) announced it had unveiled a portrait of the Sri Lanka off-spinner at Lord's. On the same day the Philatelic Bureau of the Department of Posts in Sri Lanka issued a circular stamp with a denomination of Rs. 5 to mark the world record set by Muttiah Muralitharan. The circular design was meant to denote the cricket ball. New Postal Stamp To Mark The World Record Set By Murali « Sinhale Hot News Australian musician Alston Koch provoked worldwide interest when he recorded the only official tribute song to Muralitharan, the song was even mentioned on the BBC's Test Match Special. The Muralitharan Song video was also released after he broke the world record. On 10 January 2008, the Parliament of Sri Lanka felicitated Muttiah Muralitharan for his world record breaking feat of being the highest wicket taker in Test cricket. This is the first time that a sportsman has been honoured in the country’s Supreme Legislature. Controversy of bowling action First throwing citation and testing Initial concerns as to whether Muralitharan's action contravened the laws of the game by straightening his right arm further than is allowed while bowling broke into open controversy after Australian umpire Darrell Hair called a "no ball" for an illegal action seven times during the Boxing Day Test match in Melbourne, Australia, in 1995. Australian Sir Donald Bradman, universally regarded as the greatest batsman in history, was later quoted as saying it was the "worst example of umpiring that [he had] witnessed, and against everything the game stands for. Clearly Murali does not throw the ball". Ten days later, on 5 January, 1996, Sri Lanka played the West Indies in the 7th ODI of the triangular World Series competition, in Brisbane. Umpire Ross Emerson officiating in his debut international match, no-balled Muralitharan three times in his first over, twice in his second and twice in his third. It was an identical tally to that called by Hair on Boxing Day and (like Hair) Emerson made his calls from the bowler's end while his partner stood silent. The main difference was that several no-balls were for leg-breaks instead of the bowler's normal off-breaks. In February 1996, just before the world cup Muralitharan underwent biomechanical analysis at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology under the supervision of Prof. Ravindra Goonetilleke, who declared his action legal in the conditions tested, citing a congenital defect in Muralitharan's arm which makes him incapable of fully straightening it, but giving the appearance of fully straightening the arm. Although under the original Laws a bowler's arm did not need to be fully straightened to be in breach of a legal delivery. IngentaConnect Technical Note - Legality of bowling actions in cricket They concluded that his action created the 'optical illusion of throwing'. Based on this evidence ICC gave clearance to Muralitharan to continue bowling. Second citation and testing Doubts about Muralitharan's action persisted however, on the 1998-99 tour to Australia he was once again called for throwing by Ross Emerson during a One Day International against England at the Adelaide Oval in Australia. The Sri Lankan team almost abandoned the match, but after instructions from the President of the Board of Control for Cricket in Sri Lanka, the game resumed. The Sri Lankan captain at the time Arjuna Ranatunga, was later fined and given a suspended ban from the game as a result. It later emerged that at the time of this match Emerson was on sick leave from his non-cricket job due to a stress-related illness and he stood down for the rest of the series. Cricinfo - Officious officialdom Muralitharan was sent for further tests in Perth and England and was cleared again. At no stage was Muralitharan requested to change or remodel his action, by the ICC. Up to this point in his career (1999) Muralitharan primarily bowled two types of deliveries, namely the off-break and the topspinner. He had not yet mastered the doosra. Third citation and testing Muralitharan continued bowling, taking his 500th Test wicket in the second Test against Australia in Kandy on 16 March 2004. At the end of the series his doosra delivery was officially called into question by match referee Chris Broad. At the University of Western Australia (Department of Human Movement and Exercise Science), three-dimensional kinematic measurements of Muttiah Muralitharan’s bowling arm were taken using an optical motion capture system while he bowled his doosra. Muralitharan’s mean elbow extension angle for the doosra delivery was 14°, which was subsequently reduced to a mean of 10.2° after remedial training at the University. The findings reported to ICC by the University of Western Australia's study conducted by Elliott et al. (2004) was that Muralitharan's doosra contravened the established ICC elbow extension limit of 5° for spinners.<ref name="ICC's high-tech solution too late for Murali" . Under the original throwing Laws of Cricket, the umpires officiating were under an obligation to call "no-ball" to a delivery that they were not entirely happy was absolutely fair. This Law gave the umpires absolutely no discretion. In 2000, the Laws were changed to put an allowable figure of straightening of 5° for spinners, 7.5° for medium pacers and 10° for fast bowlers in an attempt to more clearly define what was legal. http://www.coachesinfo.com/category/cricket/351/ But these figures proved difficult to enforce due to umpires being unable to discern actual amounts of straightening and the differentiation between the three different allowable figures. Testing in Test Match conditions is not currently possible "when the identification of elbow and shoulder joint centres in on-field data collection, where a shirt is worn, also involves large errors. In a match the ability to differentiate anatomical movements such as 'elbow extension' by digitising segment end-points, particularly if you have segment rotations, is extremely difficult and prone to error. This is certainly the case with spin bowlers. It is therefore not surprising that laboratory testing is preferred, particularly for spin bowlers, where an appropriate pitch length and run-up can be structured. This is clearly the only way to test players, where data would be able to withstand scientific and therefore legal scrutiny." An extensive ICC study, the results of which were released in November 2004, was conducted to investigate the "chucking issue". A laboratory kinematic analysis of 42 non-Test playing bowlers done by Ferdinands and Kersting (2004) established that the 5° limit for slow and spin bowlers was particularly impractical. Due to the scientific findings are overwelming, researchers recommended that a flat rate of 15° tolerable elbow extension be used to define a preliminary demarcation point between bowling and throwing. A panel of former Test players consisting of Aravinda de Silva, Angus Fraser, Michael Holding, Tony Lewis, Tim May and the ICC's David Richardson, with the assistance of several biomechanical experts, stated that 99% of all bowlers in the history of cricket straighten their arms when bowling. . Only one player tested (part-time bowler Ramnaresh Sarwan) reportedly did not transgress the pre 2000 rules. Many of these reports have controversially not been published and as such, the 99% figure stated has yet to be proved. In fact, Muralitharan stirred up controversy when he said during an interview with a Melbourne radio station that Jason Gillespie, Glenn McGrath and Brett Lee flexed their arms by 12, 13 and 14-15 degrees respectively, although it is unclear as to where Muralitharan quoted these figures from. Muralitharan was censured by the Sri Lankan Cricket Board for these comments. The ICC Executive was asked to ratify the panel's recommendations at the ICC's Annual General Meeting in February 2005. Based on the recommendations the ICC issued a new guideline (which was effective from 1 March 2005) allowing for extensions or hyperextensions of up to 15 degrees for all types of bowlers, thus deeming Muralitharan's doosra to be legal. Explaining why the maximum level of 15 degrees was arrived at, panel member Angus Fraser stated "That is the number which biomechanics says that it (straightening) becomes visible. It is difficult for the naked eye to see less than 15 degrees in a bowler's action. We found when the biceps reached the shoulder the amount of bend was around 165 degrees. Very few bowlers can get to 180 degrees because the joint doesn't allow that. ...... but once you go further than 15 degrees you get into an area which is starting to give you an unfair advantage and you are breaking the law". University of South Australia study The original decision of disallowing the doosra bowling action was hailed widely as justifiable on account of being scientifically based. Hence, a team of Australian scientists representing the University of South Australia conducted an independent research, in line with modern Artificial Intelligence and biomechanics in order to solve the controversial issue arise from doosra. The University of South Australia’s study, founded by Prof. Mahinda Pathegama, and contributed by Prof. Ozdemir Gol, Prof. J. Mazumdar, Prof. Tony Worsley and Prof. Lakmi Jain has analyzed the previous studies with close scrutiny since the techniques in their fields of expertise are employed in the course of assessment as the basis for decision-making. The findings based on this scientific study are overwhelming and David Richardson, General Manager ICC stated that the ICC is currently reviewing the Law on throwing and the ICC regulations and the study done by Prof. Mahinda Pathegama with UniSA scientists is a valuable source of information in this regard . The team of Australian scientists including Sri Lankan-born Australian scientist, Prof. Mahinda Pathegama reporting their findings, in line with the Muralitharan test to ICC, has analyzed in-depth various issues, such as Pitfalls in image interpretation when using 2D images for 3D modeling associates compared to the modern techniques in Artificial Intelligence and biomechanics, and Biomechanics assessment for doosra bowling action, etc. Pathegama at al. (2004) further reports on the Disagreement of expression on measurement accuracy in the Murali Report, with the analysis of the Motion tracking system used for the Murali Report, and discussing Cognitive aspects, Evidence of errors in Anthropometric assessment and movement tracking, Lateral inhibition in response tracking, Psycho-physiological aspect on post-assessments, Angular measurement errors, Skin marker induced errors, Geometrics- and physics-based 3D modeling and the Approach to on-field assessment, etc. The Muralitharan Report produced by the University of Western Australia's study has considered the Richard’s study done in 1999 to evaluate the error margin. University of South Australia’s study done by Prof. Mahinda Pathegama argued that the Richard’s study which was presented by the University of Western Australia’s study has used a rigid aluminium bar that only rotated in the horizontal plane to introduce such error margin. Pathegama’s report stated that "in view of the system used in the test itself yielding considerable error even with a rigid aluminum bar (an accuracy level of approximately 4 degrees as stated in the Murali Report), it stands to reason that the error margin would be considerably larger when tracking skin markers on a spin bowler’s moving upper limb by this same system". Fourth round of testing On 2 February 2006, Muralitharan underwent a fourth round of biomechanical testing. There had been criticism that the previous round of tests in July 2004 did not replicate match conditions due to a slower bowling speed in the laboratory tests. The results showed that the average elbow flexation while bowling the 'doosra' delivery was 12.2 degrees, at an average of 53.75 mph (86 km/h). The average for his off-break was 12.9 degrees at 59.03 mph (99.45 km/h). Bowling with an arm brace In July 2004 Muralitharan was filmed in England, bowling with an arm brace on. The film was shown on Britain's Channel 4 during the Test against England on 22 July 2004. The documentary is not available for purchase and has not been aired in Australia. Initially, Muralitharan bowled three balls - the off-spinner, the top-spinner and the doosra - as he would in a match. Then he bowled the same three balls with a brace that is made from steel bars, which are set into strong resin. This brace has been moulded to his right arm, is approximately 46 centimetres long and weighs just under 1 kilogram. TV presenter Mark Nicholas who tried the brace himself, confirmed that "There is no way an arm can be bent, or flexed, when it is in this brace." All three balls reacted in the same way as when bowled without the brace. They were not bowled quite so fast because the weight of the brace restricts the speed of Muralitharan's shoulder rotation, but the spin was still there. With the brace on, there still appeared to be a jerk in his action. When studying the film at varying speeds, it still appeared as if he straightened his arm, even though the brace makes it impossible to do so. His unique shoulder rotation and amazing wrist action seem to create the illusion that he straightens his arm. The off-spinner said the exercise was to convince a sceptical public rather than sway an ICC investigation into bowling actions launched after he was reported by match referee Chris Broad for his doosra delivery in March 2004, the third time action has been taken on his bowling. In an interview for August 2004 edition of Wisden Asia Cricket, Muralitharan stated "I think it will prove a point to those who had said that it was physically impossible to bowl a ball that turned the other way. I proved that it was possible to bowl the doosra without bending the arm." In 2004 at the R Premadasa Stadium in Colombo, Muralithan voluntarily performed a series of tests with live video cameras. Michael Slater and Ravi Shastri witnessed it all unfold. Muralitharan once again showed he could bowl all his deliveries including the doosra with an arm brace that prevents any straightening of his elbow. Orthopediatrician Dr Mandeep Dillon stated that Muralitharan's unusual ability to generate extra movement both at the shoulder as well the wrist enables him to bowl the doosra without straightening the elbow. Critics and converts Two vocal critics of Muralitharan's action have been former Test cricketers, Australian Dean Jones and Bishan Bedi, the former Indian captain. Michael Holding, the former West Indian fast bowler was also a critic of Muralitharan, but withdrew his criticisms under the light of the tests carried out. Holding has been quoted as being in "110% agreement" with Bedi, who likened Murali's action to a "javelin throw" and more recently, compared to a "shot putter". Following the ICC study, as a member of the panel that conducted the study, Holding stated, "The scientific evidence is overwhelming... When bowlers who to the naked eye look to have pure actions are thoroughly analysed with the sophisticated technology now in place, they are likely to be shown as straightening their arm by 11 and in some cases 12 degrees. Under a strict interpretation of the Law, these players are breaking the rules. The game needs to deal with this reality and make its judgment as to how it accommodates this fact." Cricket-Online: Murali's doosra given green light In May 2002, Adam Gilchrist, speaking at a Carlton (Australian) Football Club luncheon, claimed Muralitharan's action does not comply with the Laws of cricket. The Melbourne-based Age newspaper quoted Gilchrist as saying."Yeah, I think he does (chuck), and I say that because, if you read the Laws of the game, there's no doubt in my mind that he and many others, throughout cricket history have." These comments were made before the doosra controversy, in spite of Muralitharan's action having been cleared by ICC in both 1996 and 1999. For his comment Gilchrist was reprimanded by the Australian Cricket Board (ACB) and found guilty of being in breach of ACB rules concerned with "detrimental public comment". During the 2006 tour of New Zealand another Muralitharan critic, former New Zealand captain and cricket commentator Martin Crowe called for Muralitharan's doosra to be monitored more closely, asserting that his action seemed to deteriorate during a match. Earlier that year when delivering the Cowdrey lecture at Lords Martin Crowe had demanded zero tolerance instead of 15 degrees for throwing and specifically branded Muttiah Muralitharan a chucker. In response to Crowe's criticism ICC general manager David Richardson stated that the scientific evidence presented by biomechanists Professor Bruce Elliot, Dr Paul Hurrion and Mr Marc Portuswith was overwhelming and clarified that "Some bowlers, even those not suspected of having flawed actions, were found likely to be straightening their arms by 11 or 12 degrees. And at the same time, some bowlers that may appear to be throwing may be hyper-extending or bowl with permanently bent elbows. Under a strict interpretation of the law, they were breaking the rules - but if we ruled out every bowler that did that then there would be no bowlers left." Scientific research on bowling actions Since 1999 there has been a number of scientific research publications discussing the Muralitharan's bowling action as well the need for defining the legality of a bowling action using biomechanical concepts. This research has directly contributed towards the official acceptance of Muralitharan's bowling action and has convinced the ICC to redefine the bowling laws in cricket. The key publications are listed below: Elliot, B.C., Alderson, J., Reid, S. and Foster, D. (2004). Bowling Report of Muttiah Muralitharan. Ferdinands, R.E.D. (2004). Three-dimensional biomechanical analysis of bowling in cricket. PhD Thesis, University of Waikato. Ferdinands, R.E.D. and Kersting, U.G. (2004). Elbow Angle Extension and implecation for the legality of the bowling action in Cricket. In A McIntosh (Ed.), Proceedings of Australasian Biomechanic Conference 5 (9 December-10), University of New South Wales, Sydney, pp. 26–27. Ferdinands, R.E.D. and Kersting, U.G. (2007). An evaluation of biomechanical measures of bowling action legality in cricket. Sports Biomechanics, Volume 6, Issue 3 September 2007, pages 315 - 333 Goonetilleke, R.S. (1999). Legality of bowling actions in cricket. Ergonomics, 42 (10), 1386-1397. Lloyd, D. G., Alderson, J. and Elliot, B.C.(2000). An upper limb kinamatic for the examination of cricket bowling: A case study of Muttiah Muralitharan. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 975-982. Marshall, R. and Ferdinands R. (2003). The effect of a flexed elbow on bowling speed in circket. Sports Biomechanics, 2(1), 65-71. Pathegama, M., Göl, Ö, Mazumdar, J., Winefield, T. and Jain, L (2003) ‘Use of imprecise biomedical image analysis and anthropometric assessment in biomechanics with particular reference to competitive cricket’, UniSA Scientific Study, SEIE, University of South Australia, Australia. Pathegama, M. & Göl, Ö (2004) ‘Special Report on the Controversial doosra bowling action based on UniSA scientific study: As per the invitation made by David Richardson, General Manager, ICC), EIE, University of South Australia, Australia. Portus, M., Mason, B., Rath, D. and Rosemond, C. (2003). Fast bowling arm actions and the illegal delivery law in men's high performance cricket matches. Science and Medicine in Cricket. R. Stretch, T. Noakes and C. Vauhan (Eds.), Com Press, Ports Elizabeth, South Africa, pp. 41–54. Batting An aggressive lower order batsman who usually bats at No. 11, Muralitharan is known for his tendency to back away to leg and slog. Sometimes, he can be troublesome for bowlers because of his unorthodox and adventurous batting ways. Once, in a test match against England, while playing Alex Tudor, he moved back towards his leg stump trying to hook the ball and ended up lying on the ground sideways after the shot. He was infamously run out in a match against New Zealand when he left his crease to congratulate Kumar Sangakkara, who had just scored a single to reach his century; the New Zealand fielder had not yet returned the ball to the wicketkeeper, so the ball was still in play. His highest Test score of 67 came against India at Kandy in 2001, including three sixes and five fours. He has made valuable scores on occasion, including 30 runs against England at the Oval in 1998, including 5 fours, Test Match: England v Sri Lanka at The Oval, 27-31 Aug 1998 38 runs (4 fours, 1 six) against England at Galle in 2003, 1st Test: Sri Lanka v England at Galle, 2-6 Dec 2003 43 runs (5 fours, 3 sixes) against Australia at Kandy in 2004 2nd Test: Sri Lanka v Australia at Kandy, 16-20 Mar 2004 36 runs against the West Indies at Colombo in 2005, 1st Test: Sri Lanka v West Indies at Colombo (SSC), 13-17 Jul 2005 and his highest-ever ODI score, 33 not out (4 fours and 2 sixes off 16 balls) against Bangladesh in the final of the 2009 Tri-Series in Bangladesh. In the latter match, Murali's effort, which included three fours and a six off one over, played a key role in Sri Lanka winning the match and series after the first eight overs saw them reduced to 6 for 5, the lowest score ever recorded in an ODI at the fall of the 5th wicket. Muralitharan has a strike rate close to 70 in test cricket and has scored over 55% of his test runs in fours and sixes. Muralitharan, together with Chaminda Vaas, holds the record for the highest 10th wicket partnership in tests for Sri Lanka. The pair put on 79 runs for the last wicket at the Asgiriya Stadium against Australia in March 2004. Muralitharan also holds the record for scoring most runs in test cricket while batting at the number 11 position. Philanthropy Muralitharan, along with his manager Kushil Gunasekara, established the Foundation of Goodness , a charity organisation, in the early 2000s. This organisation is committed to the wellbeing of the Seenigama region (in southern Sri Lanka) and supports local communities through a range of projects across areas including children’s needs, education and training, healthcare and psycho-social support, housing, livelihoods, sport and the environment. In June 2004, Muralitharan also joined the United Nations World Food Program as an ambassador to fight hunger among school children. When the tsunami devastated Sri Lanka on 26 December 2004, Muralitharan galvanised into action to ensure that aid reached people that needed it. He himself narrowly escaped death, arriving 20 minutes late at Seenigama, where he was to give away prizes at one of the charity projects he worked on. While international agencies were bringing food in by air, there was an urgent need for transport, and Murali organised three convoys of 10 trucks each, paying for these himself, to get the food to people who needed it. He persuaded those who could to donate clothes, and supervised the delivery himself. During the hard work of rehabilitation in the tsunami’s aftermath, cement was in short supply. Muralitharan promptly signed an endorsement deal with Lafarge, a global cement giant, that was a straight barter, where cement would be supplied to the Foundation for Goodness in exchange for work Muralitharan did. During the first three years since the tsunami, the foundation raised more than US$ 4 million to help survivors, and has built homes, schools, sports facilities and computer centres. Product and brand endorsements Mobitel (Sri Lanka): 2008 - Present Indian Oil Corporation: 2004-2005 Janashakthi Insurance: 2004 - 2008 Ceylinco Consolidated- Ceylinco Life: 2008 - Present Western Union: 2006-2008 KFC:2008-Present Reebok brand ambassader-present See also Wisden Leading Cricketer in the World Doosra List of international cricketers called for throwing List of cricketers called for throwing in major cricket matches in Australia Throwing (cricket) List of World XI ODI cricketers List of Asian XI ODI cricketers World Cricket Tsunami Appeal References External links Muralitharan.com CricInfo Player Profile: Muttiah Muralitharan Muttiah Muralitharan International Fan Club Alston Koch's Murali Song Video Murali Tracker Muralitharan.cricket-records.com Murali's throwing controversy was resolved at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology TimeLine: Muttiah Muralitharan Muralitharan.org Murali BigStarCricket | Muttiah_Muralitharan |@lemmatized muttiah:29 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2,797 | Larousse_Gastronomique | Larousse Gastronomique is an encyclopedia of gastronomy. The majority of the book is French cuisine with many French dishes, cooking techniques, and recipes featured. Many non-French dishes and ingredients are mentioned and, in later editions, these entries increased. Background The first edition (1938) was edited by Prosper Montagné, with prefaces by Georges Auguste Escoffier and Philéas Gilbert. Gilbert was a collaborator in the creation of this book as well as Le Guide Culinaire with Escoffier leading to some cross-over with the two books and causing Escoffier to note when he was asked to write the preface that he could “see with my own eyes, and Montagné cannot hide from me the fact that he has used Le Guide as a basis for his new book, and certainly used numerous recipes.” James, 266–68 Translations and other editions It was translated into English in 1961. Bibliography Montagné, Prosper. Larousse Gastronomique: The Encyclopedia of Food, Wine, and Cookery. Edited by Charlotte Turgeon and Nina Froud. New York: Crown, 1961. First English edition. Montagné, Prosper. Larousse Gastronomique: The New American Edition of the World's Greatest Culinary Encyclopedia. Edited by Jennifer Harvey Lang. New York: Crown, 1988. Second English edition. Montagné, Prosper. Larousse Gastronomique: The World's Greatest Culinary Encyclopedia. Edited by Jennifer Harvey Lang. New York: Clarkson Potter, 2001. Third English edition. The Third edition (2001) is modernized in many ways and includes additional material on other cuisines and contains approx. 1350 pages. It is also available in a concise edition (2003). Notes Works cited James, Kenneth. Escoffier: The King of Chefs. Hambledon and London: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Larousse Gastronomique, Prosper Montagné, maître cuisinier, avec la collaboration du docteur Gottschalk, Paris, Editions Larousse, 1938. Larousse gastronomique: the encyclopedia of food, wine & cookery, Ed. Charlotte Turgeon and Nina Froud. New York, Crown Publishers, 1961. The English translation of the 1938 edition. ISBN 0-517-50333-6 2001 2nd edition, ISBN 2-03-560227-0, with assistance from a gastronomic committee chaired by Joël Robuchon English translation of 2nd edition, ISBN 0-609-60971-8 | Larousse_Gastronomique |@lemmatized larousse:7 gastronomique:6 encyclopedia:5 gastronomy:1 majority:1 book:4 french:3 cuisine:2 many:3 dish:2 cook:1 technique:1 recipe:2 feature:1 non:1 ingredient:1 mention:1 late:1 edition:13 entry:1 increase:1 background:1 first:2 edit:4 prosper:5 montagné:6 preface:2 george:1 auguste:1 escoffier:4 philéas:1 gilbert:2 collaborator:1 creation:1 well:1 le:2 guide:2 culinaire:1 lead:1 cross:1 two:1 cause:1 note:2 ask:1 write:1 could:1 see:1 eye:1 cannot:1 hide:1 fact:1 use:2 basis:1 new:6 certainly:1 numerous:1 james:2 translation:3 translate:1 english:6 bibliography:1 food:2 wine:2 cookery:2 charlotte:2 turgeon:2 nina:2 froud:2 york:4 crown:3 american:1 world:2 great:2 culinary:2 jennifer:2 harvey:2 lang:2 second:1 clarkson:1 potter:1 third:2 modernize:1 way:1 include:1 additional:1 material:1 contains:1 approx:1 page:1 also:1 available:1 concise:1 work:1 cite:1 kenneth:1 king:1 chef:1 hambledon:1 london:1 cambridge:1 university:1 press:1 maître:1 cuisinier:1 avec:1 la:1 collaboration:1 du:1 docteur:1 gottschalk:1 paris:1 ed:1 publisher:1 isbn:3 assistance:1 gastronomic:1 committee:1 chair:1 joël:1 robuchon:1 |@bigram larousse_gastronomique:6 auguste_escoffier:1 guide_culinaire:1 du_docteur:1 |
2,798 | Taiko | Taiko drummers in Aichi, Japan means "drum" in Japanese (etymologically "great" or "wide drum"). Outside Japan, the word is often used to refer to any of the various Japanese drums (和太鼓, 'wa-daiko', "Japanese drum", in Japanese) and to the relatively recent art-form of ensemble taiko drumming (sometimes called more specifically, "kumi-daiko" (組太鼓)). Types of taiko Display of the manufacturing of a Taiko drum Japanese taiko drums have been developed into a wide range of percussion instruments that are used in both Japanese folk and classical musical traditions. Taiko, in general, are stick percussion instruments. With the exception of the kotsuzumi and ootsuzumi, all taiko are struck with bachi. They have heads on both sides of the drum body, and a sealed resonating cavity. Taiko are also characterized by a high amount of tension on the drums heads, with a correspondingly high pitch relative to body size. This high tension likely developed in response to Japan's wet and humid summers when most festivals take place. Many taiko are not tunable, and a drum with high head tension would counteract the slacking effects of humidity. Taiko are categorized into two types of construction. Byou-uchi daiko (鋲撃ち太鼓) taiko have heads nailed to the body. Tsukushime-daiko (付締め太鼓) have heads sewn onto iron rings, which are then laced to each other around the drum body. Byou-uchi daiko are typically hollowed out of a single piece of wood. The preferred wood is keyaki (欅) due to its density and beautiful grain, but a number of other woods are used, grouped under the generic term meari (目有). Byou-uchi daiko cannot be tuned, and their sizes are limited by the diameter of the tree they are made from. The typical byou-uchi daiko is the nagado-daiko (長胴太鼓, long-body taiko). The nagado-daiko is an elongated drum, roughly shaped like a wine barrel, that can be shifted in many different ways that affect the sound of the instrument. The drum can also be played by more than one performer at the same time. This style of drum also signifies the family of drums that are made from a single piece of wood. Nakado-daiko are available in a variety of sizes, from 1.0 shaku (12" in head diameter), to 3.0 shaku in 1 sun increments. The chu-daiko is a medium sized nakado-daiko. Nagado-daiko over 3.0 shaku are also available, but they are referred to as ōdaiko (大太鼓 great drum). Smaller byou-uchi daiko such as the sumo-daiko and hayashi-daiko also exist. The "N" odaiko, with a length of 2.4 m, a maximum diameter of 2.4 m, and a weight of 3 tons. Made out of a single piece of wood from a 1200 year old treeOne of the most defining drums of any Taiko ensemble is the ōdaiko. The ōdaiko is the largest drum in all of Taiko if not the entire world. The largest ōdaiko are too big to move and permanently reside inside a temple or shrine. Made from a single piece of wood, some ōdaiko come from trees that are hundreds of years old. Tsukeshime-daiko (付締め太鼓) are available in a wide variety of styles, and are tunable. This style of taiko is typically tensioned before each performance. The tensioning system is usually rope, but bolt systems and turnbuckles have been used as well. Tsukeshime-daiko can either have stitched heads placed on bodies carved from single piece of wood, such as the shime-daiko and tsuzumi, or stitched heads placed on a stave-construction body such as the okedo-daiko. The shime-daiko is roughly snare-drum sized, and is generally available in five sizes - Namizuke, or number 1 size, is the lightest and is used in classical theater such as noh and kabuki. Nichougakke, or number 2, are usually used by amateur players for its light and yet sturdy frame. sanchou - gochou; number 3 to number 5 are used by semi-professional to world class performance groups. An ornately painted tsuri-daiko, used in gagaku music Other Japanese taiko include the uchiwa-daiko (団扇太鼓、fan taiko), hira-daiko (平太鼓, flat taiko), o-daiko (大太鼓, big taiko), and a host of percussion instruments used in Japan's traditional noh, gagaku, and kabuki ensembles. The Aomori region is famous for the Nebuta festival where huge okedo are played by many people while carted through the streets. The Okedo has its own upright stand which was invented by Asano Taiko Drum Company. Again, like the nagado-daiko, the okedo has a rim sound, called "ka." When playing the rim of an okedo, however, it is important to only hit the outermost metal ring and not the actual rim of the drum body. The thin, light wood of the okedo is particularly susceptible to denting and will quickly deteriorate if hit. The early history of taiko Along with the martial use of the Taiko drums, they also held a strong foundation in the court style music called Gagaku. You would expect to find this style of music held in the castles and shrines across ancient Japan. Gagaku alone is one of the oldest styles of court music that is still being played in the world today. Modern taiko Modern taiko was established in 1951 by Daihachi Oguchi. He is credited with forming the first actual Taiko ensemble referred to as kumi-daiko and starting the modern popularity of Taiko performances. Daihachi Oguchi was originally known for his jazz drumming performances. As the story goes, he was going to play a drumming piece for one of the local shrines and decided to add somewhat of a jazz style flare to the piece. Coming from a jazz background, Daihachi Oguchi speculated why the Taiko drums had never previously been played as an ensemble before. From this simple idea Daihachi Oguchi put together various Taiko of all different shapes, sizes, and pitches to be included in his ensemble. The drums were also arranged in the same type of manner that a jazz drum set would be expected to look like. Since an actual Taiko ensemble had never really performed together and the people he had playing with him were in no way professional musicians, he based the rhythms of their performance on the simplistic arrangement of the shrine music that had been previously played; which allowed for nearly any person with the interest in Taiko could play along. It was from the foundation of the first Taiko ensemble that Daihachi Oguchi continued on to lead the successful Taiko group named Osuwa Daiko. At 84 years old, Daihachi Oguchi died on June 27, 2008, after being hit by a car across from his home in Nagano, Japan. Oguchi is widely attributed as the GrandMaster of modern Taiko. He formed or helped to form nearly 200 taiko groups in Japan, Singapore, Canada and the U.S. Around the same time as Daihachi Oguchi’s Taiko ensemble's name was spreading around Japan via radio and television broadcasts, another pioneer in the field called, Sukeroku Daiko, emerged. Their performances consisted of speed, fluidity, and power. They also brought flashy choreography and solos. Despite the group’s eventual break up, one of its members, Seido Kobayashi, went on to form the group Oedo Sukeroku Daiko, which is credited for being the very first professional Taiko group. Another Taiko ensemble that set the framework for one of the most popular groups began on Sado Island. The group, Za Ondekoza, was founded in 1969 by a man named Tagayasu Den. He set out to make Taiko more than just entertainment but a way of life. He collected a group of youths from rural areas across Japan so that they would be uninfluenced by the big city way of life. With this mindset, the students practiced a very rigorous training regime that typically consisted of marathon running and communal living. Due to complications, the group members and Tagayasu Den split off and Mr. Den left Sado Island. The remaining members, with the help of drums from Asano Taiko, went on to form the Taiko group Kodo. Kodo has gone on to be one of the world's most popular and recognized performance ensembles. Since 1988, the group has also hosted the Earth Celebration International Music Festival, which brings music enthusiasts from all over the world to their headquarters. Most recently, a new generation of Taiko performers groups have emerged. Art Lee (Art Lee - Taiko) is a solo performer living in Japan, and director of a group, Tokara, through which he introduces a new style of artistry of movement and sound into Taiko composition. Entertainment groups such as Wadaiko Yamato and TAO have become full agencies in which the performance group is the main charter of the company as a whole. Other groups such as Shidara, stick with the traditional way of life of their area, while infusing their towns festival traditions into the entertainment industry. The Taiko band GOCOO from Tokyo is the first internationally renowned group led by a female drummer (Kaoly Asano). GOCOO is also the first Taiko ensemble to exhibit free-spirited Taiko MUSIC, rising freely between the East and the West, tradition and pop, rite and party. Additionally, taiko has grown in the United States since coming over from Japan in the late 1960s. The first American taiko group, San Francisco Taiko Dojo, was formed in 1968 by Seiichi Tanaka, a postwar immigrant who studied taiko in Japan and brought the styles and teachings to America. A year later, a few members of Senshin Buddhist Temple in Los Angeles were putting away a drum after an obon festival and decided to just have a jam session and after several hours of playing, they decided to form a group. Shortly after, Kinnara taiko was formed. In 1973, the third American taiko group, San Jose Taiko, was formed by a group of young Japanese Americans in the San Jose Japantown. In the 1990s, there was a new development in taiko in the United States. In 1990, students at UCLA formed the first intercollegiate taiko group, Kyodo Taiko. In 1992, the second and third collegiate groups were formed, Stanford Taiko at Stanford University and Jodaiko at the University of California, Irvine. Since the formation of these three groups, collegiate groups have formed all around the nation. It's estimated that about 36 collegiate taiko groups and about 300 taiko groups in general exist in the United States today. Taiko is also starting to emerge in academia. Eric "The Fish" Paton has established an entire world music curriculum (for non-musicians and musicians alike) at Capital University. The curriculum revolves around the Taiko drums and uses percussion to teach world music. As a sign of taiko's emerging influence, Bear McCreary heavily relied upon the instrument for much of the music in the reimagined Battlestar Galactica series. Additionally, in support of the recent music craze in video games Vir2L Studios released the iPhone and iPod Touch game application 'Vir2L Drums Taiko' in April 2009. The game allows you to feel your iPhone resonate with Taiko Drums and has three play modes: Training, Freeplay, and Sessions. Taiko performance There are four different styles of Taiko performance. Multi-drum, multi-player (複式複打法) Two or more drummers play more than one type of Taiko. This style of performance is popular nowadays. It is also referred to as Kumidaiko (組太鼓). Multi-drum, one player (複式単打法) One drummer plays more than one type of Taiko. One drum, multi-player (単式複打法) Two or more drummers play only one type of Taiko. One drum, one player (単式単打法) One drummer plays only one type of Taiko. Taiko ensembles Taiko ensembles are groups that are nearly completely drum instruments, with a couple of exceptions. Each from the drums plays a very specific role to the overall aspect of the ensemble. Of the many different styles and shapes of Taiko drums, the most common drum found in an ensemble would likely be the nagado-daiko. Drums are not the only instruments played in the ensemble. They also incorporate a wide variety of other Japanese instruments to their ensembles. Common string instruments found with many different Taiko groups would be the biwa, koto, and the shamisen. Of the woodwinds used, the bamboo flutes known as the shakuhachi and the shinobue are popular items. Uses of the taiko in warfare In feudal Japan, taiko were often used to motivate troops, to help set a marching pace, and to call out orders or announcements. Approaching or entering a battle, the taiko yaku (drummer) was responsible for setting the marching pace, usually with six paces per beat of the drum (beat-2-3-4-5-6, beat-2-3-4-5-6). According to one of the historical chronicles (the Gunji Yoshu), nine sets of five beats would summon an ally to battle, while nine sets of three beats, sped up three or four times is the call to advance and pursue an enemy. Related terms Bachi Straight wooden sticks used to play taiko drums. Ji Also called Jiuchi, is a basic rhythm used to support the main rhythm, or the O-uchi. It can also be described as the meter or feel of a piece (being in a straight duple meter or having a swing feel). Some of the more common rhythms for ji are don doko, don ko, or don go (swing pattern). A Jikata is a performer who plays the ji rhythm. Kizami Straight simple meter. Ukare "Swung" compound meter. Ma A Japanese term that can mean "interval" or "space" (i.e., 'a' tto iu ma; the space it takes to say 'a'; compare to the English saying "in the blink of an eye"). It is used in music to describe a period of silence. In taiko music, ma is the period between hits on the drum. It is important to appreciate this silence when playing taiko, just as you would appreciate the sound of a hit on the drum. Since ensemble taiko is focused on rhythm, the ma of a piece is critical to adding drama, excitement, and tension. Ma can be a rhythmic rest, or an extended silence, to be broken at the player's discretion. If the player concentrates on hearing the ma between each hit, in addition to the hits themselves, he or she will create a much more effective and satisfying sound. A good example of how ma is used is in oroshi. Oroshi Oroshi is characterized by a series of hits on the taiko. The player starts out slowly with lots of 'ma'(spacing). Gradually the 'ma' between each hit becomes shorter and shorter, until the drummer is playing a rapid roll of hits. In other words, a gradual increase in tempo. Chanchiki A high pitched instrument meant to establish a common tempo. It is held by hand References See also Music of Japan for some history of taiko. Kuchi shoga, a system used to 'pronounce' taiko sounds. Taiko: Drum Master (aka Taiko no tatsujin) is a drumming game for the PlayStation 2 Further reading Nea National Heritage Fellowships: Seiichi Tanaka. National Endowment for the Arts, June 11 2001. Accessed March 4 2006. Art Lee. "Beginners Taiko Pamphlet", Online Resource. September 2003 Asai, Susan Miyo. "Hōraku: A Buddhist Tradition of Performing Arts and the Development of Taiko Drumming in the United States." Selected Reports in Ethnomusicology 4 (1985): 163-172. "Transformations of Tradition: Three Generations of Japanese American Music Making." The Musical Quarterly 79, no. 3 (1995): 429-453. Asian Drums/Kiyoshi Yoshida. Pacific Moon Records, July 2 2004. Accessed 2005 September 11. Bando, Makoto. Hajimete No Wadaiko Ensō [First Japanese Taiko Performance]. Tokyo: Erukurabu, 2003. Barakan, P. "Discussion: A Woman Playing Japanese Drums." In Wadaiko, 124-135: Kawade Shobō Shinsha, 1995. Bender, Shawn Morgan. "Of Roots and Race: Discourses of Body and Place in Japanese Taiko Drumming." Social Science Japan 8, no. 2 (2005): 197-212. Bender, Shawn Morgan. "Drumming between Tradition and Modernity: Taiko and Neo- Folk Performance in Contemporary Japan." Unpublished dissertation, University of California San Diego, 2003. Big Drum. May 27 2006. Accessed April 24 2006. Brennan, Michael. Mainstream Movies with Featured Taiko Performances. December 11 2004. Accessed March 19 2006. Chatenever, R. "A Different Drummer." Maui Scene (1993). Chun, Ian. Gocoo: Reinventing Taiko. Metropolis, May 17 2006. Accessed May 17 2006. Combs, Jo Anne. "Japanese-American Music and Dance in Los Angeles, 1930-1942." Selected Reports in Ethnomusicology 6, no. Asian Music in North America (1985): 121-149. Copyrights. Taiko.us, July 6 2005. Accessed April 21 2006. Coutts-Smith, Mark. Children of the Drum: The Life of Japan’s Kodo Drummers. Hong Kong: Lightworks Press, 1997. Deschênes, Bruno. Japanese Taiko Drums. December 4 2004. Accessed April 9 2006. Di Menna, Jodi. Martial artistry. Canadian Geographic, Jan2006, Vol. 126 Issue 1, p92-93, 2p, 1c; (AN 19475626) Doyle, M. "The Beat Goes On." MidWeek (1996): A6-A9. Endo, Kenny. "Kenny Endo Taiko Ensemble." 18-23: University of Maryland: Clarice Smith Performing Arts Center, 2005-2006. Espiritu, Yen Le. Asian American Panethnicity: Bridging Institutions and Identities. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992. Fromartz, Samuel, and Lauren Greenfield. "Anything but Quiet: Japanese Americans Reinvent Taiko Drumming." Natural History 107, no. 2 (1998): 44-50. Fujie, Linda. "Effects of Urbanization on Matsuri-Bayashi in Tokyo." Yearbook for Traditional Music 15, no. East Asian Musics (1983): 38-44. "Japanese Taiko Drumming in International Performance: Converging Musiocal Ideas in the Search for Success on Stage." World of Music 43, no. 2-3 (2001): 93-101. Fujimoto, Harumi. "My Original Image of Drums." In Wadaiko: Miyuki Ikeda + Koichi Inakoshi, ed. Ikanoshi Koichi. Tokyo: Kawad Shobo Shinsha, 1995. Gojinjo Daiko: The History, the Tradition, the Spectacle. May 15 2003. Accessed March 4 2006. Gould, Michael. "Taiko Classification and Manufacturing." Percussive Notes (1998): 12-20. Grand Master Seiichi Tanaka. San Francisco Taiko Dojo, November 28 2005. Accessed March 3 2006. Green, M. "Voices of the Drum." Sky (1993): 32-36. Hare, Thomas Blenman. "Try Try Again: Training in Noh Drama." In Teaching and Learning in Japan, ed. Thomas P. Rohlen and Gerald K. LeTendre. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Harich-Schneider, Eta. A History of Japanese Music. London: Oxford University Press, 1973. Hayase, S. "Taiko." East Wind (1985): 46-47. Hayashi, Eitetsu. Ashita No Taiko Uchi E [To Tomorrow's Taiko Players]. Japan: Shobunsha, 1992. Portrait of Hayashi Eitetsu. Tokyo: Eitetsu Taiko no Kai, 1998. Higa, K. "Sound and Spirit: An Interview with Master Seiichi Tanaka." Nikkei Taiko Dayori (193): 6-7, 10-12. Hirabayashi, Roy. "15th Anniversary Celebration - "Spirit of the Drum"." Odaiko, San Jose Taiko Newsletter (1988): 1-4. Hiroji, Naoe. "Post-War Folklore Research Work in Japan." Folklore Studies 8 (1949): 277-284. History of Osuwa Daiko. May 5 2006. Accessed February 6 2006. History of San Francisco Taiko Dojo. November 28 2005. Accessed March 4 2006. The History of Taiko: The Heartbeat of Japan. December 21 2005. Accessed February 5 2006. Hobsbawm, E. J., and T. O. Ranger. The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Holender, Jacques. Kodo: Heartbeat Drummers of Japan. New York: Rhapsody Films, INC, 1991. Holvick, Leonard C., and Jackson H. Bailey. Japanese Music: Another Tradition, Other Sounds: Earlham College Press, January 1990. Image Entertainment (Firm), and Kodō (Musical group). Kodō. 1 videodisc (69 min.). Chatsworth, CA: Image Entertainment, 2001. Inoue, Ryohei. Ondekoza, Amerika Wo Hashiru [Ondekoza, Run Through America Diary of a 15,000 km trip]. Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 1996. Taiko No Bīto Ni Miserarete [Enchanted by the Taiko Beat]. Tokyo: Ongaku Shuppansha, 1999. Inoue, T. "Taiko Time." MetroGuide (1994): 33-34. Izumi, Masumi. A Brief History of Taiko. Discover Nikkei, January 10 1997. Accessed February 19 2006. "Reconsidering Ethnic Culture and Community: A Case Study on Japanese Canadian Taiko Drumming." Journal of Asian American Studies 4, no. 2 (2001): 35-36. James, J. Alison. The Drums of Noto Hanto: DK Publishing, Inc, 1999. Japanese American National Museum to Open Exhibition July 14. 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External links Vir2L Taiko Drums iPhone Game http://www.taiko.com/taiko_resource/history.html#research Japanese Drumming Videos - videos of ensemble taiko drumming http://www.sftaiko.com - Main site for San Francisco Taiko http://www.taiko.org - Main site for San Jose Taiko http://www.stanford.edu/group/stanfordtaiko - Main site for Stanford Taiko http://wadaiko-makoto.org/ Wadaiko Makoto Japanese/french Taiko band home page http://www.kyoshindo.org - Main site for KyoShinDo Taiko http://www.jodaiko.com - Main site for Jodaiko http://www.studentgroups.ucla.edu/kyodo/ - Main site for Kyodo Taiko | Taiko |@lemmatized taiko:191 drummer:12 aichi:1 japan:39 mean:2 drum:83 japanese:49 etymologically:1 great:2 wide:4 outside:1 word:2 often:2 use:18 refer:4 various:2 和太鼓:1 wa:1 daiko:35 relatively:1 recent:2 art:12 form:13 ensemble:22 drumming:6 sometimes:1 call:8 specifically:1 kumi:3 組太鼓:2 type:7 display:1 manufacturing:2 develop:2 range:1 percussion:4 instrument:13 folk:5 classical:3 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2,799 | Military_of_Mozambique | Members of the military of Mozambique. Military branches: Army, Naval Command, Air and Air Defense Forces, Militia Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 4,142,449 (2003 est.), 4,711,318 (2002 est.) Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 2,373,444 (2003 est.), 2,720,583 (2002 est.) Military expenditures - dollar figure: $35.1 million (2000 est.) Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1% (2000 est.) Military Equipment Light equipment AK-47 Air Force The Mozambique Air Force (Forca Aérea De Moçambique - FAM) was part of the national army initially, and from to was known as the People's Liberation Air Force.The FAM's roundel is based on the Flag of Mozambique. Due to Mozambique's history, the air force has a history of using former Portuguese aircraft, ever since its setting-up after independence in 1985, supported by Cuba and the USSR. As such there was an inflow of Soviet-built aircraft to support the government in the civil war up to 1990. Following the ceasefire in that year the change in government policies towards Western-style economics meant that Cuban support for the Air Force dwindled and most of the aircraft have fallen into disrepair at the three main bases of Beira, Nacala and Nampula. The FAM is now effectively a token force, and the defence budget has been cut down to 1.5 of Mozambique's Gross National Product. The aircraft inventory is thus: ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Antonov An-26 | | light transport | | 6 | around 6 are out of service |----- | Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 | | Fighter | MiG-17F | 5 | an additional 18 are out of service |----- | Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 | | multi-role fighter | MiG-21MF | 15 | an additional 33 are out of service |----- | Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 | | jet trainer | MiG-15UTI | 1 | an additional 2 are out of service |----- | Mil Mi-8 | | transport and attack helicopter | | 6 | an additional 10 are out of service |----- | Mil Mi-24 | | attack helicopter | | 4 | an additional 12 are out of service |----- | Piper Cherokee Six | | trainer | PA-32-300 | 3 | an additional 1 is out of service |----- | Zlin Trener | | trainer | Zlin 326 | 5 | an additional 2 are out of service |} References World Aircraft Information Files. Brightstar Publishing, London, File 340 Sheet 05. | Military_of_Mozambique |@lemmatized member:1 military:8 mozambique:5 branch:1 army:2 naval:1 command:1 air:7 defense:1 force:7 militia:1 manpower:2 availability:1 male:2 age:2 est:6 fit:1 service:10 expenditure:2 dollar:1 figure:1 million:1 percent:1 gdp:1 equipment:2 light:2 ak:1 forca:1 aérea:1 de:1 moçambique:1 fam:3 part:1 national:2 initially:1 know:1 people:1 liberation:1 roundel:1 base:2 flag:1 due:1 history:2 use:1 former:1 portuguese:1 aircraft:6 ever:1 since:1 set:1 independence:1 support:3 cuba:1 ussr:1 inflow:1 soviet:1 built:1 government:2 civil:1 war:1 follow:1 ceasefire:1 year:1 change:1 policy:1 towards:1 western:1 style:7 economics:1 mean:1 cuban:1 dwindle:1 fall:1 disrepair:1 three:1 main:1 beira:1 nacala:1 nampula:1 effectively:1 token:1 defence:1 budget:1 cut:1 gross:1 product:1 inventory:1 thus:1 text:6 align:6 left:6 background:6 aacccc:6 origin:1 type:1 version:1 note:1 antonov:1 transport:2 around:1 mikoyan:3 gurevich:3 mig:6 fighter:2 additional:7 multi:1 role:1 jet:1 trainer:3 mil:2 mi:2 attack:2 helicopter:2 piper:1 cherokee:1 six:1 pa:1 zlin:2 trener:1 reference:1 world:1 information:1 file:2 brightstar:1 publishing:1 london:1 sheet:1 |@bigram manpower_availability:1 manpower_fit:1 de_moçambique:1 fall_disrepair:1 align_left:6 background_aacccc:6 mikoyan_gurevich:3 gurevich_mig:3 mig_fighter:1 trainer_mig:1 mil_mi:2 |
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