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2,600 | Ablative_case | In linguistics, ablative case (abbreviated ABL) is a name given to cases in various languages whose common characteristic is that they mark motion away from something, though the details in each language may differ. The name "ablative" is derived from the Latin ablatus, the (irregular) perfect passive participle of auferre "to carry away". Indo-European languages Latin 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Singular -ā -ō -e / -ī -ū -ē Plural -īs (-ābus) -īs (-ōbus) -ibus -ibus -ēbus The Latin ablative case (ablativus) has at least fifteen documented uses; although some classicists have stated that there are additional unique uses. Generalizing their function, however, ablatives modify or limit nouns by ideas of where (place), when (time), how (manner), etc. Hence, the case is sometimes also called the adverbial case; this can be quite literal, as phrases in the ablative can be translated as adverbs. E.g. magnā (cum) celeritāte, literally "with great speed", may also be translated "very quickly." Ablative of Place Active motion away from a place is only one particular use of the ablative case and is called the ablative of place from which. Nouns, either proper or common, are almost always used in this sense with accompanying prepositions of ab/ā/abs, "from"; ex/ē, "out of"; or dē, "down from". E.g. ex agrīs, "from the country"; ex Graeciā ad Italiam navigāvērunt, "They sailed from Greece to Italy." Ablative of Separation A closely related construction is called the ablative of separation. This usage of the ablative implies that some person or thing is separated from another. No active movement from one location to the next occurs; furthermore, ablatives of separation sometimes lack a preposition, particularly with certain verbs like cáreō or līberō. E.g. Cicerō hostēs ab urbe prohibuit, "Cicero kept the enemy away from the city"; Eōs timōre līberāvit, "He freed them from fear." The Latin ablative may also be used to indicate: Ablative of Instrument the means by which an action was carried out. E.g. oculīs vidēre, "to see with the eyes". This is known as the ablative of means or of instrument, and is equivalent to the instrumental case found in some other languages. Special deponent verbs in Latin sometimes use the ablative of means idiomatically. E.g. Ūtitur stilō literally says "he is benefiting himself by means of a pencil"; however, the phrase is more aptly translated "he is using a pencil." Ablative of Manner the manner in which an action was carried out. The preposition cum (meaning "with") is used when (i) no adjective describes the noun E.g. cum cūrā, "with care," or (ii) optionally after the adjective(s) and before the noun E.g. magnā (cum) celeritāte, "with great speed." This is known as the ablative of manner. Ablative of Time the time when or within which an action occurred. E.g. aestāte, "in summer"; eō tempore, "at that time"; Paucīs hōrīs id faciet, "within a few hours he will do it." This is known as the ablative of time when or within which. Ablative of Absolute the circumstances surrounding an action. E.g. Urbe captā, Aenēas fugit, "With the city having been captured, Aeneas fled." This is known as the ablative absolute. Ablative of Attendant Circumstances Of kindred nature to this is the Ablative of Attendant Circumstances "magno cum clamore ciuium ad urbem perueniunt" ("they reach the city to the great clamours of the populace") Ablative of Accompaniment with whom something was done. Nouns in this construction are always accompanied by the preposition cum. E.g. cum eīs, "with them"; Cum amīcīs vēnērunt, "They came with friends." This is known as the ablative of accompaniment. the whole to which a certain number belongs or is a part. E.g. centum ex virīs, "one hundred of the men"; quīnque ex eīs, "five of them." Ablative of Personal Agent agent by whom the action of a passive verb is performed. The agent is always preceded by ab/ā/abs. E.g. Caesar ā dīs admonētur, "Caesar is warned by the gods." This is known as the ablative of personal agent. Ablative of Agent This can, however, be more generalized when the agent is an inanimate object. In this case, the preposition ab/ā/abs is not used. E.g. "rex a militibus interfectus est" "the king was killed by the soldiers" with personal agents, but impersonally it reads "rex armis militum interfectus est" "the king was killed by the weapons of the soldiers." This is known as simply the ablative of agent, and also as the ablative of means or instrument. Other known uses of the ablative include the ablatives of cause, of comparison, of degree of difference, of description, of place where, and of specification. Important: Not all ablatives can be categorized into the classes mentioned above! Some Latin prepositions, like pro, take a noun in the ablative. A few prepositions may take either an accusative or an ablative, in which case the accusative indicates motion towards, and the ablative indicates no motion. E.g. in casā, "in the cottage"; in casam, "into the cottage". Wheelock, Frederic M. Wheelock's Latin, HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 0-06-078371-0 Albanian The ablative case is found in Albanian where it is the fifth case and is called "mënyra rrjedhore." Sanskrit The ablative case is also found in Sanskrit where it is the fifth case, and is called 'apaadaana'. Glossaries Armenian In the Western Armenian language, the ablative case is rendered by the suffix -e (indefinite) or -en (definite). Mart - man Marten- from the man Marte- from (a) man Doon - house D'nen - from the house D'ne- from (a) house In Eastern Armenian, the suffix -its is used for both definite and indefinite nouns. Mard- man Mardits- from man Toon- house T'nits- from house Both suffixes are derived from Classical Armenian. The Western suffix -e is from the Classical singular and the Eastern suffix -its is from the Classical plural; both have been generalized for singular and plural in the dialects that use them. In Armenian, the ablative case has several uses. Its principal function is to show motion away from a point in space or time. KAGHAKEN katsi. - I came FROM THE CITY. (Eastern Armenian; KAGHAKITS gnets) ASTEGHEN heroo g'abrei. - I used to live far FROM HERE. (Ea. ASTEGHITS heroo ei b'nakoom) The case also shows the agent when used with the passive voice of the verb. INE misht g' sirveis. - You were always loved BY ME. (Ea. INDZITS misht eis sirvoom) AZAD'CHNEREN azadetsank. - We were freed BY THE LIBERATORS. (Ea. AZATOGHNERITS azatfetsink) The ablative case is also important to comparative statements in colloquial Armenian. Inch MEGHREN anoosh eh? - "What is sweeter THAN HONEY?" (proverb) (Ea. Inch MEGHRITS e anoosh?) Mariam EKHPEREN b'zdig eh. - Mary is smaller (younger) THAN HER BROTHER. (Ea. Maro AKHBERITS e bakas) In this use, the ablative can also be used with infinitives and participles. Tooz hamdesel e lav DESNALE. - Figs are better to taste THAN TO SEE. (Ea. T'zner hamtesel e laf TESNELITS) The ablative case is also important to case government with postpositions. INE var - Below ME (Ea. INDZITS var) KEZME ver - Above YOU (Ea. KEZITS ver) ANONTSME verch - After THEM (Ea. N'RANITS verj) MEZME arach - Before US (Ea. MEZNITS araj) Uralic languages Finnish In Finnish, the ablative case is the sixth of the locative cases with the meaning "from, off, of", e.g. pöytä pöydältä "table off from the table". It is an outer locative case, used just as the adessive and allative cases to denote both being on top of something and "being around the place" (as opposed to the inner locative case, the elative, which means "from out of" or "from the inside of"). The Finnish ablative is also used in time expressions to indicate start times as well as with verbs expressing feelings or emotions. The Finnish ablative has the ending -lta or -ltä according to the regular rules of vocal harmony. Usage away from a place Katolta Off the roof Pöydältä Off the table Rannalta From the beach Maalta From the land Mereltä From the sea to stop some activity with the verb lähteä lähteä tupakalta stop smoking (in the sense of putting out the cigarette one is smoking now; literally 'leave from the tobacco') lähteä hippasilta stop playing the game of tag (hippa=tag, olla hippasilla=playing tag) to smell/taste/feel/look/sound like something haisee pahalta smells bad maistuu hyvältä tastes good tuntuu kamalalta feels awful näyttää tyhmältä looks stupid kuulostaa mukavalta sounds nice Hungarian The ablative case in Hungarian is used to describe movement away from a solid object. For example, if one is walking away from a friend one could say: a barátomtól jövök - I am coming (away from) my friend. Note that this case in this example implies that the user was next to the solid object, and not inside it. This means that if one said a postától jövök it would mean one is coming from being stood next to the post office, and that you were not inside the building. The application of vowel harmony gives two different suffixes: -tól and -től. These are applied to back- and front-vowel words respectively. Its partners for movement towards a solid object and for being next to that solid object are the allative case and the adessive case respectively. Its partners that correspond to movement away from, or out of, something are the delative case (for movement from a surface or from a Hungarian city) and the elative case (for movement out of a container or from out of an international city). Altaic languages Azeri The ablative in Azeri (çıxışlıq hal) is expressed through the suffixes -dan or -dən. Examples: Ev - evdən House - from/off the house Aparmaq - aparmaqdan To carry - from/off carrying Turkish The ablative in Turkish (-den hali or uzaklaşma hali) is expressed through the suffixes -den, -dan, -ten, or -tan. Examples: Ev - evden House - from/off the house At - attan Horse - from/off the horse Taşımak - taşımaktan To carry - from/off carrying External links What is the ablative case? 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2,601 | Iowa | Iowa () is a state located in the Midwestern region of the United States of America, an area often referred to as the "American Heartland." It derives its name from the Ioway people, one of the many American Indian tribes that occupied the state at the time of European exploration. Alex, Lynn M. (2000) Iowa's Archaeological Past. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City. Iowa was a part of the French colony of New France. After the Louisiana Purchase, settlers laid the foundation for an agriculture-based economy in the heart of the Corn Belt. Merry, Carl (1996) The Historic Period http://www.uiowa.edu/~osa/learn/historic/hisper.htm Iowa is often known as the "Food Capital of the World,” Iowa Department of Economic Development, http://www.iowalifechanging.com/downloads/iaindustries.pdf but Iowa’s economy, culture, and landscape are diverse. In the mid and late 20th century, Iowa’s agricultural economy transitioned to a diversified economy of advanced manufacturing, processing, financial services, biotechnology, and green energy production. Iowa Department of Economic Development, http://www.iowalifechanging.com/downloads/iaindustries.pdf Iowa Energy Center, http://www.energy.iastate.edu/renewable/wind/ Iowa is one of the safest states in which to live Crime/Enforcement, Iowa Factbook 2007, http://www.legis.state.ia.us/Fiscal/factbook/Iowa_Factbook_2007.pdf and its population is among the most literate and best-educated. Elementary and Secondary Education, Iowa Factbook 2007, http://www.legis.state.ia.us/Fiscal/factbook/Iowa_Factbook_2007.pdf Recent immigration from other states and countries has increased Iowa's population and diversity. Population/ Vital Statistics, Iowa Factbook 2007, http://www.legis.state.ia.us/Fiscal/factbook/Iowa_Factbook_2007.pdf Des Moines is Iowa's capital and largest city. Geography Boundaries Topography of Iowa, with counties and major streams. Iowa is bordered by the Mississippi River on the east; the Missouri River and the Big Sioux River on the west; the northern boundary is a line along 43 degrees, 30 minutes north latitude. Iowa’s borders are defined in the Preamble to the State Constitution, http://www.legis.state.ia.us/Constitution.html#pre1 It should be noted that the Missouri and Mississippi river boundaries are as they were mapped in the 19th century, which can vary from their modern courses. The southern border is the Des Moines River and a line along approximately 40 degrees 35 minutes north, as decided by the U.S. Supreme Court after a contentious standoff between Missouri and Iowa known as the Honey War. Jeff Morrison, Forty-Thirty-five or fight? http://homepage.mac.com/jeffmorrison/maps/sullivanline.html Iowa has 99 counties, but 100 county seats because Lee County has two. The state capital, Des Moines, is located in Polk County. Geology and terrain Iowa's bedrock geology generally increases in age from west to east. In northwest Iowa Cretaceous bedrock is ca. 74 million years old, in eastern Iowa Cambrian bedrock dates to ca. 500 million years ago. Prior: Geology of Iowa: Iowa's Earth History Shaped by Ice, Wind, Rivers, and Ancient Seas Despite popular perception, Iowa is generally not flat; most of the state consists of rolling hills. Prior Prior, Jean C. (1991) Landforms of Iowa. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City. http://www.igsb.uiowa.edu/Browse/landform.htm divides Iowa into eight landforms based on glaciation, soils, topography, and river drainage. Loess hills lie along the western border of the state, some of which are several hundred feet thick. In the northeast, along the Mississippi River, is a section of the Driftless Zone, which in Iowa consists of steep hills and valleys which appear almost mountainous. There are several natural lakes in the state, most notably Spirit Lake, West Okoboji Lake, and East Okoboji Lake in northwest Iowa (see Iowa Great Lakes).To the east lies Clear Lake. Man-made lakes include Lake Odessa, Saylorville Lake, Lake Red Rock, Coralville Lake, Lake MacBride, and Rathbun Lake. Ecology Iowa's natural vegetation is tallgrass prairie and savanna in upland areas, with dense forest and wetlands in floodplains and protected river valleys, and pothole wetlands in northern prairie areas. Prior, Jean C. (1991) Landforms of Iowa. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City. Most of Iowa is used for agriculture, crops cover 60% of the state, grasslands (mostly pasture and hay with some prairie and wetland) cover 30%, and forests cover 7%; urban areas and water cover another 1% each. Iowa DNR: Iowa's Statewide Land Cover Inventory, http://www.igsb.uiowa.edu/Browse/landcvr/landcvr.htm Less than 1% of the tallgrass prairie that once covered most of Iowa remain intact, only about 5% of the state's prairie pothole wetlands remain, and most of the original forest has been lost. Iowa's Threatened and Endangered Species Program, http://www.iowadnr.gov/other/threatened.html Iowa ranks 49th of U.S. states in public land holdings. Iowa Must Step Up Investment in Public Lands "Des Moines Register", June 1, 2005, http://www.nicholasjohnson.org/politics/IaChild/eddmr601.html Threatened or endangered animals include the Bald Eagle, Interior Least Tern, Piping Plover, Indiana Bat, Pallid Sturgeon, the Iowa Pleistocene Land Snail, Higgins' Eye Pearly Mussel, and the Topeka Shiner. Federally Listed Animals in Iowa, http://www.agriculture.state.ia.us/livingOnTheEdge/endangeredAnimals.asp Endangered or threatened plants include Western Prairie Fringed Orchid, Eastern Prairie Fringed Orchid, Mead's Milkweed, Prairie Bush Clover, and Northern Wild Monkshood. Federally Listed Plants in Iowa, http://www.agriculture.state.ia.us/livingOnTheEdge/endangeredPlants.asp Climate Iowa annual rainfall, in inches. Iowa, like most of the Midwest, has a humid continental climate throughout the state (Koppen climate classification Dfa) with extremes of both heat and cold. The average annual temperature at Des Moines is 50 °F (10 °C); for some locations in the north the figure is under 45 °F (8 °C), while Keokuk, on the Mississippi River, averages 52 °F (12 °C). Winters are brisk and snowfall is common. Spring ushers in the beginning of the severe weather season. Iowa averages about 50 days of thunderstorm activity per year. US Thunderstorm distribution. src.noaa.gov. Last accessed February 13, 2008. Tornadoes are common during the spring and summer months, with an average of 37 tornadoes in a single year. Mean Annual Average Number of Tornadoes 1953–2004. ncdc.noaa.gov. Last accessed November 1, 2006. In 2008, twelve people were killed by tornadoes in Iowa, making it the deadliest year since 1968 and also the second most tornadoes in a year with 105, which matched the total from 2001. 2008 Iowa tornadoes deadliest since 1968. USA Today. Last accessed January 2, 2009. The Iowa summers are known for heat and humidity, with daytime temperatures often near 90 °F (32 °C) and sometimes exceeding 100 °F (38 °C). Monthly Normal High and Low Temperatures For Various Iowa Cities City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Davenport 30/13 36/19 48/29 61/41 72/52 81/63 85/68 83/66 76/57 65/45 48/32 35/20 Des Moines 29/12 35/18 48/29 61/40 72/51 82/61 86/66 84/64 76/54 64/42 47/29 33/17 Dubuque 25/9 31/15 43/26 57/38 69/49 79/58 82/62 80/60 72/52 60/40 44/28 30/15 Sioux City 29/8 35/15 47/26 62/37 73/49 82/58 86/63 84/61 76/50 64/38 45/25 32/13 Waterloo 26/6 32/13 45/25 60/36 72/48 82/58 85/62 83/60 75/50 62/38 45/25 31/12 Prehistory Excavation of the 3,800 year old Edgewater Park Site. When American Indians first arrived in what is now Iowa more than 13,000 years ago, they were hunters and gatherers living in a Pleistocene glacial landscape. By the time European explorers visited Iowa, American Indians were largely settled farmers with complex economic, social, and political systems. This transformation happened gradually. During the Archaic period (10,500-2,800 years ago), American Indians adapted to local environments and ecosystems, slowly becoming more sedentary as populations increased. More than 3,000 years ago, during the Late Archaic period, American Indians in Iowa began utilizing domesticated plants. The subsequent Woodland period saw an increase on the reliance on agriculture and social complexity, with increased use of mounds, ceramics, and specialized subsistence. During the Late Prehistoric period (beginning about A.D. 900) increased use of maize and social changes led to social flourishing and nucleated settlements. The arrival of European trade goods and diseases in the Protohistoric period led to dramatic population shifts and economic and social upheaval, with the arrival of new tribes and early European explorers and traders. There were numerous Indian tribes living in Iowa at the time of early European exploration. Tribes which were probably descendants of the prehistoric Oneota include the Dakota, Ho-Chunk, Ioway, and Otoe. Tribes which arrived in Iowa in the late prehistoric or protohistoric periods include the Illiniwek, Meskwaki, Omaha, and Sauk. Alex, Lynn M. (2000) Iowa's Archaeological Past. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City. History Early exploration and trade, 1673-1808 Iowa in 1718. Modern state area highlighted. The first known European explorers to document Iowa were Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet who traveled the Mississippi River in 1673 documenting several Indian villages on the Iowa side. History of Iowa, Iowa Official Register, http://publications.iowa.gov/135/1/history/7-1.html The area of Iowa was claimed for France and remained French territory until 1763, when the French, realizing defeat in the French and Indian War, transferred ownership to its ally, Spain. Spain practiced very loose control over the Iowa region, granting trading licenses to French and British traders. Iowa was part of a territory known as La Louisiane or Louisiana, and European traders were interested in lead and furs obtained by Indians. The Sauk and Meskwaki effectively controlled trade on the Mississippi in the late 18th and early 19th century. Among the early traders was Julien Dubuque. Other major trade routes were the Des Moines River and the Missouri River. In 1800, Napoleon Bonaparte took control of Louisiana from Spain in a treaty. After the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, Iowa was placed under United States control. Much of Iowa was mapped by Zebulon Pike in 1805 Pike (1965): The expeditions of Zebulon Montgomery Pike to headwaters of the Mississippi River, through Louisiana Territory, and in New Spain, during the years 1805-6-7, Ross & Haines , but it was not until the construction of Fort Madison in 1808 that the U.S. established tenuous military control over the region. War of 1812 and unstable U.S. control Plan of Fort Madison, 1810. Fort Madison was built to control trade and establish U.S. dominance over the Upper Mississippi, but it was poorly designed and disliked by the Sauk and Ho-Chunk, many of whom allied with the British, who had not abandoned claims to the territory. Prucha, Francis P. (1969) The Sword of the Republic: The United States Army on the Frontier 1783–1846. Macmillan, New York. Fort Madison was defeated by British-supported Indians in 1813 during the War of 1812, and Fort Shelby in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, also fell to the British. Black Hawk took part in the siege of Fort Madison. Jackson, Donald (1960), A Critic’s View of Old Fort Madison., Iowa Journal of History and Politics 58(1) pp.31–36 Black Hawk (1882) Autobiography of Ma-Ka-Tai-Me-She-Kia-Kiak or Black Hawk. Continental Printing, St. Louis. (Originally published 1833) After the war, the U.S. reestablished control of the region through the construction of Fort Armstrong, Fort Snelling, and Fort Atkinson (Nebraska). Trade and Indian removal, 1814-1832 Following Manifest Destiny, the U.S. encouraged settlement of the east side of the Mississippi and removal of Indians to the west. Trade continued in furs and lead, but disease and forced population movement decimated Indian cultures and economies. A disputed 1804 treaty between Quashquame and William Henry Harrison that surrendered much of Illinois to the U.S. enraged many Sauk and led to the 1832 Black Hawk War. As punishment for the uprising, and as part of a larger settlement strategy, treaties were subsequently designed to remove all Indians from Iowa. The Sauk and Meskwaki were pushed out of the Mississippi valley in 1832, out of the Iowa River valley in 1843, and out of Iowa altogether in 1846, although many Meskwaki clandestinely returned, founding the Meskwaki Settlement that remains to this day. The Ho-Chunk were removed in 1850, and the Dakota were removed by the late 1850s. Western Iowa around modern Council Bluffs was used as a way station for other tribes being moved west, including the Potawatomi. U.S. settlement and statehood, 1832-1860 Iowa Territorial Seal. The first American settlers officially moved to Iowa in June 1833. Primarily, they were families from Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri. On July 4, 1838, the U.S. Congress established the Territory of Iowa. President Martin Van Buren appointed Robert Lucas governor of the territory, which at the time had 22 counties and a population of 23,242. Iowa Official Register, Volume Number 60, page 314 Almost immediately after achieving territorial status, a clamor arose for statehood. On December 28, 1846, Iowa became the 29th state in the Union when President James K. Polk signed Iowa's admission bill into law. Once admitted to the Union, the state's boundary issues resolved, and most of its land purchased from the Indians, Iowa set its direction to development and organized campaigns for settlers and investors, boasting the young frontier state's rich farmlands, fine citizens, free and open society, and good government.<ref>"Official Encouragement of Immigration to Iowa", Marcus L. Hansen, IJHP", 19 (April 1921):159-95</ref> Civil War, 1861-1865 Iowa had not yet celebrated its 15th year of statehood when the American Civil War broke out. Iowa supported the Union during the Civil War, voting heavily for Abraham Lincoln, though there was a strong antiwar "Copperhead" movement among settlers of southern origins and among Catholics. There were no battles in the state, but Iowa sent large supplies of food to the armies and the eastern cities. Much of Iowa’s support for the Union can be attributed to Samuel J. Kirkwood, its wartime governor. Of a total population of 675,000, about 116,000 men were subjected to military duty. Iowa contributed proportionately more men to Civil War military service than did any other state, north or south, sending more than 75,000 volunteers to the armed forces, over one-sixth of whom were in their graves before Appomattox. Iowa Official Register, Volume No. 60, page 315 Most fought in the great campaigns in the Mississippi Valley and in the South. http://www.iowanationalguard.com/Museum/IA_History/CivilWar.htm Iowa troops fought at Wilson's Creek in Missouri, Pea Ridge in Arkansas, Forts Henry and Donelson, Shiloh, Chattanooga, Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, and Rossville Gap as well as Vicksburg, Iuka, and Corinth. They served with the Army of the Potomoc in Virginia and fought under Union General Philip Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley. Many died and were buried at Andersonville. They marched on General Nathaniel Banks' ill-starred expedition to the Red River. Twenty-seven Iowans won the Congressional Medal of Honor, first awarded in the Civil War. Iowa Official Register, Volume No. 60, pages 315-316 Iowa had several brigadier generals and four major generals- Grenville Mellen Dodge, Samuel B. Curtis, Francis J. Herron, and Frederick Steele- and saw many of its generals go on to state and national prominence following the war. Iowa Official Register, Volume No. 60, page 315 Agricultural expansion, 1865-1930 Iowa farm, 1875. Following the Civil War, Iowa's population continued to grow dramatically, from 674,913 people in 1860 to 1,194,020 in 1870. The introduction of railroads in the 1850s and 1860s transformed Iowa into a major agricultural producer. In 1917, the United States entered World War I and farmers as well as all Iowans experienced a wartime economy. For farmers, the change was significant. Since the beginning of the war in 1914, Iowa farmers had experienced economic prosperity. In the economic sector, Iowa also has undergone considerable change. Beginning with the first farm-related industries developed in the 1870s, Iowa has experienced a gradual increase in the number of business and manufacturing operations. Depression, World War II, and the rise of manufacturing, 1930-1985 The transition from an agricultural economy to a mixed economy happened slowly. The Great Depression and World War II accelerated the shift away from smallholder farming to larger farms, and began a trend of urbanization that continues. The period since World War II has witnessed a particular increase in manufacturing operations. While agriculture continued to be the state's dominant industry, Iowans also produce a wide variety of products including refrigerators, washing machines, fountain pens, farm implements, and food products. The Farm Crisis of the 1980s caused a major recession in Iowa, causing poverty not seen since the Depression. The Midwest Farm Crisis of the 1980s, http://eightiesclub.tripod.com/id395.htm The crisis spurred a major population decline in Iowa that lasted a decade. Population Trends: The Changing Face of Iowa, http://iwin.iwd.state.ia.us/iowa/ArticleReader?itemid=00003011 Reemergence as a mixed economy, 1985-present After bottoming out in the 1980s, Iowa’s economy began to become increasingly less dependent on agriculture, and now has a mix of manufacturing, biotechnology, finance and insurance services, and government services. Iowa Industries, Iowa Workforce Development. http://www.iowalifechanging.com/downloads/iaindustries.pdf The population of Iowa has increased at a faster rate than the U.S. as a whole, Population Trends: The Changing Face of Iowa, http://iwin.iwd.state.ia.us/iowa/ArticleReader?itemid=00003011 and Iowa now has a predominantly urban population. Iowa Data Center, 2000 Census: http://data.iowadatacenter.org/datatables/urbanrural/urstagesexbymalefemale2000.pdf Demographics Population As of 2008, Iowa has an estimated population of 3,002,555, which is an increase of about 19,000 or 0.6%, from the prior year and an increase of 76,000 or 2.6%, since the year 2000. This is the first time the state has topped the three million mark in population. The U.S. Census Bureau has not released specific demographic information for 2008. In 2007 the state had a natural increase since the last census of 53,706 people (that is 197,163 births minus 143,457 deaths) and a decrease due to net migration of 11,754 people out of the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 29,386 people, while migration within the country produced a net loss of 41,140 people. 6.1% of Iowa's population were reported as under the age of five, 22.6% under 18, and 14.7% were 65 or older. Males made up approximately 49.2% of the population. The population density of the state is 52.7 people per square mile. [Title=The New York Times 2008 Almanac|Author=edited by John W. Wright|Date=2007|Page=178] The center of population of Iowa is located in Marshall County, in the city of Marshalltown. Race and ancestry Iowa Population Density Map Iowa's population included about 97,000 foreign-born (3.3%). Iowans are mostly of Western European descent. The five largest ancestry groups in Iowa are: German (35.7%), Irish (13.5%), English (9.5%), American (6.6%) and Norwegian (5.7%). The racial make up of the state is 91.0% White (non-Hispanic), 3.8% Hispanic, 2.5% Black or African American, Davenport, Iowa African American History 1.6% Asian, and 0.4% American Indian. One percent of respondents report two or more races. Rural to urban population shift Percent population changes by counties in Iowa, 2000-2008. Purple counties have gains of more than 5%. Data from U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division. Modeled after Iowa Data Center Map, http://www.iowadatacenter.org/maps/copercent2008 Iowa's population is more urban than rural, with 61 percent living in urban areas in 2000, a trend that began in the early 20th century. Iowa Data Center, 2000 Census: http://data.iowadatacenter.org/datatables/urbanrural/urstagesexbymalefemale2000.pdf Iowa, in common with other Midwestern states (especially Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota), is feeling the brunt of rural flight, although Iowa has been gaining population since approximately 1990. Eighty-nine percent of the total number of cities in those states have fewer than 3,000 people; hundreds more have fewer than 1,000. Between 1996 and 2004, almost one-half million people, nearly one-half with college degrees, left the five states, and headed for major population centers like Minneapolis, Kansas City, and Chicago. The shift from rural to urban has caused population increases in more urbanized counties such as Dallas, Johnson, Linn, and Polk, at the expense of more rural counties. U.S. Census Bureal State and County Quick Facts, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/19000.html Some communities, such as Denison and Storm Lake, have mitigated this population loss through gains in immigrant laborers. In This Small Town in Iowa the Future Speaks Spanish. New York TimesSeptember 14, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/14/books/14grim.html Religion Amana Colonies, founded by German Pietists. A 2001 survey from the City University of New York found that 52% of Iowans are Protestant, while 23% are Roman Catholic, and other religions made up 6%. 13% responded with non-religious, and 5% did not answer. The largest Protestant denominations by number of adherents are the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America with 268,543; and the United Methodist Church with 248,211. http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/19_2000.asp The study Religious Congregations & Membership: 2000 found that in the southernmost two tiers of Iowa counties and in other counties in the center of the state, the largest religious group was the United Methodist Church; in the northeast part of the state, including Dubuque and Linn counties (where Cedar Rapids is located), the Roman Catholic Church was the largest; and in ten counties, including three in the northern tier, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America was the largest. The study also found rapid growth in Evangelical Christian denominations. Historically, religious sects and orders who desired to live apart from the rest of society established themselves in Iowa, such as the Amish and Mennonite near Kalona and in other parts of eastern Iowa such as Davis County and Buchanan County. Elmer Schwieder and Dorothy Schwieder (2009) A Peculiar People: Iowa's Old Order Amish University of Iowa Press Other religious sects and orders living apart include Quakers around West Branch and Le Grand, German Pietists who founded the Amana Colonies, followers of Transcendental Meditation who founded Maharishi Vedic City, and Cistercian monks and nuns at the New Melleray and Our Lady of the Mississippi Abbies near Dubuque. Linguistic regions William Labov and colleagues, in the monumental Atlas of North American English Labov, W., S. Ash, and C. Boberg, Atlas of North American English. Berlin, Germany: Mouton de Gruyter, 2006. http://www.mouton-online.com/anae.php found that the English spoken in Iowa divides into two large linguistic regions. Natives of northern Iowa — including Sioux City, Fort Dodge, and the Waterloo region — tend to speak the dialect that linguists call North Central American English, which is also found in North and South Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan. Natives of central and southern Iowa — including such cities as Council Bluffs, Des Moines, and Iowa City — tend to speak the "North Midlands" dialect also found in Nebraska, central Illinois, and northern Indiana. Culture Central Iowa Des Moines skyline. Fountain of Four Seasons and Campanile, Iowa State University. Des Moines is the largest city in Iowa and the state's political, economic, and cultural center. It is home to the state government, the State of Iowa Historical Museum, Science Center of Iowa and Blank IMAX Dome Theater, Des Moines Art Center, Des Moines Botanical Center, and various cultural events and attractions, including the annual Iowa State Fair, Drake Relays, World Food Festival, and the Des Moines Arts Festival. Adventureland is an amusement park located in Altoona just northeast of Des Moines and Living History Farms is located in Urbandale. Terrace Hill is located in Des Moines and is the official residence of the governor. Ames is the home of Iowa State University, the Iowa State Center, Brunnier Art Gallery, Reiman Gardens, and the Christian Petersen Art Gallery. The Meskwaki Settlement west of Tama is the only American Indian settlement in Iowa and is host to a large annual Pow-wow. The Clint Eastwood movie The Bridges of Madison County took place and was filmed in Madison County. The John Wayne Birthplace Museum is in Winterset. Other communities with vibrant historic downtown areas include Indianola, Pella, Knoxville, Perry, and Marshalltown. Eastern Iowa Old Capitol, Iowa City. Iowa City prides itself on being a cultural destination, and is home to the University of Iowa and its famed Iowa Writers' Workshop, the Old Capitol building (Iowa's original capitol), the Ped Mall, the Iowa City Englert Theatre, and the Landlocked Film Festival. Iowa City is the first U.S. "City of Literature" in the UNESCO Creative Cities Network. The Herbert Hoover National Historic Site and Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum are located in West Branch. They contain the birthplace and grave of former President Herbert Hoover along with his presidential museum. The Amana Colonies are a group of settlements of German Pietists comprising of seven villages which have been named an American cultural National Historic Landmark. The Cedar Rapids Museum of Art has one of the most significant collections of paintings by Grant Wood and Marvin Cone. Cedar Rapids is also home to the National Czech and Slovak Museum and Library and the historic Queen Anne-style Brucemore mansion. Davenport boasts several cultural attractions, including the new Figge Art Museum, River Music Experience, and Putnam Museum and IMAX Theater, and plays host to the annual Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Jazz Festival. Other communities with vibrant historic downtown areas include West Liberty, Fairfield, Mount Pleasant, Fort Madison, Mount Vernon, Ottumwa, Washington, and Wilton. Western Iowa Some of the most dramatic scenery in Iowa is found in the west, home of the unique Loess Hills. The Iowa Great Lakes include several resort areas such as Spirit Lake, Arnolds Park, and the Okoboji Lakes. The Sanford Museum and Planetarium in Cherokee, Grotto of the Redemption in West Bend, Danish Immigrant Museum in Elk Horn, and the Fort Museum and Frontier Village in Fort Dodge are regional destinations. Sioux City considers itself to be the cultural capital of northwest Iowa and boasts a revitalized downtown and beautiful riverfront. The Missouri River city is home to the Sergeant Floyd Monument, Sergeant Floyd River Museum, Trinity Heights, and the restored Orpheum Theater. Council Bluffs, the major city of southwest Iowa, sits at the base of the Loess Hills National Scenic Byway and has become a gaming and entertainment destination. With three casino resorts, the city also includes such cultural attractions as the Western Hills Trails Center, Union Pacific Railroad Museum, historic General Dodge House, and a Lewis and Clark Monument and scenic overlook. Northwest Iowa is home to some of the largest concentrations of wind turbine farms in the world. Other western communities with vibrant historic downtown areas include Storm Lake, Spencer, Le Mars, Glenwood, Carroll, Atlantic, Denison, Creston, Mount Ayr, and Walnut. Loess Hills east of Mondamin. Northeast and Northern Iowa The Driftless Area of northeast Iowa has many steep hills and deep valleys, checked with forest and terraced fields. Effigy Mounds National Monument in Allamakee and Clayton Counties has the largest assemblage of animal-shaped prehistoric mounds in the world. Ruins of historic Fort Atkinson. Together, the largest cities in northern Iowa are the twin cities of Waterloo and Cedar Falls, home of the Grout Museum and the University of Northern Iowa, respectively. Dubuque is transforming itself into a regional tourist destination with cultural features such as the National Mississippi River Museum and Aquarium, along with many of the other new businesses booming in the Port of Dubuque, like the Diamond Jo Casino. Much of the movie Field of Dreams was shot in Dyersville. Maquoketa Caves State Park is located in Jackson County, northwest of Maquoketa, which contains more caves than any other state park in Iowa. Fort Atkinson has the remains of an original 1840s Dragoon fortification. Other communities with vibrant historic downtown areas include Decorah, McGregor, Mason City, Elkader, Algona, Spillville, Charles City, and Independence. Statewide RAGBRAI — the Register's Annual Great Bike Ride Across Iowa — attracts thousands of bicyclists and support personnel. It has crossed the state on various routes each year since 1973. Iowa is home to more than 70 wineries ISU Extension Midwest Grape and Wine Industry Institute, http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Wine/Resources/iowawineries.htm , and hosts five regional wine tasting trails. Iowa Wine Growers Association, https://iowawinegrowers.org/mos/Frontpage/Itemid,1/ Many Iowa communities hold farmers' markets during warmer months, these are typically weekly events, but larger cities can host multiple markets. Iowa Farmers Market Association, http://www.iafarmersmarkets.org/About_Us.html Economy Iowa state quarter with reverse image based on a painting by American artist Grant Wood Iowa gross state products by industry, 2006. Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of Commerce, as presented in the 2007 Iowa Factbook Des Moines:Iowa Legislative Services Agency. While Iowa is often viewed as a farming state, in reality agriculture is a small portion of a diversified economy, with manufacturing, biotechnology, finance and insurance services, and government services contributing substantially to Iowa's economy. Iowa Industries, Iowa Workforce Development. http://www.iowalifechanging.com/downloads/iaindustries.pdf This economic diversity has helped Iowa weather the current recession better than most states, with unemployment substantially lower than the rest of the nation. Iowa's initial jobless claims grow. Des Moines Register April 2, 2009, http://www.desmoinesregister.com/article/20090402/BUSINESS/90402018/-1/NEWS04 If the economy is measured by gross domestic product, in 2005 Iowa's GDP was about US $124 billion. Iowa State University. Gross domestic product by sector and state. Regional Capacity Analysis Program. Retrieved on: April 26, 2008. If measured by gross state product, for 2005 it was US $113.5 billion. Its per capita income for 2006 was US $23,340. Manufacturing Manufacturing is the largest sector of Iowa's economy, with $20.8 billion (21%) of Iowa’s 2003 gross state product. Major manufacturing sectors include food processing, heavy machinery, and agricultural chemicals. Sixteen percent of Iowa’s workforce is dedicated to manufacturing. Iowa Industries, Iowa Workforce Development. http://www.iowalifechanging.com/downloads/iaindustries.pdf Food processing is the largest component of manufacturing. Its industrial outputs include food processing, machinery, electric equipment, chemical products, publishing, and primary metals. Companies with direct or indirect processing facilities in Iowa include ConAgra Foods, Wells Blue Bunny, Barilla, Heinz, Wonder Bread/Hostess Snack Cakes, Tone’s Spices, General Mills, and Quaker Oats. Major non-food advanced manufacturing firms with production facilities in Iowa include 3M, ALCOA, Amana Corporation, Electrolux/Frigidaire, Emerson Process, Fisher Controls International, HON Industries, IPSCO Steel, John Deere, Lennox Manufacturing, Maytag Corporation, Pella Corporation, Rockwell Collins, Vermeer Company, and Winnebago Industries. Agriculture Ethanol plant under construction, Butler County, Iowa. Directly and indirectly, agriculture has always been a major component of Iowa's economy. However, the direct production and sale of raw agricultural products contributes only about 3.5% of Iowa's gross state product. 2007 Iowa Factbook p. 59, Des Moines:Iowa Legislative Services Agency. The indirect role of agriculture in Iowa's economy can be measured in multiple ways, but its total impact, including agriculture-affiliated business, has been measured as 16.4% in terms of value added and 24.3% in terms of total output. This is lower than the economic impact in Iowa of non-farm manufacturing, which accounts for 22.4% of total value added and 26.5% of total output. Iowa's main agricultural outputs are hogs, corn, soybeans, oats, cattle, eggs, and dairy products. Iowa is the nation's largest producer of ethanol and corn. Major Iowa agricultural product processors include Cargill, Inc., Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Monsanto Co., Ajinomoto, Hy-Vee, Garst Seed Company, and Heartland Pork Enterprises. Other sectors Wind turbine near Walnut. Iowa also has a strong financial and insurance sector, with approximately 6,100 firms Iowa Industries, Iowa Workforce Development. http://www.iowalifechanging.com/downloads/iaindustries.pdf , including AEGON, Nationwide Group, AmerUs, Farm Bureau Financial Services, ING, Marsh Affinity Group, MetLife, Principal Financial Group, Principal Capital Management, Wellmark Blue Cross & Blue Shield, Wells Fargo, and Wells Fargo Financial Services. Biotechnology has expanded dramatically in Iowa in the past decade, with firms including Bio-Research Products Inc., Boehringer Ingelheim, Vetmedica, Diosynth, Inc., Fort Dodge Animal Health, Penford Products Co., IDT Corp., Roche Applied Science, Wacker Biochem Corp., and Wyeth. In addition to ethanol, renewable energy has become a major economic force in western Iowa, with wind turbine electrical generation increasing exponentally since 1990. Iowa Energy Center, http://www.energy.iastate.edu/renewable/wind/ As of 2008, wind accounted for 15% of energy produced and 7.1% of the state's power needs; Iowa ranked second in wind generating capacity of U.S. states. Report: Iowa's Wind Leadership not hurting consumers. Cedar Rapids Gazette April 14, 2009, p. 8B. Major producers of turbines and componets in Iowa include Acciona Energy of West Branch, TPI Composites of Newton, and Siemens Energy of Fort Madison. Iowa is the headquarters for seven of the top 1,000 companies for revenue. They include Principal Financial, Rockwell Collins, Casey's General Stores, HNI, ACT (American College Test), and John Deere. Iowa is also headquarters to other companies including Hy-Vee, Pella Corporation, Vermeer Company, Kum & Go gas stations, Von Maur (a department store), Pioneer Hi-Bred, McLeodUSA, and Fareway grocery stores, among others. Taxation Iowa imposes taxes on net state income of individuals and estates and trusts. There are currently nine income tax brackets, ranging from 0.36% to 8.98%. The state sales tax rate is 6%, with non-prepared food having no tax. Iowa Department of Revenue, Iowa Tax / Fee Descriptions and Rates, http://www.iowa.gov/tax/taxlaw/taxtypes.html#sales Iowa has two local option sales taxes that may be imposed by counties after an election, a regular local option tax and a school infrastructure local option tax. Iowa Department of Revenue, Iowa Local Option Tax Information, http://www.iowa.gov/tax/educate/localoption.html Property tax is levied on the taxable value of real property, Iowa has more than 2,000 taxing authorities. Most property is taxed by more than one taxing authority. The tax rate differs in each locality and is a composite of county, city or rural township, school district and special levies. Iowa does allow its residence to deduct their federal income taxes off their state income taxes. Transportation Iowa's major interstates, larger cities, and counties. Interstate highways Iowa has four primary interstate highways. Interstate 29 goes along the western edge of the state through Council Bluffs and Sioux City. Interstate 35 goes from the southern border to the northern border through the center of the state, including Des Moines. Interstate 80 goes from the west end of the state to the east end through Council Bluffs, Des Moines, Iowa City, and the Quad Cities. Interstate 74 has its western terminus at the junction with Interstate 80 in northeastern Davenport, Iowa. Interstate 380 is an auxiliary Interstate Highway, which runs from Interstate 80 near Iowa City through Cedar Rapids ending in Waterloo and is part of the Avenue of the Saints highway. U.S. highways Iowa has a number of major United States highways. U.S. Route 18 runs along the northern edge of the state from South Dakota to Wisconsin. U.S. Route 20 runs from Sioux City through Fort Dodge and Waterloo before crossing into Illinois in Dubuque. U.S. Route 30 runs from the Nebraska border just north of Council Bluffs through Cedar Rapids and crossing into Illinois in Clinton, staying north of Interstate 80. U.S. Route 6 winds its way along a similar path to Interstate 80, from Council Bluffs through the Quad Cities into Illinois. U.S. Route 34 runs along the southern part of the state from Nebraska through Burlington to Illinois. U.S. Route 59 runs a path similar to Interstate 29, from south to north along the western edge of the state. U.S. Route 61 runs from the southeastern edge of Iowa in Keokuk through Burlington, the Quad Cities, and into Illinois in Dubuque. U.S. Route 63 runs south from Missouri north through Waterloo and into Minnesota along the eastern central part of the state. U.S. Route 65 and U.S. Route 69 run from Missouri to Des Moines and into Minnesota on paths similar to Interstate 35. U.S. Route 71 and U.S. Route 75 run a south to north path along the western edge of the state. U.S. Route 169 is a south to north highway in the west central part of the state. U.S. Route 218 runs almost entirely within the state of Iowa, from the southern edge in Keokuk through Iowa City, Cedar Rapids, and Waterloo on its way to Minnesota. Airports with scheduled flights Iowa is served by a few major airports including the Des Moines International Airport, the Eastern Iowa Airport, Quad City International Airport, which is located in Moline, Illinois, and Eppley Airfield, located in Omaha, Nebraska. Smaller airports in the state include the Dubuque Regional Airport, Fort Dodge Regional Airport, Mason City Municipal Airport, Sioux Gateway Airport, Southeast Iowa Regional Airport, and Waterloo Regional Airport. Railroads Amtrak's California Zephyr serves the south of Iowa with stops at Burlington, Mount Pleasant, Ottumwa, Osceola, and Creston on its daily route between Chicago and Emeryville, California (across the bay from San Francisco). Burlington and Fort Madison are also served by Amtrak's Southwest Chief, running daily between Chicago and Los Angeles. Law and government Capitol in 2003 after regildingSee List of Governors of Iowa, Iowa General Assembly, and Iowa State CapitolThe current Governor is Chet Culver (D) Other statewide elected officials are: Patty Judge (D) - Lieutenant Governor Michael Mauro (D) - Secretary of State David Vaudt (R) - Auditor of State Michael Fitzgerald (D) - Treasurer of State Bill Northey (R) - Secretary of Agriculture Tom Miller (D) - Attorney General The two U.S. Senators: Tom Harkin (D) Chuck Grassley (R) The five U.S. Congressmen: Bruce Braley (D) - First District Dave Loebsack (D) - Second District Leonard Boswell (D) - Third District Tom Latham (R) - Fourth District Steve King (R) - Fifth District The Code of Iowa contains the statutory laws of the State of Iowa. It is periodically updated by the Iowa Legislative Service Bureau, with a new edition published in odd-numbered years and a supplement published in even-numbered years. Iowa is an alcohol monopoly or Alcoholic beverage control state. Political parties Samuel J. Kirkwood, founder of the Iowa Republican Party, abolitionist, and Iowa's Civil War governor. In Iowa, the term "political party" refers to political organizations which have received two percent or more of the votes cast for president or governor in the "last preceding general election". Iowa recognizes two political parties - the Republican Party and the Democratic Party. Third parties, officially termed "nonparty political organizations" can appear on the ballot as well - five of these have had candidates on the ballot in Iowa since 2004 for various positions: the Constitution Party, the Iowa Green Party, the Libertarian Party, the Pirate Party, and the Socialist Workers Party. Voter trends + Presidential elections results Year Republican Democratic200844.74% 677,508 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|54.04% 818,240200449.92% 751,957 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|49.28% 741,898200048.22% 634,373 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|48.60% 638,517199639.92% 492,644 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|50.31% 620,258199237.33% 504,890 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|43.35% 586,353198844.8% 545,355 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|55.1% 670,557198453.32% 703,088 | align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|45.97% 605,620 Iowa is currently listed as a swing state in national politics. The state currently leans slightly Democratic, according to the Cook Partisan Voting Index, which by analyzing recent elections gives Iowa a score of D+1. However, the state is far from homogeneous in its political leanings; Cook finds that Iowa's five political districts range in political orientation. Iowa's 2nd congressional district, in the Eastern/Southeastern part of the state, leans distinctly Democratic, with a D+7 (strong Democratic) score; but Iowa's 5th congressional district, which covers most of Western Iowa, leans strongly Republican, scoring R+9. From 1968 to 1984, Iowa voted for the Republican candidate in the presidential election, and from 1988 to 2000 the state voted for the Democrat; in the latter election, the Democratic candidate won by little more than 1000 votes. In the 2004 election, Iowa went by about 10,000 votes for George W. Bush but in 2008, Barack Obama won by a much larger margin of about 150,000 votes. In the 2006 elections, the Iowa Democrats gained two seats in the Iowa delegation to the United States House of Representatives, and Democrats won a majority in both houses of the Iowa General Assembly. Presidential caucus The state gets considerable attention every four years because it holds the first presidential caucuses, gatherings of voters to select delegates to the state conventions. Along with the New Hampshire primary the following week, Iowa's caucuses have become the starting points for choosing the two major-party candidates for president. The caucuses, held in January of the election year, involve people gathering in homes or public places and choosing their candidates, rather than casting secret ballots as is done in a primary election. The national and international media give Iowa (and New Hampshire) much of the attention accorded the national candidate selection process, which gives Iowa voters enormous leverage. Those who enter the caucus race often expend enormous effort to reach voters in each of Iowa's 99 counties. Civil rights |The Union Block building, Mount Pleasant, scene of early civil rights and women’s rights activities. Listed as one of the most endangered historic sites in Iowa. Iowa Historic Preservation Alliance: Iowa’s Most Endangered Historic Sites, http://www.iowapreservation.org/endangered.php In the 19th century Iowa was among the earliest states to enact prohibitions against race discrimination, especially in education, but was slow to achieve full integration in the 20th century. In the very first decision of the Iowa Supreme Court — In Re the Matter of Ralph 1 Morris 1 (Iowa 1839) , decided July 1839 — the Court rejected slavery in a decision that found that a slave named Ralph became free when he stepped on Iowa soil, 26 years before the end of the Civil War. http://www.judicial.state.ia.us/Public_Information/Iowa_Courts_History/Civil_Rights/ The state did away with racial barriers to marriage in 1851, more than 100 years before the U.S. Supreme Court would ban miscegenation statutes nationwide. Gay marriage and Iowa: Why's everyone so surprised?, Chicago Tribune, April 10, 2009 The Iowa Supreme Court decided Clark v. The Board of Directors 24 Iowa 266 (1868) in 1868, ruling that racially segregated “separate but equal” schools had no place in Iowa, 85 years before the U.S. Supreme Court reached the same decision (in Brown v. Board of Education). The Court heard Coger v. The North Western Union Packet Co. 37 Iowa 145 (1873) in 1873, ruling against racial discrimination in public accommodations 91 years before the U.S. Supreme Court reached the same decision. In 1884, the Iowa Civil Rights Act apparently outlawed discrimination by businesses, reading: "All persons within this state shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the accommodations, advantages, facilities, and privileges of inns, restaurants, chophouses, eating houses, lunch counters, and all other places where refreshments are served, public conveyances, barber shops, bathhouses, theaters, and all other places of amusement." However, the courts chose to narrowly apply this act, allowing de-facto discrimination to continue. Iowa Civil Rights Commission, http://www.iowa.gov/government/crc/docs/annual66activities.html Racial discrimination at public businesses was not deemed illegal until 1949, when the court ruled in State of Iowa v. Katz that businesses had to serve customers regardless of race; the case began when Edna Griffin was denied service at a Des Moines drugstore. African-Americans in Iowa, 1838-2005, http://www.iptv.org/IowaPathways/myPath.cfm?ounid=ob_000238 Full racial civil rights were codified under the Iowa Civil Rights Act of 1965. Iowa Civil Rights Commission http://www.state.ia.us/government/crc/publications/brochures/english_brochure.html As with racial equality, Iowa was a vanguard in women's rights in the mid 19th century, but was slow to give women the right to vote. In 1847, the University of Iowa became the first public university in the U.S. to admit men and women on an equal basis. About Iowa, http://www.uiowa.edu/homepage/about-UI/index.html In 1869, Iowa became the first state in the union to admit women to the practice of law, with the Court ruling that women may not be denied the right to practice law in Iowa and admitting Arabella A. Mansfield to the practice of law. Several attempts to grant full voting rights to Iowa women were defeated between 1870 and 1919. In 1894 women were given "partial suffrage", which allowed them to vote on issues, but not for candidates. It was not until the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified in 1920 that women had full suffrage in Iowa. The Fight for Women's Suffrage, http://www.iptv.org/iowapathways/myPath.cfm?ounid=ob_000320 Although Iowa supported the Federal Equal Rights Amendment, in 1980 and 1992 Iowa voters rejected an Equal Rights Amendment to the state constitution. How Did Iowa Coalitions Campaign for the Equal Rights Amendment in 1980 and 1992? http://womhist.alexanderstreet.com/iowaera/intro.htm On April 3, 2009, the Iowa Supreme Court decided Varnum v. Brien WL 874044 (Iowa 2009) (Publication to N.W.2d pending as of April 09, 2009.) , holding in a unanimous decision , that the state’s law forbidding same-sex marriage was unconstitutional. This makes Iowa the third state in the U.S. and first in the Midwest to permit same-sex marriage. USA Today, Iowa Court Upholds Gay Marriage Sister states Iowa has seven official partner states: Hebei Province, People's Republic of China (1983) Stavropol Krai, Russia (1989) Taiwan (1989) Terengganu, Malaysia (1987) Veneto Region, Italy (1997) Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan (1960) Yucatán, Mexico (1964) Education Primary and secondary schools Iowa takes pride in its education system. The graduation rate for high school seniors has gradually increased to 90.8% in 2006. The state has the third highest graduation rate in the nation. Iowa continually ranks in the top 3 for ACT and scores. In 2008, Iowa ranked top in the nation for average scores per student and second in the nation for average ACT scores per student. Iowa has 365 school districts, and has the twelfth best student to teacher ratio of 13.8 students per teacher. Teacher's pay, however, is ranked forty-second with the average salary being $39,284. The Iowa State Board of Education works with the Iowa Department of Education to provide oversight, supervision, and support for the state's education system that includes all public elementary and secondary schools, nonpublic schools that receive state accreditation, area education agencies, community colleges, and teacher preparation programs. The State Board consists of ten members: nine voting members who are appointed by the governor for six-year terms and subject to Senate confirmation; and one nonvoting student member who serves a one-year term, also appointed by the governor. Colleges and universities The Iowa Board of Regents is composed of nine citizen volunteers appointed by the governor to provide policymaking, coordination, and oversight of the state's public universities, two special K-12 schools, and affiliated centers. Iowa's three public universities include: Iowa State University, Ames University of Iowa, Iowa City University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls The special K-12 schools include the Iowa School for the Deaf in Council Bluffs and the Iowa Braille and Sight Saving School in Vinton. Both Iowa State and Iowa are major research institutions and members of the prestigious Association of American Universities. In addition to the three state universities, Iowa has multiple private colleges and universities. Private colleges and universities include: Buena Vista University, Storm Lake Clarke College, Dubuque Des Moines University, Des Moines Divine Word College, Epworth Drake University, Des Moines Emmaus Bible College, Dubuque Faith Baptist Bible College and Theological Seminary, Ankeny Graceland University, Lamoni Iowa Wesleyan College, Mount Pleasant Kaplan University, Cedar Falls, Cedar Rapids, Council Bluffs, Davenport, Mason City, and Urbandale Maharishi University of Management, Fairfield Saint Ambrose University, Davenport University of Dubuque, Dubuque Upper Iowa University, Fayette Waldorf College, Forest City William Penn University, Oskaloosa Private liberal arts colleges include: Ashford University, Clinton Briar Cliff University, Sioux City Central College, Pella Coe College, Cedar Rapids Cornell College, Mount Vernon Dordt College, Sioux Center Grand View University, Des Moines Grinnell College, Grinnell Loras College, Dubuque Luther College, Decorah Morningside College, Sioux City Mount Mercy College, Cedar Rapids Northwestern College, Orange City Simpson College, Indianola Wartburg College, Waverly Sports Iowa has professional sports teams in all major sports, including baseball, football, hockey, basketball, soccer, and wrestling. The state has four major college teams playing in Division I for all sports. In football, Iowa State University and the University of Iowa compete in the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), whereas the University of Northern Iowa and Drake University compete in the Football Championship Subdivision (FCS). Baseball Iowa has four Class A minor league teams in the Midwest League. They are the Burlington Bees, Cedar Rapids Kernels, Clinton LumberKings, and the Quad Cities River Bandits. The Sioux City Explorers are part of the American Association of Independent Professional Baseball. The Waterloo Bucks play in the Northwoods League. Des Moines is home to the Iowa Cubs, a Division AAA team in the Pacific Coast League. Football The Sioux City Bandits are an Indoor football team in the United Indoor Football League. The Quad City Steamwheelers are an af2 football team whose home games are played in Moline, Illinois. The Iowa Barnstormers resumed play after a seven season layoff in the af2 football league. They play their home games at Wells Fargo Arena. Hockey The American Hockey League has two teams the Quad City Flames whose games are played in Moline, Illinois, as well as the newly formed Iowa Chops, who have taken over the former Iowa Stars franchise and still play in Wells Fargo Arena. The United States Hockey League has five teams in Iowa: the Cedar Rapids RoughRiders, Sioux City Musketeers, Waterloo Black Hawks, Des Moines Buccaneers, and the Omaha Lancers whose games are played in Council Bluffs. The North Iowa Outlaws play in the North American Hockey League in Mason City. Basketball Iowa has two professional basketball teams. The Iowa Energy, an NBA Development League team that plays in Des Moines, is affiliated with the Chicago Bulls and Phoenix Suns of the NBA. The Quad Cities Riverhawks of the Premier Basketball League are based in Davenport, but play at Wharton Field House in Moline, Illinois. Soccer The Des Moines Menace play their home games at Valley Stadium on the grounds of Valley High School in West Des Moines. College The state has four NCAA Division I college teams. The Iowa State University Cyclones of the Big 12 Conference and the University of Iowa Hawkeyes of the Big Ten Conference are Division I FBS teams, while the University of Northern Iowa Panthers and Drake University Bulldogs play in Division I FCS. Notable Iowans President Herbert Hoover. Vice President Henry Wallace. Iowa has been the birthplace of one president: Herbert Hoover One vice-president: Henry A. Wallace Two first ladies: Lou Henry Hoover Mamie Eisenhower Three Nobel Prize winners: Norman Borlaug, Nobel Peace Prize Alan J. Heeger, Nobel Prize in Chemistry Stanley B. Prusiner, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Other notable Iowa-born natives include: Bix Beiderbecke, jazz musician Lara Flynn Boyle, actress Bill Bryson, author Johnny Carson, The Tonight Show television host and comedian Buffalo Bill Cody, Wild West showman Simon Estes, international bass-baritone opera star Bob Feller, MLB Hall of Fame pitcher Dan Gable, Olympic wrestling gold medal winner Frank Gotch, wrestling World Heavyweight Champion and Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame inductee Shawn Johnson, Olympic gymnastics gold medal winner and AAU James E. Sullivan Award recipient Zach Johnson, Masters golf champion Nile Kinnick, Heisman Trophy winner and All-American football player Ashton Kutcher, film and television actor Ann Landers, syndicated advice columnist Cloris Leachman, Academy Award and multi-Emmy Award winning actress Glenn Miller, Big Band leader, musician, and composer Kate Mulgrew, Golden Globe nominated television and film actress Harry Reasoner, national television news anchor Donna Reed, Academy Award and Golden Globe winning actress Peter Schickele, composer and humorist Phil Stong, novelist, State FairCorey Taylor, plus other original members of Grammy award winning band Slipknot James A. Van Allen, astronomer Abigail Van Buren, syndicated advice columnist Kurt Warner, NFL quarterback, Super Bowl MVP, and two-time NFL MVP John Wayne, Congressional Gold Medal, Presidential Medal of Freedom recipient and Academy Award winning actor Andy Williams, crooner, songwriter, and television host Meredith Willson, musical playwright, composer, and songwriter, The Music ManElijah Wood, Screen Actors Guild Award winning actor Grant Wood, artist, American GothicState symbols Eastern Goldfinch, Iowa state bird. Nickname(s): The Hawkeye State, the Tall Corn State (unofficial) Bird: Eastern Goldfinch Fish: Channel catfish (unofficial) Flower: Wild Rose Grass: Bluebunch wheatgrass Tree: Oak Colors: Red, white, and blue (represented in state flag) Fossil: Crinoid (proposed) Motto: "Our liberties we prize and our rights we will maintain" Rock: Geode Song: The Song of Iowa'' See also Index of Iowa-related articles References External links Official State of Iowa Website Constitution of the state of Iowa Energy Data & Statistics for Iowa- From the U.S. Department of Energy Iowa State Databases - Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Iowa state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association. 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2,602 | Transport_in_Poland | This article is about transportation in Poland. Railways Poland is served by an extensive network of railways. In most cities the main railway station is located near a city centre and is well connected to the local transportation system. The infrastructure is operated by PKP PLK ( PKP-Polskie Linie Kolejowe : PKP-Polish Rail Lines), part of state-run PKP Group. Rail network is very dense in western and northern Poland, while eastern part of the country is less developed. The only high speed rail line in central-eastern Europe, Centralna Magistrala Kolejowa (CMK) - Central Railway Route, length 223 km, built in 1971 - 1977), links Warsaw with Kraków and Katowice. Trains on the CMK achieve speed up to 160km/h (some sections allow up to 200km/h, but the rolling stock has not yet been adapted to handle higher speed). On May 11, 1994, the Italian train Pendolino broke Eastern European speed record, going on the CMK at 250 km/h. Other high speed lines: Warsaw - Kutno - Poznań - (Berlin) (140, 160 km/h) Warsaw - Siedlce - Terespol - (Minsk) (160, 120 km/h) - being upgraded to 160km/h Warsaw - Puławy - Lublin (120, 140 km/h) Opole - Wrocław (160km/h) and further upgraded via Legnica to Hamburg The Warsaw - Gdańsk - Gdynia line is being upgraded to allow speed up to 200km/h, and the Warsaw - Łódź line is being upgraded to allow speed up to 160km/h (in order to bind together the Warsaw - Łódź agglomeration). There are long term plans to construct a new high speed line (300 km/h) from Warsaw to Poznań and Wrocław with forks in Łódź and Kalisz. The PKP Group is the fourth largest railway throughout Europe. Trains are run by: Passenger transport market PKP Intercity - qualified passengers trains (express, intercity, eurocity, hotel and TLK) PKP Przewozy Regionalne - regional passengers trains (normal and fast train) Koleje Mazowieckie - local trains in Mazovia Szybka Kolej Miejska (Tricity) - fast urban railway in Tricity Szybka Kolej Miejska (Warsaw) - suburban railway in Warsaw agglomeration Warszawska Kolej Dojazdowa - suburban railway in Warsaw agglomeration Arriva PCC (joint venture formed by Arriva and PCC Rail) - part of the local train traffic in Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship Narrow gauge railways (those marked (M) are museum or tourist railways only, and play no role in the transport market): (M) Ełcka Kolej Wąskotorowa - Narrow Gauge railway in Ełk Gnieźnieńska Kolej Dojazdowa - Narrow Gauge railway in Gniezno (M) Górnośląskie Koleje Wąskotorowe - Upper Silesian Narrow gauge railway Gryficka Kolej Dojazdowa - Narrow gauge railway in Gryfice Kaliska Kolej Dojazdowa - accessible Narrow gauge railway in Kalisz Krośniewicka Kolej Dojazdowa - accessible Narrow gauge railway in Krośniewice (M) Nałęczowska Kolej Dojazdowa - accessible Narrow gauge railway in Nałęczów Przeworska Kolej Dojazdowa - accessible Narrow gauge railway in Przeworsk (M) Rogowska Kolej Wąskotorowa - Narrow gauge railway in Rogów (M) Sochaczewska Kolej Muzealna - museum railway in Sochaczew (M) Starachowicka Kolej Dojazdowa - Narrow gauge railway in Starachowice Śmigielska Kolej Dojazdowa - Narrow gauge railway in Śmigiel (M) Średzka Kolej Dojazdowa - Narrow gauge railway in Środa Wlkp. (M) Świętokrzyska Kolej Dojazdowa - Świętokrzyska Narrow gauge railway (M) Żnińska Kolej Powiatowa - Żnin district railway (M) Żuławska Kolej Dojazdowa - Żuławska Suburban Railway Freight transport market PKP Cargo PKP LHS - Metallurgic Broad Gauge Line PTK Holding SA - The Railway Transportation Holding in Zabrze Przedsiębiorstwo Transportu Kolejowego i Gospodarki Kamieniem Rybnik - The Railway Transport and Stone Management Company in Rybnik CTL Logistics PCC Rail Szczakowa - Rail Szczakowa website - part of the German concern PCC AG Kopalnia Piasku Kotlarnia - The Kotlarnia sand mine Kopalnia Piasku Kuźnica Warężyńska - The Kuźnica Warężyńska sand mine Orlen KolTrans Lotos Kolej Nadwiślanski Zakład Transportu Kolejowego- Vistula Rail Transport Company] Rail System Total: 23,420 km standard gauge (1.435 m) : 21,639 km (11,626 km electrified; 8,978 km double track) broad gauge (1.524 m) : 646 km narrow gauge (various) : 1,135 km various gauges including 1.000 m, 0.785 m, 0.750 m, and 0.600 m (1998) As of December 2002 narrow gauge railways were no longer owned or operated by PKP. They were transferred to regional authorities or became independent companies. Rail links with adjacent countries: Same gauge: Czech Republic Germany Slovakia Break-of-gauge - 1435mm/1524mm Lithuania Belarus Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast) Ukraine Municipal transport City bus, Solaris. Bus Tram Tram Over 30 cities with tramway systems including Gdańsk, Katowice, Kraków, Łódź, Poznań, Szczecin, Warszawa and Wrocław. See the list: List of town tramway systems in Europe#Poland ULF tram See also: Poznań Fast Tram, Kraków Fast Tram Trolleybus Trolleybuses are used in three towns: Gdynia (with some lines reaching Sopot), Lublin and Tychy. Metro Warsaw is the only city with a metro system: See: Warsaw Metro Airports Location of main airports in Poland, with number of passengers served in 2006 Warsaw Frederic Chopin Airport Main airports Warsaw International Airport, handles 9 million passengers and 63,332 tonnes of cargo per year. Kraków International Airport, handles 3,042,351 passengers and 3,801 tonnes of cargo. Katowice International Airport, handles 1,980,358 passengers and 7,782 tonnes of cargo. Gdańsk International Airport, handles 1,708,739 passengers and 4,757 tonnes of cargo. Wrocław International Airport, handles 1,270,825 passengers and 1,457 tonnes of cargo. Poznań International Airport, handles 863,018 passengers and 2,453 tonnes of cargo. Łódź Władysław Reymont Airport, handles 312,365 passengers. Szczecin-Goleniów "Solidarność" Airport, handles 228,071 passengers and 1,773 tonnes of cargo. Rzeszów-Jasionka Airport, handles 274,272 passengers and 508 tonnes of cargo Bydgoszcz Ignacy Jan Paderewski Airport. handles 181,576 and 411 tonnes of cargo. Number of airports in Poland - 123 (1999 est.) Source (2007) http://www.ulc.gov.pl/_download/regulacja_rynku/statystyki/liczba_obsl_pasazerow_przesylek_20042007_150208.pdf Airports - with paved runways Total: 84 (2005) over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 29 1,524 to 2,437 m: 41 914 to 1,523 m: 7 under 914 m: 3 Airports - with unpaved runways Total: 39 (2005) 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 13 under 914 m: 21 Heliports: 2 (2005) See: LOT Polish Airlines Marine Gdynia Waterways 3,812 km navigable rivers and canals (1996) Ports and harbors Port of Gdańsk Port of Gdynia Port of Szczecin-Świnoujście Port of Ustka Port of Kołobrzeg Merchant marine Total: 57 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,120,165 GRT/ Ships by type: bulk 50, cargo 2, chemical tanker 2, roll-on/roll-off 1, short-sea passenger 2 (1999 est.) Roads A4 motorway in Katowice Total: 423,997 km paved: 295,356 km (including 665 km of expressways) unpaved: 128,641 km (2003) Motorways in Poland: A1 | A2 | A4 | A6 | A8 | A18 Expressways in Poland: S1 | S2 | S3 | S5 | S6 | S7 | S8 | S10 | S11 | S12 | S14 | S16 | S17 | S19 | S22 | S51 | S69 | S74 | S79 | S86 Pipelines Crude oil and petroleum products 2,280 km; Natural gas 13,500 km (2006 est.) See also Bridges of Poland Ports of the Baltic Sea External links Rail Map: Poland (PDF) Most minor lines omitted Road Map: Poland | Transport_in_Poland |@lemmatized article:1 transportation:3 poland:11 railway:29 serve:2 extensive:1 network:2 city:5 main:3 station:1 locate:1 near:1 centre:1 well:1 connect:1 local:3 system:5 infrastructure:1 operate:2 pkp:10 plk:1 polskie:1 linie:1 kolejowe:1 polish:2 rail:10 line:9 part:4 state:1 run:2 group:2 dense:1 western:1 northern:1 eastern:3 country:2 less:1 developed:1 high:4 speed:8 central:2 europe:3 centralna:1 magistrala:1 kolejowa:1 cmk:3 route:1 length:1 km:19 build:1 link:3 warsaw:15 kraków:4 katowice:4 train:8 achieve:1 h:11 section:1 allow:3 roll:3 stock:1 yet:1 adapt:1 handle:11 may:1 italian:1 pendolino:1 break:2 european:1 record:1 go:1 kutno:1 poznań:5 berlin:1 siedlce:1 terespol:1 minsk:1 upgrade:3 puławy:1 lublin:2 opole:1 wrocław:4 far:1 upgraded:1 via:1 legnica:1 hamburg:1 gdańsk:4 gdynia:4 łódź:5 order:1 bind:1 together:1 agglomeration:3 long:1 term:1 plan:1 construct:1 new:1 fork:1 kalisz:2 fourth:1 large:1 throughout:1 passenger:14 transport:6 market:3 intercity:2 qualified:1 express:1 eurocity:1 hotel:1 tlk:1 przewozy:1 regionalne:1 regional:2 normal:1 fast:4 koleje:2 mazowieckie:1 mazovia:1 szybka:2 kolej:19 miejska:2 tricity:2 urban:1 suburban:3 warszawska:1 dojazdowa:12 arriva:2 pcc:4 joint:1 venture:1 form:1 traffic:1 kuyavian:1 pomeranian:1 voivodeship:1 narrow:16 gauge:22 mark:1 museum:2 tourist:1 play:1 role:1 ełcka:1 wąskotorowa:2 ełk:1 gnieźnieńska:1 gniezno:1 górnośląskie:1 wąskotorowe:1 upper:1 silesian:1 gryficka:1 gryfice:1 kaliska:1 accessible:4 krośniewicka:1 krośniewice:1 nałęczowska:1 nałęczów:1 przeworska:1 przeworsk:1 rogowska:1 rogów:1 sochaczewska:1 muzealna:1 sochaczew:1 starachowicka:1 starachowice:1 śmigielska:1 śmigiel:1 średzka:1 środa:1 wlkp:1 świętokrzyska:2 żnińska:1 powiatowa:1 żnin:1 district:1 żuławska:2 freight:1 cargo:11 lh:1 metallurgic:1 broad:2 ptk:1 hold:2 sa:1 zabrze:1 przedsiębiorstwo:1 transportu:2 kolejowego:2 gospodarki:1 kamieniem:1 rybnik:2 stone:1 management:1 company:3 ctl:1 logistics:1 szczakowa:2 website:1 german:1 concern:1 ag:1 kopalnia:2 piasku:2 kotlarnia:2 sand:2 mine:2 kuźnica:2 warężyńska:2 orlen:1 koltrans:1 lotos:1 nadwiślanski:1 zakład:1 vistula:1 total:6 standard:1 electrify:1 double:1 track:1 various:2 include:3 december:1 longer:1 transfer:1 authority:1 become:1 independent:1 adjacent:1 czech:1 republic:1 germany:1 slovakia:1 lithuania:1 belarus:1 russia:1 kaliningrad:1 oblast:1 ukraine:1 municipal:1 bus:2 solaris:1 tram:5 tramway:2 szczecin:3 warszawa:1 see:5 list:2 town:2 ulf:1 also:2 trolleybus:2 use:1 three:1 reach:1 sopot:1 tychy:1 metro:3 airport:16 location:1 number:2 frederic:1 chopin:1 international:6 million:1 tonne:9 per:1 year:1 władysław:1 reymont:1 goleniów:1 solidarność:1 rzeszów:1 jasionka:1 bydgoszcz:1 ignacy:1 jan:1 paderewski:1 est:3 source:1 http:1 www:1 ulc:1 gov:1 pl:1 statystyki:1 pdf:2 airports:1 pave:2 runway:2 unpaved:2 heliport:1 lot:1 airline:1 marine:2 waterway:1 navigable:1 river:1 canal:1 port:7 harbor:1 świnoujście:1 ustka:1 kołobrzeg:1 merchant:1 ship:2 grt:2 type:1 bulk:1 chemical:1 tanker:1 short:1 sea:2 road:2 motorway:2 expressway:2 pipeline:1 crude:1 oil:1 petroleum:1 product:1 natural:1 gas:1 bridge:1 baltic:1 external:1 map:2 minor:1 omit:1 |@bigram warsaw_łódź:2 kolej_dojazdowa:12 joint_venture:1 pomeranian_voivodeship:1 narrow_gauge:16 gauge_railway:15 dojazdowa_narrow:5 km_electrify:1 czech_republic:1 kaliningrad_oblast:1 frederic_chopin:1 tonne_cargo:9 władysław_reymont:1 http_www:1 pave_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 merchant_marine:1 ship_grt:1 grt_total:1 total_grt:1 grt_ship:1 expressway_unpaved:1 unpaved_km:1 pipeline_crude:1 crude_oil:1 baltic_sea:1 external_link:1 |
2,603 | Economy_of_Laos | Laos is a landlocked country with an inadequate infrastructure and a largely unskilled work force. The country's per capita income in 2004 was estimated to be $1,900 on a purchasing power parity-basis. Rivers are an important means of transport in Laos. Agriculture, mostly subsistence rice farming, dominates the economy, employing an estimated 85% of the population and producing 51% of GDP. Domestic savings are low, forcing Laos to rely heavily on foreign assistance and concessional loans as investment sources for economic development. In FY 1999, for example, foreign grants and loans accounted for more than 20% of GDP and more than 75% of public investment. In 1998, the country's foreign debt was estimated at $1.9 billion. A street market in Luang Prabang. Following its accession to power in 1975, the communist government imposed a Soviet-style command economy system, replacing the private sector with state enterprises and cooperatives; centralizing investment, production, trade, and pricing; and creating barriers to internal and foreign trade. Within a few years, the Lao Government realized these types of economic policies were preventing, rather than stimulating, growth and development. No substantive reform was introduced, however, until 1986 when the government announced its "new economic mechanism" (NEM). Initially timid, the NEM was expanded to include a range of reforms designed to create conditions conducive to private sector activity. Prices set by market forces replaced government-determined prices. Farmers were permitted to own land and sell crops on the open market. State firms were granted increased decisionmaking authority and lost most of their subsidies and pricing advantages. The government set the exchange rate close to real market levels, lifted trade barriers, replaced import barriers with tariffs, and gave private sector firms direct access to imports and credit. Buses connect the major cities. In 1989, the Lao Government reached agreement with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund on additional reforms. The government agreed to expand fiscal and monetary reform, promote private enterprise and foreign investment, privatize or close state firms, and strengthen banking. In addition, it also agreed to maintain a market exchange rate, reduce tariffs, and eliminate unneeded trade regulations. A liberal foreign investment code was enacted and appears to be slowly making a positive impact in the market. Enforcement of intellectual property rights is governed by two Prime Minister's Decrees dating from 1995 and 2002 . In an attempt to stimulate further international commerce, the Lao Government accepted Australian aid to build a bridge across the Mekong River to Thailand. The "Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge," between Vientiane Prefecture and Nong Khai Province, Thailand, was inaugurated in April 1994. Although the bridge has created additional commerce, the Lao Government does not yet permit a completely free flow of traffic across the span. These reforms led to economic growth and an increased availability of goods. However, the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, coupled with the Lao Government's own mismanagement of the economy, resulted in spiraling inflation and a steep depreciation of the kip, which lost 87% of its value from June 1997 to June 1999. Tighter monetary policies brought about greater macroeconomic stability in FY 2000, and monthly inflation, which had averaged about 10% during the first half of FY 1999, dropped to an average 1% over the same period in FY 2000. The economy continues to be dominated by an unproductive agricultural sector operating largely outside the money economy and in which the public sector continues to play a dominant role. GDP: purchasing power parity - $12.65 billion (2007 est.) GDP - real growth rate: 7.5% (2007 est.) GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,300 (1999 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 41.3% industry: 32.2% services: 26.5% (2007 est.) Population below poverty line: 30.7% (2005 est.) Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 3.4% highest 10%: 28.5% (2002) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 4.5% (2007 est.) Labor force: 2.1 million (2006 est.) Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 80% (2005 est.) Unemployment rate: 2.4% (2005 est.) Budget: revenues: $472.3 million expenditures: $646.1 million , including capital expenditures of $NA (2007 est.) Industries: tin and gypsum mining, timber, electric power, agricultural processing, construction, garments Industrial production growth rate: 12% (2007 est.) Electricity - production: 1.715 billion kWh (2005) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 2.99% hydro: 97.01% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 1.193 billion kWh (2005) Electricity - exports: 728 million kWh (2005) Electricity - imports: 326 million kWh (2005) Agriculture - products: sweet potatoes, vegetables, maize, coffee, sugar cane, tobacco, cotton; tea, peanuts, rice; domestic buffalo, pigs, cattle, poultry Exports: $970 million (2007 est.) Exports - commodities: wood products, garments, electricity, coffee, tin, copper, gold Exports - partners: Vietnam, Thailand, Germany, France, Belgium Imports: $1.376 billion f.o.b. (2007 est.) Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, vehicles, fuel Imports - partners: Thailand, Japan, Vietnam, People's Republic of China, Singapore, Hong Kong Debt - external: $3.179 billion (2006) Economic aid - recipient: $345 million (1999 est.) Currency: 1 new kip (NK) = 100 at Exchange rates: new kips (NK) per US$1 - 9,600.00 (April 2007), 7,674.00 (January 2000), 7,102.03 (1999), 3,298.33 (1998), 1,259.98 (1997), 921.02 (1996), 804.69 (1995) note: as of September 1995, a floating exchange rate policy was adopted Fiscal year: 1 October - 30 September External links Rice research in Lao PDR http://www.nafri.org.la/05_news/news/IRRI/15_years_of_Research.htm Rice Biodiversity in Lao PDR http://www.sdc.org.vn/index.php?navID=21483&langID=1, | Economy_of_Laos |@lemmatized lao:11 landlocked:1 country:3 inadequate:1 infrastructure:1 largely:2 unskilled:1 work:1 force:5 per:3 capita:1 income:2 estimate:3 purchase:1 power:5 parity:3 basis:1 river:2 important:1 mean:1 transport:1 agriculture:4 mostly:1 subsistence:1 rice:4 farming:1 dominate:2 economy:5 employ:1 population:2 produce:1 gdp:6 domestic:2 saving:1 low:2 rely:1 heavily:1 foreign:6 assistance:1 concessional:1 loan:2 investment:5 source:2 economic:5 development:2 fy:4 example:1 grant:2 account:1 public:2 debt:2 billion:6 street:1 market:6 luang:1 prabang:1 follow:1 accession:1 communist:1 government:10 impose:1 soviet:1 style:1 command:1 system:1 replace:3 private:4 sector:6 state:3 enterprise:2 cooperative:1 centralize:1 production:4 trade:4 pricing:2 create:3 barrier:3 internal:1 within:1 year:2 realize:1 type:1 policy:3 prevent:1 rather:1 stimulate:2 growth:4 substantive:1 reform:5 introduce:1 however:2 announce:1 new:3 mechanism:1 nem:2 initially:1 timid:1 expand:2 include:2 range:1 design:1 condition:1 conducive:1 activity:1 price:3 set:2 determine:1 farmer:1 permit:2 land:1 sell:1 crop:1 open:1 firm:3 increased:2 decisionmaking:1 authority:1 lose:2 subsidy:1 advantage:1 exchange:4 rate:8 close:2 real:2 level:1 lift:1 import:6 tariff:2 give:1 direct:1 access:1 credit:1 bus:1 connect:1 major:1 city:1 reach:1 agreement:1 world:1 bank:1 international:2 monetary:3 fund:1 additional:2 agree:2 fiscal:2 promote:1 privatize:1 strengthen:1 banking:1 addition:1 also:1 maintain:1 reduce:1 eliminate:1 unneeded:1 regulation:1 liberal:1 code:1 enact:1 appear:1 slowly:1 make:1 positive:1 impact:1 enforcement:1 intellectual:1 property:1 right:1 govern:1 two:1 prime:1 minister:1 decree:1 date:1 attempt:1 commerce:2 accept:1 australian:1 aid:2 build:1 bridge:3 across:2 mekong:1 thailand:4 thai:1 friendship:1 vientiane:1 prefecture:1 nong:1 khai:1 province:1 inaugurate:1 april:2 although:1 yet:1 completely:1 free:1 flow:1 traffic:1 span:1 lead:1 availability:1 good:1 asian:1 financial:1 crisis:1 couple:1 mismanagement:1 result:1 spiral:1 inflation:3 steep:1 depreciation:1 kip:3 value:1 june:2 tight:1 bring:1 great:1 macroeconomic:1 stability:1 monthly:1 average:2 first:1 half:1 drop:1 period:1 continue:2 unproductive:1 agricultural:2 operate:1 outside:1 money:1 play:1 dominant:1 role:1 purchasing:2 est:14 caput:1 composition:1 industry:2 service:1 poverty:1 line:1 household:1 consumption:2 percentage:1 share:1 high:1 consumer:1 labor:2 million:7 occupation:1 unemployment:1 budget:1 revenue:1 expenditure:2 capital:1 na:1 tin:2 gypsum:1 mining:1 timber:1 electric:1 processing:1 construction:1 garment:2 industrial:1 electricity:6 kwh:4 fossil:1 fuel:2 hydro:1 nuclear:1 export:4 product:2 sweet:1 potato:1 vegetable:1 maize:1 coffee:2 sugar:1 cane:1 tobacco:1 cotton:1 tea:1 peanut:1 buffalo:1 pig:1 cattle:1 poultry:1 commodity:2 wood:1 copper:1 gold:1 partner:2 vietnam:2 germany:1 france:1 belgium:1 f:1 b:1 machinery:1 equipment:1 vehicle:1 japan:1 people:1 republic:1 china:1 singapore:1 hong:1 kong:1 external:2 recipient:1 currency:1 nk:2 u:1 january:1 note:1 september:2 floating:1 adopt:1 october:1 link:1 research:1 pdr:2 http:2 www:2 nafri:1 org:2 la:1 news:1 irri:1 htm:1 biodiversity:1 sdc:1 vn:1 index:1 php:1 navid:1 langid:1 |@bigram inadequate_infrastructure:1 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 rely_heavily:1 luang_prabang:1 monetary_fund:1 fiscal_monetary:1 prime_minister:1 mekong_river:1 thailand_thai:1 thai_lao:1 macroeconomic_stability:1 gdp_purchasing:1 purchasing_power:2 per_caput:1 caput_purchasing:1 household_income:1 unemployment_rate:1 expenditure_na:1 billion_kwh:2 kwh_electricity:3 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 kwh_agriculture:1 sweet_potato:1 sugar_cane:1 cattle_poultry:1 export_commodity:1 tin_copper:1 commodity_machinery:1 hong_kong:1 external_link:1 lao_pdr:2 http_www:2 index_php:1 |
2,604 | Nuclear_fission | An induced understtod fission doseage. A slow-moving neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a uranium-235 atom, which in turn splits into fast-moving lighter elements (fission products) and three free neutrons. In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts, often producing free neutrons and lighter nuclei, which may eventually produce photons (in the form of gamma rays). Fission of heavy elements is an exothermic reaction which can release large amounts of energy both as electromagnetic radiation and as kinetic energy of the fragments (heating the bulk material where fission takes place). Fission is a form of nuclear transmutation because the resulting fragments are not the same element as the original atom. Nuclear fission produces energy for nuclear power and to drive the explosion of nuclear weapons. Both uses are made possible because certain substances called nuclear fuels undergo fission when struck by free neutrons and in turn generate neutrons when they break apart. This makes possible a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled rate in a nuclear reactor or at a very rapid uncontrolled rate in a nuclear weapon. The amount of free energy contained in nuclear fuel is millions of times the amount of free energy contained in a similar mass of chemical fuel such as gasoline, making nuclear fission a very tempting source of energy; however, the products of nuclear fission are radioactive and remain so for significant amounts of time, giving rise to a nuclear waste problem. Concerns over nuclear waste accumulation and over the destructive potential of nuclear weapons may counterbalance the desirable qualities of fission as an energy source, and give rise to ongoing political debate over nuclear power. Physical overview Occasionally nuclear fission occurs without neutron bombardment, as a type of radioactive decay, but this type of fission (called spontaneous fission) is rare except in a few heavy isotopes. Most nuclear fission occurs as a "nuclear reaction"-- a bombardment-driven process that results from the collision of two subatomic particles. Nuclear reactions are contrasted with more common types of radioactive decay, which are spontaneous processes which proceed without bombardment. In nuclear reactions, a subatomic particle collides with an atomic nucleus and causes changes to it. Nuclear reactions are thus driven by the mechanics of bombardment, not by the relatively constant exponential decay and half-life characteristic of spontaneous radioactive processes. A great many nuclear reactions are known. Nuclear fission differs importantly from other types of nuclear reactions in that it can be amplified and sometimes controlled via a nuclear chain reaction. In such a reaction, free neutrons released by each fission event can trigger yet more events, which in turn release more neutrons and cause more fissions. The chemical element isotopes that can sustain a fission chain reaction are called nuclear fuels, and are said to be fissile. The most common nuclear fuels are 235U (the isotope of uranium with an atomic mass of 235 and of use in nuclear reactors) and 239Pu (the isotope of plutonium with an atomic mass of 239). These fuels break apart into a bimodal range of chemical elements with atomic masses centering near 95 and 135 u (fission products). Most nuclear fuels undergo spontaneous fission only very slowly, decaying instead mainly via an alpha/beta decay chain over periods of millennia to eons. In a nuclear reactor or nuclear weapon, the overwhelming majority of fission events are induced by bombardment with another particle, a neutron, which is itself produced by prior fission events. Typical fission events release about two hundred million eV of energy for each fission event. By contrast, most chemical oxidation reactions (such as burning coal or TNT) release at most a few eV per event, so nuclear fuel contains at least ten million times more usable energy than does chemical fuel. The energy of nuclear fission is released as kinetic energy of the fission products and fragments, and as electromagnetic radiation in the form of gamma rays; in a nuclear reactor, the energy is converted to heat as the particles and gamma rays collide with the atoms that make up the reactor and its working fluid, usually water or occasionally heavy water. When a Uranium atom decays into two fragment atoms, an energy of ~200 MeV is released. Of this energy, 168 MeV is the kinetic energy of the daughter nuclei, which fly apart at about 3% of the speed of light, due to Coulomb repulsion. Also, an average of 2.5 neutrons are emitted with a kinetic energy of ~2 MeV each. Finally, the fission reaction emits a ~30 MeV gamma ray photon. Neutron and gamma rays emitted by fragments erase information about the fission process itself, making it difficult to study the reaction dynamics from the saddle point in the reaction coordinate to the scission point, where the fragments are released. Nevertheless there are a few fission events for which no neutron or gamma is emitted. These events are examples of so-called cold fission. Cold fission has been studied by Modesto Montoya and others. See M. Montoya, "Mass and kinetic energy distribution in cold fission of 233U, 235U and 239Pu induced by thermal neutrons", Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Springer Berlin/Heidelberg, V. 319, No. 2, June 1984 (ISSN 0939-7922 (Print) 1431-5831 (Online)). In fission there is a preference to yield fragments with even proton numbers, which is called the odd-even effect on the fragments charge distribution. However, no odd-even effect is observed on fragment mass number distribution. This result is attributed to nucleon pair breaking. A 3D representation of an induced nuclear fission event where a slow-moving neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a uranium-235 atom, which fissions into two fast-moving lighter elements (fission products) and additional neutrons. Most of the energy released is in the form of the kinetic velocities of the fission products and the neutrons. Also shown is the capture of a neutron by uranium-238 to become uranium-239. Nuclear fission of heavy elements produces energy because the specific binding energy (binding energy per mass) of intermediate-mass nuclei with atomic numbers and atomic masses close to 61Ni and 56Fe is greater than the specific binding energy of very heavy nuclei, so that energy is released when heavy nuclei are broken apart. The total rest masses of the fission products (Mp) from a single reaction is less than the mass of the original fuel nucleus (M). The excess mass Δm = M – Mp is the invariant mass of the energy that is released as photons (gamma rays) and kinetic energy of the fission fragments, according to the mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc². In nuclear fission events the nuclei may break into any combination of lighter nuclei, but the most common event is not fission to equal mass nuclei of about mass 120; the most common event (depending on isotope and process) is a slightly unequal fission in which one daughter nucleus has a mass of about 90 to 100 u and the other the remaining 130 to 140 u. Unequal fissions are energetically more favorable because this allows one product to be closer to the energetic minimum near mass 60 u (only a quarter of the average fissionable mass), while the other nucleus with mass 135 u is still not far out of the range of the most tightly bound nuclei (another statement of this, is that the atomic binding energy curve is slightly steeper to the left of mass 120 u than to the right of it). The variation in specific binding energy with atomic number is due to the interplay of the two fundamental forces acting on the component nucleons (protons and neutrons) that make up the nucleus. Nuclei are bound by an attractive strong interaction between nucleons, which overcomes the electrostatic repulsion between protons. However, the strong nuclear force acts only over extremely short ranges, since it follows a Yukawa potential. For this reason large nuclei are less tightly bound per unit mass than small nuclei, and breaking a very large nucleus into two or more intermediate-sized nuclei releases energy. Because of the short range of the strong binding force, large nuclei must contain proportionally more neutrons than do light elements, which are most stable with a 1–1 ratio of protons and neutrons. Extra neutrons stabilize heavy elements because they add to strong-force binding without adding to proton-proton repulsion. Fission products have, on average, about the same ratio of neutrons and protons as their parent nucleus, and are therefore usually unstable because they have proportionally too many neutrons compared to stable isotopes of similar mass. This is the fundamental cause of the problem of radioactive high level waste from nuclear reactors. Fission products tend to be beta emitters, emitting fast-moving electrons to conserve electric charge as excess neutrons convert to protons inside the nucleus of the fission product atoms. The most common nuclear fuels, 235U and 239Pu, are not major radio logic hazards by themselves: 235U has a half-life of approximately 700 million years, and although 239Pu has a half-life of only about 24,000 years, it is a pure alpha particle emitter and hence not particularly dangerous unless ingested. Once a fuel element has been used, the remaining fuel material is intimately mixed with highly radioactive fission products that emit energetic beta particles and gamma rays. Some fission products have half-lives as short as seconds; others have half-lives of tens of thousands of years, requiring long-term storage in facilities such as Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository until the fission products decay into non-radioactive stable isotopes. Chain reactions A schematic nuclear fission chain reaction. 1. A uranium-235 atom absorbs a neutron and fissions into two new atoms (fission fragments), releasing three new neutrons and some binding energy. 2. One of those neutrons is absorbed by an atom of uranium-238 and does not continue the reaction. Another neutron is simply lost and does not collide with anything, also not continuing the reaction. However one neutron does collide with an atom of uranium-235, which then fissions and releases two neutrons and some binding energy. 3. Both of those neutrons collide with uranium-235 atoms, each of which fissions and releases between one and three neutrons, which can then continue the reaction. Several heavy elements, such as uranium, thorium, and plutonium, undergo both spontaneous fission, a form of radioactive decay and induced fission, a form of nuclear reaction. Elemental isotopes that undergo induced fission when struck by a free neutron are called fissionable; isotopes that undergo fission when struck by a thermal, slow moving neutron are also called fissile. A few particularly fissile and readily obtainable isotopes (notably 235U and 239Pu) are called nuclear fuels because they can sustain a chain reaction and can be obtained in large enough quantities to be useful. All fissionable and fissile isotopes undergo a small amount of spontaneous fission which releases a few free neutrons into any sample of nuclear fuel. Such neutrons would escape rapidly from the fuel and become a free neutron, with a half-life of about 15 minutes before they decayed to protons and beta particles. However, neutrons almost invariably impact and are absorbed by other nuclei in the vicinity long before this happens (newly-created fission neutrons are moving at about 7% of the speed of light, and even moderated neutrons are moving at about 8 times the speed of sound). Some neutrons will impact fuel nuclei and induce further fissions, releasing yet more neutrons. If enough nuclear fuel is assembled into one place, or if the escaping neutrons are sufficiently contained, then these freshly generated neutrons outnumber the neutrons that escape from the assembly, and a sustained nuclear chain reaction will take place. An assembly that supports a sustained nuclear chain reaction is called a critical assembly or, if the assembly is almost entirely made of a nuclear fuel, a critical mass. The word "critical" refers to a cusp in the behavior of the differential equation that governs the number of free neutrons present in the fuel: if less than a critical mass is present, then the amount of neutrons is determined by radioactive decay, but if a critical mass or more is present, then the amount of neutrons is controlled instead by the physics of the chain reaction. The actual mass of a critical mass of nuclear fuel depends strongly on the geometry and surrounding materials. Not all fissionable isotopes can sustain a chain reaction. For example, 238U, the most abundant form of uranium, is fissionable but not fissile: it undergoes induced fission when impacted by an energetic neutron with over 1 MeV of kinetic energy. But too few of the neutrons produced by 238U fission are energetic enough to induce further fissions in 238U, so no chain reaction is possible with this isotope. Instead, bombarding 238U with slow neutrons causes it to absorb them (becoming 239U) and decay by beta emission to 239Np which then decays again by the same process to 239Pu; that process is used to manufacture 239Pu in breeder reactors, but does not contribute to a neutron chain reaction. Fissionable, non-fissile isotopes can be used as fission energy source even without a chain reaction. Bombarding 238U with fast neutrons induces fissions, releasing energy as long as the external neutron source is present. This is an important effect in all reactors where fast neutrons from the fissile isotope can cause the fission of nearby 238U nuclei, which means that some small part of the 238U is "burned-up" in all nuclear fuels, especially in fast breeder reactors that operate with higher-energy neutrons. That same fast-fission effect is used to augment the energy released by modern thermonuclear weapons, by jacketing the weapon with 238U to react with neutrons released by nuclear fusion at the center of the device. Fission reactors Critical fission reactors are the most common type of nuclear reactor. In a critical fission reactor, neutrons produced by fission of fuel atoms are used to induce yet more fissions, to sustain a controllable amount of energy release. Devices that produce engineered but non-self-sustaining fission reactions are subcritical fission reactors. Such devices use radioactive decay or particle accelerators to trigger fissions. Critical fission reactors are built for three primary purposes, which typically involve different engineering trade-offs to take advantage of either the heat or the neutrons produced by the fission chain reaction: power reactors are intended to produce heat for nuclear power, either as part of a generating station or a local power system such as a nuclear submarine. research reactors are intended to produce neutrons and/or activate radioactive sources for scientific, medical, engineering, or other research purposes. breeder reactors are intended to produce nuclear fuels in bulk from more abundant isotopes. The better known fast breeder reactor makes 239Pu (a nuclear fuel) from the naturally very abundant 238U (not a nuclear fuel). Thermal breeder reactors previously tested using 232Th to breed the fissile isotope 233U continue to be studied and developed. While, in principle, all fission reactors can act in all three capacities, in practice the tasks lead to conflicting engineering goals and most reactors have been built with only one of the above tasks in mind. (There are several early counter-examples, such as the Hanford N reactor, now decommissioned). Power reactors generally convert the kinetic energy of fission products into heat, which is used to heat a working fluid and drive a heat engine that generates mechanical or electrical power. The working fluid is usually water with a steam turbine, but some designs use other materials such as gaseous helium. Research reactors produce neutrons that are used in various ways, with the heat of fission being treated as an unavoidable waste product. Breeder reactors are a specialized form of research reactor, with the caveat that the sample being irradiated is usually the fuel itself, a mixture of 238U and 235U. For a more detailed description of the physics and operating principles of critical fission reactors, see nuclear reactor physics. For a description of their social, political, and environmental aspects, see nuclear reactor. Fission bombs The mushroom cloud of the atom bomb dropped on Nagasaki, Japan in 1945 rose some 180 kilometers (110 miles) above the bomb's hypocenter. One class of nuclear weapon, a fission bomb (not to be confused with the fusion bomb), otherwise known as an atomic bomb or atom bomb, is a fission reactor designed to liberate as much energy as possible as rapidly as possible, before the released energy causes the reactor to explode (and the chain reaction to stop). Development of nuclear weapons was the motivation behind early research into nuclear fission: the Manhattan Project of the U.S. military during World War II carried out most of the early scientific work on fission chain reactions, culminating in the Little Boy and Fat Man and Trinity bombs that were exploded over test sites, the cities Hiroshima, and Nagasaki, Japan in August 1945. Even the first fission bombs were thousands of times more explosive than a comparable mass of chemical explosive. For example, Little Boy weighed a total of about four tons (of which 60 kg was nuclear fuel) and was long; it also yielded an explosion equivalent to about 15 kilotons of TNT, destroying a large part of the city of Hiroshima. Modern nuclear weapons (which include a thermonuclear fusion as well as one or more fission stages) are literally hundreds of times more energetic for their weight than the first pure fission atomic bombs, so that a modern single missile warhead bomb weighing less than 1/8th as much as Little Boy (see for example W88) has a yield of 475,000 tons of TNT, and could bring destruction to 10 times the city area. While the fundamental physics of the fission chain reaction in a nuclear weapon is similar to the physics of a controlled nuclear reactor, the two types of device must be engineered quite differently (see nuclear reactor physics). It is impossible to convert a nuclear reactor to cause a true nuclear explosion, or for a nuclear reactor to explode the way a nuclear explosive does, (though partial fuel meltdowns and steam explosions have occurred), and difficult to extract useful power from a nuclear explosive (though at least one rocket propulsion system, Project Orion, was intended to work by exploding fission bombs behind a massively padded vehicle). The strategic importance of nuclear weapons is a major reason why the technology of nuclear fission is politically sensitive. Viable fission bomb designs are, arguably, within the capabilities of bright undergraduates (see John Aristotle Phillips) being incredibly simple, but nuclear fuel to realize the designs is thought to be difficult to obtain being rare (see uranium enrichment and nuclear fuel cycle). History Criticality in nature is uncommon. At three ore deposits at Oklo in Gabon, sixteen sites (the so-called Oklo Fossil Reactors) have been discovered at which self-sustaining nuclear fission took place approximately 2 billion years ago. Ernest Rutherford is credited with splitting the atom in 1917. His team bombarded nitrogen with naturally occurring alpha particles from radioactive material and observed a proton emitted with energy higher than the alpha particle. In 1932 his students John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton, working under Rutherford's direction, attempted to split the nucleus by entirely artificial means, using a particle accelerator to bombard lithium with protons, thereby producing two helium nuclei. Enrico Fermi and his colleagues studied the results of bombarding uranium with neutrons in 1934. The first person who mentioned the idea of nuclear fission in 1934 was Ida Noddack. http://www.astr.ua.edu/4000WS/TACKE.html The experimental apparatus with which the team of Lise Meitner, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered Nuclear Fission in 1938 After the Fermi publication, Lise Meitner, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann began performing similar experiments in Germany. Meitner, an Austrian Jew, lost her citizenship with the Anschluss in 1938. She fled and wound up in Sweden, but continued to collaborate by mail and through meetings with Hahn in Sweden. By coincidence her nephew Otto Robert Frisch, also a refugee, was also in Sweden when Meitner received a letter from Hahn describing his chemical proof that some of the product of the bombardment of uranium with neutrons, was barium and not barium's much heavier chemical sister element radium (barium's atomic weight is about 60% that of uranium). Frisch was skeptical, but Meitner trusted Hahn's ability as a chemist. Marie Curie had been separating barium from radium for many years, and the techniques were well-known. According to Frisch: Was it a mistake? No, said Lise Meitner; Hahn was too good a chemist for that. But how could barium be formed from uranium? No larger fragments than protons or helium nuclei (alpha particles) had ever been chipped away from nuclei, and to chip off a large number not nearly enough energy was available. Nor was it possible that the uranium nucleus could have been cleaved right across. A nucleus was not like a brittle solid that can be cleaved or broken; George Gamow had suggested early on, and Bohr had given good arguments that a nucleus was much more like a liquid drop. Perhaps a drop could divide itself into two smaller drops in a more gradual manner, by first becoming elongated, then constricted, and finally being torn rather than broken in two? We knew that there were strong forces that would resist such a process, just as the surface tension of an ordinary liquid drop tends to resist its division into two smaller ones. But nuclei differed from ordinary drops in one important way: they were electrically charged, and that was known to counteract the surface tension. The charge of a uranium nucleus, we found, was indeed large enough to overcome the effect of the surface tension almost completely; so the uranium nucleus might indeed resemble a very wobbly unstable drop, ready to divide itself at the slightest provocation, such as the impact of a single neutron. But there was another problem. After separation, the two drops would be driven apart by their mutual electric repulsion and would acquire high speed and hence a very large energy, about 200 MeV in all; where could that energy come from? ...Lise Meitner... worked out that the two nuclei formed by the division of a uranium nucleus together would be lighter than the original uranium nucleus by about one-fifth the mass of a proton. Now whenever mass disappears energy is created, according to Einstein's formula E=mc2, and one-fifth of a proton mass was just equivalent to 200MeV. So here was the source for that energy; it all fitted! In December 1938, the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann sent a manuscript to Naturwissenschaften reporting they had detected the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons; O. Hahn and F. Strassmann. Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle ("On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons"), Naturwissenschaften Volume 27, Number 1, 11–15 (1939). The authors were identified as being at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Chemie, Berlin-Dahlem. Received 22 December 1938. simultaneously, they communicated these results to Lise Meitner. Meitner, and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch, correctly interpreted these results as being nuclear fission. Lise Meitner and O. R. Frisch. "Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: a New Type of Nuclear Reaction", Nature, Volume 143, Number 3615, 239–240 (11 February 1939). The paper is dated 16 January 1939. Meitner is identified as being at the Physical Institute, Academy of Sciences, Stockholm. Frisch is identified as being at the Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Copenhagen. Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13 January 1939. O. R. Frisch. "Physical Evidence for the Division of Heavy Nuclei under Neutron Bombardment", Nature, Volume 143, Number 3616, 276–276 (18 February 1939). The paper is dated 17 January 1939. [The experiment for this letter to the editor was conducted on 13 January 1939; see Richard Rhodes The Making of the Atomic Bomb. 263 and 268 (Simon and Schuster, 1986).] In 1944, Hahn received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for the discovery of nuclear fission. Some historians have documented the history of the discovery of nuclear fission and believe Meitner should have been awarded the Nobel Prize with Hahn. Ruth Lewin Sime. From Exceptional Prominence to Prominent Exception: Lise Meitner at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry Ergebnisse 24 Forschungsprogramm Geschichte der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft im Nationalsozialismus (2005). Ruth Lewin Sime. Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics (University of California, 1997). Elisabeth Crawford, Ruth Lewin Sime, and Mark Walker. "A Nobel Tale of Postwar Injustice", Physics Today Volume 50, Issue 9, 26–32 (1997). Meitner’s and Frisch’s interpretation of the work of Hahn and Strassmann crossed the Atlantic Ocean with Niels Bohr, who was to lecture at Princeton University. Isidor Isaac Rabi and Willis Lamb, two Columbia University physicists working at Princeton, heard the news and carried it back to Columbia. Rabi said he told Enrico Fermi; Fermi gave credit to Lamb. Bohr soon thereafter went from Princeton to Columbia to see Fermi. Not finding Fermi in his office, Bohr went down to the cyclotron area and found Herbert L. Anderson. Bohr grabbed him by the shoulder and said: “Young man, let me explain to you about something new and exciting in physics.” Richard Rhodes. The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 268 (Simon and Schuster, 1986). It was clear to a number of scientists at Columbia that they should try to detect the energy released in the nuclear fission of uranium from neutron bombardment. On 25 January 1939, a Columbia University team conducted the first nuclear fission experiment in the United States, H. L. Anderson, E. T. Booth, J. R. Dunning, E. Fermi, G. N. Glasoe, and F. G. Slack. "The Fission of Uranium", Phys. Rev. Volume 55, Number 5, 511–512 (1939). Institutional citation: Pupin Physics Laboratories, Columbia University, New York, New York. Received 16 February 1939. which was done in the basement of Pupin Hall; the members of the team were Herbert L. Anderson, Eugene T. Booth, John R. Dunning, Enrico Fermi, G. Norris Glasoe, and Francis G. Slack. The next day, the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics began in Washington, D.C. under the joint auspices of the George Washington University and the Carnegie Institution of Washington. There, the news on nuclear fusion was spread even further, which fostered many more experimental demonstrations. Richard Rhodes. The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 267–270 (Simon and Schuster, 1986). Frédéric Joliot-Curie's team in Paris discovered that secondary neutrons are released during uranium fission, thus making a nuclear chain-reaction feasible. The figure of about two neutrons being emitted with nuclear fission of uranium was verified independently by Leo Szilard and Walter Henry Zinn. The number of neutrons emitted with nuclear fission of 235U was then reported at 3.5/fission, and later corrected to 2.6/fission by Frédéric Joliot-Curie, Hans von Halban and Lew Kowarski. "Chain reactions" at that time were a known phenomenon in chemistry, but the analogous process in nuclear physics, using neutrons, had been foreseen as early as 1933 by Leo Szilard, although Szilard at that time had no idea with what materials the process might be initiated (Szilard thought it might be done with light neutron-rich elements). Szilard, a Hungarian born Jew, also fled mainland Europe after Hitler's rise, eventually landing in the US. With the news of fission neutrons from uranium fission, Szilard immediately understood the possibility of a nuclear chain reaction using uranium. In the summer, Fermi and Szilard proposed the idea of a nuclear reactor (pile) to mediate this process. The pile would use natural uranium as fuel, and graphite as the moderator of neutron energy (it had previously been shown by Fermi that neutrons were far more effectively captured by atoms if they were moving slowly, a process called moderation when the neutrons were slowed after being released from a fission event in a nuclear reactor). In August Hungarian-Jewish refugees Szilard, Teller and Wigner thought that the Germans might make use of the fission chain reaction, and persuaded German-Jewish refugee Einstein to warn President Roosevelt of this possible German menace. The letter suggested the possibility of a uranium bomb deliverable by ship, which would destroy "an entire harbor and much of the surrounding countryside." The President received the Einstein-Szilárd letter on 11 October 1939 — shortly after WWII began in Europe, but two years before U.S. entry into it. In England, James Chadwick proposed an atomic bomb utilizing natural uranium, based on a paper by Rudolf Peierls with the mass needed for critical state being 30–40 tons. In America, J. Robert Oppenheimer thought that a cube of uranium deuteride 10 cm on a side (about 11 kg of uranium) might "blow itself to hell." In this design it was still thought that a moderator would need to be used for nuclear bomb fission (this turned out not to be the case if the fissile isotope was separated). In December, Heisenberg delivered a report to the Germany Department of War on the possibility of a uranium bomb. In Birmingham, England Otto Robert Frisch teamed up with Rudolf Peierls who had also fled German anti-Jewish laws. They conceived the idea of utilizing a purified isotope of uranium, 235U, and worked out that an enriched uranium bomb could have a critical mass of only 600 grams, instead of tons, and that the resulting explosion would be tremendous. (The amount actually turned out to be 15 kg, although several times this amount was used in the actual uranium (Little Boy) bomb). In February 1940 they delivered the Frisch-Peierls memorandum. Ironically, they were still officially considered "enemy aliens" at the time. Glenn Seaborg, Joe Kennedy, Art Wahl and Italian-Jewish refugee Emilio Segrè shortly discovered 239Pu in the decay products of 239U produced by bombarding 238U with neutrons, and determined it to be fissionable like 235U. On June 28, 1941, the Office of Scientific Research and Development was formed in the U.S. to mobilize scientific resources and apply the results of research to national defense. In September, Fermi assembled his first nuclear "pile" or reactor, in an attempt to create a slow neutron induced chain reaction in uranium, but the experiment failed for lack of proper materials, or not enough of the materials which were available. Producing a fission chain reaction in natural uranium fuel was found to be far from trivial. Early nuclear reactors did not use isotopically enriched uranium, and in consequence they were required to use large quantities of highly purified graphite as neutron moderation materials. Use of ordinary water (as opposed to heavy water) in nuclear reactors requires enriched fuel — the partial separation and relative enrichment of the rare 235U isotope from the far more common 238U isotope. Typically, reactors also require inclusion of extremely chemically pure neutron moderator materials such as deuterium (in heavy water), helium, beryllium, or carbon, the latter usually as graphite. (The high purity for carbon is required because many chemical impurities such as the boron-10 component of natural boron, are very strong neutron absorbers and thus poison the chain reaction.) Production of such materials at industrial scale had to be solved for nuclear power generation and weapons production to be accomplished. Up to 1940, the total amount of uranium metal produced in the USA was not more than a few grams, and even this was of doubtful purity; of metallic beryllium not more than a few kilograms; concentrated deuterium oxide (heavy water) not more than a few kilograms. Finally, carbon had never been produced in quantity with anything like the purity required of a moderator. The problem of producing large amounts of high purity uranium was solved by Frank Spedding using the thermite process. Ames Laboratory was established in 1942 to produce the large amounts of natural (unenriched) uranium metal that would be necessary for the research to come. The success of the Chicago Pile-1 which used unenriched (natural) uranium, like all of the atomic "piles" which produced the plutonium for the atomic bomb, was also due specifically to Szilard's realization that very pure graphite could be used for the moderator of even natural uranium "piles". In wartime Germany, failure to appreciate the qualities of very pure graphite led to reactor designs dependent on heavy water, which in turn was denied the Germans by Allied attacks in Norway, where heavy water was produced. These difficulties prevented the Nazis from building a nuclear reactor capable of criticality during the war. Unknown until 1972 (but postulated by Paul Kuroda in 1956), when French physicist Francis Perrin discovered the Oklo Fossil Reactors, it was realized that nature had beaten humans to the punch. Large-scale natural uranium fission chain reactions, moderated by normal water, had occurred some 2 billion years in the past. This ancient process was able to use normal water as a moderator only because 2 billion years in the past, natural uranium was richer in the shorter-lived fissile isotope 235U (about 3%), than natural uranium available today (which is only 0.7%, and must be enriched to 3% to be usable in light-water reactors). For more detail on the early development of the first nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons, see Manhattan Project. References External links The Effects of Nuclear Weapons Annotated bibliography for nuclear fission from the Alsos Digital Library The Discovery of Nuclear Fission Historical account complete with audio and teacher's guides from the American Institute of Physics History Center atomicarchive.com Nuclear Fission Explained Nuclear Files.org What is Nuclear Fission? 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2,605 | Andrew_Wiles | Sir Andrew John Wiles KBE FRS (born 11 April 1953) "WILES, Sir Andrew (John)", Who's Who, A & C Black, January 2007 is a British mathematician and a professor at Princeton University, specialising in number theory. He is most famous for proving Fermat's Last Theorem. Early life and education Wiles's father is Maurice Frank Wiles (1923-2005), Regius Professor of Divinity at the University of Oxford WILES, Rev. Prof. Maurice Frank, Who Was Who, A & C Black, January 2007 and his mother Patricia Wiles (née Mowll). His father worked as Chaplain at Ridley Hall, Cambridge for the period 1952-55. Andrew Wiles was born in Cambridge, England in 1953 and attended King's College School, Cambridge (where his mathematics teacher, David Higginbottom first introduced Fermat's Last Theorem to him) and The Leys School, Cambridge; and earned his BA degree in maths in 1974 after study at Merton College, Oxford, and a Ph.D. in 1980 after research at Clare College, Cambridge. Mathematical career Wiles's graduate research was guided by John Coates beginning in the summer of 1975. Together they worked on the arithmetic of elliptic curves with complex multiplication by the methods of Iwasawa theory. He further worked with Barry Mazur on the main conjecture of Iwasawa theory over Q and soon afterwards generalized this result to totally real fields. Starting in the summer of 1986, based on successive progress of the previous few years of Gerhard Frey, Jean-Pierre Serre and Ken Ribet, Wiles was able to immediately see that a proof of a limited form of the modularity theorem might then be in reach. He dedicated all of his research time to this problem in relative secrecy. By 1995, he had released a surprisingly lengthy proof of Fermat's Last Theorem that has stood up to the scrutiny of the world's experts. Wiles was interviewed for an episode of BBC's documentary series Horizon that focused on Fermat's Last Theorem . This was renamed "The Proof" and made an episode of the PBS television science series Nova. . Since 1994 he has been Eugene Higgins Professor at Princeton and is currently Chair of the Mathematics Department. Andrew J. Wiles . He is a Foreign member of the US National Academy of Sciences since 1996 (as he remains a British citizen). Family Wiles is married to Nada Canaan Wiles, who has a PhD in microbiology from Princeton, and they have three daughters: Clare, Kate and Olivia. . Awards Wiles has been awarded several major prizes in mathematics and science Junior Whitehead Prize of the LMS, (1988) Fellow of the Royal Society (1989) Schock Prize (1995) Fermat Prize (1995) Wolf Prize (1995/6) National Academy of Sciences Award in Mathematics from the American Mathematical Society (1996) Wiles Receives NAS Award in Mathematics July 1996 Royal Medal (1996) Ostrowski Prize (1996) Wiles Receives Ostrowski Prize June 1996 Correction 1998 Cole Prize (1997) Wolfskehl Prize (1997) Paul Wolfskehl and the Wolfskehl Prize October 1997 - see Paul Wolfskehl A silver plaque from the International Mathematical Union (1998) recognizing his achievements, in place of the Fields Medal, which is restricted to those under 40 (Wiles was born in 1953 and proved the theorem in 1994). Andrew J. Wiles Awarded the "IMU Silver Plaque" Andrew Wiles receives special tribute August 28, 1998 King Faisal Prize (1998) Andrew Wiles Receives Faisal Prize Clay Research Award (1999) The asteroid 9999 Wiles was named for him. (1999) Named Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (2000). Pythagoras Award Premio Pitagora website< (Croton, 2004) Shaw Prize (2005) Wiles Receives 2005 Shaw Prize September 2005 Notes External links Andrew Wiles' bibliography | Andrew_Wiles |@lemmatized sir:2 andrew:8 john:3 wile:19 kbe:1 fr:1 bear:3 april:1 c:2 black:2 january:2 british:3 mathematician:1 professor:3 princeton:3 university:2 specialise:1 number:1 theory:3 famous:1 prove:2 fermat:5 last:4 theorem:6 early:1 life:1 education:1 father:2 maurice:2 frank:2 regius:1 divinity:1 oxford:2 rev:1 prof:1 mother:1 patricia:1 née:1 mowll:1 work:3 chaplain:1 ridley:1 hall:1 cambridge:5 period:1 england:1 attend:1 king:2 college:3 school:2 mathematics:5 teacher:1 david:1 higginbottom:1 first:1 introduce:1 leys:1 earn:1 ba:1 degree:1 math:1 study:1 merton:1 ph:1 research:4 clare:2 mathematical:3 career:1 graduate:1 guide:1 coates:1 begin:1 summer:2 together:1 arithmetic:1 elliptic:1 curve:1 complex:1 multiplication:1 method:1 iwasawa:2 far:1 barry:1 mazur:1 main:1 conjecture:1 q:1 soon:1 afterwards:1 generalize:1 result:1 totally:1 real:1 field:2 start:1 base:1 successive:1 progress:1 previous:1 year:1 gerhard:1 frey:1 jean:1 pierre:1 serre:1 ken:1 ribet:1 able:1 immediately:1 see:2 proof:3 limited:1 form:1 modularity:1 might:1 reach:1 dedicate:1 time:1 problem:1 relative:1 secrecy:1 release:1 surprisingly:1 lengthy:1 stand:1 scrutiny:1 world:1 expert:1 interview:1 episode:2 bbc:1 documentary:1 series:2 horizon:1 focus:1 rename:1 make:1 pb:1 television:1 science:4 nova:1 since:2 eugene:1 higgins:1 currently:1 chair:1 department:1 j:2 foreign:1 member:1 u:1 national:2 academy:2 remain:1 citizen:1 family:1 married:1 nada:1 canaan:1 phd:1 microbiology:1 three:1 daughter:1 kate:1 olivia:1 award:7 several:1 major:1 prize:14 junior:1 whitehead:1 lm:1 fellow:1 royal:2 society:2 schock:1 wolf:1 american:1 wiles:4 receive:3 nas:1 july:1 medal:2 ostrowski:2 june:1 correction:1 cole:1 wolfskehl:4 paul:2 october:1 silver:2 plaque:2 international:1 union:1 recognize:1 achievement:1 place:1 restrict:1 imu:1 special:1 tribute:1 august:1 faisal:2 receives:2 clay:1 asteroid:1 name:2 knight:1 commander:1 order:1 empire:1 pythagoras:1 premio:1 pitagora:1 website:1 croton:1 shaw:2 september:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 bibliography:1 |@bigram andrew_wile:3 elliptic_curve:1 soon_afterwards:1 jean_pierre:1 pierre_serre:1 proof_fermat:1 external_link:1 |
2,606 | Chaitin's_constant | In the computer science subfield of algorithmic information theory a Chaitin constant or halting probability is a real number that informally represents the probability that a randomly-chosen program will halt. These numbers are formed from a construction due to Gregory Chaitin. Although there are infinitely many halting probabilities, it is common to use the letter Ω to refer to them as if there were only one. Because Ω depends on the program encoding used, it is sometimes called Chaitin's construction instead of Chaitin's constant when not referring to any specific encoding. Each halting probability is a normal and transcendental real number which is not computable, which means that there is no halting algorithm that enumerates its digits. Background The definition of a halting probability relies on the existence of prefix-free universal computable functions. Such a function, intuitively, represents a programming language with the property that no valid program can be obtained as a proper extension of another valid program. Suppose that F is a partial function that takes one argument, a finite binary string, and possibly returns a single binary string as output. The function F is called computable if there is a Turing machine that computes it. The function F is called universal if the following property holds: for every computable function f of a single variable v there is a string w such that for all x, F(w x) = f(x). This means that F can be used to simulate any computable function of one variable. Informally, w represents an "interpreter" for the computable function f, and F represents an emulator that parses the interpreter as a prefix of its input and then executes it on the remainder of input. Note that for any fixed w the function f(x) = F(w x) is computable; thus the universality property states that all computable functions of one variable can be obtained in this fashion. The domain of F is the set of all inputs p on which it is defined. For F that are universal, such a p can generally be seen both as the concatenation of a program part and a data part, and as a single program for the function F. The function F is called prefix-free if there are no two elements p, p′ in its domain such that p′ is a proper extension of p. This can be rephrased as: the domain of F is a prefix-free code (instantaneous code) on the set of finite binary strings. A simple way to enforce prefix-free-ness is to use machines whose means of input is a binary stream from which bits can be read one at a time. There is no end-of-stream marker; the end of input is determined by when the universal machine decides to stop reading more bits. Here, the difference between the two notions of program mentioned in the last paragragh becomes clear; the one is easily recognized by some grammar, while the other requires arbitrary computation to recognize. The domain of any universal computable function is a computably enumerable set but never a computable set. The domain is always Turing equivalent to the halting problem. Definition of halting probabilities Let PF be the domain of a prefix-free universal computable function F. The constant ΩF is then defined as , where denotes the length of a string p. This is an infinite sum which has one summand for every p in the domain of F. The requirement that the domain be prefix-free, together with Kraft's inequality, ensures that this sum converges to a real number between 0 and 1. If F is clear from context then ΩF may be denoted simply Ω, although different prefix-free universal computable functions lead to different values of Ω. Use of Chaitin's constant in proving unsolved problems in number theory Chaitin's constant can be used, in principle, to solve many outstanding problems in number theory, including Goldbach's conjecture and the Riemann hypothesis. Thomas M. Cover and Joy A. Thomas, Elements of Information Theory, 2nd Edition, Wiley-Interscience, 2006. Goldbach's conjecture says every even number greater than 2 is the sum of two primes. For a given even number, let a computer program iterate through the even numbers, beginning with the given one, searching for corresponding two primes in each instance. If the appropriate primes exist, then the program finds them eventually, advances to the next even number and the search is continued. If there are no two primes that add to the even number, then the program exhausts eventually all possible prime pairs in the test, thus it notices that a counterexample has just been found, it halts and Goldbach's conjecture has been disproved. Thus, this is a counterexample-searching program: it "freezes" exactly if Goldbach's conjecture is true; it halts (with a counterexample) exactly if the conjecture is false. Let this program be N bits long. Given unlimited resources and time, the first N bits of Chaitin's number can be used to prove Goldbach's conjecture as follows. In dovetailing fashion, all programs of all lengths are run, until enough have halted to jointly contribute enough probability to match these first N bits. If the Goldbach program hasn't halted yet, then it never will, since its contribution to the halting probability would affect the first N bits. Thus, the conjecture holds unless we already found a counterexample. The same Chaitin constant can be used to prove (or disprove) the Riemann hypothesis and many other of the unsolved problems in mathematics. Interpretation as a probability The Cantor space is the collection of all infinite sequences of 0s and 1s. A halting probability can be interpreted as the measure of a certain subset of Cantor space under the usual probability measure on Cantor space. It is from this interpretation that halting probabilities take their name. The probability measure on Cantor space, sometimes called the fair-coin measure, is defined so that for any binary string x the set of sequences that begin with x has measure 2-|x|. This implies that for each natural number n, the set of sequences f in Cantor space such that f(n) = 1 has measure 1/2, and the set of sequences whose nth element is 0 also has measure 1/2. Let F be a prefix-free universal computable function. The domain P of F consists of an infinite set of binary strings . Each of these strings pi determines a subset Si of Cantor space; the set Si contains all sequences in cantor space that begin with pi. These sets are disjoint because P is a prefix-free set. The sum represents the measure of the set . In this way, ΩF represents the probability that a randomly selected infinite sequence of 0s and 1s begins with a bit string (of some finite length) that is in the domain of F. It is for this reason that ΩF is called a halting probability. Properties Each Chaitin constant Ω has the following properties: It is algorithmically random. This means that the shortest program to output the first n bits of Ω must be of size at least n-O(1). This is because, as in the Goldbach example, those n bits enable us to find out exactly which programs halt among all those of length at most n. It is a normal number, which means that its digits are equidistributed as if they were generated by tossing a fair coin. It is not a computable number; there is no computable function that enumerates its binary expansion, as discussed below. The set of rational numbers q such that q ≤ Ω is computably enumerable; a real number with such a property is called a left-c.e. real number in recursion theory. It is Turing equivalent to the halting problem and thus at level of the arithmetical hierarchy. Not every set Turing equivalent to the halting problem is a halting probability. A finer equivalence relation, Solovay equivalence, can be used to characterize the halting probabilities among the left-c.e. reals. Uncomputability of halting probabilities A real number is called computable if there is an algorithm which, given n, returns the first n digits of the number. This is equivalent to the existence of a program that enumerates the digits of the real number. No halting probability is computable. The proof of this fact relies on an algorithm which, given the first n digits of Ω, solves Turing's halting problem for programs of length up to n. Since the halting problem is undecidable, Ω can not be computed. The algorithm proceeds as follows. Given the first n digits of Ω and a k≤n, the algorithm enumerates the domain of F until enough elements of the domain have been found so that the probability they represent is within 2-(k+1) of Ω. After this point, no additional program of length k can be in the domain, because each of these would add 2-k to the measure, which is impossible. Thus the set of strings of length k in the domain is exactly the set of such strings already enumerated. Incompleteness theorem for halting probabilities For each specific consistent effectively represented axiomatic system for the natural numbers, such as Peano arithmetic, there exists a constant N such that no bit of Ω after the Nth can be proven to be one or zero within that system. The constant N depends on how the formal system is effectively represented, and thus does not directly reflect the complexity of the axiomatic system. This incompleteness result is similar to Gödel's incompleteness theorem in that it shows that no consistent formal theory for arithmetic can be complete. Super Omega As mentioned above, the first n bits of Gregory Chaitin's constant Omega are random or incompressible in the sense that we cannot compute them by a halting algorithm with fewer than n-O(1) bits. However, consider the short but never halting algorithm which systematically lists and runs all possible programs; whenever one of them halts its probability gets added to the output (initialized by zero). After finite time the first n bits of the output will never change any more (it does not matter that this time itself is not computable by a halting program). So there is a short non-halting algorithm whose output converges (after finite time) onto the first n bits of Omega, for any n. In other words, the enumerable first n bits of Omega are highly compressible in the sense that they are limit-computable by a very short algorithm; they are not random with respect to the set of enumerating algorithms. Jürgen Schmidhuber (2000) constructed a limit-computable "Super Omega" which in a sense is much more random than the original limit-computable Omega, as one cannot significantly compress the Super Omega by any enumerating non-halting algorithm. See also Kolmogorov complexity Incompleteness theorem References Cristian S. Calude (2002). Information and Randomness: An Algorithmic Perspective, second edition. Springer. ISBN 3-5404-3466-6 Cristian S. Calude, Michael J. Dinneen, and Chi-Kou Shu. Computing a Glimpse of Randomness. R. Downey, and D. Hirschfeldt (200?), Algorithmic Randomness and Complexity, monograph in preparation, Springer-Verlag. Preliminary version can be found online. Ming Li and Paul Vitányi (1997). An Introduction to Kolmogorov Complexity and Its Applications. Springer. Introduction chapter full-text. Jürgen Schmidhuber (2000). Algorithmic Theories of Everything (arXiv: quant-ph/ 0011122). Journal reference: J. Schmidhuber (2002). Hierarchies of generalized Kolmogorov complexities and nonenumerable universal measures computable in the limit. International Journal of Foundations of Computer Science 13(4):587-612. External links Omega and why math has no TOEs article based on one written by Gregory Chaitin which appeared in the August 2004 edition of Mathematics Today, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Alan Turing's death. The Limits of Reason, Gregory Chaitin, originally appeared in Scientific American, March 2006. 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2,607 | Lund_University | Lund University (), located in Lund in southernmost Sweden, is one of Sweden's most prestigious universities New Partnership with Swedish University: Lund University and one of Scandinavia's largest institutions for education and research Lund University, Sweden, Euro Scholars Website Lund University, The Solander Program Website Universities in the Øresund Region, Øresund Entrepreneurship Academy Website Welcome to Lund University , frequently ranked among the world's top 100 universities Top 200 Universities, Website of QS Top Universities Shanghai Jiao Tong University's Academic Ranking of World Universities - 2007, 2006, 2005 The Complete List: The Top 100 Global Universities . The university was founded in 1666 and is the second oldest Swedish university, but can arguably trace its roots back to 1438, when a studium generale was founded in Lund. Historik - Lunds universitet Lund University has eight faculties Organisation , with additional campuses in the cities of Malmö and Helsingborg, with a total of over 25,100 students in more than 50 different programmes and 800 separate courses. It belongs to the League of European Research Universities as well as the global Universitas 21 network. The university traditionally centers on the Lundagård park adjacent to the Lund Cathedral, with various departments spread in different locations in town, but mostly concentrated in a belt stretching north from the park connecting to the university hospital area and continuing out to the northeastern periphery of the town, where one finds the large campus of the Lund Institute of Technology. History Lund University main building, built in 1882 by Helgo Zettervall. The city of Lund has a long history as a center for learning and was the ecclesiastical centre and seat of the archbishop of Denmark. A cathedral school (the Katedralskolan) for the training of clergy was established in 1085 and is today Scandinavia's oldest school. A studium generale (a medieval university education) was founded in 1425, but had to close in 1536 in connection with the Danish reformation. After the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658, the Scanian lands came under the possession of the Swedish Crown, which quickly founded the Lund University in 1666 as the means of Swedification. It was the fifth university under the Swedish king, after Uppsala University (1477), the University of Tartu (1632, now in Estonia), the Academy of Åbo (1640, now in Finland), and the University of Greifswald (founded 1456; Swedish 1648–1815, now in Germany). It is the second-oldest university on Swedish ground today. The university was named Academia Carolina after Charles X Gustav of Sweden. The name was in some formal use until the late 19th century, when Lund University became the widespread denomination. Esaias Tegnér statue near the towering Lund Cathedral. The university was at its founding granted four faculties: law, theological, medicine and philosophy. They were the corner stones, and for more than 200 years this system was in effect. Towards the end of the 17th century, the number of students hovered around 100. Some notable professors in the early days were Samuel Pufendorf, a juridical historian; and Canutus Hahn and Kristian Papke in philosophy. The Scanian War in 1676 led to a shut-down, which lasted until 1682. The university was re-opened largely due to regional patriots, but the university was not to enjoy a high status until well into the 19th century. Lecturing rooms were few, and lectures were held in the Lund Cathedral and its adjacent chapel. The professors were underpaid. In 1713, Charles XII of Sweden entered Lund. He stayed in Lund for three years, in between his warlike expeditions. The town of Lund and the university attracted a temporary attention boost. The most notable lecturer during this time was Andreas Rydelius. Peace was finally restored with the death of Charles XII in 1718, and during the first half of the 18th century the university was granted added funds. The number of students was now well around 500. Despite not being on par with Uppsala University, it had still built a solid reputation and managed to attract prominent professors. Around 1760 the university reputation dropped as the number of students fell below 200, most of whom hailed from around the province. However, by 1780 its reputation was largely restored, and continued to rise through the 1820s. This was largely owing to popular and well-educated lecturers particularly in philology; the prominent professor Esaias Tegnér was a particularly notable character with widespread authority. He, in turn, attracted others towards Lund. One of these was the young theological student C. G. Brunius, who studied ancient languages under Tegnér and were later to become professor of Greek. With time he was to devote himself to architectures and he redesigned several of Lund's buildings, as well as churches of the province. Women at the university Lunds Universitetsbibliotek (LUB), the main university library. The first woman to study in Lund was the medical student Hedda Andersson who entered the university in 1880 (two years before the next woman to do so). Hilma Borelius was the first woman who finish a doctorate in Lund, in 1910. The first woman to be appointed to a professor's chair was the historian Birgitta Odén (1965). In 1992 Boel Flodgren, Professor of Business Law, was appointed rector magnificus (or, strictly speaking, rectrix magnifica) of Lund University. As such, she was the first woman to be a head of a European university. Academics Lund University is internationally known as Scandinavia's largest research university. Lund University, Sweden, Euro Scholars Website Lund University, The Solander Program Website Universities in the Øresund Region, Øresund Entrepreneurship Academy Website The university has eight faculties and many research centres and specialized institutes. Approximately 25,000 students study within one of the 50 educational programs, the eighteen international masters programmes or the 800 free-standing courses. Almost three hundred courses are, or can be, held in English for the benefit of our international exchange students. There are several programs allowing foreign students to study abroad at the University. Notable exchangees include United States Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, who spent time at Lund University in the 1960s conducting research. Linda, Bayer "Ruth Bader Ginsburg" (Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 2000), 46. Faculties Kungshuset, the oldest university building (completed 1584), currently houses the Department of Philosophy. Faculty of Humanities Faculty of Theology Faculty of Medicine Faculty of Law Faculty of Natural Sciences (Fysicum) Faculty of Social Sciences Lund School of Economics and Management Faculty of Engineering (Lund Institute of Technology) Academies of Performing and Visual Arts (the Academies of Music, Art, and Theatre) There are also departments located in Malmö, including Malmö Academy of Music, and Helsingborg. Library Liberiet Lund University library was established in 1666 at the same time as the university and is one of Sweden's oldest and largest. Since 1698 it has received legal deposit copies of everything printed in the country. Today six Swedish libraries receive legal deposit copies, but only Lund and the Royal Library in Stockholm are required to keep everything for posterity. Swedish imprints make up half of the collections, which amount to 170,000 linear metres of shelving (2006). The library serves 620,000 loans per year, the staff is 200 full-time equivalents, and the 33 branch libraries house 2600 reading room desks. Lund University library website, statistics for 2006, http://www.lub.lu.se/om-lub/organisation/lub-i-siffror-2006.html The current main building at Helgonabacken opened in 1907. Before that, the old building was Liberiet close to the city's cathedral. Liberiet was built as a library in the 15th century, but now serves as a cafe. Student life Lund is known for its particularly active student life, revolving around three central structures: the student nations, Akademiska Föreningen and the student unions. Student Nations The nations in Lund are a central part of the university's history, initially serving as residential colleges for students, organized by geographic origin. Östgöta Nation, the oldest nation, was established in 1668, two years after the university was founded. While the nations still offer limited housing, today they are best described as student societies. It is required to enroll in a nation to receive grades at the university. Today students may enroll in any nation, although the nations still preserve their geographic names. In most cases it does not matter what nation one enrolls in, but different nations offer different activities for interested students. The fee of around 350 Swedish krona per semester (which also includes student union membership fees), is the closest thing to a tuition requirement found in Sweden. Each nation has student housing, but the accommodations in no way meet demand, and they are usually appointed according to a queue system. Each nation has at least one pub evening per week, with a following night club. The solemn peak event in the course of an activity year is the organization of student balls once a year. Most well known of the nation balls (as opposed to balls organized by fraternities or student unions) is the ball hosted by Göteborgs Nation - called the "Gustaf II Adolf Ball" (also known as the "GA-Ball"). Most nations also host at least one banquet per week, where a three course dinner is served. Each nation also has different activities for students interested in sports, arts, or partying. All activities within the nations are voluntary. Akademiska Föreningen (AF) AF-Borgen, the student-run complex at the heart of student life in Lund, May 2002. In 1830, Professor Carl Adolph Agardh formed Akademiska Föreningen (The Academic Society), commonly referred to as AF, with the goal of "developing and cultivating the academic life" by bringing students and faculty from all departments and student nations together in one organization. Prince Oscar I, then Sweden's Chancellor of Education, donated 2000 Kronor to help found the society. In 1848, construction began on AF-Borgen (the AF Fortress), which is located opposite the Main Building in Lundagård. To this day, AF is the center of student life in Lund, featuring many theater companies, a prize-winning student radio (Radio AF), and organizing the enormous Lundakarnevalen (the Lund Carnival) every four years. "AF Bostäder", an independent foundation with close ties to Akademiska Föreningen, maintans over 5,700 student residences in Lund. AF Bostäder History Student Unions The Delphi residential area, located in the northern part of Lund, is one of the large student housing complexes run by AF Bostäder. Currently each faculty has its own student union. Since 1995, a central organization known as LUS (Lund University's Student Unions ) negotiates with the university administration, while most work is done at the faculty level. The student unions that are members of LUS are: The Ph.D. Student Union - Student Union of the Faculty of the Humanities - Student Union of the Faculty of Medicine - Student Union of Natural Sciences - Lunds Socialhögskolas Studentkår - Sjukgymnastinstitutets Studentkår Student Union of Social Sciences - Student Union of the Faculty of Theology - Vårdvetenskapliga Studentkåren - Teaterhögskolans Studentkår Malmö Konsthögskolas Studentkår Studentkåren vid Musikhögskolan i Malmö - The student unions that have chosen not to belong to LUS are: Student Union at Lund University, Faculty of Engineering - The Student Union at the Faculty of Law - Lund Students of Economics - Flygskolekåren - Elevkåren vid YTH-utbildningen i Markaryd Studentkåren vid YTH Notable people connected to Lund University The following is a select list of some of the most notable people who have been affiliated with Lund University as students or academics, please refer to the main article for more information. Anders Jahan Retzius (1742-1821), naturalist. Elias Magnus Fries (1794-1878), mycologist. Esaias Tegnér (1782-1846), poet, bishop of Växjö. Albert Victor Bäcklund (1845-1912), mathematician and physicist (Bäcklund transform). Knut Wicksell (1851-1926), economist. Johannes Rydberg (1854-1919), physicist (Rydberg formula, Rydberg constant). V. Walfrid Ekman (1874-1954), oceanographer (Ekman spiral, Ekman number). Marcel Riesz (1886-1969), mathematician (Riesz function, Riesz theorems, Riesz mean, Riesz potential). Ivar Wickman 1872-1914), neurologist, polio expert Manne Siegbahn (1886-1978), Nobel Prize in Physics 1924. Professor at Uppsala University. Frans Gunnar Bengtsson (1894-1954), author, The Long Ships. Bertil Ohlin (1899-1979), Nobel Prize in Economics 1977. Tage Erlander (1901-1985), Prime Minister of Sweden, 1946-1969. Rune Elmqvist (1906-1996), developer of the first implantable pacemaker. Torsten Hägerstrand (1916-2004), cultural geographer. Sune Bergström (1916-2004), Nobel Prize in Medicine 1982. Carl Hellmuth Hertz (1920-1990) pioneered medical ultrasonography (with Inge Edler). Sten Broman (1902 - 1983) Musician, music critic, tv host, university active- founder of Uarda-akademien etc. Arvid Carlsson (1923-), Nobel Prize in Medicine 2000 (Professor vid Göteborgs universitet). Hans Alfredson (1931-), writer, entertainer and film director, former head of Skansen. Lars Hörmander (1931-), mathematician awarded the Fields medal in 1962. Ingvar Carlsson (1934-), Prime Minister of Sweden 1986-91, 1994-96. Michael Treschow (1943-), chairman of Ericsson. Karl Johan Åström (1934-), (Professor Emeritus), IEEE Fellow, IEEE Medal of Honor for contributions to Control Theory Björn Borg ([Tennis star)] Etzel Cardeña (1957-), Thorsen Professor of Psychology, Director of the Center for Research on Consciousness and Anomalous Psychology (CERCAP) Partner universities Europe University of Vienna, Austria University of Tartu, Estonia University of Orléans, France University of Greifswald, Germany University of Heidelberg, Germany Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Germany Saint Petersburg State University, Russia University of Geneva, Switzerland University of St. Gallen, Switzerland University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom Elsewhere The University of Adelaide, Australia Bond University, Australia University of São Paulo, Brazil McGill University, Canada Queen’s University University of British Columbia University of Ottawa University of Chile, Chile Peking University, China University of Hong Kong, China University of Tokyo, Japan University of Cape Town, South Africa University of California at Los Angeles, United States University of California at Santa Barbara University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill University of Texas at Austin University of Virginia Purdue University Babson College See also Royal Swedish Physiographic Society in Lund References Lunds universitet from Nordisk familjebok, in Swedish. Lunds universitets historia : utgiven av universitetet till dess 300-årsjubileum. 4 volumes. Lund: Lunds universitet 1968-1983. (The standard work on the history of the university.) Magnus Laurentius Ståhl, Biographiske underrättelser om professorer vid Kongl. universitetet i Lund, ifrån dess inrättning till närvarande tid. ("Biographical notes on professors at the Royal University of Lund from its foundation until the current time") Christianstad: L. Littorin, 1834. (public domain book available on Google Print, ) External links Lund University - Official site Lund Institute of Technology - Official site Lund School of Economics and Management - Official site | Lund_University |@lemmatized lund:53 university:96 locate:4 southernmost:1 sweden:11 one:11 prestigious:1 new:1 partnership:1 swedish:11 scandinavia:3 large:5 institution:1 education:3 research:6 euro:2 scholar:2 website:8 solander:2 program:4 øresund:4 region:2 entrepreneurship:2 academy:6 welcome:1 frequently:1 rank:1 among:1 world:2 top:4 qs:1 shanghai:1 jiao:1 tong:1 academic:5 ranking:1 complete:2 list:2 global:2 found:5 second:2 old:7 arguably:1 trace:1 root:1 back:1 studium:2 generale:2 historik:1 lunds:5 universitet:4 eight:2 faculty:19 organisation:2 additional:1 campus:2 city:3 malmö:5 helsingborg:2 total:1 student:46 different:5 programme:2 separate:1 course:5 belong:2 league:1 european:2 well:6 universitas:1 network:1 traditionally:1 center:4 lundagård:2 park:2 adjacent:2 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implantable:1 pacemaker:1 torsten:1 hägerstrand:1 cultural:1 geographer:1 sune:1 bergström:1 hellmuth:1 hertz:1 pioneer:1 ultrasonography:1 inge:1 edler:1 sten:1 broman:1 musician:1 critic:1 tv:1 founder:1 uarda:1 akademien:1 etc:1 arvid:1 carlsson:2 han:1 alfredson:1 writer:1 entertainer:1 film:1 director:2 former:1 skansen:1 lars:1 hörmander:1 award:1 field:1 medal:2 ingvar:1 michael:1 treschow:1 chairman:1 ericsson:1 karl:1 johan:1 åström:1 emeritus:1 ieee:2 fellow:1 honor:1 contribution:1 control:1 theory:1 björn:1 borg:1 tennis:1 star:1 etzel:1 cardeña:1 thorsen:1 psychology:2 consciousness:1 anomalous:1 cercap:1 partner:1 europe:1 vienna:1 austria:1 orléans:1 france:1 heidelberg:1 ludwig:1 maximilian:1 munich:1 saint:1 petersburg:1 russia:1 geneva:1 switzerland:2 st:1 gallen:1 edinburgh:1 kingdom:1 elsewhere:1 adelaide:1 australia:2 bond:1 são:1 paulo:1 brazil:1 mcgill:1 canada:1 queen:1 british:1 columbia:1 ottawa:1 chile:2 peking:1 china:2 hong:1 kong:1 tokyo:1 japan:1 cape:1 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2,608 | Outline_of_dance | Dance generally refers to human movement (the motion of human beings) either used as a form of expression or presented in a social, spiritual or performance setting. Choreography is the art of making dances, and the person who does this is called a choreographer. Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on social, cultural, aesthetic, artistic and moral constraints and range from functional movement (such as Folk dance) to codified, virtuoso techniques such as ballet. The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to dance: Essence of dance Dance categories The categories below are not mutually exclusive. For example, tango is doubtless a partner dance. While it is mostly social dance, its ballroom form may be competitive dance, as in DanceSport. At the same time it is enjoyed as performance dance, whereby it may well be a solo dance. There are tangos among round dances, and certainly participation dances can involve tango mixers. One might remember that at times it was a forbidden erotic dance. Finally, some try to trace its roots to African ceremonial dances. Not to say that tango dance reaches beyond these categories: into ice dancing, burlesque and more. Dance categories by number of interacting dancers Solo dance -Partner dance -Group dance Dance categories by main purpose Ceremonial dance - Competitive dance - Erotic dance - Participation dance - Performance dance - Social dance - Concert dance History of dance National Museum of Dance and Hall of Fame (United States) Dance technique Choreography - Connection - Dance moves - Lead and follow - Musicality - Dance theory Dance topics Dance etiquette - History of dance - Dance in mythology and religion - Dance in film - Dance music - Dance and health - Dance and society - Dance notation - Dance science Dancers List of dancers - List of dance personalities Glossaries Glossary of partner dance terms - Glossary of dance moves - Musical terminology - Glossary of ballet terms Dance-related lists List of ballroom and social dance albums List of dance organizations List of dance style categories List of dance topics List of dance wikibooks General index list of dances List of DanceSport dances List of folk dances sorted by origin List of New York City Ballet repertory List of novelty and fad dances List of quotations about dance See also Arts - Dance film - Dance music - Hobby - Music - Musical film - Musical terminology - Performing arts - Recreation External links Historic Illustrations of Dancing from 3300 B.C. to 1911 A.D. from Project Gutenberg | Outline_of_dance |@lemmatized dance:61 generally:1 refer:1 human:2 movement:2 motion:1 either:1 use:1 form:2 expression:1 present:1 social:5 spiritual:1 performance:3 setting:1 choreography:2 art:2 make:1 person:1 call:1 choreographer:1 definition:1 constitute:1 dependent:1 cultural:1 aesthetic:1 artistic:1 moral:1 constraint:1 range:1 functional:1 folk:2 codify:1 virtuoso:1 technique:2 ballet:3 following:1 outline:1 provide:1 overview:1 topical:1 guide:1 essence:1 categories:1 category:5 mutually:1 exclusive:1 example:1 tango:4 doubtless:1 partner:3 mostly:1 ballroom:2 may:2 competitive:2 dancesport:2 time:2 enjoy:1 whereby:1 well:1 solo:2 among:1 round:1 certainly:1 participation:2 involve:1 mixer:1 one:1 might:1 remember:1 forbidden:1 erotic:2 finally:1 try:1 trace:1 root:1 african:1 ceremonial:2 say:1 reach:1 beyond:1 ice:1 dancing:1 burlesque:1 number:1 interact:1 dancer:3 group:1 main:1 purpose:1 concert:1 history:2 national:1 museum:1 hall:1 fame:1 united:1 state:1 connection:1 move:2 lead:1 follow:1 musicality:1 theory:1 topic:2 etiquette:1 mythology:1 religion:1 film:3 music:3 health:1 society:1 notation:1 science:1 list:14 personality:1 glossaries:1 glossary:3 term:2 musical:3 terminology:2 related:1 album:1 organization:1 style:1 wikibooks:1 general:1 index:1 sort:1 origin:1 new:1 york:1 city:1 repertory:1 novelty:1 fad:1 quotation:1 see:1 also:1 arts:1 hobby:1 performing:1 recreation:1 external:1 link:1 historic:1 illustration:1 b:1 c:1 project:1 gutenberg:1 |@bigram overview_topical:1 mutually_exclusive:1 hall_fame:1 performing_art:1 external_link:1 project_gutenberg:1 |
2,609 | Economy_of_the_Faroe_Islands | After the severe economic troubles of the early 1990s, brought on by a drop in the vital fish catch and poor management of the economy, the Faroe Islands have come back in the last few years, with unemployment down to 5% in mid-1998, and holding below 3% since 2006, one of the lowest rates in Europe. Nevertheless, the almost total dependence on fishing means the economy remains extremely vulnerable. The Faroese hope to broaden their economical base by building new fish-processing plants. Petroleum found close to the Faroese area gives hope for deposits in the immediate area, which may lay the basis to sustained economic prosperity. Also important are the annual subsidy from Denmark, which amounts to about 5% of the GDP. Since 2000, new information technology and business projects have been fostered in the Faroe Islands to attract new investment. The result from these projects is not yet known but is hoped to bring a better market economy to the Faroe Islands. The Faroes have one of the lowest unemployment rates in Europe, but this is not necessarily a sign of a recovering economy, as many young students move to Denmark and other countries once they are finished with high school. This leaves a largely middle-aged and elderly population that may lack the skills and knowledge to take IT positions on the Faroes. Other statistics Export Import 1. United Kingdom 24.0% Denmark 29.9% 2. Norway 13.6% Norway 18.5% 3. Denmark 12.8% Germany 7.9% 4. Spain 8.5% Sweden 6.6% 5. France 7.4% United Kingdom 4.6% 6. Germany 5.3% China 3.6% Electricity - production: 269 GWh (2008) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 55.5% hydro: 38.7% nuclear: 0% other: 5.8% (2008) Electricity - consumption: 173 GWh (1998) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2008) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (2008) Agriculture - products: milk, potatoes, vegetables; sheep; salmon, other fish Currency: 1 Danish krone (DKr) = 100 oere Exchange rates: Danish kroner (DKr) per US$1 - 5.560 (2008), 7.336 (January 2000), 6.976 (1999), 6.701 (1998), 6.604 (1997), 5.799 (1996), 5.602 (1995) Further reading Apostle, Richard A. The Restructuration of the Faroese Economy The Significance of the Inner Periphery. Frederiksberg, Denmark: Samfundslitteratur, 2002. ISBN 8759308915 Elkjær-Hansen, Niels. The Faroe Islands Scenery, Culture, and Economy. Copenhagen: Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1959. Hagstova.fo External links Faroese banknote series Information about Faroese banknotes | Economy_of_the_Faroe_Islands |@lemmatized severe:1 economic:2 trouble:1 early:1 bring:2 drop:1 vital:1 fish:3 catch:1 poor:1 management:1 economy:6 faroe:4 island:3 come:1 back:1 last:1 year:1 unemployment:2 mid:1 hold:1 since:2 one:2 low:2 rate:3 europe:2 nevertheless:1 almost:1 total:1 dependence:1 fishing:1 mean:1 remain:1 extremely:1 vulnerable:1 faroese:5 hope:2 broaden:1 economical:1 base:1 build:1 new:3 processing:1 plant:1 petroleum:1 find:1 close:1 area:2 give:1 deposit:1 immediate:1 may:2 lay:1 basis:1 sustain:1 prosperity:1 also:1 important:1 annual:1 subsidy:1 denmark:5 amount:1 gdp:1 information:2 technology:1 business:1 project:2 foster:1 islands:1 attract:1 investment:1 result:1 yet:1 know:1 hop:1 good:1 market:1 faroes:2 necessarily:1 sign:1 recover:1 many:1 young:1 student:1 move:1 country:1 finish:1 high:1 school:1 leave:1 largely:1 middle:1 age:1 elderly:1 population:1 lack:1 skill:1 knowledge:1 take:1 position:1 statistic:1 export:2 import:2 united:2 kingdom:2 norway:2 germany:2 spain:1 sweden:1 france:1 china:1 electricity:5 production:2 gwh:2 source:1 fossil:1 fuel:1 hydro:1 nuclear:1 consumption:1 kwh:2 agriculture:1 product:1 milk:1 potato:1 vegetable:1 sheep:1 salmon:1 currency:1 danish:3 krone:2 dkr:2 oere:1 exchange:1 per:1 u:1 january:1 far:1 read:1 apostle:1 richard:1 restructuration:1 significance:1 inner:1 periphery:1 frederiksberg:1 samfundslitteratur:1 isbn:1 elkjær:1 hansen:1 niels:1 scenery:1 culture:1 copenhagen:1 royal:1 ministry:1 foreign:1 affair:1 hagstova:1 fo:1 external:1 link:1 banknote:2 series:1 |@bigram faroe_island:3 faroe_islands:1 unemployment_rate:1 production_gwh:1 gwh_electricity:2 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 consumption_gwh:1 export_kwh:1 kwh_electricity:1 import_kwh:1 kwh_agriculture:1 danish_krone:2 foreign_affair:1 external_link:1 |
2,610 | Hypoglycemia | Hypoglycaemia or hypoglycemia is the medical term for a pathologic state produced by a lower than normal level of blood glucose. The term hypoglycemia literally means "under-sweet blood" (Gr. hypo-, glykys, haima). Hypoglycemia can produce a variety of symptoms and effects but the principal problems arise from an inadequate supply of glucose as fuel to the brain, resulting in impairment of function (neuroglycopenia). Derangements of function can range from vaguely "feeling bad" to coma, seizures, and (rarely) permanent brain damage or death. Hypoglycemia can arise from many causes and can occur at any age. It also sometimes occurs at what appears to be random intervals. The most common forms of moderate and severe hypoglycemia occur as a complication of treatment of diabetes mellitus treated with insulin or less frequently with certain oral medications. Hypoglycemia is usually treated by the ingestion or administration of dextrose, or foods quickly digestible to glucose. Endocrinologists (specialists in hormones, including those which regulate glucose metabolism) typically consider the following criteria (referred to as Whipple's triad) as proving that individual's symptoms can be attributed to hypoglycemia: Symptoms known to be caused by hypoglycemia Low glucose at the time the symptoms occur Reversal or improvement of symptoms or problems when the glucose is restored to normal However, not everyone has accepted these suggested diagnostic criteria, and even the level of glucose low enough to define hypoglycemia has been a source of controversy in several contexts. For many purposes, plasma glucose levels below 70 mg/dl or 3.9 mmol/L are considered hypoglycemic; these issues are detailed below. Defining hypoglycemia No single glucose value alone serves to define the medical condition termed hypoglycemia for all people and purposes. Throughout the 24 hour cycles of eating, digestion, and fasting, blood plasma glucose levels are generally maintained within a range of 70-150 mg/dL (3.9-7.8 mmol/L) for healthy humans. Although 60 or 70 mg/dL (3.3 or 3.9 mmol/L) is commonly cited as the lower limit of normal glucose, different values (typically below 40, 50, 60, or 70 mg/dL) have been defined as low for different populations, clinical purposes, or circumstances. The precise level of glucose considered low enough to define hypoglycemia is dependent on (1) the measurement method, (2) the age of the person, (3) presence or absence of effects, and (4) the purpose of the definition. While there is no disagreement as to the normal range of blood sugar, debate continues as to what degree of hypoglycemia warrants medical evaluation or treatment, or can cause harm. This article expresses glucose in milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL or mg/100 mL) as is customary in the United States, while millimoles per litre (mmol/L or mM) are the units used in most of the rest of the world. Glucose concentrations expressed as mg/dL can be converted to mmol/L by dividing by 18.0 g/dmol (the molar mass of glucose). For example, a glucose concentration of 90 mg/dL is 5.0 mmol/L or 5.0 mM. Alternate theory: Rate of decrease in blood sugar rather than depth of decrease affects the nervous system An alternate view of the syndrome advanced by researchers at Johns Hopkins University Medical School is that the rate of the decrease in blood sugar rather than its absolute low mark is what triggers the reported symptoms. It is surmised that the nervous system is not given sufficient time to adjust to a rapid rather than a gradual drop in blood sugar, which then triggers the reported symptoms of anxiety, fainting, tinnitus, and so on. Johns Hopkins Family Health Book, page 1183. (Viewable Online)Consuming food that helps maintain a more even level of blood sugar and paying attention to the glycemic index or glycemic load of various foods are also recommended, along with eating several smaller meals a day rather than traditional three larger meals. However, the utility of the glycemic index is disputed within the medical profession, and it may be of little value in managing hypoglycemia-associated autonomic failure (HAAF). Method of measurement Blood glucose levels discussed in this article are venous plasma or serum levels measured by standard, automated glucose oxidase methods used in medical laboratories. For clinical purposes, plasma and serum levels are similar enough to be interchangeable. Arterial plasma or serum levels are slightly higher than venous levels, and capillary levels are typically in between. This difference between arterial and venous levels is small in the fasting state but is amplified and can be greater than 10% in the postprandial state. On the other hand, whole blood glucose levels (e.g., by fingerprick meters) are about 10%-15% lower than venous plasma levels. Furthermore, available fingerstick glucose meters are only warranted to be accurate to within 15% of a simultaneous laboratory value under optimal conditions, and home use in the investigation of hypoglycemia is fraught with misleading low numbers. In other words, a meter glucose reading of 39 mg/dL could be properly obtained from a person whose laboratory serum glucose was 53 mg/dL; even wider variations can occur with "real world" home use. Ironically, most meters sold are routinely tested for accuracy at the high-end of the scale, sometimes up to 800 mg/dL, despite the fact that there is little immediate danger from hyperglycemia, whereas there is very real immediate danger from hypoglycemia, making accuracy at the low-end extremely critical. Two other factors significantly affect glucose measurement: hematocrit and delay after phletocrit is high, as in newborn infants, or adults with polycythemia. High neonatal hematocrits are particularly likely to confound glucose measurement by meter. Second, unless the specimen is drawn into a fluoride tube or processed immediately to separate the serum or plasma from the cells, the measurable glucose will be gradually lowered by in vitro metabolism of the glucose at a rate of approximately 7 mg/dL/hr, or even more in the presence of leukocytosis. Age differences Surveys of healthy children and adults show that plasma glucoses below 60 mg/dL (3.3 mM) or above 100 mg/dL (5.6 mM) are found in less than 5% of samples after an overnight fast. As the duration of fasting is extended, plasma glucose levels can fall further, even in healthy people. In other words, many healthy people can occasionally have glucose levels in the hypoglycemic range without symptoms or disease. The normal range of newborn blood sugars continues to be debated. It has been proposed that newborn brains are able to use alternate fuels when glucose levels are low more readily than adults. Experts continue to debate the significance and risk of such levels, though the trend has been to recommend maintenance of glucose levels above 60-70 mg/dL after the first day after birth. Presence or absence of effects Research in healthy adults shows that mental efficiency declines slightly but measurably as blood glucose falls below 65 mg/dL (3.6 mM) in many people. Hormonal defense mechanisms (adrenaline and glucagon) are normally activated as it drops below a threshold level (about 55 mg/dL (3.0 mM) for most people), producing the typical symptoms of shakiness and dysphoria. However, because type 1 diabetes mellitus is an autoimmune disease resulting from inflammation to the Islets of Langerhans, these counterregulatory responses are severely impaired in this group. On the other hand, obvious impairment does not often occur until the glucose falls below 40 mg/dL, and up to 10% of the population may occasionally have glucose levels below 65 in the morning without apparent effects. Brain effects of hypoglycemia, termed neuroglycopenia, determine whether a given low glucose is a "problem" for that person, and hence some people tend to use the term hypoglycemia only when a moderately low glucose level is accompanied by symptoms. Even this criterion is complicated by the facts that A) hypoglycemic symptoms are vague and can be produced by other conditions; B) people with persistently or recurrently low glucose levels can lose their threshold symptoms so that severe neuroglycopenic impairment can occur without much warning; and C) many measurement methods (especially glucose meters) are imprecise at low levels. Diabetic hypoglycemia represents a special case with respect to the relationship of measured glucose and hypoglycemic symptoms for several reasons. First, it is almost always iatrogenic, i.e. a side-effect of therapeutic insulin use. Second, although home glucose meter readings are too often misleading, the probability that a low reading which may or may not be accompanied by symptoms represents real hypoglycemia is also significantly higher in a person who takes insulin, and is 25 times higher in patients with type 1 diabetes relative to those with type 2 diabetes 20 White NH, Skor D, Cryer PE, Bier DM, Levandoski L, Santiago JV: Identification of type 1 diabetic patients at increased risk for hypoglycemia during intensive therapy. N Engl J Med 308:485–491, 1983 21 Bolli GB, De Feo P, De Cosmo S, Perriello G, Ventura MM, Massi-Benedetti M, Santeusanio F, Gerich JE, Brunetti P: A reliable and reproducible test for adequate glucose counterregulation in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes 33:732–737, 1984 . Third, the hypoglycemia has a greater chance of progressing to more serious impairment if not treated, compared to most other forms of hypoglycemia that occur in adults because insulin is dosed in a non-physiological manner. Fourth, because glucose levels are above normal more often than they are in people without diabetes, hypoglycemic symptoms may sometimes occur at higher thresholds than in people who are normoglycemic most of the time. For all of these reasons, people with diabetes are instructed to use higher meter glucose thresholds to determine hypoglycemia, although the absence of symptoms can sometimes impede patients' ability to do so. Purpose of definition For all of the reasons explained in the above paragraphs, deciding whether a blood glucose in the borderline range of 45-75 mg/dL (2.5-4.2 mM) represents clinically problematic hypoglycemia is not always simple. This leads people to use different "cutoff levels" of glucose in different contexts and for different purposes. Pathophysiology Like most animal tissues, brain metabolism depends primarily on glucose for fuel in most circumstances. A limited amount of glucose can be derived from glycogen stored in astrocytes, but it is consumed within minutes. For most practical purposes, the brain is dependent on a continual supply of glucose diffusing from the blood into the interstitial tissue within the central nervous system and into the neurons themselves. Therefore, if the amount of glucose supplied by the blood falls, the brain is one of the first organs affected. In most people, subtle reduction of mental efficiency can be observed when the glucose falls below 65 mg/dl (3.6 mM). Impairment of action and judgment usually becomes obvious below 40 mg/dl (2.2 mM). Seizures may occur as the glucose falls further. As blood glucose levels fall below 10 mg/dl (0.55 mM), most neurons become electrically silent and nonfunctional, resulting in coma. These brain effects are collectively referred to as neuroglycopenia. The importance of an adequate supply of glucose to the brain is apparent from the number of nervous, hormonal and metabolic responses to a falling glucose level. Most of these are defensive or adaptive, tending to raise the blood sugar via glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis or provide alternative fuels. If the blood sugar level falls too low the liver converts a storage of glycogen into glucose and releases it into the bloodstream, to prevent the person going into a diabetic coma, for a short period of time. Brief or mild hypoglycemia produces no lasting effects on the brain, though it can temporarily alter brain responses to additional hypoglycemia. Prolonged, severe hypoglycemia can produce lasting damage of a wide range. This can include impairment of cognitive function, motor control, or even consciousness. The likelihood of permanent brain damage from any given instance of severe hypoglycemia is difficult to estimate, and depends on a multitude of factors such as age, recent blood and brain glucose experience, concurrent problems such as hypoxia, and availability of alternative fuels. The vast majority of symptomatic hypoglycemic episodes result in no detectable permanent harm. Signs and symptoms Hypoglycemic symptoms and manifestations can be divided into those produced by the counterregulatory hormones (epinephrine/adrenaline and glucagon) triggered by the falling glucose, and the neuroglycopenic effects produced by the reduced brain sugar. Adrenergic manifestations Shakiness, anxiety, nervousness, tremor Palpitations, tachycardia Sweating, feeling of warmth Pallor, coldness, clamminess Dilated pupils (mydriasis) Feeling of numbness "pins and needles" (parasthaesia) in the fingers Glucagon manifestations Hunger, borborygmus Nausea, vomiting, abdominal discomfort Headache Neuroglycopenic manifestations Abnormal mentation, impaired judgment Nonspecific dysphoria, anxiety, moodiness, depression, crying Negativism, irritability, belligerence, combativeness, rage Personality change, emotional lability Fatigue, weakness, apathy, lethargy, daydreaming, sleep Confusion, amnesia, dizziness, delirium Staring, "glassy" look, blurred vision, double vision Automatic behavior, also known as automatism Difficulty speaking, slurred speech Ataxia, incoordination, sometimes mistaken for "drunkenness" Focal or general motor deficit, paralysis, hemiparesis Paresthesia, headache Stupor, coma, abnormal breathing Generalized or focal seizures Not all of the above manifestations occur in every case of hypoglycemia. There is no consistent order to the appearance of the symptoms, if symptoms even occur. Specific manifestations may also vary by age, by severity of the hypoglycemia and the speed of the decline. In young children, vomiting can sometimes accompany morning hypoglycemia with ketosis. In older children and adults, moderately severe hypoglycemia can resemble mania, mental illness, drug intoxication, or drunkenness. In the elderly, hypoglycemia can produce focal stroke-like effects or a hard-to-define malaise. The symptoms of a single person may be similar from episode to episode, but are not necessarily so and may be influenced by the speed at which glucose levels are dropping, as well as previous incidence. In newborns, hypoglycemia can produce irritability, jitters, myoclonic jerks, cyanosis, respiratory distress, apneic episodes, sweating, hypothermia, somnolence, hypotonia, refusal to feed, and seizures or "spells". Hypoglycemia can resemble asphyxia, hypocalcemia, sepsis, or heart failure. In both young and old patients, the brain may habituate to low glucose levels, with a reduction of noticeable symptoms despite neuroglycopenic impairment. In insulin-dependent diabetic patients this phenomenon is termed hypoglycemia unawareness and is a significant clinical problem when improved glycemic control is attempted. Another aspect of this phenomenon occurs in type I glycogenosis, when chronic hypoglycemia before diagnosis may be better tolerated than acute hypoglycemia after treatment is underway. Nearly always, hypoglycemia severe enough to cause seizures or unconsciousness can be reversed without obvious harm to the brain. Cases of death or permanent neurological damage occurring with a single episode have usually involved prolonged, untreated unconsciousness, interference with breathing, severe concurrent disease, or some other type of vulnerability. Nevertheless, brain damage or death has occasionally resulted from severe hypoglycemia. Determining the cause Hundreds of conditions can cause hypoglycemia. Common causes by age are listed below. While many aspects of the medical history and physical examination may be informative, the two best guides to the cause of unexplained hypoglycemia are usually the circumstances a critical sample of blood obtained at the time of hypoglycemia, before it is reversed. The circumstances of hypoglycemia provide most of the clues to diagnosis Circumstances include the age of the patient, time of day, time since last meal, previous episodes, nutritional status, physical and mental development, drugs or toxins (especially insulin or other diabetes drugs), diseases of other organ systems, family history, and response to treatment. When hypoglycemia occurs repeatedly, a record or "diary" of the spells over several months, noting the circumstances of each spell (time of day, relation to last meal, nature of last meal, response to carbohydrate, and so forth) may be useful in recognizing the nature and cause of the hypoglycemia. An especially important aspect is whether the patient is seriously ill with another problem. Severe disease of nearly all major organ systems can cause hypoglycemia as a secondary problem. Hospitalized patients, especially in intensive care units or those prevented from eating, can suffer hypoglycemia from a variety of circumstances related to the care of their primary disease. Hypoglycemia in these circumstances is often multifactorial or even iatrogenic. Once identified, these types of hypoglycemia are readily reversed and prevented, and the underlying disease becomes the primary problem. Apart from determining nutritional status and identifying whether there is likely to be an underlying disease more serious than hypoglycemia, the physical examination of the patient is only occasionally helpful. Macrosomia in infancy usually indicates hyperinsulinism. A few syndromes and metabolic diseases may be recognizable by clues such as hepatomegaly or micropenis. It may take longer to recover from severe hypoglycemia with unconsciousness or seizure even after restoration of normal blood glucose. When a person has not been unconscious, failure of carbohydrate to reverse the symptoms in 10-15 minutes increases the likelihood that hypoglycemia was not the cause of the symptoms. When severe hypoglycemia has persisted in a hospitalized patient, the amount of glucose required to maintain satisfactory blood glucose levels becomes an important clue to the underlying etiology. Glucose requirements above 10 mg/kg/minute in infants, or 6 mg/kg/minute in children and adults are strong evidence for hyperinsulinism. In this context this is referred to as the glucose infusion rate (GIR). Finally, the blood glucose response to glucagon given when the glucose is low can also help distinguish among various types of hypoglycemia. A rise of blood glucose by more than 30 mg/dl (1.70 mmol/l) suggests insulin excess as the probable cause of the hypoglycemia. In less obvious cases, a "critical sample" may provide the diagnosis In the majority of children and adults with recurrent, unexplained hypoglycemia, the diagnosis may be determined by obtaining a sample of blood during hypoglycemia. If this critical sample is obtained at the time of hypoglycemia, before it is reversed, it can provide information that would otherwise require a hospital admission and unpleasant starvation testing. Perhaps the most common inadequacy of emergency department care in cases of unexplained hypoglycemia is the failure to obtain at least a basic sample before giving glucose to reverse it. Part of the value of the critical sample may simply be the proof that the symptoms are indeed due to hypoglycemia. More often, measurement of certain hormones and metabolites at the time of hypoglycemia indicates which organs and body systems are responding appropriately and which are functioning abnormally. For example, when the blood glucose is low, hormones which raise the glucose should be rising and insulin secretion should be completely suppressed. The following is a brief list of hormones and metabolites which may be measured in a critical sample. Not all tests are checked on every patient. A "basic version" would include insulin, cortisol, and electrolytes, with C-peptide and drug screen for adults and growth hormone in children. The value of additional specific tests depends on the most likely diagnoses for an individual patient, based on the circumstances described above. Many of these levels change within minutes, especially if glucose is given, and there is no value in measuring them after the hypoglycemia is reversed. Others, especially those lower in the list, remain abnormal even after hypoglycemia is reversed, and can be usefully measured even if a critical specimen is missed. Although interpretation in difficult cases is beyond the scope of this article, for most of the tests, the primary significance is briefly noted. Glucose: needed to document actual hypoglycemia Insulin: any detectable amount is abnormal during hypoglycemia, but physician must know assay characteristics Cortisol: should be high during hypoglycemia if pituitary and adrenals are functioning normally Growth hormone: should rise after hypoglycemia if pituitary is functioning normally Electrolytes and total carbon dioxide: electrolyte abnormalities may suggest renal or adrenal disease; mild acidosis is normal with starvation hypoglycemia; usually no acidosis with hyperinsulinism Liver enzymes: elevation suggests liver disease Ketones: should be high during fasting and hypoglycemia; low levels suggest hyperinsulinism or fatty acid oxidation disorder Beta-hydroxybutyrate: should be high during fasting and hypoglycemia; low levels suggest hyperinsulinism or fatty acid oxidation disorder Free fatty acids: should be high during fasting and hypoglycemia; low levels suggest hyperinsulinism; high with low ketones suggests fatty acid oxidation disorder Lactic acid: high levels suggest sepsis or an inborn error of gluconeogenesis such as glycogen storage disease Ammonia: if elevated suggests hyperinsulinism due to glutamate dehydrogenase deficiency, Reye syndrome, or certain types of liver failure C-peptide: should be low or undetectable; if elevated suggests hyperinsulinism; low c-peptide with high insulin suggests exogenous (injected) insulin Proinsulin: detectable levels suggest hyperinsulinism; levels disproportionate to a detectable insulin level suggest insulinoma Ethanol: suggests alcohol intoxication Toxicology screen: can detect many drugs causing hypoglycemia, especially for sulfonylureas Insulin antibodies: if positive suggests repeated insulin injection or antibody-mediated hypoglycemia Urine organic acids: elevated in various characteristic patterns in several types of organic aciduria Carnitine, free and total: low in certain disorders of fatty acid metabolism and certain types of drug toxicity and pancreatic disease Thyroxine and TSH: low T4 without elevated TSH suggests hypopituitarism or malnutrition Acylglycine: elevation suggests a disorder of fatty acid oxidation Epinephrine: should be elevated during hypoglycemia Glucagon: should be elevated during hypoglycemia, except in the case of type 1 diabetes mellitus where irreparable damage is done to the cells which produce this counterregulatory hormone. IGF-1: low levels suggest hypopituitarism or chronic malnutrition IGF-2: low levels suggest hypopituitarism; high levels suggest non-pancreatic tumor hypoglycemia ACTH: should be elevated during hypoglycemia; unusually high ACTH with low cortisol suggests Addison's disease Alanine or other plasma amino acids: abnormal patterns may suggest certain inborn errors of amino acid metabolism or gluconeogenesis Somatostatin should be elevated during hypoglycemia as it acts to inhibit insulin production and increase blood glucose level Further diagnostic steps When suspected hypoglycemia recurs and a critical specimen has not been obtained, the diagnostic evaluation may take several paths. However good nutrition and prompt intake is essential. When general health is good, the symptoms are not severe, and the person can fast normally through the night, experimentation with diet (extra snacks with fat or protein, reduced sugar) may be enough to solve the problem. If it is uncertain whether "spells" are indeed due to hypoglycemia, some physicians will recommend use of a home glucose meter to test at the time of the spells to confirm that glucoses are low. This approach may be most useful when spells are fairly frequent or the patient is confident that he or she can provoke a spell. The principal drawback of this approach is the high rate of false positive or equivocal levels due to the imprecision of the currently available meters: both physician and patient need an accurate understanding of what a meter can and cannot do to avoid frustrating and inconclusive results. In cases of recurrent hypoglycemia with severe symptoms, the best method of excluding dangerous conditions is often a diagnostic fast. This is usually conducted in the hospital, and the duration depends on the age of the patient and response to the fast. A healthy adult can usually maintain a glucose level above 50 mg/dl (2.8 mM) for 72 hours, a child for 36 hours, and an infant for 24 hours. The purpose of the fast is to determine whether the person can maintain his or her blood glucose as long as normal, and can respond to fasting with the appropriate metabolic changes. At the end of the fast the insulin should be nearly undetectable and ketosis should be fully established. The patient's blood glucose levels are monitored and a critical specimen is obtained if the glucose falls. Despite its unpleasantness and expense, a diagnostic fast may be the only effective way to confirm or refute a number of serious forms of hypoglycemia, especially those involving excessive insulin. A traditional method for investigating suspected hypoglycemia is the oral glucose tolerance test, especially when prolonged to 3, 4, or 5 hours. Although quite popular in the United States in the 1960s, repeated research studies have demonstrated that many healthy people will have glucose levels below 70 or 60 during a prolonged test, and that many types of significant hypoglycemia may go undetected with it. This combination of poor sensitivity and specificity has resulted in its abandonment for this purpose by physicians experienced in disorders of glucose metabolism. Causes There are several ways to classify hypoglycemia. The following is a list of the more common causes and factors which may contribute to hypoglycemia grouped by age, followed by some causes that are relatively age-independent. See causes of hypoglycemia for a more complete list grouped by etiology. Hypoglycemia in newborn infants Hypoglycemia is a common problem in critically ill or extremely low birthweight infants. If not due to maternal hyperglycemia, in most cases it is multifactorial, transient and easily supported. In a minority of cases hypoglycemia turns out to be due to significant hyperinsulinism, hypopituitarism or an inborn error of metabolism and presents more of a management challenge. Transient neonatal hypoglycemia Prematurity, intrauterine growth retardation, perinatal asphyxia Maternal hyperglycemia due to diabetes or iatrogenic glucose administration Sepsis Prolonged fasting (e.g., due to inadequate breast milk or condition interfering with feeding) Congenital hypopituitarism Congenital hyperinsulinism, several types, both transient and persistent Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism such as glycogen storage disease Hypoglycemia in young children Single episodes of hypoglycemia may occur due to gastroenteritis or fasting, but recurrent episodes nearly always indicate either an inborn error of metabolism, congenital hypopituitarism, or congenital hyperinsulinism. A list of common causes: Prolonged fasting Diarrheal illness in young children, especially rotavirus gastroenteritis Idiopathic ketotic hypoglycemia Isolated growth hormone deficiency, hypopituitarism Insulin excess Hyperinsulinism due to several congenital disorders of insulin secretion Insulin injected for type 1 diabetes Hyperinsulin Hyperammonia syndrome (HIHA) due to Glutamate dehydrogenase 1 gene. Can cause mental retardation and epilepsy in severe cases. http://ajpendo.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/283/2/E207 Gastric dumping syndrome (after gastrointestinal surgery) Other congenital metabolic diseases; some of the common include Maple syrup urine disease and other organic acidurias Type 1 glycogen storage disease Type III glycogen storage disease. Can cause less severe hypoglycemia than type I Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase deficiency, causes metabolic acidosis and severe hypoglycemia. Disorders of fatty acid oxidation Medium chain acylCoA dehydrogenase deficiency (MCAD) Familial Leucine sensitive hypoglycemia http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/content/full/89/9/4450 Accidental ingestions Sulfonylureas, propranolol and others Ethanol (mouthwash, "leftover morning-after-the-party drinks") Hypoglycemia in older children and young adults By far, the most common cause of severe hypoglycemia in this age range is insulin injected for type 1 diabetes. Circumstances should provide clues fairly quickly for the new diseases causing severe hypoglycemia. All of the congenital metabolic defects, congenital forms of hyperinsulinism, and congenital hypopituitarism are likely to have already been diagnosed or are unlikely to start causing new hypoglycemia at this age. Body mass is large enough to make starvation hypoglycemia and idiopathic ketotic hypoglycemia quite uncommon. Recurrent mild hypoglycemia may fit a reactive hypoglycemia pattern, but this is also the peak age for idiopathic postprandial syndrome, and recurrent "spells" in this age group can be traced to orthostatic hypotension or hyperventilation as often as demonstrable hypoglycemia. Insulin-induced hypoglycemia Insulin injected for type 1 diabetes Factitious insulin injection (Munchausen syndrome) Insulin-secreting pancreatic tumor Reactive hypoglycemia and idiopathic postprandial syndrome Addison's disease Sepsis Hypoglycemia in older adults The incidence of hypoglycemia due to complex drug interactions, especially involving oral hypoglycemic agents and insulin for diabetes rises with age. Though much rarer, the incidence of insulin-producing tumors also rises with advancing age. Most tumors causing hypoglycemia by mechanisms other than insulin excess occur in adults. Insulin-induced hypoglycemia Insulin injected for diabetes Factitious insulin injection (Munchausen syndrome) Excessive effects of oral diabetes drugs, beta-blockers, or drug interactions Insulin-secreting pancreatic tumor Alcohol induced hypoglycemia often linked with ketoacidosis Alimentary (rapid jejunal emptying with exaggerated insulin response) After gastrectomy dumping syndrome or bowel bypass surgery or resection Reactive hypoglycemia and idiopathic postprandial syndrome Tumor hypoglycemia, Doege-Potter syndrome Acquired adrenal insufficiency Acquired hypopituitarism Immunopathologic hypoglycemia Treatment and prevention Management of hypoglycemia involves immediately raising the blood sugar to normal, determining the cause, and taking measures to hopefully prevent future episodes. Reversing acute hypoglycemia The blood glucose can be raised to normal within minutes by taking (or receiving) 10-20 grams of carbohydrate. It can be taken as food or drink if the person is conscious and able to swallow. This amount of carbohydrate is contained in about 3-4 ounces (100-120 ml) of orange, apple, or grape juice although fruit juices contain a higher proportion of fructose which is more slowly metabolized than pure dextrose, alternatively, about 4-5 ounces (120-150 ml) of regular (non-diet) soda may also work, as will about one slice of bread, about 4 crackers, or about 1 serving of most starchy foods. Starch is quickly digested to glucose (unless the person is taking acarbose), but adding fat or protein retards digestion. Symptoms should begin to improve within 5 minutes, though full recovery may take 10-20 minutes. Overfeeding does not speed recovery and if the person has diabetes will simply produce hyperglycemia afterwards. If a person is suffering such severe effects of hypoglycemia that they cannot (due to combativeness) or should not (due to seizures or unconsciousness) be given anything by mouth, medical personnel such as EMTs and Paramedics, or in-hospital personnel can establish an IV and give intravenous Dextrose, concentrations varying depending on age (Infants are given 2cc/kg Dextrose 10%, Children Dextrose 25%, and Adults Dextrose 50%). Care must be taken in giving these solutions because they can be very necrotic if the IV is infiltrated. If an IV cannot be established, the patient can be given 1 to 2 milligrams of Glucagon in an intramuscular injection. More treatment information can be found in the article diabetic hypoglycemia. One situation where starch may be less effective than glucose or sucrose is when a person is taking acarbose. Since acarbose and other alpha-glucosidase inhibitors prevents starch and other sugars from being broken down into monosaccharides that can be absorbed by the body, patients taking these medications should consume monosaccharide-containing foods such as glucose tablets, honey, or juice to reverse hypoglycemia. Prevention The most effective means of preventing further episodes of hypoglycemia depends on the cause. The risk of further episodes of diabetic hypoglycemia can often (but not always) be reduced by lowering the dose of insulin or other medications, or by more meticulous attention to blood sugar balance during unusual hours, higher levels of exercise, or alcohol intake. Many of the inborn errors of metabolism require avoidance or shortening of fasting intervals, or extra carbohydrates. For the more severe disorders, such as type 1 glycogen storage disease, this may be supplied in the form of cornstarch every few hours or by continuous gastric infusion. Several treatments are used for hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia, depending on the exact form and severity. Some forms of congenital hyperinsulinism respond to diazoxide or octreotide. Surgical removal of the overactive part of the pancreas is curative with minimal risk when hyperinsulinism is focal or due to a benign insulin-producing tumor of the pancreas. When congenital hyperinsulinism is diffuse and refractory to medications, near-total pancreatectomy may be the treatment of last resort, but in this condition is less consistently effective and fraught with more complications. Hypoglycemia due to hormone deficiencies such as hypopituitarism or adrenal insufficiency usually ceases when the appropriate hormone is replaced. Hypoglycemia due to dumping syndrome and other post-surgical conditions is best dealt with by altering diet. Including fat and protein with carbohydrates may slow digestion and reduce early insulin secretion. Some forms of this respond to treatment with a glucosidase inhibitor, which slows starch digestion. Reactive hypoglycemia with demonstrably low blood glucose levels is most often a predictable nuisance which can be avoided by consuming fat and protein with carbohydrates, by adding morning or afternoon snacks, and reducing alcohol intake. Idiopathic postprandial syndrome without demonstrably low glucose levels at the time of symptoms can be more of a management challenge. Many people find improvement by changing eating patterns (smaller meals, avoiding excessive sugar, mixed meals rather than carbohydrates by themselves), reducing intake of stimulants such as caffeine, or by making lifestyle changes to reduce stress. See the following section of this article. Hypoglycemia as holistic medicine Hypoglycemia is also a term of contemporary Alternative medicine which refers to a recurrent state of symptoms of altered mood and subjective cognitive efficiency, sometimes accompanied by adrenergic symptoms, which may or may not be associated with low blood glucose. Symptoms are primarily those of altered mood, behavior, and mental efficiency. This condition is usually treated by dietary changes which range from simple to elaborate. Advising people on management of this condition has been the focus of alternative medicine. See also Hyperglycemia Glucose Diabetes Diabetic coma Diabetic hypoglycemia Hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia Congenital hyperinsulinism Idiopathic hypoglycemia Idiopathic postprandial syndrome Reactive hypoglycemia References External links The National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse | Hypoglycemia |@lemmatized hypoglycaemia:1 hypoglycemia:135 medical:8 term:7 pathologic:1 state:6 produce:14 low:37 normal:11 level:52 blood:34 glucose:91 literally:1 mean:2 sweet:1 gr:1 hypo:1 glykys:1 haima:1 variety:2 symptom:32 effect:12 principal:2 problem:10 arise:2 inadequate:2 supply:5 fuel:5 brain:17 result:7 impairment:7 function:6 neuroglycopenia:3 derangement:1 range:9 vaguely:1 feel:1 bad:1 coma:5 seizure:7 rarely:1 permanent:4 damage:6 death:3 many:12 cause:27 occur:16 age:17 also:11 sometimes:7 occurs:1 appear:1 random:1 interval:2 common:8 form:8 moderate:1 severe:20 complication:2 treatment:9 diabetes:20 mellitus:3 treat:4 insulin:37 less:6 frequently:1 certain:6 oral:4 medication:4 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2,611 | Kashubians | Kashubians/Kaszubians (, , ), also called Kashubs, Kaszubians, Kassubians or Cassubians, are a West Slavic ethnic group in Pomerelia, north-central Poland. Their settlement area is referred to as Kashubia (, ). They speak Kashubian, classified either as a language or a Polish dialect. Harry Hulst, Georg Bossong, Eurotyp, Walter de Gruyter, 1999, p.837, ISBN 3110157500 Stephen Barbour, Cathie Carmichael, Language and Nationalism in Europe, Oxford University Press, 2000, p.199, ISBN 0198236719 In analogy to the linguistic classification, Kashubians are considered either an ethnic or a linguistic group. Slovincians are grouped with the Kashubians as Pomeranians, similarily Slovincian and Kashubian are grouped as Pomeranian, with Slovincian being either a closely related language Dicky Gilbers, John A. Nerbonne, J. Schaeken, Languages in Contact, Rodopi, 2000, p.329, ISBN 9042013222 or a Kashubian dialect. Christina Yurkiw Bethin, Slavic Prosody: Language Change and Phonological Theory, pp.160ff, Cambridge University Press, 1998, ISBN 0521591481 Edward Stankiewicz, The Accentual Patterns of the Slavic Languages, Stanford University Press, 1993, p.291, ISBN 0804720290 Modern Kashubia Kashubian ethnic territory at the end of the twentieth century. Among larger cities, Gdynia (Gdiniô) contains the largest proportion of people declaring Kashubian origin. However, the biggest city of the Kashubia region is Gdańsk (Gduńsk), the capital of the Pomeranian Voivodeship and the traditional capital of Kashubia. The traditional occupations of Kashubians were agriculture and fishing; today these are joined by the service and hospitality industry, and agrotourism. The main organization that maintains the Kashubian identity is the Kashubian-Pomeranian Association. The recently formed "Odroda" is also dedicated to the renewal of Kashubian culture. Unofficial capital The traditional capital was Gdańsk . Today there are many cities which claim to be the capital: Kartuzy (Kartuzë) , Kościerzyna (Kòscérzëna) , Bytów (Bëtowò) and Wejherowo (Wejrowò) . Population Kashubian regional dress The total number of Kashubians varies depending on one's definition. A common estimate is that over 300,000 people in Poland are of the Kashubian ethnicity. The most extreme estimates are as low as 50,000 or as high as 500,000. In the Polish census of 2002, only 5,100 people declared Kashubian nationality, although 51,000 declared Kashubian as their native language. Most Kashubians declare Polish nationality and Kashubian ethnicity, and are considered both Polish and Kashubian. However, on the 2002 census there was no option to declare one nationality and a different ethnicity, or more than one nationality. History Flag Coat of Arms Origin Kashubians are descendants of the Slavic Pomeranian tribes, who had settled between the Oder and Vistula Rivers after the Migration Period, and were at various times Polish and Danish vassals. While most Slavic Pomeranians were assimilated during the medieval German settlement of Pomerania (Ostsiedlung), especially in the Pomeranian Southeast (Pomerelia) some kept and developed their customs and became known as Kashubians or Wends. The oldest known mention of "Kashubia(ns)" dates from the 13th century (a seal of Barnim I from the House of Pomerania, Duke of Pomerania-Stettin). The Dukes of Pomerania hence used "Duke of (the) Kashubia(ns)" in their titles, passing it to the Swedish Crown who succeeded in Swedish Pomerania when the House of Pomerania became extinct. Administrative history of Kashubia The westernmost (Slovincian) parts of Kashubia, located in the medieval Lands of Schlawe and Stolp and Lauenburg and Bütow Land, were integrated into the Duchy of Pomerania in 1317 and 1455, respectively, and stayed with its successors (Brandenburgian Pomerania and Prussian Pomerania) until 1945, when the area became Polish. The bulk of Kashubia since the 12th century was within the medieval Pomerelian duchies, since 1308 in the Monastic state of the Teutonic Knights, since 1466 within Royal Prussia, an autonomous territory of the Polish Crown, since 1772 within West Prussia, a Prussian province, since 1920 within the Polish Corridor of the Second Polish Republic, since 1939 within the Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia of Nazi Germany, and since 1945 within the People's Republic of Poland. German and Polish impact German Ostsiedlung in Kashubia was first initiated by the Pomerelian dukes Hartmut Boockmann, Ostpreussen und Westpreussen, Siedler 2002, p. 161,ISBN 3-88680-212-4 and focussed on the towns, whereas much of the countryside remained Kashubian. Klaus Herbers, Nikolas Jaspert, Grenzräume und Grenzüberschreitungen im Vergleich: Der Osten und der Westen des mittelalterlichen Lateineuropa, 2007, pp. 76ff, ISBN 3050041552 An exception was the German settled Vistula delta (Vistula Germans), the coastal regions, and the Vistula valley. Following the centuries of interaction between local German and Kashubian population, Aleksander Hilferding (1862) and Alfons Parczewski (1896) confirmed a progressive language shift in the Kashubian population from their Slavonic vernacular to the local German dialect (Low German Ostpommersch, Low German Low Prussian, or High German). On the other hand, Pomerelia since the Middle Ages was assigned to the Kuyavian Diocese of Leslau and thus retained Polish as the church language. Only the Slovincians in 1534 adopted Lutheranism after the Protestant Reformation had reached the Duchy of Pomerania, Werner Buchholz, Pommern, Siedler, 1999, pp.205-212, ISBN 3886802728 Richard du Moulin Eckart, Geschichte der deutschen Universitäten, Georg Olms Verlag, 1976, pp.111,112, ISBN 3487060787 Gerhard Krause, Horst Robert Balz, Gerhard Müller, Theologische Realenzyklopädie, Walter de Gruyter, 1997, pp.43ff, ISBN 3110154358 while the Kashubes in Pomerelia remained Roman Catholic. The Prussian parliament (Landtag) in Königsberg changed the official church language from Polish to German in 1843, but this decision was soon repealed. In the XIXth century the Kashubian activist Florian Ceynowa undertook efforts to identitfy Kashubian language, culture and traditions. He awakened Kashubian self-identity, thereby opposing both Germanisation and Prussian authority, and Polish nobility and clergy. Jerzy Jan Lerski, Piotr Wróbel, Richard J. Kozicki, Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966-1945, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996, p.62, ISBN 0313260079 He believed in a separate Kashubian identity and strove for a Russian-led pan-Slavic federacy, He considered Poles "born brothers" Historia Polski 1795-1918 Andrzej Chwalba page 439 . Ceynowa attempted to take the Prussian garrison in Preußisch Stargard (Starogard Gdański) during 1846 The Lands of Partitioned Poland, 1795-1918 (History of East Central Europe) Piotr S. Wandycz page 135 , but the operation failed when his 100 combatants, armed only with scythes, decided to abandon the site before the attack was carried out. Ireneus Lakowski, Das behinderten-bildungswesen im Preussischen Osten: Ost-west-gefälle, Germanisierung und das Wirken des Pädagogen, LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster, 2001, pp.25ff, ISBN 382585261 Some later Kashubian activists rejected the idea of a separate Kashub nation and considered themselves a unique branch of the Polish nation, manifested in the words of Kashubian journalist and activist Hieronim Derdowski "There is no Cassubia without Poland, and no Poland without Cassubia" (Nie ma Kaszeb bez Polski a bez Kaszeb Polski") Historia Polski 1795-1918 Andrzej Chwalba page 439 . The Young Kashubs movement has decided to follow in this way, and while they the sought to create a strong Kashubian identity, at the same time saw in Kashubs "One branch, of many, of the great Polish nation" Historia Polski 1795-1918 Andrzej Chwalba page 439 . The leader of the movement was Aleksander Majkowski, a doctor educated in Chełmno thanks to the Society of Educational Help in Chełmno. In 1912 he founded Towarzystwo Młodokaszubskie and started the newspaper "Gryf". Kashubs voted for Polish lists in elections, which strenghtened the representation of Poles in the Pomerania region Historia Polski 1795-1918 Andrzej Chwalba page 439 Gdańskie Zeszyty Humanistyczne: Seria pomorzoznawcza Page 17, Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna (Gdańsk). Wydział Humanistyczny, Instytut Bałtycki, Instytut Bałtycki (Poland) - 1967 Położenie mniejszości niemieckiej w Polsce 1918-1938 Page 183, Stanisław Potocki - 1969 Rocznik gdański organ Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauki i Sztuki w Gdańsku - page 100, 1983 Do niepodległości 1918, 1944/45, 1989: wizje, drogi, spełnienie page 43, Wojciech Wrzesiński - 1998 ). Due to their Catholic faith, the Kashubians were subject to Prussia's Kulturkampf in the late 19th century. Jozef Borzyszkowski in Hans-Henning Hahn, Peter Kunze, Nationale Minderheiten und staatliche Minderheitenpolitik in Deutschland im 19. Jahrhundert, Akademie Verlag, 1999, p.96, ISBN 3050033436 The Kashubians faced Germanization efforts, including those by Evangelic priests. Some German propagandist went as far to claim, that those who do not use German and only Polish are "half-human" Historia Polski 1795-1918 Andrzej Chwalba page 440 . Germanization efforts were successful in regions of the Lauenburg (Lębork) and Leba (Łeba), where the local population was influenced by Evangelic pastors and used the Gothic alphabet. Historia Polski 1795-1918 Andrzej Chwalba page 439 While resenting the disrespect shown by some Prussian officials and junkers, Kashubians lived in peaceful, multilingual coexistence with the local German population. This peaceful coexistence lasted until World War II, although during the interbellum, the Kashubian ties to Poland were either overemphasized or neglected by Polish and German authors, respectively, in arguments regarding the Polish Corridor. During the Second World War, Kashubians were considered by the Nazis as being either of "German stock" or "extraction", or "inclined toward Germanness" and "capable of Germanisation", and thus classified third category of Deutsche Volksliste (German ethnic classification list) if possible ties to the Polish nation could be dissolved. Diemut Majer, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, "Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939-1945 Von Diemut Majer, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, JHU Press, 2003, p.240, ISBN 0801864933 However, Kashubians who were suspected to support the Polish cause, particularly those with higher education, were arrested and executed, the main place of executions being Piaśnica (Groß Plaßnitz), Official Polish Senate (Senat) website where according 12,000 were executed. http://www.naszekaszuby.pl/modules/news/article.php?storyid=997 "Erika z Rumii" Piotr Szubarczyk,IPN Bulletin 5(40) May 2004 The German administrator of the area Albert Forster considered Kashubians of "low value" and didn't support any attempts to create Kashubian nationality http://www.kki.net.pl/~museum/rozdz2,6.htm . Some Kashubians organized anti-Nazi resistance groups, "Gryf Kaszubski" (later "Gryf Pomorski"), and the exiled "Zwiaziek Pomorski" in Great Britain. When integrated into Poland, those envisioning Kashubian autonomy faced a Communist regime striving for ethnic homogenity and presenting Kashubian culture as merely folklore. Kashubians were sent to Silesian mines, where they met Silesians facing similar problems. Lech Bądkowski from the Kashubian opposition became the first spokesperson of Solidarnosc. Language About 50,000 Kashubians speak Kashubian. The classification as a language or dialect has been controversial. From a diachronic point of view of historical linguistics, Kashubian like Slovincian, Polabian and Polish is a Lechitic West Slavic language, while from a synchronic point of view it is a group of Polish dialects. Given the past nationalist interests of Germans and Poles in Kashubia, Barbour and Carmichel state: "As is always the case with the division of a dialect continuum into separate languages, there is scope here for manipulation". A "Standard" Kashubian language does not exist despite attempts to create one, rather a variety of dialects are spoken that differ significantly from each other. The vocabulary is influenced by both German and Polish. There are other traditional Slavic ethnic groups inhabiting Pomerania, including the Kociewiacy, Borowiacy and Krajniacy. These dialects tend to fall between Kashubian and the Polish dialects of Greater Poland and Mazovia. This might indicate that they are not only descendants of ancient Pomeranians, but also of settlers who arrived in Pomerania from Greater Poland and Masovia in the Middle Ages. However, this is only one possible explanation. In the 16th and 17th century Michael Brüggemann (also known as Pontanus or Michał Mostnik), Simon Krofey (Szimon Krofej) and J.M. Sporgius introduced Kashubian into the Lutheran Church. Krofey, pastor in Bütow (Bytow), published a religious song book in 1586, written in Polish but also containing some Kashubian words. Brüggemann, pastor in Schmolsin, published a Polish translation of some works of Martin Luther (catechism) and biblical texts, also containing Kashubian elements. Other biblical texts were published in 1700 by Sporgius, pastor in Schmolsin. His "Schmolsiner Perikopen", most of which is written in the same Polish-Kashubian style as Krofey's and Brüggemann's books, also contain small passages ("6th Sunday after Epiphany") written in pure Kashubian. Peter Hauptmann, Günther Schulz, Kirche im Osten: Studien zur osteuropäischen Kirchengeschichte und Kirchenkunde, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2000, pp.44ff, ISBN 3525563930 Scientific interest in the Kashubian language was sparked by Mrongovius (publications in 1823, 1828), Florian Ceynowa and the Russian linguist Aleksander Hilferding (1859, 1862), later followed by Biskupski (1883, 1891), G. Bronisch (1896, 1898), J. Mikkola (1897), Nitsch (1903). Important works are S. Ramult's, Słownik jezyka pomorskiego, czyli kaszubskiego, 1893, and Friedrich Lorentz, Slovinzische Grammatik, 1903, Slovinzische Texte, 1905, and Slovinzisches Wörterbuch, 1908. The first activist of the Kashubian national movement was Florian Ceynowa. Among his accomplishments, he documented the Kashubian alphabet and grammar by 1879 and published a collection of ethnographic-historic stories of the life of the Kashubians (Skórb kaszébsko-slovjnckjé mòvé, 1866-1868). Another early writer in Kashubian was Hieronim Derdowski. The Young Kashubian movement followed, led by author Aleksander Majkowski, who wrote for the paper "Zrzësz Kaszëbskô" as part of the "Zrzëszincë" group. The group would contribute significantly to the development of the Kashubian literary language. Important writer in Kashubian was Bernard Sychta (1907-1982). Today In 2005, Kashubian was for the first time made an official subject on the Polish matura exam (roughly equivalent to the English A-Level and French Baccalaureat). Despite an initial uptake of only 23 students, this development was seen as an important step in the official recognition and establishment of the language. Today, in some towns and villages in northern Poland, Kashubian is the second language spoken after Polish, and it is taught in regional schools. Since 2005 Kashubian enjoys legal protection in Poland as an official regional language. It is the only tongue in Poland with this status. It was granted by an act of the Polish Parliament on January 6, 2005. Diaspora In 1858 Kashubians emigrated to Upper Canada and created the settlement of Wilno, in Renfrew County, Ontario, which still exists today. Kashub immigrants founded St. Josaphat parish in Chicago's Lincoln Park community in the late 19th century. In the 1870s a fishing village was established in Jones Island in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, by Kashubian and German immigrants. The two groups did not hold deeds to the land, however, and the government of Milwaukee evicted them as squatters in the 1940s, with the area soon after turned into industrial park. Kashubian Landscape Park, View from Tamowa Mountain, near Kartuzy and Lakes Kłodno, Białe, and Rekowo. Notable Kashubians Antoni Abraham (1869-1923) Kashubian representative to the Versailles Treaty, political activist and proponent of Polish Kashubia Lech Bądkowski (1920-1984) writer, journalist, translator, political, cultural, and social activist Józef Borzyszkowski (1946- ) historian, politician, founder of the Kashubian Institute Florian Ceynowa (1817-1881) political activist, writer, linguist, and revolutionary Nathan Darga, urban planner Hieronim Derdowski (1852-1902) poet, humorist, journalist Konstantyn Dominik (1870-1942) bishop Jan Drzeżdżon (1937-1992) novelist Günter Grass (1927- ) Nobel Prize-winning German author of Kashubian descent Franciszek Grucza (1911-1993) writer, translator Teodora Gulgowska née Fethke (1860-1959) painter, ethnographer, co-founder of the first open-air museum in Poland Izydor Gulgowski (1874-1925) poet, ethnographer, co-founder of the first open-air museum in Poland Stanisław Janke (1956- ) poet, novelist, translator Zbigniew Jankowski actor, translator Marian Jelinski (1949- ) translator, writer Zenon Kitowski (1962- ) clarinet player Józef Kos (1900-2007) World War I veteran Gerard Labuda (1916- ) historian Aleksander Majkowski (1876-1938) author, publicist, play writer, cultural activist Mestwin II (1220-1294) ruler of united Eastern Pomerania Marian Mokwa (1889-1987) maritime painter, traveller, social activist Alojzy Nagel (1930-1998) poet Augustyn Necel (1902-1976) novelist Jerzy Samp (1951- ) writer, publicist, historian, and social activist Wawrzyniec Samp (1939- ) sculptor and graphic artist Franziska Schanzkowska (1896-1984) Also known as Anna Anderson, an impostor who claimed to be the daughter of Tsar Nicholas II David Shulist cultural activist Jerzy Stachurski (1953- ) poet, composer Danuta Stenka (1961- ) actress Abdon Stryszak (1908 - 1995) professor of veterinary medicine Swantopolk II (1195-1266) powerful ruler of Eastern Pomerania Bernard Sychta (1907-1982) poet, song-writer, lexicographer Brunon Synak is a professor of sociology and a Kashubian activist Jerzy Treder (1942- ) professor - Kashubian language Jan Trepczyk (1907-1989) poet, song-writer, lexicographer and creator of the Polish-Kashubian dictionary Donald Tusk (1957- ) historian, politician, leader of Platforma Obywatelska, Prime Minister of Poland Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg (1759-1830) Prussian Field Marshal of the Napoleonic era See also Kashubian language Kashubian alphabet Kashubian embroidery References Further reading External links http://www.zk-p.pl/ (Kashubian) http://kaszubia.com/ http://www.republika.pl/modraglina/kaszlink.html http://www.cassubia-slavica.com/ (Kashubian) http://www.inyourpocket.com/poland/city/kashubia.html Canada's Kashubian community celebrates heritage at Wilno The Wilno Heritage Society | Kashubians |@lemmatized kashubians:20 kaszubians:2 also:9 call:1 kashubs:4 kassubians:1 cassubians:1 west:5 slavic:8 ethnic:6 group:11 pomerelia:4 north:1 central:2 poland:20 settlement:3 area:4 refer:1 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2,612 | M25_motorway | To see information about the M25 motorway under construction in Ireland, see N25 road. The M25 motorway, also known as the M25 corridor or London Orbital, Chris Roberts, Heavy Words Lightly Thrown: The Reason Behind Rhyme, Thorndike Press,2006 (ISBN 0-7862-8517-6) is a 117 mile (188 km) orbital motorway which encircles Greater London, United Kingdom. Renowned for its traffic congestion and accident rate, it is one of the busiest stretches of the British motorway network, and almost completely encircles London; the gap is formed in the east, with the Dartford Crossing or the A282, linking two sides of the River Thames. Designed to divert vehicles from central London, it is said to be one of the longest city bypasses in the world. In Europe, the M25 is the second-longest ring road after the Berlin Ring (A 10) which is longer by 5 miles (8 km). Description The M25 between junctions 7 (M23) and 6 (A22 near Reigate, Surrey. The signs are indicating a reduced speed limit of due to congestionFor the majority of its length the motorway has six lanes (three in each direction), although there are a few short stretches under junctions which are four-lane and the stretch from junctions 12 to 6 and areas around Dartford are eight lane. The motorway was widened to ten lanes between junctions 12 and 14, and twelve lanes between junctions 14 and 15, in November 2005. The Highways Agency has plans to widen almost all of the remaining stretches of the M25 to eight lanes with the exception of between junctions 3-5 although that stretch is sometimes very busy. It is one of Europe's busiest motorways, with 196,000 vehicles a day recorded in 2003 between junctions 13 and 14 near London Heathrow Airport, which is however significantly fewer than the 257,000 vehicles a day recorded in 2002 on the A4 motorway at Saint-Maurice, in the suburbs of Paris (), the 216,000 vehicles a day recorded in 1998 on the A 100 motorway near the Funkturm in Berlin () or the tangential motorway A23 in the southeast of Vienna, which is used by more than 200,000 vehicles on an average day.() The M25 is not a continuous loop. To the east of London, the toll crossing of the Thames between Thurrock and Dartford is the lesser grade A282. The Dartford Crossing, which consists of two tunnels and the QE2 (Queen Elizabeth II) bridge, is named Canterbury Way. Passage across the bridge or through the tunnels is subject to a toll, dependent upon the type of vehicle. Designating this stretch as a motorway would mean that traffic not permitted to use motorways could not cross the Thames east of Woolwich. At junction 5 near Sevenoaks, a driver continuing around the M25 in either direction must follow the slip roads, as the anticlockwise carriageway continues as the M26 to the east (towards the M20) and the clockwise as the A21 towards the south coast. The road passes through several police force areas. Junctions 1–5 are in Kent, 6–14 in Surrey (passing in places through Greater London and Berkshire), 15–16 are in Buckinghamshire, 17–24 are in Hertfordshire, 25 in Greater London (the Hertfordshire border going around the junction's northern edge), 26–28 in Essex, 29 in Greater London and 30–31 in Essex. Policing the road is carried out by an integrated policing group made up of the Metropolitan, Thames Valley, Essex, Kent, Hertfordshire and Surrey forces. The distance of the motorway from central London (taken as Charing Cross) varies from approximately 12 miles (20 km) near Potters Bar to 20 miles (32 km) near Byfleet. In some places (Enfield, Hillingdon and Havering) the Greater London boundary has been realigned to the M25 for minor stretches; while in others, most notably in Essex and Surrey, it is many miles distant. Major towns such as Epsom, Watford, and Loughton are within the M25. North Ockendon is the only settlement of Greater London situated outside the M25. In 2004, following an opinion poll, a move was mooted by the London Assembly to align the Greater London boundary with the M25. Any such move would be bound to be resisted by the communities affected including such major towns as Watford, Loughton and Epsom.London Assembly - Poll says M25 is London's "natural boundary". 2 March 2004. The three service areas are located in the central north (Junction 23 South Mimms), south east (Clacket Lane) and central east (Thurrock). History The M25 motorway looking south between junctions 14 and 15, near Heathrow Airport. The red light from the overhead gantry, just visible in the distance, is the MIDAS system indicating a reduced speed limit due to congestion The M25 between junction 24 (A111, Potters Bar) and 25 (A10, Waltham Cross & Enfield). The idea of an orbital road around London was first proposed early in the 20th century and was re-examined a number of times during the first half of the 20th century in plans such as Sir Edwin Lutyens and Sir Guy Blunden, The Highway Development Survey, 1937 and Sir Patrick Abercrombie's County of London Plan, 1943 and Greater London Plan, 1944. Abercrombie's plan proposed a series of five roads encircling the capital. In the post-war years little was done to implement Abercrombie's plans but in the 1960s the Greater London Council developed an ambitious plan for a network of ring roads around the capital. The London Ringways plan was hugely controversial due to the destruction required for the inner two ring roads and the enormous anticipated cost. The plan was modified a number of times to overcome opposition from the residents of threatened areas and the government, but was cancelled in 1973. Parts of the two outer ring roads, Ringways 3 and 4, were begun in 1973 and became the first two sections of the M25 to open in 1975 (junction 23 to junction 24) and 1976 (junction 6 to junction 8).The M16 motorway was the designation planned in the late 1960s and early 1970s for use on Ringway 3, a new motorway planned as part of the London Ringways Plan to run a circular route around London. Construction of the first section of the M16 began in 1973 between South Mimms and Potters Bar in Hertfordshire and opened in September 1975 with the temporary general purpose road designation A1178. During construction of the first section of the motorway, the majority of the Ringways plan was cancelled and, in 1975 the plans for Ringway 3 were modified to combine it with parts of another motorway, Ringway 4, the outermost Ringway. The M16 designation was dropped and the combined motorway was given the designation M25 which had originally been intended for the southern and western part of Ringway 4. The section of Ringway 3 west of South Mimms anti-clockwise around London to Swanley in Kent was cancelled and the section clockwise from Potters Bar to the Dartford Tunnel was constructed between 1979 and 1982. The section of Ringway 3 south of the river between Dartford and Swanley was constructed between 1974 and 1977. Construction of the M25 continued in stages until its completion in 1986. The stages were not constructed contiguously but in small sections, such as Dartford to Swanley (junction 1 to junction 3) and Potters Bar to Enfield Town (junction 24 to junction 25). As the orbital road developed the sections were linked. Each section was presented to planning authorities in its own right and was individually justified, with almost 40 public inquiries relating to sections of the route. Maps at this time depicting these short sections named the route as the M16 but this changed before completion. The northern sections of the M25 follow a similar route to the World War II Outer London Defence Ring. The M25 was officially opened on 29 October 1986 with a ceremony by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, who opened the section between J22 and J23 (London Colney and South Mimms). However, it was already seen by many as an outdated motorway on its completion, as the number of cars on Britain's roads had soared substantially since the route was initially projected all those years earlier. Within a few years, it was notorious for being plagued with congestion and had earned the nickname "M25 car park" and congestion has gone from bad to worse over the last 20 years. The initial tenders for the construction of the M25 totalled £631.9 million. This did not include compulsory purchase of land and subsequent upgrades and repairs. More recently, the perennially congested south-western stretch of the M25 (near Woking) has been fitted with an experimental automated traffic control system called Motorway Incident Detection and Automatic Signalling (MIDAS). This consists of a distributed network of traffic and weather sensors, speed cameras and variable-speed signs that control traffic speeds with little human supervision, but has done little to alleviate traffic problems. A precursor of the M25 was the North Orbital Road (see A414 road). Improvements When built the section of the M25 from just west of Junction 25 (A10/Waltham Cross) through to the eastern end of the Holmsdale Tunnel had only 2 lanes for motorway traffic. This was found to cause hold-ups at peak times as the majority of traffic approaching the junction did not leave the motorway. As a result a series of works, which were completed ahead of schedule in late 2007, have increased the number of lanes through this section from 2 to 3 in both clockwise and anti-clockwise directions. This work also included extending the Holmsdale Tunnel to the east. In summer 2007 work started on widening the exit slip-roads in both directions at Junction 28 (A12/Brentwood). This is intended to reduce the amount of traffic queueing on the slip roads at busy periods, particularly traffic from the clockwise M25 joining the northbound A12 where the queue can extend onto the inside lane of the Motorway. The works included a dedicated left-turn lane from the M25 clockwise exit slip road to the A12 entry slip road. These works were completed in February 2008. Future developments The Highways Agency is proposing to widen 63 miles of M25 from six lanes to eight lanes, from junctions 5-6 and 16-30 at a cost of over £5 billion. The Highways Agency is offering the contract on a Design, Build, Finance and Operate (DBFO) basis. A shortlist of contractors was announced in October 2006, however contractors were then asked to resubmit their bids in January 2008. In October 2008 concerns were raised as to likelihood of raising PFI funding for the project after the credit crunch. The project will be constructed under 5 separate schemes. Works on two of the schemes has already started while the others remain in the planning stages. Junction 23 to 27 Widening Plans for this scheme involve widening the M25 from 3 to 4 lane carriageway between Junctions 23 to 27, except around junctions and bridges. The scheme is currently awaiting the publication of an Environmental Statement in 2011 following which public consultations will be held. An estimated date for start of works is given for 2012 with completion aimed for 2015/16. However, in July 2008 the Department for Transport announced the scheme was being considered for hard-shoulder running which if put in place would replace the proposed widening scheme. Junction 30 Improvement In 2007 as part of the Thames Gateway Delivery Plan plans were announced to improve Junction 30 in order to increase its capacity. Following a review by the Highways Agency an announcement on the recommended scheme is expected by the end of 2008. An early estimate on the start of major works is given for 2013/2014. Illuminated sections Large sections of the M25 are illuminated with the aim of reducing accidents on the road. The current illuminated sections are Dartford to junction 2, junctions 5 to 16, junctions 18 to 21A, and junctions 23 to 31. It is thought that when the widening of the M25 is completed junctions 3 to 4 will be the only area unlit, as this is the quietest part of the M25. The type of lights on the M25 varies, with some of the sections using the older yellow low-pressure sodium (SOX) lighting, and others with modern high-pressure sodium (SON) lighting. Some stretches have recently been upgraded to SON. These include Junction 5, junctions around Heathrow and 27. Junctions M25 Motorway Clockwise exits Junction Anti-clockwise exits Dartford Crossing A282 Erith A206 J1a Swanscombe A206 Dartford A225 J1b No Exit London (South East), Canterbury A2, (M2), BluewaterDartford (A225) J2 London (South East), Canterbury A2, (M2), Bluewater London (South East) A20 Maidstone M20 Swanley B2173 J3 Maidstone, Channel Tunnel, Folkestone, Dover M20 London (South East), Swanley A20 Bromley A21 Orpington A224 J4 Bromley A21 Orpington A224 Sevenoaks, Royal Tunbridge Wells, Hastings A21 J5 Maidstone, Channel Tunnel, Folkestone, Dover M26 (M20) Sevenoaks, Royal Tunbridge Wells A21 Clacket Lane services East Grinstead, Eastbourne, Caterham, Godstone A22 Westerham (A25) J6 East Grinstead, Eastbourne, Caterham, Godstone, A22 Redhill (A25) Gatwick Airport, Crawley, Brighton, East Grinstead, Croydon M23 J7 Gatwick Airport, Crawley, Brighton, Croydon M23 Reigate, Sutton A217 Redhill (A25) J8 Reigate, Sutton A217 Kingston (A240) Leatherhead A243 Worthing (A24) J9 Leatherhead A243 Worthing (A24) London (South West), Sutton, Guildford, Portsmouth A3 J10 London (South West), Guildford, A3 Chertsey A317 Woking A320 J11 Woking A320 Chertsey A317 Basingstoke, Southampton, Richmond M3 J12 Basingstoke, Southampton, Richmond M3 Staines A30 J13 London (West), Staines, Windsor A30 Heathrow Airport (Terminals 4, 5 and Cargo) A3113 dedicated spur J14 Heathrow Airport (Terminals 4, 5 and Cargo) A3113 dedicated spur The WEST, Slough, Reading, London (West), Heathrow Airport (Terminals 1, 2 and 3) M4 J15 The WEST, Slough, Reading, London (West), Heathrow Airport (Terminals 1 2, and 3) M4 Birmingham, Oxford, Uxbridge, London (West) M40 J16 Birmingham, Oxford, Uxbridge, London (West) M40 Maple Cross (A412) J17 Maple Cross, Rickmansworth (A412) Rickmansworth, Chorleywood, Amersham A404 J18 Chorleywood, Amersham A404 Watford A41 J19 No Exit Hemel Hempstead, Aylesbury A41 J20 Hemel Hempstead, Aylesbury A41 A4251 The NORTH, Luton & Airport M1 J21 The NORTH, Luton & Airport M1 Watford A405 Harrow (M1 South) J21A St Albans A405 London (North West) (M1 (South)) St Albans A1081 J22 St Albans A1081 Hatfield A1(M) London (North West) A1 Barnet A1081 J23South Mimms services Hatfield A1(M) London (North West) A1 Barnet A1081 Potters Bar A111 J24 Potters Bar A111 Enfield Town, Hertford A10 J25 Enfield, Hertford A10 Waltham Abbey, Loughton A121 J26 Waltham Abbey, Loughton A121 London (North East), Stansted Airport, Harlow, Cambridge M11 J27 London (North East), Stansted Airport, Harlow, Cambridge M11 Chelmsford, Witham, Colchester A12 Brentwood A1023 J28 Chelmsford, Romford A12 Brentwood A1023 Romford, Basildon, Southend A127 J29 Basildon, Southend A127 Thurrock (Lakeside), Tilbury A13 J30Thurrock services Dagenham, Thurrock (Lakeside), Tilbury A13, (A1306, A126, A1090) No Exit J31 South Ockendon, Dagenham A1306 Dartford Crossing A282 Map Map of Ringways 3 & 4 showing sections combined to form the M25 Racing M25 between junctions 7 and 6 near Reigate, Surrey. The Variable Message sign says A14 closed after A10. The orbital nature of the motorway, in common with racetracks, lent itself to unofficial, and illegal, motor racing. At the end of the 1980s, before the advent of speed enforcement devices, owners of supercars, many employed in the financial service industry in the City and in Docklands, would meet at night at services stations such as South Mimms and conduct time trials. Times below 1 hour were achieved; an average speed of over 117 mph (188 km/h), which included coming to a halt at the Dartford Tunnel toll payment booths. Public awareness and references in popular culture The multi level junction with the M23. Inside the Bell Common Tunnel near Epping. The M25 (including the A282 Dartford Crossing) is known for its frequent traffic jams. These have been the subject of so much comment from such an early stage that even at the official opening ceremony Margaret Thatcher complained about "those who carp and criticise". The jams have inspired jokes ("the world's biggest car park", "the London Orbital Car Park"), songs (Chris Rea's "The Road to Hell" ) and the following tongue-in-cheek theory: {{quote|Many phenomena – wars, plagues, sudden audits – have been advanced as evidence for the hidden hand of Satan in the affairs of Man, but whenever students of demonology get together the M25 London orbital motorway is generally agreed to be among the top contenders for exhibit A.|from Good Omens, by Terry Pratchett and Neil Gaiman.}} This is because (in the book) the M25 was actually moulded by demonic forces during its planning so as to resemble, from space, a mystic demonic sigil. In Episode 12 of Primeval, a Colombian mammoth appears here. The M25 was also mentioned in the popular British sketch comedy show, A Bit of Fry and Laurie, starring Stephen Fry and Hugh Laurie. In a sketch featuring Dominic Appleguard, the title character, played by Fry, is shown to be mentally different. After stating, "you can always trust him with a peony and a cod," and showing Stephen Fry holding a cod over two large red peonies and rocking it in his arms like a baby, Hugh Laurie's voice over continues, "Dominic Appleguard designed the M25." The road enjoyed a more positive reputation among ravers in the late 1980s as the then new Orbital Motorway was a popular route to the parties that took place around the outskirts of London. Because the M25 is a more visible and better known marker than administrative boundaries, it is often informally considered as a boundary marking the edges of London. References Iain Sinclair, London Orbital: A Walk Around the M25, 2002, Granta Books, ISBN 1-86207-547-6 Roy Phippen, Travelling M25 Clockwise, 2005, Pallas Athene, ISBN 1-873429-90-8 Terry Pratchett and Neil Gaiman, Good Omens'', Pages 13-14, 2006, William Morrow, New York, ISBN 0-06-085396-4 Similar roads Amsterdam A10 Baltimore I-695 (the Baltimore Beltway) Berlin A10 Boston Massachusetts Route 128, the Yankee Division Highway Campinas (São Paulo, Brazil) Anel Viário José Magalhães Teixeira Chicago I-294 (most of) the Tri-State Tollway in the U.S. state of Illinois Dublin M50 Hyderabad Outer Ring Road (Under construction) Johannesburg Ring Road (N1, N3, N12) Lisbon Circular Regional Interna de Lisboa Madrid M30 Malaysia Kuala Lumpur Middle Ring Road 2 Manchester M60 Mexico City Anillo Periférico Moscow MKAD New York/New Jersey I-287 in the U.S. states of New York and New Jersey Oslo RING 3 Paris Périphérique Paris A86 autoroute Porto Via de Cintura Interna Rome Grande Raccordo Anulare Santiago Avenida Americo Vespucio São Paulo Rodoanel Mário Covas Toronto Highway 407 ETR Washington, D.C. I-495 (the Capital Beltway) External links Highways Agency – Roadworks Highways Agency – Current Traffic Information Highways Agency – Dartford – Thurrock River Crossing The Motorway Archive's M25 page CBRD M25 Motorway Database CBRD M25 Opening Booklet | M25_motorway |@lemmatized see:4 information:2 motorway:30 construction:6 ireland:1 road:26 also:3 know:3 corridor:1 london:47 orbital:10 chris:2 robert:1 heavy:1 word:1 lightly:1 throw:1 reason:1 behind:1 rhyme:1 thorndike:1 press:1 isbn:4 mile:6 km:5 encircle:2 great:9 united:1 kingdom:1 renowned:1 traffic:12 congestion:4 accident:2 rate:1 one:3 busy:4 stretch:9 british:2 network:3 almost:3 completely:1 encircles:1 gap:1 form:2 east:16 dartford:14 crossing:3 link:3 two:7 side:1 river:3 thames:5 design:3 divert:1 vehicle:6 central:4 say:3 long:3 city:3 bypass:1 world:3 europe:2 second:1 ring:10 berlin:3 description:1 junction:41 near:10 reigate:4 surrey:5 sign:3 indicate:2 reduced:2 speed:7 limit:2 due:3 congestionfor:1 majority:3 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2,613 | I_Ching | The I Ching (Wade-Giles), “Yì Jīng” (Pinyin), Classic of Changes or Book of Changes; also called Zhouyi, is one of the oldest of the Chinese classic texts. Wilhelm, R. I Ching Introduction. English translation by Cary F. Baines; HTML edition by Dan Baruth. Retrieved on: January 20, 2008. The book is a symbol system used to identify order in random events. The text describes an ancient system of cosmology and philosophy that is intrinsic to ancient Chinese cultural beliefs. The cosmology centres on the ideas of the dynamic balance of opposites, the evolution of events as a process, and acceptance of the inevitability of change. In Western cultures and modern East Asia, the I Ching is sometimes regarded as a system of divination. The classic consists of a series of symbols, rules for manipulating these symbols, poems, and commentary. Implications of the title 易 (yì), while as a verb it implies “to change“ or 'to exchange/substitute one thing for another'. 經 (jīng) here means “classic (text)”, derived from its original meaning of “regularity” or “persistency”, implying that the text describes the Ultimate Way which will not change throughout the flow of time. This same character was later appropriated to translate the Sanskrit word 'sūtra' into Chinese in reference to Buddhist scripture. In this sense the two concepts, in as much as they mean 'treatise,' 'great teaching,' or 'canonical scripture,' are equivalent. The I Ching is a "reflection of the universe in miniature." The word "I" has three meanings: ease and simplicity, change and transformation, and invariability. Dy, Manuel B., Jr. The Chinese View of Time: A Passage to Eternity. Chapter XX. Retrieved on: January 29, 2008 Thus the three principles underlying the I Ching are the following: Simplicity - the root of the substance. The fundamental law underlying everything in the universe is utterly plain and simple, no matter how abstruse or complex some things may appear to be. Variability - the use of the substance. Everything in the universe is continually changing. By comprehending this one may realize the importance of flexibility in life and may thus cultivate the proper attitude for dealing with a multiplicity of diverse situations. Persistency - the essence of the substance. While everything in the universe seems to be changing, among the changing tides there is a persistent principle, a central rule, which does not vary with space and time. — 易一名而含三義：易簡一也；變易二也；不易三也。 commented on by Zheng Xuan (鄭玄 zhèng xúan) in his writings Critique of I Ching (易贊 yì zàn) and Commentary on I Ching (易論 yì lùn) of Eastern Han Dynasty. History Traditional view Traditionally it was believed that the principles of the I Ching originated with the mythical Fu Xi (伏羲 Fú Xī). In this respect he is seen as an early culture hero, one of the earliest legendary rulers of China (traditional dates 2800 BCE-2737 BCE), reputed to have had the 8 trigrams (八卦 bā gùa) revealed to him supernaturally. By the time of the legendary Yu (禹 Yǔ) 2194 BCE–2149 BCE, the trigrams had supposedly been developed into 64 hexagrams (六十四卦 lìu shí sì gùa), which were recorded in the scripture Lian Shan (《連山》 Lián Shān; also called Lian Shan Yi). Lian Shan, meaning “continuous mountains” in Chinese, begins with the hexagram Bound (艮 gèn), which depicts a mountain (¦¦|) mounting on another and is believed to be the origin of the scripture's name. After the traditionally recorded Xia Dynasty was overthrown by the Shang Dynasty, the hexagrams are said to have been re-deduced to form Gui Cang (《歸藏》 Gūi Cáng; also called Gui Cang Yi), and the hexagram responding (坤 kūn) became the first hexagram. Gui Cang may be literally translated into “return and be contained”, which refers to earth as the first hexagram itself indicates. At the time of Shang's last king, Zhou Wang, King Wen of Zhou is said to have deduced the hexagram and discovered that the hexagrams beginning with Initiating (乾 qián) revealed the rise of Zhou. He then gave each hexagram a description regarding its own nature, thus Gua Ci (卦辭 guà cí, “Explanation of Hexagrams”). When King Wu of Zhou, son of King Wen, toppled the Shang Dynasty, his brother Zhou Gong Dan is said to have created Yao Ci (爻辭 yáo cí, “Explanation of Horizontal Lines”) to clarify the significance of each horizontal line in each hexagram. It was not until then that the whole context of I Ching was understood. Its philosophy heavily influenced the literature and government administration of the Zhou Dynasty (1122 BCE - 256 BCE). Later, during the time of Spring and Autumn (722 BCE - 481 BCE), Confucius is traditionally said to have written the Shi Yi (十翼 shí yì, “Ten Wings”), a group of commentaries on the I Ching. By the time of Han Wu Di (漢武帝 Hàn Wǔ Dì) of the Western Han Dynasty (circa 200 BCE), Shi Yi was often called Yi Zhuan (易傳 yì zhùan, “Commentary on the I Ching”), and together with the I Ching they composed Zhou Yi (周易 zhōu yì, “Changes of Zhou”). All later texts about Zhou Yi were explanations only, due to the classic's deep meaning. Modernist view In the past 50 years a “Modernist” history of the I Ching has been emerging, based on context criticism and research into Shang and Zhou dynasty oracle bones, as well as Zhou bronze inscriptions and other sources (see below). These reconstructions are dealt with in a growing number of books, such as The Mandate of Heaven: Hidden History in the I Ching, by S. J. Marshall, and Richard Rutt's Zhouyi: The Book of Changes, (see References, below). Scholarly works dealing with the new view of the Book of Changes include doctoral dissertations by Richard Kunst and Edward Shaughnessy and a 2008 study by Richard J. Smith. These and other scholars have been helped immensely by Chinese archaeologists' discovery, in the 1970s, of intact Han dynasty-era tombs in Mawangdui near Changsha, Hunan province. One of the tombs contained more or less complete 2nd century BC texts of the I Ching, the Dao De Jing and other works, which are mostly similar yet in some ways diverge significantly from the “received”, or traditional, texts preserved historically. The tomb texts include additional commentaries on the I Ching, previously unknown, and apparently attributed to Confucius. All of the Mawangdui texts are many centuries older than the earliest known attestations of the texts in question. When talking about the evolution of the Book of Changes, therefore, the Modernists contend that it is important to distinguish between the traditional history assigned to texts such as the I Ching (felt to be anachronistic by the Modernists), assignations in commentaries which have themselves been canonized over the centuries along with their subjects, and the more recent scholarly history aided by modern linguistic textual criticism and archaeology. Many hold that these perspectives are not necessarily mutually exclusive, but, for instance, many Modernist scholars doubt the actual existence of Fuxi, or think Confucius had nothing to do with the Book of Changes, and contend that the hexagrams came before the trigrams. Modern scholarship comparing poetic usage and formulaic phrasing in this book with that in ancient bronze inscriptions has shown that the text cannot be attributed to King Wen or Zhou Gong, and that it likely was not compiled until the late Western Zhou, perhaps ca. the late 9th century BC. Rather than being the work of one or several legendary or historical figures, the core divinatory text is now thought to be an accretion of Western Zhou divinatory concepts. As for the Shi Yi commentaries traditionally attributed to Confucius, scholars from the time of the 11th century A.D. scholar Ouyang Xiu onward have doubted this, based on textual analysis, and modern scholars date most of them to the late Warring States period (403/475 BCE-256/221 BCE), with some sections perhaps being as late as the Western Han period (206 BCE-220 CE). Structure The text of the I Ching is a set of oracular statements represented by a set of 64 abstract line arrangements called hexagrams (卦 guà). Each hexagram is a figure composed of six stacked horizontal lines (爻 yáo), where each line is either Yang (an unbroken, or solid line), or Yin (broken, an open line with a gap in the center). With six such lines stacked from bottom to top there are 26 or 64 possible combinations, and thus 64 hexagrams represented. The hexagram diagram is conceptually subdivided into two three-line arrangements called trigrams (卦 guà). There are 23, hence 8, possible trigrams. The traditional view was that the hexagrams were a later development and resulted from combining the two trigrams. However, in the earliest relevant archaeological evidence, groups of numerical symbols on many Western Zhou bronzes and a very few Shang oracle bones, such groups already usually appear in sets of six. A few have been found in sets of three numbers, but these are somewhat later. Note also that these numerical sets greatly predate the groups of broken and unbroken lines, leading modern scholars to doubt the mythical early attributions of the hexagram system. See, for example, Shaugnessy (1993). Each hexagram represents a description of a state or process. When a hexagram is cast using one of the traditional processes of divination with I Ching, each of the yin or yang lines will be indicated as either moving (that is, changing), or fixed (that is, unchanging). Moving (also sometimes called “old”, or “unstable”) lines will change to their opposites, that is “young” lines of the other type—old yang becoming young yin, and old yin becoming young yang. The oldest method for casting the hexagrams, using yarrow stalks, is a biased random number generator, so the possible answers are not equiprobable. While the probability of getting either yin or yang is equal, the probability of getting old yang is three times greater than old yin. The yarrow stalk method was gradually replaced during the Han Dynasty by the three coins method. Using this method the imbalance in generating old yin and old yang was eliminated. There is no theoretical basis for indicating what should be the optimal probability basis of the old lines versus the young lines. Of course, the fundamental idea underlying this system of divination is that the appropriate answer will be produced, regardless of the probabilities. There have been several arrangements of the trigrams and hexagrams over the ages. The bā gùa is a circular arrangement of the trigrams, traditionally printed on a mirror, or disk. According to legend, Fu Hsi found the bā gùa on the scales of a tortoise's back. They function rather like a magic square, with the four axes summing to the same value (e.g., using 0 and 1 to represent yin and yang, 000 + 111 = 111, 101 + 010 = 111, etc.). The King Wen sequence is the traditional (i.e. “classical”) sequence of the hexagrams used in most contemporary editions of the I Ching. The King Wen sequence has been shown to contain within it a demonstration of advanced mathematical knowledge. Cook, Richard S. (2006). STEDT Monograph 5: Classical Chinese Combinatorics: Derivation of the Book of Changes Hexagram Sequence. ISBN 0-944613-44-6. The hexagrams are built from gradations of binary expressions based on yin and yang. They consist of: old yang (yang changing into yin, or moving yang) old yin (yin changing into yang or moving yin) young yang (unchanging yang) young yin (unchanging yin) The eight trigrams Trigrams The solid line represents yang, the creative principle. The open line represents yin, the receptive principle. These principles are also represented in a common circular symbol (), known as taijitu (太極圖), but more commonly known in the west as the yin-yang (陰陽) diagram, expressing the idea of complementarity of changes: when Yang is at top, Yin is increasing, and the reverse. In the following lists, the trigrams and hexagrams are represented using a common textual convention, horizontally from left-to-right, using '|' for yang and '¦' for yin, rather than the traditional bottom-to-top. In a more modern usage, the numbers 0 and 1 can also be used to represent yin and yang, being read left-to-right. There are eight possible trigrams (八卦 bāguà): Trigram Figure Binary Value Name Translation: Wilhelm Wilhelm, R. & Baynes, C., 1967: “The I Ching or Book of Changes”, With foreword by Carl Jung, Introduction, pp.l-li. Bollingen Series XIX, Princeton University Press, (1st ed. 1950) , others Image in Nature Wilhelm, 1967, pp.l-li Direction The Shuo Kua. Translated in Wilhelm, 1967, p.269 Family Relationship The Shuo Kua. Translated in Wilhelm, 1967, p.274 Body Part The Shuo Kua. Translated Wilhelm, 1967, p.274 Attribute The Shuo Kua. Translated Wilhelm, 1967, pp.l-li, p.273 Stage/ State Wilhelm, 1967, p.l-li Animal The Shuo Kua. Translated Wilhelm, 1967, p.273 1 111 乾 qián the Creative, Force heaven, sky天 northwest father head strong creative dragon 2 110 兌 duì the Joyous, Open swamp, marsh澤 west third daughter mouth pleasure tranquil (complete devotion) sheep 3 101 離 lí the Clinging, Radiance fire火 south second daughter eye light-giving, dependence clinging, clarity, adaptable pheasant 4 100 震 zhèn the Arousing, Shake thunder雷 east first son foot inciting movement initiative horse 5 011 巽 xùn the Gentle, Ground wind 風 southeast first daughter thigh penetrating gentle entrance fowl 6 010 坎 kǎn the Abysmal, Gorge water 水 north second son ear dangerous in-motion pig 7 001 艮 gèn Keeping Still, Bound mountain 山 northeast third son hand resting, stand-still completion wolf, dog 8 000 坤 kūn the Receptive, Field earth地 southwest mother belly devoted, yielding receptive cow The first three lines of the hexagram, called the lower trigram, are seen as the inner aspect of the change that is occurring. The upper trigram (the last three lines of the hexagram), is the outer aspect. The change described is thus the dynamic of the inner (personal) aspect relating to the outer (external) situation. Thus, hexagram 04 ¦|¦¦¦| Enveloping, is composed of the inner trigram Gorge, relating to the outer trigram Bound. Hexagram Lookup Table Upper → Lower ↓ ||| () QianHeaven |¦¦ () ZhenThunder ¦|¦ () KanWater ¦¦| () GenMountain ¦¦¦ () KunEarth ¦|| () XunWind |¦| () LiFlame ||¦ () DuiSwamp ||| () QianHeaven 01 ䷀ 34 ䷡ 05 ䷄ 26 ䷙ 11 ䷊ 09 ䷈ 14 ䷍ 43 ䷪ |¦¦() ZhenThunder 25 ䷘ 51 ䷲ 03 ䷂ 27 ䷚ 24 ䷗ 42 ䷩ 21 ䷔ 17 ䷐ ¦|¦ () KanWater 06 ䷅ 40 ䷧ 29 ䷜ 04 ䷃ 07 ䷆ 59 ䷺ 64 ䷿ 47 ䷮ ¦¦| () GenMountain 33 ䷠ 62 ䷽ 39 ䷦ 52 ䷳ 15 ䷎ 53 ䷴ 56 ䷷ 31 ䷞ ¦¦¦ () KunEarth 12 ䷋ 16 ䷏ 08 ䷇ 23 ䷖ 02 ䷁ 20 ䷓ 35 ䷢ 45 ䷬<p align="center">¦|| () XunWind 44 ䷫ 32 ䷟ 48 ䷯ 18 ䷑ 46 ䷭ 57 ䷸ 50 ䷱ 28 ䷛<p align="center">|¦| () LiFlame 13 ䷌ 55 ䷶ 63 ䷾ 22 ䷕ 36 ䷣ 37 ䷤ 30 ䷝ 49 ䷰<p align="center">||¦ () DuiSwamp 10 ䷉ 54 ䷵ 60 ䷻ 41 ䷨ 19 ䷒ 61 ䷼ 38 ䷥ 58 ䷹ The hexagrams The text of the I Ching describes each of the 64 hexagrams, and later scholars added commentaries and analyses of each one; these have been subsumed into the text comprising the I Ching. Each hexagram's common translation is accompanied by the corresponding R. Wilhelm translation, which is the source for the Unicode names. Hexagram R. Wilhelm Modern Interpretation 01. |||||| Force (乾 qián) The Creative Possessing Creative Power & Skill 02. ¦¦¦¦¦¦ Field (坤 kūn) The Receptive Needing Knowledge & Skill; Do not force matters and go with the flow , 03. |¦¦¦|¦ Sprouting (屯 chún) Difficulty at the Beginning Sprouting 04. ¦|¦¦¦| Enveloping (蒙 méng) Youthful Folly Detained, Enveloped and Inexperienced , 05. |||¦|¦ Attending (需 xū) Waiting Uninvolvement (Wait for now), Nourishment 06. ¦|¦||| Arguing (訟 sòng) Conflict Engagement in Conflict 07. ¦|¦¦¦¦ Leading (師 shī) The Army Bringing Together, Teamwork 08. ¦¦¦¦|¦ Grouping (比 bǐ) Holding Together Union 09. |||¦|| Small Accumulating (小畜 xiǎo chù) Small Taming Accumulating Resources 10. ||¦||| Treading (履 lǚ) Treading (Conduct) Continuing with Alertness 11. |||¦¦¦ Pervading (泰 tài) Peace Pervading 12. ¦¦¦||| Obstruction (否 pǐ) Standstill Stagnation 13. |¦|||| Concording People (同人 tóng rén) Fellowship Fellowship, Partnership 14. ||||¦| Great Possessing (大有 dà yǒu) Great Possession Independence, Freedom 15. ¦¦|¦¦¦ Humbling (謙 qiān) Modesty Being Reserved, Refraining 16. ¦¦¦|¦¦ Providing-For (豫 yù) Enthusiasm Inducement, New Stimulus 17. |¦¦||¦ Following (隨 suí) Following Following 18. ¦||¦¦| Corrupting (蠱 gǔ) Work on the Decayed Repairing 19. ||¦¦¦¦ Nearing (臨 lín) Approach Approaching Goal, Arriving 20. ¦¦¦¦|| Viewing (觀 guān) Contemplation The Withholding 21. |¦¦|¦| Gnawing Bite (噬嗑 shì kè) Biting Through Deciding 22. |¦|¦¦| Adorning (賁 bì) Grace Embellishing 23. ¦¦¦¦¦| Stripping (剝 bō) Splitting Apart Stripping, Flaying 24. |¦¦¦¦¦ Returning (復 fù) Return Returning 25. |¦¦||| Without Embroiling (無妄 wú wàng) Innocence Without Rashness 26. |||¦¦| Great Accumulating (大畜 dà chù) Great Taming Accumulating Wisdom 27. |¦¦¦¦| Swallowing (頤 yí) Mouth Corners Seeking Nourishment 28. ¦||||¦ Great Exceeding (大過 dà guò) Great Preponderance Great Surpassing 29. ¦|¦¦|¦ Gorge (坎 kǎn) The Abysmal Water Darkness, Gorge 30. |¦||¦| Radiance (離 lí) The Clinging Clinging, Attachment 31. ¦¦|||¦ Conjoining (咸 xián) Influence Attraction 32. ¦|||¦¦ Persevering (恆 héng) Duration Perseverance Hexagram R. Wilhelm Modern Interpretation 33. ¦¦|||| Retiring (遯 dùn) Retreat Withdrawing 34. ||||¦¦ Great Invigorating (大壯 dà zhuàng) Great Power Great Boldness 35. ¦¦¦|¦| Prospering (晉 jìn) Progress Expansion, Promotion 36. |¦|¦¦¦ Brightness Hiding (明夷 míng yí) Darkening of the Light Brilliance Injured 37. |¦|¦|| Dwelling People (家人 jiā rén) The Family Family 38. ||¦|¦| Polarising (睽 kuí) Opposition Division, Divergence 39. ¦¦|¦|¦ Limping (蹇 jiǎn) Obstruction Halting, Hardship 40. ¦|¦|¦¦ Taking-Apart (解 xiè) Deliverance Liberation, Solution 41. ||¦¦¦| Diminishing (損 sǔn) Decrease Decrease 42. |¦¦¦|| Augmenting (益 yì) Increase Increase 43. |||||¦ Parting (夬 guài) Breakthrough Separation 44. ¦||||| Coupling (姤 gòu) Coming to Meet Encountering 45. ¦¦¦||¦ Clustering (萃 cuì) Gathering Together Association, Companionship 46. ¦||¦¦¦ Ascending (升 shēng) Pushing Upward Growing Upward 47. ¦|¦||¦ Confining (困 kùn) Oppression Exhaustion 48. ¦||¦|¦ Welling (井 jǐng) The Well Replenishing, Renewal 49. |¦|||¦ Skinning (革 gé) Revolution Abolishing the Old 50. ¦|||¦| Holding (鼎 dǐng) The Cauldron Establishing the New 51. |¦¦|¦¦ Shake (震 zhèn) Arousing Mobilizing 52. ¦¦|¦¦| Bound (艮 gèn) The Keeping Still Immobility 53. ¦¦|¦|| Infiltrating (漸 jiàn) Development Auspicious Outlook, Infiltration 54. ||¦|¦¦ Converting The Maiden (歸妹 guī mèi) The Marrying Maiden Marrying 55. |¦||¦¦ Abounding (豐 fēng) Abundance Goal Reached, Ambition Achieved 56. ¦¦||¦| Sojourning (旅 lǚ) The Wanderer Travel 57. ¦||¦|| Ground (巽 xùn) The Gentle Subtle Influence 58. ||¦||¦ Open (兌 duì) The Joyous Overt Influence 59. ¦|¦¦|| Dispersing (渙 huàn) Dispersion Dispersal 60. ||¦¦|¦ Articulating (節 jié) Limitation Discipline 61. ||¦¦|| Centre Confirming (中孚 zhōng fú) Inner Truth Staying Focused, Avoid Misrepresentation 62. ¦¦||¦¦ Small Exceeding (小過 xiǎo guò) Small Preponderance Small Surpassing 63. |¦|¦|¦ Already Fording (既濟 jì jì) After Completion Completion 64. ¦|¦|¦| Not-Yet Fording (未濟 wèi jì) Before Completion Incompletion The hexagrams, though, are mere mnemonics for the philosophical concepts embodied in each one. The philosophy centres around the ideas of balance through opposites and acceptance of change. Unicode In Unicode, monograms cover code points U+268A to U+268B, digrams cover code points U+268C to U+268F, trigrams cover code points U+2630 to U+2637, hexagram symbols cover code points U+4DC0 to U+4DFF (19904 – 19967). Tai Xuan Jing() digrams cover code points U+1D301 to U+1D305, tetragrams cover code points U+1D306 to U+1D356. The monograms cover code points U+1D300 (earth), U+268A (yang), U+268B (yin). Philosophy Yin and yang, while common expressions associated with many schools of classical Chinese culture, are especially associated with the Taoists. Another view holds that the I Ching is primarily a Confucianist ethical or philosophical document. This view is based upon the following: The Wings or Appendices are attributed to Confucius. The study of the I Ching was required as part of the Civil Service Exams in the period that these exams only studied Confucianist texts. It is one of the Five Confucian Classics. It does not appear in any surviving editions of the Daozang. The major commentaries were written by Confucianists, or Neo-Confucianists. Taoist scripture avoids, even mocks, all attempts at categorizing the world's myriad phenomena and forming a static philosophy. Taoists venerate the non-useful. The I Ching could be used for good or evil purposes. Both views may be seen to show that the I Ching was at the heart of Chinese thought, serving as a common ground for the Confucian and Taoist schools. Partly forgotten due to the rise of Chinese Buddhism during the Tang dynasty, the I Ching returned to the attention of scholars during the Song dynasty. This was concomitant with the reassessment of Confucianism by Confucians in the light of Taoist and Buddhist metaphysics, and is known in the West as Neo-Confucianism. The book, unquestionably an ancient Chinese scripture, helped Song Confucian thinkers to synthesize Buddhist and Taoist cosmologies with Confucian and Mencian ethics. The end product was a new cosmogony that could be linked to the so-called “lost Tao” of Confucius and Mencius. Binary sequence In his article Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire (1703) Gottfried Leibniz writes that he has found in the hexagrams a base for claiming the universality of the binary numeral system. He takes the layout of the combinatorial exercise found in the hexagrams to represent binary sequences, so that ¦¦¦¦¦¦ would correspond to the binary sequence 000000 and ¦¦¦¦¦| would be 000001, and so forth. The binary arrangement of hexagrams is associated with the famous Chinese scholar and philosopher Shao Yung (a neo-Confucian and Taoist) in the 11th century. He displayed it in two different formats, a circle, and a rectangular block. Thus, he clearly understood the sequence represented a logical progression of values. However, while it is true that these sequences do represent the values 0 through 63 in a binary display, there is no evidence that Shao understood that the numbers could be used in computations such as addition or subtraction. It should be noted that Shao Yung had been attributed with the original Segregation Table of the symbols of the book of changes Fu-Hsi Liu-shih-ssu Kua Tzhu Hsu from Chu Hsi's Chou I Pen I Thu Shou (reproduced in Hu Wei's I Thu Ming Pien ch.7, pp 2b,3a and elsewhere). Analysis of the binary sequence and its derivation from Recursion of the yin/yang dichotomy reveal the capability of the I Ching to describe itself by reference to itself through use of analogies to hexagrams. Thus the full, generic, description of a particular hexagram is provided through analogies to all of the other hexagrams in the set - this being a feature of any language, to describe itself. As such the I Ching is revealed as a "Language of the Vague", universals representing 'all there is' that are then open to customisation through prose that ties the universals to a local context. The set of descriptions are covered in such as Lofting(2009) where the interpretation is done through the I Ching itself. The recursion of yi/yang creates a closed system and so a symmetric form that includes such properties as 'all is connected' and allows for the I Ching to self-reference. This is in fact applicable to any system derived from recursion of some dichotomy and as such brings out the ease in which the I Ching can be mapped to the genetic code where the common ground is in BOTH being products of recursion (The genetic code plays with the asymmetric purine/pyramidine dichotomy) I Ching and Genetic Code texts: Schonberger, M., (1976) "The I Ching and the Genetic Code" ASI Publishers Inc. Yan. J.F., (1991) "DNA and the I Ching: The Tao of Life" North Atlantic Books. Walter,K.,(1994)"The Tao of Chaos: DNA & The I Ching" Element The tie is strictly due to the common methodology used - recursion. The Symbolic and Numerical Language The oracular interpretation of the symbolic language based on trigram symbols formed from yang and yin components is well known. However, the inherent numerical language of line change and non-change is relatively unknown. When the translated text reads "Nine in the beginning means...." this is the equivalent of saying: "When the positive line in the first place is represented by the number 9, it has the following meaning.....". If, on the other hand, the line is represented by the number 7, it is disregarded in interpreting the oracle. The same principle holds for lines represented by the numbers 6 and 8 respectively. Wilhelm, Richard. The I Ching or Book of Changes, Part 1 Thus, line transformation (change) or non-transformation (non-change) can be represented numerically, as follows: A POSITIVE (unbroken line) transforming into a NEGATIVE (broken line) = 9 A POSITIVE (unbroken line) transforming into a POSITIVE (unbroken line) = 7 A NEGATIVE (broken line) transforming into a POSITIVE (unbroken line) = 6 A NEGATIVE (broken line) transforming into a NEGATIVE (broken line) = 8 This changes the ancient symbolic linear language of the I Ching into a simple numerical language that enables the practitioner to create sixteen numerical codes, which consist of three numbers, from each circular arrangement of eight trigrams. John C. Compton suggests that these numerical codes represent specific codons of the Genetic Code. The I Ching Project - The I Ching Key - Volume 2 - The I Ching and the Genetic Code by John C. Compton ISBN 978-0-9554482-1-8. Mathematical Significance Richard S. Cook reporeted that that the I Ching demonstrated a relation between the golden ratio (aka the division in extreme and mean ratio) and "linear recurrence sequences" (the Fibonacci numbers are examples of "linear recurrence sequences") : ...the hexagram sequence, showing that its classification of binary sequences demonstrates knowledge of the convergence of certain linear recurrence sequences ... to division in extreme and mean ratio... that the complex hexagram sequence encapsulates a careful and ingenious demonstration of the LRS(linear recurrence sequences)/DEMR (division in the extreme mean ratio relation), that this knowledge results from general combinatorial analysis, and is reflected in elements emphasized in ancient Chinese and Western mathematical traditions. http://stedt.berkeley.edu/html/publications.html#mng5 Divination The I Ching has long been used as an oracle and many different ways coexist to “cast” a reading, i.e., a hexagram, with its dynamic relationship to others. In China the I Ching had two distinct functions. The first was as a compendium and classic of ancient cosmic principles. The second function was that of divination text. As a divination text the world of the I Ching was that of the marketplace fortune teller and roadside oracle. These individuals served the illiterate peasantry. The educated Confucian elite in China were of an entirely different disposition. The future results of our actions were a function of our personal virtues. The Confucian literati actually had little use for the I Ching as a work of divination. In the collected works of the countless educated literati of ancient China there are actually few references to the I Ching as a divination text. Any eyewitness account of traditional Chinese society, such as S. Wells Williams The Middle Kingdom, and many others, can clarify this very basic distinction. Williams tells us of the I Ching, "The hundred of fortune- tellers seen in the streets of Chinese towns, whose answers to their perplexed customers are more or less founded on these cabala, indicate their influence among the illiterate; while among scholars, who have long since conceded all divination to be vain..." (The Middle Kingdom, vol. 1, p. 632) Symbolism The flag of South Korea, with Taegeuk in the centre with four trigrams representing Heaven, Water, Earth, and Fire (beginning top left and proceeding clockwise). Flag of the Empire of Vietnam used Trigram Li - Fire The Flag of South Korea contains the Taijitu symbol, or tàijítú, (yin and yang in dynamic balance, called taegeuk in Korean), representing the origin of all things in the universe. The taegeuk is surrounded by four of the eight trigrams, starting from top left and going clockwise: Heaven, Water, Earth, Fire. The flag of the Empire of Vietnam used the Li (Fire) trigram and was known as cờ quẻ Ly (Li trigram flag) because the trigram represents South. Its successor the Republic of Vietnam connected the middle lines, turning it into the Qián (Heaven) trigram. (see Flag of the Republic of Vietnam). Influence on Western culture The I Ching has influenced countless Chinese philosophers, artists and even businesspeople throughout history. In more recent times, several Western artists and thinkers have used it in fields as diverse as psychoanalysis, music, film, drama, dance, eschatology, and fiction writing. Commentary Early Chinese civilization, as with western civilization, accepted various pre-scientific explanations of natural events, and the I Ching has been cited as an example of this. As a manual of divination it interpreted natural events through readings based on symbols expressed in the trigrams and hexagrams. Thus any observation in nature could be interpreted as to its significance and cause. This might be compared to the Roman practice of basing decisions on the state of animals' livers. While usually sympathetic to the claims of Chinese culture and science, Joseph Needham, in his second volume of Science and Civilization in China (p. 311) stated: "Yet really they [Han dynasty scholars] would have been wiser to tie a millstone about the neck of the I Ching and cast it into the sea." Snow, Eric. (June 27, 1999) "Christianity: A Cause of Modern Science?". Retrieved on: February 16, 2008 Abraham (1999) states that Confucius' ten commentaries, called the Ten Wings, transformed the I Ching from a divination text into a "philosophical masterpiece." It was this form of the I Ching that inspired the Taoists, Chuang Tzu and Lao Tzu. It has influenced Confucians and other philosophers and scientists ever since. Abraham, Ralph H. (1999) Commentaries on the I Ching. Chapter 1 Legendary History. Retrieved on: February 15, 2008 However, Helmut Wilhelm in his Change/Eight Lectures on the I Ching, cautions: "It can no longer be said with certainty whether any of the material—and if any, how much—comes from Confucius' own hand." Wilhelm, H. (1973) Change: Eight Lectures On The I Ching., p. 12. Princeton: Princeton University Press, Translated into English from the German by Cary F. Baynes. Translations Anthony, Carol K. and Moog, Hanna. I Ching: The Oracle of the Cosmic Way. Stow, Massachusetts: Anthony Publishing Company, Inc., 2002. ISBN 1-890764-00-0. The publisher's internet address is www.ichingoracle.com. Balkin, Jack M. 2002. The Laws of Change: I Ching and the Philosophy of Life. New York: Schocken Books. ISBN 0-8052-4199-X Benson, Robert G. 2003. I Ching for a New Age: The Book of Answers for Changing Times. New York: Square One Publishers. Blofeld, J. 1965. The Book of Changes: A New Translation of the Ancient Chinese I Ching. New York: E. P. Dutton. Cornelius, J Edward and Cornelius, Marlene (1998) Yî King: A Beastly Book of Changes. Red Flame: A Thelemic Research Journal (5) 1998. This book contains Aleister Crowley's notes and comments on the Yi Jing. Huang, A. 1998. The Complete I Ching: the Definitive Translation From the Taoist Master Alfred Huang. Rochester, N.Y: Inner Traditions. Hua-Ching Ni. 1999. I Ching: The Book of Changes and the Unchanging Truth. (2nd edition). Los Angeles: Seven Star Communications. Karcher, Stephen, 2002. I Ching: The Classic Chinese Oracle of Change: The First Complete Translation with Concordance. London: Vega Books. ISBN 1-84333-003-2. The publisher can be found at www.chrysalisbooks.co.uk. This version manages to pull together a wide variety of sources and interpretations into a coherent, intelligible whole which is generally easier to understand than the Wilhelm/Baynes edition. Especially interesting are its multiple translations of the Chinese words used and the concordance at the end. Legge, J. 1964. I Ching: Book of Changes. With introduction and study guide by Ch'u Chai and Winberg Chai. New York: Citadel Press. Shaughnessy, Edward L. 1996. I Ching, The Classic of Changes, Ballantine. ISBN 0-345-36243-8. First English translation of the newly discovered 2nd century B.C. Mawangdui texts. Wilhelm, R. and Baynes, C., 1967. The I Ching or Book of Changes, With foreword by Carl Jung. 3rd. ed., Bollingen Series XIX. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press (1st ed. 1950). Lofting, C.J., 2009, The Emotional I Ching : A Language of the Vague Lulu, ISBN 978-1-4092-7139-0 . Grounds the I Ching in a product of neurology, cognition, and emotion. The author maintains that in doing so this grounding lets the I Ching describe itself by reference to itself independent of the Chinese language. As such the coverage is on universals then grounded in local context through words. Lynn, Richard J. 1994, The Classic of Changes, A New Translation of the I Ching as Interpreted by Wang Bi. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08294-0 Wei, Wu 2005. I Ching, The Book Of Answers Power Press ISBN 0-943015-41-3 New revised edition, interpreted by Wu Wei. Appears to follow the Wilhelm and Baynes translation closely, leaving out the sometimes confusing mechanics. Would be useful in conjunction with Wilhelm and Baynes when divining for the lay person. Cheng Yi translated by Cleary, Thomas 1988, 2003. I Ching: The Book of Change Shambala Library, Boston, London ISBN 1-59030-015-7 See also Bagua (concept) Yin and yang Feng Shui Qi Men Dun Jia Da Liu Ren Tai Chi Footnotes References Brennan, Herbie (August, 1973). The Syncronistic Barometer, Analog. Crowley, Aleister - liber CCXVI- The Book of Changes- I CHing - The Equinox, Vol III NO 7. A.'.A.'. Marshall, S. J. (2001). The Mandate of Heaven: Hidden History in the I Ching. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-12299-3 Rutt, R. (1996). Zhouyi: The Book of Changes. Curzon Press. Reifler, Samuel. (1974). “I Ching: A New Interpretation for Modern Times.” Bantam New Age Books. ISBN 0-553-27873-8 Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1993). “I ching 易經 (Chou I 周易) ”, pp.216–228 in Loewe, Michael (ed.). Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide, (Early China Special Monograph Series No. 2), Society for the Study of Early China, and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, ISBN 1-55729-043-1. Smith, Richard J. (2008). Fathoming the Cosmos and Ordering the World: The Yijing (I Ching or Classic of Changes) and Its Evolution in China. University of Virginia Press. ISBN 978-0813927053 External links I Ching. Full text of Wilhelm translation. I Ching: An Annotated Bibliography by Hacker et al. 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2,614 | Campus | The Universitätscampus Wien, Austria (details) A campus is traditionally the land on which a college or university and related institutional buildings are situated. Usually a campus includes libraries, lecture halls, residence halls and park-like settings. The definition currently defines a collection of buildings that belong to a given institution, either academic or non-academic. The word first was adopted to describe a particular urban space at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) during the early decades of the eighteenth century. Some other American colleges later adopted the word to describe individual fields at their own institutions, but "campus" did not yet describe the whole university property. A school might have one space called a campus, one called a field, and another called a yard. The meaning expanded to include the whole institutional property during the twentieth century, with the old meaning persisting into the 1950s in some places. Sometimes the lands on which company office buildings sit, along with the buildings, are called campuses. The Microsoft Campus in Redmond, Washington, as well as hospitals use the term to describe the territory of their facilities. The word "campus" has also been applied to European universities, although most such institutions are characterized by ownership of individual buildings in urban settings rather than park-like lawns in which buildings are placed. See also Campus novel Campus university Satellite campus | Campus |@lemmatized universitätscampus:1 wien:1 austria:1 detail:1 campus:10 traditionally:1 land:2 college:3 university:5 related:1 institutional:2 building:6 situate:1 usually:1 include:2 library:1 lecture:1 hall:2 residence:1 park:2 like:2 setting:2 definition:1 currently:1 define:1 collection:1 belong:1 give:1 institution:3 either:1 academic:2 non:1 word:3 first:1 adopt:2 describe:4 particular:1 urban:2 space:2 new:1 jersey:1 princeton:1 early:1 decade:1 eighteenth:1 century:2 american:1 later:1 individual:2 field:2 yet:1 whole:2 property:2 school:1 might:1 one:2 call:4 another:1 yard:1 meaning:2 expand:1 twentieth:1 old:1 persisting:1 place:2 sometimes:1 company:1 office:1 sit:1 along:1 microsoft:1 redmond:1 washington:1 well:1 hospital:1 use:1 term:1 territory:1 facility:1 also:2 apply:1 european:1 although:1 characterize:1 ownership:1 rather:1 lawn:1 see:1 novel:1 satellite:1 |@bigram twentieth_century:1 redmond_washington:1 |
2,615 | Keeshond | The Keeshond ( or KAYZ-hond; plural: Keeshonden) is a medium-sized dog with a plush two-layer coat of silver and black fur with a 'ruff' and a curled tail, originating in Germany. Its closest relatives are the other German spitzes such as the Pomeranian. Originally called the German Spitz, more specifically the Wolfsspitz''', the name was officially changed to Keeshond in England, where it had been known as the Dutch Barge Dog, in 1926. Description Appearance A member of the spitz group of dogs, the Kees in AKC standard is 17 to 18 inches (about 45 cm) tall and 19.25 (46 cm) ± 2.4 inches (6 cm) in the FCI standard and weighs 35 to 45 pounds (about 16 to 18 kg). Sturdily built, they have a typical spitz appearance, neither coarse nor refined. They have a wedge shaped head, a medium-length muzzle with a definite stop, small pointed ears and an expressive face. The tail is tightly curled and, in profile, should be carried such that it is indistinguishable from the compact body of the dog. Coat Like all spitz, the Kees have a dense double coat, with a thick ruff around the neck. Typically, the males of this breed will have a thicker, more pronounced ruff than the females. The tail is well plumed, and feathering on the fore and hind legs adds to the soft look of the breed. The coat is shown naturally, and should not be wavy, silky, or long enough to form a natural part down the back. Color The Keeshond is a color-specific spitz type; many of the names of the dog refer to the distinctive wolf color of the breed. The color is a mix of grey, black and cream. The top coat is tipped with black, while the undercoat is silver or cream (never tawny). The color can range from very pale to very dark, but the Kees should neither be black nor white, and the ruff and "trousers" of the hind legs should be a distinctly lighter silver or cream. The plumed tail should be of a silver or cream color with a black tip on the very end. The tail should be tightly curled over the back. The tail is an important part of the Keeshond's shape. The ears and muzzle are to be black, although some Kees tend to develop "milk mouth" or a white shading around the nose and front of the muzzle. This increases as the dog ages. In American shows, this white shading is acceptable, although not desired. It is also important to note that the feet are to also be of the same cream, or lighter grey color as the legs. Feet that are totally black or white are not allowed. However, light pencilling is accepted. The other important marking is the "spectacles," a delicate dark line running from the outer corner of each eye toward the lower corner of each ear, which, coupled with markings forming short eyebrows, is necessary for the distinct expressive look of the breed. All markings should be clear, not muddled or broken. Absence of the spectacles is considered a serious fault. The eyes should be dark brown, almond-shaped with black eye rims. Pavia, Audrey. Guide to Owning a Keeshond. Neptune City, NJ: THF Publications, Inc. Ears should be small, triangular, and erect. Temperament A one year old male Keeshond. Keeshonden tend to be very playful, with quick reflexes and strong jumping ability. They are quick learners and eager to please. Because Keeshonden are quick learners, they also learn the things you didn't necessarily wish to teach them - very quickly. However, Keeshonden make excellent agility and obedience dogs. So amenable to proper training is this bright, sturdy dog that Keeshonden have been successfully trained to serve as guide dogs for the blind; only their lack of size has prevented them from being more widely used in this role. They love children and are excellent family dogs, preferring to be close to their humans whenever possible. They generally get along with other dogs as well and will enjoy a good chase around the yard. Keeshonden are very intuitive and empathic and are often used as comfort dogs. Most notably, at least one Keeshond, Tikva, was at Ground Zero on 9/11 to help comfort the rescue workers. Therapy Dogs Lift Spirits at Ground Zero The breed has a tendency to become especially clingy towards their owners, even in comparison to other dogs. If their owner is out, or in another room behind a closed door, they may sit, waiting for their owner to reappear, even if there are other people nearby. Many have been referred to as their "owner's shadow," or "velcro dogs". They are known by their loud distinctive bark. Throughout the centuries, the Keeshond has been very popular as a watch dog on manors in the Netherlands and middle Europe; this trait is evident to this day, and they are alert dogs that warn their owners of any new visitors. Despite being a loud and alert watch dog, Keeshonden are not aggressive towards visitors. They generally welcome visitors affectionately once their family has accepted them. Unfortunately, barking may become a problem if not properly handled. Keeshonden that are kept in a yard and not allowed to be with their humans are unhappy, and often become nuisance barkers. Training The Keeshond is a very bright dog as evidenced by its level of achievement in obedience work. The Keeshond ranks 16th in Stanley Coren's The Intelligence of Dogs, being of excellent working/obedience intelligence. This intelligence makes a Keeshond a good choice for the dog owner who is willing to help a dog learn the right lessons, but also entails added responsibility. Many people purchase a Keeshond thinking that, since they are agreeable family dogs, they must also be easy to train. While affectionate, Keeshonden may not be for the inexperienced trainer. Consistency and fairness are needed and, while most dogs need a structured environment, it's especially necessary with a Keeshond. Like most of the independent-minded spitz breeds, Keeshonden respond poorly to heavy-handed or forceful training methods. Many behavioral problems with Keeshonden stem from these intelligent dogs inventing their own activities (often destructive ones, like digging and chewing) out of boredom. They need daily contact with their owners and lots of activity to remain happy. Therefore, it is not the right choice of breed for those who want a dog that lives happily alone in a kennel or backyard. Keeshonden can also be timid dogs. It is important to train them to respect their owners and family, but not fear them. Keeshonden want to please their owners so harsh punishment is not necessary when the dog does not obey as quickly as desired. They like to spend time with their owners, and love attention. Health Keeshonden are prone to hip dysplasia, luxating patellas (trick knee), epilepsy, Cushing's disease, primary hyperparathyroidism, and hypothyroidism. Von Willebrand's disease has been known in Keeshonden but is not common. An accurate test for the gene causing primary hyperparathyroidism (or PHPT) has recently been developed at Cornell University. As with any breed, it is important when buying a puppy to make sure that the parents have been tested and certified free from inherited problems. A healthy, well-bred Keeshond can be expected to live between 12 and 15 years on average. Grooming Due to their double coat, a thick undercoat and a longer "guard" coat above that, Keeshonden need regular brushing. An hour per week will keep the dog comfortable and handsome. The Keeshond's coat sheds dirt when dry, and the breed is not prone to doggy odor, so only infrequent bathing is necessary. The coat acts as insulation and protects the dog from sunburn and insects, so shaving or clipping is not desirable. The coat also loses its distinct color as the black tipping on the hairs will be shorn off. If frequent brushing is too much effort, it is better to choose another breed rather than clip the Keeshond short. History The Keeshond was named after the 18th-century Dutch patriot, Cornelis (Kees) de Gyselaer, leader of the Dutch rebellion against the House of Orange. The dog became the rebels' symbol, and when the House of Orange was returned to power, this breed almost disappeared. The word 'keeshond' is a compound word: 'Kees' is a nickname for Cornelius (de Gyselaer), and 'hond' is a Dutch word for dog. In Holland, "keeshond" is the term for German Spitzes that encompass them all from the toy or dwarf (Pomeranian) to the Wolfsspitz (Keeshond). The sole difference between the German Spitzes is their coloring and size guidelines. Although many American references point to the Keeshond as we know it originating in the Netherlands, the breed is cited as being part of the German Spitz family and originating in Germany along with the Pomeranian (toy or dwarf German Spitz) and American Eskimo dog (small or standard German Spitz) according to the FCI. The first standard for "Wolfsspitze" was posted at the Dog Show of 1880 in Berlin. The Club for German Spitzes was founded in 1899. The German standard was revised in 1901 to specify the characteristic color that we know today, "silver grey tipped with black". In the late 1800s the "Overweight Pomeranian", a white German Spitz and most likely a Standard German Spitz, was shown in the BKC. The "Overweight Pomeranian" was no longer recognized by the BKC in 1915. In the 1920s, Baroness van Hardenbroeck took an interest in the breed and began to build it up again. The Nederlandse Keeshond Club was formed in 1924. The Dutch Barge Dog Club of England was formed in 1925 by Mrs. Wingfield-Digby and accepted into the BKC in 1926, when the breed and the club were renamed to Keeshond. Carl Hinderer is credited with bringing his Schloss Adelsburg Kennel, which he founded in 1922 in Germany, with him to America in 1923. His German Champion Wolfsspitz followed him two by two in 1926. As in England, Germany was not regarded fondly in America at the time and the Wolfsspitz/Keeshond was not recognized by the AKC. Despite this, Carl joined the Maryland KC and attended local shows. Due to the lack of AKC recognition Carl had to register each puppy with his club in Germany. Carl regularly wrote to the AKC including the New York headquarters to promote the Wolfsspitz. While going through New York on his way to Germany in 1930 Carl visited the AKC offices and presented Wachter, his Germany champion, to AKC president, Dr. DeMond, who promptly agreed to start the recognition process, with some caveats including changing the name to Keeshond, and asked Carl to bring back all the relevant data from Germany. Carl also translated the German standard to English for the AKC. The Keeshond was accepted for AKC registration in 1930. Despite intense lobbying the FCI would not accept the Keeshond as a separate breed since it viewed the Wolfsspitz and Keeshond as identical. In 1997 the German Spitz Club updated its standard so that the typically smaller Keeshond preferred in America and other English-speaking countries could be included. This greatly expanded the gene pool and unified the standard internationally for the first time. Now bred for many generations as a companion dog, the Keeshond easily becomes a loving family member. As a result of the breed's history and friendly disposition, Keeshonden are sometimes referred to as "The Smiling Dutchman". Miscellaneous Breed pronunciation Out of the 350 some purebreds, the Keeshond has possibly the most mispronounced name. "Kay sawn", "Case-hond", "kās-hond", "keys-hând", "keesh-ond", "keesh-hond", and even "keesh-hound" as so many will say, are all improper pronunciations. The proper pronunciation is "kayz-hond" or "kayz-hawnd" with the proper pronunciation of the plural being "kayz-honden" or "kayz-hawnden". Colored Keeshonden Historically, Keeshonden being part of the German Spitz family had been interbred with their smaller brethren (small, standard, and dwarf German spitzes) and came in several colors—white, black, red, orange, orange-shaded white (also called orange and cream), and silver gray. Originally, like the other German spitzes, many colors, including piebalds, were allowed, but as time progressed, only the silver-grey and cream (wolf-gray) color was finally established into the Wolfsspitz type. While other-colored Keeshonden can have terrific conformation, they're not allowed to be shown in the show ring. Colored Keeshonden are considered "pet quality" and thus should be spayed or neutered. The appearance of oddly-colored Kees in otherwise wolf-gray litters has caused research into the early history of Keeshond coat colors. Because of this, some breeders wonder whether the Keeshond should be bred for colors other than grey. There are many bloodlines carrying the colored gene, and rather than examples of mixed breeding, colors are legitimate throwbacks to an earlier era of the breed. No one knows the exact number of colored Keeshonden born in the United States. Incorrect or incomplete documentation make it impossible to determine how many colored Keeshonden, and of which colors, have been born in the United States. External links Clubs, Associations, and Societies Keeshond Club of America Keeshond Club of Canada Keeshond Club UK Keeshond Club of Sweden Keeshond Rescue of North America Verein für Deutsche Spitze (Club for German Spitzes) Pedigree Databases Keeshond Pedigree and Health Database http://www.keeshond.cz http://www.gross-spitz.wz.cz References | Keeshond |@lemmatized keeshond:53 kayz:5 hond:6 plural:2 medium:2 size:3 dog:36 plush:1 two:3 layer:1 coat:11 silver:7 black:11 fur:1 ruff:4 curled:1 tail:6 originate:2 germany:8 close:2 relative:1 german:18 spitz:21 pomeranian:5 originally:2 call:2 specifically:1 wolfsspitz:7 name:5 officially:1 change:2 england:3 know:6 dutch:5 barge:2 description:1 appearance:3 member:2 group:1 kees:7 akc:8 standard:10 inch:2 cm:3 tall:1 fci:3 weigh:1 pound:1 kg:1 sturdily:1 build:2 typical:1 neither:2 coarse:1 refine:1 wedge:1 shape:3 head:1 length:1 muzzle:3 definite:1 stop:1 small:6 point:2 ear:4 expressive:2 face:1 tightly:2 curl:2 profile:1 carry:2 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affectionately:1 unfortunately:1 problem:3 properly:1 handle:1 keep:2 unhappy:1 nuisance:1 barker:1 evidence:1 level:1 achievement:1 work:2 rank:1 stanley:1 coren:1 intelligence:3 choice:2 willing:1 right:2 lesson:1 entail:1 added:1 responsibility:1 purchase:1 thinking:1 since:2 agreeable:1 must:1 easy:1 affectionate:1 inexperienced:1 trainer:1 consistency:1 fairness:1 need:4 structured:1 environment:1 independent:1 mind:1 respond:1 poorly:1 heavy:1 hand:1 forceful:1 method:1 behavioral:1 stem:1 intelligent:1 invent:1 activity:2 destructive:1 dig:1 chew:1 boredom:1 daily:1 contact:1 lot:1 remain:1 happy:1 therefore:1 want:2 live:2 happily:1 alone:1 kennel:2 backyard:1 timid:1 respect:1 fear:1 harsh:1 punishment:1 obey:1 spend:1 time:4 attention:1 health:2 prone:2 hip:1 dysplasia:1 luxate:1 patella:1 trick:1 knee:1 epilepsy:1 cushing:1 disease:2 primary:2 hyperparathyroidism:2 hypothyroidism:1 von:1 willebrand:1 common:1 accurate:1 test:2 gene:3 cause:2 phpt:1 recently:1 cornell:1 university:1 buy:1 puppy:2 sure:1 parent:1 certify:1 free:1 inherit:1 healthy:1 expect:1 average:1 groom:1 due:2 longer:2 guard:1 regular:1 brushing:2 hour:1 per:1 week:1 comfortable:1 handsome:1 shed:1 dirt:1 dry:1 doggy:1 odor:1 infrequent:1 bathing:1 act:1 insulation:1 protect:1 sunburn:1 insect:1 shave:1 clip:2 desirable:1 lose:1 tipping:1 hair:1 shorn:1 frequent:1 much:1 effort:1 choose:1 rather:2 history:3 patriot:1 cornelis:1 de:2 gyselaer:2 leader:1 rebellion:1 house:2 orange:5 rebel:1 symbol:1 return:1 power:1 almost:1 disappear:1 word:3 compound:1 nickname:1 cornelius:1 holland:1 term:1 encompass:1 toy:2 dwarf:3 sole:1 difference:1 coloring:1 guideline:1 reference:2 cite:1 originating:1 eskimo:1 accord:1 first:2 wolfsspitze:1 post:1 berlin:1 club:12 found:2 revise:1 specify:1 characteristic:1 today:1 late:1 overweight:2 likely:1 bkc:3 recognize:2 baroness:1 van:1 hardenbroeck:1 take:1 interest:1 begin:1 nederlandse:1 mr:1 wingfield:1 digby:1 rename:1 carl:7 hinderer:1 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spay:1 neuter:1 oddly:1 otherwise:1 litter:1 research:1 early:2 breeder:1 wonder:1 whether:1 bloodline:1 colored:2 example:1 mixed:1 breeding:1 legitimate:1 throwback:1 era:1 exact:1 number:1 bear:2 united:2 state:2 incorrect:1 incomplete:1 documentation:1 impossible:1 determine:1 external:1 link:1 association:1 society:1 canada:1 uk:1 sweden:1 north:1 verein:1 für:1 deutsche:1 spitze:1 pedigree:2 database:2 http:2 www:2 cz:2 gross:1 wz:1 |@bigram inch_cm:2 cm_tall:1 weigh_pound:1 pound_kg:1 hind_leg:2 quick_reflex:1 stanley_coren:1 coren_intelligence:1 hip_dysplasia:1 von_willebrand:1 external_link:1 http_www:2 |
2,616 | Nuclear_energy | Nuclear energy is released by the splitting (fission) or merging together (fusion) of the nuclei of atom(s). The conversion of nuclear mass to energy is consistent with the mass-energy equivalence formula ΔE = Δm.c², in which ΔE = energy release, Δm = mass defect, and c = the speed of light in a vacuum (a physical constant). Nuclear energy was first discovered by French physicist Henri Becquerel in 1896, when he found that photographic plates stored in the dark near uranium were blackened like X-ray plates, which had been just recently discovered at the time 1895. Nuclear chemistry can be used as a form of alchemy to turn lead into gold or change any atom to any other atom (albeit through many steps). Turning Lead into Gold Radionuclide (radioisotope) production often involves irradiation of another isotope (or more precisely a nuclide), with alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays. Iron has the highest binding energy per nucleon of any atom. If an atom of lower average binding energy is changed into an atom of higher average binding energy, energy is given off. The chart shows that fusion of hydrogen, the combination to form heavier atoms, releases energy, as does fission of uranium, the breaking up of a larger nucleus into smaller parts. Stability varies between isotopes: the isotope U-235 is much less stable than the more common U-238. Nuclear energy is released by three exoenergetic (or exothermic) processes: Radioactive decay, where a neutron or proton in the radioactive nucleus decays spontaneously by emitting either particles, electromagnetic radiation (gamma rays), neutrinos (or all of them) Fusion, two atomic nuclei fuse together to form a heavier nucleus Fission, the breaking of a heavy nucleus into two (or more rarely three) lighter nuclei References See also List of states with nuclear weapons Nuclear power Nuclear power by country Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion External links American Nuclear Society Uranium Resources and Nuclear Energy | Nuclear_energy |@lemmatized nuclear:12 energy:12 release:4 splitting:1 fission:4 merge:1 together:2 fusion:4 nucleus:6 atom:7 conversion:1 mass:3 consistent:1 equivalence:1 formula:1 δe:2 δm:2 defect:1 c:1 speed:1 light:2 vacuum:1 physical:1 constant:1 first:1 discover:2 french:1 physicist:1 henri:1 becquerel:1 find:1 photographic:1 plate:2 store:1 dark:1 near:1 uranium:3 blacken:1 like:1 x:1 ray:3 recently:1 time:1 chemistry:1 use:1 form:3 alchemy:1 turn:2 lead:2 gold:2 change:2 albeit:1 many:1 step:1 radionuclide:1 radioisotope:1 production:1 often:1 involve:1 irradiation:1 another:1 isotope:3 precisely:1 nuclide:1 alpha:1 particle:3 beta:1 gamma:2 iron:1 high:2 binding:1 per:1 nucleon:1 low:1 average:2 bind:2 give:1 chart:1 show:1 hydrogen:1 combination:1 heavy:3 break:1 large:1 small:1 part:1 stability:1 varies:1 u:2 much:1 less:1 stable:1 common:1 three:2 exoenergetic:1 exothermic:1 process:1 radioactive:2 decay:2 neutron:1 proton:1 spontaneously:1 emit:1 either:1 electromagnetic:1 radiation:1 neutrino:1 two:2 atomic:1 fuse:1 breaking:1 rarely:1 nuclei:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 state:1 weapon:1 power:2 country:1 external:1 link:1 american:1 society:1 resource:1 |@bigram henri_becquerel:1 photographic_plate:1 gamma_ray:2 radioactive_decay:1 electromagnetic_radiation:1 atomic_nucleus:1 nuclear_weapon:1 nuclear_fission:1 external_link:1 |
2,617 | Economy_of_Lesotho | The Economy of Lesotho is based on agriculture, livestock, manufacturing, and the earnings of laborers employed in South Africa. Lesotho is geographically surrounded by South Africa and economically integrated with it as well. The majority of households subsist on farming or migrant labor, primarily miners in South Africa for 3 to 9 months. The western lowlands form the main agricultural zone. Almost 50% of the population earn some income through crop cultivation or animal husbandry with nearly two-thirds of the country's income coming from the agricultural sector. Water is Lesotho's only significant natural resource. It is being exploited through the 30-year, multi-billion dollar Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP), which was initiated in 1986. The LHWP is designed to capture, store, and transfer water from the Orange River system and send it to South Africa's Free State and greater Johannesburg area, which features a large concentration of South African industry, population and agriculture. At the completion of the project, Lesotho should be almost completely self-sufficient in the production of electricity and also gain income from the sale of electricity to South Africa. The World Bank, African Development Bank, European Investment Bank, and many other bilateral donors are financing the project. Until the political insecurity in September 1998, Lesotho's economy had grown steadily since 1992. The riots, however, destroyed nearly 80% of commercial infrastructure in Maseru and two other major towns in the country, having a disastrous effect on the country's economy. Nonetheless, the country has completed several IMF Structural Adjustment Programs, and inflation declined substantially over the course of the 1990s. Lesotho's trade deficit, however, is quite large, with exports representing only a small fraction of imports. Lesotho has received economic aid from a variety of sources, including the United States, the World Bank, the United Kingdom, the European Union, and Germany. Lesotho has nearly 6,000 kilometers of unpaved and modern all-weather roads. There is a short rail line (freight) linking Lesotho with South Africa that is totally owned and operated by South Africa. Lesotho, is a member of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) in which tariffs have been eliminated on the trade of goods between other member countries, which also include Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, and Swaziland. Lesotho, Swaziland, Namibia, and South Africa also form a common currency and exchange control area known as the Rand Monetary Area that uses the South African rand as the common currency. In 1980, Lesotho introduced its own currency, the loti (plural: maloti). One hundred lisente equal one loti. The Loti is at par with the rand. Other statistics Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 0.9% highest 10%: 43.4% (1986-87) Industrial production growth rate: 19.7% (1995) Electricity - production: 0 kWh (1998) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 0% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 209 GWh (1998) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) Electricity - imports: 209 GWh (1998) Agriculture - products: maize, wheat, pulses, sorghum, barley; livestock Currency: 1 loti (L) = 100 lisente; note - maloti (M) is the plural form of loti Exchange rates: maloti (M) per US$1 - 6.12439 (January 2000), 6.10948 (1999), 5.52828 (1998), 4.60796 (1997), 4.29935 (1996), 3.62709 (1995); note - the Basotho loti is at par with the South African rand See also Economy of Africa Lesotho List of Basotho companies List of South African companies External links MBendi Lesotho overview | Economy_of_Lesotho |@lemmatized economy:4 lesotho:15 base:1 agriculture:3 livestock:2 manufacturing:1 earnings:1 laborer:1 employ:1 south:13 africa:10 geographically:1 surround:1 economically:1 integrate:1 well:1 majority:1 household:2 subsist:1 farming:1 migrant:1 labor:1 primarily:1 miner:1 month:1 western:1 lowland:1 form:3 main:1 agricultural:2 zone:1 almost:2 population:2 earn:1 income:4 crop:1 cultivation:1 animal:1 husbandry:1 nearly:3 two:2 third:1 country:5 come:1 sector:1 water:3 significant:1 natural:1 resource:1 exploit:1 year:1 multi:1 billion:1 dollar:1 highlands:1 project:3 lhwp:2 initiate:1 design:1 capture:1 store:1 transfer:1 orange:1 river:1 system:1 send:1 free:1 state:2 great:1 johannesburg:1 area:3 feature:1 large:2 concentration:1 african:6 industry:1 completion:1 completely:1 self:1 sufficient:1 production:4 electricity:7 also:4 gain:1 sale:1 world:2 bank:4 development:1 european:2 investment:1 many:1 bilateral:1 donor:1 finance:1 political:1 insecurity:1 september:1 grow:1 steadily:1 since:1 riot:1 however:2 destroy:1 commercial:1 infrastructure:1 maseru:1 major:1 town:1 disastrous:1 effect:1 nonetheless:1 complete:1 several:1 imf:1 structural:1 adjustment:1 program:1 inflation:1 decline:1 substantially:1 course:1 trade:2 deficit:1 quite:1 export:2 represent:1 small:1 fraction:1 import:2 receive:1 economic:1 aid:1 variety:1 source:2 include:2 united:2 kingdom:1 union:2 germany:1 kilometer:1 unpaved:1 modern:1 weather:1 road:1 short:1 rail:1 line:1 freight:1 link:2 totally:1 owned:1 operate:1 member:2 southern:1 custom:1 sacu:1 tariff:1 eliminate:1 good:1 botswana:1 namibia:2 swaziland:2 common:2 currency:4 exchange:2 control:1 know:1 rand:4 monetary:1 use:1 introduce:1 loti:9 plural:2 one:2 hundred:1 lisente:1 equal:1 par:2 statistic:1 consumption:2 percentage:1 share:1 low:1 high:1 industrial:1 growth:1 rate:2 kwh:2 fossil:1 fuel:1 hydro:1 nuclear:1 gwh:2 product:1 maize:1 wheat:1 pulse:1 sorghum:1 barley:1 l:1 sente:1 note:2 per:1 u:1 january:1 basotho:2 see:1 list:2 company:2 external:1 mbendi:1 overview:1 |@bigram animal_husbandry:1 billion_dollar:1 bilateral_donor:1 structural_adjustment:1 union_sacu:1 botswana_namibia:1 lesotho_swaziland:1 household_income:1 kwh_electricity:2 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 consumption_gwh:1 gwh_electricity:1 export_kwh:1 import_gwh:1 gwh_agriculture:1 maize_wheat:1 external_link:1 link_mbendi:1 |
2,618 | Full_Metal_Jacket | Full Metal Jacket (1987) is a war film by Stanley Kubrick, based on the novel The Short-Timers by Gustav Hasford. The title refers to the full metal jacket bullet type of ammunition used by infantry riflemen. The film follows a squad of U.S. Marines from their basic training through their participation in the Tet Offensive during the Vietnam War. Plot The film is divided into two parts. In the first part, a group of new recruits in the United States Marine Corps have just arrived at Parris Island for basic training. After they have their heads shaved, they meet their drill instructor, Gunnery Sergeant Hartman (R. Lee Ermey), who wastes no time in starting the process of making these civilians into Marines. The Vietnam War is in full swing, and his job is to produce trained Marines. The film's first section focuses on the physical and psychological treatment of the recruits, in particular Leonard Lawrence (Vincent D'Onofrio), whom Hartman derisively nicknames "Gomer Pyle." Hartman immediately pegs Pyle as a misfit. He is socially awkward, dimwitted, overweight, out of shape, and afraid of heights. He has trouble coping with the physical rigors of recruit training and does not respond well to orders and procedures. These deficiencies get the constant attention of Hartman, who punishes him to encourage him to perform better as well as to provide a lesson to the others. Hartman ultimately appoints the protagonist "Joker" (Matthew Modine) as Pyle's squad leader, bunkmate, and mentor, stressing that Joker will set Pyle straight, or else. Pyle eventually begins to straighten up and become a more disciplined recruit on some fronts, but forgets to lock his footlocker before a barracks inspection. Opening it, Hartman finds a contraband jelly doughnut inside and immediately puts a new rule into effect: every time Pyle "fucks up", Hartman will punish everyone else in the platoon because they are not helping Hartman by encouraging Pyle to work harder toward becoming a Marine. Shortly afterward, the other recruits gang up on Pyle during the night and give him a blanket party, pinning him to his bunk using a blanket and beating him severely with bars of soap wrapped in towels and socks. Joker, the last one to hit Pyle, covers his ears once he is back in his bunk to block out the latter's moaning and sobbing. Over the next few days, Joker realizes that Pyle has become sullen and withdrawn. Pyle begins to detach himself from the platoon as well as the rest of reality. His expert marksmanship impresses Hartman, but Joker becomes worried upon watching Pyle carry on conversations with his rifle. On completing their training, everyone in 3092 platoon, including Pyle, graduates and is assigned a Military Occupational Specialty, the most common being 0300-Infantry (one notable exception is Joker who is assigned to 4212-Basic Military Journalism). On the platoon's last night on Parris Island, Joker is assigned fire watch (guard) duty, during which he discovers Pyle in the head (toilet) loading his rifle with live ammunition. Frightened, Joker attempts to calm Pyle and tells him "If Hartman finds us in here..we'll both be in a world of shit." Pyle replies "I am...In a world...of SHIT!" Pyle then begins shouting and executing drill commands and reciting the Rifleman's Creed. The noise awakens Hartman and he rushes into the head, demanding the rifle and ordering Pyle to put it down. Pyle smirks in madness and as Hartman starts abusing him, he shoots Hartman in the chest. He then turns the rifle on himself and commits suicide as the shocked Joker looks on. The second part of the film opens in Vietnam in January, 1968. Joker is a Sergeant and a Marine Combat Correspondent with Stars and Stripes. He has been assigned to a Marine public affairs unit with "Rafterman" (Kevyn Major Howard), a combat photographer. One day in a meeting while reading reports and pitching article ideas, Joker tells his superior, Lt. Lockhart (John Terry), of a rumor that the enemy might launch a large attack during the Holiday. Lockhart is dismissive of Joker's information. However, soon thereafter, the Tet Offensive begins and the Marine base is attacked. During the offensive, Joker fights in his first battle when elements of the North Vietnamese Army attempt to overrun the base. The next day, the PA staff learn from Lockhart about the enemy attacks all over Vietnam. Joker is ordered to Phu Bai, a Marine forward operating base near the ancient Vietnamese city of Huế, to cover the combat taking place. Rafterman tags along, hoping to get some combat experience. En route to their new assignment, Joker and Rafterman meet a crazed door gunner (Tim Colceri) on an H-34 Choctaw who is shooting every Vietnamese person he sees on the ground, on the assumption that they are all Viet Cong, even proudly shooting women and children and shouting, "Get some!" after each burst he fires. When Joker and Rafterman land outside Huế, they meet Lt. Walter J. Schinowsky, aka "Touchdown" (Ed O'Ross), who leads the platoon in which Joker's boot camp friend "Cowboy" (Arliss Howard) is serving. Touchdown directs them to a mass grave of civilians killed by the North Vietnamese Army. Afterwards, Joker finds Cowboy (also a Sergeant), second in command of the Lusthog Squad, whose M60 machine gun carrier is a nihilistic Marine nicknamed Animal Mother (Adam Baldwin). Joker then accompanies the squad during the Battle of Huế, during which Touchdown is killed and a Marine nicknamed Crazy Earl (Kieron Jecchinis) takes command of the squad. As "Crazy" leads the men on a patrol through a ruined section of the city, another squad member is killed by enemy fire. The squad is called up for patrol again, this time north of the Perfume River which divides the city of Huế, where enemy forces are believed to be hiding. Crazy comes across a toy rabbit in a ruined building and picks it up, triggering an explosive booby trap that kills him and leaves Cowboy the reluctant squad leader. The squad becomes lost in the ruined buildings, and a sniper wounds two of their comrades, Doc Jay (Jon Stafford) and Eightball (Dorian Harewood), with the intention of drawing more of them in. As the squad maneuvers to try to locate the hidden position, the sniper finishes off the wounded men and kills Cowboy as well. With Cowboy dead, Animal Mother assumes command of the remaining Marines. Using smoke grenades to conceal their advance, the squad approaches and enters the building being used by the sniper. Joker finds the sniper on an upper floor, but his rifle jams as he tries to shoot. The sniper, an adolescent Vietnamese girl, spins around and opens fire, pinning him behind a column. As he tries to draw his sidearm, Rafterman arrives and shoots the sniper, saving Joker. As Joker, Rafterman, and Animal Mother and other Marines of the squad stand over the mortally wounded girl, she begins to say "It hurts" in Vietnamese. After a pause, she begs in English to the Marines, "Shoot me," over and over. Joker and Animal Mother argue over this request. Animal Mother initially wants to leave her to be eaten by rats, but changes his mind; he will allow a mercy killing only if Joker, who has much less combat experience, performs it. After a pause, Joker shoots her with his pistol. The film concludes with the Marines' rendition of the Mickey Mouse March as their reunited platoon marches into the night toward their bivouac. Cast and characters Matthew Modine as Private / Sergeant James T. "Joker" Davis, the protagonist-narrator who claims to have joined the Corps to see combat, and to be the first one on his block with a confirmed kill. He witnesses Pyle's insanity in boot camp, but nevertheless becomes a "squared away" Marine. He later serves as an independent-minded combat correspondent accompanying the Lusthog Squad in the field. Vincent D'Onofrio as Leonard "Gomer Pyle" Lawrence: An overweight, clumsy, slow-witted recruit who is the focus of Hartman's attention for being incompetent and fat, making him the platoon scapegoat. After a blanket party from the rest of the platoon for failing almost everything and earning them collective punishments, he turns psychotic and talks to his rifle, "Charlene", yet he becomes a disciplined Marine. In The Short-Timers, Leonard Pratt is a skinny, awkward Alabama boy who shoots Gerheim, then himself, in front of everyone in the bunkhouse section of the barracks. In Full Metal Jacket, he shoots Hartman while in the bathroom, and then himself in front of Joker. The humiliating nickname Gomer Pyle originates from a likable but dim character from the American television program the Andy Griffith Show who eventually enlists in the USMC. R. Lee Ermey as Gunnery Sergeant Hartman: the stereotypical Parris Island drill instructor who trains his recruits to transform them into Marines. In The Short-Timers, the character is named "Gerheim" and potbellied; he is a Second World War veteran of the Battle of Iwo Jima. Arliss Howard as the Texan Private / Sergeant "Cowboy" Evans who goes through boot camp with Joker. He becomes a rifleman and later encounters Joker in Vietnam, taking command of a rifle squad. In The Short-Timers, Joker mercifully kills Cowboy after he is severely wounded by a sniper trying to draw the squad out. In Full Metal Jacket, he quickly dies of a sucking chest wound, while in Joker's arms, surrounded by the few remaining members of his squad. Adam Baldwin as "Animal Mother": The nihilistic M-60 machine gunner of the Lusthog Squad, Animal Mother is contemptuous of any authority but his own, and attempts to rule by intimidation. Animal Mother believes victory should be the only object of war. In The Short-Timers, he is a New Yorker who joined the Marines to avoid going to jail for stealing a car. Dorian Harewood as "Eightball": The black member of the Lusthog Squad, insensitive about his ethnicity (e.g. 'Put a nigger behind the trigger'), and Animal Mother's closest friend. The sniper shoots him repeatedly in attempt to lure the others into the open, before killing him. Kevyn Major Howard as "Rafterman": Rafterman is a combat photographer with the Stars and Stripes office with Joker. He requests permission to accompany Joker into Huế and ultimately saves him by shooting the sniper, an act which gives him much pride and exhilaration. He seems to be a natural killer. Ed O'Ross as Lieutenant Walter J. "Touchdown" Schinowski: The commander of the Lusthog Squad's platoon, he was a college football player at the University of Notre Dame, Indiana. He is killed in an ambush outside of Hue City. John Terry as Lieutenant Lockhart: The PIO officer-in-chief and Joker's assignment editor. He has combat-reporting experience, but uses his officer rank to avoid returning to the field, he says on account of the danger and the bugs, rationalizing that his journalistic duties keep him where he belongs, "In the rear with the gear." Kieron Jecchinis as "Crazy Earl": The squad leader, he is forced to assume platoon command when Platoon Leader Lt. Touchdown is killed. Touching a booby-trapped toy kills him. As in the novel he carries a BB gun, which is visible just before he dies. Jon Stafford as Doc Jay: A Navy corpsman attached to the Lusthog squad. He is wounded by the sniper while attempting to drag Eightball to safety; the sniper uses a subsequent automatic burst to finish them both off when Doc Jay attempts to indicate the direction of the sniper. Tim Colceri as the door-gunner, the Loadmaster and machine gunner of the H-34 Choctaw helicopter transporting Joker and Rafterman to the Tet Offensive front. Inflight, he shoots at civilians, while enthusiastically repeating "Get some!", boasting "157 dead Gooks killed, and 50 water buffaloes too." When Joker asks if that includes women and children, he admits it stating, "Sometimes." Joker then asks, "How can you kill women and children?" to which the door-gunner replies jokingly, "Easy, you just don't lead 'em so much!...Ha, ha, ha,...Ain't war hell?!" This scene is adapted from Michael Herr's 1977 book Dispatches. Papillon Soo Soo as Da Nang Hooker: An attractive and scantily-dressed prostitute who approaches Joker and Rafterman at a street corner during the first scene in Vietnam. She is memorable for the phrases "Me love you long time," "Me so horny" and "Me sucky sucky", which were later sampled by 2 Live Crew in their song, "Me So Horny" and in Sir Mix-a-Lot's "Baby Got Back". Peter Edmund as Private "Snowball" Brown: African-American recruit, the butt of jibes from Hartman about "fried chicken and water melon", and famous for informing him that Lee Harvey Oswald shot Kennedy from "that book suppository [sic] building, Sir!". Production Development Stanley Kubrick contacted Michael Herr, author of the Vietnam War memoir Dispatches, in the spring of 1980 to discuss working on a film about the Holocaust but eventually discarded that in favor of a film about the Vietnam War. They met in England and the director told him that he wanted to do a war film but he had yet to find a story to adapt. Kubrick discovered Gustav Hasford's novel The Short-Timers while reading the Virginia Kirkus Review and Herr received it in bound galleys and thought that it was a masterpiece. In 1982, Kubrick read the novel twice and afterwards thought that it "was a unique, absolutely wonderful book" and decided, along with Herr, that it would be the basis for his next film. According to the filmmaker, he was drawn to the book's dialogue that was "almost poetic in its carved-out, stark quality." In 1983, he began researching for this film, watching past footage and documentaries, reading Vietnamese newspapers on microfilm from the Library of Congress, and studied hundreds of photographs from the era. Initially, Herr was not interested in revisiting his Vietnam War experiences and Kubrick spent three years persuading him in what the author describes as "a single phone call lasting three years, with interruptions." In 1985, Kubrick contacted Hasford to work on the screenplay with him and Herr, often talking to Hasford on the phone three to four times a week for hours at a time. Kubrick had already written a detailed treatment. The two men got together at Kubrick's home every day, breaking down the treatment into scenes. From that, Herr wrote the first draft. The filmmaker was worried that the title of the book would be misread by audiences as referring to people who only did half a day's work and changed it to Full Metal Jacket after discovering the phrase while going through a gun catalogue. After the first draft was completed, Kubrick would phone in his orders and Hasford and Herr would mail in their submissions. Kubrick would read and then edit them with the process starting over. Neither Hasford nor Herr knew how much they contributed to the screenplay and this led to a dispute over the final credits. Hasford remembers, "We were like guys on an assembly line in the car factory. I was putting on one widget and Michael was putting on another widget and Stanley was the only one who knew that this was going to end up being a car." Herr says that the director was not interested in making an anti-war film but that "he wanted to show what war is like." At some point, Kubrick wanted to meet Hasford in person but Herr advised against this, describing The Short-Timers author as a "scary man." Kubrick insisted and they all met at Kubrick's house in England for dinner. It did not go well and Hasford was subsequently shut out of the production. Casting Through Warner Brothers, Kubrick advertised a national search in the United States and Canada. The director used video tape to audition actors. He received over 3,000 video tapes. His staff screened all of the tapes and eliminated the unacceptable ones. This left 800 tapes for Kubrick to personally review. Former U.S. Marine Drill Instructor R. Lee Ermey was originally hired as a technical adviser and asked Kubrick if he could audition for the role of Hartman. However Kubrick, having seen his portrayal as Drill Instructor SSgt Loyce in The Boys in Company C, told him that he wasn't vicious enough to play the character. In response, Ermey made a videotape of himself improvising insulting dialogue towards a group of Royal Marines while being pelted by people off-camera with oranges and tennis balls. Ermey, in spite of the distractions, rattled off an unbroken string of insults for 15 minutes, and he did not flinch, duck, or repeat himself while being hit with the oranges or tennis balls. Upon viewing it, Kubrick gave him the role, realizing that Ermey "was a genius for this part," and estimates that Ermey came up with 150 pages of insults, much of it being improvised on the spot, a noted rarity for a Kubrick film. In addition, Ermey was so convincing as the DI that in one instance between takes, Ermey had barked an order at Kubrick while in-character, and almost as if by instinct, Kubrick stood up at attention and followed orders before realizing what had happened. According to Kubrick's estimate, 50% of Ermey's dialogue, especially the insults, were written by the former drill instructor, and Ermey usually needed only two to three takes per scene, another rarity for a Kubrick film. Principal photography The film was shot in England, in Cambridgeshire, on the Norfolk Broads and Beckton, in Newham, East London. A former RAF and then British Army base, Bassingbourn Barracks, doubled as the Parris Island Marine boot camp. A British Army rifle range near Barton, outside Cambridge was used in the scene where Private Pyle is congratulated on his shooting skills by R. Lee Ermey. The disused Beckton Gasworks portrayed the ruined city of Huế. Kubrick worked from still photographs of Huế taken in 1968 and found an area owned by British Gas that closely resembled it and was scheduled to be demolished. To achieve this look, Kubrick had buildings blown up and the film's art director used a wrecking ball to knock specific holes in certain buildings over the course of two months. Originally, Kubrick had a plastic replica jungle flown in from California but once he looked at it was reported to have said, "I don't like it. Get rid of it." The open country is Cliffe marshes, also on the Thames, with 200 imported Spanish palm trees and 100,000 plastic tropical plants from Hong Kong. Kubrick acquired four M41 tanks from a Belgian army colonel who was a fan, Sikorsky H-34 Choctaw helicopters which were actually Westland Wessex painted Marine green, and he obtained a selection of rifles, M79 grenade launchers and M60 machine guns from a licensed weapons dealer. According to Matthew Modine, it was a tough shoot as he had to have his head shaved once a week and was yelled at by Ermey for ten hours a day while shooting the Parris Island scenes. At one point during filming, Ermey had a car accident and broke all of his ribs on one side and was out for four and half months. Cowboy's death scene shows a building in the background that resembles the famous alien monolith in 2001: A Space Odyssey. Kubrick said the resemblance was an "extraordinary accident." During filming, Hasford contemplated legal action over the writing credit. Originally, Hasford was supposed to receive an "additional dialogue" credit but he wanted full credit. The writer took two friends and snuck onto the set dressed as extras only to be mistaken by a crew member for Herr. Kubrick's daughter Vivian was present at the filming of Full Metal Jacket and shot eighteen hours of behind-the-scenes footage, snippets of which can be seen in the 2008 documentary Stanley Kubrick's Boxes. Music A score for the film was written by "Abigail Mead" (an alias for Kubrick's daughter Vivian). According to an interview which appeared in the January 1988 issue of Keyboard Magazine, the film was scored mostly with a Fairlight CMI synthesizer (the then-current Series III edition), and the Synclavier. For the period music, Kubrick went through Billboard'''s list of Top 100 Hits for each year from 1962-1968 and tried many songs but "sometimes the dynamic range of the music was too great, and we couldn't work in dialogue." The sequence that includes "Surfin Bird" was included in UGO's Top 11 Uses of Classic Rock in Cinema ReceptionFull Metal Jacket received critical acclaim. Rotten Tomatoes gives the movie a 96% "fresh" rating. http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/full_metal_jacket Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader said it was "the most tightly crafted Kubrick film since Dr. Strangelove." Variety referred to the film as an "intense, schematic, superbly made" drama, while Vincent Canby of the New York Times called it "harrowing" and "beautiful." Chicago Sun-Times critic Roger Ebert had a dissenting view, stating the film was "strangely shapeless." The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Writing for an adapted screenplay. Ermey was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actor.Full Metal Jacket'' ranks 457th on Empire magazine's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time. http://www.empireonline.com/500/8.asp Awards and nominations Academy Awards Nomination - Best Adapted Screenplay (Stanley Kubrick, Michael Herr, Gustav Hasford) Awards of the Japanese Academy Nomination - Best Foreign Language Film (Stanley Kubrick) BAFTA Awards Nomination - Best Sound (Nigel Galt, Edward Tise, Andy Nelson) Nomination - Best Special Effects (John Evans) Boston Society of Film Critics Awards Won - Best Director (Stanley Kubrick) Won - Best Supporting Actor (R. Lee Ermey) David di Donatello Awards Won - Best Producer - Foreign Film (Stanley Kubrick) Golden Globes Nomination - Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Motion Picture (R. Lee Ermey) Kinema Junpo Awards Won - Best Foreign Language Film Director (Stanley Kubrick) London Critics Circle Film Awards Won - Director of the Year (Stanley Kubrick) Writers Guild of America Nomination - Best Adapted Screenplay (Stanley Kubrick, Michael Herr, Gustav Hasford) References External links The Short-Timers by Gustav Hasford - original text | Full_Metal_Jacket |@lemmatized full:9 metal:8 jacket:8 war:12 film:27 stanley:11 kubrick:40 base:5 novel:4 short:8 timer:8 gustav:5 hasford:14 title:2 refers:1 bullet:1 type:1 ammunition:2 use:9 infantry:2 rifleman:3 follow:2 squad:21 u:3 marine:23 basic:3 training:4 participation:1 tet:3 offensive:4 vietnam:9 plot:1 divide:2 two:6 part:4 first:7 group:2 new:5 recruit:8 united:2 state:4 corp:2 arrive:1 parris:5 island:5 head:4 shave:2 meet:6 drill:6 instructor:5 gunnery:2 sergeant:6 hartman:18 r:6 lee:7 ermey:17 waste:1 time:9 start:3 process:2 make:5 civilian:3 swing:1 job:1 produce:1 trained:1 section:3 focus:2 physical:2 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2,619 | Gospel_of_Barnabas | The Gospel of Barnabas is a substantial book depicting the life of Jesus; and claiming to be by Jesus's disciple Barnabas, who in this work is one of the twelve apostles. It is recorded in two manuscripts, both dated to the late sixteenth century and written respectively in Italian and in Spanish; although the Spanish manuscript is now lost, its text surviving in an eighteenth-century transcript. It is about the same length as the four canonical gospels put together (the Italian manuscript has 222 chapters); with the bulk being devoted to an account of Jesus' ministry, much of it harmonised from accounts also found in the canonical gospels. In some key respects, it conforms to the Islamic interpretation of Christian origins. This Gospel is considered by the majority of academics, including Christians and some Muslims (such as Abbas el-Akkad) to be late and pseudepigraphical; however, some academics suggest that it may contain some remnants of an earlier apocryphal work edited to conform to Islam , perhaps Gnostic or Ebionite or Diatessaronic ; and some Muslim scholars consider the surviving versions as transmitting a suppressed apostolic original. Some Islamic organizations cite it in support of the Islamic view of Jesus. This work should not be confused with the surviving Epistle of Barnabas. Neither should it be confused with the surviving Acts of Barnabas (see ahead, section Earlier occurrences of a Gospel of Barnabas). Textual history The earliest document mentioning a Barnabas gospel which is generally agreed to correspond with the one found in the two known manuscripts, is reported to be contained in Morisco manuscript BNM MS 9653 in Madrid, written about 1634 by Ibrahim al-Taybili in Tunisia . While describing how the Bible predicts Muhammad, he speaks of the "Gospel of Saint Barnabas where one can find the light" ("y así mismo en Evangelio de San Bernabé, donde de hallará la luz"). It was mentioned again in 1718 by the Irish deist John Toland, and was mentioned in 1734 by George Sale in The Preliminary Discourse to the Koran: The Mohammedans have also a Gospel in Arabic, attributed to St. Barnabas, wherein the history of Jesus Christ is related in a manner very different from what we find in the true Gospels, and correspondent to those traditions which Mohammed has followed in his Koran. Of this Gospel the Moriscoes in Africa have a translation in Spanish; and there is in the library of Prince Eugene of Savoy, a manuscript of some antiquity, containing an Italian translation of the same Gospel, made, it is to be supposed, for the use of renegades. This book appears to be no original forgery of the Mohammedans, though they have no doubt interpolated and altered it since, the better to serve their purpose; and in particular, instead of the Paraclete or Comforter, they have, in this apocryphal gospel, inserted the word Periclyte, that is, the famous or illustrious, by which they pretend their prophet was foretold by name, that being the signification of Mohammed in Arabic; and this they say to justify that passage in the Koran where Jesus Christ is formally asserted to have foretold his coming under his other name Ahmed, which is derived from the same root as Mohammed and of the same import. Sale here appears to allude to versions of both the known manuscripts: the Italian and the Spanish; although it is to be noted that the specific terms paraclete or periclyte are not explicitly found in the text of either version (see 'Prediction of Muhammad' below). Sale could, however, have found the term periclyte transliterated into Arabic in one of the marginal notes to the Italian manuscript. Subsequent to the preparation of the Preliminary Discourse, the known Spanish manuscript came into Sale's possession. According to http://barnabas.net/, Iranaeus (130-200) quotes this book. Earlier occurrences of a Gospel of Barnabas A "Gospel according to Barnabas" is mentioned in two early Christian lists of apocryphal works: the Latin Decretum Gelasianum (6th century), as well as a 7th-century Greek List of the Sixty Books. These lists are independent witnesses. In 1698 John Ernest Grabe found an otherwise unreported saying of Jesus , attributed to the Apostle Barnabas, amongst the Greek manuscripts in the Baroccian collection in the Bodleian Library; which he speculated might be a quotation from this lost gospel; and John Toland claimed to have identified a corresponding phrase when he examined the surviving Italian manuscript of the Gospel of Barnabas in Amsterdam before 1709. Subsequent scholars examining the Italian and Spanish texts have been unable, however, to confirm Toland's observation. This work should not be confused with the surviving Epistle of Barnabas, which may have been written in 2nd century Alexandria. There is no link between the two books in style, content or history other than their attribution to Barnabas. On the issue of circumcision, the books clearly hold very different views, that of the epistle's rejection of the Jewish practice as opposed to the gospel's promotion of the same. Neither should it be confused with the surviving Acts of Barnabas, which narrates an account of Barnabas' travels, martyrdom and burial; and which is generally thought to have been written in Cyprus sometime after 431. In 478, during the reign of the Emperor Zeno, archbishop Anthemios of Cyprus announced that the hidden burial place of Barnabas had been revealed to him in a dream. The saint's body was claimed to have been discovered in a cave with a copy of the canonical Gospel of Matthew on its breast; according to the contemporary account of Theodorus Lector, who reports that both bones and gospel book were presented by Anthemios to the emperor . Some scholars who maintain the antiquity of the Gospel of Barnabas propose that the text purportedly discovered in 478 should be identified with the Gospel of Barnabas instead; but this supposition is at variance with an account of the Gospel by Severus of Antioch, who reported having examined the manuscript around the year 500, seeking to find whether it supported the piercing of the crucifed Jesus by a spear at Matthew 27:49 (it did not). According to the 11th century Byzantine historian Georgios Kedrenos an uncial manuscript of Matthew's Gospel, believed to be that found by Anthemios, was then still preserved in the Chapel of St Stephen in the imperial palace . In 1985, it was briefly claimed that an early Syriac copy of this gospel had been found near Hakkari . However, it has since been asserted that this manuscript actually contains the canonical Bible The manuscripts Italian Ms. Prince Eugene's Italian manuscript had been presented to him in 1713 by John Frederick Cramer ; it appears to date to the end of the sixteenth century . It was transferred to the Hofbibliothek in Vienna in 1738 with the rest of his library, and still survives there, in the Austrian National Library. The pages of the Italian manuscript are framed in an Islamic style, and contain chapter rubrics and margin notes in ungrammatical Arabic : ; with an occasional Turkish word, and many Turkish syntactical features. Its binding is Turkish, and appears to be original ; but the paper has an Italian watermark . The same scribe wrote both the Italian text and the Arabic notes, and was clearly "occidental" in being accustomed to write from left to right. The Italian spelling is idiosyncratic in frequently doubling consonants and adding an intrusive intitial "h" where a word starts with a vowel (e.g. "hanno" for "anno") . There are catchwords at the bottom of each page, a practice common in manuscripts intended to be set up for printing. The manuscript appears to be unfinished - in that the 222 chapters are provided throughout with framed blank spaces for titular headings, but only 27 of these spaces have been filled. It is the Italian version that the Raggs' 1907 translation, the most commonly circulated in English, is based on. It was followed in 1908 by an Arabic translation by Khalil Saadah, published in Egypt. (further research...) Spanish Ms. The known Spanish manuscript was lost in the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries; however an eighteenth century copy of it was discovered in the 1970s in the University of Sydney's Fisher Library among the books of Sir Charles Nicholson, labelled in English "Transcribed from ms. in possession of the Revd Mr Edm. Callamy who bought it at the decease of Mr George Sale...and now gave me at the decease of Mr John Nickolls, 1745". Its main difference from the Italian manuscript is that the surviving transcript does not record a substantial number of chapters—which had, however, still been present in the Spanish original when it was examined by George Sale . The Spanish text is preceded by a note claiming that it was translated from Italian by Mustafa de Aranda, an Aragonese Muslim resident in Istanbul. The Spanish manuscript also contains a preface by one assuming the pseudonym 'Fra Marino', claiming to have stolen a copy of the Italian version from the library of Pope Sixtus V . Fra Marino, reports that, having a post in the Inquisition Court, he had come into possession of several works, which led him to believe that the Biblical text had been corrupted, and that genuine apostolic texts had been improperly excluded. Fra Marino also claims to have been alerted to the existence of the Gospel of Barnabas, from an allusion in an work by Irenaeus against Paul; in a book which had been presented to him by a lady of the Colonna family (Marino, outside Rome, is the location of the Palazzo Colonna) . Origins Some students of the work argue for an Italian origin , noting phrases in Barnabas which are very similar to phrases used by Dante and suggesting that the author of Barnabas borrowed from Dante's works; they take the Spanish version's preface to support this conclusion . Other students have noted a range of textual similarities between passages in the Gospel of Barnabas, and variously the texts of a series of late medieval vernacular harmonies of the four canonical gospels (in Middle English and Middle Dutch, but especially in Middle Italian); which are all speculated as deriving from a lost Old Latin version of the Diatessaron of Tatian . This would also support an Italian origin. Other students argue that the Spanish version came first, regarding the Spanish preface's claims of an Italian source as intended to boost the work's credibility by linking it to the Papal libraries. These scholars note parallels with a series of Morisco forgeries, the Sacromonte tablets of Granada, dating from the 1590s; or otherwise with Morisco reworkings of Christian and Islamic traditions, produced following their expulsion from Spain. The lost Spanish manuscript claimed to have been written in Istanbul, previously Constantinople, and the surviving Italian manuscript has several Turkish features ; so - whether the language of origin was Spanish or Italian - Istanbul is regarded by most students as the place of origin of the present text. This view has added credibility, in that many early Christian and patristic texts might still be found, in the 16th century, in the Greek libraries of ancient Constantinople - and the city contained substantial Greek, Italian and Spanish speaking communities. Following the conquest of Moorish Granada in 1492, Sephardi Jews and Muslim Mudejar were expelled from Spain. Although some found initial refuge in Italy (especially Venice), most resettled in the Ottoman Empire, where Spanish speaking Jews established in Istanbul a rich sub-culture with a flourishing Hebrew and Ladino printing industry. Numbers were further agumented after 1550, following campaigns of persecution by the Venetian Inquisition against Italian anti-Trinitarians and Jews . Although Muslim teaching at this time strongly opposed the printing of Islamic or Arabic texts, non-Muslim printing was not, in principle, forbidden; indeed attempts were made in the 1570s by anti-Trinitarian Christians to establish a printing press in the Turkish capital to publish radical Protestant works . . In the Spanish preface, Fra Marino records his wish that the Gospel of Barnabas should be printed, and the only place in Europe where that would have been possible in the late 16th century would have been Istanbul. A minority of students - such as David Sox - are, however, suspicious of the apparent 'Turkish' features of the Italian manuscript ; especially the Arabic annotations, which they adjudge to be so riddled with elementary errors as to be most unlikely to have been written in Istanbul (even by an Italian scribe). In particular, they note that the glossing of the Italian version of the shahada into Arabic, does not correspond exactly with the standard ritual formula recited daily by every Muslim. These students are inclined to infer from these inconsistencies that both manuscripts may represent an exercise in forensic falsification, and they tend to locate their place of origin as Rome. Few academics argue that the text, in its present form, dates back any earlier than the 14th–16th centuries; although a minority see it as containing portions of an earlier work, and almost all would detect the influence of earlier sources—over and above the Vulgate text of the Latin Bible. Consequently most students would concur with a stratification of the surviving text into at least three distinct layers of composition : an editorial layer dating from the 1590s; and comprising, at the least, the Spanish preface and the Arabic annotations, a layer of vernacular narrative composition, either in Spanish or Italian, and dating from no earlier than the mid 14th century, a layer derived from earlier source materials, almost certainly transmitted to the vernacular author/translator in Latin; and comprising, at the least, those extensive passages in the Gospel of Barnabas that closely parallel pericopes in the canonical gospels; but whose underlying text appears markedly distinct from that of the late medieval Latin Vulgate (as for instance in the alternative version of the Lord's Prayer in chapter 37, which includes a concluding doxology, contrary to the Vulgate text, but in accordance with the Diatessaron and many other early variant traditions); Much of the controversy and dispute concerning the authenticity of the Gospel of Barnabas can be re-expressed as debating whether specific highly transgressive themes (from an orthodox Christian perspective) might already have been present in the source materials utilised by a 14th–16th century vernacular author, whether they might be due to that author himself, or whether they might even have been interpolated by the subsequent editor. Those students who regard these particular themes as primitive, nevertheless do not generally dispute that other parts of the Gospel may be late and anachronistic; while those students who reject the authenticity of these particular themes do not generally dispute that other parts of the Gospel could be transmitting variant readings from antiquity. Analysis This work bears strong parallels with the Islamic faith, not only mentioning Muhammad by name, but including the shahadah (chapter 39). It is strongly anti-Pauline and anti-Trinitarian in tone. In this work, Jesus is described as a prophet and not the son of God , while Paul is called "the deceived". Furthermore, the Gospel of Barnabas states that Jesus escaped crucifixion by being raised alive to heaven; while Judas Iscariot the traitor was crucified in his place. These beliefs; in particular that Jesus is a prophet of God and raised alive without being crucified; conform with Islamic beliefs. Other passages however conflict with the text/teachings of the Qur'an; as for instance in the account of the Nativity, where Mary is said to have given birth to Jesus without pain ; or as in Jesus's ministry, where he permits the drinking of wine and enjoins monogamy , though the Quran acknowledges each prophet had a set of their own laws that might differ in some aspects from each other. Others examples include that hell will only be for the committers of the seven death sins (Barnabas: 4-44/135), anyone who refuses to be circumcised will not enter paradise (Barnabas 17/23), that God has a soul (Barnabas 6/82), that there are 9 heavens (Barnabas 3/105). If (as most students surmise) the Gospel of Barnabas is seen as an attempted synthesis of elements from both Christianity and Islam, then sixteenth and seventeenth century parallels can be suggested in Morisco and anti-Trinitarian writings. The Spanish version includes an account of the discovery of the Gospel of Barnabas in the private study of Pope Sixtus V (1585-1590). Religious themes The Gospel of Barnabas was little known outside academic circles until recent times, when a number of Muslims have taken to publishing it in order to argue against the orthodox Christian conception of Jesus. It generally resonates better with existing Muslim views than with Christianity : it foretells the coming of Muhammad by name; rather than describing the crucifixion of Jesus, it describes him being raised up into heaven , similar to the description of Elijah in 2 Kings, Chapter 2; and it calls Jesus a "prophet" whose mission was restricted to the "house of Israel". However, it differs from Islamic conceptions in at least two important respects; it reports that Muhammad, not Jesus, was the Messiah , whereas the Qur'an and Hadith both describe Jesus as the Messiah, and no orthodox variety of Islam calls Muhammad the Messiah. In addition, it explicitly denies the Islamic (and Christian) doctrines of God's absolute judgment and foreknowledge — in asserting that, in the matter of salvation: "Our God waits for man to be penitent" (Chapter 114); such that the souls of the wicked in Hell could nevertheless be saved at the end times, if they become converted to penitence (Chapter 113); whereas the righteous —even the saints and prophets— cannot be safe from the fear of eventual damnation; as the possibility cannot be excluded that they might at some future time, through over-confidence in their own righteousness, fall into pride (Chapter 112). It contains an extended polemic against the doctrine of predestination (Chapter 164), and in favour of justification by faith; arguing that the eternal destination of the soul to Heaven or Hell is neither pre-determined by God's grace (as in Calvinism), nor the judgement of God, in his mercy, on the faith of believers on Earth (as in orthodox Islam). Instead it states that all those condemned at the last judgment, but who subsequently respond in faith, who demonstrate unfeigned penitence, and who make a free choice of blessedness, will eventually be offered salvation (Chapter 137) . Only those whose persistent pride prevents them from sincere repentance will remain forever in Hell. Such radically Pelagian beliefs in the sixteenth century were found amongst the anti-Trinitarian Protestant traditions later denoted as Unitarianism . Some sixteenth century anti-Trinitarian divines sought to reconcile Christianity, Islam and Judaism; on the basis of very similar arguments to those presented in the Gospel of Barnabas, arguing that if salvation remains unresolved until the end times, then any one of the three religions could be a valid path to heaven for their own believers. The Spaniard, Michael Servetus denounced the orthodox Christian formulation of the Trinity (demonstrating the only explicit reference to the Trinity in the New Testament to be a later interpolation); and hoped thereby to bridge the doctrinal divide between Christianity and Islam. In 1553 he was executed in Geneva under the authority of John Calvin, but his teachings remained very influential amongst Italian Protestant exiles. In the late sixteenth century many anti-Trinitarians, persecuted both by Calvinists and by the Inquisition, sought refuge in Transylvania : ; then under Turkish overlordship and with close links to Istanbul . Included in chapter 145 is "The little book of Elijah" ; which sets out instructions for a righteous life of ascetisim and eremetic spirituality. Over the succeeding 47 chapters, Jesus is recorded as developing the theme that the ancient prophets, specifically Obadiah, Haggai and Hosea, were holy hermits following this religious rule ; and contrasting their followers - termed "true Pharisees" - with the "false Pharisees" who lived in the world, and who constituted his chief opponents. The "true Pharisees" are said to congregate on Mount Carmel. This accords with the teaching of the medieval Carmelites , who lived as an eremetic congregation on Carmel in the 13th century; but who claimed (without any evidence) to be direct successors of Elijah and the Old Testament prophets. In 1291 the Mamluk advance into Syria compelled the friars on Carmel to abandon their monastery; but on dispersing through Western Europe they found that Western Carmelite congregations - especially in Italy - had largely abandoned the eremetic and ascetic ideal, adopting instead the conventual life and mission of the other Mendicant orders. Some students consider that the ensuing 14th-16th century controversies can be found reflected in the text of the Gospel of Barnabas) . The Gospel also takes a strongly anti-Pauline tone at times, saying in the Italian version's beginning: "many, being deceived of Satan, under pretence of piety, are preaching most impious doctrine, calling Jesus son of God, repudiating the circumcision ordained of God for ever, and permitting every unclean meat: among whom also Paul has been deceived." Prediction of Muhammad The Gospel of Barnabas claims that Jesus predicted the advent of Muhammad, thus conforming with the Qur'an which mentions: "And remember, Jesus, the son of Mary, said: O Children of Israel! I am the apostle of Allah (sent) to you, confirming the Law (which came) before me, and giving Glad Tidings of an Messenger to come after me, whose name shall be Ahmad. But when he came to them with Clear Signs, they said, this is evident sorcery!" (Sura 61:6) (Ahmad is another name of Muhammad.) A Muslim scholarly tradition links this Qur'anic passage to the New Testament references to the Paraclete (John 14:16, 14:26, 15:26, 16:7). The Greek word "paraclete" can be translated "Counsellor"; and in the Christian tradition, is said to refer to the Holy Spirit. Some Muslim scholars, without critical evidence from the Greek, have noted the similarity to the Greek "periklutos" which can be translated as "admirable one"; or in Arabic, "Ahmad" . The name of "Muhammad" is frequently mentioned verbatim in the Gospel of Barnabas, as in the following quote: "Jesus answered: `The name of the Messiah is admirable, for God himself gave him the name when he had created his soul, and placed it in a celestial splendour. God said: "Wait Mohammed; for thy sake I will to create paradise, the world, and a great multitude of creatures, whereof I make thee a present, insomuch that whoso bless thee shall be blessed, and whoso shall curse thee shall be accursed. When I shall send thee into the world I shall send thee as my messenger of salvation, and thy word shall be true, insomuch that heaven and earth shall fail, but thy faith shall never fail." Mohammed is his blessed name.' Then the crowd lifted up their voices, saying: `O God, send us thy messenger: O Admirable One, come quickly for the salvation of the world!'" Barnabas 97:9-10. The Italian manuscript replaces "Admirable One" with "Muhammad" . However, while there are many passages where the Gospel of Barnabas sets out alternative readings to parallel pericopes found in the canonical gospels, none of the references to Muhammad by name occurs in such a synoptic passage; and in particular, none of the "Muhammad" references in Barnabas corresponds to a "Paraclete" reference in canonical John. There is only one instance where the Gospel of Barnabas might be understood as "correcting" a known canonical pericope, so as to record a prophecy by Jesus of the (unnamed) Messenger of God: Then Jesus said: "I am a voice that cries through all Judea, and cries: "Prepare you the way for the messenger of the Lord," even as it is written in Esaias." They said: "If you be not the Messiah nor Elijah, or any prophet, wherefore do you preach new doctrine, and make yourself of more account than the Messiah?" Jesus answered: "The miracles which God works by my hands show that I speak that which God wills; nor indeed do I make myself to be accounted as him of whom you speak. For I am not worthy to unloose the ties of the hosen or the ratchets of the shoes of the Messenger of God whom you call "Messiah," who was made before me, and shall come after me, and shall bring the words of truth, so that his faith shall have no end." (Chapter 43): This passage corresponds closely with the canonical John 1:19-30, except that in that passage, the words are spoken by John the Baptist (in the Qur'an; Yahya ibn Zakariya) and refer to Jesus. Muhammad as the Messiah According to one version of the Gospel of Barnabas: 'Then said the priest: "How shall the Messiah be called?" {Jesus answered} "Muhammed is his blessed name" ' (ch. 97) and Jesus confessed, and said the truth: "I am not the Messiah." (ch. 42:2) As mentioned above, these pronouncements appear to contradict Islamic belief. Some Muslim scholars argue that the Gospel of Barnabas have been modified, thus inconsistency is observed. Also, some may argue that the Word "Messiah" can be a formal title for Jesus Christ, but the meaning "annointed" can be attribute to other Prophets who did Rule over communities, such as Prophet David who was anointed as a King, his son Prophet Prophet Solomon who is a King, too. Also, it can be attribute to Prophet Mohammad, and the anointment can be in the spiritual sense, and the same apply to Moses ruling over the tribes of Israel in the wilderness. Ishmaelite* Messiah According to one version of the Gospel of Barnabas, Jesus denied being the Messiah, claiming rather that the Messiah would be Ishmaelite (ie Arab)*: "Whereupon Jesus said: 'Ye deceive yourselves; for David in spirit calleth him lord, saying thus: "God said to my lord, sit thou on my right hand until I make thine enemies thy footstool. God shall send forth thy rod which shall have lordship in the midst of thine enemies." If the messenger of God whom ye call Messiah were son of David, how should David call him lord? Believe me, for verily I say to you, that the promise was made in Ishmael, not in Isaac.'" (Barnabas 43:10) Hajj Sayed (Senior Member in CIMS), in his new book in Egypt, compares this to the following statement from the canonical Bible: "What do you think about the Christ? Whose son is he?" "The son of David," they replied. He said to them, "How is it then that David, speaking by the Spirit, calls him 'Lord'? For he says, 'The Lord said to my Lord: "Sit at my right hand until I put your enemies under your feet.' If then David calls him 'Lord,' how can he be his son?" According to the canonical Gospels, Jesus was the "son" (descendant) of David; thus, Hajj Sayed argues that this statement confirms the Gospel of Barnabas' point. The idea of the Messiah as an Arab is also found in another chapter of Gospel of Barnabas: "If I work iniquity, reprove me, and God will love you, because you shall be doing his will, but if none can reprove me of sin it is a sign that you are not sons of Abraham as you call yourselves, nor are you incorporate with that head wherein Abraham was incorporate. As God lives, so greatly did Abraham love God, that he not only brake in pieces the false idols and forsook his father and mother, but was willing to slay his own son in obedience to God. The high priest answered: "This I ask of you, and I do not seek to slay you, wherefore tell us: Who was this son of Abraham?" Jesus answered: "The zeal of your honour, O God, inflames me, and I cannot hold my peace. Truly I say, the son of Abraham was Ishmael, from whom must be descended the Messiah promised to Abraham, that in him should all the tribes of the earth be blessed." Then was the high priest wroth, hearing this, and cried out: "Let us stone this impious fellow, for he is an Ishmaelite, and has spoken blasphemy against Moses and against the Law of God." (Barnabas 208:1-2) Here, one version of the Gospel of Barnabas also quotes Jesus as saying that the sacrificed son of Abraham was Ishmael not Isaac, conforming to Islamic belief but disagreeing with Jewish and Christian belief. A connection might also be drawn between the last paragraph's statement that "in him should all the tribes of the earth be blessed", and the meaning of the name "Muhammad", the "Praised (or Blessed) One". (Cf.Life of Prophet Muhammad). Jesus not God or Son of God According to the Gospel of Barnabas, Jesus foresaw and rejected his own deification: And having said this, Jesus smote his face with both his hands, and then smote the ground with his head. And having raised his head, he said: "Cursed be every one who shall insert into my sayings that I am the son of God" (53:6) And having said this Jesus went out of the Temple. And the common people magnified him, for they brought all the sick folk whom they could gather together, and Jesus having made prayer gave to all their health: whereupon on that day in Jerusalem the Roman soldiery, by the working of Satan, began to stir up the common people, saying that Jesus was the God of Israel, who was come to visit his people." (69:6) Jesus answered: "And you; what say you that I am?" Peter answered: "You are Christ, son of God". Then was Jesus angry, and with anger rebuked him, saying: "Begone and depart from me, because you are the devil and seek to cause me offences" (70:1) Jesus said again: "I confess before heaven, and call to witness everything that dwells upon the earth, that I am a stranger to all that men have said of me, to wit, that I am more than man. For I am a man, born of a woman, subject to the judgment of God; that live here like as other men, subject to the common miseries" (94:1) Then answered the priest, with the governor and the king, saying: "Distress not yourself, O Jesus, holy one of God, because in our time shall not this sedition be any more, seeing that we will write to the sacred Roman senate in such wise that by imperial decree none shall any more call you God or son of God." Then Jesus said: "With your words I am not consoled, because where you hope for light darkness shall come; but my consolation is in the coming of the Messenger, who shall destroy every false opinion of me, and his faith shall spread and shall take hold of the whole world, for so has God promised to Abraham our father." (97:1) This conforms entirely with Muslim belief, according to which Jesus is a human and a prophet. According to some ahadith, he will come back to earth in the future and declare to the world that he is "a Servant of God". According to Imam Anwar Al-Awlaki in his audio lessons Lives of the Prophets, the first thing that prophet Jesus said when he was in the cradle "I am a servant of God", and the first thing that Jesus will say when he will come back to earth will be the same "I am a servant of God". According to the Qur'an: At length she brought the (babe) to her people, carrying him (in her arms). They said: "O Mary! truly an amazing thing hast thou brought! O sister of Aaron! Thy father was not a man of evil, nor thy mother a woman unchaste!" But she pointed to the babe. They said: "How can we talk to one who is a child in the cradle? He said: "I am indeed a servant of Allah (God). He hath given me revelation and made me a prophet; And He hath made me blessed wheresoever I be, and hath enjoined on me Prayer and Charity as long as I live; (He) hath made me kind to my mother, and not overbearing or miserable; So peace is on me the day I was born, the day that I die, and the day that I shall be raised up to life (again)"! Such (was) Jesus the son of Mary: (it is) a statement of truth, about which they dispute. It is not befitting to (the majesty of) Allah (God) that He beget a son. Glory be to Him! when He determines a matter, He only says to it, "Be", and it is. (Mary:27-35) Paul and Barnabas Hajj Sayed argues that Galatians's description of the dispute between Paul and Barnabas supports the idea that the Gospel of Barnabas existed at the time of Paul. Blackhirst has suggested, by contrast, that Galatian's account of this argument could be the reason the gospel's writer attributed it to Barnabas. Paul writes in (Galatians Chapter 2): "When Peter came to Antioch, I opposed him to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong. Before certain men came from James, he used to eat with the Gentiles. But when they arrived, he began to draw back and separate himself from the Gentiles because he was afraid of those who belonged to the circumcision group. The other Jews joined him in his hypocrisy, so that by their hypocrisy even Barnabas was led astray." (Galatians 2:11-14) Paul was attacking Peter and Barnabas for "trying to satisfy the Jews" by sticking to their laws, such as circumcision. This shows that, at that point, Barnabas was following Peter and disagreeing with Paul. Some feel it also suggests that the inhabitants of Galatia at his time were using a gospel or gospels disagreeing with Paul's beliefs, which Gospel of Barnabas could be one of them (although the Gospel of Peter would seem a more natural candidate, as in the light of the second letter.) To Galatian's account we may compare the Introductory Chapter of Gospel of Barnabas, where we read: "Dearly beloved the great and wonderful God hath during these past days visited us by his prophet Jesus Christ in great mercy of teaching and miracles, by reason whereof many, being deceived of Satan, under presence of piety, are preaching most impious doctrine, calling Jesus son of God, repudiating the circumcision ordained of God for ever, and permitting every unclean meat: among whom also Paul hath been deceived, whereof I speak not without grief; for which cause I am writing that truth which I have seen and heard, in the intercourse that I have had with Jesus, in order that ye may be saved, and not be deceived of Satan and perish in the judgment of God. Therefore beware of every one that preacheth unto you new doctrine contrary to that which I write, that ye may be saved eternally." (Introduction To Gospel of Barnabas) In this context, supporters also note that Peter was from the original 12 disciples of Jesus, and Barnabas was one of the early disciples of Jesus, while Paul, a Roman, hadn't lived with Jesus, and had been accustomed to persecute his followers before his conversion. Acts 9:26-27: "And when Saul [Paul] was come to Jerusalem he assayed to join himself to the disciples, but they were all afraid of him and believed not that he was a disciple. But Barnabas took him, and brought him to the apostles" From the previous passages, we can also infer that in the beginning, Paul and Barnabas were getting along with each other; however, at the end, they started to depart in their beliefs to give to the importance of the Jewish law. In conclusion, some Muslim scholars, without any historical evidence, believe that those differences between the Gospel of Barnabas and the belief of Paul might be the reason that the Gospel of Barnabas and other gospels were not added to the New Testament. Other non-canonical differences According to the following quote, Jesus talked to Barnabas and gave him a secret: Jesus, weeping, said: "O Barnabas, it is necessary that I should reveal to you great secrets, which, after that I shall be departed from the world, you shall reveal to it." Then answered he that writes, weeping, and said: "Suffer me to weep, O master, and other men also, for that we are sinners. And you, that are a holy one and prophet of God, it is not fitting for you to weep so much." Jesus answered: "Believe me, Barnabas that I cannot weep as much as I ought. For if men had not called me God, I should have seen God here as he will be seen in paradise, and should have been safe not to fear the day of judgment. But God knows that I am innocent, because never have I harboured thought to be held more than a poor slave. No, I tell you that if I had not been called God I should have been carried into paradise when I shall depart from the world, whereas now I shall not go thither until the judgment. Now you see if I have cause to weep. Know, O Barnabas, that for this I must have great persecution, and shall be sold by one of my disciples for thirty pieces of money. Whereupon I am sure that he who shall sell me shall be slain in my name, for that God shall take me up from the earth, and shall change the appearance of the traitor so that every one shall believe him to be me; nevertheless, when he dies an evil death, I shall abide in that dishonour for a long time in the world. But when Muhammad shall come, the sacred Messenger of God, that infamy shall be taken away. And this shall God do because I have confessed the truth of the Messiah who shall give me this reward, that I shall be known to be alive and to be a stranger to that death of infamy." Also according to GoB, Jesus charged Barnabas to write the gospel: Jesus turned himself to him who writes, and said: "Barnabas, see that by all means you write my gospel concerning all that has happened through my dwelling in the world. And write in a similar manner that which has befallen Judas, in order that the faithful may be undeceived, and every one may believe the truth." Anachronisms Some readers have noted that the Gospel of Barnabas contains a number of apparent anachronisms and historical incongruities : It has Jesus sailing across the Sea of Galilee to Nazareth - which is actually inland; and from thence going "up" to Capernaum - which is actually on the lakeside (chapters 20-21); though this is contested by Blackhirst, who says that the traditional location of Nazareth is itself questionable). Jesus is said to have been born during the rule of Pontius Pilate, which began after the year 26. Barnabas appears not to realize that 'Christ' and 'Messiah' are translations of the same word (christos), describing Jesus as "Jesus Christ" yet claiming that 'Jesus confessed and said the truth, "I am not the Messiah"' (ch. 42). There is reference to a jubilee which is to be held every hundred years (Chapter 82), rather than every fifty years as described in Leviticus: 25. This anachronism appears to link the Gospel of Barnabas to the declaration of a Holy Year in 1300 by Pope Boniface VIII; a Jubilee which he then decreed should be repeated every hundred years. In 1343 the interval between Holy Years was reduced by Pope Clement VI to fifty years . Adam and Eve eat an apple (ch. 40); whereas the traditional association of the Fruit of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil (Genesis: 2) with the apple, rests on the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Latin, where both 'apple' and 'evil' are rendered as 'malum'. The Gospel talks of wine being stored in wooden casks - as characteristic of Gaul and Northern Italy (chapter 152); whereas wine in 1st century Palestine was stored in wineskins and jars (Amphorae). The Pedunculate or English Oak (quercus robur) does not grow in Palestine; and the wood of other species is not sufficiently airtight to be used in wine casks , In Chapter 91, the "Forty Days" is referred to as an annual fast . This corresponds to the Christian tradition of fasting for forty days in Lent; a practice that is not witnessed earlier than the Council of Nicaea (325). Nor is there a forty days fast in Judaism of the period (see Mishnah, Tractate: Taanith "Days of Fasting") Where the Gospel of Barnabas includes quotations from the Old Testament, these correspond to readings as found in the Latin Vulgate ; rather than as found in either the Greek Septuagint, or the Hebrew Masoretic Text. Ch. 91 records three contending Jewish armies 200,000 strong at Mizpeh, totalling 600,000 men, at a time when the Roman army across the entire Empire had a total strength estimated as 300,000. Islamic perspectives Some Islamic organizations cite this work in support of the Islamic view of Jesus; in particular, the noted Muslim thinkers Rashid Rida in Egypt and Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi in Pakistan have given it qualified acceptance (though the latter rejects its naming of Muhammad as an interpolation). While some Muslim scholars also agree that this Gospel of Barnabas is fabricated or has been changed over time, others believe that Barnabas himself wrote the Gospel, whereas the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John were written by followers of Paul long after the events they describe, and that therefore the Gospel of Barnabas is more authentic than the other Gospels. Some Muslims take a position between these poles, suggesting that, while the work contains "Muslim interpolations", it nonetheless consists mainly of early material that contradicts Christian traditions and confirms Muslim beliefs. Although the Gospel of Barnabas is, in several respects, inconsistent with Islamic teaching, some Muslim scholars cite this as evidence of the genuineness of the gospel by arguing that no Muslim would fake a document and have it contradict the Qur'an. They believe the contradictions of the Qur'an in the Gospel of Barnabas are signs of textual corruption (which Muslims already ascribe for a majority of the Bible), but that the Gospel of Barnabas would not be as corrupt as other religious works, and would still maintain the truth about Jesus not being crucified and not being God or son of God. References Further reading The complete Italian text is transcribed with an English translation and introduction: Ragg, L and L - The Gospel of Barnabas. (Clarendon Press, Oxford, England, 1907). A second Italian edition - in parallel columns with a modernised text: Eugenio Giustolisi and Giuseppe Rizzardi, Il vangelo di Barnaba. Un vangelo per i musulmani? (Milano: Istituto Propaganda Libraria, 1991). The complete text of the Italian manuscript has been published in photo-facsimile; with a French translation and extensive commentary and textual apparatus: Cirillo L. & Fremaux M. Evangile de Barnabe: recherches sur la composition et l'origine, Paris, 1977, 598p The text of the Spanish manuscript has been published with extensive commentary: Bernabe Pons L. F. El Evangelio de San Bernabe; Un evangelio islamico espanol, Universidad de Alicante, 1995, 260p See also The Messiah (Iranian film) based on the Gospel of Barnabas. External links and text Lonsdale & Laura Ragg, The Gospel of Barnabas, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907. ISBN 1-881316-15-7. Jan Slomp:The "Gospel of Barnabas" in recent research R. Blackhirst, "The Medieval Gospel of Barnabas": Full text of the Italian ms of Gospel of Barnabas, (in English), with supplementary material and photographs Preface of the Spanish manuscript Bibliography Blackhirst, "Was there an early Gospel of Barnabas?" http://www.barnabas.net Christian perspectives Samuel Green argues that the Gospel is a 14th-century Islamic Forgery Extracts from the preface of Answering Islam: The Crescent in the Light of the Cross (Norman L. Geisler and Abdul Saleeb) The Gospel of Barnabas in recent research, by Jan Slomp, a former missionary to Pakistan History as a Literary Weapon:The Gospel of Barnabas in Muslim-Christian PolemicsOddbjørn Leirvik: a historical survey of both Christian and Islamic perspectives. F.P. Cotterell, "The Gospel of Barnabas" Vox Evangelica 10 (1977): 43-47. 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2,620 | Haiti | Haiti (; French Haïti ; Haitian Creole: Ayiti), officially the Republic of Haiti ( ; ), is a Creole- and French-speaking Caribbean country. Along with the Dominican Republic, it occupies the island of Hispaniola, in the Greater Antillean archipelago. Ayiti (Land on high) was the indigenous Taíno or Amerindian name for the island. The country's highest point is Pic la Selle, at . The total area of Haiti is 27,750 square kilometres (10,714 sq mi) and its capital is Port-au-Prince. Haiti's regional, historical, and ethnolinguistic position is unique for several reasons. It was the first independent nation in Latin America, the first post-colonial independent black-led nation in the world, and the only nation whose independence was gained as part of a successful slave rebellion. Haiti is the only predominantly Francophone independent nation in the Americas, and one of only two (along with Canada) which designate French as an official language; the other French-speaking countries are all overseas départements or collectivités of France. History The island of Hispaniola, of which Haiti occupies the western third, was originally inhabited by the Taíno Arawaks, a seafaring branch of the South American Arawaks. Christopher Columbus landed at Môle Saint-Nicolas on 5 December 1492, and claimed the island for Spain. Nineteen days later, his ship the Santa Maria ran aground near the present site of Cap-Haitien; Columbus was forced to leave 39 men, founding the settlement of La Navidad. Ayiti, which means "mountainous land", is a name used by the Taíno-Arawak people, who also called some sections of it Bohio, meaning "rich villages". Kiskeya is yet a third term that has been attributed to the Taínos for the island. The Taíno population on Hispaniola was divided through a system of established cacicazgos (chiefdoms), named Marien, Maguana, Higuey, Magua and Xaragua, which could be further subdivided. The cacicazgos (later called caciques in French) were tributary kingdoms, with payment consisting of food grown by the Taíno. Taino cultural artifacts include cave paintings in several locations in the nation, which have become national symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions. Modern-day Léogane, a town in the southwest, is at the epicenter of what was the chiefdom of Xaragua. 1510 pictograph telling a story of missionaries arriving in Hispaniola Following the destruction of La Navidad by the Amerindians, Columbus moved to the eastern side of the island and established La Isabela. One of the earliest leaders to fight off Spanish conquest was Queen Anacaona, a Taíno princess from Xaragua who married Chief Caonabo, a Taíno king (cacique) from Maguana. The two resisted European rule but to no avail; she was captured by the Spanish and executed in front of her people. To this day, Anacaona is revered in Haiti as one of the country's first founders, preceding the likes of founding fathers such as Toussaint Louverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines. The Spaniards exploited the island for its gold, mined chiefly by local Amerindians directed by the Spanish occupiers. Those refusing to work in the mines were slaughtered or forced into slavery. Europeans brought chronic infectious diseases with them that were new to the Caribbean. Diseases were the most powerful of the elements because the Taíno had no natural immunity, but ill treatment, malnutrition and a drastic drop of the birthrate also contributed to decimation of the indigenous population. The Spanish governors began importing enslaved Africans for labor. In 1517, Charles V, authorized the draft of slaves. The Taínos became virtually extinct on the island of Hispaniola. Some who evaded capture fled to the mountains and established independent settlements. These survivors mixed with escaped African slaves (runaways called maroons) and produced a multiracial generation called zambos. French settlers later called people of mixed African and Amerindian ancestry marabou. The mestizo increased in number from children born to relationships between native women and European men. Others were born as a result of unions between African women and European men, who were called mulatto in Spanish and mulâtre in French. The western part of Hispaniola soon was settled by French buccaneers. Among them, Bertrand D'Ogeron succeeded in growing tobacco, which prompted many of the numerous buccaneers and freebooters to turn into settlers. This population did not submit to Spanish royal authority until the year 1660 and caused a number of conflicts. 17th century settlement Bertrand D'Orgeron attracted many colonists from Martinique and Guadeloupe, such as the Roy family (Jean Roy, 1625-1707), Hebert (Jean Hebert, 1624, with his family) and the Barre (Guillaume Barre, 1642, with his family), driven out by pressure on lands generated by extension of sugar plantations. From 1670 to 1690, a drop in the tobacco markets affected the island and significantly reduced the number of settlers. Freebooters grew stronger, plundering settlements, such as those of Vera Cruz in 1683 and Campêche in 1686. Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Marquis de Seignelay, elder son of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Jean-Baptiste James and Minister of the Navy, brought back some order. He ordered the establishment of indigo and sugar cane plantations. The first windmill for processing sugar was created in 1685. Treaty of Ryswick and slave colony France and Spain settled hostilities on the island by the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, which divided Hispaniola between them. France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue. Many French colonists soon arrived and established plantations in Saint-Domingue due to high profit potential. From 1713 to 1787, approximately 30,000 colonists, emigrated from Bordeaux, France to the western part of the island. By about 1790, Saint-Domingue had greatly overshadowed its eastern counterpart in terms of wealth and population. It quickly became the richest French colony in the New World due to the immense profits from the sugar, coffee and indigo industries. The labor and knowledge of thousands of enslaved Africans made it possible, who brought skills and technology for indigo production to the island. The French-enacted Code Noir (Black Code), prepared by Colbert and ratified by Louis XIV, established rigid rules on slave treatment and permissible freedom. It has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies there ever was - a third of new arrivals died within a few years. The Haitian Revolution Jean Jacques Dessalines, leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first ruler of an independent Haiti. The French Revolution contributed to social upheavals in Saint-Domingue and the French and West Indies. Most important was the revolution of the slaves in Saint-Domingue, starting on the northern plains in 1791. In 1792 the French government sent three commissioners with troops to try to reestablish control. They began to build an alliance with gens de couleur, who were looking for their rights. In 1793, France and Great Britain went to war, and British troops invaded Saint-Domingue. The execution of Louis XVI heightened tensions in the colony. To build an alliance with the gens de couleur and slaves, the French commissioners Sonthonax and Polverel abolished slavery in the colony. Six months later, the national Convention endorsed abolition and extended it to all of the French colonies. Toussaint L'Ouverture, a former slave and leader in the slave revolt who rose in importance as a military commander because of his many skills, achieved peace in Saint-Domingue after years of war against both external invaders and internal dissension. He had established a disciplined, flexible army and drove out both the Spaniards and the British invaders who threatened the colony. He restored stability and prosperity by daring measures, including inviting the return of planters and insisting that freed men work on plantations to renew revenues for the island. He also renewed trading ties with Great Britain and the United States. Independence The French government changed and the legislature began to rethink its decisions on slavery in the colonies. After Toussaint L'Ouverture created a separatist constitution, Napoleon Bonaparte sent an expedition of 30,000 men under the command of his brother-in-law, General Charles Leclerc, to retake the island. Leclerc's mission was to oust Louverture and restore slavery. The French achieved some victories. Leclerc invited Toussaint Louverture to a parley, kidnapped him and sent him to France, where he was imprisoned at Fort de Joux. He died there in 1803 of exposure and tuberculosis or malnutrition and pneumonia. The native leader Jean-Jacques Dessalines, long an ally of Toussaint Louverture, defeated the French troops led by Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, vicomte de Rochambeau at the Battle of Vertières. At the end of the double battle for emancipation and independence, former slaves proclaimed the independence of Saint-Domingue on 1 January 1804, declaring the new nation as Haiti, honoring one of the indigenous Taíno names for the island. It is the only nation born of a slave revolt . Dessalines was proclaimed Emperor for life by his troops. Constitution of Haity [sic] New-York Evening Post July 15 1805 He exiled the remaining whites and ruled as a despot. He was assassinated on 17 October 1806. The country was divided then between a kingdom in the north directed by Henri Christophe, and a republic in the south directed by a gens de couleur Alexandre Pétion. Henri Christophe is best known for constructing the Citadelle Laferriere, the largest fortress in the Western Hemisphere, to defend the island against the French. President Jean Pierre Boyer, also a gens de couleur, managed to reunify the two halves and extend control again over the eastern part of the island. In July 1825, the king of France Charles X sent a fleet of fourteen vessels and troops to reconquer the island. To maintain independence, President Boyer agreed to a treaty by which France recognized the independence of the country in exchange for a payment of 150 million francs (the sum was reduced in 1838 to 90 million francs) - an indemnity for profits lost from the slave trade. The French abolitionist Victor Schoelcher wrote ‘Imposing an indemnity on the victorious slaves was equivalent to making them pay with money that which they had already paid with their blood.' A long succession of coups followed the departure of Jean-Pierre Boyer. National authority was disputed by factions of the army, the elite class and the growing commercial class, now made up of numerous immigrants: Germans, Americans, French and English. From 1915 On The United States occupied the island from 1915 to 1934. From 1957 to 1986, the Duvalier family reigned as dictators. They created the private army and terrorist death squads known as Tonton Macoutes. Many Haitians fled to exile in the United States and Canada, especially French-speaking Quebec. In December 1990, the former priest Jean-Bertrand Aristide won the election. His mandate began on 7 February 1991. In August 1991, Jean-Bertrand Aristide’s government faced a non-confidence vote within the Haitian Chamber of Deputies and Senate. 83 voted against him, and only 11 members voted in support of Aristide’s government. Following a US-backed Coup D'etat in September 1991 President Aristide was flown into exile. In accordance with Article 149, of Haiti’s Constitution of 1987, Supreme Court Justice Joseph Nerette was named Provisional President and elections were called for December, 1991. These were blocked by the international community and chaos resulted extending into 1994. In 1994, Haitian General Raoul Cédras asked former U.S. President Jimmy Carter to help avoid a U.S. military invasion of Haiti. President Carter relayed this information to President Clinton, who asked Carter, in his role as founder of The Carter Center, to undertake a mission to Haiti with Senator Sam Nunn, D-GA, and former Joint Chiefs of Staff Chairman Colin Powell. The team successfully negotiated the departure of Haiti's military leaders, and the peaceful entry of U.S. forces under Operation Uphold Democracy, paving the way for the restoration of Jean-Bertrand Aristide as president. Aristide left the presidency in 1995. He was re-elected in 2000. His second term was marked by accusations of corruption. In 2004 a paramilitary coup backed by France, the USA and Canada, ousted Aristide a second time. (See 2004 Haitian rebellion) Aristide was removed by U.S. Marines from his home in what he described as a "kidnapping", and briefly held by the government of the Central African Republic to which the U.S. had decided to fly him. Aristide obtained his release and returned to the hemisphere shortly afterwards, although he has not returned to Haiti. Boniface Alexandre assumed interim authority. In February 2006, following elections marked by uncertainties and popular demonstrations, René Préval, close to the still-popular Aristide and former president of the Republic of Haiti between 1995 and 2000, was elected. The government of Haiti is a presidential republic, pluriform multiparty system wherein the President of Haiti is head of state directly elected by popular elections. The Prime Minister acts as head of government and is appointed by the President from the majority party in the National Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the President and Prime Minister who together constitute the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Assembly of Haiti. The government is organized unitarily, thus the central government delegates powers to the departments without a constitutional need for consent. The current structure of Haiti's political system was set forth in the Constitution of Haiti on 29 March 1987. The current president is René Préval. The United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (also known as MINUSTAH) has been in the country since the 2004 Haiti Rebellion. Haitian politics have been contentious. Most Haitians are aware of Haiti's history as the only country in the Western Hemisphere to undergo a successful slave revolution. On the other hand, the long history of oppression by dictators, including François Duvalier, has markedly affected the nation. France and the United States have repeatedly intervened in Haitian politics since the country's founding, sometimes at the request of one party or another. People's awareness of the threat of such intervention also permeates national life. Politics The politics of Haiti takes place in a framework of a presidential republic. It is a pluriform multiparty system in which the President of Haiti is head of state directly elected by popular vote. The Prime Minister acts as head of government and is appointed by the President from the majority party in the National Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the President and Prime Minister who together constitute the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Assembly of Haiti. The government is organized unitarily. Therefore, the central government delegates powers to the departments without a constitutional need for consent. The current structure of Haiti's political system was set forth in the Constitution of March 29, 1987. The country has a particularly high level of corruption. Departments, arrondissements, and communes Haiti is divided into 10 departments. The departments are listed below, with the departmental capital cities in parentheses. Departments of Haiti Artibonite (Gonaïves) Centre (Hinche) Grand'Anse (Jérémie) Nippes (Miragoâne) Nord (Cap-Haïtien) Nord-Est (Fort-Liberté) Nord-Ouest (Port-de-Paix) Ouest (Port-au-Prince) Sud-Est (Jacmel) Sud (Les Cayes) The departments are further divided into 41 arrondissements, and 133 communes which serve as second and third level administrative divisions. Geography Map of Haiti Haiti is situated on the western part of Hispaniola, the second largest island in the Greater Antilles. Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean behind Cuba and the Dominican Republic (the latter shares a 360 kilometer (224 mi) border with Haiti). Haiti at its closest point is only about away from Cuba and boasts the second longest coastline () of any country in the Antilles, Cuba having the longest. Haiti's terrain consists mainly of rugged mountains interspersed with small coastal plains and river valleys. The northern region consists of the Massif du Nord (Northern Massif) and the Plaine du Nord (Northern Plain). The Massif du Nord is an extension of the Cordillera Central in the Dominican Republic. It begins at Haiti's eastern border, north of the Guayamouc River, and extends to the northwest through the northern peninsula. The lowlands of the Plaine du Nord lie along the northern border with the Dominican Republic, between the Massif du Nord and the North Atlantic Ocean. The central region consists of two plains and two sets of mountain ranges. The Plateau Central (Central Plateau) extends along both sides of the Guayamouc River, south of the Massif du Nord. It runs from the southeast to the northwest. To the southwest of the Plateau Central are the Montagnes Noires, whose most northwestern part merges with the Massif du Nord. Mangrove forest in Haiti The southern region consists of the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac (the southeast) and the mountainous southern peninsula (also known as the Tiburon Peninsula). The Plaine du Cul-de-Sac is a natural depression which harbors the country's saline lakes, such as Trou Caïman and Haiti's largest lake Lac Azuei. The Chaîne de la Selle mountain range, an extension of the southern mountain chain of the Dominican Republic (the Sierra de Baoruco), extends from the Massif de la Selle in the east to the Massif de la Hotte in the west. This mountain range harbors Pic la Selle, the highest point in Haiti at 2,680 metres (8,793 ft). The country's most important valley in terms of crops is the Plaine de l'Artibonite, which is oriented south of the Montagnes Noires. This region supports the country's (also Hispaniola's) longest river, the Riviere l'Artibonite which begins in the western region of the Dominican Republic and continues most of its length through central Haiti and onward where it empties into the Golfe de la Gonâve. The eastern and central region of the island is a large elevated plateau. Haiti also includes various offshore islands. The historically famous island of Tortuga (Île de la Tortue) is located off the coast of northern Haiti. The arrondissement of La Gonâve is located on the island of the same name, in the Golfe de la Gonâve. Gonave Island is moderately populated by rural villagers. Île à Vache (Island of Cows) is located off the tip of southwestern Haiti. It is a lush island with many beautiful sights. Also part of Haiti are the Cayemites and Ile de Anacaona. Environment In 1925, Haiti was lush, with 60% of its original forest covering the lands and mountainous regions. Since then, the population has cut down all but an estimated 2% of its original forest cover, and in the process has destroyed fertile farmland soils, contributing to desertification. Erosion has been severe in the mountainous areas. Most Haitian logging is done to produce charcoal, the country's chief source of fuel. The plight of Haiti's forests has attracted international attention, and has led to numerous reforestation efforts, but these have met with little success to date. Despite the large environmental crises, Haiti retains a very high amount of biodiversity in proportion to its small size. Flamingo tongue on a purple sea fan from Arcadin Islands, Haiti. This sea snail is found living on various species of soft corals and sea fans. The island of Hispaniola is home to more than 6,000 plants, of which 35% are endemic; and 220 species of birds, of which 21 of which are endemic. None of the birds are endemic to Haiti, but La Selle Thrush is nearly so. The country's high biodiversity is due to its mountainous topography and fluctuating elevations in which each elevation harbors different microclimates and its own specific native fauna and flora. The country's varied scenery include lush green cloud forests (in some of the mountain ranges and the protected areas), high mountain peaks, arid desert, mangrove forest, and palm tree-lined beaches. Can Haiti dream of ecotourism ? - Paul Parisky, Kiskeya Alternativa's publications 2004 Haiti flood Environmental Problems In addition to soil erosion, deforestation has caused periodic flooding, as seen on 17 September 2004. Tropical storm Jeanne skimmed the north coast of Haiti, leaving 3,006 people dead in flooding and mudslides, mostly in the city of Gonaïves. Earlier that year in May, floods killed over 3,000 people on Haiti's southern border with the Dominican Republic. Deforestation Exacerbates Haiti Floods Haiti was again pummeled by tropical storms in late August and early September 2008. The storms – Tropical Storm Fay, Hurricane Gustav, Hurricane Hanna and Hurricane Ike – all produced heavy winds and rain in Haiti. Due to weak soil conditions throughout Haiti, the country’s mountainous terrain, and the devastating coincidence of four storms within less than four weeks, valley and lowland areas throughout the country experienced massive flooding. Casualties proved difficult to count because the storm diminished human capacity and physical resources for such record keeping. Bodies continued to surface as the flood waters receded. A 10 September 2008 source listed 331 dead and 800,000 in need of humanitarian aid. The grim state of affairs produced by these storms was all the more life threatening due to already high food and fuel prices that had caused a food crisis and political unrest in April 2008. As was the case in 2004, the coastal city of Gonaives was hit especially hard by the 2008 storms. The country is working to implement a biofuel solution to its energy problems. Also, environmental organizations such as the Peasant Movement of Papaye (formed by Jean-Baptiste Chavannes) are trying to find solutions for Haiti's environmental problems. Economy Bas-Ravine, in the northern part of Cap-Haitien. Haiti has remained the least-developed country in the Americas. Comparative social and economic indicators show Haiti falling behind other low-income developing countries (particularly in the hemisphere) since the 1980s. Haiti now ranks 146th of 177 countries in the United Nations Human Development Index (2006). About 80% of the population were estimated to be living in poverty in 2003. CIA - The World Factbook -- Haiti Haiti is the only country in the Americas on the United Nations list of Least Developed Countries. Economic growth was negative in 2001 and 2002, and flat in 2003. About 66% of all Haitians work in the agricultural sector, which consists mainly of small-scale subsistence farming, but this activity makes up only 30% of the GDP. The country has experienced little formal job creation over the past decade, although the informal economy is growing. Mangoes and coffee are two of Haiti's most important exports. It has consistently ranked among the most corrupt countries in the world on the Corruption Perceptions Index. Foreign aid makes up approximately 30%-40% of the national government's budget. The largest donor is the United States followed by Canada, and the European Union also contributes. Venezuela and Cuba also make various contributions to Haiti's economy, especially after alliances were renewed in 2006 and 2007. U.S. aid to the Haitian government was completely cut off in 2001-2004 after the 2000 election was disputed and President Aristide was accused of various misdeeds. After Aristide's departure in 2004, aid was restored, and the Brazilian army led the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti peacekeeping operation. Haiti is expected to receive debt forgiveness for about $525 million of its debt through the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative by mid-2009. CIA World Fact Book Education Of Haiti's 8.7 million inhabitants, just below half are illiterate. The literacy rate of 52.9% is the lowest in the region. Haiti counts 15,200 primary schools, of which 90% are non-public and managed by the communities, religious organizations or NGOs. The enrollment rate for primary school is 67%, of which less than 30% reach 6th grade. Secondary schools enroll 20% of eligible-age children. Charity organizations like Food for the Poor are currently working on building schools for children as well as providing them necessary school supplies. The educational system of Haiti is based on the French system. Higher education is provided by universities and other public and private institutions. It is under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education. A list of universities in Haiti includes: University of Caraibe (Université Caraïbe) (CUC) University of Haiti (Université d'État d'Haïti) (UEH) University Notre Dame of Haiti (Université Notre Dame d'Haïti) (UNDH) Université Chrétienne du Nord d'Haïti (UCNH) Université Lumière / MEBSH Université Quisqueya (UNIQ) Ecole Supérieure d'Infotronique d'Haïti (ESIH) Université Roi Henri Christophe Université Publique de l'Artibonite aux Gonaïves (UPAG) Université Publique du Nord au Cap-Haïtien (UPNCH) Université Publique du Sud au Cayes (UPSAC) Demographics Population of Haiti (in thousands) from 1961 to 2003 Although Haiti averages approximately 250 people per square kilometer (650 per sq. mi.), its population is concentrated most heavily in urban areas, coastal plains, and valleys. About 90% of Haitians are predominantly of Afro-Caribbean descent. The remainder of the population is mostly multiracial, and white (mostly of Arab and European origin). The Arab population numbers at about 4,700 or more. European-descended Haitians vary in origin; French, Britons, Spanish, Italian, German, and Portuguese ancestry is noted. Also a significant amount of Jewish ancestry. http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.php ) . There is a small percentage of the population who are of Asian descent (mostly of Chinese origin) and number at 400. http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.php Haitian diaspora Like other poor nations in Latin America and the Caribbean, Haiti has witnessed a diaspora of both educated and poor citizens, some of whom have become illegal immigrants in nearby countries. Millions of Haitians live abroad, chiefly in the United States, Dominican Republic,Cuba, Canada (especially in Quebec), France, Bahamas, French Antilles the Turks and Caicos, Venezuela, and Brazil. In North America There is a significant Haitian population in South Florida, specifically the Miami enclave of Little Haiti. New York City especially in Flatbush, East Flatbush, Springfield Gardens also has a thriving émigré community with the second largest population of Haitians of any state in the nation. There are also large and active Haitian communities in Boston, New Jersey, Providence, Rhode Island, Georgia, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania. There is also a large Haitian community in Montreal-North. Languages One of Haiti's two official languages is French, which is the principal written, spoken in schools and administratively authorized language. It is spoken by most educated Haitians and used in the business sector. The second is the recently standardized Haitian Creole, http://www.indiana.edu/~creole/creolenatllangofhaiti.html spoken by virtually the entire population of Haiti. Nearly all Haitians speak the latter as a first language, a French-based creole language that harbors significant African influence, as well as influence from Spanish, and Taíno. Residents near the border with the Dominican Republic have often learned enough Spanish for conversational speaking. Due to its ties to the United States, English has also become an important tool in the business sector. Culture "Tap tap" bus in Port-Salut. Haiti has a long and storied history and therefore retains a very rich culture. Haitian culture is a mixture of primarily French, African elements, and native Taíno, with some lesser influence from the colonial Spanish. The country's customs essentially are a blend of cultural beliefs that derived from the various ethnic groups that inhabited the island of Hispaniola. In nearly all aspects of modern Haitian society however, the European and African element dominate. Haiti is world famous for its distinctive art, notably painting and sculpture. Carnival Music The music of Haiti is influenced most greatly by European colonial ties and African migration (through slavery). In the case of European colonization, musical influence has derived primarily from the French, however Haitian music has been influenced to a significant extent by its Spanish-speaking neighbors, the Dominican Republic and Cuba, whose Spanish-infused music has contributed much to the country's musical genres as well. Styles of music unique to the nation of Haiti include music derived from vodou ceremonical traditions and the wildly popular Compas. Compas (in French) or Kompa (in Creole) is a complex, ever-changing music that arose from European ballroom dancing, mixed with Haiti's bourgeois culture. It is a refined music, played with an underpinning of tipico, and méringue (related to Dominican merengue) as a basic rhythm. Haiti didn't have any recorded music until 1937 when Jazz Guignard was recorded non-commercially. Cuisine The cuisine of Haiti originates from several culinary styles from the various historical ethnic groups that populated the western portion of the island of Hispaniola, namely the French, African, and the Taíno Amerindians. Haitian cuisine is similar to the rest of the Latin-Caribbean (the French and the Spanish-speaking countries of the Antilles) however it differs in several ways from its regional counterparts. Its primary influence derive from French, and African cuisine, with notable derivatives from native Taíno and Spanish culinary technique. Though similar to other cooking styles in the region, it carries a uniqueness native only to the country and an appeal to many visitors to the island. Haitians use vegetables and meats extensively and peppers and similar herbs are often used for strengthening flavor. Dishes tend to be seasoned liberally and consequently Haitian cuisine tends to be moderately spicy, not mild and not too hot. In the country, however, many businesses of foreign origin have been established introducing several foreign cuisines into the mainstream culture. Years of adaptation have led to these cuisines (ie: Levantine from Arab migration to Haiti) to merge into Haitian cuisine. Rice and beans in several differing ways are eaten throughout the country regardless of location, becoming a sort of national dish. They form the staple diet, which consists of a lot of starch and is high in carbohydrates. In the more rural areas, however, at great distances from the major cities, other foods are eaten to a larger degree such as mais moulu (mayi moulen); a dish comparable to cornmeal that can be eaten with sauce pois (sos pwa), a bean sauce made from one of many types of beans such as kidney), pinto, or garbanzo beans, or pigeon peas (known in other countries as gandules). Mais Moulu can be eaten with fish (often red snapper), or alone depending on personal preference. Tomato, oregano, cabbage, avocado, red and green peppers are several of the many types of vegetables/fruits that are used in Haitian dishes. Banane Pésée (Bannan Pézé), flattened plantain slices that are fried in oil (known as tostones in the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico), are eaten frequently in Haiti as both a snack food and as part of a meal. They are frequently eaten with tassot and/or griot, which is deep-fried goat and pork respectively. See also References Further reading Paul Butel. Histoire des Antilles Françaises XVIIe - XXe siècle, Perrin 2002 ISBN 978-2-2620154-0-6 Noam Chomsky. U.S. & Haiti. Z magazine, April 2004 Accessed 2008-05-07. Edwidge Danticat. "Breath, Eyes, Memory" & "Krik? Krak!" as well as many other books. 1994-present. Wade Davis The Serpent and The Rainbow. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985 Michael Deibert. Notes from the Last Testament: The Struggle for Haiti. Seven Stories Press, New York, 2005. ISBN 1583226974. Jared Diamond. 2005. Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-03337-5. Paul Farmer. Pathologies of Power: Health, Human Rights, and the New War on the Poor. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003, 2005 edition. ISBN 978-0-520-24326-2. Paul Farmer. The uses of Haiti. Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press 2003. ISBN 1-56751-242-9 Carolyn E. Fick. The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution from Below. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. first ed edition (1 February 1990). ISBN 0870496670, ISBN 978-0870496677 Robert Debs Heinl and Nancy Gordon Heinl. Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People 1492-1995. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1996. ISBN 0761831770 C. L. R. James. The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution. Vintage, 1938. ISBN 0-679-72467-2. J. Christopher Kovats-Bernat. Sleeping Rough in Port-au-Prince: An Ethnography of Violence and Street Children in Haiti. University Press of Florida, 2006. ISBN 0-8130-3009-9 Mark Kurlansky. A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny. Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1992. ISBN 0-201-52396-5. Elizabeth McAlister. Rara! Vodou, Power, and Performance in Haiti and its Diaspora. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002. ISBN 0-520-22823-5. Melinda Miles and Eugenia Charles, eds. Let Haiti Live: Unjust U.S. Policies Toward Its Oldest Neighbor. 2004. Jack Claude Nezat. The Nezat And Allied Families 1630-2007 Lulu 2007 ISBN 978-2-9528339-2-9, ISBN 978-0-6151-5001-7 Randall Robinson. An Unbroken Agony: Haiti, from Revolution to the Kidnapping of a President. New York: Perseus Books Group, 2007. ISBN 0465070507. Martin Ros. Night of Fire - The Black Napoleon and the Battle for Haiti. New York: DaCapo Press, 1993. ISBN 0-9627613-8-9 External links Government Government of the Republic of Haiti - official website United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) Stabilization and Reconstruction Task Force (START), Government of Canada Updates on nation rebuilding status in Haiti Canadian Reconstruction and Development in Haiti History http://thelouvertureproject.org/ The Louverture project at thelouvertureproject.org General information Haiti at Encyclopaedia Britannica Haiti at UCB Libraries GovPubs A Country Study: Haiti from the U.S. Library of Congress (December 1989) Travel Haiti photos Other VOA kreyol The place to share Haiti News, chat, economic ideas, music, and haitian movies. If It's About Haiti, It's On Fouye! Haiti: Current events, news, politics, nonprofit International Action: Fighting the Water Crisis in Haiti Hope for Haiti: Education and grassroots development in rural Haiti Search engine for the.ht tld (in french) Official website of The National Telecommunications Council, Conatel (in French) National Archives of Haiti materials in the Digital Library of the Caribbean Haiti List Bob Corbett's Haiti Page The Carter Center information on Haiti Voodoo Democracy: Toussaint L'Ouverture and Democracy in Haiti tags be-x-old:Гаіці | Haiti |@lemmatized haiti:117 french:36 haïti:5 haitian:34 creole:6 ayiti:3 officially:1 republic:18 speak:6 caribbean:8 country:38 along:4 dominican:12 occupy:3 island:34 hispaniola:12 great:5 antillean:1 archipelago:1 land:5 high:11 indigenous:3 taíno:13 amerindian:5 name:7 point:3 pic:2 la:13 selle:5 total:1 area:6 square:2 kilometre:1 sq:2 mi:3 capital:2 port:5 au:5 prince:3 regional:2 historical:2 ethnolinguistic:1 position:1 unique:2 several:7 reason:1 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2,621 | Aleister_Crowley | Aleister Crowley, born Edward Alexander Crowley (), (12 October 1875 – 1 December 1947), was an English occultist, writer, mountaineer, poet, spy and yogi. Sutin, L. (2000). Do What Thou Wilt. He was an influential member of several occult organizations, including the Golden Dawn, the A∴A∴, and Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.), Crowley, Aleister. Confessions. and is best known today for his occult writings, especially The Book of the Law, the central sacred text of Thelema. He gained much notoriety during his lifetime, and was dubbed "The Wickedest Man In the World." Crowley was also a chess player, painter, astrologer, hedonist, bisexual, drug experimenter, and social critic. Biography Early years Edward Alexander Crowley was born at 30 Clarendon Square in Royal Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, England, between 11:00pm and midnight on October 12, 1875. The Magical Diaries of Aleister Crowley (Tunisia 1923) : Edited by Stephen Skinner; page 10 His father, Edward Crowley, was trained as an engineer but according to Aleister, never worked as one The Confessions by Aleister Crowley . He did, however, own shares in a lucrative family brewery business, which allowed him to retire before Aleister was born. Through his father's business he was an acquaintance of Aubrey Beardsley. His mother, Emily Bertha Bishop, drew roots from a Devon and Somerset family. Both of his parents were Exclusive Brethren, a more conservative faction of the Plymouth Brethren. King, Magical World, page 5. In his writings however he uses the latter 'Plymouth Brethren' term, rather than 'Exclusive Brethren'. Crowley grew up in a staunch Brethren household and was only allowed to play with children whose families followed the same faith. His father was a fanatical preacher, travelling around Britain and producing pamphlets. Daily Bible studies and private tutoring were mainstays in "Alick's" childhood. On February 29, 1880 The Confessions of Aleister Crowley state she was born in 1808 but this would seem to be a misprint) , a sister, Grace Mary Elizabeth, was born but lived only five hours. Crowley was taken to see the body and in his own words (in the third person): The incident made a curious impression on him. He did not see why he should be disturbed so uselessly. He couldn't do any good; the child was dead; it was none of his business. This attitude continued through his life. He has never attended any funeral but that of his father, which he did not mind doing, as he felt himself to be the real centre of interest. The Confessions of Aleister Crowley On March 5, 1887, his father died of tongue cancer. This was a turning point in Crowley's life, after which he then began to describe his childhood in the first person in his Confessions. After the death of his father to whom he was very close, he drifted from his religious upbringing, and his mother's efforts at keeping her son in the Christian faith only served to provoke his scepticism. When he was a child, his constant rebellious behaviour displeased his mother to such an extent that she would chastise him by calling him "The Beast" (from the Book of Revelation), an epithet that Crowley would later adopt for himself. He objected to the labelling of what he saw as life's most worthwhile and enjoyable activities as "sinful". University In 1895, he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, after studying at the public schools Malvern College, Eastbourne College and Tonbridge School. He originally had the intention of reading Moral Sciences (philosophy), but with approval from his personal tutor, he switched to English literature, which was not then a part of the curriculum offered. His three years at Cambridge were happy ones, due in part to coming into the considerable fortune left by his father. Here he finally broke with the Church of England, internally if not externally: <blockquote>The Church of England [...] had seemed a narrow tyranny, as detestable as that of the Plymouth Brethren; less logical and more hypocritical. When I discovered that chapel was compulsory I immediately struck back. The junior dean halled me for not attending chapel, which I was certainly not going to do, because it involved early rising. I excused myself on the ground that I had been brought up among the Plymouth Brethren. The dean asked me to come and see him occasionally and discuss the matter, and I had the astonishing impudence to write to him that 'The seed planted by my father, watered by my mother's tears, would prove too hardy a growth to be uprooted even by his eloquence and learning.'</blockquote> In December 1896, following an event that he describes in veiled terms, Crowley decided to pursue a path in occultism and mysticism. By the next year, he began reading books by alchemists and mystics, and books on magic. Biographer Lawrence Sutin describes the pivotal New Year's event as a homo-erotic experience (Crowley's first) that brought him what he considered "an encounter with an immanent deity." Sutin, p. 38 During the year of 1897, Aleister further came to see worldly pursuits as useless. The section on chess below, describes one experience that helped him reach this conclusion. In October a brief illness triggered considerations of mortality and "the futility of all human endeavour," or at least the futility of the diplomatic career that Crowley had previously considered. Sutin, pp. 37–39 A year later, he published his first book of poetry (Aceldama), and left Cambridge, only to meet Julian L. Baker (Frater D.A.) who introduced him to Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers and the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. Throughout the period of 1895, he allegedly maintained a vigorous sex life, which was largely conducted with prostitutes and girls he picked up at local pubs and cigar shops, but eventually he took part in same-sex activities in which he played the passive role. Magical World of AC, Francis King, page 5 During the course of his life, Crowley practised sexual magic rituals with both men and women. Sutin recounts Crowley's relationship Sutin, p. 47, 159, 245 with, and lasting feelings Sutin, p. 41–47 for, Herbert Charles Pollitt, whom he met while at Cambridge in 1897. Pollitt did not share his partner's mystical leanings, and Crowley had this to say about ending their relationship: He would have made any public expressions of "distaste" at a time when British law officially forbade homosexuality. The arrest, conviction and imprisonment of Oscar Wilde took place in Crowley's first year at Cambridge. In the autobiographical preface to Crowley's drama The World's Tragedy, he included two pages on "Sodomy" where he openly admitted his bisexuality and praised sex between men. However, the section was removed from all copies of the book except those given to close friends. Sutin, p. 183. See also p. 391 for a later homosexual fantasy. Later, in a January 1929 letter, he wrote While that claim about women conflicts with other statements and actions of Crowley's, See for example Sutin p. 316, 319 on his relationship with Leah Hirsig. it accurately describes his relationships with Pollitt and various working class women during his college years. Sutin, p. 43 Name change Crowley described his decision to change his name as follows: For many years I had loathed being called Alick, partly because of the unpleasant sound and sight of the word, partly because it was the name by which my mother called me. Edward did not seem to suit me and the diminutives Ted or Ned were even less appropriate. Alexander was too long and Sandy suggested tow hair and freckles. I had read in some book or other that the most favourable name for becoming famous was one consisting of a dactyl followed by a spondee, as at the end of a hexameter: like "Jeremy Taylor". Aleister Crowley fulfilled these conditions and Aleister is the Gaelic form of Alexander. To adopt it would satisfy my romantic ideals. The atrocious spelling A-L-E-I-S-T-E-R was suggested as the correct form by Cousin Gregor, who ought to have known better. In any case, A-L-A-I-S-D-A-I-R makes a very bad dactyl. For these reasons I saddled myself with my present nom-de-guerre—I can't say that I feel sure that I facilitated the process of becoming famous. I should doubtless have done so, whatever name I had chosen." The Confessions of Aleister Crowley The Golden Dawn Involved as a young adult in the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, he first studied mysticism with and made enemies of William Butler Yeats and Arthur Edward Waite. Like many in occult circles of the time, Crowley voiced the view that Waite was a pretentious bore through searing critiques of Waite's writings and editorials of other authors' writings. In his periodical The Equinox, Crowley titled one diatribe, "Wisdom While You Waite", and his note on the passing of Waite bore the title, "Dead Waite". His friend and former Golden Dawn associate, Allan Bennett, introduced him to the ideas of Buddhism, IAO131 Thelema & Buddhism in Journal of Thelemic Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, Autumn 2007, pp. 18-32 while Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers, acting leader of the Golden Dawn organization, acted as his early mentor in western magic but would later become his enemy. Several decades after Crowley's participation in the Golden Dawn, Mathers claimed copyright protection over a particular ritual and sued Crowley for infringement after Crowley's public display of the ritual. Both also developed and carried complex Seal of Solomon amulets and talismans. In 1899, Crowley acquired Boleskine House, in Foyers on the shore of Loch Ness in Scotland. In a book of fiction, titled Moonchild, Crowley later portrayed Mathers as the primary villain, including him as a character named SRMD, using the abbreviation of Mathers' magical name. Arthur Edward Waite also appeared in Moonchild as a villain named Arthwaite, while Bennett appeared as the silent, monkish Mahathera Phang. While he did not officially break with Mathers until 1904, Crowley lost faith in this teacher's abilities soon after the 1900 schism in the Golden Dawn (if not before). Sutin, pp. 80, 90-91 Later in the year of that schism, Crowley travelled to Mexico and continued his magical studies in isolation. Crowley's writings suggest that he discovered the word Abrahadabra during this time. In October 1901, after practicing Raja Yoga for some time, he said he had reached a state he called dhyana—one of many states of unification in thoughts that are described in Magick (Liber ABA) (See Crowley on egolessness). Sutin, pp. 85, 94 1902 saw him writing the essay Berashith (the first word of Genesis), in which he gave meditation (or restraint of the mind to a single object) as the means of attaining his goal. The essay describes ceremonial magick as a means of training the will, and of constantly directing one's thoughts to a given object through ritual. In his 1903 essay, Science and Matter, Crowley urged an empirical approach to Buddhist teachings. In 1903 he married Rose Edith Kelly. 1904 and after Crowley said that a mystical experience in 1904, while on holiday in Cairo, Egypt, led to his founding of the religious philosophy known as Thelema. Aleister's wife Rose started to behave in an odd way, and this led Aleister to think that some entity had made contact with her. At her instructions, he performed an invocation of the Egyptian god Horus on March 20 with (he wrote) "great success." According to Crowley, the god told him that a new magical Aeon had begun, and that Crowley would serve as its prophet. Rose continued to give information, telling Crowley in detailed terms to await a further revelation. On 8 April and for the following two days at exactly noon he allegedly heard a voice, dictating the words of the text, Liber AL vel Legis, or The Book of the Law, which Crowley wrote down. The voice claimed to be that of Aiwass (or Aiwaz) "the minister of Hoor-paar-kraat", or Horus, the god of air, child of Isis and Osiris and self-appointed conquering lord of the New Aeon, announced through his chosen scribe "the prince-priest the Beast". Portions of the book are in numerical cipher, which Crowley claimed the inability to decode. Thelemic dogma explains this by pointing to a warning within the Book of the Law — the speaker supposedly warned that the scribe, Ankh-af-na-khonsu (Aleister Crowley), was never to attempt to decode the ciphers, for to do so would end only in folly. The later-written The Law is For All sees Crowley warning everyone not to discuss the writing amongst fellow critics, for fear that a dogmatic position would arise. While he declared a "new Equinox of the Gods" in early 1904, supposedly passing on the revelation of March 20 to the occult community, it took years for Crowley to fully accept the writing of the Book of the Law and follow its doctrine. Sutin, pp. 195-196 Only after countless attempts to test its writings did he come to embrace them as the official doctrine of the New Aeon of Horus. The remainder of his professional and personal careers were spent expanding the new frontiers of scientific illuminism. Rose and Aleister had a daughter, whom Crowley named Nicole Ma Ahathoor Hecate Sappho Jezebel Lilith Crowley, in July 1904. This child died in 1906, during the two and a half months when Crowley had left her with Rose (after a family trip through China). They had another daughter, Lola Zaza, in the summer of that year, and Crowley devised a special ritual of thanksgiving for her birth. Sutin, pp. 142-143, 171-173 He performed a thanksgiving ritual before his first claimed success in what he called the "Abramelin operation", on 9 October 1906. Sutin, pp. 173-174 This was his implementation of a magical work described in The Book of the Sacred Magic of Abramelin the Mage. The events of that year gave the Abramelin book a central role in Crowley's system. He described the primary goal of the "Great Work" using a term from this book: "the Knowledge and Conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel". An essay in the first number of The Equinox The Temple of Solomon the King, pub. The Equinox, Vol. I No. 1 (1909) retrieved June 15, 2006 from http://www.the-equinox.org/vol1/no1/eqi01014.html gives several reasons for this choice of names: Because Abramelin's system is so simple and effective. Because since all theories of the universe are absurd it is better to talk in the language of one which is patently absurd, so as to mortify the metaphysical man. Because a child can understand it. Crowley was notorious in his lifetime — a frequent target of attacks in the tabloid press, which labelled him "The Wickedest Man in the World" to his evident amusement. At one point, he was expelled from Italy after having established a commune, the organization of which was based on his personal philosophies, the Abbey of Thelema, at Cefalù, Sicily. Aleister and Rose were divorced in 1909. A∴A∴ and Ordo Templi Orientis In 1907, Crowley's interest took off once again, with two important events. The first was the creation of the Silver Star (A∴A∴), and the second was the composition of the Holy books of Thelema. Magical World, F.King, page 41 In 1910, Crowley performed with members of the A∴A∴ his series of dramatic rites, the Rites of Eleusis. According to Crowley, in 1912, Theodor Reuss had called on him to address accusations of publishing O.T.O. secrets, which Crowley dismissed, for having never attained the grade in which these secrets were given (9th degree). Reuss opened up the Book of Lies and showed Crowley the passage. This sparked a long conversation which led to the opening of the British section of O.T.O. called Mysteria Mystica Maxima. King, Magical World, pages 80-81 Spying in America, 1914–1918 Richard B. Spence writes in his 2008 book Secret Agent 666:Aleister Crowley, British Intelligence and the Occult that Crowley was a lifelong agent for British Intelligence. While this may have already been the case during his many travels to Tsarist Russia, Switzerland, Asia, Mexico and North Africa that had started in his student days, he was most involved with this line of work during his life in America during the First World War, under a cover of being a German propaganda agent and a supporter of Irish independence. Crowley's mission was to gather intelligence about the German intelligence network, the Irish independent activists and produce aberrant propaganda, aiming at compromising the German and Irish ideals. As an agent provocateur he played some role in provoking the sinking of the RMS Lusitania, thereby bringing the United States closer to active involvement in the war alongside the Allies. He also used German magazines The Fatherland and The International as outlets for his other writings. During his time in the U.S., Crowley practiced the task of a Magister Templi in the A∴A∴ as he conceived it, namely interpreting every phenomenon as a particular dealing of "God" with his soul. Liber ABA Part II gives this task. He began to see various women he met as officers in his ongoing initiation, associating them with priests wearing animal masks in Egyptian ritual. Sutin p 251. A meditation during his relationship with one such woman (Jeanne Robert Foster) led him to claim the title of Magus, also referring to the system of the A∴A∴. Two periods of magical experimentation followed. In June 1916, he began the first of these at the New Hampshire cottage of Evangeline Adams, having ghostwritten most of two books on astrology for her. Sutin p257. His diaries at first show discontent at the gap between his view of the grade of Magus and his view of himself: "It is no good making up my mind to do anything material; for I have no means. But this would vanish if I could make up my mind." Despite his objections to sacrificing a living animal, he resolved to crucify a frog as part of a rehearsal of the life of Jesus in the Gospels (afterward declaring it his willing familiar), "with the idea...that some supreme violation of all the laws of my being would break down my Karma or dissolve the spell that seems to bind me." Sutin p260, 261. Slightly more than a month later, having taken ethyl oxide, he had a vision of the universe from modern scientific cosmology that he frequently referred to in later writings. Sutin p258. Crowley began another period of magical work on an island in the Hudson River after buying large amounts of red paint instead of food. Having painted "Do what thou wilt" on the cliffs at both sides of the island, he received gifts from curious visitors. Here at the island he had visions of seeming past lives, though he refused to endorse any theory of what they meant beyond linking them to his unconscious. Towards the end of his stay, he also had a shocking experience he linked to "the Chinese wisdom" which made even Thelema appear insignificant. Sutin p271, 272. Nevertheless, he continued in his work. Before leaving the country he formed a sexual and magical relationship with Leah Hirsig, whom he met earlier, and with her help began painting canvases with more creativity and passion. Sutin p275 Abbey of Thelema Crowley, along with Leah Hirsig, founded the Abbey of Thelema in Cefalù, Sicily in 1920. Sutin, Do What Thou Wilt, p.279 The name was borrowed from Rabelais's satire Gargantua, Nature of the Beast by Colin Wilson; page 73 where the "Abbey of Theleme" is described as a sort of anti-monastery where the lives of the inhabitants were "spent not in laws, statutes, or rules, but according to their own free will and pleasure." Rabelais, F. Gargantua and Pantagruel Ch. 1. This idealistic utopia was to be the model of Crowley's commune, while also being a type of magical school, giving it the designation "Collegium ad Spiritum Sanctum," The College of the Holy Spirit. The general programme was in line with the A∴A∴ course of training, and included daily adorations to the Sun, a study of Crowley's writings, regular yogic and ritual practices (which were to be recorded), as well as general domestic labor. The object, naturally, was for students to devote themselves to the Great Work of discovering and manifesting their True Wills. Mussolini's Fascist government expelled Crowley from the country at the end of April 1923. After the Abbey In February 1924, Crowley visited Gurdjieff's Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man. He did not meet the founder on that occasion, but called Gurdjieff a "tip-top man" in his diary. "Heard more sense and insight than I've done in years." Quoted in Sutin, p. 317. Crowley privately criticized some of the Institute's practices and teachings, but doubted that what he heard from disciple Pindar reflected the master's true position. Some claim that on a later visit he met Gurdjieff -- who firmly repudiated Crowley. James Webb, The Harmonious Circle, p. 315. Quoted in Introduction to Gnosis #20, online version, retrieved December 20, 2007. Biographer Sutin expresses skepticism, "If this brutal banishment did occur, then it is remarkable that Crowley, who harbored animus toward so many rival teachers, never did so toward Gurdjieff." Sutin p.318. and Gurdjieff's student C.S. Nott tells a different version. Nott perceives Crowley as a black or at least ignorant magician and says his teacher "kept a sharp watch" on the visitor, but mentions no open confrontation. Teachings of Gurdjieff: A Pupil's Journal On August 16, 1929 Crowley married Maria de Miramar, from Nicaragua, while in Leipzig. They separated by 1930, but they were never divorced. Thelemapedia: The Encyclopedia of Thelema & Magick | Maria de Miramar In 1934, Crowley was declared bankrupt after losing a court case in which he sued the artist Nina Hamnett for calling him a black magician in her 1932 book, Laughing Torso. In addressing the jury, Mr. Justice Swift said: However, Patricia "Deirdre" MacAlpine approached Crowley on the day of the verdict and offered to bear him a child, whom he named Aleister Ataturk. She sought no mystical or religious role in Crowley's life and rarely saw him after the birth, "an arrangement that suited them both." Sutin, pp 373-374. During World War II, Ian Fleming and others proposed a disinformation plot in which Crowley would have helped an MI5 agent supply Nazi official Rudolf Hess with faked horoscopes. They could then pass along false information about an alleged pro-German circle in Britain. The government abandoned this plan when Hess flew to Scotland, crashing his plane on the moors near Eaglesham, and was captured. Fleming then suggested using Crowley as an interrogator to determine the influence of astrology on other Nazi leaders, but his superiors rejected this plan. At some point, Fleming also suggested that Britain could use Enochian as a code in order to plant evidence. Sutin, p. 388-389 Death Aleister Crowley died of a respiratory infection in a Hastings boarding house on 1 December 1947 at the age of 72. Sutin, pp. 417-419 He had become addicted to heroin after being prescribed morphine for his asthma and bronchitis many years earlier. Sutin p 411, 416, initial prescription p 277. He and his last doctor died within 24 hours of each other; newspapers would claim, in differing accounts, that Dr. Thomson had refused to continue his opiate prescription and that Crowley had put a curse on him. and . See also Sutin p 418. Biographer Lawrence Sutin passes on various stories about Crowley's death and last words. Frieda Harris supposedly reported him saying, "I am perplexed," though she did not see him at the very end. According to John Symonds, a Mr. Rowe witnessed Crowley's death along with a nurse, and reported his last words as "Sometimes I hate myself." Biographer Gerald Suster accepted the version of events he received from a "Mr W.H." who worked at the house, in which Crowley dies pacing in his living room. Supposedly Mr W.H. heard a crash while polishing furniture on the floor below, and entered Crowley's rooms to find him dead on the floor. Patricia "Deirdre" MacAlpine, who visited Crowley with their son and her three other children, denied all this and reports a sudden gust of wind and peal of thunder at the (otherwise quiet) moment of his death. According to MacAlpine, Crowley remained bedridden for the last few days of his life, but was in light spirits and conversational. Readings at the cremation service in nearby Brighton included one of his own works, Hymn to Pan, and newspapers referred to the service as a black mass. Brighton council subsequently resolved to take all necessary steps to prevent such an incident from occurring again. Thelema Thelema is the mystical cosmology Crowley announced in 1904 and expanded upon for the remainder of his life. The diversity of his writings illustrate his difficulty in classifying Thelema from any one vantage. It can be considered a form of religious traditionalism, humanistic positivism, and/or an elitist meritocracy. The chief precept of Thelema, derived from the works of François Rabelais, is the sovereignty of Will: "Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law." Crowley's idea of will, however, is not simply the individual's desires or wishes, but also incorporates a sense of the person's destiny or greater purpose: what he termed "True Will." The second precept of Thelema is "Love is the law, love under will" — and Crowley's meaning of "Love" is as complex as that of "Will." It is frequently sexual: Crowley's system, like elements of the Golden Dawn before him, sees the dichotomy and tension between the male and female as fundamental to existence, and sexual "magic" and metaphor form a significant part of Thelemic ritual. However, Love is also discussed as the Union of Opposites, which Crowley thought was the key to enlightenment. Science, magic, and sexuality Crowley claimed to use a scientific method to study what people at the time called spiritual experiences, making "The Method of Science, the Aim of Religion" the catchphrase of his magazine The Equinox. By this he meant that mystical experiences should not be taken at face value, but critiqued and experimented with in order to arrive at their underlying religious or neurological meaning. In this connection there was also the point that I was anxious to prove that spiritual progress did not depend on religious or moral codes, but was like any other science. Magick would yield its secrets to the infidel and the libertine, just as one does not have to be a churchwarden in order to discover a new kind of orchid. There are, of course, certain virtues necessary to the Magician; but they are of the same order as those which make a successful chemist. Confessions Ch. 64 para. 5 Crowley's magical and initiatory system has amongst its innermost reaches a set of teachings on sex magick. He frequently expressed views about sex that were radical for his time, and published numerous poems and tracts combining pagan religious themes with sexual imagery both heterosexual and homosexual, as well as pederastic. One of his most notorious poetry collections, titled "White Stains" (1898), was published in Amsterdam in 1898 and dealt specifically with sexually explicit subject matter. However, most of the hundred copies printed for the initial release were later seized and destroyed by British customs. glbtq >> literature >> Crowley, Aleister Sex magick is the use of the sex act — or the energies, passions or arousal states it evokes — as a point upon which to focus the will or magical desire for effects in the non-sexual world. In the view of Allen Greenfield, The Scarlet Letter Vol V no 2, December 1998, web version retrieved January 16, 2008. Crowley was inspired by Paschal Beverly Randolph, an American Abolitionist, Spiritualist medium, and author of the mid-19th century who wrote (in Eulis!, 1874) of using the "nuptive moment" (orgasm) as the time to make a "prayer" for events to occur. Crowley often introduced new terminology for spiritual and magical practices and theory. For example, he termed theurgy "high magick" and thaumaturgy "low magick." In The Book of the Law and The Vision and the Voice, the Aramaic magical formula Abracadabra was changed to Abrahadabra, which he called the new formula of the Aeon. He also famously spelled magic in the archaic manner, as magick, to differentiate "the true science of the Magi from all its counterfeits." (Crowley, Magick, Book 4, p.47) He urged his students to learn to control their own mental and behavioral habits, to the point of switching political views and personalities at will. For control of speech (symbolised as the unicorn) he recommended to choose a commonly-used word, letter, or pronouns and adjectives of the first person, and avoid using it for a week or more. Should they say the word he instructed them to cut themselves with a blade on each occasion to serve as warning or reminder. Later the student could move on to the "Horse" of action and the "Ox" of thought. Liber III vel Jugorum (These symbols derive from the cabala of Crowley's book 777.) Chess Crowley maintained that he learned chess from books by the age of six, and first competed on the chess team of Eastbourne College (where he was taking classes in 1892). He says that he showed immediate competence, beating the handicapped local champion and later editing a chess column for the local newspaper, the Eastbourne Gazette, p. 33 through which he criticised the Eastbourne team. He later joined the university chess club at Cambridge, where, he says, he beat the president in his first year and practised two hours a day towards becoming a champion — "My one serious worldly ambition had been to become the champion of the world at chess." (Confessions, p. 140) His writings make it clear that he and his supporters thought he would achieve this goal: However, he explained that he gave up his chess aspirations in 1897 at the age of 22, when attending a chess conference in Berlin: Mountaineering Crowley was obsessed with mountain climbing, which he used as a tool to combat his chronic asthma. He taught himself by scrambling up Cumberland Fells and Beachy Head, after which, he started spending every holiday by switching between the Alps and Bernese Oberland. Nature of the Beast, by Colin Wilson, page 41 In March 1902, Oscar Eckenstein and Crowley undertook the first attempt to scale Mount Godwin-Austen, later, Chogo Ri (known in the west as K2), located in Pakistan, and Eckenstein had set out to teach Crowley about the techniques of climbing. The Eckenstein-Crowley Expedition consisted of Eckenstein, Crowley, Guy Knowles, H. Pfannl, V. Wesseley, and Dr Jules Jacot-Guillarmod. They attempted a summit assault on June 8, and after eight days, weather conditions were taking their toll. Two months in, they found themselves back down on the plain, which made this Crowley's first recorded defeat. Wilson, pages 60-61 Crowley did locate the proper path for the best ascent of Godwin-Austen (now, K2), as used by later higher climbs by the US in 1938 and 1952 and to the successful summit assault by the Italians in 1954. In May 1905, he was approached by Dr Jules Jacot-Guillarmod (1868 - 1925) to accompany him on the first expedition to Kangchenjunga in Nepal, the third largest mountain in the world. Guillarmod was left to organise the personnel while Crowley left to get things ready in Darjeeling. On July 31 Guillarmod joined Crowley in Darjeeling, bringing with him two countrymen, Charles-Adolphe Reymond and Alexis Pache. Meanwhile, Crowley had recruited a local man, Alcesti C. Rigo de Righi, to act as Transport Manager. The team left Darjeeling on August 8, 1905, and used the Singalila Ridge approach to Kangchenjunga. At Chabanjong they ran into the rear of the 135 Indians/Central Asians who had been sent ahead on July 24 and July 25, who were carrying food rations for the team. The trek was led by Crowley, but four members of the party were killed in an avalanche. Crowley's autobiography states they reached about 25,000 feet. Crowley was sometimes famously scathing about other climbers, in particular Owen Glynne Jones, whom he considered a risk-taking self-publicist, and his 'two photographers' (George and Ashley Abraham). Controversy Author and Crowley biographer Lon Milo Duquette wrote in his 1993 work The Magick of Aleister Crowley that: "Crowley clothed many of his teachings in the thin veil of sensational titillation. By doing so he assured himself that one, his works would only be appreciated by the few individuals capable of doing so, and two, his works would continue to generate interest and be published by and for the benefit of both his admirers and his enemies long after death. He did not — I repeat not — perform or advocate human sacrifice. He was often guilty, however, of the crime of poor judgment. Like all of us, Crowley had many flaws and shortcomings. The greatest of those, in my opinion, was his inability to understand that everyone else in the world was not as educated and clever as he. It is clear, even in his earliest works, he often took fiendish delight in terrifying those who were either too lazy, too bigoted, or too slow-witted to understand him." In this vein many of Crowley's more audacious and outright shocking writings were often thinly veiled attempts to communicate methods of sexual magick, often using words like "blood", "death" and "kill" to replace "semen", "ecstacy" and "ejaculation" in the yet puritanical sexual environment of late 19th/early 20th century England. It would seem that Mr. Crowley can certainly be accused of having a sick sense of humour. For example, by Bill Heidrick in note on Crowley's introduction to Sepher Sephiroth, retrieved from www.luckymojo.com/esoteric/occultism/magic/ceremonial/crowley/500ssephiroth.txt January 17, 2008. Take for instance the highly repeated quote from his thickly veiled Book Four: "It would be unwise to condemn as irrational the practice of devouring the heart and liver of an adversary while yet warm. For the highest spiritual working one must choose that victim which contains the greatest and purest force; a male child of perfect innocence and high intelligence is the most satisfactory." "Of the Bloody Sacrifice and Matters Cognate." Book Four Part III, Magick in Theory and Practice, Chapter 12. Samuel Weiser edition. Robert Anton Wilson in The Final Secret of the Illuminati (aka Cosmic Trigger Volume One) interpreted the child as a reference to genes in sperm. Crowley added in a footnote to the text on sacrifice, "the intelligence and innocence of that male child are the perfect understanding of the Magician, his one aim, without lust of result." In the "New Comment" to the Book of the Law, "the Beast 666 adviseth that all children shall be accustomed from infancy to witness every type of sexual act, as also the process of birth, lest falsehood fog, and mystery stupefy, their minds... Politeness has forbidden any direct reference to the subject of sex to secure no happier result than to allow Sigmund Freud and others to prove that our every thought, speech, and gesture, conscious or unconscious, is an indirect reference!" And indeed, according to Freudian Steven Marcus, men in Victorian England had a common sexual fetish for thinly veiled descriptions of men spanking boys. Steven Marcus, The other Victorians: A study of sexuality and pornography in mid-nineteenth-century England (Studies in sex and society), 1974, via Brad Hicks (In their reformatory institutions for children, men "were allowed to birch their inmates across the bare buttocks until the early 1920s, when under government pressure the cane or tawse over trousers became standard." World Corporal Punishment Research, retrieved January 16, 2008. ) Many have cited one or both of these quotes from Crowley, without context, as proof of immorality and sometimes of a vast child-abusing conspiracy. The first quote receives more attention of this kind. Google preserves an example of the second quote here Both retrieved January 16, 2008 Drugs Crowley was a habitual drug user and also maintained a meticulous record of his drug-induced experiences with laudanum, opium, cocaine, hashish, alcohol, ether, mescaline and heroin. ["The Confessions of Aleister Crowley: An Autohagiography" by Aleister Crowley (Arkana, 1989); "Do What Thou Wilt: A Life of Aleister Crowley" by Lawrence Sutin. (St. Martin's Press, 2000); "The Magical Diaries of Aleister Crowley" edited by Stephen Skinner (Weiser, 2003)] Allan Bennett, Crowley's mentor, was said to have "instructed Crowley in the magical use of drugs." The Cairo revelation from Aiwass/Aiwaz specifically recommended indulgence in "strange drugs". While in Paris during the 1920s, Crowley experimented with psychedelic substances, specifically Anhalonium lewinii, an obsolete scientific name for the mescaline-bearing cactus peyote. Confessions, pp. 386 & 768. In October 1930, Crowley dined with Aldous Huxley in Berlin, and to this day rumours persist that he introduced Huxley to peyote on that occasion. Cornelius, 2001. Crowley first developed a drug addiction after a London doctor prescribed heroin for his asthma and bronchitis. "Do What Thou Wilt: A Life of Aleister Crowley" by Lawrence Sutin. (St. Martin's Press, 2000) ch. 7, p. 277 His life as an addict influenced his 1922 novel, Diary of a Drug Fiend, but the fiction presented a hopeful outcome of rehabilitation and recovery by means of Magickal techniques and the exercise of True Will. At the time of his death he was addicted to heroin. ["Do What Thou Wilt: A Life of Aleister Crowley" by Lawrence Sutin. (St. Martin's Press, 2000)] p. 416 Racism Biographer Lawrence Sutin stated that "blatant bigotry is a persistent minor element in Crowley's writings." Sutin, Lawrence. Do What Thou Wilt," p. 223-224 The book's introduction calls Crowley "a spoiled scion of a wealthy Victorian family who embodied many of the worst John Bull racial and social prejudices of his upper-class contemporaries," Sutin, Lawrence. Do What Thou Wilt," p. 2. Sutin also writes, "Crowley embodied the contradiction that writhed within many Western intellectuals of the time: deeply held racist viewpoints courtesy of their culture, coupled with a fascination with people of colour." Ibid., ch. 10, p. 366 Crowley defended the use of violence against the Chinese, specifically the lower classes. (Crowley Confessions pp. 471-4) "One cannot fraternize with the Chinese of the lower classes; one must treat them with the utmost contempt and callousness." He applied the term "nigger" to Italians (in Diary of a Drug Fiend Book I, Chapter 9) and Indians, (Crowley Confessions pp. 473) and called the Indian theosophist Jiddu Krishnamurti "negroid." Crowley, according to his biographer, Lawrence Sutin, used racial epithets to bully Victor Neuburg during a sadomasochistic magical working: "Crowley leveled numerous brutal verbal attacks on Neuburg's family and Jewish ancestry ...". (Sutin, Lawrence. "Do What Thou Wilt", p. . 197) The two became lovers by the end of that year if not before, but "[w]hether or not Crowley and Neuburg had sexual relations during this magical retirement is unclear," according to Sutin. Crowley's published expressions of antisemitism were disturbing enough to later editors of his works that one of them, Israel Regardie, attempted to suppress them. In 777 and Other Qabalistic Writings of Aleister Crowley (Samuel Weiser, 1975), Regardie, a Jew, explained his complete excision of Crowley's antisemitic commentary on the Kabbalah in the sixth unnumbered page of his editorial introduction: "I am ... omitting Crowley's Preface to the book. It is a nasty, malicious piece of writing, and does not do justice to the system with which he is dealing." 777 and Other Qabalistic Writings of Aleister Crowley edited by Israel Regardie, (Samuel Weiser, 1975), sixth unnumbered page of the editorial introduction) What Regardie had removed was Crowley's "Preface to Sepher Sephiroth", originally published in Equinox 1:8. Written in 1911, 777 and Other Qabalistic Writings of Aleister Crowley edited by Israel Regardie, (Samuel Weiser, 1975) at the same time that Menahem Mendel Beilis was accused of "ritual cannibalism" in Kiev, Ukraine, it contained a clear statement of Crowley's belief in the blood libel against the Jews: Equinox 1:8 Having thus implicitly defended the recent antisemitic pogroms in Kishinev Russia and elsewhere, on the grounds that the murder of thousands of Jews was a rational response to the implied danger of Jewish "ritual cannibalism", Crowley rhetorically asked how a system of value such as Qabala could come from what "the general position of the ethnologist" called "an entirely barbarous race, devoid of any spiritual pursuit," and "polytheists" to boot. As Crowley himself practiced polytheism, some read these remarks as irony. Crowley repeated his claim that Jews in Eastern Europe practice ritual child-murder in at least one later work as well, namely the section on mysticism in Book Four or Magick. Here he uses quotation marks for "ritual murder" and for "Christian" children. Book Four Part I, Mysticism. Preliminary Remarks, fn. Samuel Weiser edition An article at The Cauldron: A Pagan Forum makes the following claim while speaking of the previously mentioned remark elsewhere in Magick: Crowley studied and promoted the mystical and magical teachings of some of the same ethnic groups he attacked, in particular Indian yoga, Jewish Kabbalah and goetia, and the Chinese I Ching. Also, in Confessions Chapter 86 The Confessions of Aleister Crowley , as well as a private diary which Lawrence Sutin quotes in Do What Thou Wilt chapter 7, Crowley recorded a memory of a "past life" as the Chinese Taoist writer Ko Hsuan. In another remembered life, Crowley said, he took part in a "Council of Masters" that included many from Asia. He has this to say about the virtues of "Eurasians" and then Jews: All these remarks must necessarily be contrasted or reconciled with Crowley's explicit philosophical instructions in Magick Without Tears. Chapter 73, which is titled "'Monsters', Niggers, Jews, etc," states his essentially individualistic and anti-racialist views, citing relevant verses from The Book of the Law: "Ye are against the people, o my chosen!" (Liber Al II:25), "Every man and every woman is a star" (Liber Al I:3). Here Crowley emphasizes by way of commentary upon these verses the instant debasement and un-Thelemic viewpoint which any notion of human beings as "classes" or "races" -- whether belonged-to or feared -- instead of as individuals, is likely to bring. The "Thelemic" philosophical position which he taught in this volume (which is a series of letters of direct personal instruction to various disciples) is clearly an anti-racialistic one. Even in private comments on Mein Kampf, Crowley said that his own preferred "master class" was above all distinctions of race. Sutin, p. 377 Sexism Biographer Lawrence Sutin stated that Crowley "largely accepted the notion, implicitly embodied in Victorian sexology, of women as secondary social beings in terms of intellect and sensibility." Sutin, ch. 1, p. 28 Occult scholar Tim Maroney compares him to other figures and movements of the time and suggests that some others might have shown more respect for women. Facts and Phallacies by Tim Maroney (1998) (Originally published in The Scarlet Letter, Volume V, Number 2). Retrieved from , June 8, 2006 Another biographer, whilst describing Crowley's misogyny, asserts than in other ways he was pro-feminist who thought women badly served by the law. He considered abortion was tantamount to murder and thought little of a society which condoned it, believing that women, when left to choose outside of prevailing social influences, would never want to end a pregnancy. "A Magick Life", Martin Booth, p400, Coronet, ISBN 0-340-71806-4 Crowley stated that women, except "a few rare individuals," care most about having children and will conspire against their husbands if they lack children to whom to devote themselves. (Crowley Magick Without Tears p. 254); In Confessions, Crowley says he learned this from his first marriage. (Crowley Confessions p.415); Gender Bias: "There is yet a further point. My marriage taught me many lessons, and this not the least: when women are not devoted to children --- a few rare individuals are capable of other interests --- they take a morbid pleasure in conspiring against a husband, especially if he be a father. They take advantage of his preoccupation with his work in the world to conceive and execute every kind of criminally cunning abomination. The belief in witchcraft was not all superstition; its psychological roots were sound. Women who are thwarted in their natural instincts turn inevitably to all kinds of malignant mischief, from slander to domestic destruction." -- Chapter 50 He claimed that their intentions were to force a man to abandon his life's work for their interests. He only found women "tolerable", he wrote, when they served the role of solely helping a man in his life's work. However, he said that they were incapable of actually understanding the nature of this work itself. (Crowley Confessions pp. 95) He also claimed that women did not have individuality and were solely guided by their habits or impulses. (Crowley Confessions pp. 96-7) Nevertheless, when he sought what he called the supreme magical-mystical attainment, Crowley asked Leah Hirsig to direct his ordeals, marking the first time since the schism in the Golden Dawn that another person verifiably took charge of his initiation. (Sutin Do What Thou Wilt pp. 282-290) In the Hierophant section of the Book of Thoth, he interprets a verse from the Book of the Law that speaks of "the woman girt with a sword; she represents the Scarlet Woman in the hierarchy of the new Aeon.(...)This woman represents Venus as she now is in this new aeon; no longer the mere vehicle of her male counterpart, but armed and militant." Writings Crowley was a highly prolific writer, not only on the topic of Thelema and magick, but on philosophy, politics, and culture. The poems and plays written in his twenties and found in his Collected Works of Aleister Crowley 1905-1907 were alone enough to substantiate a common writer's career. He left behind a countless number of personal letters and daily journal entries. He self-published many of his books, expending the majority of his inheritance to disseminate his views. Within the subject of occultism Crowley wrote widely, penning commentaries on magick, divinatory tarot, Yoga, Qabalah, astrology, and numerous other subjects. He also wrote a Thelemic interpolation of the Tao Te Ching, based on earlier English translations since he knew little or no Chinese. Like the Golden Dawn mystics before him, Crowley evidently sought to comprehend the entire human religious and mystical experience in a single philosophy. Some of his most influential books include: The Book of the Law Magick (Book 4) The Book of Lies The Vision and the Voice 777 and other Qabalistic writings The Confessions of Aleister Crowley Magick Without Tears Little Essays Toward Truth The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King (translation of original text) The General Principles of Astrology (with Evangeline Adams, Hymenaeus Beta, and others) He also edited and produced a series of publications in book form called The Equinox (subtitled "The Review of Scientific Illuminism"), which served as the voice of his magical order, the A∴A∴. Although the entire set is influential and remains one of the definitive works on occultism, some of the more notable issues are: III:1, "The Blue Equinox" (largely regarding the structure of OTO) III:2, The Gospel According to St. Bernard Shaw and other papers (proof copy only) III:3, The Equinox of the Gods (covering the events leading up to the writing of Liber Legis) III:4, Eight Lectures on Yoga III:5, The Book of Thoth (a full treatise on his Thoth Tarot) III:6, Liber Aleph (An extended and elaborate commentary on Liber Legis in the form of short letters) III:7, The Shih I (allegedly. An unfinished/published translation of the I Ching) III:8, The Tao Te Ching (a translation of the Chinese classic) III:9, The Holy Books of Thelema (the "received" works of Crowley) III:10, An issue with mostly O.T.O constitutional papers IV:1, Commentary on the Holy Books, and other papers (mainly Liber 65 and Madame Blavatsky's The Voice of the Silence) IV:2, The Vision and the Voice with Commentary and other papers Crowley also wrote fiction, including plays and later novels, most of which have not received significant notice outside of occult circles. Some of these fictional works include: Moonchild The Scrutinies of Simon Iff Golden Twigs Diary of a Drug Fiend The Fish (unfinished) Simon Iff Abroad (unpublished) Simon Iff in America (unpublished) Simon Iff, Psychoanalyst (unpublished) The Stratagem and other Stories The Testament of Magdalen Blair Crowley also had a peculiar sense of humour, which he often utilised as a teaching instrument. He wrote a polemic arguing against George Bernard Shaw's interpretation of the Gospels in his preface to Androcles and the Lion, which was edited by Francis King and published as Crowley on Christ. In his Magick, Book 4 he includes a chapter purporting to illuminate the Qabalistic significance of Mother Goose nursery rhymes. In re Humpty Dumpty, for instance, he recommends the occult authority "Ludovicus Carolus" -- better known as Lewis Carroll. In a footnote to the chapter he admits that he had invented the alleged meanings, to show that one can find occult "Truth" in everything. His "8 Lectures On Yoga" are written under the name Guru Sri Pramahansa Shivaji (which translates into something along the lines of "Great Exalted Guru of Shiva") and are divided into "Yoga for Yahoos" and "Yoga for Yellowbellies". In The Book of Lies, the title to chapter 69 is given as "The Way to Succeed - and the Way to Suck Eggs!" a pun, as the chapter concerns the 69 sex position as a mystical act. Crowley was rated a good poet by G.K. Chesterton to whom Crowley later dedicated in a part a book. He wrote the 1929 Hymn to Pan, Hymn to Pan perhaps his most widely read and anthologised poem. Three pieces by Crowley, "The Quest", "The Quest" "The Neophyte", "The Neophyte" and "The Rose and the Cross", "The Rose and the Cross" appear in the 1917 collection The Oxford Book of English Mystical Verse. Crowley's unusual sense of humour is on display in White Stains, White Stains an 1898 collection of pornographic verse pretended to be "the literary remains of George Archibald Bishop, a neuropath of the Second Empire;" the volume is prefaced with a notice that says that " The Editor hopes that Mental Pathologists, for whose eyes alone this treatise is destined, will spare no precaution to prevent it falling into other hands." Some of his published poetry includes: White Stains (1898). Alice, an Adultery (1903). The Sword of Song (1904). The Star and the Garter. (1904). Orpheus, a Lyrical Legend (two volumes, 1905). Snowdrops From a Curate’s Garden. (1904). Clouds without Water ("by the Reverend C. Verey", 1909) Amphora (Hymns to the Blessed Virgin Mary, Burns & Oates, 1909) The Scented Garden of Abdullah the Satirist of Shiraz. ( "translated by Major Lutiy", 1910). Aha ! (1910) Ambergris: the Selected Poems of Aleister Crowley (1910) The Winged Beetle. (1912). Olla, an Anthology of Sixty years of Song (1946, his last published work) The Greek scholar Dionysios Psilopoulos has written on Crowley as a poet (Ph.D., Edinburgh). Cultural references The Italian historian of esotericism Giordano Berti, in his book Tarocchi Aleister Crowley (1998) quotes a number of literary works and films inspired by Crowley's life and legends. Some of the films are The Magician (1926) by Rex Ingram, based upon the eponymous book written by William Somerset Maugham (1908); Night of the Demon (1957) by Jacques Tourneur, based on the story "Casting the Runes" by M. R. James; and The Devils Rides Out (1968) by Terence Fisher, from the eponymous thriller by Dennis Wheatley. According to the 100 Greatest Britons, a BBC broadcast in 2002, Crowley ranked 73. Crowley and his beliefs were the subject of testimony in the 1994 murder trial of Damien Echols, as shown in the documentary film Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills. Ernest Hemingway references Crowley in his memoir A Moveable Feast. In it, Ford Maddox Ford claims to have "cut" a man he thinks was Hilaire Belloc, but which in fact turns out to be "Alestair Crowley, the diabolist". Ernest Hemmingway, A Moveable Feast, from the chapter Ford Madox Ford and the Devil's Disciple Ozzy Osbourne released a song titled "Mr. Crowley" on his solo album Blizzard of Ozz. A comparison between Crowley and Osbourne in the context of their media portrayals can be found in the Journal of Religion and Popular Culture. Christopher M. Moreman, "Devil Music and the Great Beast: Ozzy Osbourne, Aleister Crowley, and the Christian Right," Journal of Religion and Popular Culture 5 (2003): http://www.usask.ca/relst/jrpc/art5-devilmusic.html Iron Maiden recorded two tracks that relate to Crowley: "Moonchild" from Seventh Son of a Seventh Son and "Revelations" from Piece of Mind. Bruce Dickinson, singer with Iron Maiden, wrote the screenplay of Chemical Wedding (directed by Julian Doyle and released in America on DVD as Crowley), which features Simon Callow as Oliver Haddo, a Crowley-inspired character. See also List of Thelemites List of Occultists Notes References Booth, Martin (2000). A Magick Life: The Life of Aleister Crowley. Coronet Books, London. ISBN 978-0-340-71806-3 Berti, Giordano (1998). La Grande Bestia: Luci e Ombre, first chapter of Tarocchi Aleister Crowley. Lo Scarabeo, Torino. ISBN 88-86131-73-9 Bull, John. "The Wickedest Man in the World". Sunday Express, 24 Mar. 1923. Verification that the Sunday Express did make article: US Grand Lodge, OTO: Aleister Crowley Carroll, Robert Todd (2004). "Aleister Crowley (1875-1947)". The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved 30 December 2004. Cornelius, J. Edward (2001). The Friends & Acquaintances of Aleister Crowley in Red Flame: A Thelemic Research Journal no. 3. Cornelius, J. Edward (2005). Aleister Crowley and the Ouija Board. Crowley, Aleister (1990). "The Tao Teh King, Liber CLVII: THE EQUINOX Vol. III. No. VIII. ASCII VERSION". Retrieved 30 December 2004. Wlodek, Nikodem (2004). Satans Raw. Free Encyclopedia of Thelema (2005). The Equinox. Retrieved 24 March 2005. Grant, Kenneth (1991). Remembering Aleister Crowley. Hutchinson, Roger (1999). Aleister Crowley: The Beast Demystified. Mainstream Publishing, New York. ISBN 1-84018-229-6 Kaczynski, Richard (2002). Perdurabo: The Life of Aleister Crowley. New Falcon Publications. ISBN 1-56184-170-6 Rubio, Frank G. (2001). El Continente Perdido. Valdemar, Madrid. ISBN 84-7702-349-2 Sutin, Lawrence (2000). Do What Thou Wilt: A Life of Aleister Crowley . ISBN 0-312-28897-2 Thelemapedia. Aleister Crowley. Wilson, Colin (1993). Aleister Crowley: The Nature of the Beast. Harpercollins, New York. ISBN 0-85030-541-1 Wilson, Robert Anton (1977). Cosmic Trigger: The Final Secret of the Illuminati. Pocket Books, New York. 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2,622 | Hannibal | Hannibal, son of Hamilcar Barca , commonly known as Hannibal (in Punic: Annobal, meaning "Ba'al has given me grace"; 248–183 or 182 BC) Hannibal's date of death is most commonly given as 183 BC, but there is a possibility it could have taken place in 182 BC. Microsoft Encarta — Hannibal (general) M.O.B. Caspari, HANNIBAL ("grace of Baal") 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Church, Alfred J., The Story of Carthage, p. 269 was a Carthaginian military commander and tactician who is popularly credited as one of the most talented commanders in history. His father Hamilcar Barca was the leading Carthaginian commander during the First Punic War, his younger brothers were Mago and Hasdrubal, and he was brother-in-law to Hasdrubal the Fair. Hannibal lived during a period of tension in the Mediterranean, when Rome (then the Roman Republic) established its supremacy over other great powers such as Carthage, and the Hellenistic kingdoms of Macedon, Syracuse, and the Seleucid empire. One of his most famous achievements was at the outbreak of the Second Punic War, when he marched an army, which included war elephants, from Iberia over the Pyrenees and the Alps into northern Italy. In his first few years in Italy, he won three dramatic victories Trebia, Trasimene and Cannae and won over several Roman allies. Hannibal occupied much of Italy for 15 years, however a Roman counter-invasion of North Africa forced Hannibal to return to Carthage, where he was decisively defeated by Scipio Africanus at the Battle of Zama. Scipio studied Hannibal's tactics and brilliantly devised some of his own, and finally defeated Rome's nemesis at Zama having previously driven Hasdrubal, Hannibal's brother, out of Spain. After the war Hannibal successfully ran for the office of suffete. He enacted political and financial reforms to enable the payment of the war indemnity imposed by Rome. However, Hannibal's reforms were unpopular with members of the Carthaginian aristocracy and Rome, and he fled into voluntary exile. During his exile, he lived at the Seleucid court, where he acted as military advisor to Antiochus III in his war against Rome. After Antiochus met defeat and was forced to accept Rome's terms, Hannibal fled again, making a stop in Armenia. His flight ended in the court of Bithynia, where he achieved an outstanding naval victory against a fleet from Pergamum. He was afterwards betrayed to the Romans. Hannibal would later be considered as one of the greatest generals of antiquity, together with Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Scipio, and Pyrrhus of Epirus. Plutarch gives that, when questioned by Scipio as to who was the greatest general, Hannibal is said to have replied either Alexander, Pyrrhus, then himself, Plutarch, and when asked what his choices would be if he had beaten Scipio, he replied that he would be the best of them all Life of Titus Flamininus 21.3-4. or, according to another version of the event, Pyrrhus, Scipio, then himself. Plutarch, Life of Pyrrhus 8.2. Military historian Theodore Ayrault Dodge once famously called Hannibal the "father of strategy", because his greatest enemy, Rome, came to adopt elements of his military tactics in its own strategic arsenal. This praise has earned him a strong reputation in the modern world and he was regarded as a "gifted strategist" by men like Napoleon Bonaparte and the Duke of Wellington. His life has been the basis for a number of films and documentaries. He has been attributed with the famous quotation, "We will either find a way, or make one." Background and early career Hannibal was one of the sons of Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian leader. He had several sisters and two brothers, Hasdrubal and Mago. His brothers-in-law were Hasdrubal the Fair and the Numidian king Naravas. He was still a child when his sisters married and his brothers-in-law were close associates during his father's struggles in the Mercenary War and the Punic conquest of Iberia. In light of Hamilcar Barca's cognomen, historians refer to Hamilcar's family as the Barcids. However, there is debate as to whether the cognomen Barca (meaning "thunderbolt") was applied to Hamilcar alone or was hereditary within his family. If the latter, then Hannibal and his brothers also bore the name 'Barca'. Lancel, S. Hannibal p.6. After Carthage's defeat in the First Punic War, Hamilcar set out to improve his family's and Carthage's fortunes. With that in mind and supported by Gades, Hamilcar began the subjugation of the tribes of the Iberian Peninsula. Carthage at the time was in such a poor state that its navy was unable to transport his army to Iberia (Hispania); instead, Hamilcar had to march it towards the Pillars of Hercules and transport it across the Strait of Gibraltar (present-day Morocco/Spain). According to Livy, Hannibal much later said that when he came upon his father and begged to go with him, Hamilcar agreed and demanded him to swear that as long as he lived he would never be a friend of Rome. There is even an account of him at a very young age begging his father to take him to an overseas war. In the story, Hannibal's father took him up and brought him to a sacrificial chamber. Hamilcar held Hannibal over the fire roaring in the chamber and made him swear that he would never be a friend of Rome. Other sources report that Hannibal told his father, "I swear so soon as age will permit...I will use fire and steel to arrest the destiny of Rome." Reverse Spins Patton, the Second Coming of Hannibal. Hannibal's father went about the conquest of Hispania. When his father was killed in battle, Hannibal's brother-in-law Hasdrubal succeeded to his command of the army with Hannibal serving as an officer under him. Hasdrubal pursued a policy of consolidation of Carthage's Iberian interests, even signing a treaty with Rome whereby Carthage would not expand north of the Ebre River, so long as Rome did not expand south of it. Hasdrubal also endeavored to consolidate Carthaginian power through diplomatic relationships with native tribes. As a part of his deals Hasdrubal arranged the marriage between Hannibal and an Iberian princess named Imilce. Upon the assassination of Hasdrubal (221 BC), Hannibal was proclaimed commander-in-chief by the army and confirmed in his appointment by the Carthaginian government. Livy, a Roman scholar, gives a depiction of the young Carthaginian: After he assumed command, Hannibal spent two years consolidating his holdings and completing the conquest of Hispania south of the Ebro. Dodge, Theodore Ayrault, Hannibal: A History of the Art of War Among the Carthaginians and Romans Down to the Battle of Pydna, 168 B.C, p. 143 However, Rome, fearing the growing strength of Hannibal in Iberia, made an alliance with the city of Saguntum which lay a considerable distance south of the River Ebro and claimed the city as its protectorate. Hannibal perceived this as a breach of the treaty signed with Hasdrubal and so he laid siege to the city, which fell after eight months. Rome reacted to this apparent violation of the treaty and demanded justice from Carthage. In view of Hannibal's great popularity, the Carthaginian government did not repudiate Hannibal's actions, and the war he sought was declared at the end of the year. Hannibal was now determined to carry the war into the heart of Italy by a rapid march through Hispania and southern Gaul. Second Punic War in Italy (218–203 BC) Overland journey to Italy Hannibal´s route of invasion given by the Department of History, United States Military Academy. The journey was planned originally by Hannibal's brother-in-law Hasdrubal. Hasdrubal became Carthaginian commander in Iberia in 229 BC, a post he would maintain for some eight years until 221 BC. Soon the Romans became aware of an alliance between Carthage and the Celts of the Po River valley in Northern Italy. The latter were amassing forces to invade Italy, presumably with Carthaginian backing. Thus, the Romans pre-emptively invaded the Po region in 225 BC. By 220 BC, the Romans had annexed the area as Gallia Cisalpina Fagan, Garret G. "The History of Ancient Rome". Lecture 13: "The Second Punic War". Teaching Company, "Great Courses" series. . Hasdrubal was assassinated around the same time (221 BC), bringing Hannibal to the fore. It seems that, having apparently dealt with the threat of a Gaulo-Carthaginian invasion of Italy (and perhaps with the original Carthaginian commander killed), the Romans lulled themselves into a false sense of security. Thus, Hannibal took the Romans by surprise a scant two years later in 218 BC by merely reviving and adapting the original Gaulo-Carthaginian invasion plan of his brother-in-law. Hannibal departed New Carthage in late spring of 218 BC Lancel, Serge, Hannibal, p. 225 He fought his way through the northern tribes to the Pyrenees, subduing the tribes through clever mountain tactics and stubborn fighting. He left a detachment of 11,000 troops to garrison the newly conquered region. At the Pyrenees, he released another 11,000 Iberian troops who showed reluctance to leave their homeland. Hannibal reportedly entered Gaul with 40,000 foot soldiers and 12,000 horsemen. Prevas, John, Hannibal Crosses the Alps: The Invasion of Italy and the Second Punic War, p. 86 The Little St Bernard: one of the proposed crossing points into Italy Hannibal recognized that he still needed to cross the Pyrenees, the Alps, and many significant rivers. Additionally, he would have to contend with opposition from the Gauls, whose territory he passed through. Starting in the spring of 218 BC, he easily fought his way through the northern tribes to the Pyrenees and, by conciliating the Gaulish chiefs along his passage, reached the Rhône River before the Romans could take any measures to bar his advance. Arriving at the Rhône in September, Hannibal's army numbered 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and 37 war elephants. Lancel, Serge, Hannibal, p. 60 Hannibal and his men crossing the Alps. After outmaneuvering the natives, who had tried to prevent his crossing, Hannibal evaded a Roman force marching from the Mediterranean coast by turning inland up the valley of the Rhône. His exact route over the Alps has been the source of scholarly dispute ever since. (Polybius, the surviving ancient account closest in time to Hannibal's campaign, reports that the route was already debated.) The most influential modern theories favour either a march up the valley of the Drôme and a crossing of the main range to the south of the modern highway over the Col de Montgenèvre or a march farther north up the valleys of the Isere and Arc crossing the main range near the present Col de Mont Cenis or the Little St Bernard Pass. Montgenèvre: Peter Connolly, Hannibal and the Enemies of Rome (1978); (extensive summary); Col de la Traversette: Gavin de Beer, Alps and Elephants and Napoleon III; Mahaney 2008, "Hannibal's Odyssey; Environmental Background to the Alpine Invasion of Italia"; Mont Cenis: Denis Proctor, Hannibal's March in History. Other theories include the Col du Clapier (Serge Lancel, Hannibal (1995) and the Col du Petit Saint Bernard (Barthold Niebuhr). By Livy's account the crossing was accomplished in the face of huge difficulties. Livy History of Rome book21 ,36 These Hannibal surmounted with ingenuity such as when he used vinegar and fire to break through a rockfall. Livy History of Rome, Book 21 sections 32-36 According to Polybius he arrived in Italy accompanied by 20,000 foot soldiers and 4000 horsemen, and only a few elephants. If Polybius is correct in his figure for the number of troops he commanded after the crossing of the Rhone this would suggest that he had lost almost half of his force. Historians like Serge Lancell have questioned the reliability of the figures for the number of troops he had when he left Hispania. S. Lancel, Hannibal (1995; English translation 1999) page 60. From the start, he seems to have calculated that he would have to operate without aid from Hispania. Battle of Trebia Hannibal's perilous march brought him into the Roman territory and frustrated the attempts of the enemy to fight out the main issue on foreign ground. His sudden appearance among the Gauls of the Po Valley, moreover, enabled him to detach those tribes from their new allegiance to the Romans before the latter could take steps to check the rebellion. A diagram depicting the tactics used in the Battle of Trebia Publius Cornelius Scipio, the consul who commanded the Roman force sent to intercept Hannibal, and Scipio Africanus' father, had not expected Hannibal to make an attempt to cross the Alps, since the Romans were prepared to fight the war in Iberia. With a small detachment still positioned in Gaul, Scipio made an attempt to intercept Hannibal. Through prompt decision and speedy movement, he succeeded in transporting his army to Italy by sea, in time to meet Hannibal. Hannibal's forces moved through the Po Valley and were engaged in a small confrontation at Ticinus. Here, Hannibal forced the Romans, by virtue of his superior cavalry, to evacuate the plain of Lombardy. Dodge, Theodore. Hannibal. Cambridge Massachusetts: De Capo Press, 1891 ISBN 0-306-81362-9 While the victory was minor, it encouraged the Gauls and Ligurians to join the Carthaginian cause, whose troops bolstered his army back to 40,000 men. Scipio was severely injured, his life only saved by the bravery of his son who rode back onto the field to rescue his fallen father. Scipio retreated across the river Trebia to camp at Placentia with his army intact. The other Roman consular army was rushed to the Po Valley. Even before news of the defeat at Ticinus had reached Rome, the senate had ordered the consul Sempronius Longus to bring his army back from Sicily to meet Scipio and face Hannibal. Hannibal, by skillful maneuvers, was in position to head him off, for he lay on the direct road between Placentia and Arminum, by which Sempronius would have to march in order to reinforce Scipio. He then captured Clastidium, from which he drew large amounts of rations for his men. But this gain was not without its loss, as Sempronius avoided Hannibal's watchfulness, slipped around his flank, and joined his colleague in his camp near the Trebia River near Placentia. There, in December of the same year, Hannibal had an opportunity to show his superior military skill at Trebia; after wearing down the excellent Roman infantry he cut it to pieces by a surprise attack from an ambush in the flank. Battle of Lake Trasimene Having secured his position in northern Italy by this victory, Hannibal quartered his troops for the winter with the Gauls, whose support for him abated. In the Spring of 217 BC, Hannibal decided to find a more reliable base of operations farther south. Expecting Hannibal to carry on advancing to Rome, Cnaeus Servilius and Gaius Flaminius (the new Consuls of Rome) took their armies to block the Eastern and Western routes Hannibal could use to get to Rome. Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 BC.From the Department of History, United States Military Academy The only alternate route to central Italy lay at the mouth of the Arno. This route was practically one huge marsh, and happened to be overflowing more than usual during this particular season. Hannibal knew that this route was full of difficulties, but it remained the surest and certainly the quickest route to Central Italy. As Polybius claims, Hannibal’s men marched for four days and three nights, “through a route which was under water”, suffering terribly from fatigue and enforced want of sleep. He crossed the Apennines (during which he lost his right eye because of conjunctivitis) and the seemingly impassable Arno without opposition, but in the marshy lowlands of the Arno, he lost a large part of his force, including, it would seem, his remaining elephants. Arriving in Etruria in the spring of 217 BC, Hannibal decided to lure the main Roman army, under Flaminius, into a pitched battle, by devastating under his very own eye the area Flaminius had been sent to protect. As Polybius tells us, “he [Hannibal] calculated that, if he passed the camp and made a descent into the district beyond, Flaminius (partly for fear of popular reproach and partly of personal irritation) would be unable to endure watching passively the devastation of the country but would spontaneously follow him . . . and give him opportunities for attack.” Liddell Hart, Basil, Strategy, New York City, New York, Penguin Group, 1967 At the same time, Hannibal tried to break the allegiance of Rome’s allies, by proving that Flaminius was powerless to protect them. Despite this, Hannibal found Flaminius still passively encamped at Arretium. Unable to draw Flaminius into battle by mere devastation, Hannibal marched boldly around his opponent’s left flank and effectively cut Flaminius off from Rome (thus executing the first recorded turning movement in military history). Advancing through the uplands of Etruria, Hannibal provoked Flaminius to a hasty pursuit and, catching him in a defile on the shore of Lake Trasimenus, destroyed his army in the waters or on the adjoining slopes while killing Flaminius as well (see Battle of Lake Trasimene). He had now disposed of the only field force which could check his advance upon Rome, but, realizing that without siege engines he could not hope to take the capital, he preferred to exploit his victory by passing into central and southern Italy and encouraging a general revolt against the sovereign power. After Lake Trasimene, Hannibal stated, “I have not come to fight Italians, but on behalf of the Italians against Rome.” USAWC Comparing Strategies of the 2nd Punic War by James Parker. View as HTML The Romans appointed Fabius Maximus as a dictator. Departing from Roman military traditions, Fabius adopted the Fabian strategy — named after him — of refusing open battle with his opponent while placing several Roman armies in Hannibal’s vicinity to limit his movement. Silver double shekel, c. 230 BC showing the god Melqart, the Carthaginian equivalent of Herakles/ Hercules, and a war elephant. There are no known authentic images of Hannibal and there is no proof that even Carthaginian coins show his likeness. De Beer, Sir G. (1974) Hannibal: the Struggle for Power in the Mediterranean p.91. Thames and Hudson, London. Hannibal ad Portas. Konrad Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart, 2004. Having ravaged Apulia without provoking Fabius to battle, Hannibal decided to march through Samnium to Campania, one of the richest and most fertile provinces of Italy, hoping that the devastation would draw Fabius into battle. Fabius closely followed Hannibal’s path of destruction, yet still refused to let himself be drawn, and thus remained on the defensive. This strategy was unpopular with many Romans, who believed it was a form of cowardice. Hannibal decided that it would be unwise to winter in the already devastated lowlands of Campania but Fabius had ensured that all the passes out of Campania were blocked. To avoid this, Hannibal deceived the Romans into thinking that the Carthaginian Army was going to escape through the woods. As the Romans moved off towards the woods, Hannibal's army occupied the pass, and his army made their way through the pass unopposed. Fabius was within striking distance but in this case his caution worked against him. Smelling a stratagem (rightly), he stayed put. For the winter, Hannibal found comfortable quarters in the Apulian plain. What Hannibal achieved in extricating his army was, as Adrian Goldsworthy puts it, "a classic of ancient generalship, finding its way into nearly every historical narrative of the war and being used by later military manuals". Goldsworthy, Adrian K. The Roman Army at War 100 BC - AD 200, New York This was a severe blow to Fabius’s prestige, and soon after this, his period of power ended. Battle of Cannae Destruction of the Roman army, courtesy of The Department of History, United States Military Academy. In the spring of 216 BC, Hannibal took the initiative and seized the large supply depot at Cannae in the Apulian plain. By seizing Cannae, Hannibal had placed himself between the Romans and their crucial source of supply. Once the Roman Senate resumed their Consular elections in 216, they appointed Gaius Terentius Varro and Lucius Aemilius Paullus as Consuls. In the meantime, the Romans, hoping to gain success through sheer strength in numbers, raised a new army of unprecedented size, estimated by some to be as large as 100,000 men, but more likely around 60-80,000. Cottrell, Leonard, Enemy of Rome, Evans Bros, 1965, ISBN 0-237-44320-1 The Roman and Allied legions of the Consuls, resolving to confront Hannibal, marched southward to Apulia. They eventually found him on the left bank of the Aufidus River, and encamped six miles (10 km) away. On this occasion, the two armies were combined into one, the Consuls having to alternate their command on a daily basis. The Consul Varro, who was in command on the first day, was a man of reckless and hubristic nature, and was determined to defeat Hannibal. Hannibal capitalized on the eagerness of Varro and drew him into a trap by using an envelopment tactic which eliminated the Roman numerical advantage by shrinking the surface area where combat could occur. Hannibal drew up his least reliable infantry in a semicircle in the center with the wings composed of the Gallic and Numidian horse. The Roman legions forced their way through Hannibal's weak center, but the Libyan Mercenaries in the wings, swung around by the movement, menaced their flanks. The onslaught of Hannibal's cavalry was irresistible, and Maharbal, Hannibal's chief cavalry commander, who led the mobile Numidian cavalry on the right, shattered the Roman cavalry opposing them. Hannibal's Spanish and Gallic heavy cavalry, led by his brother Hanno on the left, defeated the Roman heavy-cavalry, and then both the Carthaginian heavy cavalry and the Numidians attacked the legions from behind. As a result, the Roman army was hemmed in with no means of escape. Due to these brilliant tactics, Hannibal, with much inferior numbers, managed to surround and destroy all but a small remnant of this force. Depending upon the source, it is estimated that 50,000-70,000 Romans were killed or captured at Cannae. Among the dead were the Roman consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus, as well as two consuls for the preceding year, two quaestors, twenty-nine out of the forty-eight military tribunes and an additional eighty senators (at a time when the Roman Senate comprised no more than 300 men, this constituted 25%–30% of the governing body). This makes the Battle of Cannae one of the most catastrophic defeats in the history of Ancient Rome, and one of the bloodiest battles in all of human history (in terms of the number of lives lost within a single day). After Cannae, the Romans were very hesitant to confront Hannibal in pitched battle; preferring instead to weaken him by attrition, relying on their advantages of interior lines, supply, and manpower. As a result, Hannibal fought no more major battles in Italy for the rest of the war. It is believed his refusal to bring the war to Rome itself was due to a lack of commitment from Carthage in terms of men, money and materiel - principally siege equipment. Whatever the reason, the choice prompted Maharbal to say, "Hannibal, you know how to gain a victory, but not how to use one." Prevas, John, Hannibal Crosses the Alps, p. xv Hannibal counting the rings of Romans killed during the battle, statue by Sébastien Slodzt, 1704, Louvre. The effect on morale of this victory meant that many parts of Italy joined Hannibal's cause. Chaplin, Jane Dunbar, Livy's Exemplary History, p. 66 As Polybius notes, "How much more serious was the defeat of Cannae, than those which preceded it can be seen by the behavior of Rome’s allies; before that fateful day, their loyalty remained unshaken, now it began to waver for the simple reason that they despaired of Roman Power." Polybius, The Histories of Polybius, 2 Vols., trans. Evelyn S. Shuckburgh (London: Macmillan, 1889), I. 264-275. During that same year, the Greek cities in Sicily were induced to revolt against Roman political control, while the Macedonian king, Philip V, pledged his support to Hannibal – thus initiating the First Macedonian War against Rome. Hannibal also secured an alliance with newly appointed Hieronymus of Syracuse. It is often argued that if Hannibal had received proper material reinforcements from Carthage he might have succeeded with a direct attack upon Rome. For the present he had to content himself with subduing the fortresses which still held out against him, and the only other notable event of 216 BC was the defection of certain Italian territories, including Capua, the second largest city of Italy, which Hannibal made his new base. However, only a few of the Italian city-states which he had expected to gain as allies consented to join him. Stalemate The war in Italy settled into a strategic stalemate. The Romans utilized the attritional strategies Fabius had taught them, and which, they finally realized, were the only feasible means of defeating Hannibal. Prevas, John, Hannibal Crosses the Alps: The Invasion of Italy and the Second Punic War, p. 200 Indeed, Fabius received the surname "Cunctator" ("the Delayer") because of his policy of not meeting Hannibal in open battle but through guerilla tactics. Pliny, tr. by Mary Beagon, The Elder Pliny on the Human Animal, p 361 The Romans deprived Hannibal of a large-scale battle and instead, assaulted his weakening army with multiple smaller armies in an attempt to both weary him and create unrest in his troops. For the next few years, Hannibal was forced to sustain a scorched earth policy and obtain local provisions for protracted and ineffectual operations throughout Southern Italy. His immediate objectives were reduced to minor operations which centered mainly round the cities of Campania. As the forces detached to his lieutenants were generally unable to hold their own, and neither his home government nor his new ally Philip V of Macedon helped to make good his losses, his position in southern Italy became increasingly difficult and his chance of ultimately conquering Rome grew ever more remote. Hannibal still won a number of notable victories: completely destroying two Roman armies in 212 BC, and at one point, killing two Consuls (which included the famed Marcus Claudius Marcellus) in a battle in 208 BC. Nevertheless, without the resources his allies could contribute, or reinforcements from Carthage, Hannibal could not make further significant gains. Thus, inadequately supported by his Italian allies, abandoned by his government (either because of jealousy or simply because Carthage was overstretched) , and unable to match Rome’s resources, Hannibal slowly began losing ground. Hannibal continued defeating the Romans whenever he could bring them into battle, yet he was never able to complete another decisive victory that produced a lasting strategic effect. Carthaginian political will was embodied in the ruling oligarchy. While there was a Carthaginian Senate, the real power in Carthage was with the inner "Council of 30 Nobles" and the board of judges from ruling families known as the "Hundred and Four." These two bodies consisted of the wealthy, commercial families of Carthage. Two political factions operated in Carthage: the war party, also known as the "Barcids" (Hannibal’s family name) and the peace party led by Hanno the Great. Hanno had been instrumental in denying Hannibal’s requested reinforcement following the battle at Cannae. Hannibal started the war without the full backing of Carthaginian oligarchy. His attack of Saguntum had presented the oligarchy with a choice of war with Rome or loss of prestige in Iberia. The oligarchy and not Hannibal controlled the strategic resources of Carthage. Hannibal constantly sought reinforcement from either Iberia or North Africa. Hannibal’s troops lost in combat were replaced with less well-trained and motivated mercenaries from Italy or Gaul. The commercial interests of the Carthaginian oligarchy dictated the reinforcement of Iberia rather than Hannibal throughout the duration of the campaign. Hannibal's retreat in Italy In 212 BC Hannibal captured Tarentum but he failed to obtain control of the harbour. The tide was slowly turning against him, and in favor of Rome. The Romans mounted two sieges of Capua, which fell in 211 BC, and the Romans completed their conquest of Syracuse and destruction of a Carthaginian army in Sicily. Shortly thereafter, the Romans pacified Sicily and entered into an alliance with the Aetolian League to counter Phillip V. Philip, who attempted to exploit Rome's preoccupation in Italy to conquer Illyria, now found himself under attack from several sides at once and was quickly subdued by Rome and her Greek allies. Meanwhile, Hannibal had defeated Fulvius at Herdonea in Apulia, but lost Tarentum in the following year. In 210 BC Hannibal again proved his superiority in tactics by inflicting a severe defeat at Herdoniac (modern Ordona) in Apulia upon a proconsular army, and in 208 BC destroyed a Roman force engaged in the siege of Locri Epizephyri. But with the loss of Tarentum in 209 BC and the gradual reconquest by the Romans of Samnium and Lucania, his hold on south Italy was almost lost. In 207 BC he succeeded in making his way again into Apulia, where he waited to concert measures for a combined march upon Rome with his brother Hasdrubal Barca. On hearing, however, of his brother's defeat and death at the Metaurus he retired into Bruttium, where he maintained himself for the ensuing years. His brother's head had been cut off, carried across Italy, and tossed over the palisade of Hannibal's camp as a cold message of the iron-clad will of the Roman Republic. The combination of these events marked the end to Hannibal's success in Italy. With the failure of his brother Mago Barca in Liguria (205 BC-203 BC) and of his own negotiations with Philip of Macedon, the last hope of recovering his ascendancy in Italy was lost. In 203 BC, after nearly fifteen years of fighting in Italy, and with the military fortunes of Carthage rapidly declining, Hannibal was recalled to Carthage to direct the defense of his native country against a Roman invasion under Scipio Africanus. Scipio Africanus. Conclusion of Second Punic War (203–201 BC) Return to Carthage In 203 BC, Hannibal was recalled from Italy by the war party at Carthage. After leaving a record of his expedition engraved in Punic and Greek upon bronzen tablets in the temple of Juno at Crotona, he sailed back to Africa. Livy, The War with Hannibal, 28.46 His arrival immediately restored the predominance of the war party, who placed him in command of a combined force of African levies and his mercenaries from Italy. In 202 BC, Hannibal met Scipio in a fruitless peace conference. Despite mutual admiration, negotiations floundered due to Roman allegations of "Punic Faith," referring to the breach of protocols which ended the First Punic War by the Carthaginian attack on Saguntum, and a Carthaginan attack on a stranded Roman fleet. What had happened was that Scipio and Carthage had worked out a peace plan, which was approved by Rome. The terms of the treaty were quite modest, but the war had been long for the Romans. Carthage could keep its African territory but would lose its overseas empire, a fait-accompli. Masinissa (Numidia) was to be independent. Also, Carthage was to reduce its fleet and pay a war indemnity. But Carthage then made a terrible blunder. Its long-suffering citizens had captured a stranded Roman fleet in the Gulf of Tunes and stripped it of supplies, an action which aggravated the faltering negotiations. Meanwhile Hannibal, recalled from Italy by the Carthaginian senate, had returned with his army. Fortified by both Hannibal and the supplies, the Carthaginians rebuffed the treaty and Roman protests. The decisive battle at Zama soon followed, and it removed Hannibal's air of invincibility. Battle of Zama Unlike most battles of the Second Punic War, at Zama the Romans had superiority in cavalry and the Carthaginians had superiority in infantry. This Roman cavalry superiority was due to the betrayal of Masinissa, who had earlier assisted Carthage in Iberia, but changed sides in 206 BC with the promise of land and due to his personal conflicts with Syphax, a Carthaginian ally. This betrayal gave Scipio Africanus an advantage that had previously been possessed by the Carthaginians. Although the aging Hannibal was suffering from mental exhaustion and deteriorating health after years of campaigning in Italy, the Carthaginians still had the advantage in numbers and were boosted by the presence of 80 war elephants. Engraving of the Battle of Zama by Cornelis Cort, 1567.Note that the elephants shown are Asian ones rather than the very small North African ones used by Carthage. The Roman cavalry won an early victory by swiftly routing the Carthaginian horse, and standard Roman tactics for limiting the effectiveness of the Carthaginian war elephants were effective. However, the battle remained closely fought. At one point it seemed that Hannibal was on the verge of victory, but Scipio was able to rally his men, and his cavalry, having routed the Carthaginian horse, attacked Hannibal's rear. This two-pronged attack caused the Carthaginian formation to disintegrate and collapse. With their foremost general defeated, the Carthaginians had no choice but to accept defeat and surrender to Rome. Carthage lost approximately 20,000 troops with an additional 15,000 wounded. In contrast, the Romans suffered only 1,500 casualties. The battle resulted in a loss of respect for Hannibal by his fellow Carthaginians. It marked the last major battle of the Second Punic War, with Rome the victor. The conditions of defeat were such that Carthage could no longer battle for Mediterranean supremacy. Later career Peacetime Carthage (200–196 BC) Hannibal was still only 43 and soon showed that he could be a statesman as well as a soldier. Following the conclusion of a peace that left Carthage stripped of its formerly mighty empire, Hannibal prepared to take a back seat for a time. However, the blatant corruption of the oligarchy gave Hannibal a chance to re-emerge and he was elected as suffete, or chief magistrate. The office had become rather insignificant, but Hannibal restored its power and authority. The oligarchy, always jealous of him, had even charged him with having betrayed the interests of his country while in Italy, for neglecting to take Rome when he might have done so. So effectively did Hannibal reform abuses that the heavy tribute imposed by Rome could be paid by installments without additional and extraordinary taxation. He also reformed the Hundred and Four, stipulating that its membership be chosen by direct election rather than co-option. He also used citizen support to change the term of office in the Hundred and Four from life to a year with a term limit of two years. Exile (195–183/181 BC) Fourteen years after the victory of Zama, the Romans, alarmed by Carthage's renewed prosperity, demanded Hannibal's surrender. Hannibal thereupon went into voluntary exile. First he journeyed to Tyre, the mother-city of Carthage, and then to Ephesus, where he was honorably received by Antiochus III of Syria, who was preparing for war with Rome. Hannibal soon saw that the king's army was no match for the Romans. He advised him to equip a fleet and land a body of troops in the south of Italy, offering to take command himself. But he could not make much impression on Antiochus, who listened to his courtiers and would not entrust Hannibal with any important office. According to Cicero, while at the court of Antiochus, Hannibal attended a lecture by Phormio, a philosopher, that ranged through many topics. When Phormio finished a discourse on the duties of a general, Hannibal was asked his opinion. He replied: "I have seen during my life many an old fool; but this one beats them all." Another story about Hannibal in exile gives a strange slant to his supposed Punic perfidy. Antiochus III showed off a vast and well-armed formation to Hannibal and asked him if they would be enough for the Roman Republic, to which Hannibal replied, "Yes, enough for the Romans, however greedy they may be." It should be noted that in this situation Hannibal had not been given command of the army, but Antiochus himself had developed the battle plan and was subsequently defeated. In 190 BC he was placed in command of a Seleucid fleet but was defeated in a battle off the Eurymedon River. According to Strabo and Plutarch, Hannibal also received hospitality at the Armenian court of Artaxias I. The authors add an apocryphal story of how Hannibal planned and supervised the building of the new royal capital Artaxata. Bournoutian, George A. (2006). A Concise History of the Armenian People: From Ancient Times to the Present. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, p. 29. ISBN 1-5685-9141-1. From the court of Antiochus, who seemed prepared to surrender him to the Romans, Hannibal fled to Crete, but he soon went back to Asia Minor and sought refuge with Prusias I of Bithynia, who was engaged in warfare with Rome's ally, King Eumenes II of Pergamon. Hannibal went on to serve Prusias in this war. During one of the naval victories he gained over Eumenes, Hannibal had large pots filled with poisonous snakes thrown onto Eumenes' ships. Cornelius Nepos, Hannibal 11.4-5. Hannibal also visited Tyre; the home of his forefathers. However the Romans were determined to hunt him down, and they insisted on his surrender. Death (183/181 BC) Prusias agreed to give him up, but Hannibal was determined not to fall into his enemies' hands. At Libyssa on the eastern shore of the Sea of Marmora, he took poison, which, it was said, he had long carried about with him in a ring. Cornelius Nepos, Hannibal 12.5; Juvenal, Satires X.164 The precise year of Hannibal's death is unknown. In his Annales, Titus Pomponius Atticus reports that it occurred in 183 BC, Cornelius Nepos, Hannibal 13.1 and Livy implies the same. Polybius, who wrote nearest the event, gives 182 BC. Sulpicius Blitho records it under 181 BC. Cornelius Nepos, Hannibal 13.1 Possible gravesite In modern-day Turkey (ruins near Diliskelesi, south of Gebze, 60 km (38 miles east of Istanbul), an interesting curiosity is to be found in an industrial estate on a small hill beneath some cypress trees. Reputed to be Hannibal's grave, it was magnificently restored by emperor Septimius Severus (ruled AD 193-211), but it is now just a pile of stones. Excavations were carried out in 1906 by the German archeologist, Theodor Wiegand, but he was skeptical of the site. Legacy to the ancient world Long after his death, his name continued to carry a portent of great or imminent danger within the Roman Republic. It was written that he taught the Romans, who claimed to be fierce descendants of Mars, the meaning of fear. For generations, Roman housekeepers would tell their children brutal tales of Hannibal when they misbehaved. In fact, Hannibal became such a figure of terror, that whenever disaster struck, the Roman Senators would exclaim "Hannibal ad portas" (“Hannibal is at the Gates!”) to express their fear or anxiety. This famous Latin phrase evolved into a common expression that is often still used when a client arrives through the door or when one is faced with calamity. Alan Emrich, Practical Latin This illustrates the psychological impact Hannibal's presence in Italy had on Roman Culture. A grudging admiration for Hannibal is evident in the works of Roman writers such as Livy, Frontinus, and Juvenal. The Romans even built statues of the Carthaginian in the very streets of Rome to advertise their defeat of such a worthy adversary. Holland, Rome and her Enemies 8 It is plausible to suggest that Hannibal engendered the greatest fear Rome had towards an enemy. Nevertheless, they grimly refused to admit the possibility of defeat and rejected all overtures for peace, and they even refused to accept the ransom of prisoners after Cannae. Livy, The War With Hannibal 22.61 During the war there are no reports of revolutions among the Roman citizens, no factions with the Senate desiring peace, no pro-Carthaginian Roman turncoats, no coups. Lazenby, Hannibal's War 237-8 Goldsworthy, The Fall of Carthage 315 Indeed, throughout the war Roman aristocrats ferociously competed with each other for positions of command to fight against Rome's most dangerous enemy. Hannibal's military genius was not enough to really disturb the Roman political process and the collective political and military genius of the Roman people. As Lazenby states, "It says volumes, too, for their political maturity and respect for constitutional forms that the complicated machinery of government continued to function even amidst disaster--there are few states in the ancient world in which a general who had lost a battle like Cannae would have dared to remain, let alone would have continued to be treated respectfully as head of state." J. F. Lazenby, The Hannibalic War, 254 According to the historian Livy, Hannibal's military genius was feared among the Romans and during Hannibal's march against Rome in 211 BC Livy, The War With Hannibal 26.7 http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy26.html "a messenger who had travelled from Fregellae for a day and a night without stopping created great alarm in Rome, and the excitement was increased by people running about the City with wildly exaggerated accounts of the news he had brought. The wailing cry of the matrons was heard everywhere, not only in private houses but even in the temples. Here they knelt and swept the temple-floors with their dishevelled hair and lifted up their hands to heaven in piteous entreaty to the gods that they would deliver the City of Rome out of the hands of the enemy and preserve its mothers and children from injury and outrage." Livy, The War With Hannibal 26.9 http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy26.html In the Senate the news were "received with varying feelings as men's temperaments differed," Livy, The War With Hannibal 26.8 http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy26.html so it was decided to keep Capua under siege, but send 15,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry as reinforcements to Rome.. According to Livy, the land occupied by Hannibal's army outside Rome in 211 BC was sold at the very time of its occupation and for the same price. Livy, The War with Hannibal, 26.11 This may not be true but as Lazenby states, "could well be, exemplifying as it does not only the supreme confidence felt by the Romans in ultimate victory, but also the way in which something like normal life continued. J.F. Lazenby, The Hannibalic War, p. 254 . After Cannae the Romans showed a considerable steadfastness in adversity. An undeniable proof of Rome's confidence is demonstrated by the fact that after the Cannae disaster she was left virtually defenseless, but the Senate still chose not to withdraw a single garrison from an overseas province to strengthen the city. In fact, they were reinforced and the campaigns there maintained until victory was secured; beginning first in Sicily under direction of Claudius Marcellus, and later Hispania under Scipio Africanus. Bagnall, The Punic Wars 203 Lazenby, Hannibal's War 235 Although the long-term consequences of Hannibal's war are debatable, this war was undeniably Rome's "finest hour". Lazenby Hannibal's War 254 Goldsworthy The Fall of Carthage 366-7) Most of the sources available to historians about Hannibal are from Romans. They considered him the greatest enemy Rome had ever faced. Livy gives us the idea that he was extremely cruel. Even Cicero, when he talked of Rome and her two great enemies, spoke of the "honourable" Pyrrhus and the "cruel" Hannibal. Yet a different picture is sometimes revealed. When Hannibal's successes had brought about the death of two Roman consuls, he vainly searched for the body of Gaius Flaminius on the shores of Lake Trasimene, held ceremonial rituals in recognition of Lucius Aemilius Paullus, and sent Marcellus' ashes back to his family in Rome. Any bias attributed to Polybius, however, is more troublesome, since he was clearly sympathetic towards Hannibal. Nevertheless, Polybius spent a long period as a hostage in Italy and relied heavily on Roman sources, so there remains the possibility that he was reproducing elements of Roman propaganda. Legacy The material of legend: in "Snow-storm: Hannibal and his Army Crossing the Alps", J.M.W. Turner envelopes Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps in Romantic atmosphere Hannibal's name is also commonplace in later art and popular culture, an objective measure of his foreign influence on Western history. Like other military leaders, Hannibal's victories against superior forces in an ultimately losing cause won him enduring fame that outlasted his native country within North Africa. His crossing of the Alps remains one of the most monumental military feats of ancient warfare Hannibal, Carthaginian general, The Columbia Encyclopedia and has since captured the imagination of the world (romanticized by several artworks). Literature Novel unless otherwise noted: written 1308-21, Dante's Divine Comedy, poem, Inferno XXXI.97-132, 115-124 (Battle of Zama) and Paradiso VI 1726, Gulliver's Travels, satirical work 1862, Gustave Flaubert's Salammbô, set in Carthage at the time of Hamilcar Barca. Hannibal appears as a child. 1996, Elisabeth Craft, A Spy for Hannibal: A Novel of Carthage, 091015533X 1996-2000, Ross Leckie, Carthage trilogy, source of the 2008 film (1996, Hannibal: A Novel, ISBN 0-89526-443-9 ; 1999, Scipio, a Novel, ISBN 0-349-11238-X ; Carthage, 2000, ISBN 0-86241-944-1) 2005, Terry McCarthy, The Sword of Hannibal, ISBN 0-446-61517-X 2006, David Anthony Durham, Pride of Carthage: A Novel of Hannibal, ISBN 0-385-72249-4 2006, Angela Render, Forged By Lightning: A Novel of Hannibal and Scipio, ISBN 1-4116-8002-2 Theatre and opera In Hector Berlioz's 1858 opera Les Troyens, he appears in a vision to Dido just before she dies. In Andrew Lloyd Webber's 1986 musical The Phantom of the Opera and its 2004 film adaption, the Opera Populaire is in rehearsal for an opera about Hannibal. Military history Hannibal is usually ranked among the best military strategists and tacticians. According to Appian, several years after the Second Punic War, Hannibal was a political advisor in the Seleucid Kingdom and Scipio was sent there on a diplomatic mission from Rome. Hannibal's exploits (especially his victory at Cannae) continue to be studied in military academies all over the world. Hannibal's celebrated feat in crossing the Alps with war elephants passed into European legend: a fresco detail, ca. 1510, Capitoline Museums, Rome Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, in his article in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, praises Hannibal in these words: Even his Roman chroniclers acknowledged his supreme military leadership, writing that, "he never required others to do what he could and would not do himself". Hannibal at CarpeNoctem.tv According to Polybius 23, 13, p. 423: "It is a remarkable and very cogent proof of Hannibal's having been by nature a real leader and far superior to anyone else in statesmanship, that though he spent seventeen years in the field, passed through so many barbarous countries, and employed to aid him in desperate and extraordinary enterprises numbers of men of different nations and languages, no one ever dreamt of conspiring against him, nor was he ever deserted by those who had once joined him or submitted to him." Count Alfred von Schlieffen's eponymously-titled "Schlieffen Plan" was developed from his military studies, with particularly heavy emphasis on Hannibal's envelopment technique he employed to surround and victoriously destroy the Roman army at Cannae. Daly, Gregory, Cannae: The Experience of Battle in the Second Punic War, p. x Cottrell, Leonard, Hannibal: Enemy of Rome, p. 134 George S. Patton believed that he was a reincarnation of Hannibal as well as many other people including a Roman legionary and a Napoleonic soldier. "Any man who thinks he is the reincarnation of Hannibal or some such isn't quite possessed of all his buttons", quoted by D'Este, Carlo, in Patton: A Genius For War, p. 815 Hirshson, Stanley, General Patton: A Soldier's Life, p. 163 Norman Schwarzkopf, the commander of the Coalition Forces in the Gulf War, claimed that "The technology of war may change, the sophistication of weapons certainly changes. But those same principles of war that applied to the days of Hannibal apply today." Carlton, James, The Military Quotation Book, New York City, New York, Thomas Dunne Books, 2002 According to the military historian, Theodore Ayrault Dodge, TV and film {| class="wikitable" |- ! Year || Film || Other notes |- | 1914 || Cabiria || Italian Silent film |- | 1939 || Scipio Africanus - the Defeat of Hannibal (Scipione l'africano) || Italian Motion Picture |- | 1955 || Jupiter's Darling || MGM musical picture starring Howard Keel and Esther Williams |- | 1960 || Annibale || Italian Motion Picture starring Victor Mature |- | 1996 || Gulliver’s Travels || Gulliver summons Hannibal from a magic mirror. |- | 1997 || The Great Battles of Hannibal || British documentary |- | 2001 || Hannibal: The Man Who Hated Rome ||British documentary |- | 2005 || The True Story of Hannibal|| British documentary |- | 2004 || The Phantom of the Opera || The beginning Opera being rehearsed is one about Hannibal so titled Hannibal |- | 2005 || Hannibal vs. Rome ||in National Geographic Channel |- | 2006 || Hannibal - Rome's Worst Nightmare || TV film |- | 2008 || Battles BC S01E01 || History Channel TV film |- | 2010/2011 || Hannibal the Conqueror || Mainstream movie, starring Vin Diesel in the role of Hannibal (not confirmed) |} Comics The webcomic Hannibal Goes to Rome serializes Hannibal's voyage in a humorous fashion. In the G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero comic by Devil's Due, Hannibal is genetically re-created by Doctor Mindbender and becomes a member of the Coil. Timeline Timeline of Hannibal's life (248 BC-c. 183 BC) See also Military history Famous military commanders Hannibal in battle Notes References Further reading in Punic Wars Bickerman, Elias J. "Hannibal’s Covenant", American Journal of Philology, Vol. 73, No. 1. (1952), pp. 1–23. Bradford, E, Hannibal, London, Macmillan London Ltd., 1981 Caven, B., Punic Wars, London, George Werdenfeld and Nicholson Ltd., 1980 Cottrell, Leonard, Hannibal: Enemy of Rome, Da Capo Press, 1992, ISBN 0-306-80498-0 Daly, Gregory, Cannae: The Experience of Battle in the Second Punic War, London/New York, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0-415-32743-1 Delbrück, Hans, Warfare in Antiquity, 1920, ISBN 0-8032-9199-X Hoyos, Dexter: Hannibal's Dynasty: Power and Politics in the Western Mediterranean, 247–183 B.C. (Routledge: London & New York, 2003; paperback edition with maps, 2005) - has much discussion of strategy and warfare. Hoyos, Dexter, Hannibal: Rome's Greatest Enemy, Bristol Phoenix Press, 2005, ISBN 1-904675-46-8 (hbk) ISBN 1-904675-47-6 (pbk) Lamb, Harold, Hannibal: One Man Against Rome, 1959. Lancel, Serge, Hannibal, Blackwell Publishing, 1999, ISBN 0631218483 Livy, and De Selincourt, Aubery, The War with Hannibal: Books XXI-XXX of the History of Rome from its Foundation, Penguin Classics, Reprint edition, July 30, 1965, ISBN 0-14-044145-X (pbk)(also ) Prevas, John, Hannibal Crosses the Alps: The Invasion of Italy and the Second Punic War, 2001, ISBN 0306810700, questions which route he took Talbert, Richard J.A., ed., Atlas of Classical History, Routledge, London/New York, 1985, ISBN 0-415-03463-9 Yardley, J.C. (translator) & Hoyos, D. (introduction, notes, maps and appendix on Hannibal's march over the Alps): Livy: Hannibal's War: Books 21 to 30'' (Oxford World's Classics: Oxford Univ. Press, UK & USA, 2006). External links The Biography of Hannibal Hannibal by Jacob Abbott Hannibal's life by Cornelius Nepos, latin transcription and translation to German | Hannibal |@lemmatized hannibal:252 son:3 hamilcar:12 barca:9 commonly:2 know:5 punic:24 annobal:1 mean:5 ba:1 al:1 give:13 grace:2 bc:47 date:1 death:6 possibility:3 could:17 take:14 place:5 microsoft:1 encarta:1 general:9 b:4 caspari:2 baal:1 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 church:1 alfred:2 j:7 story:5 carthage:42 p:18 carthaginian:40 military:27 commander:9 tactician:2 popularly:1 credit:1 one:23 talented:1 history:21 father:11 lead:4 first:9 war:70 young:3 brother:15 mago:3 hasdrubal:15 law:6 fair:2 live:3 period:3 tension:1 mediterranean:5 rome:71 roman:94 republic:4 establish:1 supremacy:2 great:15 power:9 hellenistic:1 kingdom:2 macedon:3 syracuse:3 seleucid:4 empire:3 famous:4 achievement:1 outbreak:1 second:14 march:15 army:34 include:6 elephant:10 iberia:10 pyrenees:5 alp:14 northern:5 italy:42 year:21 win:5 three:2 dramatic:1 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2,623 | Africa_Alphabet | The Africa Alphabet (also International African Alphabet or IAI alphabet) was developed in 1928 under the lead of Diedrich Westermann. He developed it with a group of Africanists at the International Institute of African Languages and Cultures (later the IAI) in London. Its aim was to enable people to write all the African languages for practical and scientific purposes without diacritics. This alphabet has influenced development of orthographies of many African languages (serving "as the basis for the transcription" of about 60, by one count Sow, Alfa I., and Mohamed H. Abdulaziz, "Language and Social Change," Ch. 18 in Ali A. Mazrui (ed.) Africa Since 1935 (UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. 8). University of California Press, 1993. P. 527. ), but not all, and discussions of harmonization of systems of transcription that led to, among other things, adoption of the African reference alphabet. Characters lowercase a b c d e ǝ f ƒ g h x i j k uppercase A B Б This is not the current standard form for capital for this letter, which is . C D E Ǝ F Ƒ G H X I J K lowercase l m n o p r s t u v w y z uppercase L M N O P R S T U V W Y Z See also African reference alphabet Alphabets derived from the Latin Dinka alphabet ISO 6438 Pan-Nigerian Alphabet Standard Alphabet by Lepsius Notes References Coulmas, Florian, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems, 1996, Blackwell, Oxford IIACL, Practical Orthography of African Languages, Revised Edition, London: Oxford University Press, 1930 Sow, Alfa I., and Mohamed H. Abdulaziz, "Language and Social Change," Ch. 18 in Ali A. Mazrui (ed.) Africa Since 1935 (UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. 8). University of California Press, 1993. | Africa_Alphabet |@lemmatized africa:5 alphabet:10 also:2 international:2 african:7 iai:2 develop:2 lead:2 diedrich:1 westermann:1 group:1 africanists:1 institute:1 language:6 culture:1 later:1 london:2 aim:1 enable:1 people:1 write:2 practical:2 scientific:1 purpose:1 without:1 diacritic:1 influence:1 development:1 orthography:2 many:1 serve:1 basis:1 transcription:2 one:1 count:1 sow:2 alfa:2 mohamed:2 h:4 abdulaziz:2 social:2 change:2 ch:2 ali:2 mazrui:2 ed:2 since:2 unesco:2 general:2 history:2 vol:2 university:3 california:2 press:3 p:3 discussion:1 harmonization:1 system:2 among:1 thing:1 adoption:1 reference:3 character:1 lowercase:2 b:2 c:2 e:2 ǝ:2 f:2 ƒ:2 g:2 x:2 j:2 k:2 uppercase:2 б:1 current:1 standard:2 form:1 capital:1 letter:1 l:2 n:2 r:2 u:2 v:2 w:2 z:2 see:1 derive:1 latin:1 dinka:1 iso:1 pan:1 nigerian:1 lepsius:1 note:1 coulmas:1 florian:1 blackwell:2 encyclopedia:1 oxford:2 iiacl:1 revise:1 edition:1 |@bigram |
2,624 | History_of_Colombia | The History of Colombia is the interaction of rival civilian elites. The political elite, which overlaps with social and economic elites, has shown a marked ability to retain the reins of power, effectively excluding other groups and social institutions, such as the masses and the military, from significant participation in or control over the political process. Members of the lower classes have found it difficult, although not impossible, to challenge or join the established elite in the political and economic spheres. Their subordination dates to the rigid colonial social hierarchy that placed the Spanish-born above the native born . Elite control of the military is the result of the "civilian mystique" that Austin Varnum is hot independence. That mystique has successfully restricted the military to nonpolitical functions, with three exceptions—1830, 1854, and 1953. Thus Colombia has a history rare for Latin America in that the country has been dominated more by civilian than by military rule. Because military forces have been denied political power, the civilian elites have had only themselves, divided into rival groups, to contend with in the political arena. Library of Congress: Data as of December 1988 Some analysts have divided the political elite along economic lines between the landed and the nonlanded. The agricultural export sector, the backbone of the Colombian economy, has supplied the two main economic groups that also have been the most powerful in the political sphere: the landed aristocracy, who are devoted to the large-scale production of agricultural crops, and the merchants, who are engaged in the trade of these export goods and imported consumer goods. Lesser economic groups, such as the emerging manufacturing sector, have allied themselves with one of the two dominant groups, most often the merchants. Differences within the allied groups on issues such as trade created factions within the alliances even before they officially became established political parties. In addition, the nation's economic development opened up new economic opportunities, and new forces increasingly expressed their views through the political factions. Elite members of the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party alternately competed and cooperated with each other throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Often the nature of relations between the two parties depended on whether moderates or extremists dominated the ruling party. During the periods when moderate factions of both parties were in power, the parties were able to work together in coalitions; when extremist factions prevailed, however, conflict often resulted. During the competitive periods, one party usually sought to limit or eliminate the rival party's participation in the political process, attempts that often resulted in political violence. The most notorious of these periods were the War of a Thousand Days (1899-1902) and la violencia (1948-53). At the end of these civil wars, the elite inaugurated the cooperative governments of the Period of Reconciliation (1903- 30) and the National Front (1958-74), respectively, the former catalyzed by the Rafael Reyes presidency (1904-09) and the latter by the Gustavo Rojas Pinilla dictatorship (1953-57). The replacement of the discredited extremist factions by the more conciliatory moderate factions in each case made it possible for the two parties to share power and to achieve a consensus on what policies were appropriate for Colombian society at the time. Although the elite dominated the masses, the different classes were bound to each other through personalistic patron-client relationships, especially in rural areas where peasants relied on the propertied upper class for access to the land they farmed. These patron-client relationships also tied the masses into the political system as the numerical votes or bodies mobilized and controlled by local political bosses. The affiliation adopted by the members of the lower classes was determined largely by the affiliation of their patrons and their families; these affiliations, as much for a party as against the opposing party, became what Robert H. Dix termed "inherited hatreds," elements of one's identity handed down from generation to generation. The emotional bond to the party carried individual members not only to the polls but also into violent conflict with adherents of the opposing party during those times when political conflict could not be controlled. In this way, the peasants and urban masses were recruited by the party elite to participate in the civil wars that riddled the nation's history. Colombia's economic life has been based consistently on exports of primary goods, especially coffee. In the sixteenth century, the conquistadors and early colonialists, who often exploited Indian and slave labor, mined precious metals and gems for export to Spain under a mercantile system that inhibited the development of domestic industries. Throughout the preindependence and postindependence periods, agriculture on large landholdings, known as latifundios, became the predominant mode of production for export crops such as sugar and tobacco. By the 1860s, coffee had emerged as the key export crop. At the turn of the century, tariffs on coffee exports were the main source of government revenues, and profits from the coffee trade were the major source of investment in the newly emerging industrial sector that was beginning to produce basic consumer goods. Although the industrial sector grew sufficiently to induce urbanization and economic modernization in the first half of the twentieth century, industrial exports remained relatively minor compared with coffee, which in the late 1980s still accounted for almost 60 percent of all export earnings. Economic modernization, supported by the coffee industry, became significant at the turn of the century. Modernization brought social changes and growing demands that produced various challenges to the dominant position of the traditional elite: the populist movements of the 1940s and 1970s, the military dictatorship of the 1950s, the rise of guerrilla activity in the 1960s through the 1980s, and the emergence of drug traffickers as a major economic and social element in the 1970s and 1980s. The increase in industrialization and the migration of peasants to the cities accelerated the rate of urbanization and the formation of urban working and lower classes. The heightened need for infrastructure, both within a given city and among urban areas, spurred the growing involvement of the state in the economy, especially during the reformist period in the 1930s and 1940s. By the 1980s, the state had become an important investor in and manager of strategic sectors of the economy, such as energy resources, transportation, and communications. The emergence of the National Front marked a significant break in the traditional political and economic patterns in Colombian society. Interparty conflict receded and was replaced in the 1960s by leftist subversion, which continued through the 1980s. The illicit narcotics industry emerged in the 1970s as a dominant economic force, altering the structure of the national economy and disrupting existing social and political relations. The leadership in both parties proved unable to address inflation, unemployment, and a skewed distribution of income. The post-National Front Liberal tenure bequeathed a triple legacy to the incoming Conservative government in 1982: guerrilla activity, the corruptive drug trade, and an inequitable economy. Pre-Colombian period The Zipa used to cover his body in gold and, from his raft, he offered treasures to the Guatavita goddess in the middle of the sacred lake. This old Muisca tradition became the origin of the El Dorado legend. Approximately 10,000 years BC hunter-gatherer societies existed near present-day Bogotá (at El Abra and Tequendama), and they traded with one another and with cultures living in the Magdalena River valley. Beginning in the first millennium AD, groups of Amerindians developed a political system, the cacicazgo, a pyramidal power structure headed by a cacique. Within Colombia, the two cultures with the most complex cacicazgo systems were the Tayronas in the Caribbean region, and the Muiscas in the highlands near Bogotá, both of which belonged to the Chibcha language family. The Muisca people had one of the most developed political systems in South America, surpassed only by the Incas. Colonial times The Spanish settled along the north coast of today's Colombia as early as the 1500s, but their first permanent settlement, at Santa Marta, was not established until 1525. In 1549, the institution of the Audiencia in Santa Fe de Bogotá gave that city the status of capital of New Granada, comprised in large part of what is now territory of Colombia. In 1717 the Viceroyalty of New Granada was originally created, and then it was temporarily removed, to finally be reestablished in 1739. The Viceroyalty had Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital. This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America which had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama. So, Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City, though it remained somewhat backward compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways. The Patria Boba: The Beginning of the Struggle for Independence The period between 1796 and 1806 was marked by intense conflicts over the nature of the new government or governments. Constant fighting between federalists and centralists gave rise to a period of instability, which came to be known as la Patria Boba (the Foolish Fatherland). Each province, and even some cities, set up its own autonomous juntas, which declared themselves sovereign from each other. With the arrival of news in May 1810 that southern Spain had been conquered by Napoleon's forces, that the Spanish Supreme Central Junta had dissolved itself, declarations of independence in Quito (1809), Gran Colombia (1810), Venezuela and Paraguay (1811) and other territories, established their own governments . Cartagena de Indias established a junta on May 22, 1810, followed others, including the viceregal capital, Bogotá, on July 20 (today Colombia's Independence Day). Although the Bogotá junta called itself a "Supreme Junta of the New Kingdom of Granada," it failed to provide political unity, and battles broke out between cities and towns as each tried to defend its sovereignty. There were two fruitless attempts at establishing a congress of provinces in the subsequent months. By March 1811 the province of Bogotá had transformed itself into a state called Cundinamarca. Cundinamarca convened a "Congress of the United Provinces," which first met in Bogotá, but later moved to Tunja and Leyva to maintain independence from the capital city. It established a confederation called the United Provinces of New Granada on November 27, 1811, but Cundinamarca did not recognize the new federation. The dispute over the form of government erupted into civil war by the end of 1812, and once again in 1814. By mid-1815 a large Spanish expeditionary force under Pablo Morillo had arrived in New Granada. Cartagena fell in December, and by May 1816 the royalists had control of all of New Granada. Gran Colombia: Independence Achieved The Boyaca bridge crucial in the Battle of Boyacá. From then on the long independence struggle, was led mainly by Bolívar and Francisco de Paula Santander in neighboring Venezuela. Bolívar returned to New Granada only in 1819 after establishing himself as leader of the pro-independence forces in the Venezuelan llanos. From there he lead an army over the Andes and captured New Granada after a quick campaign that ended at the Battle of Boyacá, on August 7, 1819. (For more information, see Military career of Simón Bolívar.) That year, the Congress of Angostura established the Republic of Gran Colombia, which included all territories under jurisdiction of the former Viceroyalty of New Granada. Bolívar was elected first, president of Gran Colombia and Santander, vice president. As the Federation of Gran Colombia was dissolved in 1830, the Department of Cundinamarca (as established in Angostura) became a new country, the Republic of New Granada. The Republic: Liberal and Conservative Conflict In 1863 the name of the Republic was changed officially to "United States of Colombia", and in 1886 the country adopted its present name: "Republic of Colombia". Two political parties grew out of conflicts between the followers of Bolívar and Santander and their political visions—the Conservatives and the Liberals -- and have since dominated Colombian politics. Bolívar's supporters, who later formed the nucleus of the Conservative Party, sought strong centralized government, alliance with the Roman Catholic Church, and a limited franchise. Santander's followers, forerunners of the Liberals, wanted a decentralized government, state rather than church control over education and other civil matters, and a broadened suffrage. Throughout the 19th century and early 20th century, each party held the presidency for roughly equal periods of time. Colombia maintained a tradition of civilian government and regular, free elections. The military has seized power three times in Colombia's history: in 1830, after the dissolution of Great Colombia; again in 1854 (by General José María Melo); and from 1953 to 1957 (under General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla). Civilian rule was restored within one year in the first two instances. Notwithstanding the country's commitment to democratic institutions, Colombia's history has also been characterized by widespread, violent conflict. Two civil wars resulted from bitter rivalry between the Conservative and Liberal parties. Thousand Days War (1899-1902) cost an estimated 100,000 lives, and up to 300,000 people died during "La Violencia" (The Violence) of the late 1940s and 1950s, a bipartisan confrontation which erupted after the assassination of Liberal popular candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán. United States activity to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to a military uprising in the province of Panama in 1903, which resulted in the establishment of it as a nation. A military coup in 1953 toppled the right-wing government of Conservative Laureano Gómez and brought General Gustavo Rojas to power. Initially, Rojas enjoyed considerable popular support, due largely to his success in reducing "La Violencia." When he did not restore democratic rule and occasionally engaged in open repression, however, he was overthrown by the military in 1957 with the backing of both political parties, and a provisional government was installed. The National Front regime (1958-1974) In July 1957, former Conservative President Laureano Gómez (1950-1953) and former Liberal President Alberto Lleras (1945-1946, 1958-1962) issued the "Declaration of Sitges," in which they proposed a "National Front," whereby the Liberal and Conservative parties would govern jointly. The presidency would be determined by an alternating conservative and liberal president every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices. The National Front ended "La Violencia", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. In the end, the contradictions between each successive Liberal and Conservative administration made the results decidedly mixed. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political injustices continued. The National Front system itself eventually began to be seen as a form of political repression by dissidents and even many mainstream voters, especially after what was apparently later confirmed as the fraudulent election of Conservative candidate Misael Pastrana in 1970, which resulted in the defeat of the relatively populist candidate Gustavo Rojas. The M-19 guerrilla movement, "Movimiento 19 de Abril" (19th of April Movement), would eventually be founded in part as a response to this particular event. Although the system established by the Sitges agreement was phased out by 1974, the 1886 Colombian constitution & mdash;in effect until 1991—required that the losing political party be given adequate and equitable participation in the government which, according to many observers and later analysis, eventually resulted in some increase in corruption and legal relaxation. The current 1991 constitution does not have that requirement, but subsequent administrations have tended to include members of opposition parties. Post-National Front years From 1974 until 1982, different presidential administrations chose to focus on ending the persistent insurgencies that sought to undermine Colombia's traditional political system. Both groups claimed to represent the poor and weak against the rich and powerful classes of the country, demanding the completion of true land and political reform, from an openly Communist perspective. By 1974, another challenge to the state's authority and legitimacy had come from the 19th of April Movement (M-19), a mostly urban guerrilla group founded allegedly in response to an electoral fraud during the final National Front election of Misael Pastrana (1970 -1974) and the defeat of former dictator Gustavo Rojas. Initially, the M-19 attracted a degree of attention and sympathy from mainstream Colombians that the FARC and National Liberation Army (ELN) had found largely elusive earlier due to extravagant and daring operations, such as stealing a sword that had belonged to Colombia's Independence hero Simon Bolívar. At the same time, its larger profile soon made it the focus of the state's counterinsurgency efforts. The ELN guerrilla had been seriously crippled by military operations in the region of Anorí by 1974, but it managed to reconstitute itself and escape destruction, in part due to the administration of Alfonso López Michelsen (1974-1978) allowing it to escape encirclement, hoping to initiate a peace process with the group. By 1982, the perceived passivity of the FARC, together with the relative success of the government's efforts against the M-19 and ELN, enabled the administration of the Liberal Party's Julio César Turbay (1978-1982) to lift a state-of-siege decree that had been in effect, on and off, for most of the previous 30 years. Under the latest such decree, president Turbay had implemented security policies that, though of some military value against the M-19 in particular, were considered highly questionable both inside and outside Colombian circles due to numerous accusations of military human rights abuses against suspects and captured guerrillas. Citizen exhaustion due to the conflict's newfound intensity led to the election of president Belisario Betancur (1982-1986), a Conservative who won 47% of the popular vote, directed peace feelers at all the insurgents, and negotiated a 1984 cease-fire with the FARC and M-19 after a 1982 release of many guerrillas imprisoned during the previous effort to overpower them. The ELN rejected entering any negotiation and continued to recover itself through the use of extortions and threats, in particular against foreign oil companies of European and U.S. origin. As these events were developing, the growing illegal drug trade and its consequences were also increasingly becoming a matter of widespread importance to all participants in the Colombian conflict. Guerrillas and newly wealthy drug lords had mutually uneven relations and thus numerous incidents occurred between them. Eventually the kidnapping of drug cartel family members by guerrillas led to the creation of the 1981 Muerte a Secuestradores (MAS) death squad ("Death to Kidnappers"). Pressure from the U.S. government and critical sectors of Colombian society was met with further violence, as the Medellín Cartel and its hitmen, bribed or murdered numerous public officials, politicians and others who stood in its way by supporting the implementation of extradition of Colombian nationals to the U.S. Victims of cartel violence included Justice Minister Rodrigo Lara, assassinated in 1984, an event which made the Betancur administration begin to directly oppose the drug lords. The first negotiated cease-fire with the M-19 ended when the guerrillas resumed fighting in 1985, claiming that the cease-fire had not been fully respected by official security forces, saying that several of its members had suffered threats and assaults, and also questioning the government's real willingness to implement any accords. The Betancur administration in turn questioned the M-19's actions and its commitment to the peace process, as it continued to advance high profile negotiations with the FARC, which led to the creation of the Patriotic Union (Colombia) (UP), a legal and non-clandestine political organization. On November 61985, the M-19 stormed the Colombian Palace of Justice and held the Supreme Court magistrates hostage, intending to put president Betancur on trial. In the ensuing crossfire that followed the military's reaction, scores of people lost their lives, as did most of the guerrillas, including several high-ranking operatives. Both sides blamed each other for the outcome. Meanwhile, individual FARC members initially joined the UP leadership in representation of the guerrilla command, though most of the guerrilla's chiefs and militiamen did not demobilize nor disarm, as that was not a requirement of the process at that point in time. Tension soon significantly increased, as both sides began to accuse each other of not respecting the cease-fire. Political violence against FARC and UP members (including presidential candidate Jaime Pardo) was blamed on drug lords and also on members of the security forces (to a much lesser degree on the argued inaction of Betancur administration). Members of the government and security authorities increasingly accused the FARC of continuing to recruit guerrillas, as well as kidnapping, extorting and politically intimidating voters even as the UP was already participating in politics. The Virgilio Barco (1986-1990) administration, in addition to continuing to handle the difficulties of the complex negotiations with the guerrillas, also inherited a particularly chaotic confrontation against the drug lords, who were engaged in a campaign of terrorism and murder in response to government moves in favor of their extradition overseas. The UP also suffered an increasing number of losses during this term (including the assassination of presidential candidate Bernardo Jaramilla), which stemmed both from private proto-paramilitary organizations, increasingly powerful drug lords and a number of would-be paramilitary-sympathizers within the armed forces. Post 1990 Following administrations had to contend with the guerrillas, paramilitaries, narcotics traffickers and the violence and corruption that they all perpetuated, both through force and negotiation. Narcoterrorists assassinated three presidential candidates before César Gaviria was elected in 1990. Since the death of Medellín cartel leader Pablo Escobar in a police shootout during December 1993, indiscriminate acts of violence associated with that organization have abated as the "cartels" have broken up into multiple, smaller and often-competing trafficking organizations. Nevertheless, violence continues as these drug organizations resort to violence as part of their operations but also to protest against government policies, including extradition. The M-19 and several smaller guerrilla groups were successfully incorporated into a peace process as the 1980s ended and the 90s began, which culminated in the elections for a Constituent Assembly of Colombia that would write a new constitution, which took effect in 1991. The new Constitution, brought about a considerable number of institutional and legal reforms based on principles that the delegates considered as more modern, humanist, democratic and politically open than those existent under the previous 1886 constitution. Practical results were mixed and controversies emerged (such as the debate surrounding the constitutional prohibition of extradition, which later was reversed), but together with the reincorporation of some of the guerrilla groups to the legal political framework, the new Constitution inaugurated an era that was both a continuation and a gradual, but significant, departure from what had come before. Contacts with the FARC, which had irregularly continued despite the generalized de facto interruptions of the ceasefire and the official 1987 break from negotiations, were temporarily cut off in 1990 under the presidency of César Gaviria (1990-1994). The Colombian Army's assault on the FARC's Casa Verde sanctuary at La Uribe, Meta, followed by a FARC offensive that sought to undermine the deliberations of the Constitutional Assembly, began to highlight a significant break in the uneven negotiations carried over from the previous decade. President Ernesto Samper assumed office in August 1994. However, a political crisis relating to large-scale contributions from drug traffickers to Samper's presidential campaign diverted attention from governance programs, thus slowing, and in many cases, halting progress on the nation's domestic reform agenda. The military also suffered several setbacks in its fight against the guerrillas, when several of its rural bases began to be overrun and a record number of soldiers and officers were taken prisoner by the FARC (which since 1982 was attempting to implement a more "conventional" style of warfare, seeking to eventually defeat the military in the field). On August 7, 1998, Andrés Pastrana was sworn in as the President of Colombia. A member of the Conservative Party, Pastrana defeated Liberal Party candidate Horacio Serpa in a run-off election marked by high voter turn-out and little political unrest. The new president's program was based on a commitment to bring about a peaceful resolution of Colombia's longstanding civil conflict and to cooperate fully with the United States to combat the trafficking of illegal drugs. While early initiatives in the Colombian peace process gave reason for optimism, the Pastrana administration also has had to combat high unemployment and other economic problems, such as the fiscal deficit and the impact of global financial instability on Colombia. During his administration, unemployment has risen to over 20%. Additionally, the growing severity of countrywide guerrilla attacks by the FARC and ELN, and smaller movements, as well as the growth of drug production, corruption and the spread of even more violent paramilitary groups such as the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) has made it difficult to solve the country's problems. Although the FARC and ELN accepted participation in the peace process, they did not make explicit commitments to end the conflict. The FARC suspended talks in November 2000, to protest what it called "paramilitary terrorism" but returned to the negotiating table in February 2001, following 2 days of meetings between President Pastrana and FARC leader Manuel Marulanda. The Colombian Government and ELN in early 2001 continued discussions aimed at opening a formal peace process. Plan Colombia No single explanation fully addresses the deep roots of Colombia's present-day troubles, but they include limited government presence in large areas of the interior, the expansion of illicit drug cultivation, endemic violence, and social inequities. In order to confront these challenges, the Pastrana administration unveiled its Plan Colombia in late 1999, an integrated strategy to deal with these longstanding, mutually reinforcing problems. The main stated objectives of the original Plan Colombia were to promote peace, combat the narcotics industry, revive the Colombian economy, improve respect for human rights, and strengthen the democratic and social institutions of the country. Colombia planned to finance US$4 billion of the estimated US$7.5 billion overall cost, most of which would go towards the social portion of the project, but was ultimately unable to do so due to the state's 1997-1998 economic crisis. The United States approved a US$1.3 billion assistance package, mostly of military and counternarcotics nature, but also including a small amount of social aid. The Colombian Government sought additional support from the IFIs, the European Union, and other countries, with the intention of financing the social component of the original plan, but met with little cooperation as the would-be donors considered that the U.S. approved aid represented an undue military slant and additionally lacked the will to spend such amounts of money. After the eventual breakup of the peace negotiations, which had been stalled numerous times and finally ended due to a guerrilla kidnapping of a congressman and other political figures, the Caguán demilitarized zone was terminated by the Pastrana administration. Soon after that, in May 2002, the former liberal politician of conservative leanings Álvaro Uribe, whose father had been killed by left-wing guerrillas, was sworn in as Colombian president. He immediately began taking action to crush the FARC, ELN, and AUC, including the employment of citizen informants to help the police and armed forces track down suspected members in all three armed groups. In the fall of 2002, the administration released the much-awaited Colombian national security strategy, entitled Democratic Security and Defense Policy. The Plan would fit within the broader social, economic, and political goals of Plan Colombia. Though much attention has been focused on the security and military aspects of Colombia's situation, the administration also is spending significant time on issues such as expanding international trade, supporting alternate means of development, and reforming Colombia's judicial system. Recent developments , two years after its implementation began, the security situation of inside Colombia has shown some measure of an improvement and the economy, while still fragile, has also shown some positive signs according to observers, but relatively little has yet to have been accomplished in structurally solving most of the country's other grave problems, possibly in part due to legislative and political conflicts between the administration and the Colombian Congress (including those over the controversial project to eventually re-elect Uribe), and a relative lack of freely allocated funds and credits. Some critical observers consider that Uribe's policies, while admittedly reducing crime and guerrilla activity, might be too slanted in favor of a military solution to Colombia's internal war, neglecting grave social and human rights concerns to a certain extent. They ask for Uribe's government to change this position and make serious efforts towards improving the human rights situation inside the country, protecting civilians and reducing any abuses committed by the armed forces. Uribe's supporters in turn believe that increased military action is a necessary prelude to any serious negotiation attempt with the guerrillas and that the increased security situation will help to, in the long term, focus more actively on reducing most wide-scale abuses and human rights violations on the part of both the armed groups and any rogue security forces that might have links to the paramilitaries. In short, that the security situation must be stabilized in favor of the government before any other social concerns can take precedence. With such conflicting perspectives, it can be argued that a certain polarization between both supporters and opponents of President Uribe seems to be forming both inside and outside the country. Uribe was reelected in 2006 after a change in the constitution allowed presidents to be reelected. See also Viceroyalty of New Granada Gran Colombia Colombia Bibliography McFarlane, Anthony. Colombia Before Independence: Economy, Society, and Politics under Bourbon Rule. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 9780521416412 Earle, Rebecca. Spain and the Independence of Colombia, 1810-1825. Exter: University of Exter Press, 2000. ISBN 0859896129 Notes External links U.S. State Department Background Note: Colombia iGoNative The Brief History of Colombia | History_of_Colombia |@lemmatized history:6 colombia:42 interaction:1 rival:3 civilian:7 elite:12 political:35 overlap:1 social:16 economic:18 show:3 marked:1 ability:1 retain:1 rein:1 power:7 effectively:1 exclude:1 group:15 institution:4 mass:4 military:22 significant:6 participation:4 control:7 process:9 member:13 low:3 class:6 find:2 difficult:2 although:6 impossible:1 challenge:4 join:2 establish:10 sphere:2 subordination:1 date:1 rigid:1 colonial:2 hierarchy:1 place:1 spanish:5 bear:1 native:1 born:1 result:9 mystique:2 austin:1 varnum:1 hot:1 independence:11 successfully:2 restrict:1 nonpolitical:1 function:1 three:4 exception:1 thus:3 rare:1 latin:1 america:3 country:11 dominate:4 rule:5 force:14 deny:1 divide:2 contend:2 arena:1 library:1 congress:5 data:1 december:3 analyst:1 along:3 line:1 land:3 nonlanded:1 agricultural:2 export:9 sector:7 backbone:1 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2,625 | Kvikkalkul | Kvikkalkul is an esoteric programming language ostensibly developed by the Swedish Navy in the 1950s and used on the SABINA computer. It came to fame in 1994 when someone made an anonymous post to USENET regarding it. Kvikkalkul's origins are probably not as claimed, but instead it was likely invented as a joke, like INTERCAL. Unlike INTERCAL, it is not overtly humorous, and contains nothing terribly silly. Kvikkalkul was allegedly developed on Baudot code systems, and used only the "figures" mode, so the only characters in Kvikkalkul source are whitespace, digits, and a handful of punctuation characters. However, not even all of the punctuation characters available in "figures" mode is used, most notably the addition sign remains unused. The complete absence of letters is touted as a virtue because it makes it impossible to have misleading comments and object names. Without these crutches, reading a Kvikkalkul program requires one to work out what the program actually does. The main data type is a fixed-point ones' complement fractional number, originally of 15 bits but more in later implementations. The minimum representable number is a little above −1 (−1 + 2-14 with 15 bits), and the maximum representable number is a little below +1 (+1 − 2-14 with 15 bits). The all-bits-one value represents overflow. This rather strange data type is perfectly workable, in some ways simply the opposite of the more conventional choice of representing only integers. It has some interesting theoretical properties which are discussed in the USENET posts. The language contains ordinary arithmetic and comparison operators, and unconditional, conditional, and assigned jumps. There is no concept of subroutines, but there are routines at well-known labels and a convention of using a particular register to hold a return address (returning by an assigned jump). It has a built-in concept of I/O streams, and the USENET posts describe the mainframe environment with which they interface. All of this is reasonably normal for a mainframe language of the era, but looks a little surreal when expressed without letters. A standard function library was described by the USENET posts, including I/O routines and floating point arithmetic. Characters (five-bit Baudot characters, of course) could be stored three to a 15-bit word, but this representation is impossible to handle except by library routines. Floating point data is similarly packed into a word and handled by library. Interestingly, integer arithmetic is also handled as an alien data type by library routines. Among esoteric programming languages Kvikkalkul is unusual in being neither hopelessly unusable nor very minimal. As a programming language it has two really unusual features (the fixed-point data type and the non-alphabetic syntax). The effects of these two features are explored well in a language fleshed out with otherwise-normal (for its purported era) supporting features. External links A copy of the original USENET post additional USENET posts | Kvikkalkul |@lemmatized kvikkalkul:6 esoteric:2 programming:3 language:6 ostensibly:1 develop:2 swedish:1 navy:1 use:4 sabina:1 computer:1 come:1 fame:1 someone:1 make:2 anonymous:1 post:6 usenet:6 regard:1 origin:1 probably:1 claim:1 instead:1 likely:1 invent:1 joke:1 like:1 intercal:2 unlike:1 overtly:1 humorous:1 contain:2 nothing:1 terribly:1 silly:1 allegedly:1 baudot:2 code:1 system:1 figure:2 mode:2 character:5 source:1 whitespace:1 digit:1 handful:1 punctuation:2 however:1 even:1 available:1 notably:1 addition:1 sign:1 remain:1 unused:1 complete:1 absence:1 letter:2 tout:1 virtue:1 impossible:2 misleading:1 comment:1 object:1 name:1 without:2 crutch:1 read:1 program:2 require:1 one:3 work:1 actually:1 main:1 data:5 type:4 fixed:1 point:4 complement:1 fractional:1 number:3 originally:1 bit:6 late:1 implementation:1 minimum:1 representable:2 little:3 maximum:1 value:1 represent:2 overflow:1 rather:1 strange:1 perfectly:1 workable:1 way:1 simply:1 opposite:1 conventional:1 choice:1 integer:2 interesting:1 theoretical:1 property:1 discuss:1 ordinary:1 arithmetic:3 comparison:1 operator:1 unconditional:1 conditional:1 assign:1 jump:2 concept:2 subroutine:1 routine:4 well:2 know:1 label:1 convention:1 particular:1 register:1 hold:1 return:2 address:1 assigned:1 build:1 stream:1 describe:2 mainframe:2 environment:1 interface:1 reasonably:1 normal:2 era:2 look:1 surreal:1 express:1 standard:1 function:1 library:4 include:1 float:2 five:1 course:1 could:1 store:1 three:1 word:2 representation:1 handle:3 except:1 similarly:1 pack:1 interestingly:1 also:1 alien:1 among:1 unusual:2 neither:1 hopelessly:1 unusable:1 minimal:1 two:2 really:1 feature:3 fix:1 non:1 alphabetic:1 syntax:1 effect:1 explore:1 flesh:1 otherwise:1 purported:1 support:1 external:1 link:1 copy:1 original:1 additional:1 |@bigram baudot_code:1 external_link:1 |
2,626 | Mycoplasma_genitalium | Mycoplasma genitalium is a small parasitic bacterium which lives on the ciliated epithelial cells of the primate genital and respiratory tracts. M. genitalium is the smallest known free-living bacterium, and the second-smallest bacterium after the recently-discovered endosymbiont Carsonella ruddii. Until the discovery of Nanoarchaeum in 2002, M. genitalium was also considered to be the organism with the smallest genome. Aside from viruses—however, it is not agreed upon whether or not viruses constitute life. Overview Mycoplasma genitalium was originally isolated in 1980 from urethral specimens of two male patients with non-gonococcal urethritis. Infection by M. genitalium seems fairly common, can be transmitted between partners during unprotected sexual intercourse, and can be treated with antibiotics; however, the organism's role in genital diseases is still unclear. The genome of M. genitalium consists of 521 genes (482 protein encoding genes) in one circular chromosome of 582,970 base pairs. An initial study of the M. genitalium genome with random sequencing was performed by Peterson in 1993. It was then sequenced by Fraser and others. It was found to contain only 470 predicted coding regions, including genes required for DNA replication, transcription and translation, DNA repair, cellular transport, and energy metabolism. It was the second complete bacterial genome ever sequenced, after Haemophilus influenzae. The small genome of M. genitalium made it the organism of choice in The Minimal Genome Project, a study to find the smallest set of genetic material necessary to sustain life. Synthetic life In October 2007, a team of scientists headed by DNA researcher Craig Venter and Nobel laureate Hamilton Smith announced that they plan to create the first artificial life form in history by creating a synthetic chromosome which they plan to inject into the M. genitalium bacterium, potentially resulting in an artificial species dubbed Mycoplasma laboratorium or Mycoplasma JCVI-1.0 after the research centre in which it was created, the J. Craig Venter Institute in the United States. On 24 January 2008, the same team reported to have synthesized the complete 582,970 base pair genome of M. genitalium (a key gene that enables the wild organism to cause disease was knocked out). The final stage of synthesis was completed inside a yeast cell. See also The Minimal Genome Project Candidatus Carsonella ruddii References External links Mycoplasma genitalium Reference Work at the UK Health Protection Agency Mycoplasma genitalium G-37 genome page | Mycoplasma_genitalium |@lemmatized mycoplasma:6 genitalium:12 small:6 parasitic:1 bacterium:4 live:1 ciliated:1 epithelial:1 cell:2 primate:1 genital:2 respiratory:1 tract:1 known:1 free:1 living:1 second:2 recently:1 discover:1 endosymbiont:1 carsonella:2 ruddii:2 discovery:1 nanoarchaeum:1 also:2 consider:1 organism:4 genome:9 aside:1 virus:2 however:2 agree:1 upon:1 whether:1 constitute:1 life:4 overview:1 originally:1 isolate:1 urethral:1 specimen:1 two:1 male:1 patient:1 non:1 gonococcal:1 urethritis:1 infection:1 seem:1 fairly:1 common:1 transmit:1 partner:1 unprotected:1 sexual:1 intercourse:1 treat:1 antibiotic:1 role:1 disease:2 still:1 unclear:1 consist:1 gene:4 protein:1 encode:1 one:1 circular:1 chromosome:2 base:2 pair:2 initial:1 study:2 random:1 sequencing:1 perform:1 peterson:1 sequence:2 fraser:1 others:1 find:2 contain:1 predict:1 coding:1 region:1 include:1 require:1 dna:3 replication:1 transcription:1 translation:1 repair:1 cellular:1 transport:1 energy:1 metabolism:1 complete:3 bacterial:1 ever:1 haemophilus:1 influenzae:1 make:1 choice:1 minimal:2 project:2 set:1 genetic:1 material:1 necessary:1 sustain:1 synthetic:2 october:1 team:2 scientist:1 head:1 researcher:1 craig:2 venter:2 nobel:1 laureate:1 hamilton:1 smith:1 announce:1 plan:2 create:3 first:1 artificial:2 form:1 history:1 inject:1 potentially:1 result:1 specie:1 dub:1 laboratorium:1 jcvi:1 research:1 centre:1 j:1 institute:1 united:1 state:1 january:1 report:1 synthesize:1 key:1 enable:1 wild:1 cause:1 knock:1 final:1 stage:1 synthesis:1 inside:1 yeast:1 see:1 candidatus:1 reference:2 external:1 link:1 work:1 uk:1 health:1 protection:1 agency:1 g:1 page:1 |@bigram epithelial_cell:1 respiratory_tract:1 sexual_intercourse:1 dna_replication:1 replication_transcription:1 bacterial_genome:1 haemophilus_influenzae:1 craig_venter:2 nobel_laureate:1 external_link:1 |
2,627 | Electrode | An electrode is an electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e.g. a semiconductor, an electrolyte or a vacuum). The word was coined by the scientist Michael Faraday from the Greek words elektron (meaning amber, from which the word electricity is derived) and hodos, a way. Michael Faraday, "On Electrical Decomposition", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1834 (in which Faraday coins the words electrode, anode, cathode, anion, cation, electrolyte, electrolyze). Anode and cathode in electrochemical cells An electrode in an electrochemical cell is referred to as either an anode or a cathode, words that were also coined by Faraday. The anode is now defined as the electrode at which electrons leave the cell and oxidation occurs, and the cathode as the electrode at which electrons enter the cell and reduction occurs. Each electrode may become either the anode or the cathode depending on the voltage applied to the cell. A bipolar electrode is an electrode that functions as the anode of one cell and the cathode of another cell. Primary cell A primary cell is a special type of electrochemical cell in which the reaction cannot be reversed, and the identities of the anode and cathode are therefore fixed. The anode is always the negative electrode. The cell can be discharged but not recharged. Secondary cell A secondary cell, for example a rechargeable battery, is one in which the reaction is reversible. When the cell is being charged, the anode becomes the positive (+) electrode and the cathode the negative (−). This is also the case in an electrolytic cell. When the cell is being discharged, it behaves like a primary or voltaic cell, with the anode as the negative electrode and the cathode as the positive. The chemical change, which converts chemical energy into electrical energy, is reversible. This cell can be recharged by simply passing electrons in the opposite direction, so it is also called a storage or accumulator cell. Other anodes and cathodes In a vacuum tube or a semiconductor having polarity (diodes, electrolytic capacitors) the anode is the positive (+) electrode and the cathode the negative (−). The electrons enter the device through the cathode and exit the device through the anode. Many devices have other electrodes to control operation, e.g., base, gate, control grid. In a three-electrode cell, a counter electrode, also called an auxiliary electrode, is used only to make a connection to the electrolyte so that a current can be applied to the working electrode. The counter electrode is usually made of an inert material, such as a noble metal or graphite, to keep it from dissolving. Welding electrodes In arc welding an electrode is used to conduct current through a workpiece to fuse two pieces together. Depending upon the process, the electrode is either consumable, in the case of gas metal arc welding or shielded metal arc welding, or non-consumable, such as in gas tungsten arc welding. For a direct current system the weld rod or stick may be a cathode for a filling type weld or an anode for other welding processes. For an alternating current arc welder the welding electrode would not be considered an anode or cathode. Alternating current electrodes For electrical systems which use alternating current the electrodes are the connections from the circuitry to the object to be acted upon by the electrical current but are not designated anode or cathode since the direction of flow of the electrons changes periodically, usually many times per second. Uses of electrodes Electric currents are run through nonmetal objects to alter them in numerous ways and to measure conductivity for numerous purposes. Examples include: Electrodes for medical purposes, such as EEG, ECG, ECT, defibrillator Electrodes for electrophysiology techniques in biomedical research Electrodes for execution by the electric chair Electrodes for electroplating Electrodes for arc welding Electrodes for cathodic protection Electrodes for grounding Electrodes for chemical analysis using electrochemical methods Inert electrodes for electrolysis (made of platinum) Membrane electrode assembly See also Working electrode Reference electrode Battery Redox Reaction Cathodic protection Galvanic cell Anion vs. Cation Electron versus hole Electrolyte Electron microscope Noryl Tafel equation Hot cathode Cold cathode References | Electrode |@lemmatized electrode:37 electrical:5 conductor:1 use:5 make:4 contact:1 nonmetallic:1 part:1 circuit:1 e:2 g:2 semiconductor:2 electrolyte:4 vacuum:2 word:5 coin:3 scientist:1 michael:2 faraday:4 greek:1 elektron:1 mean:1 amber:1 electricity:1 derive:1 hodos:1 way:2 decomposition:1 philosophical:1 transaction:1 royal:1 society:1 anode:16 cathode:17 anion:2 cation:2 electrolyze:1 electrochemical:4 cell:21 refer:1 either:3 also:5 define:1 electron:7 leave:1 oxidation:1 occurs:2 enter:2 reduction:1 may:2 become:2 depend:2 voltage:1 apply:2 bipolar:1 function:1 one:2 another:1 primary:3 special:1 type:2 reaction:3 cannot:1 reverse:1 identity:1 therefore:1 fix:1 always:1 negative:4 discharge:2 recharge:2 secondary:2 example:2 rechargeable:1 battery:2 reversible:2 charge:1 positive:3 case:2 electrolytic:2 behave:1 like:1 voltaic:1 chemical:3 change:2 convert:1 energy:2 simply:1 pass:1 opposite:1 direction:2 call:2 storage:1 accumulator:1 tube:1 polarity:1 diode:1 capacitor:1 device:3 exit:1 many:2 control:2 operation:1 base:1 gate:1 grid:1 three:1 counter:2 auxiliary:1 connection:2 current:8 work:2 usually:2 inert:2 material:1 noble:1 metal:3 graphite:1 keep:1 dissolve:1 weld:4 arc:6 conduct:1 workpiece:1 fuse:1 two:1 piece:1 together:1 upon:2 process:2 consumable:2 gas:2 welding:6 shield:1 non:1 tungsten:1 direct:1 system:2 rod:1 stick:1 filling:1 alternating:1 welder:1 would:1 consider:1 alternate:2 circuitry:1 object:2 act:1 designate:1 since:1 flow:1 periodically:1 time:1 per:1 second:1 us:1 electric:2 run:1 nonmetal:1 alter:1 numerous:2 measure:1 conductivity:1 purpose:2 include:1 medical:1 eeg:1 ecg:1 ect:1 defibrillator:1 electrophysiology:1 technique:1 biomedical:1 research:1 execution:1 chair:1 electroplate:1 cathodic:2 protection:2 ground:1 analysis:1 method:1 electrolysis:1 platinum:1 membrane:1 assembly:1 see:1 reference:2 redox:1 galvanic:1 v:1 versus:1 hole:1 microscope:1 noryl:1 tafel:1 equation:1 hot:1 cold:1 |@bigram michael_faraday:2 anode_cathode:8 electrochemical_cell:3 cathode_electrode:1 rechargeable_battery:1 electrode_cathode:3 electrolytic_cell:1 vacuum_tube:1 arc_welding:4 redox_reaction:1 galvanic_cell:1 electron_microscope:1 |
2,628 | Lucretia | Lucretia by Rembrandt Death of Lucretia by Sandro Botticelli Lucretia is a legendary figure in the history of the Roman Republic. Her husband was Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, her father was Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus and her brother was Publius Lucretius Tricipitinus, one of the two second Consuls of Rome. According to Roman mythology her rape and consequent suicide were the cause for the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the Roman republic. According to the version of Livy, the last king of Rome had a violent son, Sextus Tarquinius, who in 509 BC raped a Roman noblewoman named Lucretia. He told her that if she did not do what he said, then he would kill her and place her dead body naked next to the body of a slave. The perception of having committed adultery with a lowly slave would have brought serious dishonor on Lucretia's family, so she complied. Lucretia raped! Lucretia compelled her family to take action by gathering her kinsmen, telling them what happened, and then killing herself. When her family found her, she was dead with a knife stabbing her heart. Lucretia's rape Her brother Lucius Junius Brutus incited the people of Rome against the royal family by displaying her body. They were impelled to avenge her, and Brutus led an uprising that drove the Tarquins out of Rome to take refuge in Etruria. The result was the replacement of the monarchy with the new republic. Among the avengers was also her husband Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus. In the end Lucretia's brother and her husband became the first consuls of Rome. Lucretia 2 genealogy St. Augustine made use of the figure of Lucretia in The City of God to defend the honour of Christian women who had been raped in the sack of Rome and had not committed suicide. In the arts Marcantonio Raimondi's 1534 image of her suicide. The suicide of Lucretia has been an enduring subject for visual artists, including Titian, Rembrandt, Dürer, Raphael, Botticelli, Jörg Breu the Elder, Johannes Moreelse, Gentileschi, Damià Campeny and others. The story of Lucretia was a popular moral tale in the later Middle Ages. The story has been recounted in Geoffrey Chaucer's The Legend of Good Women, John Gower's Confessio Amantis (Book VII), and John Lydgate's Fall of Princes. Lucrece is also featured in William Shakespeare's 1594 long poem The Rape of Lucrece; he also mentioned her in Titus Andronicus and As You Like It. She is also mentioned in the poem Appius and Virginia by John Webster and Thomas Heywood, which includes the following lines: Two ladies fair, but most unfortunate Have in their ruins rais'd declining Rome, Lucretia and Virginia, both renowned For chastity Thomas Heywood's play The Rape of Lucrece dates from 1607. The subject also enjoyed a revival in the mid twentieth century; Le Viol de Lucrèce was a 1931 play by André Obey and The Rape of Lucretia, a 1946 opera by Benjamin Britten. Ernst Krenek set Emmet Lavery's libretto Tarquin (1940), a version in a contemporary setting. Titian's image of the rape. Lucretia appears to Dante in the section of Limbo reserved to the nobles of Rome and other "virtuous pagans" in Canto IV of the Inferno. Christine de Pizan used Lucretia just as St. Augustine of Hippo did in her City of Ladies, defending a woman's sanctity. In Samuel Richardson's 1740 novel Pamela, Mr. B. cites the story of Lucretia as a reason why Pamela ought not fear for her reputation, should he rape her. Pamela quickly sets him straight with a better reading of the story. Colonial Mexican poet Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz also mentions "Lucrecia" in her poem "Redondillas", a commentary on prostitution and who is to blame. Notes References The Rape of Lucretia, by Livy, Ab urbe condita libri I. 57 - 60. External links Various works depicting the rape and suicide of Lucretia Rembrandt's Lucretia | Lucretia |@lemmatized lucretia:21 rembrandt:3 death:1 sandro:1 botticelli:2 legendary:1 figure:2 history:1 roman:4 republic:3 husband:3 lucius:3 tarquinius:3 collatinus:2 father:1 spurius:1 lucretius:2 tricipitinus:2 brother:3 publius:1 one:1 two:2 second:1 consul:2 rome:8 accord:2 mythology:1 rape:9 consequent:1 suicide:5 cause:1 overthrow:1 monarchy:2 establishment:1 version:2 livy:2 last:1 king:1 violent:1 son:1 sextus:1 bc:1 rap:3 noblewoman:1 name:1 tell:2 say:1 would:2 kill:2 place:1 dead:2 body:3 naked:1 next:1 slave:2 perception:1 commit:2 adultery:1 lowly:1 bring:1 serious:1 dishonor:1 family:4 comply:1 compel:1 take:2 action:1 gather:1 kinsman:1 happen:1 find:1 knife:1 stab:1 heart:1 junius:1 brutus:2 incite:1 people:1 royal:1 display:1 impel:1 avenge:1 lead:1 uprising:1 drive:1 tarquin:2 refuge:1 etruria:1 result:1 replacement:1 new:1 among:1 avenger:1 also:6 end:1 become:1 first:1 genealogy:1 st:2 augustine:2 make:1 use:2 city:2 god:1 defend:2 honour:1 christian:1 woman:3 sack:1 art:1 marcantonio:1 raimondi:1 image:2 endure:1 subject:2 visual:1 artist:1 include:2 titian:2 dürer:1 raphael:1 jörg:1 breu:1 elder:1 johannes:1 moreelse:1 gentileschi:1 damià:1 campeny:1 others:1 story:4 popular:1 moral:1 tale:1 late:1 middle:1 age:1 recount:1 geoffrey:1 chaucer:1 legend:1 good:2 john:3 gower:1 confessio:1 amantis:1 book:1 vii:1 lydgate:1 fall:1 prince:1 lucrece:3 feature:1 william:1 shakespeare:1 long:1 poem:3 mention:3 titus:1 andronicus:1 like:1 appius:1 virginia:2 webster:1 thomas:2 heywood:2 following:1 line:1 lady:2 fair:1 unfortunate:1 ruin:1 rais:1 decline:1 renowned:1 chastity:1 play:2 date:1 enjoy:1 revival:1 mid:1 twentieth:1 century:1 le:1 viol:1 de:3 lucrèce:1 andré:1 obey:1 opera:1 benjamin:1 britten:1 ernst:1 krenek:1 set:2 emmet:1 lavery:1 libretto:1 contemporary:1 setting:1 appear:1 dante:1 section:1 limbo:1 reserve:1 noble:1 virtuous:1 pagan:1 canto:1 iv:1 inferno:1 christine:1 pizan:1 hippo:1 sanctity:1 samuel:1 richardson:1 novel:1 pamela:3 mr:1 b:1 cite:1 reason:1 ought:1 fear:1 reputation:1 quickly:1 straight:1 reading:1 colonial:1 mexican:1 poet:1 sor:1 juana:1 inés:1 la:1 cruz:1 lucrecia:1 redondillas:1 commentary:1 prostitution:1 blame:1 note:1 reference:1 ab:1 urbe:1 condita:1 libri:1 external:1 link:1 various:1 work:1 depict:1 |@bigram sandro_botticelli:1 lucius_tarquinius:2 commit_adultery:1 lucius_junius:1 junius_brutus:1 commit_suicide:1 geoffrey_chaucer:1 john_lydgate:1 rape_lucrece:2 twentieth_century:1 rape_lucretia:3 benjamin_britten:1 de_pizan:1 augustine_hippo:1 ab_urbe:1 urbe_condita:1 external_link:1 |
2,629 | Moldova | Moldova , officially the Republic of Moldova (Republica Moldova) is a country in Eastern Europe, located between Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east and south. In the Middle Ages, most of the present territory of Moldova was part of the Principality of Moldavia. In 1812, it was annexed by the Russian Empire, and became known as Bessarabia. Between 1856 and 1878, the southern part was returned to Moldavia. In 1859 it united with Wallachia to form modern Romania. Upon the dissolution of the Russian Empire in 1917, an autonomous, then-independent Moldavian Democratic Republic was formed, which joined Romania in 1918. In 1940, Bessarabia was occupied by the Soviet Union and was split between the Ukrainian SSR and the newly created Moldavian SSR. After changing hands in 1941 and 1944 during World War II, the territory of the modern country was subsumed by the Soviet Union until its declaration of independence on August 27, 1991. Moldova was admitted to the UN in March 1992. In September 1990, a breakaway government was formed in Transnistria, a strip of Moldavian SSR on the east bank of the river Dniester. After a brief war in 1992, it became de facto independent, although no UN member has recognized its independence. The country is a parliamentary democracy with a president as head of state and a prime minister as head of government. Moldova is a member state of the United Nations, Council of Europe, WTO, OSCE, GUAM, CIS, BSEC and other international organizations. Moldova currently aspires to join the European Union, "Moldova will prove that it can and has chances to become EU member," Moldpress News Agency, June 19, 2007 and has implemented the first three-year Action Plan within the framework of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP). "Moldova-EU Action Plan Approved by European Commission", moldova.org, December 14, 2004, retrieved July 2, 2007 History A church fresco depicting Stephen the Great, Prince of Moldavia between 1457 and 1504, and the most prominent Moldavian historical personality Antiquity and early middle ages In Antiquity Moldova's territory was inhabited by Dacian tribes. Between the 1st and 7th centuries AD, the south was intermittently under the Roman, then Byzantine Empires. Due to its strategic location on a route between Asia and Europe, Moldova was repeatedly invaded, including by the Bastarns, Sarmatians, Goths, Huns, Avars, Magyars, Kievan Rus', Pechenegs, Cumans, and the Mongols. Principality of Moldavia The Principality of Moldavia in 1483 Tatar invasions continued after the establishment of the Principality of Moldavia in 1359, Soldier Khan, Mike Bennighof, Ph.D. bounded by the Carpathian mountains in the west, Dniester river in the east, and Danube and Black Sea in the south. Its territory comprised the present-day territory of the Republic of Moldova, the eastern eight of the 41 counties of Romania, and the Chernivtsi oblast and Budjak region of Ukraine. Like the present-day republic, it is known to the locals as Moldova. In 1538, the principality became a tributary to the Ottoman Empire, but it retained internal and partial external autonomy. 19th century In 1812, according to the Treaty of Bucharest between the Ottoman Empire (of which Moldavia was a vassal) and the Russian Empire, the former ceded the eastern half of the territory of the Principality of Moldavia, along Khotyn and old Bessarabia (modern Budjak), despite numerous protests by Moldavians. Following the Peace concluded in Bucharest, in 1812, a part of this territory was assigned to Czarist Russia Selection of encyclopedias in Russian language on the Treaty of Bucharest again "transferred/passed over to the Russian Empire both use the phrasing According to the Article 4, Porta ceded to Russia the eastern part of the Moldavian Principality - the territory between Prut and Danube Article 4 of the Treaty what Britannica Encyclopedia concessions of Mahmud II , History of Moldova, History of Ottoman Empire, History of Russo-Turkish wars what Columbia Encyclopedia sixth edition 2008 Batiushkov, P. Bessarabiia: Istoricheskoe opisanie (Saint Petersburg 1892) Berg, L. Bessarabiia (Petrograd 1918) Dembo, V. Nikoly ne zabuty: Kryvavyi litopys Besarabiï. Z ofitsiinykh dokumentiv (Kharkiv 1923) Berg, L. Naselenie Bessarabii, etnograficheskii sostav i chislennost' (Petrograd 1925) Babel, A. La Bessarabie (Paris 1926) Uhlig, C. Die bessarabische Frage: Eine geopolitische Betrachtung (Breslau 1926) Iorga, N. La vérité sur le passé et le présent de la Bessarabie (Bucharest 1931) Nistor, I. La Bessarabie et la Bucovine (Bucharest 1937) Mokhov, N. Ocherki istorii moldavsko-russko-ukrainskikh sviazei (s drevneishikh vremen do nachala XIX veka) (Kishinev 1961) Istoriia Moldavskoi SSR, 1–2 (Kishinev 1965–8) Smishko, P. Borot'ba trudiashchykh ukraintsiv prydunais'kykh zemel' za vozz'iednannia z URSR (1917–1940) (Lviv 1969) Zelenchuk, V. Nasalenie Moldavii (Demograficheskie protsesy i etnicheshii sostav) (Kishinev 1973) Jewsbury, G.F. The Russian Annexation of Bessarabia 1774–1828: A Study of Imperial Expansion (Boulder, Col, 1976) Khotinskoe vosstanie (Sbornik dokumentov i materialov) (Kishinev 1976) Moldavskaia SSR v Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine Sovetskogo Soiuza, 2 (Kishinev 1976) Meurs, W. van. The Bessarabian Question in Communist Historiography: Nationalist and Communist Politics and History-Writing (New York 1994) At first, the Russians used the name "'Oblast' of Moldavia and Bessarabia", allowing a large degree of autonomy, but later (in 1828) suspended the self-administration and called it Guberniya of Bessarabia, or simply Bessarabia, starting a process of Russification. The western part of Moldavia (which is not a part of present-day Moldova) remained an autonomous principality, and in 1859, united with Wallachia to form the Kingdom of Romania. In 1856, the Treaty of Paris saw three counties of Bessarabia, Cahul, Bolgrad and Ismail, returned to Moldavia, but in 1878, the Treaty of Berlin saw the Kingdom of Romania returning them to the Russian Empire. Upon annexation, after the expulsion of the large Nogai Tatar population of Budjak (Little Tartary), Mennonite-Nogai Economic Relations, 1825-1860 the Moldovan/Romanian population of Bessarabia was predominant. Bessarabia by Charles Upson Clark, 1927, chapter 8: "The first Russian census after the annexation (1816) revealed a province almost solidly Romanian-of a population of about half a million, 921/2% Moldavian and Ukrainian, 11/2% Lipovans (Russian heterodox), 41/2% Jews, 1.6% other races." The colonization of the region in the 19th century, generated by the need to better exploit the resources of the land, Marcel Mitrasca, Moldova: A Romanian Province Under Russian Rule, Algora, 2002, ISBN 1892941864, pg. 25 , and by the absence of serfdom in Bessarabia, Ion Nistor, Istoria Basarabiei, Cernăuţi, 1921 lead to an increase in the Russian, Ukrainian, Lipovan, and Cossack populations in the region; this together with a large influx of Bulgarian immigrants, saw an increase of the Slavic population to more than a fifth of the total population by 1920. Bessarabia by Charles Upson Clark, 1927, chapter 8: "Today, the Bulgarians form one of the most solid elements in Southern Bessarabia, numbering (with the Gagauzes, i.e. Turkish-speaking Christians also from the Dobrudja) nearly 150,000. Colonization brought in numerous Great Russian peasants, and the Russian bureaucracy imported Russian office-holders and professional men; according to the Romanian estimate of 1920, the Great Russians were about 75,000 in number (2.9%), and the Lipovans and Cossacks 59,000 (2.2%); the Little Russians (Ukrainians) came to 254,000 (9.6%). That, plus about 10,000 Poles, brings the total number of Slavs to 545,000 in a population of 2,631,000, or about one-fifth" With the settling of other nationals such as Gagauz, Jews (Bessarabian Jews), and Germans (Bessarabian Germans), the proportion of the Moldovan population decreased from around 86% Ion Nistor, Istoria Bassarabiei, Cernăuţi, 1921 to 52% by some sources Flavius Solomon, Die Republik Moldau und ihre Minderheiten (Länderlexikon), in: Ethnodoc-Datenbank für Minderheitenforschung in Südostosteuropa, p. 52 or to 70% by others Bessarabia by Charles Upson Clark, 1927, chapter 7 during the course of the century. According to the census of 1897, the capital Kishinev had a Jewish population of 50,000, or 46%, out of a total of approximately 110,000. Jewish Moldova The Tsarist policy in Bessarabia was in part aimed at denationalization of the Romanian element by forbidding after the 1860s education and religious mass in Romanian. However, the effect was an extremely low literacy rate (in 1897 approx. 18% for males, approx. 4% for females) rather than a denationalization. Bessarabia by Charles Upson Clark, 1927, chapter 10: "Naturally, this system resulted not in acquisition of Russian by the Moldavians, but in their almost complete illiteracy in any language."] Union with Romania World War I brought in a rise in political and cultural (national) awareness of the locals, as 300,000 Bessarabians were drafted into the Russian Army formed in 1917; within bigger units several "Moldavian Soldiers' Committees" were formed. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, a Bessarabian parliament, Sfatul Ţării, which was elected in October-November 1917 and opened on , proclaimed the Moldavian Democratic Republic () within a federal Russian state, and formed its government (). Bessarabia proclaimed independence from Russia (), and, on , in presence of the Romanian army that entered the region to counter a Bolshevik coup attempt in early January, Sfatul Ţării decided with 86 votes for, 3 against and 36 abstaining, to unite with the Kingdom of Romania, conditional upon the fulfilment of the agrarian reform, local autonomy, and respect for universal human rights. The conditions were dropped after Bukovina and Transylvania also joined the Kingdom of Romania. prm.md:"Sfatul Tarii ... proclaimed the Moldavian Democratic Republic" Pelivan (Chronology) Cazacu (Moldova, pp. 240-245). Cristina Petrescu, "Contrasting/Conflicting Identities:Bessarabians, Romanians, Moldovans" in Nation-Building and Contested Identities, Polirom, 2001, pg. 156 Territories of the medieval Principality of Moldavia are now split between Romania (western Moldavia with southern Bukovina) in blue, Moldova (core of Bessarabia) in green, and Ukraine (southern Bessarabia and Chernivtsi oblast) in red. After 1918 Bessarabia was under Romanian jurisdiction for the next 22 years. This fact was recognized in the Treaty of Paris (1920) which, however, some today argue has never come into force since it was not ratified by Japan. The newly-communist Russia did not recognize the Romanian rule over Bessarabia. Wayne S Vucinich, Bessarabia In: Collier's Encyclopedia (Crowell Collier and MacMillan Inc., 1967) vol. 4, p. 103 Furthermore, Russia and later, the Soviet Union, considered the region to be Soviet territory under foreign occupation and conducted numerous diplomatic attempts to reclaim it. No diplomatic relations existed between the two states until 1934. Nonetheless, both countries subscribed to the principle of non-violent resolution of territorial disputes in the Kellogg-Briand Treaty of 1928 and the Treaty of London of July 1933. Meanwhile, the neighboring region of Transnistria, part of the Ukrainian SSR at the time, was formed into the Moldavian ASSR after the failure of the Tatarbunary Uprising in 1924. The agrarian (land) reform, implemented by Sfatul Ţării in 1918-1919, resulted in a rise of a middle class, as 87% of the region's population lived in rural areas. Together with peace and favorable economic circumstances, this reform resulted in a small economic boom. However, urban development and industry were insignificant, and the region remained primarily an agrarian rural region throughout the interwar period. Cristina Petrescu, "Contrasting/Conflicting Identities:Bessarabians, Romanians, Moldovans" in Nation-Building and Contested Identities, Polirom, 2001, pg. 159 Certain improvements were achieved in the area of education, the literacy rate rising from 15.6% in 1897 Charles King, The Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and the politics of culture, Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University, 2000. ISBN 0-8179-9792-X. p. 23 to 37% by 1930; however, Bessarabia continued to lag behind the rest of the country, the national literacy rate being 60%. During the inter-war period, Romanian authorities also conducted a program of Romanianization that sought to assimilate ethnic minorities throughout the country. The enforcement of this policy was especially pervasive in Bessarabia due to its highly diverse population, and resulted in the closure of minority educational and cultural institutions. Charles King, The Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and the politics of culture, Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University, 2000. ISBN 0-8179-9792-X. p. 44 Soviet era In August 1939, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and its secret Additional Protocol were signed, by which Nazi Germany recognized Bessarabia as being within the Soviet sphere of influence, which led the latter to actively revive its claim to the region. On June 26, 1940, Romania received an ultimatum from the Soviet Union, demanding the evacuation of the Romanian military and administration from Bessarabia and, unexpectedly, from the northern part of Bukovina, with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army retreated from these territories, and on June 28, 1940 they were occupied by the Soviet Union. During the retreat, the Romanian Army was attacked by the Soviet Army, which entered Bessarabia before the Romanian administration finished retreating. Some 42,876 Romanian soldiers and officers were unaccounted for after the retreat. The northern and southern parts, which had sizable minorities (Ukrainians, Bessarabian Bulgarians, Bessarabian Germans, or Lipovans), were transferred to the Ukrainian SSR as the Chernivtsi and Izmail Oblasts. At the same time, the Moldavian ASSR was disbanded, and up to half its territory, where Moldovans were a majority, was joined with the remaining territory of Bessarabia to form the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (MSSR), contiguous with present-day Moldova. By participating in the 1941 Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania seized the lost territories of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, as well as those of the former MASSR, and established its administration there. In occupied Transnistria, Romanian forces, working with the Germans, deported or exterminated ca. 300,000 Jews, including 147,000 from Bessarabia and Bukovina (of the latter, over 90,000 perished). Tismăneanu Report, pages 585 The Soviet Army reconquered and re-annexed the area in February-August 1944. Under early Soviet rule, deportations of locals to the northern Urals, to Siberia, and Kazakhstan occurred regularly throughout the Stalinist period, with the largest ones on 12–13 June 1941, and 5-6 July 1949, accounting for 19,000 and 35,000 deportees respectively (from MSSR alone). Tismăneanu Report, pages 584 and 587 According to Russian historians, in 1940-1941, ca. 90,000 inhabitants of the annexed territories were subject to political persecutions, such as arrests, deportations, or executions. Comisia Prezidenţială pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România: Raport Final / ed.: Vladimir Tismăneanu, Dorin Dobrincu, Cristian Vasile, Bucureşti: Humanitas, 2007, 879 pp., ISBN 978-973-50-1836-8 (Tismăneanu Report) In 1946, as a result of a severe drought and excessive delivery quota obligations and requisitions imposed by the Soviet government, the southwestern part of the USSR suffered from widespread famine resulting in 216,000 deaths and about 350,000 cases of dystrophy in the Moldavian SSR alone. Similar events occurred in 1930s in the Moldavian ASSR. In 1944-53, there were numerous anti-Communist armed resistance groups active in Moldova; however the NKVD and later MGB managed to arrest, execute or deport most of them and their power base. The postwar period saw a wide scale migration of ethnic Russians and Ukrainians into the new Soviet republic, especially into urbanized areas, partly to compensate the demographic loss caused by the emigration of 1940 and 1944. Pal Kolsto, National Integration and Violent Conflict in Post-Soviet Societies: The Cases of Estonia and Moldova, Rowman & Littlefield, 2002, ISBN 0742518884, pg. 202 The Soviet government conducted a campaign to promote a Moldovan ethnic identity, different from that of the Romanians, based on a theory developed during the existence of the Moldavian ASSR (1924-1940). Official Soviet policy asserted that the language spoken by Moldovans was distinct from the Romanian language (see Moldovenism). To distinguish the two, during the Soviet period, Moldovan was written in the Cyrillic alphabet, in contrast with Romanian, which since 1860 was written in the Latin alphabet. Not all things under the Soviets were however negative. In the 1970s and 1980s, the Moldavian SSR received substantial allocations from the budget of the USSR to develop industrial and scientific facilities as well as housing. In 1971, the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a decision "About the measures for further development of the city of Kishinev" (modern Chişinău), that allotted more than one billion Soviet rubles from the USSR budget for building projects; Architecture of Chişinău on Kishinev.info, Retrieved on 2008-10-12 subsequent decisions also directed substantial funding and brought qualified specialists from other parts of the USSR to develop Moldova's industry. This influx of investments stopped in 1991 with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, when Moldova became independent. Independence In the new political conditions created after 1985 by the glasnost policy introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev, in 1986, to support perestroika (restructuring), a Democratic Movement of Moldova () was formed, which in 1989 became known as the nationalist Popular Front of Moldova (FPM; ). Horia C. Matei, "State lumii. Enciclopedie de istorie." Meronia, Bucureşti, 2006, p. 292-294 "Romanian Nationalism in the Republic of Moldova" by Andrei Panici, American University in Bulgaria, 2002; pages 40 and 41 Along with several other Soviet republics, from 1988 onwards, Moldova started to move towards independence. On August 27, 1989, the FPM organized a mass demonstration in Chişinău, that became known as the Great National Assembly (), which pressured the authorities of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic to adopt a language law on August 31, 1989 that proclaimed the Moldovan language written in the Latin script to be the state language of the MSSR. Its identity with the Romanian language was also established. Legea cu privire la functionarea limbilor vorbite pe teritoriul RSS Moldovenesti Nr.3465-XI din 01.09.89 Vestile nr.9/217, 1989 (Law regarding the usage of languages spoken on the territory of the Republic of Moldova): "Moldavian SSR supports the desire of the Moldovans that live across the borders of the Republic, and considering the existing linguistic Moldo-Romanian identity — of the Romanians that live on the territory of the USSR, of doing their studies and satisfying their cultural needs in their native language." The first independent elections for the local parliament were held in February and March 1990. Mircea Snegur was elected as Speaker of the Parliament, and Mircea Druc as Prime Minister. On June 23, 1990, the Parliament adopted the Declaration of Sovereignty of the Soviet Socialist Republic Moldova, which, among other things, stipulated the supremacy of Moldovan laws over those of the Soviet Union. After the failure of the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, on August 27, 1991, Moldova declared its independence. On December 21 of the same year Moldova, along with most of the former Soviet republics, signed the constitutive act that formed the post-Soviet Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Declaring itself a neutral state, it did not join the military branch of the CIS. Three months later, on March 2, 1992, the country gained formal recognition as an independent state at the United Nations. In 1994, Moldova became a member of NATO's Partnership for Peace program. On June 29, 1995, Moldova became a member of the Council of Europe. Transnistria Transnistrian region of Moldova In the region east of the Dniester river, Transnistria, which includes a large proportion of predominantly Russophone ethnic Russians and Ukrainians (51%, as of 1989, with ethnic Moldovans forming a 40% plurality), and where the headquarters and many units of the Soviet 14th Guards Army were stationed, an independent "Transdnestrian Moldovan Republic" (TMR) was proclaimed on August 16, 1990, with its capital in Tiraspol. The motives behind this move were fear of the rise of nationalism in Moldova and the country's expected reunification with Romania upon secession from the USSR. In the winter of 1991-1992 clashes occurred between Transnistrian forces, supported by elements of the 14th Army, and the Moldovan police. Between March 2 and July 26, 1992, the conflict escalated into a military engagement. The Russian military remains in the breakaway region east of the Dniester to this day, despite Russia having signed international agreements to withdraw, and against the will of Moldovan government. Statement by H.E. Mr. Andrei Stratan at the General Debate of the Sixty Second Session of the UN General Assembly, New-York, 1 October 2007: "I would like to reiterate on this occasion the position of the Republic of Moldova according to which the withdrawal of the Russian troops that remain on the Moldovan territory against its will, in conformity with the obligations assumed by the Russian Federation in 1999 in Istanbul, would create the necessary premises for ratifying and applying the Adapted CFE Treaty." http://www.jamestown.org/edm/article.php?article_id=2368523 Jamestown: "Moldovan President wants out of Russia's orbit" The postwar status quo remains to this day: Chişinău offers extensive autonomy, while Tiraspol demands independence. De jure, Transnistria is internationally recognized as part of Moldova, but de facto, the authorities in Chişinău do not exercise any control over that territory. Post-independence politics (1992-2009) On January 2, 1992, Moldova introduced a market economy, liberalizing prices, which resulted in huge inflation. From 1992 to 2001, the young country suffered its worst economic crisis, leaving most of the population below the poverty line. In 1993, a national currency, the Moldovan leu, was introduced to replace the Soviet ruble. The end of the planned economy also meant that industrial enterprises would have to buy supplies and sell their goods by themselves, and most of the management was unprepared for such a change. Moldova's industry, especially machine building, became all but defunct, and unemployment skyrocketed. The economic fortunes of Moldova began to change in 2001; since then the country has seen a steady annual growth of between 5% and 10%. The early 2000s also saw a considerable growth of emigration of Moldovans looking for work (mostly illegally) in Italy, Portugal, Spain, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, and other countries, in addition to work in Russia. Remittances from Moldovans abroad account for almost 38% of Moldova's GDP, the second-highest percentage in the world. "Moldova: Information Campaign to Increase the Efficiency of Remittance Flows", International Organization for Migration, 10 December 2008 Officially, Moldova's annual GDP is on the order of $1,000 per capita; however, a significant part of the economy goes unregistered due to corruption. The pro-nationalist governments of prime-ministers Mircea Druc (May 25, 1990 - May 28, 1991), and Valeriu Muravschi (May 28, 1991 - July 1, 1992), were followed by a more moderate government of Andrei Sangheli, which saw the decline of the pro-Romanian nationalist sentiment. Moldova: Government After the 1994 elections, Moldovan Parliament adopted measures that distanced Moldova from Romania. The new Moldovan Constitution also provided for autonomy for Transnistria and Gagauzia. On December 23, 1994, the Parliament of Moldova adopted a "Law on the Special Legal Status of Gagauzia", and in 1995 it was constituted. After winning the presidential elections of 1996, on January 15, 1997, Petru Lucinschi, the former First Secretary of the Moldavian Communist Party in 1989-91, became the country's second president. After the legislative elections on March 22, 1998, an Alliance for Democracy and Reform was formed by non-Communist parties. However, activity of the new government of prime-minister Ion Ciubuc (January 24, 1997- February 1, 1999) was marked by chronic political instability, which prevented a coherent reform program. The 1998 financial crisis in Russia, Moldova's main economic partner at the time, produced an economic crisis in the country. The standard of living plunged, with 75% of population living below the poverty line, while the economic disaster caused 600,000 people to eventually leave the country. New governments were formed by Ion Sturza (February 19 - November 9, 1999) and Dumitru Braghiş (December 21, 1999 - April 19, 2001). On July 21, 2000, the Parliament adopted an amendment to the Constitution that transformed Moldova from a presidential to a parliamentary republic, in which the president is elected by 3/5 of the votes in the parliament, and no longer directly by the people. Only 3 of the 31 political parties passed the 6% threshold of the February 25, 2001 early elections. Winning 49.9% of the vote, the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova (reinstituted in 1993 after being outlawed in 1991), gained 71 of the 101 MPs, and on April 4, 2001, elected Vladimir Voronin as the country's third president. A new government was formed on April 19, 2001 by Vasile Tarlev. The country became the first post-Soviet state where a non-reformed Communist Party returned to power. In March-April 2002, in Chişinău, several mass protests took place against the plans of the government to fulfill its electoral promise and introduce Russian as the second state language along with its compulsory study in schools. The government mainly renounced these plans. Relationship between Moldova and Russia deteriorated in November 2003 over a Russian proposal for the solution of the Transnistrian conflict, which Moldovan authorities refused to accept Dr. Mihai Gribincea: "Russian troops in Transnistria – a threat to the security of the Republic of Moldova" because it stipulated a 20-year Russian military presence in Moldova. The federalization plan for Moldova would have also turned Transnistria and Gagauzia into a blocking minority over all major policy matters of Moldova. As of 2006, approximately 1,200 of the 14th army personnel remain stationed in Transnistria, guarding a large ammunitions depot at Colbasna. In the last years, negotiations between the Transnistrian and Moldovan leaders have been going on under the mediation of the OSCE, Russia, and Ukraine; lately observers from the European Union and the United States have become involved, creating a 5+2 format. In the wake of the November 2003 deadlock with Russia, a series of shifts in the external policy of Moldova occurred, targeted at rapprochement with the European Union. In the context of the EU's expansion to the east, Moldova wants to sign a Stability an Association Agreement. It implemented its first three-year Action Plan within the framework of the European Neighborhood Policy (ENP) of the EU. Moldova-EU Action Plan Approved by European Commission, http://www.azi.md, December 14, 2004, retrieved July 2, 2007 EU/MOLDOVA ACTION PLAN In the March 2005 elections, the Party of the Communists (PCRM) won 46% of the vote, (56 of the 101 seats in the Parliament), Democratic Moldova Block (BMD) won 28.5% of the vote (34 MPs), and the Christian Democratic People Party (PPCD) won 9.1% (11 MPs). On April 4, 2005, Vladimir Voronin was re-elected as country's president, supported by a part of the opposition, and on April 8, Vasile Tarlev was again charged as head of government. On March 31, 2008, Vasile Tarlev was replaced by Zinaida Greceanîi as head of the government. 2009 election protests Following the parliamentary elections on April 5, 2009 the Communist Party won 49.48% of the votes, followed by the Liberal Party with 13.14% of the votes, the Liberal Democratic Party with 12.43% and the Alliance "Moldova Noastră" with 9.77%. The opposition leaders have protested against the outcome calling it fraudulent and demanded a repeated election. A preliminary report by OSCE observers called the vote generally free and fair. However, one member of the OSCE observation team expressed concern over that conclusion and said that she and a number of other team members feel that there had been some manipulation, but they were unable to find any proof. BBC: "Romania blamed over Moldova riots", 8 April 2009 On April 6, 2009, opposition parties and NGOs organized a protest in Chişinău, accusing the Communist government of electoral fraud. The demonstration had spun out of control on April 7 and escalated into a riot when a crowd of about 15,000 attacked the presidential offices and broke into the parliament building, looting and setting it on fire. "The protest initiative group: LDPM is the guilty one for the devastations in the Chişinău downtown", April 08, 2009 Anti-communist and pro-Romanian slogans were also widely used. Police had regained control on April 8, arresting several hundred protesters. Numerous detainees later reported beatings by the police. Al Jazeera English: "Violent protests after Moldova poll", 7 April 2009. "The protest initiative group: LDPM is the guilty one for the devastations in the Chişinău downtown", April 08, 2009 The violence on both sides (demonstrators and police) was condemned by the OSCE. OSCE press release: "OSCE Mission to Moldova condemns post-election violence and appeals to all sides for restraint" Government officials, including President Vladimir Voronin, have called the rioting a coup d'état attempt and have accused Romanian nationalists of organizing it. Geography Dniester valley view The largest part of the country lies between two rivers, the Dniester and the Prut. Moldova's rich soil and temperate continental climate (with warm summers and mild winters) have made the country one of the most productive agricultural regions since ancient times, and a major supplier of agricultural products in southeastern Europe. The western border of Moldova is formed by the Prut river, which joins the Danube before flowing into the Black Sea. In the north-east, the Dniester is the main river, flowing through the country from north to south, receiving the waters of Răut, Bâc, Ichel, Botna. Ialpug flows into one of the Danube limans, while Cogâlnic into the Black Sea chain of limans. The country is landlocked, even though it is very close to the Black Sea. While the northern part of the country is hilly, elevations never exceed 430 meters (1,411 ft)—the highest point being the Bălăneşti Hill. Moldova's hills are part of the Moldavian Plateau, which geologically originate from the Carpathian Mountains. Its subdivisions in Moldova include Dniester Hills (Northern Moldavian Hills and Dniester-Rāut Ridge), Moldavian Plain (Middle Prut Valley and Bălţi Steppe), and Central Moldavian Plateau (Ciuluc-Soloneţ Hills, Corneşti Hills (Codri Massive) - Codri, meaning "forests" -, Lower Dniester Hills, Lower Prut Valley, and Tigheci Hills). In the south, the country has a small flatland, the Bugeac Plain. The territory of Moldova east of the river Dniester is split between parts of the Podolian Plateau, and parts of the Eurasian Steppe. Phytogeographically, Moldova is shared between the Central European and Eastern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Moldova can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Central European mixed forests, the East European forest steppe (the most territory of the country), and Pontic steppe (in the south and southeast). The country's main cities are the capital Chişinău, in the center of the country, Tiraspol (in Transnistria), Bălţi and Tighina. Government and politics Moldova is a unitary parliamentary representative democratic republic. The Constitution of Moldova, adopted in 1994, sets the framework for the government of the country. A parliamentary majority of at least two thirds is required to amend the constitution, which cannot be revised in time of war or national emergency. Amendments to the Constitution affecting the state's sovereignty, independence, or unity can only be made after a majority of voters support the proposal in a referendum. Furthermore, no revision can be made to limit the fundamental rights of people enumerated in the Constitution. Parliament of the Republic of Moldova. The Constitution of the Republic of Moldova 2000. Retrieved 11-14, 2007 The country's central legislative body is the unicameral Moldovan parliament (), which has 101 seats, and whose members are elected by popular vote on party lists every four years. The head of state is the president, who is elected by Parliament, requiring the support of three fifths of the deputies (at least 61 votes). The president appoints a prime minister who functions as the head of government, and who in turn assembles a cabinet, both subject to parliamentary approval. The Constitution also establishes an independent Constitutional Court, composed of six judges (two appointed by the President, two by Parliament, and two by the Supreme Council of Magistrature), serving six-year terms, during which they are irremovable and not subordinate to any power. The Court is invested with the power of judicial review over all acts of the parliament, over presidential decrees, and over international treaties, signed by the country. The 2005 parliamentary elections were won by the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova, which held a majority of 55 seats. Other parties represented in the Parliament were the Alliance Our Moldova (13 seats), the Democratic Party (Moldova) (11 seats), the Christian-Democratic People's Party (7 seats), with 15 unaffiliated members of parliament. Parliament of the Republic of Moldova. Parliamentary Factions Retrieved 11-14, 2007 The most recent parliamentary elections occurred on April 5, 2009. The Party of Communists won these as well, claiming 60 seats. The PCRM majority makes Moldova one of only three countries with democratically-elected Communist leaders, the other two being Cyprus and Nepal. Opposition is represented by the Liberal Party (PL, 15 seats), Liberal Democratic Party of Moldova (PLDM, 15 seats) and Party Alliance Our Moldova (AMN, 11 seats). The President of Moldova is Vladimir Voronin, who has held this post since 2001. Foreign relations After achieving independence from the Soviet Union, Moldova established relations with other European countries. A course for European Union integration and neutrality define the country's foreign policy guidelines. In 1995 the country became the first post-Soviet state admitted to the Council of Europe. In addition to its participation in NATO's Partnership for Peace program, Moldova is also a member state of the United Nations, the OSCE, the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, the World Trade Organization, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the Francophonie and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. In 2005 Moldova and EU established an action plan that sought to improve the collaboration between the two neighboring structures. In June 2007 the Vice President of the Moldovan Parliament Iurie Roşca signed a bilateral agreement with the International Parliament for Safety and Peace, an intergovernmental organization for the promotion of world peace, based in Italy. After the War of Transnistria, Moldova had sought a peaceful resolution to the conflict in the Transnistria region by working with Romania, Ukraine, and Russia, calling for international mediation, and cooperating with the OSCE and UN fact-finding and observer missions. The foreign minister of Moldova, Andrei Stratan, had repeatedly stated that the Russian troops stationed in the breakaway region are there against the will of the Moldovan Government and called on them to leave "completely and unconditionally." "Moldova Calls On Russian Troops To Leave Transdniestr" Administrative divisions Administrative divisions of Moldova Moldova is divided into thirty-two districts (raioane, singular raion); three municipalities (Bălţi, Chişinău, Bender); and two autonomous regions (Găgăuzia and Transnistria). The cities of Comrat and Tiraspol, the administrative seats of the two autonomous territories also have municipality status. The final status of Transnistria is still disputed, as the central government does not control that territory. Largest cities and their population: # City without suburbs with suburbs </tr> 1. Chişinău World Gazetteer. Moldova: largest cities 2004. Retrieved 11-14, 2007 647,513 (2005) 712,218 (2004) </tr> 2. Tiraspol Pridnestrovie.net 2004 Census 2004. Retrieved 11-14, 2007 159,163 (2004) 159,163 (2004) </tr> 3. Bălţi 122,778 (2005) 127,561 (2004) </tr> 4. Bender 97,027 (2004) 100,000 (2004) </tr> 5. Rîbniţa 53,648 (2004) 53,648 (2004) </tr> 6. Cahul 35,488 (2004) 35,488 (2004) </tr> 7. Ungheni 32,530 (2004) 32,530 (2004) </tr> 8. Soroca 28,362 (2004) 28,362 (2004) </tr> 9. Orhei 25,641 (2004) 25,641 (2004) </tr> 10. Dubăsari 23,650 (2004) 23,650 (2004) </tr> 11. Comrat 23,327 (2004) 23,327 (2004) </tr> 12. Ceadîr-Lunga 19,401 (2004) 19,401 (2004) </tr> 13. Străşeni 18,320 (2004) 19,090 (2004) </tr> 14. Căuşeni 17,757 (2004) 17,757 (2004) </tr> 15. Drochia 16,606 (2004) 16,606 (2004) </tr> 16. Edineţ 15,624 (2004) 17,292 (2004) </tr> Economy Moldovan leu. Moldova enjoys a favorable climate and good farmland but has no major mineral deposits. As a result, the economy depends heavily on agriculture, featuring fruits, vegetables, wine, and tobacco. The economy contracted dramatically following the fall of the Soviet Union, and despite making a limited recovery since 2000, it remains one of the poorest countries in Europe. Energy Moldova must import all of its supplies of petroleum, coal, and natural gas, largely from Russia. Moldova is a partner country of the INOGATE energy programme, which has four key topics: enhancing energy security, convergence of member state energy markets on the basis of EU internal energy market principles, supporting sustainable energy development, and attracting investment for energy projects of common and regional interest. INOGATE website Economic reforms After the break up of the Soviet Union in 1991, energy shortages contributed to sharp production declines. As part of an ambitious economic liberalization effort, Moldova introduced a convertible currency, liberalized all prices, stopped issuing preferential credits to state enterprises, backed steady land privatization, removed export controls, and liberalized interest rates. The government entered into agreements with the World Bank and the IMF to promote growth. Recent trends indicate that the Communist government intends to reverse some of these policies, and recollectivise land while placing more restrictions on private business. The economy returned to positive growth, of 2.1% in 2000 and 6.1% in 2001. Growth remained strong in 2007 (6%), in part because of the reforms and because of starting from a small base. The economy remains vulnerable to higher fuel prices, poor agricultural weather, and the skepticism of foreign investors. Following the regional financial crisis in 1998, Moldova has made significant progress towards achieving and retaining macroeconomic and financial stabilization. It has, furthermore, implemented many structural and institutional reforms that are indispensable for the efficient functioning of a market economy. These efforts have helped maintain macroeconomic and financial stability under difficult external circumstances, enabled the resumption of economic growth and contributed to establishing an environment conducive to the economy’s further growth and development in the medium term. Despite these efforts, and despite the recent resumption of economic growth, Moldova still ranks low in terms of commonly-used living standards and human development indicators in comparison with other transition economies. Although the economy experienced a constant economic growth after 2000: with 2.1%, 6.1%, 7.8% and 6.3% between 2000 and 2003 (with a forecast of 8% in 2004), one can observe that these latest developments hardly reach the level of 1994, with almost 40% of the GDP registered in 1990. Thus, during the last decade little has been done to reduce the country’s vulnerability. After a severe economic decline, social and economic challenges, energy uprooted dependencies, Moldova continues to occupy one of the last places among European countries in income per capita. In 2005 (Human Development Report 2008), the registered GDP per capita US $ 2,100 PPP, which is 4.5 times lower than the world average (US $ 9,543). Moreover, GDP per capita is under the average of its statistical region (US $ 9,527 PPP). In 2005, about 20.8% of the population were under the absolute poverty line and registered an income lower than US $ 2.15 (PPP) per day. Moldova is classified as medium in human development and is at the 111th spot in the list of 177 countries. The value of the Human Development Index (0.708) is below the world average. Moldova remains the poorest country in Europe in terms of GDP per capita: $ 2,500 in 2006. CIA - The World Factbook - Moldova September 6, 2007 The GDP in 2007 constituted $4,104 mln. 2007 evaluation That constituted a grow with 3% from the 2006 indicator. Agriculture In agriculture, the economic reform started with the land cadastre reform. Moldovan wine bottles Wine industry Moldova is famous for its wines. For many years viticulture and winemaking in Moldova were the general occupation of the population. Evidence of this is present in historical memorials and documents, folklore, and the Moldovan spoken language. The country has a well established wine industry. It has a vineyard area of , of which are used for commercial production. Most of the country's wine production is made for export. Many families have their own recipes and strands of grapes that have been passed down through the generations. Demographics Ethnic composition in 2004. Ethnic composition The last reference data is that of the 2004 Moldovan Census Official results of 2004 Moldovan census and the 2004 Census in Transnistria: # Ethnicity Moldovancensus % Core Moldova Transnistriancensus % Transnistria Total % 1. Moldovans 2,564,849 75.8% 177,156 31.9% 2,742,005 69.6% 2. Ukrainians 282,406 8.3% 159,940 28.8% 442,346 11.2% 3. Russians 201,218 5.9% 168,270 30.3% 369,488 9.4% 4. Gagauz 147,500 4.4% 11,107 2.0% 158,607 4.0% 5. Romanians 73,276 2.2% NA NA 73,276 1.9% 6. Bulgarians 65,662 1.9% 11,107 2.0% 76,769 1.9% 7. Others 48,421 1.4% 27,767 5.0% 76,188 1.9% 8. TOTAL 3,383,332 100% 555,347 100% 3,938,679 100% The question whether Moldovans and Romanians are distinct or form a single ethnic group, and how should it be called, is politically controversial. Religion For the 2004 census, Eastern Orthodox Christians, who make up over 90% of Moldova's population, were not required to declare the particular of the two main churches they belong to. The Moldovan Orthodox Church, autonomous and subordinated to the Russian Orthodox Church, and the Orthodox Church of Bessarabia, autonomous and subordinated to the Romanian Orthodox Church, both claim to be the national church of the country. Culture Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Moldova and Romania. Located geographically at the crossroads of Latin, Slavic and other cultures, Moldova has enriched its own culture adopting and maintaining some of the traditions of its neighbors and of other influence sources. The country's cultural heritage was marked by numerous churches and monasteries build by the Moldavian ruler Stephen the Great in the 15th century, by the works of the later renaissance Metropolitans Varlaam and Dosoftei, and those of scholars such as Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Nicolae Milescu, Dimitrie Cantemir, Prince Dimitrie Cantemir was one of the most important figures of Moldavian culture of the 18th century. He wrote the first geographical, ethnographic and economic description of the country. Descriptio Moldaviae, (Berlin, 1714), at Latin Wikisource Ion Neculce. In the 19th century, Moldavians from the territories of the medieval Principality of Moldavia, then split between Austria, Russia, and an Ottoman-vassal Moldavia (after 1859, Romania), made the largest contribution to the formation of the modern Romanian culture. Among these were many Bessarabians, such as Alexandru Donici, Alexandru Hâjdeu, Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, Constantin Stamati, Constantin Stamati-Ciurea, Costache Negruzzi, Alecu Russo, Constantin Stere. Mihai Eminescu, a late Romantic poet, and Ion Creangă, a writer, are the most influential Romanian language artists, considered national writers both in Romania and Moldova. Moldova has produced artists with works that are recognized worldwide: composers (Gavriil Musicescu, Ştefan Neaga, Eugen Doga), sculptors (Alexandru Plămădeală), and architects (Alexey Shchusev, a Moldovan-born Russian architect). In the field of popular music, Moldova has produced the boyband O-Zone, who came to prominence in 2004, with their hit song Dragostea Din Tei, also known as "The Numa Numa Song". Ethnic Moldovans, 78.3% of the population, are Romanian-speakers and share the Romanian culture. Their culture has been also influenced (through Eastern Orthodoxy) by the Byzantine culture. The country has also important minority ethnic communities. Gagauz, 4.4% of the population, are the only Christian Turkic people. Greeks, Armenians, Poles, Jews, Ukrainians, although not numerous, were present since as early as 17th century, and had left cultural marks. The 19th century saw the arrival of many more Ukrainians and Jews from Podolia and Galicia, as well as new communities, such as Lipovans, Bulgarians and Germans. In the second part of the 20th century, Moldova saw a massive Soviet immigration, which brought with it many elements of the Soviet culture. The country has now important Russian (6%) and Ukrainain (8.4%) populations. 50% of ethnic Ukrainians, 27% of Gagauzians, 35% of Bulgarians, and 54% of smaller ethnic groups speak Russian as first language. In total, there are 541,000 people (or 16% of the population) in Moldova who use Russian as first language, including 130,000 ethnic Moldovans. By contrast, only 47,000 ethnic minorities use Moldovan/Romanian as first language. Languages The Constitution of Moldova states that the Moldovan language is the official language, Article 13, line 1 - of Constitution of Republic of Moldova while the Declaration of Independence of the Republic of Moldova names the official language Romanian. Declaraţia de independenţa a Republicii Moldova, Moldova Suverană A Field Guide to the Main Languages of Europe - Spot that language and how to tell them apart, on the website of the European Commission The 1989 State Language Law speaks of a Moldo-Romanian linguistic identity. In 2003, the government of Moldova adopted a national political conception which states that one of the priorities of the national politics of the Republic of Moldova is the insurance of the existence of the Moldovan language. The law regarding approval of the National Political Conception of the Republic of Moldova stipulates that "The conception is rooted in the historically established truth and confirmed by the common literary treasure: Moldovan nation and Romanian nation use a common literary form "which is based on the live spring of the popular talk from Moldova" - a reality which impregnates the national Moldovan language with a specific peculiar pronunciation, a certain well known and appreciated charm. Having the common origin; common basic lexical vocabulary, the national Moldovan language and national Romanian language keep each their lingvonim/glotonim as the identification sign of each nation: Moldovan and Romanian." (See also Controversy over national identity in Moldova) Russian is provided with the status of a "language of interethnic communication", and remains widely used on all levels of the society and the state. The national political conception also states that Russian-Moldovan bilingualism is characteristic for Moldova "Concepţia politicii naţionale a Republicii Moldova" Moldovan Parliament . Gagauz and Ukrainian have significant regional speaker populations and are granted official status together with Russian in Gagauzia and Transnistria respectively. Military The Moldovan armed forces consist of the Ground Forces and Air and Air Defense Forces. Moldova has accepted all relevant arms control obligations of the former Soviet Union. On October 30, 1992, Moldova ratified the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of conventional military equipment and provides for the destruction of weapons in excess of those limits. It acceded to the provisions of the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in October 1994 in Washington, DC. It does not have nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons. Moldova joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation's Partnership for Peace on March 16, 1994. Crime The CIA World Factbook lists widespread crime and underground economic activity among major crime issues in Moldova. Moldova See also Notes External links Government Official site Official governmental site Official web site of the Parliament Chief of State and Cabinet Members The Ministry of Foreign Affairs Embassy of the Republic of Moldova in the United States of America General information Best gateway to discover Moldova Country information from the United States Department of State Travel information from the United States Department of State Portals to the World from the United States Library of Congress Moldova at UCB Libraries GovPubs International rankings Bertelsmann: Bertelsmann Transformation Index 2006, ranked 75th out of 119 countries Reporters without borders: Annual worldwide press freedom index (2005), ranked 74th out of 167 countries The Wall Street Journal: 2005 Index of Economic Freedom, ranked 77th out of 155 countries The Economist: The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005, ranked 99th out of 111 countries Transparency International: Corruption Perceptions Index 2005, ranked 88th out of 158 countries United Nations Development Programme: Human Development Index 2005, ranked 116th out of 177 countries World Economic Forum: Global Competitiveness Report 2005-2006 - Growth Competitiveness Index Ranking, ranked 82nd out of 117 countries World Bank: Doing Business 2006, ranked 83rd out of 155 World Bank: Ease of Starting a Business 2006, ranked 69th out of 155 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development: Foreign Direct Investment Performance Index 2004, ranked 35th out of 140 News media Moldova In The World - online journal Moldpres - state owned news agency Stiri.md - News Aggregator for all online news agencies Other Tourism in Moldova Guide to Moldova's Hotels Sport in Moldova Igor Pivovar’s Blog: Interethnic relations in Moldova ECMI Moldova, European Centre for Minority Issues (ECMI) (Information about Minority Issues in Moldova) Dimitrie Cantemir-Descrierea Moldovei "Moldova 2006 Investment Climate Statement", Iulian Bogasieru, Business Information Service For The Newly Independent States (BISNIS) Representative (January 2006). "Moldova: Young Women From Rural Areas Vulnerable To Human Trafficking", Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (October 6, 2004). 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2,630 | Hausa_language | Hausa is the Chadic language with the largest number of speakers, spoken as a first language by about 24 million people, and as a second language by about 15 million more. Classification Hausa belongs to the West Chadic languages subgroup of the Chadic languages group, which in turn is part of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Geographic distribution Map showing the linguistic groups of Nigeria in 1979 Native speakers of Hausa, the Hausa people are mostly to be found in the African country of Niger and in the north of Nigeria, but the language is widely used as a lingua franca (similar to Swahili in East Africa) in a much larger swathe of West Africa (Accra, Abidjan, Dakar, Lomé, Cotonou, Bamako, Conakry, Ouagadougou, etc.) and Central Africa (Douala, Yaoundé, Maroua, Garoua, N'djaména, Bangui, Libreville, etc.), particularly amongst Muslims. Radio stations like BBC, Radio France Internationale, China Radio International, Voice of Russia, Voice of America, Deutsche Welle, and IRIB broadcast in Hausa. It is taught at universities in Africa and around the world. Official status Hausa is an official language in the north of Nigeria, and a "national language" in Niger. It is also the official language of Ghanaian Muslims. Dialects Traditional Hausa Dialects Eastern Hausa dialects include Kananci which is spoken in Kano, Bausanchi in Bauchi, Dauranchi in Daura, Gudduranci in Katagum Misau and part of Borno and Hadejanci in Hadejiya. Western Hausa dialects include Sakkwatanci spoken in Sokoto, Katsinanci in Katsina, Arewanci in both Gobir and Adar, Kebbi, Zamfara and Kurhwayanci in Kurfey of Niger Republic. Katsina is transitional between Eastern and Western dialects. Northern Hausa dialects include Arewa and Arawa. Zazzaganci in Zaria is the major Southern dialect. The Kano dialect is the 'standard' variety of Hausa. The BBC, Deutsche Welle and Voice of America offer Hausa Services on its international news web site using Kananci as standard. Ghanaian Hausa Dialect The Ghanaian Hausa dialect (Gaananci) forms a separate group, as it is falls outside of the contiguous Hausa-dominant area, and is usually identified by the use of c for ky, and j for gy. Despite this difference, grammatical similarities between Sakkwatanci and Ghanaian Hausa determine that the dialect was derived from Western Hausa. Hausa is also widely spoken by non-native Gur and Mande Ghanaian Muslims, but differs from Gaananci, and rather follows the description below of non-native Hausa dialects. Non-native Hausa Non-native Hausa is a term which defines the Hausa language as spoken by non-native speakers (especially as Hausa language is used as a lingua franca in West Africa). Non-native pronunciation vastly differs from native pronunciation by way of key omissions of implosive and ejective consonants present in native Hausa dialects, such as ɗ, ɓ and kʼ/ƙ, which are pronounced by non-native speakers as d, b and k respectively. This presents confusion among non-native and native Hausa speakers, as there exists a lack of difference between the pronunciation of words like daidai (correct) and ɗaiɗai (one-by-one) in non-native Hausa. Another difference between native and non-native Hausa is the omission of vowel length in words and change in the standard tone of native Hausa dialects (ranging from native Fulani and Tuareg Hausa-speakers omitting tone altogether, to Hausa speakers with Gur or Yoruba mother tongues using additional tonal structures similar to those used in their native languages). Use of Masculine and Feminine Gender nouns and sentence structure are usually omitted or interchanged, and many native Hausa nouns and verbs are substituted for non-native terms from local languages. Non-native speakers of Hausa number around 15 million, and in some areas live in close proximity to native Hausa. Derived languages Barikanchi is a pidgin formerly used in the military of Nigeria. Phonology Consonants Hausa has between 23 and 25 consonant phonemes depending on the speaker. +Consonant phonemes Bilabial Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal palatalized Plain labialized Plain palatalized Nasal m n Stop voiceless t tʃ kʲ k kʷ ʔ ʔʲvoiced b d dʒ ɡʲ ɡ ɡʷ ejective tsʼ tʃʼ kʲʼ kʼ kʷʼ implosive ɓ ɗ Fricativevoiceless ɸ s ʃ h voiced z Trill r Flap ɽ Approximant l j w The three-way contrast between palatalized velars , plain velars , and labialized velars is found only before long or short , e.g. ('grass'), ('to increase'), ('shea-nuts'). Before front vowels, only palatalized and labialized velars occur, e.g. ('jealousy') vs. ('side of body'). Before rounded vowels, only labialized velars occur, e.g. ('ringworm'). Glottalic consonants Hausa has glottalic consonants (implosives and ejectives) at four or five places of articulation (depending on the dialect). They require movement of the glottis during pronunciation and have a staccato sound. They are written with modified versions of Latin letters. They can also be denoted with an apostrophe, either before or after depending on the letter, as shown below. b' / , an implosive consonant, IPA , or sometimes ; d' / , an implosive , sometimes ; ts', an ejective consonant, or according to the dialect; ch', an ejective (does not occur in Kano dialect) k' / , an ejective ; and are separate consonants; 'y is a palatalized glottal stop, found in only a small number of high frequency words. Historically it developed from palatalized . Vowels Hausa has 5 phonemic vowel sounds which are both single and long, giving a total of 10 vowel phonemes which are called Monophthongs and 4 joint vowel sound that are called Diphthongs giving a total number of 14 vowel phonemes. Monophthongs are: Single Vowels :/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/ and /u/. Long Vowels:/aa/, /ee/, /ii/, /oo/, and /uu/. Diphthongs are: /ai/, /au/, /iu/ and /ui/. Tones Hausa is a tone language. Each of its five vowels a, e, i, o and u may have low tone, high tone and falling tone. For representing tones accented vowels may be used: à è ì ò ù (low tone) á é í ó ú (high tone) â ê î ô û (falling tone) In standard written Hausa, tone is not marked. However it is needed for disambiguation and thus it is marked in dictionaries and other scientific works. Writing systems Boko (Latin) Hausa's modern official orthography is a Latin-based alphabet called boko, which was introduced in the 1930s by the British colonial administration. A a B b C c D d E e F f G g H h I i J j K k L l M m N n O o R r S s Sh sh T t Ts ts U u W w Y y Z z The letter is used only in Niger; in Nigeria it is written . Tone, vowel length, and the distinction between and (which does not exist for all speakers) are not marked in writing. So, for example, "from" and "battle" are both written daga. Ajami (Arabic) Hausa has also been written in ajami, a variant of the Arabic script, since the early 17th century. There is no standard system of using ajami, and different writers may use letters with different values. In the following table, vowels are shown with the Arabic letter for t as an example. Latin IPA Arabic ajami a تَ a تَا b ب ب (same as b), (not used in Arabic) c ث d د د (same as d), ط (also used for ts) e (not used in Arabic) e (not used in Arabic) f ف g غ h ه i تِ i تِى j ج k ك ك (same as k), ق l ل m م n ن o تُ (same as u) o تُو (same as u) r ر s س sh ش t ت ts ط (also used for ), (not used in Arabic) u تُ (same as o) u تُو (same as o) w و y ى z ز, ذ ع Other systems At least three other writing systems for Hausa have been proposed or "discovered." None of these are in active use beyond perhaps some individuals. A Hausa alphabet supposedly of ancient origin and in use in north of Maradi, Niger. "Hausa alphabet" There are serious doubts about these claims. A script that apparently originated with the writing/publishing group Raina Kama in the 1980s. Hausa alphabet from a 1993 publication A script called "Tafi" proposed in the 1970s(?) Hausa alphabet from a 1993 publication References See also Kanem-Bornu Empire External links Basic Hausa language course (book + audio files) USA Foreign Service Institute (FSI) kasahorow Hausa Dictionary Ethnologue report on Hausa Omniglot Hausa at UCLA Kofar Hausa dictionary at University of Vienna Bargery's Hausa Dictionary Online Learning Hausa Online Hausa Wiktionary Hausa phrasebook PanAfriL10n page on Hausa BBC World Service Hausa - Based in London | Hausa_language |@lemmatized hausa:56 chadic:3 language:17 large:2 number:4 speaker:10 speak:5 first:1 million:3 people:2 second:1 classification:1 belongs:1 west:3 subgroup:1 group:4 turn:1 part:2 afro:1 asiatic:1 family:1 geographic:1 distribution:1 map:1 show:3 linguistic:1 nigeria:5 native:22 mostly:1 find:3 african:1 country:1 niger:5 north:3 widely:2 use:20 lingua:2 franca:2 similar:2 swahili:1 east:1 africa:5 much:1 swathe:1 accra:1 abidjan:1 dakar:1 lomé:1 cotonou:1 bamako:1 conakry:1 ouagadougou:1 etc:2 central:1 douala:1 yaoundé:1 maroua:1 garoua:1 n:5 djaména:1 bangui:1 libreville:1 particularly:1 amongst:1 muslim:3 radio:3 station:1 like:2 bbc:3 france:1 internationale:1 china:1 international:2 voice:4 russia:1 america:2 deutsche:2 welle:2 irib:1 broadcast:1 teach:1 university:2 around:2 world:2 official:4 status:1 national:1 also:7 ghanaian:5 dialect:17 traditional:1 eastern:2 include:3 kananci:2 kano:3 bausanchi:1 bauchi:1 dauranchi:1 daura:1 gudduranci:1 katagum:1 misau:1 borno:1 hadejanci:1 hadejiya:1 western:3 sakkwatanci:2 sokoto:1 katsinanci:1 katsina:2 arewanci:1 gobir:1 adar:1 kebbi:1 zamfara:1 kurhwayanci:1 kurfey:1 republic:1 transitional:1 northern:1 arewa:1 arawa:1 zazzaganci:1 zaria:1 major:1 southern:1 standard:5 variety:1 offer:1 service:3 news:1 web:1 site:1 gaananci:2 form:1 separate:2 falls:1 outside:1 contiguous:1 dominant:1 area:2 usually:2 identify:1 c:4 ky:1 j:5 gy:1 despite:1 difference:3 grammatical:1 similarity:1 determine:1 derive:2 non:12 gur:2 mande:1 differs:2 rather:1 follow:1 description:1 term:2 define:1 especially:1 pronunciation:4 vastly:1 way:2 key:1 omission:2 implosive:4 ejective:5 consonant:9 present:2 ɗ:2 ɓ:2 kʼ:2 ƙ:1 pronounce:1 b:7 k:7 respectively:1 confusion:1 among:1 exist:2 lack:1 word:3 daidai:1 correct:1 ɗaiɗai:1 one:2 another:1 vowel:14 length:2 change:1 tone:13 range:1 fulani:1 tuareg:1 omit:2 altogether:1 yoruba:1 mother:1 tongue:1 additional:1 tonal:1 structure:2 masculine:1 feminine:1 gender:1 noun:2 sentence:1 interchange:1 many:1 verb:1 substitute:1 local:1 live:1 close:1 proximity:1 barikanchi:1 pidgin:1 formerly:1 military:1 phonology:1 phoneme:4 depend:3 bilabial:1 alveolar:2 post:1 palatal:1 velar:6 glottal:2 palatalize:3 plain:3 labialized:4 nasal:1 stop:2 voiceless:1 tʃ:1 kʲ:1 kʷ:1 ʔ:1 ʔʲvoiced:1 dʒ:1 ɡʲ:1 ɡ:1 ɡʷ:1 tsʼ:1 tʃʼ:1 kʲʼ:1 kʷʼ:1 fricativevoiceless:1 ɸ:1 ʃ:1 h:4 z:4 trill:1 r:4 flap:1 ɽ:1 approximant:1 l:4 w:4 three:2 contrast:1 palatalized:3 long:3 short:1 e:9 g:6 grass:1 increase:1 shea:1 nut:1 front:1 occur:3 jealousy:1 v:1 side:1 body:1 rounded:1 ringworm:1 glottalic:2 implosives:1 ejectives:1 four:1 five:2 place:1 articulation:1 require:1 movement:1 glottis:1 staccato:1 sound:3 write:8 modified:1 version:1 latin:4 letter:5 denote:1 apostrophe:1 either:1 ipa:2 sometimes:2 accord:1 ch:1 small:1 high:3 frequency:1 historically:1 develop:1 phonemic:1 single:2 give:2 total:2 call:4 monophthongs:2 joint:1 diphthong:2 u:8 aa:1 ee:1 ii:1 oo:1 uu:1 ai:1 au:1 iu:1 ui:1 may:3 low:2 fall:2 represent:1 accent:1 à:1 è:1 ì:1 ò:1 ù:1 á:1 é:1 í:1 ó:1 ú:1 â:1 ê:1 î:1 ô:1 û:1 mark:3 however:1 need:1 disambiguation:1 thus:1 dictionary:4 scientific:1 work:1 system:4 boko:2 modern:1 orthography:1 base:2 alphabet:5 introduce:1 british:1 colonial:1 administration:1 f:3 sh:3 distinction:1 writing:1 example:2 battle:1 daga:1 ajami:4 arabic:8 variant:1 script:3 since:1 early:1 century:1 different:2 writer:1 value:1 following:1 table:1 ت:9 ا:1 ب:2 ث:1 د:2 ط:2 ف:1 غ:1 ه:1 ى:2 ج:1 ك:2 ق:1 ل:1 م:1 ن:1 و:3 ر:1 س:1 ش:1 ز:1 ذ:1 ع:1 least:1 propose:2 discovered:1 none:1 active:1 beyond:1 perhaps:1 individual:1 supposedly:1 ancient:1 origin:1 maradi:1 serious:1 doubt:1 claim:1 apparently:1 originate:1 publishing:1 raina:1 kama:1 publication:2 tafi:1 reference:1 see:1 kanem:1 bornu:1 empire:1 external:1 link:1 basic:1 course:1 book:1 audio:1 file:1 usa:1 foreign:1 institute:1 fsi:1 kasahorow:1 ethnologue:1 report:1 omniglot:1 ucla:1 kofar:1 vienna:1 bargery:1 online:2 learn:1 wiktionary:1 phrasebook:1 page:1 london:1 |@bigram afro_asiatic:1 lingua_franca:2 deutsche_welle:2 masculine_feminine:1 feminine_gender:1 alveolar_palatal:1 palatal_velar:1 velar_glottal:1 labialized_velar:3 rounded_vowel:1 glottal_stop:1 diphthong_ai:1 á_é:1 é_í:1 í_ó:1 ó_ú:1 â_ê:1 ê_î:1 ô_û:1 kanem_bornu:1 bornu_empire:1 external_link:1 |
2,631 | Hebrew_numerals | The system of Hebrew numerals is a quasi-decimal alphabetic numeral system using the letters of the Hebrew alphabet. In this system, there is no notation for zero, and the numeric values for individual letters are added together. Each unit (1, 2, ..., 9) is assigned a separate letter, each tens (10, 20, ..., 90) a separate letter, and the first four hundreds (100, 200, 300, 400) a separate letter. The later hundreds (500, 600, 700, 800 and 900) are represented by the sum of two or three letters representing one of the first four hundreds. To represent numbers from 1,000 to 999,999 the same letters are reused to serve as thousands, tens of thousands, and hundreds of thousands.Gematria (Jewish numerology) uses these transformations extensively. In Israel today, the decimal system (ex. 0, 1, 2, 3, etc...) is used in almost all cases (money, age, date on the civil calendar). The Hebrew numerals are used only in special cases, like when using the Hebrew calendar, or numbering a list (similar to a, b, c, d, etc...). Main Table DecimalHebrewGlyphCardinal(ex. one, two, three)Ordinal(ex. first, second, third) Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine0 N/A efes (אֶפֶס) N/A1Aleph א echad(אֶחַד) achat(אַחַת) rishon (רִאשׁוֹן) rishonah(רִאשׁוֹנָה)2Bet ב shnayim(שְׁנַיִם) shtayim(שְׁתַּיִם) sheni(שֵׁנִי) shniyah(שֵׁנִיָה)3Gimel ג shlosha(שְׁלוֹשָׁה) shalosh(שָׁלוֹשׁ) shlishi(שְׁלִישִׁי) shlishit(שְׁלִישִׁית)orshlishiyah(שְׁלִישִׁיָה) 4Dalet ד arba'a(אַרְבַּעה) arbah(אַרְבַּע) revi'i(רְבִיעִי) revi'it(רְבִיעִית) 5Hei ה chamisha(חֲמִשָּה) chamesh(חָמֵשׁ) chamishi(חֲמִישִׁי) chamishit (חֲמִישִׁית)6Vav ו shisha(שִׁשָּה) shesh(שֵׁשׁ) shishi(שִׁשִּׁי) shishit (שִׁשִּׁית)7Zayin ז shiv'a(שֶׁבַעה) sheva(שֶׁבַע) shvi'i(שְׁבִיעִי) shvi'it (שְׁבִיעִית)8Het ח shmonah(שְׁמוֹנָה) shmoneh(שְׁמוֹנֶה) shmini(שְׁמִינִי) shminit (שְׁמִינִית)9Tet ט tish'a(תֵּשַׁעה) tayshah (תֵּשַׁע) tshi'i(תְּשִׁיעִי) tshi'it (תְּשִׁיעִית)10Yud י assara(עֲשָׂרָה) eser(עֶשֶׂר) asiri(עֲשִׂירִי) asirit (עֲשִׂירִית)20Kaf כ esrim(עֶשְׂרִים)30Lamed ל shloshim(שְׁלוֹשִׁים)40Mem מ arba'im(אַרְבָּעִים)50Nun נ chamishim(חֲמִשִּׁים)60Samech ס shishim(שִׁשִּׁים)70Ayin ע</td> shiv'im(שִׁבְעִים)80Pei פ</td> shmonim(שְׁמוֹנִים)90Tsadi צ tish'im(תִּשְׁעִים)100Kuf ק me'a(מֵאָה)200Resh ר matayim(מָאתַיִם)300Shin ש shlosh meot(שְׁלוֹשׁ מֵאוֹת)400Tav ת arba meot(אַרְבַּע מֵאוֹת)500Tav Kuf or Chaf Sofit ת"ק or ך chamesh meot(חֲמֵשׁ מֵאוֹת)600Tav Resh or Mem Sofit ת"ר or ם shesh meot(שֵׁשׁ מֵאוֹת)700Tav Shin or Nun Sofit ת"ש or ן shva meot(שְׁבַע מֵאוֹת)800Tav Tav or Pei Sofit ת"ת or ף shmone meot(שְׁמוֹנֶה מֵאוֹת)900Tav Tav Kuf or Tsadi Sofit תת"ק or ץ tsha meot(תְּשַׁע מֵאוֹת) 11: achad asar/achat esre, 12: shneim asar/shteim esre, 13: shlosha asar/shlosh esre,14: arba'a asar/arba esre, 15: chamisha asar/chamesh esre, 16: shisha asar/shesh esre,17: shiv'a asar/shva esre, 18: shmona asar/shmone esre, 19: tish'a asar/tsha esre 1000: elef, 2000: alpaim, 10 000: aseret alafim, 100 000: mea elef, 1 000 000: miliyon,1 000 000 000: miliyard Note: For ordinal numbers greater than 10, cardinal numbers are used instead. Speaking and writing Hebrew has masculine and feminine ways of saying the words. For just counting, feminine is used (except echad). Otherwise, the gender is used (ex. two boys, two girls). Also, objects are either male or female (ex. a book (sefer) is male).The number is written first, then the noun (ex. shlosha yeladim), except for number one where it is reversed (ex. yelad echad). The number two is special, shnayim (m.) and shtayim (f.) becomes shney (m.), and shtey (f.) when describing the number of some noun. Also, mixed groups are always addressed as male, which is the case with all Hebrew. For ordinal numbers (number indicating position), for greater than 10 the cardinal is used. Calculations The Hebrew numeric system operates on the additive principle in which the numeric values of the letters are added together to form the total. For example, 177 is represented as קעז which corresponds to 100 + 70 + 7 = 177. Mathematically, this type of system requires 27 letters (1-9, 10-90, 100-900). In practice the last letter, tav (which has the value 400) is used in combination with itself and/or other letters from kof (100) onwards, to generate numbers from 500 and above. Alternatively, the 22-letter Hebrew numeral set is sometimes extended to 27 by using 5 sofeet (final) forms of the Hebrew letters. Key exceptions By convention, the numbers 15 and 16 are represented as ט״ו (9 + 6) and ט״ז (9 + 7), respectively. This is done in order to refrain from using the two-letter combinations י–ה (10 + 5) and י–ו (10 + 6) (which are alternate written forms for the Name of God) in everyday writing. In the calendar, this manifests every full moon, since all Hebrew months start on a new moon. Combinations which would spell out words with negative connotations are sometimes avoided by switching the order of the letters. For instance, תשמ״ד (meaning "you/it will be destroyed") might instead be written as תשד״מ. Gershayim Gershayim (U+05F4 in Unicode, and resembling a double quote mark) (sometimes erroneously referred to as merkha'ot, which is Hebrew for double quote) are inserted before (to the right of) the last (leftmost) letter to indicate that the sequence of letters represents a number rather than a word. This is used in the case where a number is represented by two or more Hebrew numerals (e.g., 18 → י״ח). Similarly, a single Geresh (U+05F3 in Unicode, and resembling a single quote mark) is appended after (to the left of) a single letter to indicate that the letter represents a number rather than a (one-letter) word. This is used in the case where a number is represented by a single Hebrew numeral (e.g., 100 → ק׳). Decimals In print, Hindu-Arabic numerals are employed in Modern Hebrew for most purposes. Hebrew numerals are used nowadays primarily for writing the days and years of the Hebrew calendar; for references to traditional Jewish texts (particularly for Biblical chapter and verse and for Talmudic folios); for bulleted or numbered lists (similar to A, B, C, etc., in English); and in numerology (gematria). Thousands and date formats Thousands are counted separately, and the thousands count precedes the rest of the number (to the right, since Hebrew is read from right to left). There are no special marks to signify that the “count” is starting over with thousands, which can theoretically lead to ambiguity, although a single quote mark is sometimes used after the letter. When specifying years of the Hebrew calendar in the present millennium, writers usually omit the thousands (which is presently 5 [ה]), but if they don't, this is accepted to mean 5 * 1000, with no ambiguity. The current Israeli coinage includes the thousands. Date examples “Monday, 15 Adar 5764” (where 5764 = 5(×1000) + 400 + 300 + 60 + 4, and 15 = 9 + 6): In full (with thousands): “Monday, 15(th) of Adar, 5764” יום שני ט״ו באדר ה׳תשס״ד Common usage (omitting thousands): “Monday, 15(th) of Adar, (5)764” יום שני ט״ו באדר תשס״ד “Thursday, 3 Nisan 5767” (where 5767 = 5(×1000) + 400 + 300 + 60 + 7): In full (with thousands): “Thursday, 3(rd) of Nisan, 5767” יום חמישי ג׳ בניסן ה׳תשס״ז Common usage (omitting thousands): “Thursday, 3(rd) of Nisan, (5)767” יום חמישי ג׳ בניסן תשס״ז To see how today's date in the Hebrew calendar is written, see, for example, the dateline at the top of the Haaretz Online home page. Recent years 5769 (2008–09) = תשס״ט 5768 (2007–08) = תשס״ח 5767 (2006–07) = תשס״ז 5766 (2005–06) = תשס״ו 5765 (2004–05) = תשס״ה Similar systems The Abjad numerals are equivalent to the Hebrew numerals up to 400. The Greek numerals differ from the Hebrew ones from 90 upwards because in the Greek alphabet there is no equivalent for Tsadi (צ). See also Significance of numbers of Judaism External links http://www.inner.org/gematria/gemchart.htm | Hebrew_numerals |@lemmatized system:7 hebrew:21 numeral:10 quasi:1 decimal:3 alphabetic:1 use:16 letter:21 alphabet:2 notation:1 zero:1 numeric:3 value:3 individual:1 add:2 together:2 unit:1 assign:1 separate:3 ten:2 first:4 four:2 hundred:4 late:1 represent:9 sum:1 two:7 three:2 one:5 number:19 reuse:1 serve:1 thousand:13 gematria:3 jewish:2 numerology:2 transformation:1 extensively:1 israel:1 today:2 ex:7 etc:3 almost:1 case:5 money:1 age:1 date:4 civil:1 calendar:6 special:3 like:1 list:2 similar:3 b:2 c:2 main:1 table:1 decimalhebrewglyphcardinal:1 ordinal:3 second:1 third:1 masculine:3 feminine:3 n:2 efes:1 א:9 פ:2 ס:2 echad:3 ח:11 ד:5 achat:2 ת:21 rishon:1 ר:13 אש:2 ו:8 ן:2 rishonah:1 נ:9 ה:17 ב:13 shnayim:2 ש:56 י:18 ם:4 shtayim:2 sheni:1 shniyah:1 ג:3 shlosha:3 לו:4 shalosh:1 shlishi:1 ל:4 יש:5 shlishit:1 ית:8 orshlishiyah:1 arba:5 עה:3 arbah:1 ע:15 revi:2 יע:6 chamisha:2 מ:19 chamesh:3 chamishi:1 chamishit:1 shisha:2 shesh:3 shishi:1 shishit:1 ז:5 shiv:3 sheva:1 shvi:2 shmonah:1 מו:4 shmoneh:1 shmini:1 ינ:2 shminit:1 ט:6 tish:3 tayshah:1 tshi:2 assara:1 eser:1 asiri:1 יר:2 asirit:1 כ:1 esrim:1 ים:8 shloshim:1 im:3 chamishim:1 shishim:1 td:2 shmonim:1 צ:2 ק:4 matayim:1 את:1 shlosh:2 meot:7 או:7 kuf:2 chaf:1 sofit:5 ך:1 resh:1 mem:1 shin:1 nun:1 shva:2 tav:3 pei:1 ף:1 shmone:2 tsadi:2 תת:1 ץ:1 tsha:2 achad:1 asar:9 esre:9 shneim:1 shteim:1 shmona:1 elef:2 alpaim:1 aseret:1 alafim:1 mea:1 miliyon:1 miliyard:1 note:1 great:2 cardinal:2 instead:2 speaking:1 write:6 way:1 say:1 word:4 counting:1 except:2 otherwise:1 gender:1 boy:1 girl:1 also:3 object:1 either:1 male:3 female:1 book:1 sefer:1 noun:2 yeladim:1 reverse:1 yelad:1 f:2 become:1 shney:1 shtey:1 describe:1 mixed:1 group:1 always:1 address:1 indicate:3 position:1 calculation:1 operate:1 additive:1 principle:1 form:3 total:1 example:3 קעז:1 correspond:1 mathematically:1 type:1 require:1 practice:1 last:2 combination:3 kof:1 onwards:1 generate:1 alternatively:1 set:1 sometimes:4 extend:1 sofeet:1 final:1 key:1 exception:1 convention:1 respectively:1 order:2 refrain:1 alternate:1 name:1 god:1 everyday:1 writing:1 manifest:1 every:1 full:3 moon:2 since:2 month:1 start:2 new:1 would:1 spell:1 negative:1 connotation:1 avoid:1 switch:1 instance:1 תשמ:1 mean:2 destroy:1 might:1 תשד:1 gershayim:2 u:2 unicode:2 resemble:2 double:2 quote:4 mark:4 erroneously:1 refer:1 merkha:1 ot:1 insert:1 right:3 leftmost:1 sequence:1 rather:2 e:2 g:2 similarly:1 single:5 geresh:1 append:1 left:1 print:1 hindu:1 arabic:1 employ:1 modern:1 purpose:1 nowadays:1 primarily:1 day:1 year:3 reference:1 traditional:1 text:1 particularly:1 biblical:1 chapter:1 verse:1 talmudic:1 folio:1 bulleted:1 english:1 format:1 count:3 separately:1 precedes:1 rest:1 read:1 leave:1 signify:1 theoretically:1 lead:1 ambiguity:2 although:1 specify:1 present:1 millennium:1 writer:1 usually:1 omit:3 presently:1 accept:1 current:1 israeli:1 coinage:1 include:1 monday:3 adar:3 th:2 יום:4 שני:2 באדר:2 תשס:9 common:2 usage:2 thursday:3 nisan:3 rd:2 חמישי:2 בניסן:2 see:3 dateline:1 top:1 haaretz:1 online:1 home:1 page:1 recent:1 abjad:1 equivalent:2 numerals:1 greek:2 differ:1 upwards:1 significance:1 judaism:1 external:1 link:1 http:1 www:1 inner:1 org:1 gemchart:1 htm:1 |@bigram hundred_thousand:1 masculine_feminine:2 נ_ה:4 נ_י:3 י_ם:3 י_ה:3 ש_לו:4 ש_ה:3 ש_ל:3 א_ר:4 ר_ב:6 ב_ע:6 ח_מ:6 מ_ש:4 ש_ש:6 ש_ב:6 ש_מו:4 מו_נ:4 ש_מ:5 ת_ש:7 ע_ש:5 ש_ר:3 ר_ה:1 מ_א:1 א_ה:1 מ_או:7 או_ת:7 ע_מ:3 ת_ר:1 male_female:1 negative_connotation:1 arabic_numeral:1 abjad_numeral:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
2,632 | Frisian_languages | The Frisian languages are a closely related group of Germanic languages, spoken by about 500,000 members of Frisian ethnic groups, who live on the southern fringes of the North Sea in Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany. Frisian languages are the most closely related living European languages to English, but modern English and Frisian are mostly unintelligible to each other. Frisian languages bear similarities to Low German, Dutch (from which many Frisian words have been borrowed) and Danish, and Danish speakers are able to understand some spoken Frisian. Additional shared linguistic characteristics between the Great Yarmouth area, Friesland, and Denmark are likely to have resulted from the close trading relationship these areas maintained during the centuries-long Hanseatic League of the Late Middle Ages. Division There are three varieties of Frisian: West Frisian, Saterland Frisian, and North Frisian. Some linguists consider these three varieties, despite their mutual unintelligibility, to be dialects of one single Frisian language, while others consider them to be three separate languages, as do their speakers. Of the three, the North Frisian language especially is further segmented into several strongly diverse dialects. Stadsfries is not Frisian, but a Dutch dialect influenced by Frisian. Frisian is called Frysk in West Frisian, Fräisk in Saterland Frisian, and Frasch, Fresk, Freesk, and Friisk in the dialects of North Frisian. The situation in the Dutch province of Groningen and the German region of East Frisia is more complex: The local Low Saxon dialects of Gronings and East Frisian Low Saxon are a mixture of Frisian and Low Saxon dialects; it is believed that Frisian was spoken there at one time, only to have been gradually replaced by the town language of Groningen City. This local language is now, in turn, being replaced by standard Dutch. Speakers Most Frisian speakers live in the Netherlands, primarily in the province of Friesland, since 1997 officially using its West Frisian name of Fryslân, where the number of native speakers is about 350,000. An increasing number of native Dutch speakers in the province are learning Frisian as a second language. In Germany, there are about 2,000 speakers of Saterland Frisian in the Saterland region of Lower Saxony; the Saterland's marshy fringe areas have long protected Frisian speech there from pressure by the surrounding Low German and standard German. In the Nordfriesland (North Frisia) region of the German province of Schleswig-Holstein, there are 10,000 North Frisian speakers. While many of these Frisians live on the mainland, most are found on the islands, notably Sylt, Föhr, Amrum, and Helgoland. The local corresponding North Frisian dialects are still in use. Status Saterland and North Frisian Gesetz zur Förderung des Friesischen im öffentlichen Raum - Wikisource are officially recognised and protected as minority languages in Germany, and West Frisian is one of the two official languages in the Netherlands, together with Dutch. ISO 639-1 code fy and ISO 639-2 code fry were assigned to "Frisian", but that was changed in November 2005 to "Western Frisian". According to the ISO 639 Registration Authority the "previous usage of [this] code has been for Western Frisian, although [the] language name was "Frisian"." The new ISO 639 code stq is used for the Saterland Frisian language a variety of Eastern Frisian (not to be confused with East Frisian Low Saxon, a West Low German dialect). The new ISO 639 code frr is used for the North Frisian language variants spoken in parts of Schleswig-Holstein. Saterland Frisian and most dialects of North Frisian are seriously endangered. History Old-Frisian from 1345. Bilingual signs in Fryslân (Netherlands). Bilingual signs in North-Frisia (Germany). Bilingual signs in East-Frisia (Germany). Old Frisian Rolf H. Bremmer Jr, An Introduction to Old Frisian. History, Grammar, Reader, Glossary (Amsterdam & Philadelphia, 2009) In the early Middle Ages the Frisian lands stretched from the area around Bruges, in what is now Belgium, to the river Weser, in northern Germany. At that time, the Frisian language was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast. Today this region is sometimes referred to as Great Frisia or Frisia Magna, and many of the areas within it still treasure their Frisian heritage, even though in most places the Frisian languages have been lost. Frisian is the language most closely related to English apart from Scots, but after at least five hundred years of being subjected to the influence of Dutch, modern Frisian in some aspects bears a greater similarity to Dutch than to English; one must also take into account the centuries-long drift of English away from Frisian. Thus the modern languages are unintelligible to each other today, partly due to the marks which Dutch and Low German have left on Frisian, and partly due to the vast influence some languages (in particular French) have had on English throughout the centuries. Monolingual English-speakers, newly exposed to the language, would not only fail to understand it at all, except for some simple sentences, but would likely mistake it for Dutch. Old Frisian, however, did bear a striking similarity to Old English. This similarity was reinforced in the late Middle Ages by the Ingaevonic sound shift, which affected Frisian and English, but only affected the other West Germanic varieties slightly, if at all. Historically, both English and Frisian are marked by the suppression of the Germanic nasal in a word like us (ús), soft (sêft) or goose (goes): see Anglo-Frisian nasal spirant law. Also, when followed by some vowels, the Germanic k softened to a ch sound; for example, the Frisian for cheese and church is tsiis and tsjerke, whereas in Dutch it is kaas and kerk, and in German the respective words are Käse and Kirche. Contrarily, this did not happen for chin and (to)choose, which are kin and kieze English to Frisian dictionary . One rhyme demonstrates the palpable similarity between Frisian and English: "Butter, bread, and green cheese is good English and good Fries," which is pronounced more or less the same in both languages (Frisian: "Bûter, brea, en griene tsiis is goed Ingelsk en goed Frysk.") One major difference between Old Frisian and modern Frisian is that in the Old Frisian period (c.1150-c.1550) grammatical cases still existed. Some of the texts that are preserved from this period are from the twelfth or thirteenth, but most are from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Generally, all these texts are restricted to legalistic writings. Although the earliest definite written examples of Frisian are from approximately the 9th century, there are a few examples of runic inscriptions from the region which are probably older and possibly in the Frisian language. These runic writings however usually do not amount to more than single- or few-word inscriptions, and cannot be said to constitute literature as such. The transition from the Old Frisian to the Middle Frisian period (c.1550-c.1820) in the sixteenth century is based on the fairly abrupt halt in the use of Frisian as a written language. Middle Frisian Up until the fifteenth century Frisian was a language widely spoken and written, but from 1500 onwards it became an almost exclusively oral language, mainly used in rural areas. This was in part due to the occupation of its stronghold, the Dutch province of Friesland (Fryslân), in 1498, by Duke Albert of Saxony, who replaced Frisian as the language of government with Dutch. Afterwards this practice was continued under the Habsburg rulers of the Netherlands (the German Emperor Charles V and his son, the Spanish King Philip II), and even when the Netherlands became independent, in 1585, Frisian did not regain its former status. The reason for this was the rise of Holland as the dominant part of the Netherlands, and its language, Dutch, as the dominant language in judicial, administrative and religious affairs. In this period the great Frisian poet Gysbert Japiks (1603-66), a schoolteacher and cantor from the city of Bolsward, who largely fathered modern Frisian literature and orthography, was really an exception to the rule. His example was not followed until the nineteenth century, when entire generations of Frisian authors and poets appeared. This coincided with the introduction of the so-called newer breaking system, a prominent grammatical feature in almost all West Frisian dialects, with the notable exception of Southwest Frisian. Therefore, the Modern Frisian period is considered to have begun at this point in time, around 1820. Family tree Each of the Frisian languages has several dialects. Between some, the differences are such that they rarely hamper understanding; only the number of speakers justifies the denominator of 'dialect'. In other cases, even neighbouring dialects may hardly be mutually intelligible. It is interesting to identify a migration from German to English via Dutch and Frisian: zurück (German) -> terug (Dutch) -> tebek (Frisian) -> back (English) (Note, however, that the second element of the Dutch and German words is cognate with English ridge, so-called due to being the shape of an animal's back); Schafe (German) -> schapen (Dutch) -> skiep (Frisian) -> sheep (English). It is interesting that the plural of sheep in Frisian and English (and also several German dialects) is identical to the singular form. West Frisian language, spoken in the Netherlands. Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk) Wood Frisian (Wâldfrysk) Noardhoeks South Frisian (Súdhoeks) Southwest Frisian (Súdwesthoeksk) Schiermonnikoogs Hindeloopers Aasters Westers East Frisian language, spoken in Lower Saxony, Germany. Saterland Frisian language Several extinct dialects North Frisian language, spoken in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. Mainland dialects Mooring Goesharde Frisian Wiedingharde Frisian Halligen Frisian Karrharde Frisian Island dialects Söl'ring Fering Öömrang Heligolandic Text samples The Lord's Prayer The Lord's Prayer in Standard Western Frisian (Frysk): Us Heit, dy't yn de himelen is jins namme wurde hillige. Jins keninkryk komme. Jins wollen barre, allyk yn 'e himel sa ek op ierde. Jou ús hjoed ús deistich brea. En ferjou ús ús skulden, allyk ek wy ferjouwe ús skuldners. En lied ús net yn fersiking, mar ferlos ús fan 'e kweade. [Want Jowes is it keninkryk en de krêft en de hearlikheid oant yn ivichheid.] "Amen" The English translation in the 1662 Anglican Book of Common Prayer: Our Father, which art in Heaven Hallowed be thy Name. Thy Kingdom come. Thy will be done, in earth as it is in Heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our trespasses, As we forgive them that trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation; But deliver us from evil. [For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory, For ever and ever.] Amen. (NB: Which was changed to "who", in earth to "on earth," and them to "those" in the 1928 version of the Church of England prayer book and used in other later Anglican prayer books too. However, the words given here are those of the original 1662 book as stated) Comparative sentence Saterland Frisian Die Wänt strookede dät Wucht uum ju Keeuwe un oapede hier ap do Sooken. North Frisian (Mooring dialect) Di dreng aide dåt foomen am dåt kan än mäket har aw da siike. West Frisian De jonge streake it famke om it kin en tute har op 'e wangen. East Frisian Low Saxon De Jung straktde dat Wicht um't Kinn to un tuutjede hör up de Wangen. Dutch Low Saxon De jonge strek 't dearntje um de kinne en gaf heur een smok. Scots The laddie straikit the lassie oan the chin an gied hir a smouch oan the chouks. References Omniglot links to various Frisian resources Tresoar - Frisian Historical and Literary Centre See also Frisia Frisian Islands Frisians External links The Frisian foundation Frisian-English dictionary 'Hover & Hear' Frisian pronunciations, and compare with equivalents in English and other Germanic languages. Description of language including audio files Frisian radio | Frisian_languages |@lemmatized frisian:108 language:35 closely:3 related:2 group:2 germanic:5 speak:8 member:1 ethnic:1 live:4 southern:2 fringe:2 north:14 sea:2 denmark:2 netherlands:8 germany:8 european:1 english:21 modern:6 mostly:1 unintelligible:2 bear:3 similarity:5 low:12 german:14 dutch:19 many:3 word:6 borrow:1 danish:2 speaker:10 able:1 understand:2 spoken:1 additional:1 share:1 linguistic:1 characteristic:1 great:4 yarmouth:1 area:6 friesland:3 likely:2 result:1 close:1 trading:1 relationship:1 maintain:1 century:8 long:3 hanseatic:1 league:1 late:3 middle:5 age:3 division:1 three:4 variety:4 west:9 saterland:10 linguist:1 consider:3 despite:1 mutual:1 unintelligibility:1 dialect:17 one:6 single:2 others:1 separate:1 especially:1 segment:1 several:4 strongly:1 diverse:1 stadsfries:1 influence:3 call:3 frysk:3 fräisk:1 frasch:1 fresk:1 freesk:1 friisk:1 situation:1 province:5 groningen:2 region:5 east:6 frisia:7 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2,633 | Heat_engine | A heat engine is a physical or theoretical device that converts thermal energy to mechanical output. The mechanical output is called work, and the thermal energy input is called heat. Heat engines typically run on a specific thermodynamic cycle. Heat engines can be open to the atmospheric air or sealed and closed off to the outside (Open or closed cycle). In engineering and thermodynamics, a heat engine performs the conversion of heat energy to mechanical work by exploiting the temperature gradient between a hot "source" and a cold "sink". Heat is transferred from the source, through the "working body" of the engine, to the sink, and in this process some of the heat is converted into work by exploiting the properties of a working substance (usually a gas or liquid). Figure 1: Heat engine diagram Overview Heat engines are often confused with the cycles they attempt to mimic. Typically when describing the physical device the term 'engine' is used. When describing the model the term 'cycle' is used. In thermodynamics, heat engines are often modeled using a standard engineering model such as the Otto cycle. The theoretical model can be refined and augmented with actual data from an operating engine, using tools such as an indicator diagram. Since very few actual implementations of heat engines exactly match their underlying thermodynamic cycles, one could say that a thermodynamic cycle is an ideal case of a mechanical engine. In any case, fully understanding an engine and its efficiency requires gaining a good understanding of the (possibly simplified or idealized) theoretical model, the practical nuances of an actual mechanical engine, and the discrepancies between the two. In general terms, the larger the difference in temperature between the hot source and the cold sink, the larger is the potential thermal efficiency of the cycle. On Earth, the cold side of any heat engine is limited to close to the ambient temperature of the environment, or not much lower than 300 Kelvin, so most efforts to improve the thermodynamic efficiencies of various heat engines focus on increasing the temperature of the source, within material limits. The maximum theoretical efficiency of a heat engine (which no engine ever obtains) is equal to the temperature difference between the hot and cold ends divided by the temperature at the hot end, all expressed in absolute temperature or kelvins. The efficiency of various heat engines proposed or used today ranges from 3 percent (97 percent waste heat) for the OTEC ocean power proposal through 25 percent for most automotive engines, to 45 percent for a supercritical coal plant, to about 60 percent for a steam-cooled combined cycle gas turbine. All of these processes gain their efficiency (or lack thereof) due to the temperature drop across them. Everyday examples Examples of everyday heat engines include: the steam engine, the diesel engine, and the gasoline (petrol) engine in an automobile. A common toy that is also a heat engine is a drinking bird. All of these familiar heat engines are powered by the expansion of heated gases. The general surroundings are the heat sink, providing relatively cool gases which, when heated, expand rapidly to drive the mechanical motion of the engine. Examples of heat engines It is important to note that although some cycles have a typical combustion location (internal external), they often can be implemented as the other combustion cycle. For example, John Ericsson developed an external heated engine running on a cycle very much like the earlier Diesel cycle. In addition, the externally heated engines can often be implemented in open or closed cycles. What this boils down to is there are thermodynamic cycles and a large number of ways of implementing them with mechanical devices called engines. Phase change cycles In these cycles and engines, the working fluids are gases and liquids. The engine converts the working fluid from a gas to a liquid. Rankine cycle (classical steam engine) Regenerative cycle (steam engine more efficient than Rankine cycle) Vapor to liquid cycle (Drinking bird, Injector) Liquid to solid cycle (Frost heaving — water changing from ice to liquid and back again can lift rock up to 60 m.) Solid to gas cycle (Dry ice cannon — Dry ice sublimes to gas.) Gas only cycles In these cycles and engines the working fluid is always a gas (ie, there is no phase change): Carnot cycle (Carnot heat engine) Ericsson Cycle (Caloric Ship John Ericsson) Stirling cycle (Stirling engine, thermoacoustic devices) Internal combustion engine (ICE): Otto cycle (eg. Gasoline/Petrol engine, high-speed diesel engine) Diesel cycle (eg. low-speed diesel engine) Atkinson Cycle (Atkinson Engine) Brayton cycle or Joule cycle originally Ericsson Cycle (gas turbine) Lenoir cycle (e.g., pulse jet engine) Miller cycle Liquid only cycles In these cycles and engines the working fluid are always like liquid: Stirling Cycle (Malone engine) Electron cycles Thermoelectric (Peltier-Seebeck effect) Thermionic emission Thermotunnel cooling Magnetic cycles Thermo-magnetic motor (Tesla) Cycles used for refrigeration A refrigerator is a heat pump: a heat engine in reverse. Work is used to create a heat differential. Many cycles can run in reverse to move heat from the cold side to the hot side, making the cold side cooler and the hot side hotter. Internal combustion engine versions of these cycles are, by their nature, not reversible. Vapor-compression refrigeration Stirling cryocooler Gas-absorption refrigerator Air cycle machine Vuilleumier refrigeration Evaporative Heat Engines The Barton Evaporation Engine is a heat engine based on a cycle producing power and cooled moist air from the evaporation of water into hot dry air. Efficiency The efficiency of a heat engine relates how much useful power is output for a given amount of heat energy input. From the laws of thermodynamics: where is the work extracted from the engine. (It is negative since work is done by the engine.) is the heat energy taken from the high temperature system. (It is negative since heat is extracted from the source, hence is positive.) is the heat energy delivered to the cold temperature system. (It is positive since heat is added to the sink.) In other words, a heat engine absorbs heat energy from the high temperature heat source, converting part of it to useful work and delivering the rest to the cold temperature heat sink. In general, the efficiency of a given heat transfer process (whether it be a refrigerator, a heat pump or an engine) is defined informally by the ratio of "what you get out" to "what you put in." In the case of an engine, one desires to extract work and puts in a heat transfer. The theoretical maximum efficiency of any heat engine depends only on the temperatures it operates between. This efficiency is usually derived using an ideal imaginary heat engine such as the Carnot heat engine, although other engines using different cycles can also attain maximum efficiency. Mathematically, this is because in reversible processes, the change in entropy of the cold reservoir is the negative of that of the hot reservoir (i.e., ), keeping the overall change of entropy zero. Thus: where is the absolute temperature of the hot source and that of the cold sink, usually measured in kelvin. Note that is positive while is negative; in any reversible work-extracting process, entropy is overall not increased, but rather is moved from a hot (high-entropy) system to a cold (low-entropy one), decreasing the entropy of the heat source and increasing that of the heat sink. The reasoning behind this being the maximal efficiency goes as follows. It is first assumed that if a more efficient heat engine than a Carnot engine is possible, then it could be driven in reverse as a heat pump. Mathematical analysis can be used to show that this assumed combination would result in a net decrease in entropy. Since, by the second law of thermodynamics, this is statistically improbable, the Carnot efficiency is a theoretical upper bound on the reliable efficiency of any process. Empirically, no engine has ever been shown to run at a greater efficiency than a Carnot cycle heat engine. Here are two plots, Figure 2 and Figure 3, for the Carnot cycle efficiency. One plot indicates how the cycle efficiency changes with an increase in the heat addition temperature for a constant compressor inlet temperature, while the other indicates how the cycle efficiency changes with an increase in the heat rejection temperature for a constant turbine inlet temperature. Figure 2: Carnot cycle efficiency with changing heat addition temperature. Figure 3: Carnot cycle efficiency with changing heat rejection temperature. Efficiency of endoreversible heat engines One problem with the ideal Carnot efficiency as a criterion of heat engine performance is the fact that by its nature, any maximally-efficient Carnot cycle must operate at an infinitesimal temperature gradient. This is because any transfer of heat between two bodies at differing temperatures is irreversible, and therefore the Carnot efficiency expression only applies in the infinitesimal limit. The major problem with that is that the object of most heat engines is to output some sort of power, and infinitesimal power is usually not what is being sought. A different measure of ideal heat engine efficiency is given by conserations of endoreversible thermodynamics, where the cycle is identical to the Carnot cycle except in that the two processes of heat transfer are not reversible (Callen 1985): (Note: Units K or °R) This model does a better job of predicting how well real-world heat engines can do (Callen 1985, see also endoreversible thermodynamics): +Efficiencies of Power Plants Power Plant (°C) (°C) (Carnot) (Endoreversible) (Observed) West Thurrock (UK) coal-fired power plant 25 565 0.64 0.40 0.36 CANDU (Canada) nuclear power plant 25 300 0.48 0.28 0.30 Larderello (Italy) geothermal power plant 80 250 0.33 0.178 0.16 As shown, the endoreversible efficiency much more closely models the observed data. Heat engine enhancements Engineers have studied the various heat engine cycles extensively in an effort to improve the amount of usable work they could extract from a given power source. The Carnot Cycle limit cannot be reached with any gas-based cycle, but engineers have worked out at least two ways to possibly go around that limit, and one way to get better efficiency without bending any rules. Increase the temperature difference in the heat engine. The simplest way to do this is to increase the hot side temperature, and is the approach used in modern combined-cycle gas turbines. Unfortunately, NOx production and material limits (melting the turbine blades) place a hard limit to how hot you can make a workable heat engine. Modern gas turbines are about as hot as they can become and still maintain acceptable NOx pollution levels. Another way of increasing efficiency is to lower the output temperature. One new method of doing so is to use mixed chemical working fluids, and then exploit the changing behavior of the mixtures. One of the most famous is the so-called Kalina cycle, which uses a 70/30 mix of ammonia and water as its working fluid. This mixture allows the cycle to generate useful power at considerably lower temperatures than most other processes. Exploit the physical properties of the working fluid. The most common such exploitation is the use of water above the so-called critical point, or so-called supercritical steam. The behavior of fluids above their critical point changes radically, and with materials such as water and carbon dioxide it is possible to exploit those changes in behavior to extract greater thermodynamic efficiency from the heat engine, even if it is using a fairly conventional Brayton or Rankine cycle. A newer and very promising material for such applications is CO2. SO2 and xenon have also been considered for such applications, although SO2 is a little toxic for most. Exploit the chemical properties of the working fluid. A fairly new and novel exploit is to use exotic working fluids with advantageous chemical properties. One such is nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a toxic component of smog, which has a natural dimer as di-nitrogen tetraoxide (N2O4). At low temperature, the N2O4 is compressed and then heated. The increasing temperature causes each N2O4 to break apart into two NO2 molecules. This lowers the molecular weight of the working fluid, which drastically increases the efficiency of the cycle. Once the NO2 has expanded through the turbine, it is cooled by the heat sink, which causes it to recombine into N2O4. This is then fed back to the compressor for another cycle. Such species as aluminium bromide (Al2Br6), NOCl, and Ga2I6 have all been investigated for such uses. To date, their drawbacks have not warranted their use, despite the efficiency gains that can be realized. Nuclear Reactors Concepts and Thermodynamic Cycles Heat engine processes + Cycle/Process Compression Heat Addition Expansion Heat Rejection Power cycles normally with external combustion Carnot adiabatic isothermal adiabatic isothermal Stirling isothermal isometric isothermal isometric Ericsson isothermal isobaric isothermal isobaric Rankine (Steam) adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isobaric Stoddard adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isobaric Power cycles normally with internal combustion Otto (Petrol) adiabatic isometric adiabatic isometric Diesel adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isometric Brayton (Jet) adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isobaric Each process is one of the following: isothermal (at constant temperature, maintained with heat added or removed from a heat source or sink) isobaric (at constant pressure) isometric/isochoric (at constant volume), also referred to as iso-volumetric adiabatic (no heat is added or removed from the system during adiabatic process which is equivalent to saying that the entropy remains constant) References See also Reciprocating engine for a general description of the mechanics of piston engines Adiabatic engine Heat pump Carnot heat engine Timeline of heat engine technology Heat engine classifications External links Video of Stirling engine running on dry ice Heat Engine Webarchive backup: Refrigeration Cycle Citat: "...The refrigeration cycle is basically the Rankine cycle run in reverse..." Red Rock Energy Solar Heliostats: Heat Engine Projects Citat: "...Choosing a Heat Engine..." Overview of heat engine types - not working The rotary piston array machine The gyroscope combustion motor The external combustion air engine Super-efficient Atkinson-Diesel Cycle Photos of toy steam engines, including a very rare Bing heat engine be-x-old:Цеплавы рухавік | Heat_engine |@lemmatized heat:85 engine:87 physical:3 theoretical:6 device:4 convert:4 thermal:3 energy:8 mechanical:7 output:5 call:6 work:21 input:2 typically:2 run:6 specific:1 thermodynamic:7 cycle:73 open:3 atmospheric:1 air:5 seal:1 close:2 outside:1 closed:2 engineering:2 thermodynamics:6 perform:1 conversion:1 exploit:7 temperature:29 gradient:2 hot:13 source:10 cold:11 sink:10 transfer:5 body:2 process:12 property:4 working:3 substance:1 usually:4 gas:15 liquid:8 figure:5 diagram:2 overview:2 often:4 confuse:1 attempt:1 mimic:1 describe:2 term:3 use:17 model:7 standard:1 otto:3 refine:1 augment:1 actual:3 data:2 operating:1 tool:1 indicator:1 since:5 implementation:1 exactly:1 match:1 underlying:1 one:10 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2,634 | Ontario | Ontario () is a province located in east-central Canada, "Ontario." Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed. 2003. (ISBN 0-87779-809-5) New York: Merriam-Webster, Inc." Ontario is located in the eastern part of Canada, but is also historically and politically considered to be part of Central Canada (with Quebec). the largest by population and second largest, after Quebec, in total area. (Nunavut and the Northwest Territories are larger but are not provinces.) Ontario is bordered by the provinces of Manitoba to the west and Quebec to the east, and the U.S. states (from west to east) of Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio and Pennsylvania (both across Lake Erie), and New York to the south and east. Most of Ontario's borders with the United States are natural, starting at the Lake of the Woods and continuing through four of the Great Lakes: Superior, Huron (which includes Georgian Bay), Erie, and Ontario, then along the Saint Lawrence River near Cornwall. Ontario is the only Canadian province that borders the Great Lakes. For analytical purposes Ontario is often broken into two regions, Northern Ontario, and Southern Ontario. The capital of Ontario is Toronto, Canada's most populous city and metropolitan area. Ottawa, the capital of Canada, is located in Ontario as well. The 2006 Census counted 12,960,282 residents in Ontario, which accounted for 38.5% of the national population. The province takes its name from Lake Ontario, which is thought to be derived from Ontarí:io, a Huron (Wyandot) word meaning "great lake", or possibly skanadario which means "beautiful water" in Iroquoian. Along with New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Quebec, Ontario is one of the four original provinces of Canada when the federal nation was created July 1, 1867, when the British North America Act, 1867 (or 'BNA') came into force. Upon achievement of full independence from the United Kingdom in 1982, the BNA was re-christened the Constitution Act, 1867. Ontario is Canada's leading manufacturing province accounting for 52% of the total national manufacturing shipments in 2004. Ontario's largest trading partner is the American State of Michigan. Geography Evolution of the borders of Ontario Niagara Falls is a major tourist attraction in Ontario as well as a huge supplier of hydroelectric energy for the province. The province consists of four main geographical regions: The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions which covers over half the land area in the province; though mostly infertile land, it is rich in minerals and studded with lakes and rivers; sub-regions are Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the extreme north and northeast, mainly swampy and sparsely forested; and The temperate and therefore most populous region, the fertile Great Lakes-Saint Lawrence Valley in the south where agriculture and industry are concentrated. Southern Ontario is further sub-divided into four regions; Southwestern Ontario (parts of which were formerly referred to as Western Ontario), Golden Horseshoe, Central Ontario (although not actually the province's geographic centre) and Eastern Ontario. The Niagara Escarpment on the Bruce Peninsula. Despite the absence of any mountainous terrain in the province, there are large areas of uplands, particularly within the Canadian Shield which traverses the province from northwest to southeast and also above the Niagara Escarpment which crosses the south. The highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. The Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern section, its northern extent is part of the Greater Toronto Area at the western end of Lake Ontario. The most well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the much more extensive Niagara Escarpment. The Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 85% of the surface area of the province; conversely Southern Ontario contains 94% of the population. Point Pelee National Park is a peninsula in southwestern Ontario (near Windsor and Detroit, Michigan) that extends into Lake Erie and is the southernmost extent of Canada's mainland. Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the northern border of California. Territorial evolution Land was not legally subdivided into administrative units until a treaty had been concluded with the native peoples ceding the land. In 1788, while part of the Province of Quebec (1763–1791), southern Ontario was divided into four districts: Hesse, Lunenburg, Mecklenburg, and Nassau. In 1792, the four districts were renamed: Hesse became the Western District, Lunenburg became the Eastern District, Mecklenburg became the Midland District, and Nassau became the Home District. Counties were created within the districts. By 1798, there were eight districts: Eastern, Home, Johnstown, London, Midland, Newcastle, Niagara, and Western. By 1826, there were eleven districts: Bathurst, Eastern, Gore, Home, Johnstown, London, Midland, Newcastle, Niagara, Ottawa, and Western. By 1838, there were twenty districts: Bathurst, Brock, Colbourne, Dalhousie, Eastern, Gore, Home, Huron, Johnstown, London, Midland, Newcastle, Niagara, Ottawa, Prince Edward, Simcoe, Talbot, Victoria, Wellington, and Western. In 1849, the districts of southern Ontario were abolished by the Province of Canada, and county governments took over certain municipal responsibilities. The Province of Canada also began creating districts in sparsely populated Northern Ontario with the establishment of Algoma District and Nipissing District in 1858. The northern and western boundaries of Ontario were in dispute after Confederation. Ontario's right to Northwestern Ontario was determined by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in 1884 and confirmed by the Canada (Ontario Boundary) Act, 1889 of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. By 1899, there were seven northern districts: Algoma, Manitoulin, Muskoka, Nipissing, Parry Sound, Rainy River, and Thunder Bay. Four more northern districts were created between 1907 and 1912: Cochrane, Kenora, Sudbury and Timiskaming. Climate and Environment Climate Enjoying summer at Sandbanks Provincial Park on Lake Ontario. Ontario has three main climatic regions. Southwestern Ontario, the cities of Windsor, London and the southern half of the Golden Horseshoe region including Hamilton, Niagara and the city of Toronto, have a moderate humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa), similar to that of the inland Mid-Atlantic States and the lower Great Lakes portion of the Midwestern United States. The region has warm, humid summers and cold winters. Extreme heat and cold usually occur for short periods. It is considered a temperate climate when compared with most of continental Canada. In the fall and winter, temperatures are moderated by the delayed cooling of the Great Lakes, this effect reversed in spring and summer when afternoon warming is tempered. The lakes' moderating effects allow for a longer growing season than areas at similar latitudes in the continent's interior. Both spring and fall are generally consist of mild days and cool nights. Annual precipitation ranges from and is well distributed throughout the year with a usual summer peak. Most of this region lies in the lee of the Great Lakes making for abundant snow in some areas (London, Goderich for example) over while some other areas are not in the direct snowbelt and receive closer to an average of of snow per year. The Thames River in London, Ontario. The second climatic zone covers the northern half of Southern Ontario, including the northern and more elevated parts of the Golden Horseshoe, Central and Eastern Ontario (includes Ottawa). Also included is the southern reaches of Northern Ontario, including the cities of Sudbury and North Bay, which have a more severe humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb). This region has warm and sometimes hot summers (although shorter in length than Southwestern Ontario) with cold, longer winters with roughly equal annual precipitation as the south. Along the eastern shores of Lake Superior and Lake Huron, frequent heavy lake-effect snow squalls increase seasonal snowfall totals upwards of and higher on much of the Georgian Bay shoreline including Killarney, Parry Sound, Muskoka and Simcoe County and on the Lake Huron shore, the Bruce Peninsula. Such conditions and the absence of long stretches of brutal cold make for excellent winter recreation. The northernmost parts of Ontario—primarily north of 50°N and with no major cities in the area—have a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc) with long, severely cold winters and short, cool to warm summers with dramatic temperature changes possible in all seasons. In summer, hot weather occasionally reaches even the northernmost parts of Ontario for brief periods, although humidity is generally lower than in the south. With no major mountain ranges blocking sinking Arctic air masses, temperatures of are not uncommon. The snow stays on the ground much longer in here than other regions of Ontario; snow cover is usually present to some extent between October and May. Severe and non-severe thunderstorms peak in frequency from June through August. Thunderstorms form from daytime convective heating and frontal activity. Another severe type of thunderstorm is known as a Derecho, also common to the midwest US, which is a larger cluster-type thunderstorm mass. They often develop in the afternoon west of the Great Lakes but strike Southern Ontario at night with great forward motion, bringing severe straight-line winds over wide areas resulting in damage to forests, power interruption and infrastructure damage. The areas with the highest severe weather frequency in the province are extreme Southwestern (Windsor,Chatham corridor) and Central Ontario (Simcoe County including the city of Barrie), both areas often get amplified storms resulting from the Lake Breeze Front convergence. London has the most lightning strikes per year in Canada and is also one of the most active areas in the country for storms. In typical year, Ontario averages 20 or more confirmed tornado touchdowns, with the highest frequency in southwestern Ontario. They are rarely destructive (the vast majority are classified as F0 or F1 on the Fujita scale). In Northern Ontario, some tornadoes go undetected by ground spotters because of the sparse population and remote landscape; they are often discovered after the fact by aircraft pilots, where aerial observations of damaged forest confirm occurrences. Tropical depression remnants can cause copious rains and winds in the south, but are rarely deadly. A notable exception was Hurricane Hazel in October 1954. Environment The Green Energy and Green Economy Act, 2009 (GEA), takes a two-pronged approach to creating a green economy. The first is to bring more renewables to the province and the second is the creation of more energy efficiency measures to help conserve energy. The bill would also appoint a Renewable Energy Facilitator to provide "one-window" assistance and support to project developers in order to facilitate project approvals. The approvals process for transmission projects would also be streamlined and for the first time in Ontario, the bill would enact standards for renewable energy projects. homeowners would have access to incentives to develop small-scale renewables such as low- or no-interest loans to finance the capital cost of renewable energy generating facilities like solar panels. Ontario Unveils Green Energy and Green Economy Act, 2009 Its beautiful History European contact Before the arrival of the Europeans, the region was inhabited both by Algonquian (Ojibwa, Cree and Algonquin) in the western portions and Iroquois and Wyandot (Huron) tribes more in the east. The French explorer Étienne Brûlé explored part of the area in 1610-12. The English explorer Henry Hudson sailed into Hudson Bay in 1611 and claimed the area for England, but Samuel de Champlain reached Lake Huron in 1615, and French missionaries began to establish posts along the Great Lakes. French settlement was hampered by their hostilities with the Iroquois, who allied themselves with the British. Statue of United Empire Loyalists in downtown Hamilton on Main Street East. The British established trading posts on Hudson Bay in the late 17th century and began a struggle for domination of Ontario. The 1763 Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years' War by awarding nearly all of France's North American possessions (New France) to Britain. The region was annexed to Quebec in 1774. From 1783 to 1796, the Kingdom of Great Britain granted United Empire Loyalists leaving the United States following the American Revolution of land and other items with which to rebuild their lives. This measure substantially increased the population of Canada west of the St. Lawrence-Ottawa River confluence during this period, a fact recognized by the Constitutional Act of 1791, which split Quebec into the Canadas: Upper Canada southwest of the St. Lawrence-Ottawa River confluence, and Lower Canada east of it. John Graves Simcoe was appointed Upper Canada's first Lieutenant-Governor in 1793. American troops in the War of 1812 invaded Upper Canada across the Niagara River and the Detroit River but were defeated and pushed back by British regulars, Canadian militias, and First Nations warriors. The Americans gained control of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, however. During the Battle of York they occupied the Town of York (later named Toronto) in 1813. The Americans looted the town and burned the Parliament Buildings but were soon forced to leave. After the War of 1812, relative stability allowed for increasing numbers of immigrants to arrive from Britain and Ireland rather than from the United States. As was the case in the previous decades, this deliberate immigration shift was encouraged by the colonial leaders. Despite affordable and often free land, many arriving newcomers from Europe (mostly from Britain and Ireland) found frontier life with the harsh climate difficult, and some of those with the means eventually returned home or went south. However, population growth far exceeded emigration in the decades that followed. Still, a mostly agrarian-based society, canal projects and a new network of plank roads spurred greater trade within the colony and with the United States, thereby improving relations over time. Meanwhile, Ontario's numerous waterways aided travel and transportation into the interior and supplied water power for development. As the population increased, so did the industries and transportation networks, which in turn led to further development. By the end of the century, Ontario vied with Quebec as the nation's leader in terms of growth in population, industry, arts and communications. Virtual Vault, an online exhibition of Canadian historical art at Library and Archives Canada Many in the colony, however, began to chafe against the aristocratic Family Compact who governed while benefiting economically from the region's resources, and who did not allow elected bodies the power to effect change (much as the Château Clique ruled Lower Canada). This resentment spurred republican ideals and sowed the seeds for early Canadian nationalism. Accordingly, rebellion in favour of responsible government rose in both regions; Louis-Joseph Papineau led the Lower Canada Rebellion and William Lyon Mackenzie led the Upper Canada Rebellion. Although both rebellions were put down in short order, the British government sent Lord Durham to investigate the causes of the unrest. He recommended that self-government be granted and that Lower and Upper Canada be re-joined in an attempt to assimilate the French Canadians. Accordingly, the two colonies were merged into the Province of Canada by the Act of Union 1840, with the capital at Kingston, and Upper Canada becoming known as Canada West. Parliamentary self-government was granted in 1848. There were heavy waves of immigration in the 1840s, and the population of Canada West more than doubled by 1851 over the previous decade. As a result, for the first time the English-speaking population of Canada West surpassed the French-speaking population of Canada East, tilting the representative balance of power. An economic boom in the 1850s coincided with railway expansion across the province, further increasing the economic strength of Central Canada. With the repeal of the Corn Laws and a reciprocity agreement in place with United States, various industries such as timber, mining, farming and alcohol distilling benefited tremendously. A political stalemate between the French- and English-speaking legislators, as well as fear of aggression from the United States during and immediately after the American Civil War, led the political elite to hold a series of conferences in the 1860s to effect a broader federal union of all British North American colonies. The British North America Act took effect on July 1, 1867, establishing the Dominion of Canada, initially with four provinces: Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec and Ontario. The Province of Canada was divided into Ontario and Quebec so that each linguistic group would have its own province. Both Quebec and Ontario were required by section 93 of the BNA Act to safeguard existing educational rights and privileges of Protestant and the Catholic minority. Thus, separate Catholic schools and school boards were permitted in Ontario. However, neither province had a constitutional requirement to protect its French- or English-speaking minority. Toronto was formally established as Ontario's provincial capital. Province of Ontario Once constituted as a province, Ontario proceeded to assert its economic and legislative power. In 1872, the lawyer Oliver Mowat became Premier of Ontario and remained as premier until 1896. He fought for provincial rights, weakening the power of the federal government in provincial matters, usually through well-argued appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. His battles with the federal government greatly decentralized Canada, giving the provinces far more power than John A. Macdonald had intended. He consolidated and expanded Ontario's educational and provincial institutions, created districts in Northern Ontario, and fought to ensure that those parts of Northwestern Ontario not historically part of Upper Canada (the vast areas north and west of the Lake Superior-Hudson Bay watershed, known as the District of Keewatin) would become part of Ontario, a victory embodied in the Canada (Ontario Boundary) Act, 1889. He also presided over the emergence of the province into the economic powerhouse of Canada. Mowat was the creator of what is often called Empire Ontario. Beginning with Sir John A. Macdonald's National Policy (1879) and the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway (1875-1885) through Northern Ontario and the Canadian Prairies to British Columbia, Ontario manufacturing and industry flourished. However, population increase slowed after a large recession hit the province in 1893, thus slowing growth drastically but only for a few short years. Many newly arrived immigrants and others moved west along the railroad to the Prairie Provinces and British Columbia, sparsely settling Northern Ontario. Mineral exploitation accelerated in the late 19th century, leading to the rise of important mining centres in the northeast like Sudbury, Cobalt and Timmins. The province harnessed its water power to generate hydro-electric power and created the state-controlled Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario, later Ontario Hydro. The availability of cheap electric power further facilitated the development of industry. The Ford Motor Company of Canada was established in 1904. General Motors Canada was formed in 1918. The motor vehicle industry would go on to become the most lucrative industry for the Ontario economy. In July 1912, the Conservative government of Sir James Whitney issued Regulation 17 which severely limited the availability of French-language schooling to the province's French-speaking minority. French Canadians reacted with outrage, journalist Henri Bourassa denouncing the "Prussians of Ontario". It was eventually repealed in 1927. Influenced by events in the United States, the government of Sir William Hearst introduced prohibition of alcoholic drinks in 1916 with the passing of the Ontario Temperance Act. However, residents could distil and retain their own personal supply, and liquor producers could continue distillation and export for sale, which allowed this already sizable industry to strengthen further and Ontario became a hotbed for the illegal smuggling of liquor into the United States, which was under complete prohibition. Prohibition in Ontario came to an end in 1927 with the establishment of the Liquor Control Board of Ontario by the government of Howard Ferguson. The sale and consumption of liquor, wine, and beer are still controlled by some of the most extreme laws in North America to ensure that strict community standards and revenue generation from the alcohol retail monopoly are upheld. In April 2007, Ontario Member of Provincial Parliament Kim Craitor suggested that local brewers should be able to sell their beer in local corner stores; however, the motion was quickly rejected by Premier Dalton McGuinty. The post-World War II period was one of exceptional prosperity and growth. Ontario, and the Greater Toronto Area in particular, have been the recipients of most immigration to Canada, largely immigrants from war-torn Europe in the 1950s and 1960s and after changes in federal immigration law, a massive influx of non-Europeans since the 1970s. From a largely ethnically British province, Ontario has rapidly become very culturally diverse. The nationalist movement in Quebec, particularly after the election of the Parti Québécois in 1976, contributed to driving many businesses and English-speaking people out of Quebec to Ontario, and as a result Toronto surpassed Montreal as the largest city and economic centre of Canada. Depressed economic conditions in the Maritime Provinces have also resulted in de-population of those provinces in the 20th century, with heavy migration into Ontario. Ontario has no official language, but English is considered the de facto language. Numerous French language services are available under the French Language Services Act of 1990 in designated areas where sizable francophone populations exist. Demographics Population since 1851 YearPopulationFive-year% changeTen-year% changeRank amongprovinces1851 952,004 n/a 208.8 11861 1,396,091 n/a 46.6 11871 1,620,851 n/a 16.1 11881 1,926,922 n/a 18.9 11891 2,114,321 n/a 9.7 11901 2,182,947 n/a 3.2 11911 2,527,292 n/a 15.8 11921 2,933,662 n/a 16.1 11931 3,431,683 n/a 17.0 11941 3,787,655 n/a 10.3 11951 4,597,542 n/a 21.4 11956 5,404,933 17.6 n/a 11961 6,236,092 15.4 35.6 11966 6,960,870 11.6 28.8 11971 7,703,105 10.7 23.5 11976 8,264,465 7.3 18.7 11981 8,625,107 4.4 12.0 11986 9,101,695 5.5 10.1 11991 10,084,885 10.8 16.9 11996 10,753,573 6.6 18.1 12001 11,410,046 6.1 13.1 12006* 12,960,282 6.6 13.1 1 *2006 Census Ethnic groups Visible minorities of Ontario in 2001. EthnicResponses%Total population 11,285,545 100Canadian 3,350,275 29.7English 2,711,485 24Scottish 1,843,110 16.3Irish 1,761,280 15.6French 1,235,765 10.9German 965,510 8.6Italian 781,345 6.9Chinese 518,550 4.6Dutch (Netherlands) 436,035 3.9South Asian 413,415 3.7Polish 386,050 3.4Ukrainian 290,925 2.6North American Indian 248,940 2.2Portuguese 248,265 2.2Jewish 196,260 1.7Jamaican 180,810 1.6Filipino 165,025 1.5Spanish 147,140 1.3Welsh 142,740 1.3Hungarian (Magyar) 128,575 1.1Greek 120,635 1.0Russian 106,710 0.9American (USA) 86,855 0.8Serbian 78,230 0.7British, not includedelsewhere 76,415 0.7Vietnamese 67,450 0.6Finnish 64,105 0.6Croatian 62,325 0.6Métis 60,535 0.5Lebanese 59,155 0.5 The percentages add to more than 100% because of dual responses (e.g. "French-Canadian" generates an entry in both the category "French" and the category "Canadian"). Groups with greater than 200,000 responses are included. The majority of Ontarians are of British or other European descent. Slightly less than five percent of the population of Ontario is Franco-Ontarian, that is those whose native tongue is French, although those with French ancestry account for 11% of the population. In relation to natural increase or inter-provincial migration, immigration is a huge population growth force in Ontario, as it has been over the last two centuries. More recent sources of immigrants with already large or growing communities in Ontario include Caribbeans (Jamaicans, Trinidadians, Bajan), South Asians (e.g. Pakistanis, Indians, Bangladeshis and Sri Lankans), East Asians (mostly Chinese and Filipinos), Central/South Americans (such as Guyanese, Colombians, Mexicans, Hondurans, Argentinans, and Ecuadorians), Eastern Europeans such as Russians and Bosnians, and groups from Somalia, Iran, and West Africa. Most populations have settled in the Greater Toronto area. A smaller number have settled in other cities such as London, Kitchener, Hamilton, Windsor, Barrie, and Ottawa. Religion The largest denominations by number of adherents according to the 2001 census were the Roman Catholic Church with 3,866,350 (34 %); the United Church of Canada with 1,334,570 (12 %); and the Anglican Church of Canada with 985,110 (9 %). Selected Religions, for Canada, Provinces and Territories - 20% Sample Data The major religious groups in Ontario, as of 2001, are: Religion in Ontario in 2001. ReligionPeople%Total 11,285,545 100Protestant 3,935,745 34.9Catholic 3,911,760 34.7No Religion 1,841,290 16.3Muslim 352,530 3.1Other Christians 301,935 2.7Christian Orthodox 264,055 2.3Hindu 217,555 1.9Jewish 190,795 1.7Buddhist 128,320 1.1Sikh 104,785 0.9Eastern Religions 17,780 0.2Other Religions 18,985 0.2 |Religious diversity information for Ontario Economy The CN Tower in Toronto has the 2nd highest public observation level on Earth. |Absolute World will be the tallest building in Ontario outside of Toronto when it is completed in 2009 in Mississauga. Ontario's rivers, including its share of the Niagara River, make it rich in hydroelectric energy. Since the privatization of Ontario Hydro which began in 1999, Ontario Power Generation runs 85% of electricity generated in the province, of which 41% is nuclear, 30% is hydroelectric and 29% is fossil fuel derived. OPG is not however responsible for the transmission of power, which is under the control of Hydro One. Despite its diverse range of power options, problems related to increasing consumption, lack of energy efficiency and aging nuclear reactors, Ontario has been forced in recent years to purchase power from its neighbours Quebec and Michigan to supplement its power needs during peak consumption periods. An abundance of natural resources, excellent transportation links to the American heartland and the inland Great Lakes making ocean access possible via container ships, have all contributed to making manufacturing the principal industry, found mainly in the Golden Horseshoe region, which is the largest industrialized area in Canada, and part of the North American Rust Belt. Important products include motor vehicles, iron, steel, food, electrical appliances, machinery, chemicals, and paper. Ontario surpassed Michigan in car production, assembling 2.696 million vehicles in 2004. However, as a result of steeply declining sales, on November 21, 2005, General Motors announced massive layoffs at production facilities across North America including two large GM plants in Oshawa and a drive train facility in St. Catharines which by 2008 will result in 8,000 job losses in Ontario alone. Subsequently in January 23, 2006, Ford Motor Company announced between 25,000 and 30,000 layoffs phased until 2012; Ontario was spared the worst, but job losses were announced for the St. Thomas facility and the Windsor Casting plant. However, these losses will be offset by Ford's recent announcement of a hybrid vehicle facility slated to begin production in 2007 at its Oakville plant and GM's re-introduction of the Camaro which will be produced in Oshawa. On December 4, 2008 Toyota announced the grand opening of the RAV4 plant in Woodstock, Toyota's opening a new chapter in Woodstock's industrial history and Honda also has plans to add an engine plant at its facility in Alliston. Toronto, the capital of Ontario, is the centre of Canada's financial services and banking industry. Suburban cities in the Greater Toronto Area like Brampton, Mississauga and Vaughan are large product distribution and IT centres, in addition to having various manufacturing industries. The information technology sector is also important, particularly in the Waterloo Region. Hamilton is the largest steel manufacturing city in Canada, and Sarnia is the centre for petrochemical production. Construction employs at least 7% of the work force, but because of undocumented workers, the figure is likely over 10%. This sector has thrived over the last ten years because of steadily increasing new house and condominium construction combined with low mortgage rates and climbing prices, particularly in the Greater Toronto area. Mining and the forest products industry, notably pulp and paper, are vital to the economy of Northern Ontario. More than any other region, tourism contributes heavily to the economy of Central Ontario, peaking during the summer months owing to the abundance of fresh water recreation and wilderness found there in reasonable proximity to the major urban centres. At other times of the year, hunting, skiing and snowmobiling are popular. This region has some of the most vibrant fall colour displays anywhere on the continent, and tours directed at overseas visitors are organized to see them. Tourism also plays a key role in border cities with large casinos, among them Windsor, Rama, and Niagara Falls, which attract many U.S. visitors. Agriculture Once the dominant industry, agriculture occupies a small percentage of the population. The number of farms has decreased from 68,633 in 1991 to 59,728 in 2001, but farms have increased in average size, and many are becoming more mechanized. Cattle, small grains and dairy were the common types of farms in the 2001 census. The fruit, grape and vegetable growing industry is located primarily on the Niagara Peninsula and along Lake Erie, where tobacco farms are also situated. Tobacco production has decreased leading to an increase in some other new crop alternatives gaining popularity, such as hazelnuts and ginseng. The Ontario origins of Massey Ferguson, once one of the largest farm implement manufacturers in the world, indicate the importance agriculture once had to the Canadian economy. Southern Ontario's limited supply of agricultural land is going out of production at an increasing rate. Urban sprawl and farmland severances contribute to the loss of thousands of acres of productive agricultural land in Ontario each year. Over 2,000 farms and of farmland in the GTA alone were lost to production in the two decades between 1976 and 1996. This loss represented approximately 18% of Ontario's Class 1 farmland being converted to urban purposes. In addition, increasing rural severances provide ever-greater interference with agricultural production. The 500,000, or so, acres (200,000 ha) comprising the black peat soil Holland Marsh, located just south of Lake Simcoe and near the town of Bradford West Gwillimbury ( north of Toronto) continues to be Canada's premier vegetable production center. Transportation Historically, the province has used two major east-west routes, both starting from Montreal in the neighbouring province of Quebec. The northerly route, which was pioneered by early French-speaking fur traders, travels northwest from Montreal along the Ottawa River, then continues westward towards Manitoba. Major cities on or near the route include Ottawa, North Bay, Sudbury, Sault Ste. Marie, and Thunder Bay. The much more heavily travelled southerly route, which was driven by growth in predominantly English-speaking settlements originated by the United Empire Loyalists and later other European immigrants, travels southwest from Montreal along the St. Lawrence River, Lake Ontario, and Lake Erie before entering the United States in Michigan. Major cities on or near the route include Kingston, Oshawa, Toronto, Mississauga, Kitchener-Waterloo, London, Sarnia, and Windsor. This route was also heavily used by immigrants to the Midwestern US particularly in the late 19th century. Most of Ontario's major transportation infrastructure is oriented east-west and roughly follows one of these two original routes. Roads Highway 401, running east/northeast from Windsor to the Quebec border is one of the busiest highways in the world. 400-Series Highways make up the primary vehicular network in the south of province, and they connect to numerous border crossings with the U.S., the busiest being the Detroit–Windsor Tunnel and Ambassador Bridge (via Highway 401) and the Blue Water Bridge (via Highway 402). The primary highway along the southern route is Highway 401, the busiest highway in North America and the backbone of Ontario's road network, tourism, and economy, while the primary highways across the north are Highway 417/Highway 17 and Highway 11, both part of the Trans-Canada Highway. Highway 400/Highway 69 connects Toronto to Northern Ontario. Other provincial highways and regional roads inter-connect the remainder of the province. Waterways The Saint Lawrence Seaway, which extends across most of the southern portion of the province and connects to the Atlantic Ocean, is the primary water transportation route for cargo, particularly iron ore and grain. In the past, the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River were also a major passenger transportation route, but over the past half century passenger travel has been reduced to ferry services and sightseeing cruises. Railways The O-Train, Ottawa's light rail train system (LRT). Via Rail operates the inter-regional passenger train service on the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor, along with "The Canadian", a transcontinental rail service from Toronto to Vancouver, and "The Lake Superior", a regional rail service from Sudbury to White River. Additionally, Amtrak rail connects Ontario with key New York cities including Buffalo, Albany, and New York City. Ontario Northland provides rail service to destinations as far north as Moosonee near James Bay, connecting them with the south. Freight rail is dominated by the founding cross-country Canadian National Railway and CP Rail companies, which during the 1990s sold many short rail lines from their vast network to private companies operating mostly in the south. Regional commuter rail is limited to the provincially owned GO Transit, which serves a train/bus network spanning the Golden Horseshoe region, with its hub in Toronto. The Toronto Transit Commission operates the province's only subway and streetcar system, one of the busiest in North America. Outside of Toronto, the O-Train Light rail line operates in Ottawa with expansion of the line and proposals for additional lines. Air travel Toronto Pearson International Airport is the nation's busiest and the world's 29th busiest, handling over 30 million passengers per year. Other important airports include Ottawa Macdonald-Cartier International Airport and Hamilton's John C. Munro Hamilton International Airport, which is an important courier and freight aviation centre. Toronto/Pearson and Ottawa/Macdonald-Cartier form two of the three points in Canada's busiest set of air routes (the third point is Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport). Most Ontario cities have regional airports, many of which have scheduled commuter flights from Air Canada Jazz or smaller airlines and charter companies—flights from the larger cities such as Thunder Bay, Sault Ste. Marie, Sudbury, North Bay, Timmins, Windsor, London, and Kingston feed directly into Toronto Pearson. Bearskin Airlines also runs flights along the northerly east-west route, connecting Ottawa, North Bay, Sudbury, Sault Ste. Marie, and Thunder Bay directly without requiring connections at Toronto Pearson. Isolated towns and settlements in the northern areas of the province rely partly or entirely on air service for travel, goods, and even ambulance services (MEDIVAC), since much of the far northern area of the province cannot be reached by road or rail. Government The wordmark of the Government of Ontario, featuring a stylized version of the provincial flower, the trillium. This wordmark was introduced in late 2007. The previous wordmark of the Government of Ontario, which was in use from the late-1960s until 2007 (not counting the lettering used here). The Ontario Legislature at Queen's Park in Toronto. The British North America Act 1867 section 69 stipulated "There shall be a Legislature for Ontario consisting of the Lieutenant Governor and of One House, styled the Legislative Assembly of Ontario." The assembly has 107 seats representing ridings elected in a first-past-the-post system across the province. The legislative buildings at Queen's Park in Toronto are the seat of government. Following the Westminster system, the leader of the party holding the most seats in the assembly is known as the "Premier and President of the Council" (Executive Council Act R.S.O. 1990). The Premier chooses the cabinet or Executive Council whose members are deemed "ministers of the Crown." Although the Legislative Assembly Act (R.S.O. 1990) refers to members of the assembly, the legislators are now commonly called MPPs (Members of the Provincial Parliament) in English and députés de l'Assemblée législative in French, but they have also been called MLAs (Members of the Legislative Assembly), and both are acceptable. The title of Prime Minister of Ontario, while permissible in English and correct in French (le Premier ministre), is generally avoided in favour of "Premier" to avoid confusion with the Prime Minister of Canada. Politics Ontario has traditionally operated under a three-party system. In the last few decades the liberal Ontario Liberal Party, conservative Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario, and social-democratic Ontario New Democratic Party have all ruled the province at different times. Ontario is currently under a Liberal government headed by Premier Dalton McGuinty. The present government, first elected in 2003, was re-elected on 10 October 2007. Federally, Ontario is known as being the province that offers strong support for the Liberal Party of Canada. Currently, half of the party's 76 seats in the Canadian House of Commons represent Ontario ridings, although, in the 2008 federal election, for the first time since the Mulroney government, the Conservatives won a plurality of the seats and the vote. As the province has the most seats of any province in Canada, earning support from Ontario voters is considered a crucial matter for any party hoping to win a Canadian federal election. Urban areas Census Metropolitan Areas Statistics Canada's measure of a "metro area", the Census Metropolitan Area (CMA), roughly bundles together population figures from the core municipality with those from "commuter" municipalities. CMA (largest other included municipalities in brackets)20062001Toronto CMA (Region of Peel, Region of York, City of Pickering)5,113,1494,682,897 Ottawa–Gatineau CMA (Clarence-Rockland, Russell Township)*1,130,761*1,067,800*Hamilton CMA (Burlington, Grimsby)692,911662,401London CMA (St. Thomas, Strathroy-Caradoc)457,720435,600Kitchener CMA (Cambridge, Waterloo)451,235 414,284 St. Catharines–Niagara CMA (Niagara Falls, Welland)390,317377,009Oshawa CMA (Whitby, Clarington) 330,594296,298Windsor CMA (Lakeshore, LaSalle)323,342 307,877Barrie CMA (Innisfil, Springwater) 177,061148,480 Sudbury CMA (Whitefish Lake, Wanapitei Reserve)158,258155,601Kingston CMA152,358146,838 *Parts of Quebec (including Gatineau) are included in the Ottawa CMA. The entire population of the Ottawa CMA, in both provinces, is shown. Clarence-Rockland and Russell Township are not the second and third largest municipalities in the entire CMA, they are the largest municipalities in the Ontario section of the CMA. Municipalities Ten largest municipalities by population Municipality200620011996Toronto (provincial capital)Ottawa (national capital)Mississauga (part of the Greater Toronto Area)HamiltonBrampton (part of the Greater Toronto Area)LondonMarkham (part of the Greater Toronto Area)Vaughan (part of the Greater Toronto Area)WindsorKitchener Songs and slogans During the John Robarts government of the 1960s, the slogan "Is There Any Other Place You'd Rather Be?" was in use to promote tourism. During a blizzard early in 1971, highway travellers stranded at a Highway 401 service center, with Premier Robarts (in his last months of office), asked him the slogan in an ironic twist. In 1967, in conjunction with the celebration of Canada's centennial, the song "A Place to Stand" was introduced at the inauguration of Ontario's pavilion at the Expo 67 World's Fair, and became the background for the province's advertising for decades. In 1973 the first slogan to appear on licence plates in Ontario was "Keep It Beautiful". This was replaced by "Yours to Discover" in 1982, apparently inspired by a tourism slogan, "Discover Ontario," dating back to 1927. (From 1988 to 1990, Official Ontario Road Maps Produced -1971 - 2006 "Ontario Incredible" Measuring the Returns to Tourism Advertising - Butterfield et al. 37 (1): 12 - Journal of Travel Research gave "Yours to Discover" a brief respite.) In 2007, a new song replaced "A Place to Stand" after four decades. "There's No Place Like This" (Un Endroit Sans Pareil) is featured in current television advertising, performed by Ontario artists including Molly Johnson, Brian Byrne, Tomi Swick (from Hamilton) and Keshia Chanté (from Ottawa). There's more to discover in Ontario Famous Ontarians The singer-songwriter, guitarist, and film director Neil Young was born in Toronto and spent part of his childhood in Omemee, a town he memorialized in his song "Helpless" (written for Young's band Crazy Horse but most famously recorded on the Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young album Déjà Vu). The first lines of the song read, "There is a town in north Ontario / With dream comfort memory to spare / And in my mind I still need a place to go / All my changes were there." Other celebrated Ontarians include: Actors: Stana Katic - Hamilton Eugene Levy - Hamilton Martin Short - Hamilton Rachel McAdams - St. Thomas Ryan Gosling - Cornwall Matthew Perry - Ottawa Jim Carrey - Newmarket John Candy - Toronto Mike Myers - Scarborough Michael Cera - Brampton Will Arnett - Toronto Comedians: Russell Peters - Brampton Tom Green - Pembroke Phil Hartman - Brantford Professional athletes: Steve Yzerman - Nepean Wayne Gretzky - Brantford Bobby Orr - Parry Sound Eric Lindros - London Steven Stamkos - Markham Curtis Joseph - Keswick Olympic athletes: Adam van Koeverden - Oakville Lori Dupuis - Cornwall Alex Baumann - Sudbury Victor Davis - Guelph Simon Whitfield - Kingston Other notable celebrities: Trish Stratus - Scarborough Howie Mandel - Toronto Alex Trebek - Sudbury Don Cherry - Kingston Edge - Orangeville Christian - Orangeville Gail Kim - Toronto Paul Tracy - Scarborough Michiel Horn - Toronto Bands/musicians/singers/rappers: Avril Lavigne - Napanee Rush - Toronto The Tragically Hip - Kingston Sum 41 - Ajax Billy Talent - Mississauga Bands/musicians (cont'd): Our Lady Peace - Toronto Alexisonfire - St. Catharines Silverstein - Burlington illScarlett - Mississauga Three Days Grace - Norwood,Peterborough Paul Anka - Ottawa Keshia Chanté - Ottawa Alanis Morissette - Ottawa Gordon Lightfoot - Orillia Shania Twain - Timmins Blue Rodeo - Toronto Bryan Adams - Kingston Barenaked Ladies - Scarborough Fefe Dobson - Scarborough Kardinal Offishall - Scarborough Eva Avila - Ottawa Brian Melo - Hamilton Finger Eleven - Burlington Bruce Cockburn - Ottawa Neil Young - Toronto Hugh Dillon - Kingston Protest the Hero - Whitby See also Coat of arms of Ontario Court of Appeal for Ontario Flag of Ontario Great Seal of Ontario Higher education in Ontario List of airports in Ontario List of botanical gardens in Canada#Ontario List of cities in Canada#Ontario List of colleges in Ontario List of communities in Ontario List of lieutenant governors of Ontario List of premiers of Ontario List of professional sports teams in Ontario List of universities in Ontario Ontario Academic Credit Ontario Association of Landscape Architects Ontario Provincial Police Ontario Superior Court of Justice Order of Ontario Scouting and Guiding in Ontario Symbols of Ontario Wikipedia:WikiProject Ontario/List of Ontario-related topics Notes References Michael Sletcher, 'Ottawa', in James Ciment, ed., Colonial America: An Encyclopedia of Social, Political, Cultural, and Economic History, (5 vols., M. E. Sharpe, New York, 2006). Virtual Vault, an online exhibition of Canadian historical art at Library and Archives Canada External links Government of Ontario also at Ontario.ca Tourism Ontario Ontario Travel webpage Map CBC Digital Archives - Ontario Elections: Twenty Tumultuous Years Province of Ontario from The Canadian Encyclopedia | Ontario |@lemmatized ontario:173 province:54 locate:6 east:13 central:9 canada:59 merriam:2 webster:2 collegiate:1 dictionary:1 ed:2 isbn:1 new:14 york:8 inc:1 eastern:9 part:21 also:20 historically:3 politically:1 consider:4 quebec:18 large:21 population:24 second:4 total:5 area:33 nunavut:1 northwest:3 territory:2 border:8 manitoba:2 west:14 u:5 state:14 minnesota:1 michigan:6 ohio:1 pennsylvania:1 across:7 lake:35 erie:7 south:15 united:16 natural:3 start:2 wood:1 continue:4 four:9 great:26 superior:5 huron:7 include:21 georgian:2 bay:16 along:11 saint:4 lawrence:8 river:14 near:6 cornwall:3 canadian:19 analytical:1 purpose:2 often:6 break:1 two:9 region:22 northern:19 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2,635 | Hindu | A Hindu (, Devanagari: हिन्दू) is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, philosophical and cultural systems that originated in the Indian subcontinent. There are approximately 920 million Hindus of the world population, making Hinduism the third largest religion in the world after Christianity and Islam; of these, about 890 million live in India, and 30 million in the Indian diaspora. Hinduism, Encyclopedia Encarta Other countries with large Hindu populations include Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma), Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Fiji, Guyana, Nepal, Singapore, Indonesia (particularly Bali), Malaysia, South Africa, Kenya, Mauritius, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Canada, The Netherlands, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Swami Bhaskarananda, "Essentials of Hinduism", Viveka Press 2002. ISBN 1-88-485204-1 In addition, Hinduism was also the primary religion of Afghanistan, Kambodia and Vietnam. Pre Islamic Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan is evident in the coins and rock carvings of Afghanistan from the Shahi period. Who is a Hindu? The actual term “Hindu” first appeared as an Old Persian geographical term (derived from the river Sindhu), to identify the people who lived beyond the River Indus. However, the modern origin is derived from the Arabic texts - Al-Hind (the Hind) referring to 'the land of the people of modern day India' - which then got vernacularised as Hindu. Thapar, R. 1993. Interpreting Early India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 77 In the world history “Hindu” was also used by all Mughal Empires and towards the end of the eighteenth century by the British to refer to the people of “Hindustan”, the area of northern and adjoining northwestern India. Eventually “Hindu” became equivalent to anybody of “Indian” origin who was not otherwise belonging to a religion of Abrahamic denomination, thereby encompassing a wide range of religious beliefs and practices. When and how the word 'Hindu" was coined is not precisely established. It is absent in early sacred literature of Indian origin. It was used for the people inhabiting the lands of river Sindhu. Regular usage of the word is encountered in the accounts of foreign invaders of the medieval period, to describe collectively the followers of Indian religions. One of the accepted views is that “ism” was added to “Hindu” around 1830 to denote the culture and religion of the high-caste Brahmans in contrast to other religions. The term was soon appropriated by Indians themselves as they tried to establish a national identity opposed to colonialism. Due to the wide diversity in the beliefs, practices and traditions encompassed by Hinduism, there is no universally accepted definition on who a Hindu is, or even agreement on whether Hinduism represents a religious, cultural or socio-political entity. In 1995, Chief Justice P. B. Gajendragadkar was quoted in an Indian Supreme Court ruling: Supreme Court of India, "Bramchari Sidheswar Shai and others Versus State of West Bengal" 1995 "When we think of the Hindu religion, unlike other religions in the world, the Hindu religion does not claim any one prophet; it does not worship any one god; it does not subscribe to any one dogma; it does not believe in any one philosophic concept; it does not follow any one set of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not appear to satisfy the narrow traditional features of any religion of creed. It may broadly be described as a way of life and nothing more." Thus some scholars argue that the Hinduism is not a religion per se but rather a reification of a diverse set of traditions and practices by scholars who constituted a unified system and arbitrarily labeled it Hinduism. Frykenberg, Robert, "The emergence of modern 'Hinduism' as a concept and as an Institution: A reappraisal with special reference to South India" in "Hinduism reconsidered", Manohar, Delhi, 1989. ISBN 8-17-304385-X The usage may also have been necessitated by the desire to distinguish between "Hindus" and followers of other religions during the periodic census undertaken by the colonial British government in India. Other scholars, while seeing Hinduism as a 19th century construct, view Hinduism as a response to British colonialism by Indian nationalists who forged a unified tradition centered on oral and written Sanskrit texts adopted as scriptures. Hardy, F., "A radical assessment of the Vedic heritage" in "Representing Hinduism: The Construction of Religious and National Identity", Sage Publ., Delhi, 1995. A commonly held view, though, is that while Hinduism contains both "uniting and dispersing tendencies", it has a common central thread of philosophical concepts (including dharma, moksha and samsara), practices (puja, bhakti etc) and cultural traditions. Flood, Gavin, "Establishing the boundaries" in Flood (2003), pp. 1-17. These common elements originating (or being codified within) the Vedic, Upanishad and Puranic scriptures and epics. Thus a Hindu could : follow any of the Hindu schools of philosophy, such as Advaita (non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (non-dualism of the qualified whole), Dvaita (dualism), Dvaitadvaita (dualism with non-dualism), etc. Muller, F. Max. Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga; Naya and Vaiseshika. 1899. This classic work helped to establish the major classification systems as we know them today. Reprint edition: (Kessinger Publishing: February 2003) ISBN 978-0766142961. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. (Princeton University Press; 1957) Princeton paperback 12th edition, 1989. ISBN 0691019584. follow a tradition centered on any particular form of the Divine, such as Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism, etc. Swami Tattwananda. Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship. (Firma KLM Private Ltd.: Calcutta, 1984). This work gives an overview of many different subsects of the three main religious groups in India. practice any one of the various forms of yoga systems; including bhakti (devotion) in order to achieve moksha. In 1995, while considering the question "who are Hindus and what are the broad features of Hindu religion", the Supreme Court of India highlighted Bal Gangadhar Tilak's formulation of Hinduism's defining features: Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence; recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are diverse; and the realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshipped is large, that indeed is the distinguishing feature of Hindu religion. Some thinkers have attempted to distinguish between the concept of Hinduism as a religion, and a Hindu as a member of a nationalist or socio-political class. Veer Savarkar in his influential pamphlet Hindutva: Who is a Hindu? considered geographical unity, common culture and common race to be the defining qualities of Hindus; thus a Hindu was a person who saw India "as his Fatherland as well as his Holy land, that is, the cradle land of his religion". Savarkar, V. K., "Hindutva", Hindi Sahitya Sadan, 2003. ISBN 8-18-838825-4 This conceptualization of Hinduism, has led to establishment of Hindutva as the dominant force in Hindu nationalism over the last century. Ram-Prasad, C , "Contemporary political Hinduism" in "Blackwell companion to Hinduism", Blackwell Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0-631-21535-2 Customs and traditions Ethnic and cultural fabric The Ganges is considered one of the most sacred rivers by Hindus. Hinduism, its religious doctrines, traditions and observances are very typical and inextricably linked to the culture and demographics of India. Hinduism has one of the most ethnically diverse bodies of adherents in the world. For some, it is hard to classify Hinduism as a religion because the framework, symbols, leaders and books of reference that make up a typical religion are not uniquely identified in the case of Hinduism. Most commonly it can be seen as a "way of life" which gives rise to many other civilized forms of religions. Large tribes and communities indigenous to India are closely linked to the synthesis and formation of Hindu civilization. Peoples of East Asian roots living in the states of north eastern India and Nepal were also a part of the earliest Hindu civilization. Immigration and settlement of peoples from Central Asia and peoples of Indo-Greek heritage have brought their own influence on Hindu society. The roots of Hinduism in southern India, and amongst tribal and indigenous communities is just as ancient and fundamentally contributive to the foundations of the religious and philosophical system. Ancient Hindu kingdoms arose and spread the religion and traditions across South East Asia, particularly Thailand, Nepal, Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, Cambodia and what is now central Vietnam. A form of Hinduism particularly different from Indian roots and traditions is practiced in Bali, Indonesia, where Hindus form 90% of the population. Indian migrants have taken Hinduism and Hindu culture to South Africa, Fiji, Mauritius and other countries in and around the Indian Ocean, and in the nations of the West Indies and the Caribbean. Linguistics of Hinduism Although the Vedas, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana were composed and recorded in language Sanskrit, several other important religious and philosophical works were written in languages like Avadhi, Pali, Prakrit, Tamil, Hindi, Nepali, Kannada, Konkani, Assamese, Punjabi, Malayalam, Telugu, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, Bengali,Bhojpuri, and Maithili. Many modern discourses, essays and analysis of Hindu religion and society, as well as retellings of its greatest epics, are published in the English language. Hindu ceremonies, observances and pilgrimages Hinduism is also very diverse in the religious ceremonies performed by its adherents for different periods and events in life, and for death. Principal Festivity of the Hindus also vary from region to region which include Diwali, Shivratri, Ram Navami, Janmashtmi, Durgapuja, Holi, Navaratri, etc. Initiation Sixteen Sanskars (Rituals) These are various rituals necessary within a life of Hindu. These samskaram are applied during different phases of life. Some of those are: Garbhadharana (conception) Jatakarma (birth ceremony) Namakarana (naming ceremony) Annaprasana (first feeding solid food) Choodakarana (first tonsure) Vidhyarambha (starting of education) Upanayanam (thread ceremony- initiation) Vivaha (marriage) Anthyesthi (funeral rites) Some Hindus, may perform initiation ceremonies like Upanayana or Janoy or 'Bratabandha'. These ceremonies have variants depending on the caste, the culture and the region. In a ceremony administered by a priest, a coir string, known as Janoy or Poonal, is hung from around a young boy's left shoulder to his right waist line for Brahmins and from right shoulders to left waistline by Kshatriyas. The ceremony varies from region to community, and includes reading from the Vedas and special Mantras and Slokas. Young females (prepubescent until married) do not have similar ritual passage as young males. However, some young Hindu females, especially those from southern India, may follow annual Monsoon Austerity Ritual of Purification by not eating cooked food for one or two weeks, depending on age of child. This is known as "Goryo" or "Goriyo". Generally speaking, Hindus are free to join an order or inner circle, and once they have joined it they may submit to its rites and way of living. But this type of joining is voluntary and has the possibility of leaving the order at any time without serious objection from fellow followers as long as one says and does things without associating them with the order which he or she has left. It is a social form of co-option of life style. It is said in Sanskrit that, "dharmo hi hato hanti, dharmo rakshati rakshitah", which translates to "Dharma, when destroyed, destroys; dharma protects when [it is]protected", meaning the path of righteousness will protect one as long as one upholds and follows it. The initiation (diksha), a sort of purification or consecration involving a transformation of the aspirant's personality, is regarded as a complement to, or even a substitute for, the previous initiation ceremony rite of consecration that preceded the Vedic sacrifice in ancient India; in later and modern Hinduism, the initiation of a layman by his guru (spiritual guide) into a religious sect. In the soma sacrifices of the Vedic period, the lay sacrificer, after bathing, kept a day-long (in some cases up to a yearlong) silent vigil inside a special hut in front of a fire. Some Hindus will give offerings to their gods by placing rice or flowers in a bowl above the stove every morning before they eat, and behind this bowl may be a picture of one of their gods. Along with giving offerings they might also pray to the god they gave an offering to. Fasting Fasting is very common among most Hindus.It is referred as Upavasana meaning in sanskrit upa- above , vasana- normal state. Here it means that the daily materialistic activities are suspended and for the period of upavasana refraining or reducing indulging in these activities. For example eating a normal lunch or dinner every day may be considered as vasana and cutting or reducing these is considered as Upavasana The Hindus Fast on certain days of the week based on their belief and to appease certain deities. Most fasting Hindus abstain from eating meat and only live on fruits and milk. Some people refrain from using edible salts in the preparation of the meal and have it only one time on the day. There is a month called Shravan or Savan and " Karthika" when Hindus fast for the whole month and abstain from eating any form of meat. Also they fast during the holy days like Ganesh Chaturthi (Chauthi), Shivaratri, Rama Navami and Navaratri. Some people view fasting as a form of penance (tapasya) or alternatively as a means to develop a close bond with the Supreme Being. The purpose for fasting (tapasya) was instituted into the religion with a twofold purpose. The first purpose was to instill a sense of discipline in the followers, since disciplined lives are believed to be most productive. The second reason was to use these fasting days as a form of 'body cleansing'. For instance, on certain fasting days, people usually eat only fruit throughout the day, followed by one meal thus leading to a healthy lifestyle. Additionally, in the early centuries when Hindus were beginning to gain identity in the religion, there was disparity among the rich and the poor (which continues to exist in cultures all over the world) and fasting was a way for 'resource sharing' and to ensure that no one was claiming more rights on scarce resources like grains and other crop, merely because of their economic advantage. The Hindu religion does not require or mandate its followers to fast, it only proposes these suggestions as a way of life. Marriage Wedding ceremonies and rituals vary in Hinduism. Most Hindu parents look for a prospective match for their children from their own community or caste. The ritual of matching the prospective's jathakam or janampatri (Hindu horoscope) with the help of a holy priest is also widely practiced by many Hindus. Modern day couples usually approve each other before getting the elders of the family approve their 'arranged' marriage. The important difference between a Hindu marriage and other types of marriage is that, Hindu marriage is a 3-party contract, as much as it is a 2-party contract in the western civilization. The third party that needs to approve the marriage is essentially the elders of the family representing the interest of the clan. Elders wishes still holds prominence, and is not becoming obsolete. Hindu marriage ceremonies are very colorful and elaborate. Families of the bride and the groom hold numerous festivities to celebrate the wedding. Marriage without a Brahmin priest was traditionally not regarded as a "religiously accepted marriage" in Hindu society. In contemporary times, Dravidian caste priets such as the "Pandaram" order have performed marriage ceremonies . Nepal's Downtrodden,Hinduism Today Moffatt, Michael, An Untouchable Community in South India: Structure and Consensus.Man, New Series, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Mar., 1980), p. 208 Saptapadi is an important ritual performed during the wedding in which the bride and the groom circumambulate a sacred fire, known as agni, seven times. As the inheritance of the family wealth was by the males only, girls who would move out to live with another family after marriage, were given a fair share of the family wealth as dowry. In Hindu scripture The Vedas prescribe that a dowry be given by the bride’s family to the groom. The Rig Veda states that cows and gifts given by the father of the bride to the daughter accompanied the bride’s procession [Rg Ved X.85] [Apte 12]. Kakshivat says he became rich by the father-in-law giving him 10 chariots and maids and 1060 cows during the marriage ceremony [Rg Ved I.126] [Apte 13]. With the modernization of Hindu society, some eligible bachelors started to see this as a demandable contribution from the bride's father. The practice of demanding a dowry is still prevalent in many parts of India and sometimes the bride's family or the bride gets harassed by the groom's family for this. Dowry formed an integral part of Hindu marriage until it was rendered unlawful by the Indian government in 1961. Dowry is legal if it represents "stri-dhana" i.e. a girl's share of the parents' wealth. Pilgrimage Many Hindus make pilgrimages to the holy shrines (known as Tirthas). Hindu holy shrines include the abode of Shiva, Mount Kailash in Tibet, Shiva's lingam in Amarnath, Rameshwaram, and Kedarnath; the holy cities of Haridwar, Dwarka, Puri, Prayaga, Mathura, Mayapur, Tirumala - Tirupati, Varanasi, and Ayodhya. Goddess Durga's holy shrine in Vaishno Devi attracts thousands of devotees every year. Hundreds of millions of Hindus annually visit holy rivers such as the Ganges ("Ganga" in Sanskrit) and temples near them, wash and bathe themselves to purify their sins, make sacrifices and win pivous credits. The Kumbha Mela (the Great Fair) is a gathering of between 10 to 20 million Hindus upon the banks of the holy rivers at Allahabad (Prayag), as periodically ordained in different parts of India by Hinduism's priestly leadership. The most famous is at the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna in Uttar Pradesh which is known as "Sangam". Death Upon the death of a Hindu person, his or her body is ceremonially bathed and wrapped in clean, mostly white khadi cloth. At the ceremony of cremation all mourners usually wear only white clothes. An attending priest conducts the ceremony, sanctifying the body and pyre by sprinkling holy water and singing or chanting religious hymns or songs. Hindus in India are cremated on open grounds upon wooden pyres. Typically, the pyre is set alight by the eldest male child of the deceased, or the closest male relative. The ashes of the person's remains are gathered and placed in a pot, which may be ritually immersed or released in any of Hinduism's holy rivers, usually within 3 days. The practice of cremation is not universal among Hindus. Hindus of various regions and castes may bury their dead as well, as per their families tradition. Hindu New Year Hindu New Year is celebrated at different times of the year by people of different states. Many regions have different calendars with some starting in March while others begin at the time of Diwali, the festival of lights in autumn. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra states celebrate New Year on the different days called ugadi in andhra pradesh. Hosavarsha in Karnataka . , but West Bengal, Orissa, Punjab, Assam,Tamil Nadu and some parts of coastal Karnataka celebrate the New Year at different time (April 14). The names of the new year vary also. For example Bengali people call their new year as Poila Boishak and Assamese people call it Bihu. Marathi people call new year Gudi Padwa while Kannadigas & Telugu people call new year Ugadi. Tamil people call their new year as Varusha Pirapu. People from coastal Karna14th of April). People from other northern states celebrate Holi as their New Year day which is first day of first month Chaitra according to Hindu calendar. The Hindu new year is also celebrated in Nepal in the month of April, usually falling on the 14th of the month. Nepal is the only Hindu country (now a secular nation) where the Hindu calendar, known as Bikrama Sambat, is the official calendar. 14th April in 2007 will herald the beginning of the year 2064 BS. Bindi and Decoration The area between the eyebrows (where the bindi is placed) is said to be the sixth chakra, ajna, the seat of "concealed wisdom". According to followers of Tantrism, this chakra is the exit point for kundalini energy. The Bindi is said to retain energy and strengthen concentration. . It is also said to protect against demons or bad luck. In addition to the bindi a vermilion mark in the parting of the hair just above the forehead is worn by married women as a symbol of their married status. During Indian marriage ceremonies, the groom applies sindoor on the parting in the bride's hair. Depending on the dharam of the religion colours vary. Ancient Buddhist women wore similar marks (for purely decorative purposes) since the second century, which became popular during the Tang Dynasty. Religion for the common Hindu To many Hindus, the Vedas, a large corpus of texts that originated in Ancient India, are the main source of religious social and religious practices in Hindu society. By tradition, the distinction between "believer" and "unbeliever" (Nastika) was simply whether the person, in principle, accepted the authority of the Vedas. Such acceptance was in many cases a matter of common terminology and wildly different belief systems coexist (including atheistic, polytheistic, monotheistic, among others) within the community of "believers." Consequently, for the common Hindu, the connection to the Vedas is mostly through certain chants that are performed at various ceremonies, and not through an emotional/spiritual connection to the content of the Vedas. The Puranas are a wide collection of religious treatises, biographies and stories on the historical, mythological and religious characters in Hindu folklore, classic literature and sacred scriptures. They are often the source of popular Hindu folk tales and religious lessons and thus play a much bigger role in the emotional/spiritual dimension of the common Hindu's life. Yoga is an important connection for a Hindu to his religious and historical heritage. The art of spiritual and physical exercises are a distinguished native tradition pursued by millions of Hindus worldwide. Indian Vedic astrology is important to the conduct of any of life's important events such as marriage, applying for a post or admission, buying a house or starting a new business. To millions of Hindus the kundali is an invaluable possession that charts the course of life for a man or a woman from the time of his birth, all ascertained by Vedic mathematics and astrology. Perhaps the most popular Hindu scripture is the Mahabharata, depicting a civil war within a family that takes on dimensions of the struggle between dharma and adharma. Krishna's discourse to the warrior prince Arjuna, known as the Bhagavad Gita and contained in the Mahabharata, is the guide book on life for the common Hindu. For many Hindus the Bhagavad Gita is considered a source of divine guidance and inspiration. Devotional readers apply Krishna's teachings to the personal and worldly contexts of their life. It is often considered as the main source of religious teaching for Hindu practitioners. Similarly, the Ramayana, depicting the life of the prince and king Rama, also plays a big role through its many different versions. To hundreds of millions of Hindus, Rama is more than just an incarnation of the Supreme, or simply a just king of Ayodhya. He is the still living, thriving soul and identity of real Hinduism. Rama is the image of Hinduism, the Perfect Man, its conscience and undying hope of deliverance. The doctrines of moksha by the diligent discharge of personal, social and religious duty is the cornerstone of Hindu society. By following one's duty (Swa-Dharma) one gains merit and, when the process is completed, union with the Godhead and cessation of the cycle of birth and death. Dereliction of duty will result in all sorts of misfortunes, including birth into a lower level in the social hierarchy. This is a strong motivation to stick to the right path of human nature. Commonly this swa-dharma or varna is misunderstood as caste, the class identity in Hindu society. Varna is determined by a soul's karma, while Jat or caste is determined by birth and not necessarily in a person's nature. So it is important for a person to follow their true nature and seek to do their duty in life. See also Hinduism Hinduism Ramayana Mahabharat Bhagavad Gita Vedas Upanishad Vaishnavism Ayyavazhi Shaivism Four Sects of Hinduism Saivism Shaktism Vaishnavism Brahmaism Other Dharmic religions Buddhism Jainism Sikhism Notes References hinduism and its reality First revised edition. | Hindu |@lemmatized hindu:85 devanagari:1 ह:1 न:1 द:1 adherent:3 philosophy:4 scripture:6 hinduism:40 set:4 religious:20 philosophical:4 cultural:4 system:7 originate:3 indian:16 subcontinent:1 approximately:1 million:8 world:6 population:3 make:4 third:2 large:5 religion:27 christianity:1 islam:1 live:5 india:21 diaspora:1 encyclopedia:1 encarta:1 country:3 include:8 bangladesh:1 myanmar:1 burma:2 pakistan:1 sri:1 lanka:1 fiji:2 guyana:1 nepal:6 singapore:1 indonesia:3 particularly:3 bali:2 malaysia:2 south:5 africa:2 kenya:1 mauritius:2 suriname:1 trinidad:1 tobago:1 canada:1 netherlands:1 united:2 state:8 kingdom:2 swami:2 bhaskarananda:1 essential:1 viveka:1 press:3 isbn:6 addition:2 also:14 primary:1 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2,636 | International_Seabed_Authority | The International Seabed Authority (ISA) (, ) is an intergovernmental body based in Kingston, Jamaica, that was established to organize and control all mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, an area underlying most of the world’s oceans. It is an independent treaty organization originally established by the United Nations. Origin Following at least ten preparatory meetings over the years, the Authority held its first inaugural meeting in its host country, Jamaica, on 16 November 1994, the day the Convention came into force. The articles governing the Authority have been made "noting the political and economic changes, including market-oriented approaches, affecting the implementation" of the Convention. The Authority obtained its observer status to the United Nations in October 1996. Currently, the Authority has 155 members, composed of all parties to the Law of the Sea Convention. Chronological lists of ratifications of, accessions and successions to the Convention and the related Agreements. UN: regularly updated. Two principal organs establish the policies and govern the work of the Authority: the Assembly, in which all members are represented, and a 36-member Council elected by the Assembly. Council members are chosen according to a formula designed to ensure equitable representation of countries from various groups, including those engaged in seabed mineral exploration and the land-based producers of minerals found on the seabed. The Authority holds one annual session, usually of two weeks' duration. Its fourteenth session was held in Kingston in May/June 2008. The Authority operates by contracting with private and public corporations and other entities authorizing them to explore, and eventually exploit, specified areas on the deep seabed for mineral resources. The Convention also established a body called the Enterprise which is to serve as the Authority’s own mining operator, but no concrete steps have been taken to bring this into being. Current activities The Authority has a budget of $5.8 million a year (rising to an authorized $6.3 million for each of the years 2009-2010) and a staff of some 35 people. In June 2008 the Assembly of the Authority elected by acclamation Nii Allotey Odunton of Ghana, Deputy to the Secretary-General since 1996, for a four-year term as Secretary-General beginning 1 January 2009 Assembly Elects Nii Allotey Odunton of Ghana Secretary-General of Seabed Authority; Adopts $12,516,500 Budget for 2009-2010 Biennium. ISA Press Release SB/14/16, 5 June 2008. . He succeded Satya Nandan of Fiji, the first Secretary-General of the Authority, who left after three consecutive four-year terms since 1996. The exploration system envisaged in the Law of the Sea Convention, overseen by the Authority, came to life with the signature in 2001/02 of 15-year contracts with seven organizations that had applied for specific seabed areas in which they were authorized to explore for polymetallic nodules. In 2006 a German entity was added to the list. The eight current contractors are: Yuzhmorgeologya (Russian Federation); Interoceanmetal Joint Organization (IOM) (Bulgaria, Cuba, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Poland and Russian Federation); the Government of the Republic of Korea; China Ocean Minerals Research and Development Association (COMRA) (China); Deep Ocean Resources Development Company (DORD) (Japan); Institut français de recherche pour l’exploitation de la mer (IFREMER) (France); the Government of India, and the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources of Germany. All but one of the current areas of exploration are in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, in the Equatorial North Pacific Ocean south and southeast of Hawaii. The remaining area, being explored by India, is in the Central Indian Basin of the Indian Ocean. Exploration Areas | International Seabed Authority. Each area is limited to 150,000 square kilometers, of which half is to be relinquished to the Authority after eight years. Each contractor is required to report once a year on its activities in its assigned area. So far, none of them has indicated any serious move to begin commercial exploitation. In 2008, the Authority received two new applications for authorization to explore for polymetallic nodules, coming for the first time from private firms in developing island nations of the Pacific. Sponsored by their respective governments, they were submitted by Nauru Ocean Resources Inc. Nauru Ocean Resources Inc.: application for approval of a plan of work for exploration. Document ISBA/14/LTC/L.2, 21 April 2008. and Tonga Offshore Mining Limited Tonga Offshore Mining Limited : application for approval of a plan of work for exploration. Document ISBA/14/LTC/L.3, 21 April 2008. . However, in the absence of consensus on the complex technical issues raised by these applications, the Authority's Legal and Technical Commission decided to defer action, probably until 2009 Statement of the President of the Council of the International Seabed Authority on the work of the Council during the fourteenth session. Document ISBA/14/C/11, 5 June 2008. . The Authority’s main legislative accomplishment to date has been the adoption in 2000 of regulations governing exploration for polymetallic nodules. Mining Code | International Seabed Authority. Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Nodules in the Area. Website of the Centre for Energy, Petroleum and Mineral Law and Policy (CEPMLP), volume 10, abstract 2 (18 December 2001). The University of Dundee (United Kingdom). Article on the Regulations (2001) by Michael W. Lodge, chief of the ISA Office of Legal Affairs These resources, also called manganese nodules, contain varying amounts of manganese, cobalt, copper and nickel. They occur as potato-sized lumps scattered about on the surface of the ocean floor, mainly in the central Pacific Ocean but with some deposits in the Indian Ocean. The Council of the Authority began work in August 2002 on another set of regulations, covering polymetallic sulphides and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts--rich sources of such minerals as copper, iron, zinc, silver and gold, as well as cobalt. The sulphides are found around volcanic hot springs, especially in the western Pacific Ocean, while the crusts occur on oceanic ridges and elsewhere at several locations around the world. The Council decided in 2006 to prepare separate sets of regulations for sulphides and for crusts, with priority given to sulphides. It devoted most of its sessions in 2007 and 2008 to this task, but several issues remained unresolved. Chief among these were the definition and configuration of the area to be allocated to contractors for exploration, the fees to be paid to the Authority and the question of how to deal with any overlapping claims that might arise Statement by the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority to the Eighteenth Meeting of States Parties to the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. New York, 16 June 2008. . Meanwhile, the Legal and Technical Commission reported progress on ferromanganese crusts. In addition to its legislative work, the Authority organizes annual workshops on various aspects of seabed exploration, with emphasis on measures to protect the marine environment from any harmful consequences. It disseminates the results of these meetings through publications. Studies over several years covering the key mineral area of the Central Pacific resulted in a technical study on biodiversity, species ranges and gene flow in the abyssal Pacific nodule province, with emphasis on predicting and managing the impacts of deep seabed mining Biodiversity, species ranges, and gene flow in the abyssal Pacific nodule province: predicting and managing the impacts of deep seabed mining. ISA Technical Study No. 3, 2007. A workshop at Manoa, Hawaii, in October 2007 Workshop on Designing Marine Protected Areas for Seamounts and the Abyssal Nodule Province in Pacific High Seas. Document ISBA/14/LTC/2. produced a rationale and recommendations for the establishment of "preservation reference areas" in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, where nodule mining would be prohibited in order to leave the natural environment intact. The most recent workshop, held at Chennai, India, in February 2008, concerned polymetallic nodule mining technology, with special reference to its current status and challenges ahead Report on the International Seabed Authority's workshop on polymetallic nodule mining technology: current status and challenges ahead. Document ISBA/14/C/7, prepared by the Secretariat. In 2006 the Authority established an Endowment Fund to Support Collaborative Marine Scientific Research on the International Seabed Area. The Fund will aid experienced scientists and technicians from developing countries to participate in deep-sea research organized by international and national institutions. A campaign was launched in February 2008 to identify participants, establish a network of cooperating bodies and seek outside funds to augment the initial $3 million endowment from the Authority. Endowment Fund | International Seabed Authority. Contrary to early hopes that seabed mining would generate extensive revenues for both the exploiting countries and the Authority, no technology has yet been developed for gathering deep-sea minerals at costs that can compete with land-based mines. Until recently, the general consensus has been that economic mining of the ocean depths might be decades away. Moreover, the United States, with some of the most advanced ocean technology in the world, has not yet ratified the Law of the Sea Convention and is thus not a member of the Authority. In recent years, however, interest in deep-sea mining, especially with regard to ferromanganese crusts and polymetallic sulphides, has picked up among several firms now operating in waters within the national zones of Papua New Guinea, Fiji and Tonga. Papua New Guinea was the first country in the world to grant commercial exploration licenses for seafloor massive sulphide deposits when it granted the initial license to Nautilus Minerals in 1997. Japan’s new ocean policy emphasizes the need to develop methane hydrate and hydrothermal deposits within Japan’s exclusive economic zone and calls for the commercialization of these resources within the next 10 years. Reporting on these developments in his annual report to the Authority in April 2008, Secretary-General Nandan referred also to the upward trend in demand and prices for cobalt, copper, nickel and manganese, the main metals that would be derived from seabed mining, and he noted that technologies being developed for offshore extraction could be adapted for deep sea mining. [http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/14Sess/Ass/ISBA-14A-2.pdf Report of the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority under article 166, paragraph 4, of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.] Document ISBA/14/A/2, 14 April 2008. In its preamble, UNCLOS defines the international seabed area—the part under ISA jurisdiction—as “the seabed and ocean floor and the subsoil thereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction”. There are no maps annexed to the Convention to delineate this area. Rather, UNCLOS outlines the areas of national jurisdiction, leaving the rest for the international portion. National jurisdiction over the seabed normally leaves off at seaward from baselines running along the shore, unless a nation can demonstrate that its continental shelf is naturally prolonged beyond that limit, in which case it may claim up to . ISA has no role in determining this boundary. Rather, this task is left to another body established by UNCLOS, the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, which examines scientific data submitted by coastal states that claim a broader reach. Maritime boundaries between states are generally decided by bilateral negotiation (sometimes with the aid of judicial bodies), not by ISA. Recently, there has been much interest in the possibility of exploiting seabed resources in the Arctic Ocean, bordered by Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Russia and the United States (see Territorial claims in the Arctic). Any seabed area not belonging to these states would fall under ISA jurisdiction. Controversy The exact nature of the ISA's mission and authority has been questioned by opponents of the Law of the Sea Treaty who are generally skeptical of multilateral engagement by the United States. Law of the Sea Treaty. National Center for Public Policy Research. The United States is the only major maritime power that has not ratified the Convention (see United States non-ratification of the UNCLOS), with one of the main anti-ratification arguments being a charge that the ISA is flawed or unnecessary. In its original form, the Convention included certain provisions that some found objectionable, such as: Imposition of permit requirements, fees and taxation on seabed mining; ban on mining absent ISA permission Use of collected money for wealth redistribution in addition to ISA administration Mandatory technology transfer Because of these concerns, the United States pushed for modification of the Convention, obtaining a 1994 Agreement on Implementation that somewhat mitigates them and thus modifies the ISA's authority. Despite this change the United States has not ratified the Convention and so is not a member of ISA, although it sends sizable delegations to participate in meetings as an observer. On October 31, 2007 the Foreign Relations Committee of the United States Senate, by a vote of 17 to 4, recommended ratification; no date has yet been set for action by the full Senate. U.S. Senate panel backs Law of the Sea treaty | Reuters.Oct 31, 2007. External links International Seabed Authority. Overview - Convention & Related Agreements. UN: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982). The ITSSD Journal: Myths and Realities Concerning UN Law of the Sea Treaty; LOST Does Incorporate Europe’s contra-WTO Precautionary Principle! Lawrence A. Kogan, Esq., CEO of The Institute for Trade, Standards and Sustainable Development (October 6, 2007). 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2,637 | International_Standard_Book_Number | A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code. The International Standard Book Number, or ISBN , is a unique Occasionally publishers erroneously assign an ISBN to more than one title — the first edition of The Ultimate Alphabet and The Ultimate Alphabet Workbook have the same ISBN, 0-8050-0076-3. Conversely, books are published with several ISBNs: A German, second-language edition of Emil und die Detektive has the ISBNs 87-23-90157-8 (Denmark), 0-8219-1069-8 (United States), 91-21-15628-X (Sweden), 0-85048-548-7 (England) and 3-12-675495-3 (Germany). , numeric commercial book identifier based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering (SBN) code created by Gordon Foster, now Emeritus Professor of Statistics at Trinity College, Dublin, Gordon Fosters original 1966 report can be found here at isbn.org. for the booksellers and stationers W.H. Smith and others in 1966. See discussion of the history at isbn.org. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108. (However, the 9-digit SBN code was used in the United Kingdom until 1974.) Currently, the ISO’s TC 46/SC 9 is responsible for the ISBN. Since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland EAN-13s. See Frequently Asked Questions about the new ISBN standard from ISO A similar numeric identifier, the International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), identifies periodical publications such as magazines. Overview An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation (except reprintings) of a book. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned after January 1, 2007, and 10 digits long if assigned before 2007. An International Standard Book Number consists of 4 or 5 parts: The parts of a 10-digit ISBN and the corresponding EAN-13 and barcode. Note the different check digits in each. The part of the EAN-13 labeled "EAN" is the Bookland country code for a 13 digit ISBN, a GS1 prefix: 978 or 979 the group identifier, (language-sharing country group) Some books have several codes in the first block (A.M. Yaglom's Correlation Theory..., published by Springer Verlag, has two ISBNs, 0-387-96331-6 and 3-540-96331-6. Though Springer's 387 and 540 codes are different for English (0) and German (3); the same item number 96331 produces the same check digit: 6. Springer uses 431 as their publisher code for Japanese (4) and 4-431-96331-? would also have check digit ? = 6. Other Springer books in English have publisher code 817, and 0-817-96331-? would also get check digit ? = 6. This suggests special considerations were made for assigning Springer's publisher codes, as random assignments of different publisher codes would not lead the same item number to get the same check digit every time. Finding publisher codes for English and German, say, with this effect amounts to solving a linear equation in modular arithmetic. the publisher code, the item number, and a checksum character or check digit. The ISBN parts may be of different lengths, and usually are separated with hyphens or spaces. the international ISBN agency's "ISBN User's Manual" says: "The ten-digit number is divided into four parts of variable length, which must be separated clearly, by hyphens or spaces" although permitting their omission for internal data processing, as the prefix code ensures that no two codes begin the same way. If present, hyphens must be correctly placed; See hyphenation instructions at the isbn.org web site. Group identifier The group identifier is a 1 to 5 digit number. The single digit group identifiers are: 0 or 1 for English-speaking countries; 2 for French-speaking countries; 3 for German-speaking countries; 4 for Japanese; 5 for Russian, and 7 for Chinese. An example 5 digit group identifier is 99936, for Bhutan. In general, the groups are 0–7, 80–94, 950–993, 9940–9989, and 99900–99999. See a complete list of group identifiers. The original standard book number (SBN) had no group identifier, but affixing a zero (0) as prefix to a 9-digit SBN creates a valid 10-digit ISBN. Group identifiers form a prefix code; compare with country calling codes. Publisher code The national ISBN agency assigns the publisher number (cf. the :category:ISBN agencies); the publisher selects the item number. Generally, a book publisher is not required to assign an ISBN, nor is it necessary for a book to display its number (except in China; see below). However, most book stores only handle ISBN-bearing merchandise. A listing of all the 628,000 assigned publisher codes is published, and can be ordered in book form (€558, US$915.46). The web site of the international ISBN agency does not offer any free method of looking up publisher codes. See Publisher's International ISBN Directory . There is a partial list with some publishers on it. Publishers receive blocks of ISBNs, with larger blocks allotted to publishers expecting to need them; a small publisher may receive ISBNs of one or more digits for the group identifier code, several digits for the publisher, and a single digit for the individual items. Once that block of ISBNs is used, the publisher may receive another block of ISBNs, with a different publisher number. Consequently, a publisher may have different allotted publisher numbers. There also may be more than one group identifier used in a country. This might occur if a popular identifier has used up all of its numbers. The cited list of identifiers shows this has happened in China and in more than a dozen other countries. By using variable block lengths, a large publisher will have few digits allocated for the publisher number and many digits allocated for titles; likewise countries publishing much will have few allocated digits for the group identifier, and many for the publishers and titles. Here are some sample ISBN-10 codes, illustrating block length variations. {| class="wikitable" ! ISBN || Country or area || Publisher |- | 99921-58-10-7 || Qatar || NCCAH, Doha |- | 9971-5-0210-0 || Singapore || World Scientific |- | 960-425-059-0 || Greece || Sigma Publications |- | 80-902734-1-6 || Czech Republic; Slovakia || Taita Publishers |- | 85-359-0277-5 || Brazil || Companhia das Letras |- | 1-84356-028-3 || United Kingdom || Simon Wallenberg Press |- | 0-684-84328-5 || English-speaking area || Scribner |- | 0-8044-2957-X || English-speaking area || Frederick Ungar |- | 0-85131-041-9 || English-speaking area || J. A. Allen & Co. |- | 0-943396-04-2 || English-speaking area || Willmann–Bell |- | 0-9752298-0-X || English-speaking area || KT Publishing |} Pattern English-language publisher codes follow a systematic pattern, which allows their length to be easily determined, as follows: Item number 0- group identifier 1- group identifier Total From To Number From To Number 6 digits 0-00-xxxxxx-x 0-19-xxxxxx-x 20 1-00-xxxxxx-x 1-09-xxxxxx-x 10 30 5 digits 0-200-xxxxx-x 0-699-xxxxx-x 500 1-100-xxxxx-x 1-399-xxxxx-x 300 800 4 digits 0-7000-xxxx-x 0-8499-xxxx-x 1500 1-4000-xxxx-x 1-5499-xxxx-x 1500 3000 3 digits 0-85000-xxx-x 0-89999-xxx-x 5000 1-55000-xxx-x 1-86979-xxx-x 31980 36980 2 digits 0-900000-xx-x 0-949999-xx-x 50000 1-869800-xx-x 1-998999-xx-x 129200 179200 1 digit 0-9500000-x-x 0-9999999-x-x 500000 1-9990000-x-x 1-9999999-x-x 10000 510000 Check digits Uses Publishers and libraries have varied policies about the use of the ISBN check digit. Publishers sometimes fail to check the correspondence of a book title and its ISBN before publishing it; that failure causes book identification problems for libraries, booksellers, and readers. Most libraries and booksellers display the book record for an invalid ISBN issued by the publisher. The Library of Congress catalogue contains books published with invalid ISBNs, which it usually tags with the phrase "Cancelled ISBN". However, book-ordering systems such as Amazon.com will not search for a book if an invalid ISBN is entered to its search engine. ISBN-10 The 2001 edition of the official manual of the International ISBN Agency says that the ISBN-10 check digit — which is the last digit of the ten-digit ISBN — must range from 0 to 10 (the symbol X is used instead of 10) and must be such that the sum of all the ten digits, each multiplied by the integer weight, descending from 10 to 1, is a multiple of the number 11. Modular arithmetic is convenient for calculating the check digit using modulus 11. Each of the first nine digits of the ten-digit ISBN — excluding the check digit, itself — is multiplied by a number in a sequence from 10 to 2, and the remainder of the sum, with respect to 11, is computed. The resulting remainder, plus the check digit, must equal 11; therefore, the check digit is 11 minus the remainder of the sum of the products. For example, the check digit for an ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows: s = 0×10 + 3×9 + 0×8 + 6×7 + 4×6 + 0×5 + 6×4 + 1×3 + 5×2 = 0 + 27 + 0 + 42 + 24 + 0 + 24 + 3 + 10 = 130 130 / 11 = 11 remainder 9 11 - 9 = 2 Thus, the check digit is 2, and the complete sequence is ISBN 0-306-40615-2. Formally, the check digit calculation is: If the result is 11, a '0' should be substituted; if 10, an 'X' should be used. The two most common errors in handling an ISBN (e.g., typing or writing it) are an altered digit or the transposition of adjacent digits. Since 11 is a prime number, the ISBN check digit method ensures that these two errors will always be detected. However, if the error occurs in the publishing house and goes undetected, the book will be issued with an invalid ISBN. For example I'saka: a sketch grammar of a language of north-central New Guinea. Pacific Linguistics. ISBN "0-85883-554-4". Alternative calculation The ISBN-10 check-digit can also be calculated in a slightly easier way: This gives exactly the same result as the formula above. This finds the check digit for a 10 digit ISBN, using summation notation. This method will output the correct digit, '0', instead of the '11' outputted by the formal calculation. ISBN-13 The 2005 edition of the International ISBN Agency's official manual covering some ISBNs issued from January 2007, describes how the 13-digit ISBN check digit is calculated. The calculation of an ISBN-13 check digit begins with the first 12 digits of the thirteen-digit ISBN (thus excluding the check digit itself). Each digit, from left to right, is alternately multiplied by 1 or 3, then those products are summed modulo 10 to give a value ranging from 0 to 9. Subtracted from 10, that leaves a result from 1 to 10. A zero (0) replaces a ten (10), so, in all cases, a single check digit results. For example, the ISBN-13 check digit of 978-0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows: s = 9×1 + 7×3 + 8×1 + 0×3 + 3×1 + 0×3 + 6×1 + 4×3 + 0×1 + 6×3 + 1×1 + 5×3 = 9 + 21 + 8 + 0 + 3 + 0 + 6 + 12 + 0 + 18 + 1 + 15 = 93 93 / 10 = 9 remainder 3 10 – 3 = 7 Thus, the check digit is 7, and the complete sequence is ISBN 978-0-306-40615-7. Formally, the ISBN-13 check digit calculation is: This check system — similar to the UPC check digit formula — does not catch all errors of adjacent digit transposition. Specifically, if the difference between two adjacent digits is 5, the check digit will not catch their transposition. For instance, the above example allows this situation with the 6 followed by a 1. The correct order contributes 3×6+1×1 = 19 to the sum; while, if the digits are transposed (1 followed by a 6), the contribution of those two digits will be 3×1+1×6 = 9. However, 19 and 9 are congruent modulo 10, and so produce the same, final result: both ISBNs will have a check digit of 7. The ISBN-10 formula uses the prime modulus 11 which avoids this blind spot, but requires more than the digits 0-9 to express the check digit. EAN format used in barcodes, and upgrading Currently, the barcodes on a book's back cover (or inside a mass-market paperback book's front cover) are EAN-13; they may have a separate barcode encoding five digits for the currency and the recommended retail price. EAN-13Methodology — including a detailed description of the EAN13 format. The number "978", the Bookland "country code", is prepended to the ISBN in the barcode data, and the check digit is recalculated according to the EAN13 formula (modulo 10, 1x, and 3x weighting on alternate digits). Partly because of a pending shortage in certain ISBN categories, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) migrated to a thirteen-digit ISBN (ISBN-13); the process began January 1, 2005 and was to conclude January 1, 2007. There is a FAQ document about this migration. Thirteen-digit ISBNs are prefixed with "978" (and the check digit recalculated); as the "978" ISBN supply is exhausted, the "979" prefix will be introduced. This is expected to occur more rapidly outside the United States; originally, "979" was the "Musicland" code for musical scores with an ISMN, however, ISMN codes will differ visually as they begin with an "M" letter; the bar code represents the "M" as a zero (0), and for checksum purposes it will count as a 3. Publisher identification code numbers are unlikely to be the same in the "978" and "979" ISBNs, like-wise, there is no guarantee that language area code numbers will be the same. Moreover, the ten-digit ISBN check digit generally is not the same as the thirteen-digit ISBN check digit. Because the EAN/UCC-13 is part of the Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) system (that includes the EAN/UCC-14, the UPC-12, and the EAN-8), it is expected that ISBN-generating software should accommodate fourteen-digit ISBNs. Are You Ready for ISBN-13? Barcode format compatibility is maintained, because (aside from the group breaks) the ISBN-13 barcode format is identical to the EAN barcode format of existing ISBN-10s. So, migration to an EAN-based system allows booksellers the use of a single numbering system for both books and non-book products that is compatible with existing ISBN-based data, with only minimal changes to information technology systems. Hence, many booksellers (e.g. Barnes & Noble) migrated to EAN barcodes as early as March 2005. Although many American and Canadian booksellers have been able to read EAN-13 barcodes before 2005, most general retailers could not read them. The upgrading of the UPC barcode system to full EAN-13, in 2005, eased migration to the ISBN-13 in North America. Moreover, by January 2007, most large book publishers added ISBN-13 barcodes alongside the ten-digit ISBN barcodes of books published before January 2007. See also ASIN (Amazon Standard Identification Number) CODEN (serial publication identifier currently used by libraries; replaced by the ISSN for new works) DOI (Digital Object Identifier) ISAN (International Standard Audiovisual Number) ISMN (International Standard Music Number) ISRC (International Standard Recording Code) ISSN (International Standard Serial Number) ISWC (International Standard Musical Work Code) LCCN (Library of Congress Control Number) OCLC (Online Computer Library Center) SICI (Serial Item and Contribution Identifier) List of group-0 ISBN publisher codes Footnotes External links ISO 2108:2005 at www.iso.org How to find a book from Wikibooks ISBN to EAN EAS EBS transition at isbn.org Description of the ISBN to EAN upgrade process at bookweb.org National and international agencies International ISBN Agency—coordinates and supervises the worldwide use of the ISBN system. Numerical List of Group Identifiers List of language/region prefixes Online tools Special:Booksources, Wikipedia's ISBN search page. Free 10-digit to 13-digit conversion tool from the ISBN agency. Can also use it to verify ISBNs to see if they're valid. Assures compliance with the full ISBN spec, not just the check digit. 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2,638 | Kathmandu | Kathmandu (, ) is the capital and the largest metropolitan city of Nepal. The city is situated in Kathmandu Valley, which also contains two other cities - Lalitpur and Bhaktapur. Nepali language is spoken by almost 99.9% of people. English is understood by most of the educated population of the city. The city stands at an elevation of approximately 1400 m and is inhabited by about 700,000 people. Kathmandu is considered to have the most advanced infrastructure among urban areas in Nepal. History Two Sadducees, or Hindu Holy Men, near Pashupatinath Temple in Kathmandu, Nepal. Usually sadhus (sic) live by themselves, on the fringes of society, and spend their days in devotion to their chosen deity. Kathmandu is situated in the heart of the Himalaya mountains, and has a rich history. Considered by some to be among the most beautiful cities in the world, the earliest known inscription in the Kathmandu Valley is dated 185 AD. The oldest firmly dated building in the earthquake-prone valley is almost 1,992 years old. Four stupas around the city of Patan said to have been erected by Charumati, attest to the ancient history present within are in Patan near kendra Hiranyavarna Mahavihara (called "Patukodon"). The Licchavi Dynasty whose earliest inscriptions date back to 464 AD were the next rulers of the valley. The Malla Dynasty consisted of Newar rulers, who ruled Kathmandu Valley and the surrounding area from the 12th century till the 17th century when the Shah Dynasty founder Prithvi Narayan Shah conquered the valley as he created present-day Nepal. Most of ancient Nepali Architecture present in Nepal today is from the Malla/Newar era. The city of Khatmandui is named after a structure in Durbar Square called Kaasthamandap. In Sanskrit, Kaasth () is "wood" and Mandap () is "covered shelter." This unique temple, also known as Maru Sattal, was built in 1596 A.D. by King Laxmi Narsingh Malla. The entire structure contains no iron nails or supports and is made entirely from wood. Legend has it that the timber used for this two story pagoda was obtained from a single tree. Kathmandu is also sometimes called "Kantipur". "Kanti" is an alternate name of the Goddess Laxmi, and "pur" means the place where such a goddess resides. Thus, the name Kantipur demonstrates the ancient belief that it is the place where Laxmi dwells. Before the Newars there were lots of kings who ruled Kathmandu. One of them was of the Kirati people. Ancestors of the old Kirati know that many history books of Kathmandu were deliberately burnt because they did not want other people to know that the Kirati lived in Kathmandu before the Newars did. Some people say that the Newars were the native people of Kathmandu because there are many Newari speaking people, but this is only a myth. Present Pashupatinath temple Boudhanath Kathmandu is home to most of the government offices, embassies, corporate houses, and palaces. The old palace of the Newar kings at Durbar Square is listed as UNESCO world heritage site. Nearby is Freak Street, which was the popular hippie spot during the 1970s. The former Shah King's Palace stands just east of Thamel - the tourist hub of the country. It consists of two parallel streets catering to tourists with shops, restaurants and little hotels. The palace is at the northern end of Durbar Marg, a major street lined with various shops and larger hotels. The "old" city is noted for its many Buddhist and Hindu temples and palaces, most dating to the 17th century. Many of these landmarks have been damaged by earthquakes and pollution. Kathmandu has two important Buddhist stupas, Swayambhunath and Boudhanath and a famous Hindu shrine, Pashupatinath temple. Since 2003 the sites have been added to the World Heritage List as being "in danger" out of concern for the ongoing loss of authenticity and the outstanding universal value of the cultural property. Kathmandu has been popular with western tourists since the 1960s when it became a key stop along the hippie trail. For the hippies during the 60's, once in India they went to many different destinations, but gathered in large numbers in Kathmandu to spend months in search of tranquility and Nirvana. Most of the hippies hung out in the tranquil surroundings of Freak Street . Cultural change, as well as a government crackdown on some of the activities, eliminated hippy movement activities in Kathmandu. Today there is a more conventional type of tourism, although it is also a jumping off location for trekking and mountaineering activities in the Himalayan region. Kathmandu has also been the subject of a popular Bob Seger song for the same reason. Tribhuvan International Airport is located at the eastern edge of the city, about 6 km from the city center, offering domestic and international flights. Geography The city is located in the northwestern part of Kathmandu Valley. The Kathmandu Valley covers an area of 565 sq. kilometres. It is situated at 1336 m above the sea level. Bagmati, Bishnumati, Dhobikhola, and Tukucha rivers wind through the city. It falls in the central development region and it is the headquarter of the region. Administrative divisions A crowded street (Jamal) in Kathmandu. The metropolitan has been divided into around 5 sectors by metropolitan authorities as follows Ward Profiles, Kathmandu Metropolitan City Central sector The central sector consists of wards 1, 5, 11, 19, 28, 31, 32 and 33. East sector The east sector consists of wards 6, 7, 8, 9, 10(Baneshwor), 34(Shantinagar) and 35(Koteshwor). North sector The north sector consists of wards 2, 3, 4, 16, 29. City core This is the most densely populated part of the city. This part consists of most of the historical and cultural monuments of the city. West sector The west sector consists of wards 13, 14 and 15. Demographics According to 2001 census, there are 235,387 households in the metropolitan city . Kathmandu metropolitan authorities estimate the number of people living in the city to be around 1,081,845 people National Report 2001 The largest ethnic groups are Newars, Brahmins and Kshetris. The major languages are Nepali and Nepal Bhasa. The major religions are Hinduism and Buddhism. The city has also a significant and growing Muslim population. Government The city is looked after by Kathmandu metropolitan city office . The city hosts Singhadarbar, the government seat of Nepal (with office of Prime Minister). Most of the ministries are present in the Singha Darbar premises. The Shital Niwas has the president's office and Birendra International Convention Center holds the consituent assembly meetings.The Narayanhiti Museum , previously The Royal Palace, is located in central part of the city. Economy Tourism, sometimes said to be the 'third religion' of Nepal, is the country's most important industry, and plays a large role in the economic activity of Kathmandu. The neighborhood of Thamel is Kathmandu's primary 'traveler's ghetto,' packed with guest houses, restaurants, shops and bookstores catering to tourists from abroad. Freak Street, also known as Jochhen Tole, is Kathmandu's original traveler's haunt made popular by the hippies of the 1970s and remains a popular alternative to Thamel. In addition, Kathmandu houses most of the banks, business houses, offices, organizations and share market of Nepal. The busiest economic centers are New Road of Kathmandu, Ason, Putalisadak and Darbar Marg. New Road is regarded as financial hub with presence of most of the banks in this street. Notable landmarks Swayambhunath Pashupatinath Temple Boudhanath Tharlam Monastery Durbar Square Kasthamandap Dharahara Cultural impact The city has been referenced in numerous songs, including works by Cat Stevens "Katmandu", Mona Bone Jakon (1970)), Bob Seger ("Katmandu", Beautiful Loser (1975)), Rush ("A Passage to Bangkok" ("Pulling into Kathmandu"), 2112, 1976), Krematorij ("Kathmandu", Three Springs (2000)), Fito Páez ("Tráfico por Katmandú" -- "Traffic through Kathmandu"); Will Ackerman ("A Happy Home in Kathmandu", The Opening of Doors (1993)); Tantra ("The Hills of Katmandu", early 1980s); and Godiego ("Coming Together in Kathmandu", 1980). Numerous works of literature have been set in Kathmandu, including Kim Stanley Robinson's 1989 work, Escape from Kathmandu. Recently, the book ("Arresting God in Kathmandu") by Samrat Upadhyay has got international acclaim. So has been the non-fictional book written by Manjushree Thapa "Forget Kathmandu". Pico Iyer a famous American writer also has a non-fictional book named "Video nights in Kathmandu", although only one chapter of the book is dedicated to Kathmandu/ In some travelogues, the Kathmandu valley has been referred to as the "Emerald Valley". The location is mentioned in the film Bewitched as the title of a fictional movie Will Ferrell's character stars in prior to his role in the Bewitched remake. Cameron Diaz's character also mentions Kathmandu as a place that she really wants to visit, in the movie There's Something about Mary''. Gallery Politicians from Kathmandu Ganesh Man Singh Prakash Man Singh Dhyan Govinda Ranjit Manjesh Pathak Ashok Pokhrel Sister cities Eugene, Oregon, United States Matsumoto, Nagano, Japan Xi'an, People's Republic of China Yangon, Burma Minsk, Belarus P'yŏngyang, North Korea See also Tribhuvan International Airport Kathmandu Valley Footnotes External links KATHMANDU METROPOLITAN CITY Explore and discover Kathmandu on a digital Map Flickr.com - Sights & Scenes from Kathmandu | Kathmandu |@lemmatized kathmandu:47 capital:1 large:5 metropolitan:8 city:27 nepal:9 situate:3 valley:11 also:10 contain:2 two:5 lalitpur:1 bhaktapur:1 nepali:3 language:2 speak:2 almost:2 people:10 english:1 understand:1 educated:1 population:2 stand:2 elevation:1 approximately:1 inhabit:1 consider:2 advanced:1 infrastructure:1 among:2 urban:1 area:3 history:4 sadducee:1 hindu:3 holy:1 men:1 near:2 pashupatinath:4 temple:6 usually:1 sadhus:1 sic:1 live:3 fringe:1 society:1 spend:2 day:2 devotion:1 choose:1 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2,639 | Meteorite | Willamette Meteorite A meteorite is a natural object originating in outer space that survives an impact with the Earth's surface. While in space it is called a meteoroid. When it enters the atmosphere, impact pressure causes the body to heat up and emit light, thus forming a fireball, also known as a meteor or shooting star. The term bolide refers to either an extraterrestrial body that collides with the Earth, or to an exceptionally bright, fireball-like meteor regardless of whether it ultimately impacts the surface. More generally, a meteorite on the surface of any celestial body is a natural object that has come from elsewhere in space. Meteorites have been found on the Moon McSween, H.Y. Jr. (1976) A new type of chondritic meteorite found in lunar soil. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 31, 193-199 Rubin, A. E. (1997) The Hadley Rille enstatite chondrite and its agglutinate-like rim: Impact melting during accretion to the Moon. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 32, 135-141 NASA ADS and Mars. Meteorites that are recovered after being observed as they transited the atmosphere or impacted the Earth are called falls. All other meteorites are known as finds. As of mid-2006, there are approximately 1,050 witnessed falls having specimens in the world's collections. In contrast, there are over 31,000 well-documented meteorite finds. Meteoritical Bulletin Database Meteorites have traditionally been divided into three broad categories: stony meteorites are rocks, mainly composed of silicate minerals; iron meteorites are largely composed of metallic iron-nickel; and, stony-iron meteorites contain large amounts of both metallic and rocky material. Modern classification schemes divide meteorites into groups according to their structure, chemical and isotopic composition and mineralogy. See meteorites classification. Naming Meteorites are always named for the place where they were found, Meteoritical Society Guidelines for Meteorite Nomenclature usually a nearby town or geographic feature. In cases where many meteorites were found in one place, the name may be followed by a number or letter (e.g., Allan Hills 84001 or Dimmitt (b)). Some meteorites have informal nicknames: the Sylacauga meteorite is sometimes called the "Hodges meteorite" after Ann Hodges, the woman who was struck by it; the Canyon Diablo meteorite, which formed Meteor Crater has dozens of these aliases. However, the single, official name designated by the Meteoritical Society is used by scientists, catalogers, and most collectors. Fall phenomena Meteorite which fell in Wisconsin in 1868 (Full image). Most meteoroids disintegrate when entering Earth's atmosphere. However, an estimated 500 meteorites ranging in size from marbles to basketballs or larger do reach the surface each year; only 5 or 6 of these are typically recovered and made known to scientists. Few meteorites are large enough to create large impact craters. Instead, they typically arrive at the surface at their terminal velocity and, at most, create a small pit. Even so, falling meteorites have reportedly caused damage to property, livestock and people. Campo del Cielo iron meteorite with natural hole Very large meteoroids may strike the ground with a significant fraction of their cosmic velocity, leaving behind a hypervelocity impact crater. The kind of crater will depend on the size, composition, degree of fragmentation, and incoming angle of the impactor. The force of such collisions has the potential to cause widespread destruction. Chapman et al. (2001) Make your own impact at the University of Arizona The most frequent hypervelocity cratering events on the Earth are caused by iron meteoroids, which are most easily able to transit the atmosphere intact. Examples of craters caused by iron meteoroids include Barringer Meteor Crater, Odessa Meteor Crater, Wabar craters, and Wolfe Creek crater; iron meteorites are found in association with all of these craters. In contrast, even relatively large stony or icy bodies like small comets or asteroids, up to millions of tons, are disrupted in the atmosphere, and do not make impact craters. Bland P.A. and Artemieva, N A. (2006) The rate of small impacts on Earth. Meteoritics and Planetary Science 41, 607-631. Although such disruption events are uncommon, they can cause a considerable concussion to occur; the famed Tunguska event probably resulted from such an incident. Very large stony objects, hundreds of meters in diameter or more, weighing tens-of-millions of tons or more, can reach the surface and cause large craters, but are very rare. Such events are generally so energetic that the impactor is completely destroyed, leaving no meteorites. (The very first example of a stony meteorite found in association with a large impact crater, the Morokweng crater in South Africa, was reported in May 2006. Maier, W.D. et al. (2006) Discovery of a 25-cm asteroid clast in the giant Morokweng impact crater, South Africa. Nature 441, 203-206 ) Several phenomena are well-documented during witnessed meteorite falls too small to produce hypervelocity craters. Sears, D. W. (1978) The Nature and Origin of Meteorites, Oxford Univ. Press, New York The fireball that occurs as the meteoroid passes through the atmosphere can appear to be very bright, rivaling the sun in intensity, although most are far dimmer and may not even be noticed during daytime. Various colors have been reported, including yellow, green and red. Flashes and bursts of light can occur as the object breaks up. Explosions, detonations, and rumblings are often heard during meteorite falls, which can be caused by sonic booms as well as shock waves resulting from major fragmentation events. These sounds can be heard over wide areas, up to many thousands of square km. Whistling and hissing sounds are also sometimes heard, but are poorly understood. Following passage of the fireball, it is not unusual for a dust trail to linger in the atmosphere for some time. As meteoroids are heated during passage through the atmosphere, their surfaces melt and experience ablation. They can be sculpted into various shapes during this process, sometimes resulting in deep "thumb-print" like indentations on their surfaces called regmaglypts. If the meteoroid maintains a fixed orientation for some time, without tumbling, it may develop a conical "nose cone" or "heat shield" shape. As it decelerates, eventually the molten surface layer solidifies into a thin fusion crust, which on most meteorites is black (on some achondrites, the fusion crust may be very light colored). On stony meteorites, the heat-affected zone is at most a few mm deep; in iron meteorites, which are more thermally conductive, the structure of the metal may be affected by heat up to 1 cm below the surface. Meteorites are sometimes reported to be warm to the touch when they land, but they are never hot. Reports, however, vary greatly, with some meteorites being reported as "burning hot to the touch" upon landing, Fall of the Muzaffarpur iron meteorite Fall of the Menziswyl stone and others forming a frost upon their surface. Henry L. Ward (1917) A new meteorite. Science 46, 262-263 - report of the Colby (Wisconsin) fall. Meteoroids that experience disruption in the atmosphere may fall as meteorite showers, which can range from only a few up to thousands of separate individuals. The area over which a meteorite shower falls is known as its strewn field. Strewn fields are commonly elliptical in shape, with the major axis parallel to the direction of flight. In most cases, the largest meteorites in a shower are found farthest down-range in the strewn field. Meteorite types Marília Meteorite, a chondrite H4, which fell in Marília, São Paulo state, Brazil, on October 5, 1971, at 5:00p.m. Most meteorites are stony meteorites, classed as chondrites and achondrites. Only 6% of meteorides are iron meteorites or a blend of rock and metal, the stony-iron meteorites. About 86% of the meteorites that fall on Earth are chondrites, The NHM Catalogue of Meteorites MetBase which are named for the small, round particles they contain. These particles, or chondrules, are composed mostly of silicate minerals that appear to have been melted while they were free-floating objects in space. Chondrites also contain small amounts of organic matter, including amino acids, and presolar grains. Chondrites are typically about 4.55 billion years old and are thought to represent material from the asteroid belt that never formed into large bodies. Like comets, chondritic asteroids are some of the oldest and most primitive materials in the solar system. Chondrites are often considered to be "the building blocks of the planets". About 8% of the meteorites that fall on Earth are achondrites, some of which appear to be similar to terrestrial mafic igneous rocks. Most achondrites are also ancient rocks, and are thought to represent crustal material of asteroids. One large family of achondrites (the HED meteorites) may have originated on the asteroid 4 Vesta. Others derive from different asteroids. Two small groups of achondrites are special, as they are younger and do not appear to come from the asteroid belt. One of these groups comes from the Moon, and includes rocks similar to those brought back to Earth by Apollo and Luna programs. The other group is almost certainly from Mars and are the only materials from other planets ever recovered by man. About 5% of meteorites that fall are iron meteorites with intergrowths of iron-nickel alloys, such as kamacite and taenite. Most iron meteorites are thought to come from the core of a number of asteroids that were once molten. As on Earth, the denser metal separated from silicate material and sank toward the center of the asteroid, forming a core. After the asteroid solidified, it broke up in a collision with another asteroid. Due to the low abundance of irons in collection areas such as Antarctica, where most of the meteoric material that has fallen can be recovered, it is possible that the actual percentage of iron-meteorite falls is lower than 5%. Stony-iron meteorites constitute the remaining 1%. They are a mixture of iron-nickel metal and silicate minerals. One type, called pallasites, is thought to have originated in the boundary zone above the core regions where iron meteorites originated. The other major type of stony-iron meteorites is the mesosiderites. Tektites (from Greek tektos, molten) are not themselves meteorites, but are rather natural glass objects up to a few centimeters in size which were formed--according to most scientists--by the impacts of large meteorites on Earth's surface. A few researchers have favored Tektites originating from the Moon as volcanic ejecta, but this theory has lost much of its support over the last few decades. Meteorite recovery Falls Photo of a car seat and muffler hit by the Benld meteorite in 1938, with the meteorite inset. An observed fall. Most meteorite falls are recovered on the basis of eye-witness accounts of the fireball or the actual impact of the object on the ground, or both. Therefore, despite the fact that meteorites actually fall with virtually equal probability everywhere on Earth, verified meteorite falls tend to be concentrated in areas with high human population densities such as Europe, Japan, and northern India. A small number of meteorite falls have been observed with automated cameras and recovered following calculation of the impact point. The first of these was the Pribram meteorite, which fell in Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic) in 1959. Ceplecha, Z, (1961) Multiple fall of Pribram meteorites photographed. Bull. Astron. Inst. Czechoslovakia, 12, 21-46 NASA ADS In this case, two cameras used to photograph meteors captured images of the fireball. The images were used both to determine the location of the stones on the ground and, more significantly, to calculate for the first time an accurate orbit for a recovered meteorite. Following the Pribram fall, other nations established automated observing programs aimed at studying infalling meteorites. One of these was the Prairie Network, operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory from 1963 to 1975 in the midwestern US. This program also observed a meteorite fall, the Lost City chondrite, allowing its recovery and a calculation of its orbit. McCrosky, R.E. et al. (1971) J. Geophys. Res. 76, 4090-4108 Another program in Canada, the Meteorite Observation and Recovery Project, ran from 1971 to 1985. It too recovered a single meteorite, Innisfree, in 1977. Campbell-Brown, M. D. and Hildebrand, A. (2005) A new analysis of fireball data from the Meteorite Observation and Recovery Project (MORP). Earth, Moon, and Planets 95, 489 - 499 Finally, observations by the European Fireball Network, a descendant of the original Czech program that recovered Pribram, led to the discovery and orbit calculations for the Neuschwanstein meteorite in 2002. Oberst, J. et al. (2004) The multiple meteorite fall of Neuschwanstein: Circumstances of the event and meteorite search campaigns. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 39, 1627-1641 PS...39.1627O NASA ADS Finds Until the 20th century, only a few hundred meteorite finds had ever been discovered. Over 80% of these were iron and stony-iron meteorites, which are easily distinguished from local rocks. To this day, few stony meteorites are reported each year that can be considered to be "accidental" finds. The reason there are now over 30,000 meteorite finds in the world's collections started with the discovery by Harvey H. Nininger that meteorites are much more common on the surface of the Earth than was previously thought. The Great Plains of the US Nininger's strategy was to search for meteorites in the Great Plains of the United States, where the land was largely cultivated and the soil contained few rocks. Between the late 1920s and the 1950s, he traveled across the region, educating local people about what meteorites looked like and what to do if they thought they had found one, for example, in the course of clearing a field. The result was the discovery of over 200 new meteorites, mostly stony types. Website by A. Mitterling In the late 1960s, Roosevelt County, New Mexico in the Great Plains was found to be a particularly good place to find meteorites. After the discovery of a few meteorites in 1967, a public awareness campaign resulted in the finding of nearly 100 new specimens in the next few years, with many being found by a single person, Mr. Ivan Wilson. In total, nearly 140 meteorites were found in the region since 1967. In the area of the finds, the ground was originally covered by a shallow, loose soil sitting atop a hardpan layer. During the dustbowl era, the loose soil was blown off, leaving any rocks and meteorites that were present stranded on the exposed surface. Huss, G.I. and Wilson, I.E. (1973) A census of the meteorites of Roosevelt County, New Mexico. Meteoritics 8, 287-290 NASA ADS Antarctica Structures intimating a lifeform on meteorite fragment ALH84001, discovered in Antarctica A few meteorites were found in Antarctica between 1912 and 1964. In 1969, the 10th Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition found nine meteorites on a blue ice field near the Yamato Mountains. With this discovery, came the realization that movement of ice sheets might act to concentrate meteorites in certain areas. After a dozen other specimens were found in the same place in 1973, a Japanese expedition was launched in 1974 dedicated to the search for meteorites. This team recovered nearly 700 meteorites. Shortly thereafter, the United States began its own program to search for Antarctic meteorites, operating along the Transantarctic Mountains on the other side of the continent: the ANtarctic Search for METeorites (ANSMET) program. European teams, starting with a consortium called "EUROMET" in the late 1980s, and continuing with a program by the Italian Programma Nazionale di Ricerche in Antartide have also conducted systematic searches for Antarctic meteorites. The Antarctic Scientific Exploration of China has conducted successful meteorite searches since 2000. A Korean program (KOREAMET) was launched in 2007 and has collected a few meteorites. KORea Expedition for Antarctic METeorites (KOREAMET) The combined efforts of all of these expeditions have produced more than 23,000 classified meteorite specimens since 1974, with thousands more that have not yet been classified. For more information see the article by Harvey (2003). Harvey, Ralph (2003) The origin and significance of Antarctic meteorites Chemie der Erde 63, 93-147 Australia At about the same time as meteorite concentrations were being discovered in the cold desert of Antarctica, collectors discovered that many meteorites could also be found in the hot deserts of Australia. Several dozen meteorites had already been found in the Nullarbor region of Western and South Australia. Systematic searches between about 1971 and the present recovered over 500 more Bevan, A.W.R. and Binns, R.A. (1989) Meteorites from the Nullarbor region, Western Australia: I. A review of past recoveries and a procedure for naming new finds. Meteorites 24, 127-133 NASA ADS , ~300 of which are currently well characterized. The meteorites can be found in this region because the land presents a flat, featureless, plain covered by limestone. In the extremely arid climate, there has been relatively little weathering or sedimentation on the surface for tens of thousands of years, allowing meteorites to accumulate without being buried or destroyed. The dark colored meteorites can then be recognized among the very different looking limestone pebbles and rocks. The Sahara and rising commercialization In 1986-87, a German team installing a network of seismic stations while prospecting for oil discovered about 65 meteorites on a flat, desert plain about 100 km southeast of Dirj (Daraj), Libya. A few years later, a desert enthusiast saw photographs of meteorites being recovered by scientists in Antarctica, and thought that he had seen similar occurrences in northern Africa. In 1989, he recovered about 100 meteorites from several distinct locations in Libya and Algeria. Over the next several years, he and others who followed found at least 400 more meteorites. The find locations were generally in regions known as regs or hamadas: flat, featureless areas covered only by small pebbles and minor amounts of sand. Bischoff A. and Geiger T. (1995) Meteorites from the Sahara: find locations, shock classification, degree of weathering and pairing. Meteoritics 30, 113-122. ADS Dark-colored meteorites can be easily spotted in these places, where they have also been well-preserved due to the arid climate. Although meteorites had been sold commercially and collected by hobbyists for many decades, up to the time of the Saharan finds of the late 1980s and early 1990s, most meteorites were deposited in or purchased by museums and similar institutions where they were exhibited and made available for scientific research. The sudden availability of large numbers of meteorites that could be found with relative ease in places that were readily accessible (especially compared to Antarctica), led to a rapid rise in commercial collection of meteorites. This process was accelerated when, in 1997, meteorites coming from both the Moon and Mars were found in Libya. By the late 1990s, private meteorite-collecting expeditions had been launched throughout the Sahara. Specimens of the meteorites recovered in this way are still deposited in research collections, but most of the material is sold to private collectors. These expeditions have now brought the total number of well-described meteorites found in Algeria and Libya to over 2000. As word spread in Saharan countries about the growing profitibility of the meteorite trade, meteorite markets came into existence, especially in Morocco, fed by nomads and local people who combed the deserts looking for specimens to sell. Many thousands of meteorites have been distributed in this way, most of which lack any information about how, when, or where they were discovered. These are the so-called "Northwest Africa" meteorites. Arabian Peninsula In 1999, meteorite hunters discovered that the desert in southern and central Oman were also favorable for the collection of many specimens. The gravel plains in the Dhofar and Al Wusta regions of Oman, south of the sandy deserts of the Rub' al Khali, had yielded about 5,000 meteorites as of mid-2009. Included among these are a large number of lunar and Martian meteorites, making Oman a particularly important area both for scientists and collectors. Early expeditions to Oman were mainly done by commercial meteorite dealers, however international teams of Omani and European scientists have also now collected specimens. The recovery of meteorites from Oman is currently prohibited by national law, but a number of international hunters continue to remove specimens now deemed "national treasures." This new law provoked a small international incident, as its implementation actually preceded any public notification of such a law, resulting in the prolonged imprisonment of a large group of meteorite hunters primarily from Russia, but whose party also consisted of members from the U.S. as well as several other European countries. The Black Stone in the wall of the Kaaba in Mecca is thought to be a meteorite by some secular historians, but there is little support for this in the scientific literature Meteoritical Bulletin Entry for Kaaba The American Southwest A stony meteorite (H5) found just north of Barstow, California in 2006 Beginning in the mid-1990s, amateur meteorite hunters began scouring the arid areas of the southwestern United States. To date, meteorites numbering possibly into the thousands have been recovered from the Mojave, Sonoran, Great Basin, and Chihuahuan Deserts, with many being recovered on dry lake beds (playas). Significant finds include the Superior Valley 014 Acapulcoite, one of two of its type found within the United States Meteoritical Bulletin entry for Superior Valley 014 Paper on Superior Valley 014 and associated meteorites as well as the Blue Eagle meteorite, the first Rumuruti-type chondrite yet found in the Americas. Meteoritical Bulleting entry for Blue Eagle meteorite Perhaps the most notable find in recent years has been the Los Angeles meteorite, a martian meteorite that was discovered by Robert Verish somewhere in the Mojave desert, only to be recognized years later in a pile of rocks in his back yard. Meteoritical Bulletin entry for Los Angeles meteorite A number of finds from the American Southwest have yet to be formally submitted to the Meteorite Nomenclature Committee, as many finders think it is unwise to publicly state the coordinates of their discoveries for fear of confiscation by the federal government. Several of the meteorites found recently are currently on display in the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles. Meteorites in history One of the leading theories for the cause of the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event that included the dinosaurs is a large meteorite impact. The Chicxulub Crater has been identified as the site of this impact. There has been a lively scientific debate as to whether other major extinctions, including the ones at the end of the Permian and Triassic periods might also have been the result of large impact events, but the evidence is much less compelling than for the end Cretaceous extinction. The Willamette Meteorite, the largest ever to be found in the United States A famous case is the alleged Chinguetti meteorite, a find reputed to come from a large unconfirmed 'iron mountain' in Africa. There are several reported instances of falling meteorites having killed both people and livestock, but a few of these appear more credible than others. The most infamous reported fatality from a meteorite impact is that of an Egyptian dog that was killed in 1911, although this report is highly disputed. This particular meteorite fall was identified in the 1980s as Martian in origin. However, there is substantial evidence that the meteorite known as Valera hit and killed a cow upon impact, nearly dividing the animal in two, and similar unsubstantiated reports of a horse being struck and killed by a stone of the New Concord fall also abound. Throughout history, many first and second-hand reports of meteorites falling on and killing both humans and other animals abound, but none have been well documented. The first known modern case of a human hit by a space rock occurred on 30 November 1954 in Sylacauga, Alabama. Meteorite Hits on Man-made Objects There a 4 kg stone chondrite Natural History Museum Database crashed through a roof and hit Ann Hodges in her living room after it bounced off her radio. She was badly bruised. The Hodges meteorite, or Sylacauga meteorite, is currently on exhibit at the Alabama Museum of Natural History. Other than the Sylacauga event, the most plausible of these claims was put forth by a young boy who stated that he had been hit by a small (~3 gram) stone of the Mbale meteorite fall from Uganda, and who stood to gain nothing from this assertion. The stone reportedly fell through a number of banana leaves before striking the boy on the head, causing little to no pain, as it was small enough to have been slowed by both friction with the atmosphere as well as that with banana leaves, before striking the boy. Although it is impossible to prove this claim either way, it seems as though he had little reason to lie about such an event occurring. Several persons have since claimed Meteorite Mis-identification in the News to have been struck by "meteorites" but no verifiable meteorites have resulted. Indigenous peoples often prized iron-nickel meteorites as an easy, if limited, source of iron metal. For example, the Inuit used chips of the Cape York meteorite to form cutting edges for tools and spear tips. Meteorite falls may also be the source of cultish worship. The cult in the Temple of Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus, one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World possibly originated with the observation of a meteorite fall which was understood by contemporaries Acts 19:35 to have fallen to the earth from Zeus, the principal Greek deity. Some Native Americans treated meteorites as ceremonial objects. In 1915, a 135-pound iron meteorite was found in a Sinagua (c.1100-1200 AD) burial cyst near Camp Verde, Arizona, respectfully wrapped in a feather cloth. H.H. Nininger, 1972, Find a Falling Star (autobiography), New York, Paul S. Erikson A small pallasite was found in a pottery jar in an old burial found at Pojoaque Pueblo, New Mexico. Nininger reports several other such instances, in the Southwest US and elsewhere, such as the discovery of Native American beads of meteoric iron found in Hopewell burial mounds, and the discovery of the Winona meteorite in a Native American stone-walled crypt. H.H. Nininger, 1972, Find a Falling Star (autobiography), New York, Paul S. Erikson In the 1970s a stone meteorite was uncovered during an archaeological dig at Danebury Iron Age hillfort, Danebury England. It was found deposited part way down in an Iron Age pit. Since it must have been deliberately placed there, this could indicate one of the first (known) human finds of a meteorite in Europe. Notable meteorites Allende, largest known carbonaceous chondrite (Chihuahua, Mexico, 1969). Allan Hills 81005 - First meteorite determined to be of lunar origin. Allan Hills 84001 - Mars meteorite that was claimed to prove the existence of life on Mars. The Bacubirito Meteorite (Meteroito de Bacubirito) - A meteorite estimated to weigh between 20 and 30 tons. It is on display at the Centro de Ciencias de Sinaloa in Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico. Canyon Diablo - Iron meteorite used by prehistoric Native Americans. Cape York - One of the largest meteorites in the world. A 34 ton fragment called "Ahnighito", is exhibited at the American Museum of Natural History; the largest meteorite on exhibit in any museum. Ensisheim meteorite - The oldest meteorite whose fall can be dated precisely (to November 7, 1492, at Ensisheim) Fukang meteorite -- The largest main mass Pallasite. It furthermore has larger than average Olivine crystals and was offered for auction at close to $ 3 million at Bonhams in April 2008. Fukang Meteorite Auction, Description, History Hoba - The largest known meteorite. Kaidun - Possibly from the martian moon Phobos. Orgueil - Object of a 1965 hoax that involved embedding a seed within part of the meteorite. Murchison - A carbonaceous chondrite found to contain nucleobases - the building block of life. Sikhote-Alin - Massive iron meteorite impact event that occurred on February 12, 1947. Willamette - The largest meteorite ever found in the United States. The Peruvian meteorite event - On 15 September 2007, a stony meteorite that may have weighed as much as 4000 kilograms created a crater 13 meters in diameter near the village of Carancas, Peru. Apart from meteorites fallen onto the Earth, "Heat Shield Rock" is a meteorite which was found on Mars, and two tiny fragments of asteroids were found among the samples collected on the Moon by Apollo 12 (1969) and Apollo 15 (1971) astronauts. Meteoritical Bulletin Database Notable large impact craters Meteor Crater in Arizona, also known as Barringer Crater, the first confirmed terrestrial impact crater. (1.2 km diameter) Vredefort Crater in South Africa, the largest known impact crater on Earth (300 km diameter from an estimated 10 km wide meteorite). Sudbury Basin in Ontario, Canada (250 km diameter). Chicxulub Crater off the coast of Yucatán (170 km diameter) thought to be the source of the K-T Boundary which marks the end of the Mesozoic Era and existence of Dinosaurs. Manicouagan Reservoir in Québec, Canada (100 km diameter) Popigai crater in Russia (100 km diameter) Acraman crater in South Australia (90 km diameter) Chesapeake Bay impact crater (90 km diameter) Siljan (lake) in Sweden, largest crater in Europe (52 km diameter) Mjølnir impact crater in the Barents Sea (40 km diameter) Manson crater in Iowa (38 km crater is buried) Clearwater Lakes a double crater impact in Québec, Canada (26 km and 36 km in diameter). Lonar crater in India (1.83 km diameter) Brent crater in northern Ontario (3.8 km diameter) Notable disintegrating meteoroids Tunguska event in Siberia 1908 (no crater) (There is no direct evidences that it was meteoroid) Vitim event in Siberia 2002 (no crater) See also Atmospheric focusing, shockwave produced in the atmosphere by a meteor or other cause Baetylus, a Semitic word denoting a sacred stone (often a meteorite) Center for Meteorite Studies at Arizona State University The British and Irish Meteorite Society Carbonaceous chondrite, a class of chondritic meteorites comprising at least seven known groups and many ungrouped Geminids, a recurring meteor shower caused by an object named 3200 Phaethon Impact depth of projectiles traveling at high speed Impact event, the collision of a large meteorite, asteroid, comet, or other celestial object with a planet Lake Siljan, an impact crater in Sweden Leonids, a prolific meteor shower associated with the comet Tempel-Tuttle Meteor shower Meteoritical Society, scholarly organization specializing in meteorites Neenach Meteorite, Los Angeles County, California Solar System Vatican Observatory Temagami Magnetic Anomaly, a large buried geologic structure in the Canadian Shield References External links Meteoroids Page at NASA's Solar System exploration Current meteorite news articles Planetary Science Research Discoveries: meteorite articles and photographs Chronological listing of meteorites that have struck humans, animals and manmade objects Interview with Guy Consolmagno at Astrobiology Magazine (May 12, 2004). Vatican astronomer Dr. Guy Consolmagno discussed his research as curator of one of the world's largest meteorite collections The British and Irish Meteorite Society Types of extraterrestrial material available for study Largest meteorites Meteorite Times, news and information about meteorite collecting The Natural History Museum's meteorite catalogue database Meteoritical Society Earth Impact Database | Meteorite |@lemmatized willamette:3 meteorite:199 natural:8 object:13 originate:6 space:5 survive:1 impact:31 earth:19 surface:15 call:8 meteoroid:12 enter:2 atmosphere:11 pressure:1 cause:12 body:5 heat:6 emit:1 light:3 thus:1 form:7 fireball:8 also:16 know:11 meteor:11 shoot:1 star:3 term:1 bolide:1 refers:1 either:2 extraterrestrial:2 collide:1 exceptionally:1 bright:2 like:6 regardless:1 whether:2 ultimately:1 generally:3 celestial:2 come:8 elsewhere:2 find:54 moon:8 mcsween:1 h:6 jr:1 new:14 type:8 chondritic:3 lunar:3 soil:4 planetary:5 science:6 letter:2 rubin:1 e:4 hadley:1 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2,640 | Diffieâ%80%93Hellman_key_exchange | Diffie-Hellman key exchange (D-H) is a cryptographic protocol that allows two parties that have no prior knowledge of each other to jointly establish a shared secret key over an insecure communications channel. This key can then be used to encrypt subsequent communications using a symmetric key cipher. Synonyms of Diffie-Hellman key exchange include: Diffie-Hellman key agreement Diffie-Hellman key establishment Diffie-Hellman key negotiation Exponential key exchange Diffie-Hellman protocol The scheme was first published publicly by Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman in 1976, although it later emerged that it had been separately invented a few years earlier within GCHQ, the British signals intelligence agency, by Malcolm J. Williamson but was kept classified. In 2002, Hellman suggested the algorithm be called Diffie-Hellman-Merkle key exchange in recognition of Ralph Merkle's contribution to the invention of public-key cryptography (Hellman, 2002). Although Diffie-Hellman key agreement itself is an anonymous (non-authenticated) key-agreement protocol, it provides the basis for a variety of authenticated protocols, and is used to provide perfect forward secrecy in Transport Layer Security's ephemeral modes. History of the protocol Diffie-Hellman key agreement was invented in 1976 during a collaboration between Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman and was the first practical method for establishing a shared secret over an unprotected communications channel. Ralph Merkle's work on public key distribution was an influence. John Gill suggested application of the discrete logarithm problem. It had been discovered by Malcolm Williamson of GCHQ in the UK some years previously, but GCHQ chose not to make it public until 1997, by which time it had no influence on research in academia. The method was followed shortly afterwards by RSA, another implementation of public key cryptography using asymmetric algorithms. In 2002, Martin Hellman wrote: The system...has since become known as Diffie-Hellman key exchange. While that system was first described in a paper by Diffie and me, it is a public key distribution system, a concept developed by Merkle, and hence should be called 'Diffie-Hellman-Merkle key exchange' if names are to be associated with it. I hope this small pulpit might help in that endeavor to recognize Merkle's equal contribution to the invention of public key cryptography. , now expired, describes the algorithm and credits Hellman, Diffie, and Merkle as inventors. Description Diffie-Hellman key exchange The simplest, and original, implementation of the protocol uses the Multiplicative group of integers modulo p, where p is prime and g is primitive root mod p. Here is an example of the protocol: Alice Sec Calc p, g a ga mod p … (gb mod p)a mod p = Bob Calc Sec p, g b … g<sup>b</sup> mod p (ga mod p)b mod p Alice and Bob agree to use a prime number p=23 and base g=5. Alice chooses a secret integer a=6, then sends Bob A=(ga mod p) A = 56 mod 23 = 8. Bob chooses a secret integer b=15, then sends Alice B=(gb mod p) B = 515 mod 23 = 19. Alice computes s = (B)a mod p 196 mod 23 = 2. Bob computes s = (A)b mod p 815 mod 23 = 2. Both Alice and Bob have arrived at the same value, because gab and gba are equal mod p. Note that only a, b and gab = gba mod p are kept secret. All the other values -- p, g, ga mod p, and gb mod p -- are sent in the clear. Once Alice and Bob compute the shared secret they can use it as an encryption key, known only to them, for sending messages across the same open communications channel. Of course, much larger values of a, b, and p would be needed to make this example secure, since it is easy to try all the possible values of gab mod 23 (there will be, at most, 22 such values, even if a and b are large). If p were a prime of at least 300 digits, and a and b were at least 100 digits long, then even the best algorithms known today could not find a given only g, p, and ga mod p, even using all of mankind's computing power. The problem is known as the discrete logarithm problem. Note that g need not be large at all, and in practice is usually either 2 or 5. Here's a more general description of the protocol: Alice and Bob agree on a finite cyclic group G and a generating element g in G. (This is usually done long before the rest of the protocol; g is assumed to be known by all attackers.) We will write the group G multiplicatively. Alice picks a random natural number a and sends ga to Bob. Bob picks a random natural number b and sends gb to Alice. Alice computes (gb)a. Bob computes (ga)b. Both Alice and Bob are now in possession of the group element gab, which can serve as the shared secret key. The values of (gb)a and (ga)b are the same because groups are power associative. (See also exponentiation.) Chart Here is a chart to help simplify who knows what. (Eve is an eavesdropper—she watches what is sent between Alice and Bob, but she does not alter the contents of their communications.) Let s = shared secret key. s = 2 Let a = Alice's private key. a = 6 Let A = Alice's public key. A = g^a mod p = 8 Let b = Bob's private key. b = 15 Let B = Bob's public key. B = g^b mod p = 19 Let g = public base. g=5 Let p = public (prime) number. p = 23 Alice knows doesn't know p = 23 b = 15 base g = 5 a = 6 A = 56 mod 23 = 8 B = 5b mod 23 = 19 s = 196 mod 23 = 2 s = 8b mod 23 = 2 s = 196 mod 23 = 8b mod 23 s = 2 Bob knows doesn't know p = 23 a = 6 base g = 5 b = 15 B = 515 mod 23 = 19 A = 5a mod 23 = 8 s = 815 mod 23 = 2 s = 19a mod 23 = 2 s = 815 mod 23 = 19a mod 23 s = 2 Eve knows doesn't know p = 23 a = 6 base g = 5 b = 15 s = 2 A = 5a mod 23 = 8 B = 5b mod 23 = 19 s = 19a mod 23 s = 8b mod 23 s = 19a mod 23 = 8b mod 23 Note: It should be difficult for Alice to solve for Bob's private key or for Bob to solve for Alice's private key. If it isn't difficult for Alice to solve for Bob's private key (or vice versa), Eve may simply substitute her own private / public key pair, plug Bob's public key into her private key, produce a fake shared secret key, and solve for Bob's private key (and use that to solve for the shared secret key. Eve may attempt to choose a public / private key pair that will make it easy for her to solve for Bob's private key). Security The protocol is considered secure against eavesdroppers if G and g are chosen properly. The eavesdropper ("Eve") would have to solve the Diffie-Hellman problem to obtain gab. This is currently considered difficult. An efficient algorithm to solve the discrete logarithm problem would make it easy to compute a or b and solve the Diffie-Hellman problem, making this and many other public key cryptosystems insecure. The order of G should be prime or have a large prime factor to prevent use of the Pohlig-Hellman algorithm to obtain a or b. For this reason, a Sophie Germain prime q is sometimes used to calculate p=2q+1, called a safe prime, since the order of G is then only divisible by 2 and q. g is then sometimes chosen to generate the order q subgroup of G, rather than G, so that the Legendre symbol of ga never reveals the low order bit of a. If Alice and Bob use random number generators whose outputs are not completely random and can be predicted to some extent, then Eve's task is much easier. The secret integers a and b are discarded at the end of the session. Therefore, Diffie-Hellman key exchange by itself trivially achieves perfect forward secrecy because no long-term private keying material exists to be disclosed. Authentication In the original description, the Diffie-Hellman exchange by itself does not provide authentication of the communicating parties and is thus vulnerable to a man-in-the-middle attack. A person in the middle may establish two distinct Diffie-Hellman key exchanges, one with Alice and the other with Bob, effectively masquerading as Alice to Bob, and vice versa, allowing the attacker to decrypt (and read or store) then re-encrypt the messages passed between them. A method to authenticate the communicating parties to each other is generally needed to prevent this type of attack. A variety of cryptographic authentication solutions incorporate a Diffie-Hellman exchange. When Alice and Bob have a public key infrastructure, they may digitally sign the agreed key, or ga and gb, as in MQV, STS and the IKE component of the IPsec protocol suite for securing Internet Protocol communications. When Alice and Bob share a password, they may use a password-authenticated key agreement form of Diffie-Hellman, such as the one described in ITU-T Recommendation X.1035. See also Cryptography portal Modular Arithmetic Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman Public-key cryptography ElGamal encryption Diffie-Hellman problem MQV Password-authenticated key agreement References Dieter Gollmann (2006). Computer Security Second Edition West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Non-Secret Encryption Using a Finite Field MJ Williamson, January 21, 1974. Thoughts on Cheaper Non-Secret Encryption MJ Williamson, August 10, 1976. New Directions in Cryptography W. Diffie and M. E. Hellman, IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, vol. IT-22, Nov. 1976, pp: 644-654. Martin E. Hellman, Bailey W. Diffie, and Ralph C. Merkle, U.S. Patent #4,200,770, 29 April 1980 The History of Non-Secret Encryption JH Ellis 1987 (28K PDF file) (HTML version) The First Ten Years of Public-Key Cryptography Whitfield Diffie, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 76, no. 5, May 1988, pp: 560-577 (1.9MB PDF file) Menezes, Alfred; van Oorschot, Paul; Vanstone, Scott (1997). Handbook of Applied Cryptography Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-8523-7. (Available online) Singh, Simon (1999) The Code Book: the evolution of secrecy from Mary Queen of Scots to quantum cryptography New York: Doubleday ISBN 0-385-49531-5 An Overview of Public Key Cryptography Martin E. Hellman, IEEE Communications Magazine, May 2002, pp:42-49. (123kB PDF file) External links Oral history interview with Martin Hellman, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Leading cryptography scholar Martin Hellman discusses the circumstances and fundamental insights of his invention of public key cryptography with collaborators Whitfield Diffie and Ralph Merkle at Stanford University in the mid-1970s. RFC 2631 - Diffie-Hellman Key Agreement Method E. Rescorla June 1999. Summary of ANSI X9.42: Agreement of Symmetric Keys Using Discrete Logarithm Cryptography (64K PDF file) (Description of ANSI 9 Standards) Diffie-Hellman explained visually Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange – A Non-Mathematician’s Explanation by Keith Palmgren Crypt::DH Perl module from CPAN Hands-on Diffie-Hellman demonstration C implementation using GNU Multiple Precision Arithmetic Library Diffie Hellman in 2 lines of Perl (using dc) | Diffieâ%80%93Hellman_key_exchange |@lemmatized diffie:34 hellman:38 key:54 exchange:12 h:1 cryptographic:2 protocol:12 allow:2 two:2 party:3 prior:1 knowledge:1 jointly:1 establish:3 shared:1 secret:14 insecure:2 communication:7 channel:3 use:17 encrypt:2 subsequent:1 symmetric:2 cipher:1 synonym:1 include:1 agreement:8 establishment:1 negotiation:1 exponential:1 scheme:1 first:4 publish:1 publicly:1 whitfield:4 martin:7 although:2 later:1 emerge:1 separately:1 invent:2 year:3 earlier:1 within:1 gchq:3 british:1 signal:1 intelligence:1 agency:1 malcolm:2 j:1 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2,641 | Author | An author is defined both as "the person who originates or gives existence to anything" and that authorship determines responsibility for what is created. The second entry goes on to clarify that, when using the term author, the "anything" which is created is most usually associated with written work. Author of a written work Legal significance In copyright law, there is necessarily little flexibility as to what constitutes authorship. The United States Copyright Office defines copyright as "a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States (title 17, U.S. Code) to authors of "original works of authorship". Holding the title of "author" over any "literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, [or] certain other intellectual works" gives this person, the owner of the copyright, exclusive right to do or authorize any production or distribution of their work. Any person or entity wishing to use intellectual property held under copyright must receive permission from the copyright holder to use this work, and often will be asked to pay for the use of copyrighted material. After a fixed amount of time, the copyright expires on intellectual work and it enters the public domain, where it can be used without limit. Copyright law has been amended time and time again since the inception of the law to extend the length of this fixed period where the work is exclusively controlled by the copyright holder. However, copyright is merely the legal reassurance that one owns his/her work. Technically, someone owns their work from the time it's created. An interesting aspect of authorship emerges with copyright in that it can be passed down to another upon one's death. The person who inherits the copyright is not the author, but enjoys the same legal benefits. Questions arise as to the application of copyright law. How does it, for example, apply to the complex issue of fan fiction? If the media agency responsible for the authorised production allows material from fans, what is the limit before legal constraints from actors, music, and other considerations, come into play? As well, how does copyright apply to fan-generated stories for books? What powers do the original authors, as well as the publishers, have in regulating or even stopping the fan fiction? Literary significance In literary theory, critics find complications in the term "author" beyond what constitutes authorship in a legal setting. In the wake of postmodern literature, critics such as Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault have examined the role and relevance of authorship to the meaning or interpretation of a text. Barthes challenges the idea that a text can be attributed to any single author. He quotes, in his essay "Death of the Author" (1968), that "it is language which speaks, not the author". The words and language of a text itself determine and expose meaning for Barthes, and not someone possessing legal responsibility for the process of its production. Every line of written text is a mere reflection of references from any of a multitude of traditions, or, as Barthes puts it, "the text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centres of culture"; it is never original. With this, the perspective of the author is removed from the text, and the limits formerly imposed by the idea of one authorial voice, one ultimate and universal meaning, are destroyed. The explanation and meaning of a work does not have to be sought in the one who produced it, "as if it were always in the end, through the more or less transparent allegory of the fiction, the voice of a single person, the author 'confiding' in us". The psyche, culture, fanaticism of an author can be disregarded when interpreting a text, because the words are rich enough themselves with all of the traditions of language. To expose meanings in a written work without appealing to the celebrity of an author, their tastes, passions, vices, is, to Barthes, to allow language to speak, rather than author. Michel Foucault argues in his famous essay "What is an author?" (1969), that all authors are writers, but not all writers are authors. He states that "a private letter may have a signatory—it does not have an author". For a reader to assign the title of author upon any written work is to attribute certain standards upon the text which, for Foucault, are working in conjunction with the idea of "the author function". Foucault's author function is the idea that an author exists only as a function of a written work, a part of its structure, but not necessarily part of the interpretive process. The author's name "indicates the status of the discourse within a society and culture", and at one time was used as an anchor for interpreting a text, a practice which Barthes would argue is not a particularly relevant or valid endeavor. Expanding upon Foucault's position, Alexander Nehamas writes that Foucault suggests "an author [...] is whoever can be understood to have produced a particular text as we interpret it", not necessarily who penned the text. It is this distinction between producing a written work and producing the interpretation or meaning in a written work that both Barthes and Foucault are interested in. Foucault warns of the risks of keeping the author's name in mind during interpretation, because it could affect the value and meaning with which one handles an interpretation. Literary critics Barthes and Foucault suggest that readers should not rely on or look for the notion of one overarching voice when interpreting a written work, because of the complications inherent with a writer's title of "author." They warn of the dangers interpretations could suffer from when associating the subject of inherently meaningful words and language with the personality of one authorial voice. Instead, readers should allow a text to be interpreted in terms of the language as "author." Relationship between author and publisher The publisher of a work might receive a percentage calculated on a wholesale or a specific price and or a fixed amount on each book that is sold. Publishers, at times, reduced the risk of this type of arrangement, by agreeing only to pay this after a certain amount of copies had sold. In Canada this practice occurred during the 1890s, but was not commonplace until the 1920s. Commissioned: Publishers made publication arrangements, and authors covered all expenses (today the practice of authors paying for their publications is often called vanity publishing, and is looked down upon by many publishers, even though it may have been a common and accepted practice in the past). Publishers would receive a percentage on the sale of every copy of a book, and the author would receive the rest of the money made. Relationship between author and editor The relationship between the author and the editor, often the author’s only liaison to the publishing company, is often characterized as the site of tension. For the author to reach his or her audience, the work usually must attract the attention of the editor. The idea of the author as the sole meaning-maker of necessity changes to include the influences of the editor and the publisher in order to engage the audience in writing as a social act. Pierre Bourdieu’s essay “The Field of Cultural Production” depicts the publishing industry as a “space of literary or artistic position-takings,” also called the “field of struggles,” which is defined by the tension and movement inherent among the various positions in the field. Bourdieu, Pierre. “The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed.” The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, 30. Bourdieu claims that the “field of position-takings [...] is not the product of coherence-seeking intention or objective consensus,” meaning that an industry characterized by position-takings is not one of harmony and neutrality. Bourdieu, Pierre. “The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed.” The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, 34 In particular for the writer, their authorship in their work makes their work part of their identity, and there is much at stake personally over the negotiation of authority over that identity. However, it is the editor who has “the power to impose the dominant definition of the writer and therefore to delimit the population of those entitled to take part in the struggle to define the writer”. Bourdieu, Pierre. “The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed.” The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, 42 As “cultural investors,” publishers rely on the editor position to identify a good investment in “cultural capital” which may grow to yield economic capital across all positions. Bourdieu, Pierre. “The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed.” The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, 68 According to the studies of James Curran, the system of shared values among editors in Britain has generated a pressure among authors to write to fit the editors’ expectations, removing the focus from the reader-audience and putting a strain on the relationship between authors and editors and on writing as a social act. Even the book review by the editors has more significance than the readership’s reception. Curran, James. “Literary Editors, Social Networks and Cultural Tradition.” Media Organizations in Society. James Curran, ed. London: Arnold, 2000, 230 Good relationships between authors and editors are largely found to be the product of an awareness of writing as a social act, and an effort to create a balance wherein the authority over the text is negotiated among all of the positions in the industry, so that the meaning is effectively carried from the meaning-maker to the readership. Wages There are no normal wages for authors. The pay for authors is normally based on provisions after standard contracts with companies. See also Novelist Writer Lists of authors Lists of poets List of novelists Professional writing Academic authorship References Further reading Hix, H. L. Morte d'Author: An Autopsy. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990. Westfall, Joseph. The Kierkegaardian Author: Authorship and Performance in Kierkegaard's Literary and Dramatic Criticism. 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2,642 | Jacques-Louis_David | Jacques-Louis David (30 August 1748 – 29 December 1825) was a highly influential French painter in the Neoclassical style, considered to be the preeminent painter of the era. In the 1780s his cerebral brand of history painting marked a change in taste away from Rococo frivolity toward a classical austerity and severity, heightened feeling Matthew Collings. chiming with the moral climate of the final years of the ancien régime. David later became an active supporter of the French Revolution and friend of Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794), and was effectively a dictator of the arts under the French Republic. Imprisoned after Robespierre's fall from power, he aligned himself with yet another political regime upon his release, that of Napoleon I. It was at this time that he developed his 'Empire style', notable for its use of warm Venetian colours. David had a huge number of pupils, making him the strongest influence in French art of the early 19th century, especially academic Salon painting. Early life Jacques-Louis David was born into a prosperous family in Paris on 30 August 1748. When he was about nine his father was killed in a duel and his mother left him with his prosperous architect uncles. They saw to it that he received an excellent education at the Collège des Quatre-Nations, but he was never a good student: he had a facial tumor that impeded his speech, and he was always preoccupied with drawing. He covered his notebooks with drawings, and he once said, "I was always hiding behind the instructor’s chair, drawing for the duration of the class". Soon, he desired to be a painter, but his uncles and mother wanted him to be an architect. He overcame the opposition, and went to learn from François Boucher (1703–1770), the leading painter of the time, who was also a distant relative. Boucher was a Rococo painter, but tastes were changing, and the fashion for Rococo was giving way to a more classical style. Boucher decided that instead of taking over David’s tutelage, he would send David to his friend Joseph-Marie Vien (1716–1809), painter who embraced the classical reaction to Rococo. There David attended the Royal Academy, based in what is now the Louvre. David attempted to win the Prix de Rome, an art scholarship to the French Academy in Rome, four times between 1770 and 1774; once, he lost according to legend because he had not consulted Vien, one of the judges. Another time, he lost because a few other students had been competing for years, and Vien felt David's education could wait for these other mediocre painters. In protest, he attempted to starve himself to death. Finally, in 1774, David won the Prix de Rome. Normally, he would have had to attend another school before attending the Academy in Rome, but Vien's influence kept him out of it. He went to Italy with Vien in 1775, as Vien had been appointed director of the French Academy at Rome. While in Italy, David observed the Italian masterpieces and the ruins of ancient Rome. David filled twelve sketchbooks with material that he would derive from for the rest of his life. He met the influential early neoclassical painter Raphael Mengs (1728-1779), and through Mengs was introduced to the pathbreaking theories of art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717-1768). While in Rome, he studied great masters, and came to favor above all others Raphael. In 1779, David was able to see the ruins of Pompeii, and was filled with wonder. After this, he sought to revolutionize the art world with the "eternal" concepts of classicism. Early work Equestrian portrait of Stanisław Kostka Potocki (1781) David's fellow students at the academy found him difficult to get along with, but they recognized his genius. David was allowed to stay at the French Academy in Rome for an extra year, but after 5 years in Rome, he returned to Paris. There, he found people ready to use their influence for him, and he was made a member of the Royal Academy. He sent the Academy two paintings, and both were included in the Salon of 1781, a high honor. He was praised by his famous contemporary painters, but the administration of the Royal Academy was very hostile to this young upstart. After the Salon, the King granted David lodging in the Louvre, an ancient and much desired privilege of great artists. When the contractor of the King's buildings, M. Pecol, was arranging with David, he asked the artist to marry his daughter, Marguerite Charlotte. This marriage brought him money and eventually four children. David had his own pupils, about 40 to 50, and was commissioned by the government to paint "Horace defended by his Father", but Jacques soon decided, "Only in Rome can I paint Romans." His father-in-law provided the money he needed for the trip, and David headed for Rome with his wife and three of his students, one of whom, Jean-Germain Drouais (1763-1788), was the Prix de Rome winner of that year. In Rome, David painted his famous Oath of the Horatii, 1784. In this piece, the artist references Enlightenment values while alluding to Rousseau’s social contract. The republican ideal of the general will becomes the focus of the painting with all three sons positioned in compliance with the father. The Oath between the characters can be read as an act of unification of men to the binding of the state. . The issue of gender roles also becomes apparent in this piece, as the women in Horatii greatly contrast the group of brothers. David depicts the father with his back to the women, shutting them out of the oath making ritual; they also appear to be smaller in scale than the male figures. . The masculine virility and discipline displayed by the men’s rigid and confident stances is also severely contrasted to the slouching, swooning female softness created in the other half of the composition. . Here we see the clear division of male-female attributes which confined the sexes to specific roles, under Rousseau’s popular doctrines. Oath of the Horatii (1784) These revolutionary ideals are also apparent in the Distribution of Eagles. While Oath of the Horatii and Oath of the Tennis Court stress the importance of masculine self-sacrifice for one's country and patriotism, the Distribution of Eagles would ask for self-sacrifice for one's Emperor (Napoleon) and the importance of battlefield glory. In 1787, David did not become the Director of the French Academy in Rome, which was a position he wanted dearly. The Count in charge of the appointments said David was too young, but said he would support him in 6 to 12 years. This situation would be one of many that would cause him to lash out at the Academy in years to come. The Death of Socrates (1787) For the salon of 1787, David exhibited his famous Death of Socrates. "Condemned to death, Socrates, strong, calm and at peace, discusses the immortality of the soul. Surrounded by Crito, his grieving friends and students, he is teaching, philosophizing, and in fact, thanking the God of Health, Asclepius, for the hemlock brew which will ensure a peaceful death... The wife of Socrates can be seen grieving alone outside the chamber, dismissed for her weakness. Plato is depicted as an old man seated at the end of the bed." Critics compared the Socrates with Michelangelo’s Sistine Ceiling and Raphael's Stanze, and one, after ten visits to the Salon, described it as "in every sense perfect". Denis Diderot said it looked like he copied it from some ancient bas-relief. The painting was very much in tune with the political climate at the time. For this painting, David was not honored by a royal "works of encouragement". The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons (1789) For his next painting, David created The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons. The work had tremendous appeal for the time. Before the opening of the Salon, the French Revolution had begun. The National Assembly had been established, and the Bastille had fallen. The royal court did not want propaganda agitating the people, so all paintings had to be checked before being hung. David’s portrait of Lavoisier, who was a chemist and physicist as well as an active member of the Jacobin party, was banned by the authorities for such reasons. . When the newspapers reported that the government had not allowed the showing of The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons, the people were outraged, and the royals were forced to give in. The painting was hung in the exhibition, protected by art students. The painting depicts Lucius Junius Brutus, the Roman leader, grieving for his sons. Brutus's sons had attempted to overthrow the government and restore the monarchy, so the father ordered their death to maintain the republic. Thus, Brutus was the heroic defender of the republic, at the cost of his own family. On the right, the Mother holds her two daughters, and the grandmother is seen on the far right, in anguish. Brutus sits on the left, alone, brooding, but knowing what he did was best for his country. The whole painting was a Republican symbol, and obviously had immense meaning during these times in France. The French Revolution In the beginning, David was a supporter of the Revolution, a friend of Robespierre and a member of the Jacobin Club. While others were leaving the country for new and greater opportunities, David stayed to help destroy the old order; he was a regicide who voted in the National Convention for the Execution of Louis XVI. It is uncertain why he did this, as there were many more opportunities for him under the King than the new order; some people suggest David's love for the classical made him embrace everything about that period, including a republican government. Others believed that they found the key to the artist's revolutionary career in his personality. Undoubtedly, David's artistic sensibility, mercurial temperament, volatile emotions, ardent enthusiasm, and fierce independence might have been expected to help turn him against the established order but they did not fully explain his devotion to the republican regime. Nor did the vague statements of those who insisted upon his "powerful ambition... and unusual energy of will” actually account for his revolutionary connections. Those who knew him maintained that "generous ardor", high-minded idealism and well meaning, though sometimes fanatical, enthusiasm rather than selfishness and jealousy, motivated his activities during this period. Soon, David turned his critical sights on Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. This attack was probably caused primarily by the hypocrisy of the organization and their personal opposition against his work, as seen in previous episodes in David’s life. The Royal Academy was chock full of royalists, and David’s attempt to reform it did not go over well with the members. However, the deck was stacked against this symbol of the old regime, and the National Assembly ordered it to make changes to conform to the new constitution. David then began work on something that would later hound him: propaganda for the new republic. David’s painting of Brutus was shown during the play Brutus, by the famous Frenchman, Voltaire. The people responded in an uproar of approval. In 1789, Jacques Louis David attempted to leave his artistic mark on the historical beginnings of the French Revolution with his painting of The Oath of the Tennis Court. David undertook this task not out of personal political conviction but rather because he was commissioned to do so. The painting was meant to commemorate the event of the same name but was never completed. A meeting of the Estates General was convened in May to address reforms of the monarchy. Dissent arose over whether the numerous members of the Third Estate would be counted by head or – following tradition – as one body. On June 17 the members of the Third Estate renamed themselves the National Assembly. The new assembly decided that each individual would be counted by head and the members alone would levy taxes. Shortly thereafter, on June 20, the National Assembly attempted to meet but the chamber doors were locked and guarded by soldiers of the monarchy. Members of the new National Assembly convened at a nearby tennis court and vowed they would not be disbanded until they had created a constitution. In 1789 this event was seen as a symbol of the national unity against the ancien regime. David was enlisted by the Society of Friends of the Constitution, the body that would eventually form the Jacobins, to enshrine this symbolic event. . This instance is notable in more ways than one because it eventually led David to finally become involved in politics as he joined the Jacobins. The picture was meant to be massive in scale; the figures in the foreground were meant to be life-sized portraits of the counterparts, including Jean-Sylvain Bailly, the President of the Constituent Assembly. Seeking additional funding, David turned to the Society of Friends of the Constitution. The funding for the project was to come from over three thousand subscribers hoping to receive a print of the image. However, when the funding was insufficient, the state ended up financing the project. Simon Lee. "David, Jacques-Louis." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. 24 Feb. 2009 <http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/grove/art/T021541>. David set out in 1790, to transform the contemporary event into a major historical picture, which would appear at the Salon of 1791 as a large pen and ink drawing. As in the Oath of the Horatii, David represents the unity of men in the service of a patriotic ideal. In what was essentially an act of intellect and reason, David creates an air of drama in this work. The very power of the people appears to be “blowing” through the scene with the stormy weather, in a sense alluding to the storm that would be the revolution. Symbolism in this work of art closely represents the revolutionary events taking place at the time. The figure in the middle is raising his right arm making the oath that they will never disband until they have reached their goal of creating a “constitution of the realm fixed upon solid foundations.” . The importance of this symbol is highlighted by the fact that the crowd’s arms are angled to his hand forming a triangular shape. Additionally, the open space in the top half contrasted to the commotion in the lower half serves to emphasize the magnitude of the Tennis Court Oath. Sketch by Jacques-Louis David of the Tennis Court Oath. David later became a deputy in the National Convention in 1792 In his attempt to depict political events of the Revolution in “real time,” David was venturing down a new and untrodden path in the art world. However, Thomas Crow argues that this path “proved to be less a way forward than a cul-de-sac for history painting.” . Essentially, the history of the demise of David’s The Tennis Court Oath illustrates the difficulty of creating works of art that portray current and controversial political occurrences. Political circumstances in France proved too volatile to allow the completion of the painting. The unity that was to be symbolized in The Tennis Court Oath no longer existed in radicalized 1792. The National Assembly had split between conservatives and radical Jacobins, both vying for political power. By 1792 there was no longer consensus that all the revolutionaries at the tennis court were “heroes.” A sizeable number of the heroes of 1789 had become the villains of 1792. In this unstable political climate David’s work remained unfinished. With only a few nude figures sketched onto the massive canvas, David abandoned The Oath of the Tennis Court. To have completed it would have been politically unsound. After this incident, when David attempted to make a political statement in his paintings, he returned to the less politically charged use of metaphor to convey his message. When Voltaire died in 1778, the church denied him a church burial, and his body was interred near a monastery. A year later, Voltaire’s old friends began a campaign to have his body buried in the Panthéon, as church property had been confiscated by the French Government. In 1791 David was appointed to head the organizing committee for the ceremony, a parade through the streets of Paris to the Panthéon. Despite rain, and opposition from conservatives based on the amount of money that was being spent, the procession went ahead. Up to 100,000 people watched the "Father of the Revolution" be carried to his resting place. This was the first of many large festivals organized by David for the republic. He went on to organize festivals for martyrs that died fighting royalists. These funerals echoed the religious festivals of the pagan Greeks and Romans and are seen by many as Saturnalian. David incorporated many revolutionary symbols into these theatrical performances and orchestrated ceremonial rituals; in effect radicalizing the applied arts, themselves. The most popular symbol David was responsible for as propaganda minister, was drawn from classical Greek images; changing and transforming them with contemporary politics. In an elaborate festival held on the anniversary of the revolt that brought the monarchy to its knees, David’s Hercules figure was revealed in a procession following the lady Liberty (Marianne). Liberty, the symbol of Enlightenment ideals was here being overturned by the Hercules symbol; that of strength and passion for the protection of the Republic against disunity and factionalism. . In his speech during the procession, David “explicitly emphasized the opposition between people and monarchy; Hercules was chosen, after all, to make this opposition more evident”. . It was the ideals that David linked to his Hercules that single-handedly transformed the figure from a sign of the old regime into a powerful new symbol of revolution. “David turned him into the representation of a collective, popular power. He took one of the favorite signs of monarchy and reproduced, elevated, and monumentalized it into the sign of its opposite.” . Hercules, the image, became to the revolutionaries, something to rally around. In 1791, the King attempted to flee the country and was within of the Swiss border when he had a hunger attack that led to his arrest and eventual execution. Louis XVI had made secret requests to Emperor Joseph II of Austria, Marie-Antoinette's brother, to restore him to his throne. This was granted and Austria threatened France if the royal couple were hurt. In reaction, the people arrested the King. This lead to an Invasion after the trials and execution of Louis and Marie-Antoinette. The Bourbon monarchy was destroyed by the French people in 1792—it would be restored after Napoleon, then destroyed again with the Restoration of the House of Bonaparte. When the new National Convention held its first meeting, David was sitting with his friends Jean-Paul Marat and Robespierre. In the Convention, David soon earned a nickname "ferocious terrorist". Soon, Robespierre’s agents discovered a secret vault of the king’s proving he was trying to overthrow the government, and demanded his execution. The National Convention held the trial of Louis XVI and David voted for the death of the King, which caused his wife, a royalist, to divorce him. When Louis XVI was executed on 21 January 1793, another man had already died as well — Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau. Le Peletier was killed on the preceding day by a royal bodyguard, in revenge for having voted the death of the King. David was called upon to organize a funeral, and he painted Le Peletier Assassinated. In it the assassin’s sword was seen hanging by a single strand of horsehair above Le Peletier's body, a concept inspired by the proverbial ancient tale of the sword of Damocles, which illustrated the insecurity of power and position. This underscored the courage displayed by Le Peletier and his companions in routing an oppressive king. The sword pierces a piece of paper on which is written ‘I vote the death of the tyrant’, and as a tribute at the bottom right of the picture David placed the inscription ‘David to Le Peletier. 20 January 1793’. The painting was later destroyed by Le Peletier's royalist daughter, and is known only by a drawing, an engraving, and contemporary accounts. Nevertheless, this work was important in David's career, because it was the first completed painting of the French Revolution, made in less than three months, and a work through which he initiated the regeneration process that would continue with The Death of Marat, David's masterpiece. The Death of Marat (1793) On 13 July 1793, David's friend Marat was assassinated by Charlotte Corday with a knife she had hidden in her clothing. She gained entrance to Marat's house on the pretense of presenting him a list of people who should be executed as enemies of France. Marat thanked her and said that they would be guillotined next week upon which Corday immediately fatally stabbed him. She was guillotined shortly thereafter. Corday was of an opposing political party, whose name can be seen in the note Marat holds in David's subsequent painting, The Death of Marat. Marat, a member of the National Assembly and a journalist, had a skin disease that caused him to itch horribly. The only relief he could get was in his bath over which he improvised a desk to write his list of suspect counter-revolutionaries who were to be quickly tried and, if convicted, guillotined. David once again organized a spectacular funeral, and Marat was buried in the Panthéon. Because Marat died in the bathtub, writing, David wanted to have his body submerged in the bathtub during the funeral procession. This did not play out because the body had begun to putrefy. Instead, Marat’s body was periodically sprinkled with water as the people came to see his corpse, complete with gaping wound. The Death of Marat, perhaps David's most famous painting, has been called the Pietà of the revolution. Upon presenting the painting to the convention, he said "Citizens, the people were again calling for their friend; their desolate voice was heard: David, take up your brushes.., avenge Marat... I heard the voice of the people. I obeyed." David had to work quickly, but the result was a simple and powerful image. The Death of Marat, 1793, became the leading image of the Terror and immortalized both Marat, and David in the world of the revolution. This piece stands today as “a moving testimony to what can be achieved when an artist’s political convictions are directly manifested in his work". . A political martyr was instantly created as David portrayed Marat with all the marks of the real murder, in a fashion which greatly resembles that of Christ or his disciples. . The subject although realistically depicted remains lifeless in a rather supernatural composition. With the surrogate tombstone placed in front of him and the almost holy light cast upon the whole scene; alluding to an out of this world existence. “Atheists though they were, David and Marat, like so many other fervent social reformers of the modern world, seem to have created a new kind of religion.” . At the very center of these beliefs, there stood the republic. Marie Antoinette on the Way to the Guillotine, 16 October 1793 After executing the King, war broke out between the new Republic and virtually every major power in Europe. David, as a member of the Committee of Public Safety, which was headed by Robespierre, contributed directly to the reign of Terror. . The committee was severe. Marie Antoinette went to the guillotine; an event recorded in a famous sketch by David. Portable guillotines killed failed generals, aristocrats, priests and perceived enemies. David organized his last festival: the festival of the Supreme Being. Robespierre had realized what a tremendous propaganda tool these festivals were, and he decided to create a new religion, mixing moral ideas with the republic, based on the ideas of Rousseau, with Robespierre as the new high priest. This process had already begun by confiscating church lands and requiring priests to take an oath to the state. The festivals, called fêtes, would be the method of indoctrination. On the appointed day, 20 Prairial by the revolutionary calendar, Robespierre spoke, descended steps, and with a torch presented to him by David, incinerated a cardboard image symbolizing atheism, revealing an image of wisdom underneath. The festival hastened the "Incorruptible's" downfall. Later, some see David’s methods as being taken up by Vladimir Lenin, Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler. These massive propaganda events brought the people together. Soon, the war began to go well; French troops marched across the southern half of the Netherlands (which would later become Belgium), and the emergency that had placed the Committee of Public Safety in control was no more. Then plotters seized Robespierre at the National Convention and he was later guillotined, in effect ending the reign of terror. As Robespierre was arrested, David yelled to his friend "if you drink hemlock, I shall drink it with you." After this, he supposedly fell ill, and did not attend the evening session because of "stomach pain", which saved him from being guillotined along with Robespierre. David was arrested and placed in prison. There he painted his own portrait, showing him much younger than he actually was, as well as that of his jailer. Post-revolution After David’s wife visited him in jail, he conceived the idea of telling the story of the Sabine Women. The Sabine Women Enforcing Peace by Running between the Combatants, also called The Intervention of the Sabine Women is said to have been painted to honor his wife, with the theme being love prevailing over conflict. The painting was also seen as a plea for the people to reunite after the bloodshed of the revolution. The Intervention of the Sabine Women (1799) This work also brought him to the attention of Napoleon. The story for the painting is as follows: "The Romans have abducted the daughters of their neighbors, the Sabines. To avenge this abduction, the Sabines attacked Rome, although not immediately—since Hersilia, the daughter of Tatius, the leader of the Sabines, had been married to Romulus, the Roman leader, and then had two children by him in the interim. Here we see Hersilia between her father and husband as she adjures the warriors on both sides not to take wives away from their husbands or mothers away from their children. The other Sabine Women join in her exhortations." During this time, the martyrs of the revolution were taken from the Pantheon and buried in common ground, and revolutionary statues were destroyed. When he was finally released to the country, France had changed. His wife managed to get David released from prison, and he wrote letters to his former wife, and told her he never ceased loving her. He remarried her in 1796. Finally, wholly restored to his position, he retreated to his studio, took pupils and retired from politics. Napoleon Napoleon at the Saint-Bernard Pass (1801) In one of history's great coincidences, David's close association with the Committee of Public Safety during the Terror resulted in his signing of the death warrant for one Alexandre de Beauharnais, a minor noble. De Beauharnais's widow, Rose-Marie Josèphe de Tascher de Beauharnais would later be known to the world as Joséphine Bonaparte, Empress of the French. It was her coronation by her husband, Napoleon I, that David depicted so memorably in the Coronation of Napoleon and Josephine, 2 December 1804. David had been an admirer of Napoleon from their first meeting, struck by the then-General Bonaparte's classical features. Requesting a sitting from the busy and impatient general, David was able to sketch Napoleon in 1797. David recorded the conqueror of Italy's face, but the full composition of General Bonaparte holding the peace treaty with Austria remains unfinished. Napoleon had high esteem for David, and asked him to accompany him to Egypt in 1798, but David refused, claiming he was too old for adventuring and sending instead his student, Antoine-Jean Gros. After Napoleon's successful coup d'état in 1799, as First Consul he commissioned David to commemorate his daring crossing of the Alps. The crossing of the St. Bernard Pass had allowed the French to surprise the Austrian army and win victory at the Battle of Marengo on 14 June 1800. Although Napoleon had crossed the Alps on a mule, he requested that he be portrayed "calm upon a fiery steed". David complied with Napoleon Crossing the Saint-Bernard. After the proclamation of the Empire in 1804, David became the official court painter of the regime. The Coronation of Napoleon, (1806). One of the works David was commissioned for was The Coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame. David was permitted to watch the event. He had plans of Notre Dame delivered and participants in the coronation came to his studio to pose individually, though never the Emperor (the only time David obtained a sitting from Napoleon had been in 1797). David did manage to get a private sitting with the Empress Josephine and Napoleon's sister, Caroline Murat, through the intervention of erstwhile art patron, Marshal Joachim Murat, the Emperor's brother-in-law. For his background, David had the choir of Notre Dame act as his fill-in characters. The Pope came to sit for the painting, and actually blessed David. Napoleon came to see the painter, stared at the canvas for an hour and said "David, I salute you". David had to redo several parts of the painting because of Napoleon's various whims, and for this painting, David received only 24,000 Francs. Exile and death On the Bourbons returning to power, David figured in the list of proscribed former revolutionaries and Bonapartists — for having voted execution for the deposed King Louis XVI; and for participating in the death of Louis XVII. Mistreated and starved, the imprisoned Louis XVII was forced to confess to incest with his mother, Queen Marie-Antoinette, (untrue; separated early, son and mother were disallowed communication, nevertheless, the allegation helped earn her the guillotine). The new Bourbon King, Louis XVIII, however, granted amnesty to David and even offered him the position of court painter. David refused, preferring self-exile in Brussels. There, he trained and influenced Brussels artists like François-Joseph Navez and Ignace Brice, painted Cupid and Psyche and quietly lived the remainder of his life with his wife (to whom he had remarried). In that time, he painted smaller-scale mythological scenes, and portraits of citizens of Brussels and Napoleonic émigrés, such as the Baron Gerard. His last, great work, Mars Disarmed by Venus and the Three Graces, he began in 1822 and completed the year before his death. In December 1823, he wrote: "This is the last picture I want to paint, but I want to surpass myself in it. I will put the date of my seventy-five years on it and afterwards I will never again pick up my brush." The finished painting — evoking painted porcelain because of its limpid coloration — was exhibited first in Brussels, then in Paris — where his former students flocked to view it. The exhibition was profitable — 13,000 francs, after deducting operating costs, thus, more than 10,000 people visited and viewed the painting. Even after his stroke, however, which in the spring of 1825 disfigured his face and slurred his speech, he remained in full command of his artistic faculties. In June 1825 resolved to embark on an improved version of his Anger of Achilles (otherwise known as the Sacrifice of Iphigenie), the earlier version of which, painted in 1819, is now in the collection of the Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas. David remarked to his friends who visited his studio "this [painting] is what is killing me" such was his determination to complete the work, but by October it must have already been well advanced as his former pupil Gros wrote to congratulate him, having heard reports of the painting's merits. By the time David died the painting had been completed and Ambroise Firmin-Didot, who had commissioned it, brought it back to Paris to include it in the exhibition "Pour les grecs" that he had organised and which opened in Paris in April 1826. When David was leaving a theatre, a carriage struck him, and he later died, on 29 December 1825. At his death, some portraits were auctioned in Paris, they sold for little; the famous Death of Marat was exhibited in a secluded room, to avoid outraging public sensibilities. Disallowed return to France for burial, for having been a regicide of King Louis XVI, the body of the painter Jacques-Louis David was buried at Evere Cemetery, Brussels, while his heart was buried at Père Lachaise, Paris. Medical analysis of his face Jacques-Louis David’s facial abnormalities were traditionally reported to be a consequence of a deep facial sword wound after a fencing incident. These left him with a noticeable asymmetry during facial expression and resulted in his difficulty in eating or speaking (he could not pronounce some consonants such as the letter r). A sword scar wound on the left side of his face is present in his self-portrait and sculptures and corresponds to some of the buccal branches of the facial nerve. An injury to this nerve and its branches are likely to have resulted in the difficulties with his left facial movement. Furthermore, as a result of this injury, he suffered from a growth on his face that biographers and art historians have defined as a “benign tumour” or “exostosis”. These however may have been a granuloma, or even a post-traumatic neuroma. Ashrafian, H. Jacques-Louis David and his post-traumatic facial pathology. J R Soc Med 2007;100:341-342. Gallery title==References== Telemachis and Eucharist at the Getty Museum in Los Angeles Bibliography Brookner, Anita, Jacques-Louis David, Chatto & Windus (1980) Chodorow, Stanley, et al. The Mainstream of Civilization. New York: The Harcourt Press (1994) pg. 594 Delécluze, E., Louis David, son école et son temps, Paris, (1855) re-edition Macula (1983) Dowd, David, Pageant-Master of the Republic, Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, (1948) Johnson, Dorothy,Jacques-Louis David. New Perspectives, Newark (2006) Lajer-Burcharth, Ewa, Necklines. The art of Jacques-Louis David after the Terror, ed. Yale University Press, New Haven London (1999) Lee, Simon, David, ed. Phaidon, London (1999) Lévêque, Jean-Jacques, Jacques-Louis David édition Acr Paris (1989) Leymarie, Jean, French Painting, the 19th century, Cleveland (1962) Lindsay, Jack, Death of the Hero, London, Studio Books (1960) Malvone, Laura, L'Évènement politique en peinture. A propos du Marat de David in Mélanges de l'Ecole française de Rome. Italie et Méditerranée 106, 1 (1994) Michel, R. (ed), David contre David, actes du colloque au Louvre du 6-10 décembre 1989, Paris (1993) Monneret, Sophie Monneret, David et le néoclassicisme, ed. Terrail, Paris (1998) Noël, Bernard, David, éd. Flammarion, Paris (1989) Rosenberg, Pierre, Prat, Louis-Antoine, Jacques-Louis David 1748-1825. Catalogue raisonné des dessins, 2 volumes, éd. Leonardo Arte, Milan (2002) Rosenberg, Pierre, Peronnet, Benjamin, Un album inédit de David in Revue de l'art, n°142 (2003-4), pp.45–83 (complete the previous reference) Sahut, Marie-Catherine & Régis Michel, David, l'art et le politique éditions Gallimard-Découvertes et RMN Paris (1988) Sainte-Fare Garnot, N., Jacques-Louis David 1748-1825, Paris, Ed. Chaudun (2005) Schnapper, Antoine, David témoin de son temps, Office du Livre, Fribourg, (1980) Thévoz, Michel, Le théâtre du crime. Essai sur la peinture de David, éd. de Minuit, Paris (1989) Vanden Berghe, Marc, Plesca, Ioana, Nouvelles perspectives sur la Mort de Marat: entre modèle jésuite et références mythologiques, Bruxelles (2004) / New Perspectives on David's Death of Marat, Brussels (2004) - online on www.art-chitecture.net/publications.php Vanden Berghe, Marc, Plesca, Ioana, Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau sur son lit de mort par Jacques Louis-David: saint Sébastien révolutionnaire, miroir multiréférencé de Rome, Brussels (2005) - online on www.art-chitecture.net/publications.php Vaughan, William and Weston, Helen (eds),Jacques-Louis David’s Marat, Cambridge (2000) The Death of Socrates, accessed 29 June 2005. New York Med. Jacques-Louis David, on An Abridged History of Europe, accessed 29 June 2005 J.L. David on CGFA, accessed 29 June 2005 Filmography Danton (A. Wajda, France, 1982) - Historical drama (many scenes including David as a silent character watching and drawing. Focuses on the period of the Terror). External links A Closer Look at David's Consecration of Napoleon (Louvre museum) | multimedia feature The Intervention of the Sabines (Louvre museum) Web Gallery of Art www.jacqueslouisdavid.org 101 paintings by Jacques-Louis David Jacques-Louis David paintings at PaintingDb Jacques-Louis David at Olga's Gallery Jacques-Louis David in the "History of Art" smARThistory: Death of Socrates | Jacques-Louis_David |@lemmatized jacques:23 louis:34 david:144 august:2 december:4 highly:1 influential:2 french:18 painter:13 neoclassical:2 style:3 consider:1 preeminent:1 era:1 cerebral:1 brand:1 history:6 painting:35 mark:3 change:5 taste:2 away:3 rococo:4 frivolity:1 toward:1 classical:6 austerity:1 severity:1 heighten:1 feel:1 matthew:1 collings:1 chime:1 moral:2 climate:3 final:1 year:10 ancien:2 régime:1 later:10 become:11 active:2 supporter:2 revolution:15 friend:12 maximilien:1 robespierre:12 effectively:1 dictator:1 art:23 republic:10 imprison:1 fall:2 power:7 align:1 yet:1 another:4 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2,643 | Apollo_7 | Apollo 7 (October 11-22, 1968) was the first manned mission in the Apollo program to be launched. It was an eleven-day Earth-orbital mission, the first manned launch of the Saturn IB launch vehicle, and the first three-person American space mission. The flight was an open-ended flight which meant that the mission would continue as long as it was safe and there were enough consumables on board, including oxygen. It flew low around the earth so it could track life-support systems, the propulsion systems and the control systems. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1968/N.-Korea-Seize-U.S.-Ship/12303153093431-9/#title "1968 in Space; 1968 Year in Review, UPI.com" Crew Number in parentheses indicates number of spaceflights by each individual prior to and including this mission. Walter M. Schirra (3) - Commander Donn F. Eisele (1) - Command Module Pilot R. Walter Cunningham (1) - Lunar Module Pilot This crew was originally the backup crew of the ill-fated Apollo 1. Backup crew Thomas P. Stafford - Commander John W. Young - Command Module Pilot Eugene Cernan - Lunar Module Pilot This crew flew on Apollo 10. Support crew Ronald E. Evans, Jr Edward G. Givens, Jr John L. Swigert, Jr William R. Pogue Flight directors Glynn Lunney (Lead), Black Team Gene Kranz, White Team Gerry Griffin, Gold Team Mission highlights Apollo 7 was a test flight, and confidence-builder. After the January 1967 Apollo launch pad fire, the Apollo command module had been extensively redesigned. Schirra, who would be the only astronaut to fly Mercury, Gemini and Apollo missions, commanded this Earth-orbital shakedown of the command and service modules. Since it was not carrying a lunar module, Apollo 7 could be launched with the Saturn IB booster rather than the much larger and more powerful Saturn V. Schirra wanted to give Apollo 7 the callsign "Phoenix" (the mythical bird rising from its own ashes) in memory of the loss of the Apollo 1 crew, but NASA management was against the idea. A rare photo of the Apollo 7 crew wearing the A1C spacesuits used in the Block 1 spacecraft. (Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were previously the backup crew for the ill-fated Apollo 1 flight.) The Apollo hardware and all mission operations worked without any significant problems, and the Service Propulsion System (SPS), the all-important engine that would place Apollo in and out of lunar orbit, made eight nearly perfect firings. Even though Apollo's larger cabin was more comfortable than Gemini's, eleven days in orbit took its toll on the astronauts. Tension with Commander Schirra began with the launch decision, when flight managers decided to launch with a less than ideal abort option for the early part of the ascent. Once in orbit, the spacious cabin may have induced some crew motion sickness, which had not been an issue in the earlier, smaller spacecraft. The crew also found the food to be bad. But the worst problem occurred when Schirra developed a bad head cold. As a result, he became irritable with requests from Mission Control and all three began "talking back" to the Capcom. An early example was this exchange after Mission Control requested that a TV camera be turned on in the spacecraft: Walter Schirra looks out the rendezvous window in front of the commander's station on the ninth day of the mission. SCHIRRA: You've added two burns to this flight schedule, and you've added a urine water dump; and we have a new vehicle up here, and I can tell you this point TV will be delayed without any further discussion until after the rendezvous. CAPCOM: Roger. Copy. SCHIRRA: Roger. CAPCOM: Apollo 7 This is CAP COM number 1. SCHIRRA: Roger. CAPCOM: All we've agreed to do on this is flip it. SCHIRRA: ... with two commanders, Apollo 7 CAPCOM: All we have agreed to on this particular pass is to flip the switch on. No other activity is associated with TV; I think we are still obligated to do that. SCHIRRA: We do not have the equipment out; we have not had an opportunity to follow setting; we have not eaten at this point. At this point, I have a cold. I refuse to foul up our time lines this way. Exchanges such as this would lead to the crew members being passed over for future missions. But the mission successfully proved the space-worthiness of the basic Apollo vehicle, and led directly to the bold decision to launch Apollo 8 to the moon two months later. Beyond a shakedown of the spacecraft, goals for the mission included the first live television broadcast from an American spacecraft (Gordon Cooper had broadcast slow scan television pictures from Faith 7 in 1963) and testing the lunar module docking maneuver with the launch vehicle's discarded upper stage. First orbit: perigee 231 km, apogee 297 km, period 89.78 min, inclination 31.63 deg., weight: CSM 14,781 kg. The splashdown point was 27 deg 32 min N, 64 deg 04 min W, 200 nautical miles (370 km) SSW of Bermuda and north of the recovery ship USS Essex. Apollo 7 was the only manned Apollo launch to take place from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's Launch Complex 34, as all subsequent Apollo (including Apollo-Soyuz) and Skylab missions were launched from Launch Complex 39 at the nearby Kennedy Space Center. As of 2009, Cunningham is the only surviving member of the crew. Eisele died in 1987 and Schirra in 2007. Belated recognition In October 2008, NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin awarded the crew of Apollo 7 NASA's Distinguished Service Medal, in recognition of their crucial contribution to the Apollo Program. They had been the only Apollo and Skylab crew not granted this award. Cunningham was present to accept the medal, as were representatives of his deceased crew members, and other Apollo astronauts including Neil Armstrong, Bill Anders, and Alan Bean. Former Mission Control Flight Director Chris Kraft, who was in conflict with the crew during the mission, also sent a conciliatory video message of congratulations, saying: "We gave you a hard time once but you certainly survived that and have done extremely well since...I am frankly, very proud to call you a friend." Mission insignia The insignia for the flight showed a command and service module with its SPS engine firing, the trail from that fire encircling a globe and extending past the edges of the patch symbolizing the Earth-orbital nature of the mission. The Roman numeral VII appears in the South Pacific Ocean and the crew's names appear on a wide black arc at the bottom. The patch was designed by Allen Stevens of Rockwell International. Hengeveld, Ed. The Apollo Emblems of Artist Al Stevens. Spaceflight magazine, June 2008, pp. 220-225. Spacecraft location The Apollo 7 CM as exhibited at The Frontiers of Flight Museum In January 1969, the Apollo 7 command module was displayed on a NASA float in the inauguration parade of President Richard M. Nixon. For nearly 30 years the command module was on loan (renewable every two years) to the National Museum of Science and Technology of Canada, in Ottawa, along with the space suit worn by Wally Schirra. In November 2003 the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C. requested them back for display at their new annex at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. Currently, the Apollo 7 CM is on loan to the Frontiers of Flight Museum located next to Love Field in Dallas, Texas. Depiction in fiction Portions of the Apollo 7 mission are dramatized in the miniseries From the Earth to the Moon episode entitled "We Have Cleared the Tower". References NASA NSSDC Master Catalog APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA) Lattimer, Dick (1985). All We Did was Fly to the Moon. Whispering Eagle Press. ISBN 0-9611228-0-3. Schirra, Wally with Richard Billings (1988). Schirra's Space. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-792-9. Pictures External links NASA Apollo 7 Mission Report - December 1, 1968 (PDF format) Apollo 7 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology Apollo Program Summary Report Apollo 7 Launch ApolloTV.net Video | Apollo_7 |@lemmatized apollo:39 october:2 first:5 manned:1 mission:21 program:3 launch:14 eleven:2 day:3 earth:5 orbital:3 man:2 saturn:3 ib:2 vehicle:4 three:2 person:1 american:2 space:6 flight:11 open:1 end:1 mean:1 would:4 continue:1 long:1 safe:1 enough:1 consumables:1 board:1 include:5 oxygen:1 fly:4 low:1 around:1 could:2 track:1 life:1 support:2 system:4 propulsion:2 control:4 http:1 www:1 upi:2 com:3 audio:1 event:1 n:2 korea:1 seize:1 u:1 ship:2 title:1 year:3 review:1 crew:18 number:4 parenthesis:1 indicate:1 spaceflight:2 individual:1 prior:1 walter:3 schirra:16 commander:5 donn:1 f:2 eisele:3 command:8 module:11 pilot:4 r:2 cunningham:4 lunar:5 originally:1 backup:3 ill:2 fat:2 thomas:1 p:1 stafford:1 john:2 w:3 young:1 eugene:1 cernan:1 ronald:1 e:1 evans:1 jr:3 edward:1 g:1 given:1 l:1 swigert:1 william:1 pogue:1 director:2 glynn:1 lunney:1 lead:3 black:2 team:3 gene:1 kranz:1 white:1 gerry:1 griffin:2 gold:1 highlight:1 test:2 confidence:1 builder:1 january:2 pad:1 fire:2 extensively:1 redesign:1 astronaut:3 mercury:1 gemini:2 shakedown:2 service:4 since:2 carry:1 booster:1 rather:1 much:1 large:2 powerful:1 v:1 want:1 give:2 callsign:1 phoenix:1 mythical:1 bird:1 rise:1 ash:1 memory:1 loss:1 nasa:7 management:1 idea:1 rare:1 photo:1 wear:2 spacesuit:1 use:1 block:1 spacecraft:7 previously:1 hardware:1 operation:1 work:1 without:2 significant:1 problem:2 sps:2 important:1 engine:2 place:2 orbit:4 make:1 eight:1 nearly:2 perfect:1 firing:2 even:1 though:1 cabin:2 comfortable:1 take:2 toll:1 tension:1 begin:2 decision:2 manager:1 decide:1 less:1 ideal:1 abort:1 option:1 early:3 part:1 ascent:1 spacious:1 may:1 induce:1 motion:1 sickness:1 issue:1 small:1 also:2 find:1 food:1 bad:3 occur:1 develop:1 head:1 cold:2 result:1 become:1 irritable:1 request:3 talk:1 back:2 capcom:5 example:1 exchange:2 tv:3 camera:1 turn:1 look:1 rendezvous:2 window:1 front:1 station:2 ninth:1 add:2 two:4 burn:1 schedule:1 urine:1 water:1 dump:1 new:2 tell:1 point:4 delay:1 discussion:1 roger:3 copy:1 cap:1 agree:2 flip:2 particular:1 pas:1 switch:1 activity:1 associate:1 think:1 still:1 obligate:1 equipment:1 opportunity:1 follow:1 setting:1 eat:1 refuse:1 foul:1 time:2 line:1 way:1 member:3 pass:1 future:1 successfully:1 prove:1 worthiness:1 basic:1 directly:1 bold:1 moon:3 month:1 later:1 beyond:1 goal:1 live:1 television:2 broadcast:2 gordon:1 cooper:1 slow:1 scan:1 picture:2 faith:1 dock:1 maneuver:1 discard:1 upper:1 stage:1 perigee:1 km:3 apogee:1 period:1 min:3 inclination:1 deg:3 weight:1 csm:1 kg:1 splashdown:1 nautical:1 mile:1 ssw:1 bermuda:1 north:1 recovery:1 uss:1 essex:1 cape:1 canaveral:1 air:1 force:1 complex:2 subsequent:1 soyuz:1 skylab:2 nearby:1 kennedy:1 center:2 survive:2 die:1 belated:1 recognition:2 administrator:1 michael:1 award:2 distinguish:1 medal:2 crucial:1 contribution:1 grant:1 present:1 accept:1 representative:1 deceased:1 neil:1 armstrong:1 bill:1 anders:1 alan:1 bean:1 former:1 chris:1 kraft:1 conflict:1 send:1 conciliatory:1 video:2 message:1 congratulation:1 say:1 hard:1 certainly:1 extremely:1 well:1 frankly:1 proud:1 call:1 friend:1 insignia:2 show:1 trail:1 encircle:1 globe:1 extend:1 past:1 edge:1 patch:2 symbolize:1 nature:1 roman:1 numeral:1 vii:1 appear:2 south:1 pacific:1 ocean:1 name:1 wide:1 arc:1 bottom:1 design:1 allen:1 stevens:2 rockwell:1 international:1 hengeveld:1 ed:1 emblem:1 artist:1 al:1 magazine:1 june:1 pp:1 location:1 cm:2 exhibit:1 frontier:2 museum:3 display:2 float:1 inauguration:1 parade:1 president:1 richard:3 nixon:1 loan:2 renewable:1 every:1 national:1 science:1 technology:1 canada:1 ottawa:1 along:1 suit:1 wally:2 november:1 smithsonian:1 institution:1 washington:1 c:1 annex:1 steven:1 udvar:1 hazy:1 currently:1 locate:1 next:1 love:1 field:1 dallas:1 texas:1 depiction:1 fiction:1 portion:1 dramatize:1 miniseries:1 episode:1 entitle:1 clear:1 tower:1 reference:2 nssdc:1 master:1 catalog:1 statistical:1 orloff:1 lattimer:1 dick:1 whisper:1 eagle:1 press:2 isbn:2 billing:1 naval:1 institute:1 external:1 link:1 report:2 december:1 pdf:1 format:1 entry:1 encyclopedia:1 astronautica:1 chronology:1 summary:1 apollotv:1 net:1 |@bigram manned_mission:1 saturn_ib:2 http_www:1 www_upi:1 upi_com:2 review_upi:1 module_pilot:4 lunar_module:4 backup_crew:3 ill_fat:2 eugene_cernan:1 glynn_lunney:1 gene_kranz:1 gerry_griffin:1 mercury_gemini:1 orbit_perigee:1 perigee_km:1 nautical_mile:1 mile_km:1 cape_canaveral:1 apollo_soyuz:1 neil_armstrong:1 pacific_ocean:1 richard_nixon:1 smithsonian_institution:1 f_udvar:1 udvar_hazy:1 hazy_center:1 dallas_texas:1 dramatize_miniseries:1 nasa_nssdc:1 nssdc_master:1 w_orloff:1 orloff_nasa:1 lattimer_dick:1 whisper_eagle:1 external_link:1 encyclopedia_astronautica:1 apollotv_net:1 |
2,644 | English_Civil_War | Insert non-formatted text here The English Civil War (1641–1651) was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. The first (1642–46) and second (1648–49) civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third war (1649–51) saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651. The Civil War led to the trial and execution of Charles I, the exile of his son, Charles II, and replacement of English monarchy with first, the Commonwealth of England (1649–53), and then with a Protectorate (1653–59), under Oliver Cromwell's personal rule. The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without Parliament's consent, although this concept was established only with the Glorious Revolution later in the century. Terminology The term English Civil War appears most commonly in the singular form, although historians often divide the conflict into two or three separate wars. Although the term describes events as impinging on England, from the outset the conflicts involved wars with and civil wars within both Scotland and Ireland; see Wars of the Three Kingdoms for an overview. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who ruled, this war also concerned itself with the manner of governing Britain and Ireland. Historians sometimes refer to the English Civil War as the English Revolution and works such as the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica call it the Great Rebellion. Marxist historians such as Christopher Hill (1912–2003) have long favoured the term English Revolution. Background The King's Rule War broke out less than forty years after the death of Elizabeth I in 1603. At the accession of Charles I in 1625, England and Scotland had both experienced relative peace, both internally and in their relations with each other, for as long as anyone could remember. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, fulfilling the dream of his father, James I of England (James VI of Scotland). Many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move, because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his father's position on the power of the crown (James had described kings as "little Gods on Earth", chosen by God to rule in accordance with the doctrine of the "Divine Right of Kings"), the suspicions of the Parliamentarians had some justification. Charles I, painted by Van Dyck Parliament in the English constitutional framework Before the fighting, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government, instead as a temporary advisory committee — summoned by the monarch whenever the Crown required additional tax revenue, and subject to dissolution by the monarch at any time. Because responsibility for collecting taxes lay in the hands of the gentry, the English kings needed the help of that stratum of society in order to ensure the smooth collection of that revenue. If the gentry refused to collect the King's taxes, the Crown would lack any practical means with which to compel them. Parliaments allowed representatives of the gentry to meet, confer and send policy-proposals to the monarch in the form of Bills. These representatives did not, however, have any means of forcing their will upon the king — except by withholding the financial means required to execute his plans. Parliamentary concerns and the Petition of Right Henrietta Maria, painted by Peter Lely, 1660 One of the first events to cause concern about Charles I came with his marriage to a French Roman Catholic princess, Henrietta-Marie de Bourbon. The marriage occurred in 1625, right after Charles came to the throne. Charles' marriage raised the possibility that his children, including the heir to the throne, could grow up as Catholics, a frightening prospect to Protestant England. Charles also wanted to take part in the conflicts underway in Europe, then immersed in the Thirty Years' War (1618 - 1648). As ever, foreign wars required heavy expenditure, and the Crown could raise the necessary taxes only with Parliamentary consent (as described above). Charles experienced even more financial difficulty when his first Parliament refused to follow the tradition of giving him the right to collect customs duties for his entire reign, deciding instead to grant it for only a year at a time. Charles, meanwhile, pressed ahead with his European wars, deciding to send an expeditionary force to relieve the French Huguenots whom Royal French forces held besieged in La Rochelle. The royal favourite, George Villiers, the Duke of Buckingham, secured the command of the English force. Unfortunately for Charles and Buckingham, the relief expedition proved a fiasco (1627), and Parliament, already hostile to Buckingham for his monopoly on royal patronage, opened impeachment proceedings against him. Charles responded by dissolving Parliament. This move, while saving Buckingham, reinforced the impression that Charles wanted to avoid Parliamentary scrutiny of his ministers. Having dissolved Parliament, and unable to raise money without it, the king assembled a new one in 1628. (The elected members included Oliver Cromwell.) The new Parliament drew up the Petition of Right, and Charles accepted it as a concession in order to get his subsidy. Amongst other things, the Petition referred to the Magna Carta. Personal Rule Charles I avoided calling a Parliament for the next decade, known as the "Eleven Years' Tyranny" or "Charles's Personal Rule". During this period, Charles's lack of money determined policies. Unable to raise revenue through Parliament — reluctant to convene it — he resorted to other means. Thus, not observing often long-outdated conventions became, in some cases, a finable offence (for example, a failure to attend and to receive knighthood at Charles's coronation), with the fine paid to the Crown. He tried to raise revenue through the ship money tax, by exploiting a naval war-scare in 1635, demanding that the inland English counties pay the tax for the Royal Navy. Established law supported this policy, but authorities had ignored it for centuries, many regarded it as yet another extra-Parliamentary (and therefore illegal) tax. Some prominent men refused to pay ship money arguing that the tax was illegal, but they lost in court and the fines imposed on them for refusing to pay ship money (and for standing against the tax's legality) aroused widespread indignation. During the "Personal Rule," Charles aroused most antagonism through his religious measures: he believed in High Anglicanism, a sacramental version of the Church of England, theologically based upon Arminianism, a creed shared with his main political advisor, Archbishop William Laud. In 1633, Charles appointed Laud as Archbishop of Canterbury and started making the Church more ceremonial, replacing the wooden communion tables with stone altars. Puritans accused Laud of reintroducing Catholicism; when they complained, he had them arrested. In 1637 John Bastwick, Henry Burton, and William Prynne had their ears cut off for writing pamphlets attacking Laud's views — a rare penalty for gentlemen, and one that aroused anger. Moreover, the Church authorities revived the statutes passed in time of Elizabeth I about church attendance, and fined Puritans for not attending Anglican church services. Rebellion in Scotland The end of Charles's independent governance came when he attempted to apply the same religious policies in Scotland. The Church of Scotland, reluctantly Episcopal in structure, had independent traditions. Charles, however, wanted one, uniform Church throughout Britain, and introduced a new, High Anglican, version of the English Book of Common Prayer to Scotland in summer of 1637. This was violently resisted; a riot broke out in Edinburgh, which may have been started in a church by Jenny Geddes; and, in February of 1638, the Scots formulated their objections to royal policy in the National Covenant. This document took the form of a "loyal protest", rejecting all innovations not first having been tested by free parliaments and General Assemblies of the Church. Before long, King Charles withdrew his prayer book, and summoned a General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, in Glasgow, in November of 1638. The General Assembly, affected by the contemporary radical mood, rejected the Prayer Book, then drastically declared unlawful the office of bishop. Charles demanded the acts of the Assembly be withdrawn; the Scots refused; both sides began raising armies. In spring of 1639, King Charles I accompanied his forces to the Scottish border, to end the rebellion known as the Bishops War, but, after an inconclusive military campaign, he accepted the offered Scottish truce — the Pacification of Berwick. The truce proved temporary; a second war followed in summer of 1640. This time, a Scots army defeated Charles's forces in the north, then captured Newcastle. Charles eventually agreed not to interfere with Scotland's religion, and paid the Scots war-expenses. Recall of the English Parliament Charles needed to suppress the rebellion in Scotland. He had insufficient funds, however, and had perforce to seek money from a newly-elected English Parliament in 1640. The majority faction in the new Parliament, led by John Pym, took this appeal for money as an opportunity to discuss grievances against the Crown, and opposed the idea of an English invasion of Scotland. Charles took exception to this lèse-majesté (offence against the ruler) and dissolved the Parliament after only a few weeks; hence the name "the Short Parliament". Without Parliament's support, Charles attacked Scotland again, breaking the truce at Berwick, and suffered a comprehensive defeat. The Scots then seized the opportunity and invaded England, occupying Northumberland and Durham. Meanwhile, another of Charles' chief advisers, Thomas Wentworth, 1st Viscount Wentworth, had risen to the role of Lord Deputy of Ireland in 1632 and brought in much-needed revenue for Charles by persuading the Irish Catholic gentry to pay new taxes in return for promised religious concessions. In 1639 Charles recalled Wentworth to England, and in 1640 made him Earl of Strafford, attempting to have him work his magic again in Scotland. This time he proved less successful, and the English forces fled the field in their second encounter with the Scots in 1640. Almost the entirety of Northern England was occupied, and Charles was forced to pay £850 per day to keep the Scots from advancing. If he did not, they would "take" the money by pillaging and burning the cities and towns of Northern England. All this put Charles in a desperate financial position. As King of Scots, he had to find money to pay the Scottish army in England; as King of England, to find money to pay and equip an English army to defend England. His means of raising English revenue without an English Parliament fell critically short of achieving this. Against this backdrop, and according to advice from the Magnum Concilium (the House of Lords, but without the Commons, so not a Parliament), Charles finally bowed to pressure and summoned another English Parliament in November 1640. The Long Parliament The new Parliament proved even more hostile to Charles than its predecessor. It immediately began to discuss grievances against Charles and his Government, and with Pym and Hampden (of ship money fame) in the lead, took the opportunity presented by the King's troubles to force various reforming measures upon him. The legislators passed a law which stated that a new Parliament should convene at least once every three years — without the King's summons, if necessary. Other laws passed by the Parliament made it illegal for the king to impose taxes without Parliamentary consent, and later, gave Parliament control over the king's ministers. Finally, the Parliament passed a law forbidding the King to dissolve it without its consent, even if the three years were up. Ever since, this Parliament has been known as the "Long Parliament". However, Parliament did attempt to avert conflict by requiring all adults to sign the Protestation, an oath of allegiance to Charles. In early 1641 Parliament had Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford, arrested and sent to the Tower of London on a charge of treason. John Pym claimed that Wentworth's statements of readiness to campaign against "the kingdom" were aimed in fact at England itself. Unable to prove the case in court, the House of Commons, led by Pym and Henry Vane, resorted to a Bill of Attainder. Unlike a guilty finding in a court case, attainder did not require a legal burden of proof, but it did require the king's approval. Charles, still incensed over the Commons' handling of Buckingham, refused. Wentworth himself, hoping to head off the war he saw looming, wrote to the king and asked him to reconsider. Wentworth's execution took place in May, 1641. Jacob Abbott Charles I Chapter Downfall of Strafford and Laud Instead of saving the country from war, Wentworth's sacrifice in fact doomed it to one. Within months, the Irish Catholics, fearing a resurgence of Protestant power, struck first, and all Ireland soon descended into chaos. Rumours circulated that the King supported the Irish, and Puritan members of the Commons soon started murmuring that this exemplified the fate that Charles had in store for them all. In early January 1642, accompanied by 400 soldiers, Charles attempted to arrest five members of the House of Commons on a charge of treason. This attempt failed. When the troops marched into Parliament, Charles inquired of William Lenthall, the Speaker, as to the whereabouts of the five. Lenthall replied "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here." In other words, the Speaker proclaimed himself a servant of Parliament, rather than of the King. Local grievances In the summer of 1642 these national troubles helped to polarise opinion, ending indecision about which side to support or what action to take. Opposition to Charles also arose owing to many local grievances. For example, the imposition of drainage-schemes in The Fens negatively affected the livelihood of thousands of people after the King awarded a number of drainage-contracts. Many regarded the King as worse than insensitive, and this played a role in bringing a large part of eastern England into Parliament’s camp. This sentiment brought with it people such as the Earl of Manchester and Oliver Cromwell, each a notable wartime adversary of the King. Conversely, one of the leading drainage contractors, the Earl of Lindsey, was to die fighting for the King at the Battle of Edgehill. The First English Civil War Maps of territory held by Royalists (red) and Parliamentarians (green), 1642 — 1645 In early January 1642, a few days after his failure to capture five members of the House of Commons, fearing for his own personal safety and for that of his family and retinue, Charles left the London area. Further negotiations by frequent correspondence between the King and the Long Parliament through to early summer proved fruitless. As the summer progressed, cities and towns declared their sympathies for one faction or the other: for example, the garrison of Portsmouth under the command of Sir George Goring declared for the King, but when Charles tried to acquire arms for his cause from Kingston upon Hull, the depository for the weapons used in the previous Scottish campaigns, Sir John Hotham, the military governor appointed by Parliament in January, initially refused to let Charles enter Hull, and when Charles returned with more men, drove them off. Charles issued a warrant for Hotham to be arrested as a traitor but was powerless to enforce it. Throughout the summer months, tensions rose and there was brawling in a number of places, with the first death of the conflict taking place in Manchester. Trevor Royle References pp. 158-166 At the outset of the conflict, much of the country remained neutral, though the Royal Navy and most English cities favoured Parliament, while the King found considerable support in rural communities. Historians estimate that between them, both sides had only about 15,000 men. However, the war quickly spread and eventually involved every level of society. Many areas attempted to remain neutral, some formed bands of Clubmen to protect their localities against the worst excesses of the armies of both sides, but most found it impossible to withstand both the King and Parliament. On one side, the King and his supporters thought that they fought for traditional government in Church and state. On the other, most supporters of the Parliamentary cause initially took up arms to defend what they thought of as the traditional balance of government in Church and state, which the bad advice the King had received from his advisers had undermined before and during the "Eleven Years' Tyranny". The views of the Members of Parliament ranged from unquestioning support of the King — at one point during the First Civil War, more members of the Commons and Lords gathered in the King's Oxford Parliament than at Westminster — through to radicals, who wanted major reforms in favour of religious independence and the redistribution of power at the national level. After the debacle at Hull, Charles moved on to Nottingham, where on 22 August 1642, he raised the royal standard. When he raised his standard, Charles had with him about 2,000 cavalry and a small number of Yorkshire infantry-men, and using the archaic system of a Commission of Array, Charles' supporters started to build a larger army around the standard. Charles moved in a south-westerly direction, first to Stafford, and then on to Shrewsbury, because the support for his cause seemed particularly strong in the Severn valley area and in North Wales. Trevor Royle References pp 170, 183 While passing through Wellington, in what became known as the "Wellington Declaration", he declared that he would uphold the "Protestant religion, the laws of England, and the liberty of Parliament". The Parliamentarians who opposed the King had not remained passive during this pre-war period. As in the case of Kingston upon Hull they had taken measures to secure strategic towns and cities, by appointing men sympathetic to their cause, and on 9 June they had voted to raise an army of 10,000 volunteers, appointing Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex commander three days later. He received orders "to rescue His Majesty's person, and the persons of the Prince [of Wales] and the Duke of York out of the hands of those desperate persons who were about them". The Lords Lieutenant, whom Parliament appointed, used the Militia Ordinance to order the militia to join Essex's army. Trevor Royle References pp 165, 161 Two weeks after the King had raised his standard at Nottingham, Essex led his army north towards Northampton, picking up support along the way (including a detachment of Cambridgeshire cavalry raised and commanded by Oliver Cromwell). By the middle of September Essex's forces had grown to 21,000 infantry and 4200 cavalry and dragoons. On 14 September he moved his army to Coventry and then to the north of the Cotswolds, a strategy which placed his army between the Royalists and London. With the size of both armies now in the tens of thousands, and only Worcestershire between them, it was inevitable that cavalry reconnaissance units would sooner or later meet. This happened in the first major skirmish of the Civil War, when a cavalry troop of about 1,000 Royalists commanded by Prince Rupert, a German nephew of the King and one of the outstanding cavalry commanders of the war, defeated a Parliamentary cavalry detachment under the command of Colonel John Brown in the Battle of Powick Bridge, at a bridge across the River Teme close to Worcester. Trevor Royle References pp 171-188 Prince Rupert of the Rhine Rupert withdrew to Shrewsbury, where, a council-of-war discussed two courses of action: whether to advance towards Essex's new position near Worcester, or to march along the now opened road towards London. The Council decided to take the London route, but not to avoid a battle, for the Royalist generals wanted to fight Essex before he grew too strong, and the temper of both sides made it impossible to postpone the decision. In the Earl of Clarendon's words: "it was considered more counsellable to march towards London, it being morally sure that Essex would put himself in their way". Encyclopaedia Britannica Eleventh Edition Great Rebellion Accordingly, the army left Shrewsbury on 12 October, gaining two days' start on the enemy, and moved south-east. This had the desired effect, as it forced Essex to move to intercept them. The first pitched battle of the war, fought at Edgehill on 23 October 1642, proved inconclusive, and both the Royalists and Parliamentarians claimed it as a victory. The second field action of the war, the stand-off at Turnham Green, saw Charles forced to withdraw to Oxford. This city would serve as his base for the remainder of the war. In 1643 the Royalist forces won at Adwalton Moor, and gained control of most of Yorkshire. In the Midlands, a Parliamentary force under Sir John Gell, 1st Baronet besieged and captured the cathedral city of Lichfield, after the death of the original commander, Lord Brooke. This group subsequently joined forces with Sir John Brereton to fight the inconclusive Battle of Hopton Heath (19 March 1643), where the Royalist commander, the Earl of Northampton, was killed. Subsequent battles in the west of England at Lansdowne and at Roundway Down also went to the Royalists. Prince Rupert could then take Bristol. In the same year, Oliver Cromwell formed his troop of "Ironsides", a disciplined unit that demonstrated his military leadership-ability. With their assistance, he won a victory at the Battle of Gainsborough in July. In general, the early part of the war went well for the Royalists. The turning-point came in the late summer and early autumn of 1643, when the Earl of Essex's army forced the king to raise the siege of Gloucester and then brushed the Royalist army aside at the First Battle of Newbury (20 September 1643), in order to return triumphantly to London. Other Parliamentarian forces won the Battle of Winceby, giving them control of Lincoln. Political manoeuvering to gain an advantage in numbers led Charles to negotiate a ceasefire in Ireland, freeing up English troops to fight on the Royalist side in England, while Parliament offered concessions to the Scots in return for aid and assistance. With the help of the Scots, Parliament won at Marston Moor (2 July 1644), gaining York and the north of England. Cromwell's conduct in this battle proved decisive, and demonstrated his potential as both a political and an important military leader. The defeat at the Battle of Lostwithiel in Cornwall, however, marked a serious reverse for Parliament in the south-west of England. Subsequent fighting around Newbury (27 October 1644), though tactically indecisive, strategically gave another check to Parliament. Oliver Cromwell In 1645 Parliament reaffirmed its determination to fight the war to a finish. It passed the Self-denying Ordinance, by which all members of either House of Parliament laid down their commands, and re-organized its main forces into the New Model Army ("Army"), under the command of Sir Thomas Fairfax, with Cromwell as his second-in-command and Lieutenant-General of Horse. In two decisive engagements — the Battle of Naseby on 14 June and the Battle of Langport on 10 July — the Parliamentarians effectively destroyed Charles' armies. In the remains of his English realm Charles attempted to recover a stable base of support by consolidating the Midlands. He began to form an axis between Oxford and Newark on Trent in Nottinghamshire. Those towns had become fortresses and showed more reliable loyalty to him than to others. He took Leicester, which lies between them, but found his resources exhausted. Having little opportunity to replenish them, in May 1646 he sought shelter with a Scottish army at Southwell in Nottinghamshire. This marked the end of the First English Civil War. The Second English Civil War "And when did you last see your father?" by William Frederick Yeames. Charles I took advantage of the deflection of attention away from himself to negotiate a new agreement with the Scots, again promising church reform, on 28 December 1647. Although Charles himself remained a prisoner, this agreement led inexorably to the Second Civil War. A series of Royalist uprisings throughout England and a Scottish invasion occurred in the summer of 1648. Forces loyal to Parliament House of Lords Journal Volume 10 19 May 1648: Letter from L. Fairfax, about the Disposal of the Forces, to suppress the Insurrections in Suffolk, Lancashire, and S. Wales; and for Belvoir Castle to be secured and the House of Lords Journal Volume 10 19 May 1648: Disposition of the Remainder of the Forces in England and Wales not mentioned in the Fairfax letter put down most of the uprisings in England after little more than skirmishes, but uprisings in Kent, Essex and Cumberland, the rebellion in Wales, and the Scottish invasion involved the fighting of pitched battles and prolonged sieges. In the spring of 1648 unpaid Parliamentarian troops in Wales changed sides. Colonel Thomas Horton defeated the Royalist rebels at the Battle of St Fagans (8 May) and the rebel leaders surrendered to Cromwell on 11 July after the protracted two-month siege of Pembroke. Sir Thomas Fairfax defeated a Royalist uprising in Kent at the Battle of Maidstone on 24 June. Fairfax, after his success at Maidstone and the pacification of Kent, turned northward to reduce Essex, where, under their ardent, experienced and popular leader Sir Charles Lucas, the Royalists had taken up arms in great numbers. Fairfax soon drove the enemy into Colchester, but his first attack on the town met with a repulse and he had to settle down to a long siege. In the North of England, Major-General John Lambert fought a very successful campaign against a number of Royalist uprisings — the largest that of Sir Marmaduke Langdale in Cumberland. Thanks to Lambert's successes, the Scottish commander, the Duke of Hamilton, had perforce to take the western route through Carlisle in his pro-Royalist Scottish invasion of England. The Parliamentarians under Cromwell engaged the Scots at the Battle of Preston (17 August – 19 August). The battle took place largely at Walton-le-Dale near Preston in Lancashire, and resulted in a victory by the troops of Cromwell over the Royalists and Scots commanded by Hamilton. This Parliamentarian victory marked the end of the Second English Civil War. Nearly all the Royalists who had fought in the First Civil War had given their parole not to bear arms against the Parliament, and many honourable Royalists, like Lord Astley, refused to break their word by taking any part in the second war. So the victors in the Second Civil War showed little mercy to those who had brought war into the land again. On the evening of the surrender of Colchester, Parliamentarians had Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George Lisle shot. Parliamentary authorities sentenced the leaders of the Welsh rebels, Major-General Rowland Laugharne, Colonel John Poyer and Colonel Rice Powel to death, but executed Poyer alone (25 April 1649), having selected him by lot. Of five prominent Royalist peers who had fallen into the hands of Parliament, three, the Duke of Hamilton, the Earl of Holland, and Lord Capel, one of the Colchester prisoners and a man of high character, were beheaded at Westminster on 9 March. Trial of Charles I for treason The betrayal by Charles caused Parliament to debate whether to return the King to power at all. Those who still supported Charles' place on the throne tried once more to negotiate with him. Furious that Parliament continued to countenance Charles as a ruler, the Army marched on Parliament and conducted "Pride's Purge" (named after the commanding officer of the operation, Thomas Pride) in December 1648. Troops arrested 45 Members of Parliament (MPs) and kept 146 out of the chamber. They allowed only 75 Members in, and then only at the Army's bidding. This Rump Parliament received orders to set up, in the name of the people of England, a High Court of Justice for the trial of Charles I for treason. At the end of the trial the 59 Commissioners (judges) found Charles I guilty of high treason, as a "tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy". Sean Kelsey, Sean. "The Trial of Charles I" English Historical Review 2003, Volume 118, Number 477 Pp. 583-616 Michael Kirby. The trial of King Charles I – defining moment for our constitutional liberties speech to the Anglo-Australasian Lawyers' association, on 22 January 1999. His beheading took place on a scaffold in front of the Banqueting House of the Palace of Whitehall on 30 January 1649. (After the Restoration in 1660, Charles II executed the surviving regicides not living in exile or sentenced them to life imprisonment.) The Third English Civil War Ireland Ireland had known continuous war since the rebellion of 1641, with most of the island controlled by the Irish Confederates. Increasingly threatened by the armies of the English Parliament after Charles I's arrest in 1648, the Confederates signed a treaty of alliance with the English Royalists. The joint Royalist and Confederate forces under the Duke of Ormonde attempted to eliminate the Parliamentary army holding Dublin, but their opponents routed them at the Battle of Rathmines (2 August 1649). As the former Member of Parliament Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Prince Rupert's fleet in Kinsale, Oliver Cromwell could land at Dublin on 15 August 1649 with an army to quell the Royalist alliance in Ireland. Cromwell's suppression of the Royalists in Ireland during 1649 still has a strong resonance for many Irish people. After the siege of Drogheda, the massacre of nearly 3,500 people — comprising around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and 700 others, including civilians, prisoners, and Catholic priests (Cromwell claimed all the men carrying arms) — became one of the historical memories that has driven Irish-English and Catholic-Protestant strife during the last three centuries. However, the massacre has significance mainly as a symbol of the Irish perception of Cromwellian cruelty, as far more people died in the subsequent guerrilla and scorched-earth fighting in the country than at infamous massacres such as Drogheda and Wexford. The Parliamentarian conquest of Ireland ground on for another four years until 1653, when the last Irish Confederate and Royalist troops surrendered. Historians have estimated that around 30% of Ireland's population either died or had gone into exile by the end of the wars. The victors confiscated almost all Irish Catholic-owned land in the wake of the conquest and distributed it to the Parliament's creditors, to the Parliamentary soldiers who served in Ireland, and to English people who had settled there before the war. Scotland The execution of Charles I altered the dynamics of the the Civil War in Scotland, which had raged between Royalists and Covenanters since 1644. By 1649, the struggle had left the Royalists there in disarray and their erstwhile leader, the Marquess of Montrose, had gone into exile. At first, Charles II encouraged Montrose to raise a Highland army to fight on the Royalist side. However, when the Scottish Covenanters (who did not agree with the execution of Charles I and who feared for the future of Presbyterianism and Scottish independence under the new Commonwealth) offered him the crown of Scotland, Charles abandoned Montrose to his enemies. However, Montrose, who had raised a mercenary force in Norway, had already landed and could not abandon the fight. He did not succeed in raising many Highland clans and the Covenanters defeated his army at the Battle of Carbisdale in Ross-shire on 27 April 1650. The victors captured Montrose shortly afterwards and took him to Edinburgh. On 20 May the Scottish Parliament sentenced him to death and had him hanged the next day. "Cromwell at Dunbar", Andrew Carrick Gow. Charles II landed in Scotland at Garmouth in Morayshire on 23 June 1650 and signed the 1638 National Covenant and the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant immediately after coming ashore. With his original Scottish Royalist followers and his new Covenanter allies, King Charles II became the greatest threat facing the new English republic. In response to the threat, Cromwell left some of his lieutenants in Ireland to continue the suppression of the Irish Royalists and returned to England. He arrived in Scotland on 22 July 1650 and proceeded to lay siege to Edinburgh. By the end of August disease and a shortage of supplies had reduced his army, and he had to order a retreat towards his base at Dunbar. A Scottish army, assembled under the command of David Leslie, tried to block the retreat, but Cromwell defeated them at the Battle of Dunbar on 3 September. Cromwell's army then took Edinburgh, and by the end of the year his army had occupied much of southern Scotland. In July 1651, Cromwell's forces crossed the Firth of Forth into Fife and defeated the Scots at the Battle of Inverkeithing (20 July 1651). The New Model Army advanced towards Perth, which allowed Charles, at the head of the Scottish army, to move south into England. Cromwell followed Charles into England, leaving George Monck to finish the campaign in Scotland. Monck took Stirling on 14 August and Dundee on 1 September. The next year, 1652, saw the mopping up of the remnants of Royalist resistance, and under the terms of the "Tender of Union", the Scots received 30 seats in a united Parliament in London, with General Monck appointed as the military governor of Scotland. England Although Cromwell's New Model Army had defeated a Scottish army at Dunbar, Cromwell could not prevent Charles II from marching from Scotland deep into England at the head of another Royalist army. The Royalists marched to the west of England because English Royalist sympathies were strongest in that area, but although some English Royalists joined the army, they came in far fewer numbers than Charles and his Scottish supporters had hoped. Cromwell finally engaged and defeated the new king at Worcester on 3 September 1651. Charles II escaped, via safe houses and a famous oak tree, to France, ending the civil wars. Political control During the course of the Wars the Parliamentarians established a number of successive committees to oversee the war-effort. The first of these, the Committee of Safety, set up in July 1642, comprised 15 Members of Parliament. Following the Anglo-Scottish alliance against the Royalists, the Committee of Both Kingdoms replaced the Committee of Safety between 1644 and 1648. Parliament dissolved the Committee of Both Kingdoms when the alliance ended, but its English members continued to meet and became known as the Derby House Committee. A second Committee of Safety then replaced that committee. Casualties As usual in wars of this era, disease caused more deaths than combat. There are no accurate figures for these periods, and it is not possible to give a precise overall figure for those killed in battle, from those who died from disease, or even from a natural decline in population. Figures for casualties during this period are unreliable, but some attempt has been made to provide rough estimates. Matthew White Selected Death Tolls for Wars, Massacres and Atrocities Before the 20th century: British Isles, 1641-52 Charles Carlton (1992). The Experience of the British Civil Wars, Routledge, ISBN 0415103916. Pages 211 - 214 In England, a conservative estimate is that roughly 100,000 people died from war-related disease during the three civil wars. Historic records count 84,830 casualties of the wars themselves. Counting in accidents and the two Bishops' wars, an estimate of 190,000 people is achieved. Carlton, Page 211 Figures for Scotland are more unreliable and should be treated with greater caution. Casualties include the deaths of prisoners of war in conditions that accelerated their deaths, with estimates of 10,000 prisoners not surviving or not returning home (8,000 captured during and immediately after the Battle of Worcester were deported to New England, Bermuda and the West Indies to work for landowners as indentured labourers Trevor Royle. "Civil War: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms 1638-1660"; Pub Abacus 2006; (first published 2004); ISBN 978-0-349-11564-1. p. 602 ). There are no figures to calculate how many died from war-related diseases, but if the same ratio of disease to battle deaths from English figures is applied to the Scottish figures, a not unreasonable estimate of 60,000 people is achieved. Carlton, page 212 Figures for Ireland are described as "miracles of conjecture". Certainly the devastation inflicted on Ireland was unbelievable, with the best estimate provided by Sir William Petty, the father of English demography. Although Petty's figures are the best available, they are still acknowledged as being tentative. They do not include the estimate of 40,000 driven into exile, some of whom served as soldiers in European continental armies, while others were sold as indentured servants to New England and the West Indies. Many of those sold to landowners in New England eventually prospered, but many of those sold to landowners in the West Indies were worked to death. Petty estimates that 112,000 Protestants were killed through plague, war, and famine, and that 504,000 Catholics were killed, giving an estimated total of 618,000. Carlton, Page 213 These estimate indicate that England suffered a 3.7% loss of population, Scotland a loss of 6%, while Ireland suffered a loss of 41% of its population. Putting these numbers into the context of other catastrophes helps to understand the devastation to Ireland in particular. The Great Hunger of 1845-1852 resulted in a loss of 16% of the population, while during the second world war, the population of the Soviet Union fell by 16%. Carlton, Page 214 Popular gains Ordinary people took advantage of the dislocation of civil society during the 1640s to derive advantages for themselves. The contemporary guild democracy movement won its greatest successes among London's transport workers, notably the Thames watermen. "Christopher O'Riordan, Self-determination and the London Transport Workers in the Century of Revolution" (1992). Rural communities seized timber and other resources on the sequestrated estates of royalists and Catholics, and on the estates of the royal family and the church hierarchy. Some communities improved their conditions of tenure on such estates. Christopher O'Riordan, "Popular Exploitation of Enemy Estates in the English Revolution", History, vol. 78 (1993), pp.184-200. The old status quo began a retrenchment after the end of the main civil war in 1646, and more especially after the restoration of monarchy in 1660. But some gains were long-term. The democratic element introduced in the watermen's company in 1642, for example, survived, with vicissitudes, until 1827. Aftermath The wars left England, Scotland, and Ireland among the few countries in Europe without a monarch. In the wake of victory, many of the ideals (and many of the idealists) became sidelined. The republican government of the Commonwealth of England ruled England (and later all of Scotland and Ireland) from 1649 to 1653 and from 1659 to 1660. Between the two periods, and due to in-fighting amongst various factions in Parliament, Oliver Cromwell ruled over the Protectorate as Lord Protector (effectively a military dictator) until his death in 1658. Upon his death, Oliver Cromwell's son Richard became Lord Protector, but the Army had little confidence in him. After seven months the Army removed Richard, and in May 1659 it re-installed the Rump. However, since the Rump Parliament acted as though nothing had changed since 1653 and as though it could treat the Army as it liked, military force shortly afterwards dissolved this, as well. After the second dissolution of the Rump, in October 1659, the prospect of a total descent into anarchy loomed as the Army's pretence of unity finally dissolved into factions. Into this atmosphere General George Monck, Governor of Scotland under the Cromwells, marched south with his army from Scotland. On 4 April 1660, in the Declaration of Breda, Charles II made known the conditions of his acceptance of the Crown of England. Monck organised the Convention Parliament, which met for the first time on 25 April 1660. On 8 May 1660, it declared that King Charles II had reigned as the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I in January 1649. Charles returned from exile on 23 May 1660. On 29 May 1660, the populace in London acclaimed him as king. His coronation took place at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661. These events became known as the English Restoration. Although the monarchy was restored, it was still only with the consent of Parliament; therefore, the civil wars effectively set England and Scotland on course to adopt a parliamentary monarchy form of government. This system would result in the outcome that the future Kingdom of Great Britain, formed in 1707 under the Acts of Union, would manage to forestall the kind of often-bloody revolution, typical of European republican movements that followed the Jacobin revolution in 18th century France and the later success of Napoleon, which generally resulted in the total abolition of monarchy. It was no coincidence that the United Kingdom was spared from the wave of revolutions that ocurred in Europe in the 1840s. Specifically, future monarchs became wary of pushing Parliament too hard, and Parliament effectively chose the line of royal succession in 1688 with the Glorious Revolution and in the 1701 Act of Settlement. After the Restoration, Parliament's factions became political parties (later becoming the Tories and Whigs) with competing views and varying abilities to influence the decisions of their monarchs. Historiography and explanations of the English Civil War In the early decades of the 20th century the Whig school was the dominant theoretical view. They explained the Civil War as resulting from a centuries-long struggle between Parliament (especially the House of Commons) and the Monarchy, with Parliament defending the traditional rights of Englishmen, while the Stuart monarchy continually attempted to expand its right to arbitrarily dictate law. The most important Whig historian, S.R. Gardiner, popularized the English Civil War as a 'Puritan Revolution': challenging the repressive Stuart Church, and preparing the way for religious toleration in the Restoration. Thus, Puritanism was the natural ally of a people preserving their traditional rights against arbitrary monarchical power. The Whig view was challenged and largely superseded by the Marxist school, which became popular in the 1940s, and which interpreted the English Civil War as a bourgeois revolution. According to Marxist historian Christopher Hill: "The Civil War was a class war, wherein on the side of reaction stood the landed aristocracy and its ally, the established Church, and on the other side stood the trading and industrial classes in town and countryside . . . the yeomen and progressive gentry, and . . . wider masses of the population whenever they were able by free discussion to understand what the struggle was really about . . . In English history, the Civil War occurred when the wealthy middle class, already socially powerful, had eliminated the outmoded medieval system of English government. Moreover, like the Whigs, the Marxists found a role for religion: as a moral system, Puritanism ideally suited the bourgeois class, so Marxists identified Puritans as inherently bourgeois." In the 1970s, a new generation of historians, who would become known as Revisionists challenged both the Whig and the Marxist theories. Glenn Burgess Historiographical reviews on revisionism: an analysis of early Stuart historiography in the 1970s and 1980s, The Historical Journal, 33, 3 (1990), pp . 609—627) In 1973, a group of revisionist historians published the anthology The Origins of the English Civil War (Conrad Russell ed.). These historians disliked both Whig and Marxist explanations of the Civil War as long-term socio-economic trends in English society, producing work focused on the minutiae of the years immediately preceding the civil war, thereby returning to the contingency-based historiography of Clarendon's famous contemporary history History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England. This, it was claimed, demonstrated that factional war-allegiance patterns did not fit either Whig or Marxist history. Puritans, for example, did not necessarily ally themselves with Parliamentarians. Many members of the bourgeoisie fought for the King, while many landed aristocrats supported Parliament. Thus, revisionist historians have discredited some Whig and Marxist interpretations of the English Civil War . Jane Ohlmeyer discarded and replaced the historical title "English Civil War" with the titles the "Wars of the Three" and the "British Civil Wars", positing that the civil war in England cannot be understood isolated from events in other parts of Great Britain and Ireland; King Charles I remains crucial, not just as King of England, but also because of his relationship with the peoples of his other realms. For example, the wars began when King Charles I tried imposing an Anglican Prayer Book upon Scotland, and when this was met with resistance from the Covenanters, he needed an army to impose his will. However, this forced him to call an English Parliament to raise new taxes to pay for the army. The English Parliaments were not willing to grant Charles the revenue he needed to pay for the Scottish expeditionary army unless he addressed their grievances. By the early 1640s, Charles was left in a state of near permanent crisis management; often he was not willing to concede enough ground to any one faction to neutralise the threat, and in some circumstances to do so would only antagonise another faction. For example, Charles finally agreed upon terms with the Covenanters in August 1641, but although this might have weakened the position of the English Parliament, the Irish Rebellion of 1641 broke out in October 1641, largely negating the political advantage he had obtained by relieving himself of the cost of the Scottish invasion. Civil Wars of the Three Kingdoms Re-enactments A historical civil war re-enactment Two large historical societies exist, The Sealed Knot and The English Civil War Society, which regularly re-enact events and battles of the Civil War in full period costume. See also English Civil War timeline English Dissenters William Hiseland, the last Royalist veteran of the Civil War The Thirty Years' War for a defining event in European history during the reign of Charles I. Notes References Carlton, Charles (1992). The Experience of the British Civil Wars, Routledge, ISBN 0415103916. Royle, Trevor, Civil War: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms 1638-1660. Pub Abacus 2006, (first published 2004). ISBN 978-0-349-11564-1 External links History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England: Begun in the Year 1641 by Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon (1717): Volume I, Part 1, Volume I, Part 2, Volume II, Part 1, Volume II, Part 2, Volume III, Part 1, Volume III, Part 2 The Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon, in which is included a Continuation of his History of the Grand Rebellion by Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon (Clarendon Press, 1827): Volume I, Volume II, Volume III The English Civil War Society The Sealed Knot Society Sir William Pennyman's Regiment - The Senior Regiment of the English Civil War Society The Marquess of Winchesters Regiment - Of the English Civil War Society Earl Rivers Regiment of Foote - Of the Sealed knot Society The Revolution Over the Revolution by Brandon W Duke This page has links to some transcriptions of contemporary documents concerning eastern England A national Civil War chronology Civil War chronology for Lincolnshire and its environs David 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2,645 | Fairchild_Channel_F | The Fairchild Channel F is a game console released by Fairchild Semiconductor in August 1976 at the retail price of $169.95. It has the distinction of being the first programmable ROM cartridge-based video game console. It was launched as the Video Entertainment System, or VES, but when Atari released their VCS the next year, Fairchild renamed their machine. The console The Channel F was designed by Jerry Lawson using the Fairchild F8 CPU, invented by Robert Noyce before he left Fairchild to start his own company, Intel. The F8 is very complex compared to the typical integrated circuits of the day, and had more inputs and outputs than other contemporary chips. Because chip packaging was not available with enough pins, the F8 is instead fabricated as a pair of chips that had to be used together to form a complete CPU. The graphics are quite basic, although it is in color which was a large step forward from the contemporary Pong machines. Sound is played through an internal speaker, rather than the TV set. The controllers are a joystick without a base; the main body is a large hand grip with a triangular "cap" on top, the top being the portion that actually moved. It can be used as both a joystick and paddle (twist), and not only pushed down to operate as a fire button but also pulled up. The unit contains a small compartment for storing the controllers when moving it: this is useful because the wiring is notoriously flimsy and even normal movement could break it. Games There are twenty-six cartridges, termed 'Videocarts', that were officially released during the ownership of Fairchild and Zircon. Several of these cartridges are capable of playing more than one game and were typically priced at $19.95. The Videocarts are large and yellow, and usually feature colorful label artwork reminiscent of the artist Peter Max. The console contains two built-in games,Tennis and Hockey, which were both advanced Pong clones. The reflecting bar could be changed to diagonals by twisting the controller, and could move forward and backward. A sales brochure from 1978 lists 'Keyboard Videocarts' for sale. The three shown were K-1 Casino Poker, K-2 Space Odyssey, and K-3 Pro-Football. These are to use the Keyboard accessory which is a 16 button keypad. All further brochures, released after Ziron took over Fairchild, never listed this accessory nor anything called a Keyboard Videocart. There is one additional cartridge released numbered Videocart-51 and simply titled 'Demo 1'. This Videocart is shown in a single sales brochure released shortly after Zircon acquired the company. It was never listed for sale after this single brochure which was used for winter of 1979. Ken Uston reviewed 32 games in his book Ken Uston's Guide to Buying and Beating the Home Video Games in 1982, and rated some of the Channel F's titles highly; of these, Alien Invasion and Video Whizball were considered by Uston to be "the finest adult cartridges currently available for the Fairchild Channel F System." Uston, Ken. Ken Uston's Guide to Buying and Beating the Home Video Games (Signet, 1982) p.605 The games on the whole, however, rated last on his survey of over 200 games for the Atari, Intellivision, Astrocade and Odyssey consoles, and contemporary games were rated "Average" with future Channel F games rated "below average". Ibid, p.20. Uston rated almost one half of the Channel F games as "high in interest" and called that "an impressive proportion" and further noted that "Some of the Channel F cartridges are timeless; no matter what technological developments occur, they will continue to be of interest." His overall conclusion was that the games "serve a limited, but useful, purpose" and that the "strength of the Channel F offering is in its excellent educational line for children." Ibid, p.603 and p.23. List of games Integrated with console: Hockey, Tennis Videocart-1: Tic Tac Toe, Shooting Gallery, Doodle, Quadradoodle Videocart-2: Desert Fox, Shooting Gallery Videocart-3: Video Blackjack Videocart-4: Spitfire Videocart-5: Space War Videocart-6: Math Quiz (Addition & Subtraction) Videocart-7: Math Quiz (Multiplication & Division) Videocart-8: Mind Reader, Nim (also referred to as Magic Numbers) Videocart-9: Drag Strip Videocart-10: Maze, Cat and Mouse Videocart-11: Backgammon, Acey-Duecy Videocart-12: Baseball Videocart-13: Torpedo Alley, Robot War Videocart-14: Sonar Search Videocart-15: Memory Match Videocart-16: Dodge'It Videocart-17: Pinball Challenge Videocart-18: Hangman Videocart-19: Checkers Videocart-20: Video Whizball Videocart-21: Bowling Videocart-22: Slot Machine Videocart-23: Galactic Space Wars Videocart-24: Pro-Football Videocart-25: Casino Royale Videocart-26: Alien Invasion Videocart-27: Pac-Man Videocart-51: Demo 1 (Listed for sale in a Zircon Winter 1979 catalog) Democart 2 (Exists but may not have been officially released) Carts listed (as mentioned above) but never released: Keyboard Videocart-1: Casino Poker Keyboard Videocart-2: Space Odyssey Keyboard Videocart-3: Pro-Football Market impact The biggest effect of the Channel F in the market was to spur Atari into releasing and improving their next-generation console which was then in development. Then codenamed "Stella," the machine was also going to use cartridges, and after seeing the Channel F they realized they needed to release it before the market was flooded with cartridge based-machines. With cash flow dwindling as sales of their existing Pong-based systems dried up, they were forced to sell to Warner Communications in order to gain the capital they needed. When the Atari VCS gaming system (whose name was coined as a takeoff of the VES) was released a year later, it had considerably better graphics and sound. The Channel F System II The Channel F System II Fairchild decided to compete with the VCS, and began a console re-design as the Channel F System II. The major changes were in design, with the controllers removable from the base unit instead of being wired directly into it, the storage compartment was moved to the rear of the unit, and the sound was now mixed into the TV signal so the unit no longer needed a speaker. This version also featured a simpler and more modern-looking case design. However, by this time the market was in the midst of the first video game crash, and Fairchild eventually threw in the towel and left the market. Some time in 1979, Zircon International bought the rights to the Channel F and released the Channel F System II. Only six new games were released after the debut of the second system before its death, several of which were developed at Fairchild before they sold it off. A number of licensed versions were released in Europe, including the Luxor Video Entertainment System in Sweden, Adman Grandstand in the UK, and the Saba Videoplay, Nordmende Teleplay and ITT Tele-Match Processor, from Germany and also Dumont/Barco Videoplay - Italy and Belgium. Technical specifications [Original Channel F] PCB Scan of the Grandstand Video Entertainment Computer (UK Channel F variant). CPU chip: Fairchild F8 operating at 1.79 MHz (PAL 2.00 MHz) RAM: 64 bytes, 2 kB VRAM (2×128×64 bits) Resolution: 128 × 64 pixels, 102 × 58 pixels visible Colors: eight colors (either black/white or four color max. per line) Audio: 500 Hz, 1 kHz, and 1.5 kHz tones (can be modulated quickly to produce different tones) Input: two custom game controllers, hardwired to the console (original release) or removable (Channel F System II) Output: RF modulated composite video signal, cord hardwired to console See also TV POWWW (interactive TV game show that used Channel F) References External links Fairchild Channel F at OLD-COMPUTERS.COM Channel F FAQ from rec.games.video.classic Videocarts, Brochures & letter scans @ FNDCollectables.com History of the companies behind the Channel F The MESS Project (with Channel F emulation) The Dot Eaters article with a history of the Channel F and games VESWiki Information regarding homebrew programming for the Channel F See a JC Penney television commercial 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2,646 | Jury_trial | A jury trial (or trial by jury) is a legal proceeding in which a jury either makes a decision or makes findings of fact which are then applied by a judge. It is distinguished from a bench trial, in which a judge or panel of judges make all decisions. English common law and the United States Constitution recognize the right to a jury trial to be a fundamental civil liberty or civil right that allows the accused to choose whether to be judged by judges or a jury of peers. The use of jury trials evolved within common law systems rather than civil law systems. Jury trials are of far less importance (or of no importance) in countries that do not have a common law system. Juries usually weigh the evidence and testimony to determine questions of fact, while judges usually rule on questions of law. Jury determination of questions of law, sometimes called jury nullification, may lead to the overturning of a verdict by the judge. A jury trial should not be confused with grand jury proceedings. In the United States, where grand juries are still used, the jury used for a trial can be referred to as a "petit jury" (or, simply, a "trial jury") to distinguish it from a grand jury, used for indictments. History of jury trials There existed—in Ancient Athens—a mechanism through which it was assured that no one could elect jurors, called dikaste, for their own trial. For normal cases, the courts were made up of dikastai of 500 citizens. For capital cases, those which involved death, the loss of liberty, exile, the loss of civil rights, or the seizure of property, the trial was before a jury of 1,000 to 1,500 dikastai. It isn’t hard to see why the unanimity rule would be unrealistic in this kind of trial, as well as why it should be unstable as a form of government. From the beginning of the republic and in the majority of civil cases towards the end of the empire, there were tribunals with the characteristics of the jury, the Roman judges being civilian, lay and not professional. Capital trials were held in front of juries composed of hundreds or thousands of people in the commitias or centuries, the same as in Roman trials. The connection between England and Rome goes back to the time of Julius Caesar, when he conquered the southern part of the British isle. How deep the imprint left by the Roman institutions on the Romanised Celts is difficult to determine. With the fall of the Roman empire and the following "barbarization" of the region, historians doubt that Roman customs and laws survived. The arrival of Roman institutions to England is more widely attributed to William the Conqueror and the Normans during times of greater interest in Roman law. According to George Macaulay Trevelyan in A Shortened History of England, during the Viking occupation: “The Scandinavians, when not on the Viking warpath, were a litigious people and loved to get together in the ‘thing’ to hear legal argument. They had no professional lawyers, but many of their farmer-warriors, like Njal, the truth-teller, were learned in folk custom and in its intricate judicial procedure. A Danish town in England often had, as it principal officers, twelve hereditary ‘law men.’ The Danes introduced the habit of making committees among the free men in court, which perhaps made England favorable ground for the future growth of the jury system out of a Frankish custom later introduced by the Normans.” The English king Ethelred the Unready set up an early legal system through the Wantage Code of Ethelred, one provision of which stated that the twelve leading thegns (minor nobles) of each wapentake (a small district) were required to swear that they would investigate crimes without a bias. These juries differed from the modern sort by being self-informing; instead of getting information through a trial, the jurors were required to investigate the case themselves. In the 12th century, Henry II took a major step in developing the jury system. Henry II set up a system to resolve land disputes using juries. A jury of twelve free men were assigned to arbitrate in these disputes. Unlike the modern jury, these men were charged with uncovering the facts of the case on their own rather than listening to arguments in court. Henry II also introduced what is now known as the "grand jury" through his Assize of Clarendon. Under the assize, a jury of free men was charged with reporting any crimes that they knew of in their hundred to a "justice in eyre," a judge who moved between hundreds on a circuit. A criminal accused by this jury was given a trial by ordeal. The Church banned participation of clergy in trial by ordeal in 1215. Without the legitimacy of religion, trial by ordeal collapsed. The juries under the assizes began deciding guilt as well as providing accusations. The same year, trial by jury became a pretty explicit right in one of the most influential clauses of Magna Carta, signed by King John. Article 39 of the Magna Carta read: Nullus liber homo capiatur, vel imprisonetur, aut desseisetur de libero tenemento, vel libertatibus, vel liberis consuetudinibus suis, sut utlagetur, aut exuletur, aut aliquo modo destruatur, nec super eum ibimus, nec super eum mittemus, nisi per legale judicium parium suorum, vel per legem terrae. It is translated thus by Lysander Spooner in his Essay on the Trial by Jury: "No free man shall be captured, and or imprisoned, or disseised of his freehold, and or of his liberties, or of his free customs, or be outlawed, or exiled, or in any way destroyed, nor will we proceed against him by force or proceed against him by arms, but by the lawful judgment of his peers, and or by the law of the land." Although it says and or by the law of the land, this in no manner can be interpreted as if it were enough to have a positive law, made by the king, to be able to proceed legally against a citizen. The law of the land was the consuetudinary law, based on the customs and consent of John’s subjects, and since they did not have Parliament in those times, this meant that neither the king nor the barons could make a law without the consent of the people. According to some sources, in the time of Edward III, by the law of the land had been substituted by due process of law, which in those times was a trial by twelve peers. During the mid-14th Century, it was forbidden that persons who had sat on the Presenting Jury (i.e., in modern parlance, the Grand Jury) to sit on the trial jury for that crime. 25 Edward III stat 5., c3 (1353). Over time, English juries became less self-informing and relied more on the trial itself for information on the case. Jurors remained free to investigate cases on their own until the 17th century. The Magna Carta being forgotten after a succession of benevolent reigns (or, more probably, reigns limited by the jury and the barons, and only under the rule of laws that the juries and barons found acceptable), the kings, through the royal judges, began to extend their control over the jury and the kingdom. In David Hume's History of England, he tells something of the powers that the kings had accumulated in the times after the Magna Carta, the prerogatives of the crown and the sources of great power with which these monarchs counted: One of the most ancient and most established instruments of power was the court of Star Chamber, which possessed an unlimited discretionary authority of fining, imprisoning, and inflicting corporal punishment, and whose jurisdiction extended to all sorts of offenses, contempts, and disorders, that lay not within reach of the common law. The members of this court consisted of the privy council and the judges; men who all of them enjoyed their offices during pleasure: And when the prince himself was present, he was the sole judge, and all the others could only interpose with their advice. There needed but this one court in any government, to put an end to all regular, legal, and exact plans of liberty. For who durst set himself in opposition to the crown and ministry, or aspire to the character of being a patron of freedom, while exposed to so arbitrary a jurisdiction? I much question, whether any of the absolute monarchies in Europe contain, at present, so illegal and despotic a tribunal. While so many terrors hung over the people, no jury durst have acquitted a man, when the court was resolved to have him condemned. The practice also, of not confronting witnesses to the prisoner, gave the crown lawyers all imaginable advantage against him. And, indeed, there scarcely occurs an instance, during all these reigns, that the sovereign, or the ministers, were ever disappointed in the issue of a prosecution. Timid juries, and judges who held their offices during pleasure, never failed to second all the views of the crown. And as the practice was anciently common of fining, imprisoning, or otherwise punishing the jurors, merely at the discretion of the court, for finding a verdict contrary to the direction of these dependent judges; it is obvious, that juries were then no manner of security to the liberty of the subject.The first paragraph of the Act that abolished the Star Chamber repeats the clause on the right of a citizen to be judged by his peers: Abolition of the Star Chamber July 5, 1641An act for the regulating of the privy council, and for taking away the court commonly called the star-chamber. WHEREAS by the great charter many times confirmed in parliament, it is enacted, That no freeman shall be taken or imprisoned, or disseised of his freehold or liberties, or free customs, or be outlawed or exiled or otherwise destroyed, and that the King will not pass upon him, or condemn him; but by lawful judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land… Many English colonies adopted the jury trial system including the United States. Jury trials in criminal cases were a protected right in the original Constitution and the Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Amendments of the U.S. Constitution extend the rights to trial by jury to include the right to jury trial for both criminal and civil matters and a grand jury for serious cases. The role of jury trials In most common law jurisdictions, the jury is responsible for finding the facts of the case, while the judge determines the law. These "peers of the accused" are responsible for listening to a dispute, evaluating the evidence presented, deciding on the facts, and making a decision in accordance with the rules of law and their jury instructions. Typically, the jury only judges guilt or a verdict of not guilty, but the actual penalty is set by the judge. An interesting innovation was introduced in Russia in the judicial reform of Alexander II: unlike in modern jury trials, jurors decided not only whether the defendant was guilty or not guilty, but they had the third choice: "Guilty, but not to be punished", since Alexander II believed that justice without morality is wrong. In France and some countries organized in the same fashion, the jury and several professional judges sit together to determine guilt first. Then, if guilt is determined, they decide the appropriate penalty. * The Protection of the Accused in French Criminal Procedure * Robert Vouin * The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Apr., 1956), pp. 157-173 * Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of the British Institute of International and Comparative Law Some jurisdictions with jury trials allow the defendant to waive their right to a jury trial, this leading to a bench trial. Jury trials tend to occur only when a crime is considered serious. In some jurisdictions, such as France and Brazil, jury trials are reserved, and compulsory, for the most severe crimes and are not available for civil cases. In Brazil, for example, trials by jury are applied in cases of First and Second-degree murders, even if only attempted. In others, such as the United Kingdom, jury trials are only available for criminal cases and very specific civil cases (defamation, malicious prosecution, civil fraud and false imprisonment). In the United States, jury trials are available in both civil and criminal cases. In Canada, jury trials are compulsory for crimes which the maximum sentence exceeds 5 years, and optional for crimes of which the maximum sentence exceeds 2 years, but less than 5 years. However, the right to a jury trial may be waived if both the prosecution and defense agree. In the United States, because jury trials tend to be high profile, the general public tends to overestimate the frequency of jury trials. Approximately 150,000 jury trials are conducted in state courts in the U.S., and an additional 5,000 jury trials are conducted in federal courts. Two-thirds of jury trials are criminal trials, while one-third are civil and "other" (e.g., family, municipal ordinance, traffic). Nevertheless, the vast majority of cases are in fact settled by plea bargain, which removes the need for a jury trial. Pros and cons In countries where jury trials are common, juries are often seen as an important check against state power. Other common assertions about the benefits of trial by jury is that it provides a means of interjecting community norms and values into judicial proceedings and that it legitimizes the law by providing opportunities for citizens to validate criminal statutes in their application to specific trials. Alexis de Tocqueville also claimed that jury trials educate citizens about self-government. Many also believe that a jury is likely to provide a more sympathetic hearing, or a fairer one, to a party who is not part of the government or other establishment interest than would representatives of the state. This last point may be disputed. For example, in highly emotional cases, such as child rape, the jury may be tempted to convict based on personal feelings rather than on conviction beyond reasonable doubt. Former attorney, then later minister of Justice Robert Badinter, remarked about jury trials in France that they were like "riding a ship into a storm," because they are much less predictable than bench trials. Another issue with jury trials is the potential for jurors to be swayed by prejudice, including racial considerations. An infamous case was the 1992 trial in the Rodney King case in California, in which white police officers were acquitted of excessive force in the violent beating of a black man by a jury consisting mostly of whites without any black jurors, despite an incriminating videotape of the action. This led to widespread questioning about the case and riots ensued. The positive belief about jury trials in the UK and the U.S. contrasts with popular belief in many other nations, in which it is considered bizarre and risky for a person's fate to be put into the hands of untrained laymen. Consider Japan, for instance, which used to have optional jury trials for capital or other serious crimes between 1928 and 1943. The defendant could freely choose whether to have a jury or trial by judges, and the decisions of the jury were non-binding. During the Tōjō-regime this was suspended, arguably stemming from the popular belief that any defendant who risks his fate on the opinions of untrained laymen is almost certainly guilty. Similarly, jury trials were abolished by the government of India in 1960 (this was followed by Pakistan soon afterwards) on the grounds they would be susceptible to media and public influence. One Pakistani Judge called a trial by jury "amateur justice". Jury trials in multi-cultural countries with a history of ethnic tensions may be problematic, and lead to juries being unduly biased and partial. This is one of the reasons why both India and Pakistan abolished jury trials soon after independence. Indeed in these countries; a jury trial is seen as a failing of some foreign legal system rather than an advantage. This despite both nations being common law countries. A major issue in jury trials is the secretive nature of the process. While proponents may say that it aids in the protection of liberty by protecting the jury from undue (although what exactly constitutes "liberty", of course is a subjective issue), opponents contend this prevents there from being a transparent trial. The fact that juries do not often have to give a reason for their verdict is also criticized, since opponents argue it is unfair for a person to be deprived of life, liberty or property without being told why it is being done so. In contrast where there is a decision by a judge or a bench, they are required to give often detailed reason of both fact and law as to why such a decision is given. One issue that has been raised is the ability of a jury to fully understand statistical or scientific evidence. It has been said that the expectation of jury members as to the explanatory power of scientific evidence has been raised by television in what is known as the CSI effect. In at least one English trial the misuse or misunderstanding of statistics has led to wrongful conviction. Recently, in England and Wales, Lord Goldsmith, the government's Attorney General, has been actively pressing forward with the Fraud (Trials Without a Jury) Bill in Parliament, which seeks to abolish jury trials in major criminal fraud trials. The Bill was subject to sharp criticism from both sides of the House of Commons, , but passed its second Commons reading in November 2006. The Bill follows the Government's earlier, unsuccessful attempt to pass measures allowing trials without jury in the Criminal Justice Act 2003. By country Australia The first trial by jury in the colony of New South Wales was held in April 1841 in the town of Berrima. Challenging potential jurors The voir dire system of examining the jury pool before selection is not permitted in Australia as it violates the privacy of jurors. Therefore, though it exists, the right to challenge for cause during jury selection cannot be employed much. Peremptory challenges are usually based on the hunches of the counsels and no reason is needed to use them. All Australian states allow for peremptory challenges in jury selection, however, the number of challenges granted to the counsels in each state are not all the same. Until 1987 New South Wales had twenty peremptory challenges for each side where the offence was murder, and eight for all other cases. In 1987 this was lowered to three peremptory challenges per side, the same amount allowed in South Australia. Eight peremptory challenges are allowed for both counsels for all offences in Queensland. Victoria, Tasmania and the Northern Territory allow for six. Western Australia allows five peremptory challenges per side, according to section 104 of the Criminal Procedure Act 2004 (WA). Majority and unanimous verdicts in criminal trials In Australia majority verdicts are allowed in South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia, Tasmania, the Northern Territory and New South Wales, while Queensland and the ACT require unanimous verdicts. Since 1927 South Australia has permitted majority verdicts of 11:1, and 10:1 or 9:1 where the jury has been reduced, in criminal trials if a unanimous verdict cannot be reached in four hours. They are accepted in all cases except for "guilty" verdicts where the defendant is on trial for murder or treason. Victoria has accepted majority verdicts with the same conditions since 1994, though deliberations must go on for six hours before a majority verdict can be made. Western Australia accepted majority verdicts in 1957 for all trials except where the crime is murder or has a life sentence. A 10:2 verdict is accepted. Majority verdicts of 10:2 have been allowed in Tasmania since 1936 for all cases except murder and treason if a unanimous decision has not been made within two hours. Since 1943 verdicts of “not guilty” for murder and treason have also been included, but must be discussed for six hours. The Northern Territory has allowed majority verdicts of 10:2, 10:1 and 9:1 since 1963 and does not discriminate between cases whether the charge is murder or not. Deliberation must go for at least six hours before delivering a majority verdict. Majority verdicts were introducted in New South Wales in 2005 (see Jury Act 1977 (NSW), s 55F). Austria Austria, in common with a number of European civil law jurisdictions, retains elements of trial by jury in serious criminal cases. Belgium In Belgium one can only have a jury trial when the crime is grave enough. The only court that tries by jury is la cour d'assises/het hof van assissen, which tries violent crimes. Canada Under Canadian law, a person has the right to a jury trial for all crimes punishable by five years of imprisonment or more. France See also: Cour d'assises Germany The government in Germany abolished jury trials on January 4, 1924, because their verdicts were not perceived as just anymore. Juries tended to be mistaken because of the increasing complexity of trials. Also, they started to lead into an unjustified acquittal in more and more cases. The German legal system, however, provides for laymen to sit in court as judges alongside professional judges. This type of laymen is called a "Schöffe". Such courts always consist of three or more judges. The laymen have exactly the same rights and obligations as the professional judges. Greece The country which gave birth to the concept of the jury trial retains it in an unusual form. Serious crimes in this country are tried by a panel of three professional judges and four lay jurors who decide the facts and appropriate penalty if convicted. Gibraltar Being a Common Law jurisdiction, Gibraltar retains jury trial in a similar manner to that found in England and Wales, the exception being that juries consist of nine lay people, rather than twelve. India Jury trials were abolished by the government of India in 1960 on the grounds they would be susceptible to media and public influence. This decision was based on an 8:1 acquittal of Kawas Nanavati in K. M. Nanavati vs. State of Maharashtra, which was overturned by higher courts, on the grounds that the jury was misled by the presiding judge. Ireland In Ireland, a common law jurisdiction jury trials are available for criminal before the Circuit Court, Central Criminal Court and defamation cases. Consisting of twelve persons, juries are selected from a jury panel which is picked at random by the county registrar from the electoral register. Juries only decide questions of fact. They have no role in criminal sentencing or awarding damages in libel cases. It is not necessary that a jury be unanimous in its verdict. In civil cases, a verdict may be reached by a majority of nine of the twelve members. In a criminal case, a verdict need not be unanimous where there are not fewer than eleven jurors if ten of them agree on a verdict after considering the case for a "reasonable time". For certain terrorist and organised crime offences the Director of Public Prosecutions may issue a certificate that the accused be tried by the Special Criminal Court. Instead of a jury the Special Criminal Court consists of three judges, one from the District Court, Circuit Court and High Court. The principal statute regulating the selection, obligations and conduct of juries is the Juries Act 1976 as amended by the Civil Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2008, which scrapped the upper age limit of 70. Juries are not paid, nor do they receive travel expenses, however they do receive lunch for the days that they are serving. Italy The Corte d'Assise is composed by 2 judges and 6 laymen chosen at random among Italian citizens 30 to 65 years old. Only serious crimes like murder can be tried by the Corte d'Assise. Japan On May 28, 2004, the Diet of Japan enacted a law which requires selected citizens to take part in criminal court trials of certain severe crimes and make decisions together with professional judges both on guilt and on the sentence. These citizens are called saiban-in (裁判員 "lay judge"). The saiban-in system will be implemented by May 2009. New Zealand In 2004 New Zealand Parliament first heard the Criminal Procedures bill which would allow majority verdicts of 11:1. At its second reading in 2006, both major parties supported this element of the bill. Russia Firstly, jury trials were introduced in the Russian Empire as a result of the Judicial reform of Alexander II in 1864. After the October Revolution they were abolished and introduced again in the Russian Federation for certain crimes in 1993. The Federal Constitution of that year also stipulates that, until the abolition of the death penalty, all defendants in a case that may result in a death sentence are entitled to a jury trial. Switzerland As of 2008, only the code of criminal procedure of the Canton of Geneva provides for genuine jury trials. Several other cantons – Vaud, Neuchâtel, Zürich and Ticino – provide for courts composed of both professional judges and laymen (Schöffengerichte / tribunaux d'échevins). Because the unified Swiss Code of Criminal Procedure (set to enter into force in 2011) does not provide for jury trials or lay judges, however, they are likely to be abolished in the near future. Absence of juries in Israel The Israeli judicial system is conspicuous in having no juries of any kind - a feature especially interesting considering that very many other features of this system are derived from the British one - i.e. many Israeli laws are derived from British ones (including, in some cases, laws already repealed in Britain itself but which were in force when Israel became independent in 1948) and the Israeli Supreme Court makes frequent reference to British precedents. However, the authorities in British Mandatory Palestine had taken the conscious decision not to introduce any jury system, officially due to the consideration that it would not work in conditions where the population was divided into mutually-hostile communities of Jews and Arabs. United Kingdom The United Kingdom consists of three separate legal jurisdictions, but there are some features common to all of them. In particular there is seldom anything like the U.S. voir dire system; jurors are usually just accepted without question. Controversially, in England there has been some screening in sensitive security cases, but the Scottish courts have firmly set themselves against any form of jury vetting. England and Wales In England and Wales (which have the same legal system), minor criminal cases are heard without a jury in the Magistrates' Courts. Middle ranking ("triable either way") offences may be tried by magistrates or the defendant may elect trial by jury in the Crown Court. Serious ("indictable") offenses, however, must be tried before a jury in the Crown Court. Juries sit in a few civil cases, in particular, defamation and cases involving the state. Juries also sit in coroner's courts for more contentious inquests. All juries consist of 12 people between 18–70 years of age, selected at random from the register of voters. In the past a unanimous verdict was required. This has been changed so that, if the jury fail to agree after a given period, at the discretion of the judge they may reach a verdict by a 10-2 majority. This was to prevent jury tampering in cases involving organized crime. Scotland In Scotland juries consist of 15 people for criminal trials and 12 people for civil trials. In criminal trials there has never been a requirement for verdicts to be unanimous; they are reached by simple majority. (People were occasionally hanged on majority verdicts in Scotland.) Juries may also return the verdict of not proven. The backing of at least eight jurors is needed to return a guilty verdict, even if the number of jurors drops below 15, e.g., because of illness. It is not possible for Scots juries to be "hung"; if there is not sufficient support for any verdict then this is treated as a verdict of not guilty. Northern Ireland In Northern Ireland, the role of the jury trial is roughly similar to England and Wales, except that jury trials have been replaced in cases of alleged terrorist offences by courts where the judge sits alone, known as "Diplock courts". This was because of widespread jury intimidation during the Troubles. With the improving security situation in the province, Diplock courts were due to be phased out in 2007. United States In the United States every person accused of a felony has a constitutional right to a trial by jury, which arises from Article Three of the United States Constitution, which states in part, "The Trial of all Crimes...shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed." The right was expanded with the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which states in part, "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed." Both provisions were made applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. Most states' constitutions also grant the right of trial by jury in lesser criminal matters, though most have abrogated that right in offenses punishable by fine only. Also, a person accused of any crime punishable by more than six months imprisonment is also entitled to demand trial by jury; the Supreme Court has ruled that if imprisonment is for six months or less, trial by jury is not required, meaning a state may choose whether or not to permit trial by jury in such cases. In the cases Apprendi v. New Jersey (2000) and Blakely v. Washington (2004), the Supreme Court of the United States held that a criminal defendant has a right to a jury trial not only on the question of guilt or innocence, but any fact used to increase the defendant's sentence beyond the maximum otherwise allowed by statutes or sentencing guidelines. This invalidated the procedure in many states and the federal courts that allowed sentencing enhancement based on "a preponderance of evidence", where enhancement could be based on the judge's findings alone. Jurors in some states are selected through voter registration and drivers' license lists. A form is sent to prospective jurors to pre-qualify them by asking the recipient to answer questions about citizenship, disabilities, ability to understand the English language, and whether they have any conditions that would excuse them from being a juror. If they are deemed qualified, a summons is issued. Civil trial procedure Note: in the United States "Civil" denotes non-criminal actions and should not be confused with Civil law jurisdictions. The right to trial by jury in a civil case is addressed by the 7th Amendment, which provides: "In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law." In Joseph Story's 1883 treatise Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States, he wrote, "[I]t is a most important and valuable amendment; and places upon the high ground of constitutional right the inestimable privilege of a trial by jury in civil cases, a privilege scarcely inferior to that in criminal cases, which is conceded by all to be essential to political and civil liberty." The 7th Amendment does not guarantee or create any right to a jury trial; rather, it preserves the right to jury trial that existed in 1791 at common law. In this context, common law means the legal environment the United States inherited from England at the time. In England in 1791, civil actions were divided into actions at law and actions in equity. Actions at law had a right to a jury, actions in equity did not. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure Rule 2 says "[t]here is one form of action - the civil action[,]" which abolishes the legal/equity distinction. Today, in actions that would have been "at law" in 1791, there is a right to a jury; in actions that would have been "in equity" in 1791, there is no right to a jury. However, Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 39(c) allows a court to use one at its discretion. To determine whether the action would have been legal or equitable in 1791, one must first look at the type of action and whether such an action was considered "legal" or "equitable" in 1791. Next, the relief being sought must be examined. Monetary damages alone were purely a legal remedy, and thus entitled to a jury. Non-monetary remedies such as injunctions, rescission, and specific performance were all equitable remedies, and thus up to the judge's discretion, not a jury. In Beacon Theaters v. Westover, the U.S. Supreme Court discussed the right to a jury, holding that when both equitable and legal claims are brought, the right to a jury trial still exists for the legal claim, which would be decided by a jury before the judge ruled on the equitable claim. The right to a jury trial in civil cases does not extend to the states, except when a state court is enforcing a federally created right, of which the right to trial by jury is a substantial part. Following the English tradition, U.S. juries have usually been composed of 12 jurors, and the jury's verdict has usually been required to be unanimous. However, in many jurisdictions, the number of jurors is often reduced to a lesser number (such as five or six) by legislative enactment, or by agreement of both sides. Some jurisdictions also permit a verdict to be returned despite the dissent of one, two, or three jurors. Waiver of jury trial The vast majority of U.S. criminal cases are not concluded with a jury verdict, but rather by plea bargain. Both prosecutors and defendants often have a strong interest in resolving the criminal case by negotiation resulting in a plea bargain. If the defendant waives a jury trial, a bench trial is held. In United States Federal courts, there is no absolute right to waive a jury trial. Only if the prosecution and the court consent may a defendant have a waiver of jury trial. However, most states give the defendant the absolute right to waive a jury trial. See also Rights of Englishmen Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution Sparf v. United States References Burns, Robert. The Death of the American Trial. University of Chicago Press, 2009. ISBN 9780226081267 Sadakat Kadri, The Trial: A History from Socrates to O.J. Simpson. HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 0-00-711121-5 Brill, Steven. Trial by Jury. (New York: American Lawyer Books/TOUCHSTONE, 1989). Lehman, Godfrey D. We the jury… (New York: Prometheus Books, 1997). 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2,647 | Pharaoh | After Djoser of the third dynasty, pharaohs usually were depicted wearing the Nemes headdress, a false beard, and an ornate kilt Pharaoh is a title used in many modern discussions of the ancient Egyptian rulers of all periods. In antiquity this title began to be used for the ruler who was the religious and political leader of united ancient Egypt, only during the New Kingdom, specifically, during the middle of the eighteenth dynasty. For simplification, however, there is a general acceptance among modern writers to use the term to relate to all periods. Meaning "Great House", it originally referred to the king's palace, but the meaning loosened over the course of Egyptian history until it became interchangeable with the traditional Egyptian word for king, nswt. Although the rulers of Egypt generally weren't female, nswt ("king") and pharaoh also were used on the occasions when a female ruled. Initially, the rulers were considered the sons of a cow deity, Bat and eventually Hathor, and they occupied her throne to rule the country and officiate in religious rites. There is evidence that the ruler may have been sacrificed after a certain period of time in the earliest rituals, but soon was replaced by a specially selected bull. Later in the culture, the pharaohs were believed to be the incarnations of the deity Horus in life, F. Fleming & A. Lothian, 12, 59 and of Osiris in death. Once the cult of Isis and Osiris became prominent, pharaohs were viewed as a bridge between the god Osiris and human beings and after death, the pharaoh was believed to unite with Osiris. The royal line was matrilineal, and a relationship with the royal women through birth or marriage (or both) determined the right to rule. The royal women played important roles in the religious rituals and governance of the country, sometimes participating alongside of the Pharaoh. Etymology The term pharaoh ultimately was derived from a compound word represented as pr-`3, used only in larger phrases such as smr pr-`3 'Courtier of the High House', with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace itself. Ancient Egyptian Grammar (3rd ed.), A. Gardiner (1957-) 71-76 From the twelfth dynasty onward the word appears in a wish formula 'Great House, may it live, prosper, and be in health', but again only with reference to the royal palace and not the person. The earliest instance where pr-`3 is used specifically to address the ruler is in a letter to Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) in the mid-eighteenth dynasty (1550-1292 BC) which is addressed to 'Pharaoh, all life, prosperity, and health!. Hieratic Papyrus from Kahun and Gurob, F. LL. Griffith, 38, 17. Although see also Temples of Armant, R. Mond and O. Myers (1940), pl.93, 5 for an instance possibly dating from the reign of Thutmose III. This may be contrasted with Hatshepsut, who ruled before him in the same eighteenth dynasty, who never had pr-`3 among her titles. From the nineteenth dynasty onward pr-`3 on its own was used as regularly as hm.f, 'His Majesty'. The term therefore evolved from a word specifically referring to a building to a respectful designation for the ruler, particularly by the twenty-second dynasty and twenty-third dynasty. By this time, the Late Egyptian word is reconstructed to have been pronounced * whence comes Ancient Greek and then Late Latin . From the latter, English obtained the word "Pharaoh". Over time, * evolved into Sahidic Coptic prro and then rro (by mistaking p- as the definite article prefix "the" from Ancient Egyptian p3). A similar development, with a word originally denoting an attribute of the ruler eventually coming to refer to the person, can be discerned in a later period with the Arabic term Sultan. Regalia Following unification, the ruler of Egypt wore a double crown, created from the Red Crown of Lower Egypt and the White Crown of Upper Egypt. In certain situations, the pharaoh wore a blue crown of a different shape. Typically, all of these crowns were adorned by a uraeus, which was doubled during the twenty-fifth dynasty. After the third dynasty, the pharaoh also wore a striped headcloth called the nemes, which may be the most familiar pharaonic headgear. The nemes was sometimes combined with the double crown, as it is on the statues of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel. The pharaoh often was depicted as wearing a false beard made of goat hair during rituals and ceremonies. The early dynastic and old kingdom periods - Pharaoh's divine power Egyptologist Bob Brier has noted that despite its widespread depiction in royal portraits, no ancient Egyptian crown ever has been discovered. Tutankhamun's tomb, discovered largely intact, did contain such regal items as his crook and flail, but not a crown. It is presumed that crowns would have been believed to have magical properties. Brier's speculation is that there were religious or state items a dead pharaoh could not retain as a personal possession which, therefore, had to be passed along to a successor. Titles Their names changed as the rulers assumed the throne. By the Middle Kingdom, the official titulary of the ruler consisted of five names; Ian Shaw, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press 2000, p. 477 for some rulers, only one or two of them may be known. Secrecy and euphemisms protected religious secrets and religion and governance were inexorably interwoven in Ancient Egypt. Sculpture of a pharaoh of the eighteenth dynasty, Hatshepsut - Altes Museum in Berlin Germany Surviving historical records confirm that Hatshepsut, one of three great female rulers of later Egyptian dynasties that include Nefertiti and Smenkhkare, assumed the typical titles for rulers. No word comparable to the contemporary term, Queen Regnant, existed in the Ancient Egyptian language. Also notable is Nefertiti who was made co-regent (the pharaoh's equal) during the reign of Akhenaten. Ian Shaw, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press 2000, p. 271. Other scholars have their doubts concerning this co-regency. cf. Sally-Ann Ashton, The Last Queens of Egypt: Cleopatra's Royal House, Pearson/Longman 2003, p.9 Some scholars further suspect that her "disappearance" coincides with the seating of Smenkhkare on the throne after Akhenaten's death, making Nefertiti (as Smenkhkare) yet another woman who became pharaoh in Ancient Egyptian history. Although not typical, there are instances of women who were pharaoh during very early dynasties, even during the Ptolemaic dynasties before being absorbed into the Roman Empire—and its last ruling pharaoh was Cleopatra VII. The royal lineage of Ancient Egypt was traced through its women and a pharaoh had to be from that lineage or marry a member of the lineage if coming from without. This was the reason for all of the intermarriages in the royal families of Egypt and why foreign invaders married royal Egyptian queens and princesses, to assure the succession of their progeny. Many times, offspring of concubines and minor wives needed to marry a royal princess to advance to the throne and be approved by the religious leaders of the temples. At least once in historical records, the queen of a pharaoh who died while ruling, invited a foreign ruler to send a son to marry her and become the pharaoh because there was no member of the royal house who could qualify and she had no sons. During the eighteenth dynasty (sixteenth to fourteenth centuries B.C.) the title pharaoh was employed as a reverential designation of the ruler. About the late twenty-first dynasty (tenth century B.C.), however, instead of being used alone as before, it began to be added to the other titles before the ruler's name, and from the twenty-fifth dynasty (eighth to seventh centuries B.C.) it was, at least in ordinary usage, the only epithet prefixed to the royal appellative. "pharaoh." in Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. For instance, the first dated instance of the title pharaoh being attached to a ruler's name occurs in Year 17 of Siamun on a fragment from the Karnak Priestly Annals. Here, an induction of an individual to the Amun priesthood is dated specifically to the reign of Pharaoh Siamun. This new practice was continued under his successor Psusennes II and the twenty-first dynasty kings. Meanwhile the old custom of referring to the sovereign simply as Per'o continued in traditional Egyptian narratives. The Biblical use of the term reflects Egyptian use with fair accuracy. The early rulers always are mentioned under the general title Pharaoh, or Pharaoh the King of Egypt; but personal names begin to appear with the twenty-second dynasty, although the older designation still is used, especially when contemporary rulers are spoken of. The absence of proper names in the first books of the Bible is no indication of the late date of their composition and of writer's vague knowledge of Egyptian history, rather to the contrary. The same is true of the use of the title pharaoh for rulers earlier than those of the eighteenth dynasty, which is quite in keeping with Egyptian use at the time of the nineteenth dynasty. Pharaohs in the Bible The first pharaoh of Egypt mentioned by name in the Bible is Shishaq (probably Sheshonk I), the founder of the twenty-second dynasty and a contemporary of Rehoboam and Jeroboam (1 Kings 11:40; 2 Chronicles 12:2 sqq.). The title pharaoh is prefixed to his name in the Great Dakhla stela—as in Pharaoh Shoshenq—which dates to Year 5 of his reign. 2 Kings 17:4 says that Hoshea sent letters to 'So, King of Egypt', whose identification still is not certain. He has been identified with Osorkon IV, who was a minor king at Tanis who ruled over a divided Egypt, with Tefnakht of Sais and Pi'ankhy. Patterson, Richard D., "The Divided Monarchy: Sources, Approaches, and Historicity", pp 196-197, in David M. Howard & Michael A. Grisanti (eds), Giving the Sense: Understanding and Using Old Testament Historical Texts, Kregel Academic & Professional, January 1 2004, ISBN 978-0825428920 Taharqa, who was the opponent of Sennacherib, is called King of Ethiopia (2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9), and hence is not given the title pharaoh, which he bears in Egyptian documents. Last are two kings of the twenty-sixth dynasty: Necho II, who the Bible says defeated Josiah (2 Kings 23:29 sqq.; 2 Chronicles 35:20 sqq.), and Apries or Hophra, the contemporary of Sedicous (Jeremiah 44:30). Both are styled as pharaoh in Egyptian records. See also List of Pharaohs Egyptian chronology - Conventional Egyptian chronology History of Egypt Monarch Ancient Egyptian royal titulary Pharaoh of the Exodus References Bibliography Sir Alan Gardiner Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs, Third Edition, Revised. London: Oxford University Press, 1964. Excursus A, pp. 71-76. Brier, Bob. PhD. History of ancient Egypt (Audio). The First Nation in History. The Learning Company. 2001. Sources and external links Rulers of Egypt - Archaeowiki.org Egyptian Royal Genealogy Egyptian Pharaohs Digital Egypt for Universities Mummies of the Pharaohs at James M. Deem's Mummy Tombs site. The Coronation of Pharaoh | Pharaoh |@lemmatized djoser:1 third:4 dynasty:23 pharaohs:2 usually:1 depict:2 wear:5 nemes:3 headdress:1 false:2 beard:2 ornate:1 kilt:1 pharaoh:39 title:12 use:14 many:2 modern:2 discussion:1 ancient:14 egyptian:23 ruler:22 period:5 antiquity:1 begin:3 religious:6 political:1 leader:2 united:1 egypt:19 new:2 kingdom:3 specifically:4 middle:2 eighteenth:6 simplification:1 however:2 general:2 acceptance:1 among:2 writer:2 term:6 relate:1 mean:1 great:4 house:5 originally:2 refer:4 king:13 palace:3 meaning:1 loosen:1 course:1 history:8 become:4 interchangeable:1 traditional:2 word:8 nswt:2 although:4 generally:1 female:3 also:5 occasion:1 rule:5 initially:1 consider:1 son:3 cow:1 deity:2 bat:1 eventually:2 hathor:1 occupy:1 throne:4 country:2 officiate:1 rite:1 evidence:1 may:5 sacrifice:1 certain:3 time:5 early:5 ritual:3 soon:1 replace:1 specially:1 select:1 bull:1 later:2 culture:1 believe:3 incarnation:1 horus:1 life:2 f:3 fleming:1 lothian:1 osiris:4 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2,648 | Acropolis | Acropolis (Gr. akros, akron, acro-. (n.d.). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved September 29, 2008, from Dictionary.com website: Quote: "[From Greek akros, extreme; see ak- in Indo-European roots.] " edge, extremity + polis, city, pl. acropoleis) literally means city on the edge (or extremity). In Greek, Acropolis means "Highest City". For purposes of defense, early settlers naturally chose elevated ground, frequently a hill with precipitous sides. In many parts of the world, these early citadels became the nuclei of large cities, which grew up on the surrounding lower ground, such as modern Rome. The word Acropolis, although Greek in origin and associated primarily with the Greek cities Athens, Argos, Thebes, and Corinth (with its Acrocorinth), may be applied generically to all such citadels, including Rome, Jerusalem, Celtic Bratislava, many in Asia Minor, or even Castle Rock in Edinburgh. The most famous example is the Acropolis of Athens, World Heritage: Acropolis, Athens which, by reason of its historical associations and the several famous buildings erected upon it (most notably the Parthenon), is known without qualification as the Acropolis. Although originating in the mainland of Greece, use of the acropolis model quickly spread to Greek colonies such as the Dorian Lato on Crete during the Archaic Period. Because of its classical Greco-Roman style, the ruins of Mission San Juan Capistrano's Great Stone Church in California, United States has been called the "American Acropolis". Other parts of the world developed other names for the high citadel or alcázar, which often reinforced a naturally strong site. In Central Italy, many small rural communes still cluster at the base of a fortified habitation known as La Rocca of the commune. The term acropolis is also used to describe the central complex of overlapping structures, such as plazas and pyramids, in many Mayan cities, including Tikal and Copán. References External links The Acropolis of Athens (Greek Government website) The Acropolis Restoration Project (Greek Government website) The Restitution of the Parthenon Marbles UNESCO World Heritage Centre — Acropolis, Athens Acropolis Friends AcropolisofAthens.gr Marbles Reunited - The British Campaign to Return the Parthenon Marbles to Athens | Acropolis |@lemmatized acropolis:13 gr:2 akros:2 akron:1 acro:1 n:1 american:2 heritage:3 dictionary:2 english:1 language:1 fourth:1 edition:1 retrieve:1 september:1 com:1 website:3 quote:1 greek:7 extreme:1 see:1 ak:1 indo:1 european:1 root:1 edge:2 extremity:2 polis:1 city:6 pl:1 acropoleis:1 literally:1 mean:2 high:2 purpose:1 defense:1 early:2 settler:1 naturally:2 choose:1 elevate:1 ground:2 frequently:1 hill:1 precipitous:1 side:1 many:4 part:2 world:4 citadel:3 become:1 nucleus:1 large:1 grow:1 surround:1 low:1 modern:1 rome:2 word:1 although:2 origin:1 associate:1 primarily:1 athens:6 argo:1 thebe:1 corinth:1 acrocorinth:1 may:1 apply:1 generically:1 include:2 jerusalem:1 celtic:1 bratislava:1 asia:1 minor:1 even:1 castle:1 rock:1 edinburgh:1 famous:2 example:1 reason:1 historical:1 association:1 several:1 building:1 erect:1 upon:1 notably:1 parthenon:3 know:2 without:1 qualification:1 originate:1 mainland:1 greece:1 use:2 model:1 quickly:1 spread:1 colony:1 dorian:1 lato:1 crete:1 archaic:1 period:1 classical:1 greco:1 roman:1 style:1 ruin:1 mission:1 san:1 juan:1 capistrano:1 great:1 stone:1 church:1 california:1 united:1 state:1 call:1 develop:1 name:1 alcázar:1 often:1 reinforce:1 strong:1 site:1 central:2 italy:1 small:1 rural:1 commune:2 still:1 cluster:1 base:1 fortified:1 habitation:1 la:1 rocca:1 term:1 also:1 describe:1 complex:1 overlap:1 structure:1 plaza:1 pyramid:1 mayan:1 tikal:1 copán:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 government:2 restoration:1 project:1 restitution:1 marble:3 unesco:1 centre:1 friend:1 acropolisofathens:1 reunite:1 british:1 campaign:1 return:1 |@bigram indo_european:1 acropolis_athens:4 greco_roman:1 san_juan:1 external_link:1 parthenon_marble:2 athens_acropolis:1 |
2,649 | Atlantis | Athanasius Kircher's map of Atlantis, in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. From Mundus Subterraneus 1669, published in Amsterdam. The map is oriented with south at the top. Atlantis (in Greek, , "daughter of Atlas") is a legendary island first mentioned in Plato's dialogues Timaeus and Critias. Hefner, Alan G., 2004, Atlantis: the Myth In Plato's account, Atlantis was a naval power lying "in front of the Pillars of Hercules" that conquered many parts of Western Europe and Africa 9,000 years before the time of Solon, or approximately 9600 BC. After a failed attempt to invade Athens, Atlantis sank into the ocean "in a single day and night of misfortune". Scholars dispute whether and how much Plato's story or account was inspired by older traditions. Some scholars argue Plato drew upon memories of past events such as the Thera eruption or the Trojan War, while others insist that he took inspiration from contemporary events like the destruction of Helike in 373 BC Plato's Timaeus is usually dated 360 BC; it was followed by his Critias. or the failed Athenian invasion of Sicily in 415–413 BC. The possible existence of a genuine Atlantis was actively discussed throughout classical antiquity, but it was usually rejected and occasionally parodied by later authors. As Alan Cameron states: "It is only in modern times that people have taken the Atlantis story seriously; no one did so in antiquity". Alan Cameron, Greek Mythography in the Roman World, Oxford University Press (2004) p. 124 While little known during the Middle Ages, the story of Atlantis was rediscovered by Humanists in the Early Modern period. Plato's description inspired the utopian works of several Renaissance writers, like Francis Bacon's "New Atlantis". Atlantis inspires today's literature, from science fiction to comic books to films, its name having become a byword for any and all supposed advanced prehistoric lost civilizations. Plato's account Right|A 15th-century Latin translation of Plato's Timaeus Plato's dialogues Timaeus and Critias, written in 360 BC, contain the earliest references to Atlantis. For unknown reasons, Plato never completed Critias; however, the scholar Benjamin Jowett, among others, argues that Plato originally planned a third dialogue titled Hermocrates. John V. Luce assumes that Plato, after describing the origin of the world and mankind in Timaeus and the allegorical perfect society of ancient Athens and its successful defense against an antagonistic Atlantis in Critias, would have made the strategy of the Greek civilization during their conflict with the Persians a subject of discussion in the Hermocrates. Plato introduced Atlantis in Timaeus: The four persons appearing in those two dialogues are the politicians Critias and Hermocrates as well as the philosophers Socrates and Timaeus of Locri, although only Critias speaks of Atlantis. While most likely all of these people actually lived, these dialogues, written as if recorded, may have been the invention of Plato. In his works Plato makes extensive use of the Socratic dialogues in order to discuss contrary positions within the context of a supposition. The Timaeus begins with an introduction, followed by an account of the creations and structure of the universe and ancient civilizations. In the introduction, Socrates muses about the perfect society, described in Plato's Republic (ca. 380 BC), and wonders if he and his guests might recollect a story which exemplifies such a society. Critias mentions an allegedly historical tale that would make the perfect example, and follows by describing Atlantis as is recorded in the Critias. In his account, ancient Athens seems to represent the "perfect society" and Atlantis its opponent, representing the very antithesis of the "perfect" traits described in the Republic. Critias claims that his accounts of ancient Athens and Atlantis stem from a visit to Egypt by the legendary Athenian lawgiver Solon in the 6th century BC. In Egypt, Solon met a priest of Sais, who translated the history of ancient Athens and Atlantis, recorded on papyri in Egyptian hieroglyphs, into Greek. According to Plutarch, Solon met with "Psenophis of Heliopolis, and Sonchis the Saite, the most learned of all the priests"; Plutarch, Life of Solon. Plutarch refers here to events that would have happened five centuries before he wrote of them. According to Critias, the Hellenic gods of old divided the land so that each god might own a lot; Poseidon was appropriately, and to his liking, bequeathed the island of Atlantis. The island was larger than Ancient Libya and Asia Minor combined, Atlantis — Britannica Online Encyclopedia but it afterwards was sunk by an earthquake and became an impassable mud shoal, inhibiting travel to any part of the ocean. The Egyptians, Plato asserted, described Atlantis as an island comprising mostly mountains in the northern portions and along the shore, and encompassing a great plain of an oblong shape in the south "extending in one direction three thousand stadia [about 555 km; 345 mi], but across the center inland it was two thousand stadia [about 370 km; 230 mi]." Fifty stadia [9 km; 6 mi] from the coast was a mountain that was low on all sides...broke it off all round about Critias 113, Bury translation. ... the central island itself was five stades in diameter [about 0.92 km; 0.57 mi]. Critias 116a, Bury translation. In Plato's myth, Poseidon fell in love with Cleito, the daughter of Evenor and Leucippe, who bore him five pairs of male twins. The eldest of these, Atlas, was made rightful king of the entire island and the ocean (called the Atlantic Ocean in his honor), and was given the mountain of his birth and the surrounding area as his fiefdom. Atlas's twin Gadeirus, or Eumelus in Greek, was given the extremity of the island towards the Pillars of Heracles. The name is a back-formation from Gades, the Greek name for Cadiz. The other four pairs of twins — Ampheres and Evaemon, Mneseus and Autochthon, Elasippus and Mestor, and Azaes and Diaprepes — were also given "rule over many men, and a large territory." Poseidon carved the mountain where his love dwelt into a palace and enclosed it with three circular moats of increasing width, varying from one to three stadia and separated by rings of land proportional in size. The Atlanteans then built bridges northward from the mountain, making a route to the rest of the island. They dug a great canal to the sea, and alongside the bridges carved tunnels into the rings of rock so that ships could pass into the city around the mountain; they carved docks from the rock walls of the moats. Every passage to the city was guarded by gates and towers, and a wall surrounded each of the city's rings. The walls were constructed of red, white and black rock quarried from the moats, and were covered with brass, tin and the precious metal orichalcum, respectively. Critias 116bc According to Critias, 9,000 years before his lifetime a war took place between those outside the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar and those who dwelt within them. The Atlanteans had conquered the parts of Libya within the Pillars of Heracles as far as Egypt and the European continent as far as Tyrrhenia, and subjected its people to slavery. The Athenians led an alliance of resistors against the Atlantean empire, and as the alliance disintegrated, prevailed alone against the empire, liberating the occupied lands. Reception Ancient Other than Plato's Timaeus and Critias there is no primary ancient account of Atlantis, which means every other account on Atlantis relies on Plato in one way or another. Some ancient writers viewed Atlantis as fiction while others believed it was real. Nesselrath (2005), pp. 161–171. The philosopher Crantor, a student of Plato's student Xenocrates, is often cited as an example of a writer who thought the story to be historical fact. His work, a commentary on Plato's Timaeus, is lost, but Proclus, a Christian historian of the fifth century AD, reports on it. Timaeus 24a: . The passage in question has been represented in the modern literature as both claiming that Crantor actually visited Egypt and had conversations with priests and saw hieroglyphs confirming the story, or as learning about them from other visitors to Egypt. Cameron 2002 Proclus wrote The next sentence is often translated as Crantor adds, that this is testified by the prophets of the Egyptians, who assert that these particulars [which are narrated by Plato] are written on pillars which are still preserved. But in the original, the sentence starts not with the name Crantor but with the word 'He', and whether this referred to Crantor or Plato is the subject of considerable debate. Proponents of both Atlantis as a myth and Atlantis as history have argued that the word should be translated as Crantor Castleden 2001, p,168 Alan Cameron argues that it should be interpreted as 'Plato', and that when Proclus writes we must bear in mind concerning this whole feat of the Athenians, that it is neither a mere myth nor unadorned history, although some take it as history and others as myth... he is treating "Crantor's view as mere personal opinion, nothing more; in fact he first quotes and then dismisses it as representing one of the two unacceptable extremes." Cameron 1983 Cameron also points out that whether 'he' refers to Plato or Crantor, it does not support statements such as Otto Muck's "Crantor came to Sais and saw there in the temple of Neith the column, completely covered with hieroglyphs, on which the history of Atlantis was recorded. Scholars translated it for him, and he testified that their account fully agreed with Plato's account of Atlantis...." or J.V. Luce's suggestion that Crantor sent "a special enquiry to Egypt" and that he may simply be referring to Plato's own claims. Another passage from Proclus' commentary on the Timaeus gives a description of the geography of Atlantis: "That an island of such nature and size once existed is evident from what is said by certain authors who investigated the things around the outer sea. For according to them, there were seven islands in that sea in their time, sacred to Persephone, and also three others of enormous size, one of which was sacred to Pluto, another to Ammon, and another one between them to Poseidon, the extent of which was a thousand stadia [200 km]; and the inhabitants of it—they add—preserved the remembrance from their ancestors of the immeasurably large island of Atlantis which had really existed there and which for many ages had reigned over all islands in the Atlantic sea and which itself had like-wise been sacred to Poseidon. Now these things Marcellus has written in his Aethiopica". Proclus, Commentary on Plato's Timaeus, p. 117.10–30 (=FGrHist 671 F 1), trans. Taylor, Nesselrath). Marcellus remains unidentified. Other ancient historians and philosophers believing in the existence of Atlantis were Strabo and Posidonius. Strabo 2.3.6 Plato's account of Atlantis may have also inspired parodic imitation: writing only a few decades after the Timaeus and Critias, the historian Theopompus of Chios wrote of a land beyond the ocean known as Meropis. This description was included in Book 8 of his voluminous Philippica, which contains a dialogue between King Midas and Silenus, a companion of Dionysus. Silenus describes the Meropids, a race of men who grow to twice normal size, and inhabit two cities on the island of Meropis (Cos?): Eusebes (, "Pious-town") and Machimos (, "Fighting-town"). He also reports that an army of ten million soldiers crossed the ocean to conquer Hyperborea, but abandoned this proposal when they realized that the Hyperboreans were the luckiest people on earth. Heinz-Günther Nesselrath has argued that these and other details of Silenus' story are meant as imitation and exaggeration of the Atlantis story, for the purpose of exposing Plato's ideas to ridicule. Nesselrath 1998, pp. 1–8. Zoticus, a Neoplatonist philosopher of the 3rd century AD, wrote an epic poem based on Plato's account of Atlantis. Porphyry, Life of Plotinus, 7=35. The 4th century AD historian Ammianus Marcellinus, relying on a lost work by Timagenes, a historian writing in the 1st century BC, writes that the Druids of Gaul said that part of the inhabitants of Gaul had migrated there from distant islands. Some have understood Ammianus's testimony as a claim that at the time of Atlantis's actual sinking into the sea, its inhabitants fled to western Europe; but Ammianus in fact says that “the Drasidae (Druids) recall that a part of the population is indigenous but others also migrated in from islands and lands beyond the Rhine" (Res Gestae 15.9), an indication that the immigrants came to Gaul from the north (Britain, the Netherlands or Germany), not from a theorized location in the Atlantic Ocean to the south-west. Fitzpatrick-Matthews, Keith. Lost Continents: Atlantis. Instead, the Celts that dwelled along the ocean were reported to venerate twin gods (Dioscori) that appeared to them coming from that ocean. Bibliotheca historica - Diodorus Siculus 4.56.4: "And the writers even offer proofs of these things, pointing out that the Celts who dwell along the ocean venerate the Dioscori above any of the gods, since they have a tradition handed down from ancient times that these gods appeared among them coming from the ocean. Moreover, the country which skirts the ocean bears, they say, not a few names which are derived from the Argonauts and the Dioscori." A Hebrew treatise on computational astronomy dated to AD 1378/79, alludes to the Atlantis myth in a discussion concerning the determination of zero points for the calculation of longitude: A map showing the supposed extent of the Atlantean Empire. From Ignatius L. Donnelly's Atlantis: the Antediluvian World, 1882. Modern Francis Bacon's 1627 essay The New Atlantis describes a utopian society that he called Bensalem, located off the western coast of America. A character in the narrative gives a history of Atlantis that is similar to Plato's and places Atlantis in America. It is not clear whether Bacon means North or South America. Isaac Newton's 1728 The Chronology of the Ancient Kingdoms Amended studies a variety of mythological links to Atlantis. Isaac Newton (1728). The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended In the middle and late 19th century, several renowned Mesoamerican scholars, starting with Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg, and including Edward Herbert Thompson and Augustus Le Plongeon proposed that Atlantis was somehow related to Mayan and Aztec culture. The 1882 publication of Atlantis: the Antediluvian World by Ignatius L. Donnelly stimulated much popular interest in Atlantis. Donnelly took Plato's account of Atlantis seriously and attempted to establish that all known ancient civilizations were descended from its high Neolithic culture. Ignatius L. Donnelly, American congressman, and writer on Atlantis. During the late 19th century, ideas about the legendary nature of Atlantis were combined with stories of other lost continents such as Mu and Lemuria. Helena Blavatsky wrote in The Secret Doctrine that the Atlanteans were cultural heroes (contrary to Plato who describes them mainly as a military threat), and are the fourth "Root Race", succeeded by the "Aryan race". Theosophists believe the civilization of Atlantis reached its peak between 1,000,000 and 900,000 years ago. Rudolf Steiner wrote of the cultural evolution of Mu or Atlantis. Edgar Cayce first mentioned Atlantis in 1923, Robinson, Lytle, 1972, Edgar Cayce’s Story of the Origin and Destiny of Man, Berkeley Books, New York, pg 51. and later suggested that it was originally a continent-sized region extending from the Azores to the Bahamas, holding an ancient, highly evolved civilization which had ships and aircraft powered by a mysterious form of energy crystal. He also predicted that parts of Atlantis would rise in 1968 or 1969. The Bimini Road, a submerged rock formation of large rectangular stones just off North Bimini Island in the Bahamas, was claimed by Robert Ferro and Michael Grumley Ferro and Grumley, Atlantis: the Autobiography of a Search (New York: Doubleday) 1970. to be evidence of the lost civilization. According to Herodotus (c. 430 BC), a Phoenician expedition had circumnavigated Africa at the behest of pharaoh Necho, sailing south down the Red Sea and Indian Ocean and northwards in the Atlantic, re-entering the Mediterranean Sea through the Pillars of Hercules. His description of northwest Africa makes it very clear that he located the Pillars of Hercules precisely where they are located today. Nevertheless, a supposed belief that they had been placed at the Strait of Sicily prior to Eratosthenes, has been cited in some Atlantis theories. American psychic Edgar Cayce, 1910 In Nazi mysticism The concept of Atlantis attracted Nazi theorists. In 1938, SS Officer Heinrich Himmler organized a search in Tibet to find a remnant of the Aryan Atlanteans. According to Julius Evola, writing in 1934, Evola, Revolt Against the Modern World, 1934. the Atlanteans were Hyperboreans—Nordic supermen who originated on the North pole (see Thule). Similarly, Alfred Rosenberg (The Myth of the Twentieth Century, 1930) spoke of a "Nordic-Atlantean" or "Aryan-Nordic" master race. Recent times As continental drift became more widely accepted during the 1960s, and the increased understanding of plate tectonics demonstrated the impossibility of a lost continent in the geologically recent past, most “Lost Continent” theories of Atlantis began to wane in popularity. Instead, the fictional nature of elements of Plato's story became widely emphasized. Plato scholar Dr. Julia Annas, Regents Professor of Philosophy at the University of Arizona, has had this to say on the matter: Kenneth Feder points out that Critias's story in the Timaeus provides a major clue. In the dialogue, Critias says, referring to Socrates' hypothetical society: Feder quotes A. E. Taylor, who wrote, "We could not be told much more plainly that the whole narrative of Solon's conversation with the priests and his intention of writing the poem about Atlantis are an invention of Plato's fancy." Feder, Kenneth L., Frauds, Myths and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology, Mayfield Publishing, 1999, p. 164. Location hypotheses Since Donnelly's day, there have been dozens of locations proposed for Atlantis, to the point where the name has become a generic concept, divorced from the specifics of Plato's account. This is reflected in the fact that many proposed sites are not within the Atlantic at all. Few today are scholarly or archaeological hypotheses, while others have been made by psychic or other pseudoscientific means. Many of the proposed sites share some of the characteristics of the Atlantis story (water, catastrophic end, relevant time period), but none has been demonstrated to be a true historical Atlantis. In or near the Mediterranean Sea Satellite image of the islands of Santorini. This location is one of many sites purported to have been the location of Atlantis. Most of the historically proposed locations are in or near the Mediterranean Sea: islands such as Sardinia, Crete and Santorini, Sicily, Cyprus, and Malta; land-based cities or states such as Troy, Tartessos, and Tantalus (in the province of Manisa), Turkey; and Israel-Sinai or Canaan. The Thera eruption, dated to the 17th or 16th century BC, caused a large tsunami that experts hypothesize devastated the Minoan civilization on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the story. The wave that destroyed Atlantis Harvey Lilley, BBC News Online, 2007-04-20. Retrieved 2007-04-21. A. G. Galanopoulos argued that the time scale has been distorted by an error in translation, probably from Egyptian into Greek, which produced "thousands" instead of "hundreds"; this same error would rescale Plato's Kingdom of Atlantis to the size of Crete, while leaving the city the size of the crater on Thera; 900 years before Solon would be the 15th century BC. Galanopoulos, Angelos Geōrgiou, and Edward Bacon, Atlantis: The Truth Behind the Legend, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1969 In the area of the Black Sea the following locations have been proposed: Bosporus and Ancomah (a legendary place near Trabzon). The Sea of Azov was proposed in 2003. Eagle, Wind, Atlantis Motherland, Maui, HI: Cosmic Vortex, 2003 ISBN 0-9719580-0-9 In the Atlantic Ocean The location of Atlantis in the Atlantic Ocean has certain appeal given the closely related names. Popular culture often places Atlantis there, perpetuating the original Platonic setting. Several hypotheses place the sunken island in northern Europe, including Sweden (by Olof Rudbeck in Atland, 1672–1702), or in the North Sea. Some have proposed the Celtic Shelf and Andalusia as possible locations, and that there is a link to Ireland. The Canary Islands have also been identified as a possible location, west of the Straits of Gibraltar but in proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. Various islands or island groups in the Atlantic were also identified as possible locations, notably the Azores. However detailed geologial studies of the Canary Islands, the Azores, and the ocean bottom surrounding them found a complete lack of any evidence for the catastrophic subsidence of these islands at any time during their existence and a complete lack of any evidence that the ocean bottom surrounding them was ever dry land at any time in the past. Location hypotheses of Atlantis The submerged island of Spartel near the Strait of Gibraltar has also been suggested. http://antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/kuhne/ A location for "Atlantis"? Rainer W. Kühne Antiquity Vol 78 No 300 June 2004 Other locations Caribbean locations such as Cuba, the Bahamas, and the Bermuda Triangle Hanson, Bill. The Atlantis Triangle. 2003. have been proposed as sites of Atlantis. Areas in the Pacific and Indian Oceans have also been proposed including Indonesia, Malaysia or both (i.e. Sundaland) and stories of a lost continent off India named "Kumari Kandam" have inspired some to draw parallels to Atlantis, as has the Yonaguni formation of Japan. Antarctica has also been suggested. Art, literature and popular culture Illustration by Lloyd K. Townsend. The legend of Atlantis is featured in many books, films, television series, games, songs and other creative works. Recent examples of Atlantis on-screen include the television series Stargate Atlantis and the Disney animated film Atlantis: The Lost Empire. The first Tomb Raider video game features Atlantis as the basis of its plot and the location for its climactic ending. It is also featured prominently and somewhat philosophically in Robert Anton Wilson and Robert Shea's The Illuminatus! Trilogy, and is a staple of New Age philosophies. See also Atlantis (Theosophy) Kumari Kandam Lemuria Lyonesse Meropis Mu Opar Thule Ys Vineta Númenor Dvaraka Notes Further reading Ancient sources Plato, Timaeus, translated by Benjamin Jowett at Project Gutenberg; alternative version with commentary. Plato, Critias, translated by Benjamin Jowett at Project Gutenberg; alternative version with commentary. Modern sources Bichler, R (1986). 'Athen besiegt Atlantis. Eine Studie über den Ursprung der Staatsutopie', Canopus, vol. 20, no. 51, pp. 71–88. Cameron, Alan (1983). 'Crantor and Posidonius on Atlantis', The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 33, No. 1 (1983), pp. 81–91 Cayce, Edgar Evans (1968). Edgar Cayce's Atlantis. ISBN 9780876045121 Crowley, Aleister - Lost Continent De Camp, LS (1954). Lost Continents: The Atlantis Theme in History, Science, and Literature, New York: Gnome Press. Castleden, Rodney (2001) Atlantis Destroyed', London:Routledge Donnelly, I (1882). Atlantis: The Antediluvian World, New York: Harper & Bros. Retrieved November 6, 2001, from Project Gutenberg. Ellis, R (1998). Imaging Atlantis, New York: Knopf. ISBN 0-679-44602-8 Erlingsson, U (2004). Atlantis from a Geographer's Perspective: Mapping the Fairy Land, Miami: Lindorm. ISBN 0-9755946-0-5 Flem-Ath R, Wilson C (2001). The Atlantis Blueprint: Unlocking the Ancient Mysteries of a Long-Lost Civilization, Delacorte Press Frau, S (2002). Le Colonne d'Ercole: Un'inchiesta, Rome: Nur neon. ISBN 88-900740-0-0 Gill, C (1976). 'The origin of the Atlantis myth', Trivium, vol. 11, pp. 8–9. Gordon, J.S. (2008). 'The Rise and Fall of Atlantis: and the mysterious origins of human civilization', Watkins Publishing, London. ISBN 978-1-905857-24-1 Görgemanns, H (2000). 'Wahrheit und Fiktion in Platons Atlantis-Erzählung', Hermes, vol. 128, pp. 405–420. Griffiths, JP (1985). 'Atlantis and Egypt', Historia, vol. 34, pp. 35f. Heidel, WA (1933). 'A suggestion concerning Platon's Atlantis', Daedalus, vol. 68, pp. 189–228. Jakovljevic, Ranko (2005) Gvozdena vrata Atlantide, IK Beoknjiga Belgrade. ISBN 86-7694-042-8 Jakovljevic, Ranko (2008) Atlantida u Srbiji IK Pesic i sinovi Belgrade. ISBN 978-86-7540-091-2 Jordan, P (1994). The Atlantis Syndrome, Stroud: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-3518-9 King, D. (1970). Finding Atlantis: A true story of genius, madness, and an extraordinary quest for a lost world. Harmony Books, New York. ISBN 1-4000-4752-8 Luce, J V (1982). End of Atlantis: New Light on an Old Legend, Efstathiadis Group: Greece Martin, TH [1841] (1981). 'Dissertation sur l'Atlantide', in TH Martin, Études sur le Timée de Platon, Paris: Librairie philosophique J. Vrin, pp. 257–332. Morgan, KA (1998). 'Designer history: Plato's Atlantis story and fourth-century ideology', Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 118, pp. 101–118. Muck, Otto Heinrich, The Secret of Atlantis, Translation by Fred Bradley of Alles über Atlantis (Econ Verlag GmbH, Düsseldorf-Wien, 1976), Times Books, a division of Quadrangle/The New York Times Book Co., Inc., Three Park Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10016, 1978 Nesselrath, HG (1998). 'Theopomps Meropis und Platon: Nachahmung und Parodie', Göttinger Forum für Altertumswissenschaft, vol. 1, pp. 1–8. Nesselrath, HG (2001a). 'Atlantes und Atlantioi: Von Platon zu Dionysios Skytobrachion', Philologus, vol. 145, pp. 34–38. Nesselrath, HG (2001b). 'Atlantis auf ägyptischen Stelen? Der Philosoph Krantor als Epigraphiker', Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, vol. 135, pp. 33–35. Nesselrath, HG (2002). Platon und die Erfindung von Atlantis, München/Leipzig: KG Saur Verlag. ISBN 3-598-77560-1 Nesselrath, HG (2005). 'Where the Lord of the Sea Grants Passage to Sailors through the Deep-blue Mere no More: The Greeks and the Western Seas', Greece & Rome, vol. 52, pp. 153–171. Phillips, ED (1968). 'Historical Elements in the Myth of Atlantis', Euphrosyne, vol. 2, pp. 3–38. Ramage, ES (1978). Atlantis: Fact or Fiction?, Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-10482-3 Settegast, M. (1987). Plato Prehistorian: 10,000 to 5000 B.C. in Myth and Archaeology, Cambridge, MA, Rotenberg Press. Spence, L [1926] (2003). The History of Atlantis, Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-42710-2 . Szlezák, TA (1993). 'Atlantis und Troia, Platon und Homer: Bemerkungen zum Wahrheitsanspruch des Atlantis-Mythos', Studia Troica, vol. 3, pp. 233–237. Vidal-Naquet, P (1986). 'Athens and Atlantis: Structure and Meaning of a Platonic Myth', in P Vidal-Naquet, The Black Hunter, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 263–284. ISBN 0-8018-3251-9 Wilson, Colin (1996). From Atlantis to the Sphinx ISBN 1-85227-526-X Zangger, E (1993). The Flood from Heaven: Deciphering the Atlantis legend, New York: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-11350-8 Zhirov, Nikolai F., Atlantis – Atlantology: Basic Problems'', Translated from the Russian by David Skvirsky, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1970 External links Ancient Atlantis Texts : Plato, Diodorus Siculus, et al. 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2,650 | Microorganism | A cluster of Escherichia coli bacteria magnified 10,000 times. A microorganism (from the , mikrós, "small" and , organismós, "organism"; also spelled micro organism or micro-organism) or microbe is an organism that is microscopic (usually too small to be seen by the naked human eye). The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microorganisms in 1675, using a microscope of his own design. Microorganisms are very diverse; they include bacteria, fungi, archaea, and protists; microscopic plants (called green algae); and animals such as plankton, the planarian and the amoeba. Some microbiologists also include viruses, but others consider these as non-living. Most microorganisms are unicellular (single-celled), but this is not universal, since some multicellular organisms are microscopic, while some unicellular protists and bacteria, like Thiomargarita namibiensis, are macroscopic and visible to the naked eye. Max Planck Society Research News Release Accessed 21 May 2009 Microorganisms live in all parts of the biosphere where there is liquid water, including soil, hot springs, on the ocean floor, high in the atmosphere and deep inside rocks within the Earth's crust. Microorganisms are critical to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a vital part of the nitrogen cycle, and recent studies indicate that airborne microbes may play a role in precipitation and weather. Microbes are also exploited by people in biotechnology, both in traditional food and beverage preparation, and in modern technologies based on genetic engineering. However, pathogenic microbes are harmful, since they invade and grow within other organisms, causing diseases that kill millions of people, other animals, and plants. 2002 WHO mortality data Accessed 20 January 2007 History Evolution Single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth, approximately 3–4 billion years ago. Further evolution was slow, and for about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, all organisms were microscopic. So, for most of the history of life on Earth the only forms of life were microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in amber that is 220 million years old, which shows that the morphology of microorganisms has changed little since the triassic period. Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly and microbes such as bacteria can also freely exchange genes by conjugation, transformation and transduction between widely-divergent species. This horizontal gene transfer, coupled with a high mutation rate and many other means of genetic variation, allows microorganisms to swiftly evolve (via natural selection) to survive in new environments and respond to environmental stresses. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the recent development of 'super-bugs' — pathogenic bacteria that are resistant to modern antibiotics. Pre-Microbiology The possibility that microorganisms exist was discussed for many centuries before their actual discovery in the 17th century. The first ideas about microorganisms were those of the Roman scholar Marcus Terentius Varro in a 1st century BC book titled On Agriculture in which he warns against locating a homestead near swamps: This passage seems to indicate that the ancients were aware of the possibility that diseases could be spread by yet unseen organisms. In The Canon of Medicine (1020), Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) stated that bodily secretion is contaminated by foul foreign earthly bodies before being infected. He also hypothesized that tuberculosis and other diseases might be contagious, i.e. that they were infectious diseases, and used quarantine to limit their spread. When the Black Death bubonic plague reached Andalusia in Spain, in the 14th century, Ibn Khatima wrote that infectious diseases were caused by contagious "minute bodies" that enter the human body. Later, in 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by transferable seedlike entities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact, or even without contact over long distances. All these early claims about the existence of microorganisms were speculative and were not based on any data or science. Microorganisms were neither proven, observed, nor correctly and accurately described until the 17th century. The reason for this was that all these early studies lacked the microscope. History of microorganisms' discovery Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, the first microbiologist and the first to observe microorganisms using a microscope. Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the one of the first people to observe microorganisms, and used a microscope of his own design, and made one of the most important contributions to biology and opened up the field of microbiology and bacteriology. Robert Hooke was the first to use a microscope to observe living things; his 1665 book Micrographia contained descriptions of plant cells. Before Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microorganisms in 1675, it had been a mystery why grapes could be turned into wine, milk into cheese, or why food would spoil. Leeuwenhoek did not make the connection between these processes and microorganisms, but using a microscope, he did establish that there were forms of life that were not visible to the naked eye. Accessed 30 November 2006 Accessed 30 November 2006 Leeuwenhoek's discovery, along with subsequent observations by Lazzaro Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur, ended the long-held belief that life spontaneously appeared from non-living substances during the process of spoilage. Lazzaro Spallanzani found that microorganisms could only settle in a broth if the broth was exposed to the air. He found that boiling the broth would sterilise it and kill the microorganisms. Louis Pasteur expanded upon Spallanzani's findings by exposing boiled broths to the air, in vessels that contained a filter to prevent all particles from passing through to the growth medium, and also in vessels with no filter at all, with air being admitted via a curved tube that would not allow dust particles to come in contact with the broth. By boiling the broth beforehand, Pasteur ensured that no microorganisms survived within the broths at the beginning of his experiment. Nothing grew in the broths in the course of Pasteur's experiment. This meant that the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores on dust, rather than spontaneously generated within the broth. Thus, Pasteur dealt the death blow to the theory of spontaneous generation and supported germ theory. In 1876, Robert Koch established that microbes can cause disease. He found that the blood of cattle who were infected with anthrax always had large numbers of Bacillus anthracis. Koch found that he could transmit anthrax from one animal to another by taking a small sample of blood from the infected animal and injecting it into a healthy one, and this caused the healthy animal to become sick. He also found that he could grow the bacteria in a nutrient broth, then inject it into a healthy animal, and cause illness. Based on these experiments, he devised criteria for establishing a causal link between a microbe and a disease and these are now known as Koch's postulates. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905 Nobelprize.org Accessed November 22, 2006. Alhough these postulates cannot be applied in all cases, they do retain historical importance to the development of scientific thought and are still being used today. Classification and structure Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere in the taxonomic organization of life on the planet. Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, as well as some animals and plants. Viruses are generally regarded as not living and therefore are not microbes, although the field of microbiology also encompasses the study of viruses. Prokaryotes Prokaryotes are organisms that lack a cell nucleus and the other organelles found in eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are almost always unicellular, although some species such as myxobacteria can aggregate into complex structures as part of their life cycle. These organisms are divided into two groups, the archaea and the bacteria. Bacteria Staphylococcus aureus bacteria magnified about 10,000x Bacteria are the most diverse and abundant group of organisms on Earth. Bacteria inhabit practically all environments where some liquid water is available and the temperature is below +140 °C. They are found in sea water, soil, air, animals' gastrointestinal tracts, hot springs and even deep beneath the Earth's crust in rocks. Practically all surfaces which have not been specially sterilized are covered in bacteria. The number of bacteria in the world is estimated to be around five million trillion trillion, or 5 × 1030. Bacteria are practically all invisible to the naked eye, with a few extremely rare exceptions, such as Thiomargarita namibiensis. They are unicellular organisms and lack membrane-bound organelles. Their genome is usually a single loop of DNA, although they can also harbor small pieces of DNA called plasmids. These plasmids can be transferred between cells through bacterial conjugation. Bacteria are surrounded by a cell wall, which provides strength and rigidity to their cells. They reproduce by binary fission or sometimes by budding, but do not undergo sexual reproduction. Some species form extraordinarily resilient spores, but for bacteria this is a mechanism for survival, not reproduction. Under optimal conditions bacteria can grow extremely rapidly and can double as quickly as every 10 minutes. Archaea Archaea are also single-celled organisms that lack nuclei. In the past, the differences between bacteria and archaea were not recognised and archaea were classified with bacteria as part of the kingdom Monera. However, in 1990 the microbiologist Carl Woese proposed the three-domain system that divided living things into bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. Archaea differ from bacteria in both their genetics and biochemistry. For example, while bacterial cell membranes are made from phosphoglycerides with ester bonds, archaean membranes are made of ether lipids. Archaea were originally described in extreme environments, such as hot springs, but have since been found in all types of habitats. Only now are scientists beginning to appreciate how common archaea are in the environment, with crenarchaeota being the most common form of life in the ocean, dominating ecosystems below 150 m in depth. These organisms are also common in soil and play a vital role in ammonia oxidation. Eukaryotes All living things which are individually visible to the naked eye are eukaryotes (with few exceptions, such as Thiomargarita namibiensis), including humans. However, a large number of eukaryotes are also microorganisms. Unlike bacteria and archaea, eukaryotes contain organelles such as the cell nucleus, the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria in their cells. The nucleus is an organelle which houses the DNA that makes up a cell's genome. DNA itself is arranged in complex chromosomes. Eukaryota: More on Morphology. (Accessed 10 October 2006) Mitochondria are organelles vital in metabolism as they are the site of the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. They evolved from symbiotic bacteria and retain a remnant genome. Like bacteria, plant cells have cell walls, and contain organelles such as chloroplasts in addition to the organelles in other eukaryotes. Chloroplasts produce energy from light by photosynthesis, and were also originally symbiotic bacteria. Unicellular eukaryotes are those eukaryotic organisms that consist of a single cell throughout their life cycle. This qualification is significant since most multicellular eukaryotes consist of a single cell called a zygote at the beginning of their life cycles. Microbial eukaryotes can be either haploid or diploid, and some organisms have multiple cell nuclei (see coenocyte). However, not all microorganisms are unicellular as some microscopic eukaryotes are made from multiple cells. Protists Of eukaryotic groups, the protists are most commonly unicellular and microscopic. This is a highly diverse group of organisms that are not easy to classify. Several algae species are multicellular protists, and slime molds have unique life cycles that involve switching between unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms. The number of species of protozoa is uncertain, since we may have identified only a small proportion of the diversity in this group of organisms. A microscopic mite Lorryia formosa. Animals All animals are multicellular, but some are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopic arthropods include dust mites and spider mites. Microscopic crustaceans include copepods and the cladocera, while many nematodes are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Another particularly common group of microscopic animals are the rotifers, which are filter feeders that are usually found in fresh water. Micro-animals reproduce both sexually and asexually and may reach new habitats as eggs that survive harsh environments that would kill the adult animal. However, some simple animals, such as rotifers and nematodes, can dry out completely and remain dormant for long periods of time. Fungi The fungi have several unicellular species, such as baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe). Some fungi, such as the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, can undergo phenotypic switching and grow as single cells in some environments, and filamentous hyphae in others. Fungi reproduce both asexually, by budding or binary fission, as well by producing spores, which are called conidia when produced asexually, or basidiospores when produced sexually. Plants The green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include many microscopic organisms. Although some green algae are classified as protists, others such as charophyta are classified with embryophyte plants, which are the most familiar group of land plants. Algae can grow as single cells, or in long chains of cells. The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not always with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms. In the Charales, which are the algae most closely related to higher plants, cells differentiate into several distinct tissues within the organism. There are about 6000 species of green algae. Habitats and ecology Microorganisms are found in almost every habitat present in nature. Even in hostile environments such as the poles, deserts, geysers, rocks, and the deep sea. Some types of microorganisms have adapted to the extreme conditions and sustained colonies; these organisms are known as extremophiles. Extremophiles have been isolated from rocks as much as 7 kilometres below the Earth's surface, and it has been suggested that the amount of living organisms below the Earth's surface may be comparable with the amount of life on or above the surface. Extremophiles have been known to survive for a prolonged time in a vacuum, and can be highly resistant to radiation, which may even allow them to survive in space. Many types of microorganisms have intimate symbiotic relationships with other larger organisms; some of which are mutually beneficial (mutualism), while others can be damaging to the host organism (parasitism). If microorganisms can cause disease in a host they are known as pathogens. Extremophiles Extremophiles are microorganisms which have adapted so that they can survive and even thrive in conditions that are normally fatal to most life-forms. For example, some species have been found in the following extreme environments: Temperature: as high as , Strain 121, a hyperthermophilic archaea, has been shown to reproduce at , and survive at . as low as Some Psychrophilic bacteria can grow at , and can survive near absolute zero. Acidity/alkalinity: less than pH 0, Picrophilus can grow at pH -0.06. up to pH 11.5 The alkaliphilic bacteria Bacillus alcalophilus can grow at up to pH 11.5. Salinity: up to saturation Dyall-Smith, Mike, HALOARCHAEA, University of Melbourne. See also Haloarchaea. Pressure: up to 1,000-2,000 atm, down to 0 atm (e.g. vacuum of space) The piezophilic bacteria Halomonas salaria requires a pressure of 1,000 atm; nanobes, a speculative organism, have been reportedly found in the earth's crust at 2,000 atm. Radiation: up to 5kGy See Deinococcus radiodurans Extremophiles are significant in different ways. They extend terrestrial life into much of the Earth's hydrosphere, crust and atmosphere, their specific evolutionary adaptation mechanisms to their extreme environment can be exploited in bio-technology, and their very existence under such extreme conditions increases the potential for extraterrestrial life. Soil microbes The nitrogen cycle in soils depends on the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. One way this can occur is in the nodules in the roots of legumes that contain symbiotic bacteria of the genera Rhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, and Azorhizobium. Symbiotic microbes Symbiotic microbes Importance Microorganisms are vital to humans and the environment, as they participate in the Earth's element cycles such as the carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle, as well as fulfilling other vital roles in virtually all ecosystems, such as recycling other organisms' dead remains and waste products through decomposition. Microbes also have an important place in most higher-order multicellular organisms as symbionts. Many blame the failure of Biosphere 2 on an improper balance of microbes. Use in food Microorganisms are used in brewing, winemaking, baking, pickling and other food-making processes. They are also used to control the fermentation process in the production of cultured dairy products such as yogurt and cheese. The cultures also provide flavour and aroma, and inhibit undesirable organisms. Use in water treatment Specially-cultured microbes are used in the biological treatment of sewage and industrial waste effluent, a process known as bioaugmentation. Use in energy Microbes are used in fermentation to produce ethanol, and in biogas reactors to produce methane. Scientists are researching the use of algae to produce liquid fuels, and bacteria to convert various forms of agricultural and urban waste into usable fuels. Use in science Microbes are also essential tools in biotechnology, biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology. The yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe'') are important model organisms in science, since they are simple eukaryotes that can be grown rapidly in large numbers and are easily manipulated. They are particularly valuable in genetics, genomics and proteomics. Microbes can be harnessed for uses such as creating steroids and treating skin diseases. Scientists are also considering using microbes for living fuel cells, and as a solution for pollution. Use in warfare In the Middle Ages, diseased corpses were thrown into castles during sieges using catapults or other siege engines. Individuals near the corpses were exposed to the deadly pathogen and were likely to spread that pathogen to others. Importance in human health Human digestion Microorganisms can form an endosymbiotic relationship with other, larger organisms. For example, the bacteria that live within the human digestive system contribute to gut immunity, synthesise vitamins such as folic acid and biotin, and ferment complex indigestible carbohydrates. Diseases and immunology Microorganisms are the cause of many infectious diseases. The organisms involved include pathogenic bacteria, causing diseases such as plague, tuberculosis and anthrax; protozoa, causing diseases such as malaria, sleeping sickness and toxoplasmosis; and also fungi causing diseases such as ringworm, candidiasis or histoplasmosis. However, other diseases such as influenza, yellow fever or AIDS are caused by pathogenic viruses, which are not usually classified as living organisms and are not therefore microorganisms by the strict definition. As of 2007, no clear examples of archaean pathogens are known, although a relationship has been proposed between the presence of some methanogens and human periodontal disease. Importance in ecology Microbes are critical to the processes of decomposition required to cycle nitrogen and other elements back to the natural world. Hygiene Hygiene is the avoidance of infection or food spoiling by eliminating microorganisms from the surroundings. As microorganisms, particularly bacteria, are found practically everywhere, this means in most cases the reduction of harmful microorganisms to acceptable levels. However, in some cases it is required that an object or substance be completely sterile, i.e. devoid of all living entities and viruses. A good example of this is a hypodermic needle. In food preparation microorganisms are reduced by preservation methods (such as the addition of vinegar), clean utensils used in preparation, short storage periods or by cool temperatures. If complete sterility is needed, the two most common methods are irradiation and the use of an autoclave, which resembles a pressure cooker. There are several methods for investigating the level of hygiene in a sample of food, drinking water, equipment etc. Water samples can be filtrated through an extremely fine filter. This filter is then placed in a nutrient medium. Microorganisms on the filter then grow to form a visible colony. Harmful microorganisms can be detected in food by placing a sample in a nutrient broth designed to enrich the organisms in question. Various methods, such as selective media or PCR, can then be used for detection. The hygiene of hard surfaces, such as cooking pots, can be tested by touching them with a solid piece of nutrient medium and then allowing the microorganisms to grow on it. There are no conditions where all microorganisms would grow, and therefore often several different methods are needed. For example, a food sample might be analyzed on three different nutrient mediums designed to indicate the presence of "total" bacteria (conditions where many, but not all, bacteria grow), molds (conditions where the growth of bacteria is prevented by e.g. antibiotics) and coliform bacteria (these indicate a sewage contamination). See also Biological warfare Biology Culture collection Microbial intelligence Nanobacterium Petri dish Prokaryote Soil contamination Staining Virus Bacterium Protozoa Fungi References External links Our Microbial Planet A free poster from the National Academy of Sciences about the positive roles of microbes. "Uncharted Microbial World: Microbes and Their Activities in the Environment" Report from the American Academy of Microbiology Understanding Our Microbial Planet: The New Science of Metagenomics A 20-page educational booklet providing a basic overview of metagenomics and our microbial planet. Tree of Life Eukaryotes Microbe News from Genome News Network Microbes Patent List Microbes Related Patents Medical Microbiology On-line textbook Through the microscope: A look at all things small On-line microbiology textbook by Timothy Paustian and Gary Roberts, University of Wisconsin-Madison MicrobeID.com Online Bacteria Identification Key and Probabilistic Identification Databases | Microorganism |@lemmatized cluster:1 escherichia:1 coli:1 bacteria:40 magnify:2 time:3 microorganism:45 mikrós:1 small:8 organismós:1 organism:34 also:22 spell:1 micro:3 microbe:23 microscopic:13 usually:5 see:7 naked:7 human:8 eye:7 study:4 call:5 microbiology:7 subject:1 begin:2 anton:2 van:3 leeuwenhoek:6 discovery:5 use:22 microscope:7 design:4 diverse:3 include:10 fungi:9 archaea:13 protist:7 plant:9 green:5 algae:10 animal:14 plankton:1 planarian:1 amoeba:1 microbiologist:3 virus:6 others:5 consider:2 non:2 living:9 unicellular:10 single:8 celled:3 universal:1 since:7 multicellular:6 like:2 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2,651 | You_have_two_cows | "You have two cows" is the beginning phrase for a series of political joke definitions. History "You have two cows" jokes originated as a parody of the typical examples used in introductory-level economics course material. They featured a farmer in a moneyless society who uses the cattle he owns to trade with his neighbors. A typical example is: "You have two cows; you want chickens; you set out to find another farmer who has chickens and wants a cow". These examples were meant to show the limitations of the barter system, leading to the eventual introduction of currency and money. The "two cows" parodies, however, place the cow-owner in a full-fledged economic system where cows are used as a metaphor for all currency, capital, and property. The intent of these jokes is usually to point out flaws and absurdities in those systems, although non-political jokes have been derived from them. Jokes of this type attracted the attention of a scholar as early as 1944. An article in The Modern Language Journal discusses the classical ones, such as: George A. Henninger, "In Defense of Dictionaries and Definitions", The Modern Language Journal, January 1944, vol. 28, pp.29-39 Socialism: You have two cows. You give one to your neighbor. Communism: You have two cows. You give them to the Government, and the Government then gives you some milk. Capitalism: You have two cows. You sell one and buy a bull. Nazism: You have two cows. The Government shoots you and takes the cows. Bill Sherk mentions that such lists circulated throughout the country since around 1936 under the title "Parable of the Isms". "500 Years of New Words", by Bill Sherk, Doubleday, 1983, ISBN 0385179022, p. 162. Notable usages Jokes of this genre formed the base of a monologue by comedian Pat Paulsen on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour in the late 1960s. This material was later used as an element of his satirical US presidential campaign in 1968, and was included on his 1968 comedy album Pat Paulsen for President. Richard M. Steers and Luciara Nardon in their book about global economy use the "two cows" metaphor to illustrate the concept of cultural differences. They write that jokes of this kind: Managing In The Global Economy, by Richard M. Steers, Luciara Nardon (2005) ISBN 0765615517 Russian company: You have two cows. You drink some vodka and count them again. You have five cows. The Russian Mafia shows up and takes however many cows you have. Californian company: You have a million cows. Most of them are illegals. These are funny because they are realistic caricatures of various cultures, and the pervasiveness of such jokes stems from the significant cultural differences. They further say that others argue that such jokes present cultural stereotypes and must be viewed with caution. See also Spherical cow Cow tipping References | You_have_two_cows |@lemmatized two:10 cow:19 begin:1 phrase:1 series:1 political:2 joke:9 definition:2 history:1 originate:1 parody:2 typical:2 example:3 use:5 introductory:1 level:1 economics:1 course:1 material:2 feature:1 farmer:2 moneyless:1 society:1 cattle:1 trade:1 neighbor:2 want:2 chicken:2 set:1 find:1 another:1 mean:1 show:2 limitation:1 barter:1 system:3 lead:1 eventual:1 introduction:1 currency:2 money:1 however:2 place:1 owner:1 full:1 fledge:1 economic:1 metaphor:2 capital:1 property:1 intent:1 usually:1 point:1 flaw:1 absurdity:1 although:1 non:1 derive:1 type:1 attract:1 attention:1 scholar:1 early:1 article:1 modern:2 language:2 journal:2 discuss:1 classical:1 one:3 george:1 henninger:1 defense:1 dictionary:1 january:1 vol:1 pp:1 socialism:1 give:3 communism:1 government:3 milk:1 capitalism:1 sell:1 buy:1 bull:1 nazism:1 shoot:1 take:2 bill:2 sherk:2 mention:1 list:1 circulate:1 throughout:1 country:1 since:1 around:1 title:1 parable:1 isms:1 year:1 new:1 word:1 doubleday:1 isbn:2 p:1 notable:1 usages:1 genre:1 form:1 base:1 monologue:1 comedian:1 pat:2 paulsen:2 smother:1 brother:1 comedy:2 hour:1 late:1 later:1 element:1 satirical:1 u:1 presidential:1 campaign:1 include:1 album:1 president:1 richard:2 steer:2 luciara:2 nardon:2 book:1 global:2 economy:2 illustrate:1 concept:1 cultural:3 difference:2 write:1 kind:1 managing:1 russian:2 company:2 drink:1 vodka:1 count:1 five:1 mafia:1 many:1 californian:1 million:1 illegals:1 funny:1 realistic:1 caricature:1 various:1 culture:1 pervasiveness:1 stem:1 significant:1 say:1 others:1 argue:1 present:1 stereotype:1 must:1 view:1 caution:1 see:1 also:1 spherical:1 tip:1 reference:1 |@bigram full_fledge:1 |
2,652 | Benjamin_Franklin-class_submarine | The Benjamin Franklin class of submarine was an evolutionary development from the James Madison class of fleet ballistic missile submarine. Having quieter machinery and other improvements, they are considered a separate class. A subset of this class is the re-engineered 640 class starting with the USS George C Marshall (SSBN 654). Together with the George Washington, the Ethan Allen, the Lafayette, and the James Madison classes, they comprised the "41 for Freedom." The Franklin class submarines were built with the Polaris A-3, and later converted to carry the Poseidon C-3. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, select units were further modified to carry Trident-I (C-4) missiles. In the early 1990s, to make room for the Ohio-class ballistic missile submarines within the limits set by SALT II, the missile tubes of Kamehameha and James K. Polk were disabled. Those boats were redesignated special operations attack submarines and given SSN hull classification symbols. Two submarines of this class were converted for delivery of special warfare units ashore. USS Kamehameha was decommissioned on 2 April 2002, the last ship of the entire class to be decommissioned. Boats (Boats marked with * indicate C-4 conversions.) * * * * * * See also 41 for Freedom Fleet Ballistic Missile submarines | Benjamin_Franklin-class_submarine |@lemmatized benjamin:1 franklin:2 class:10 submarine:7 evolutionary:1 development:1 james:3 madison:2 fleet:2 ballistic:3 missile:5 quiet:1 machinery:1 improvement:1 consider:1 separate:1 subset:1 engineer:1 start:1 uss:2 george:2 c:4 marshall:1 ssbn:1 together:1 washington:1 ethan:1 allen:1 lafayette:1 comprise:1 freedom:2 build:1 polaris:1 later:1 convert:2 carry:2 poseidon:1 late:1 early:2 select:1 unit:2 far:1 modify:1 trident:1 make:1 room:1 ohio:1 within:1 limit:1 set:1 salt:1 ii:1 tube:1 kamehameha:2 k:1 polk:1 disable:1 boat:3 redesignated:1 special:2 operation:1 attack:1 give:1 ssn:1 hull:1 classification:1 symbol:1 two:1 delivery:1 warfare:1 ashore:1 decommission:2 april:1 last:1 ship:1 entire:1 mark:1 indicate:1 conversion:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram benjamin_franklin:1 ballistic_missile:3 ethan_allen:1 |
2,653 | Telecommunications_in_Latvia | Telephones Telephones - main lines in use: around 644,000 (2007) . Telephones - mobile cellular: over 2,217,000 (2007) Telephone system: recent efforts focused on bringing competition to the telecommunications sector; the number of fixed lines is decreasing as wireless telephone service expands. Domestic: number of telecommunications operators has grown rapidly since the fixed-line market opened to competition in 2003; combined fixed-line and mobile-cellular subscribership is roughly 125 per 100 persons. International: the Latvian network is now connected via fiber optic cable to Estonia, Finland, and Sweden (2007). Until 2003 Lattelecom had a monopoly in the fixed telecommunications market. This led to overwhelming use of cellular phones for private customers, fixed lines being requested mostly by companies. In Latvia exist more than 2 million mobile phones but only 644,000 fixed phone connections. Since the fixed-line voice communication monopoly ended on January 1, 2003, several companies entered the market for fixed voice communication services: Aeronavigācijas serviss, Baltkom TV, Beta Telecom, Latvenergo Tehniskais Centrs, OPTRON, Rigatta, Telecentrs, Telenets, Telekom Baltija and CSC Telecom. These voice telephony providers provide services for cheaper foreign calls, as well as local calls. The telecom regulator SPRK tries to provide a competitive environment so that new operators can compete with Lattelecom which owns most of the last-mile connections. Broadcasting Radio Radio broadcast stations: AM 8, FM 56, shortwave 1 (1998) Radios: 1.76 million (1997) Television Television broadcast stations: 44 (plus 31 repeaters) (1995) Televisions: 1.22 million (1997) The state public television broadcaster is Latvijas Televīzija. Internet Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 150+ (2007) Optical cable internet provider OPTRON (VoIP) Internet users: 1,070,800 (2007) . Country code (Top-level domain): .lv See also : Latvia References External links Public Utilities Commission Latvian State Department of Communications Telecommunications and IT blog with all the latest hype on telecoms in Latvia Telecommunications operators in Latvia: Lattelecom Latvia Mobile Telephone (GSM) Tele2 (GSM) Bite Latvia (GSM) Triatel (CDMA) Nulltel (VoIP) Optron (VoIP) | Telecommunications_in_Latvia |@lemmatized telephone:6 main:1 line:6 use:2 around:1 mobile:4 cellular:3 system:1 recent:1 effort:1 focus:1 bring:1 competition:2 telecommunication:5 sector:1 number:2 fixed:3 decrease:1 wireless:1 service:4 expands:1 domestic:1 operator:3 grow:1 rapidly:1 since:2 fix:5 market:3 open:1 combine:1 subscribership:1 roughly:1 per:1 person:1 international:1 latvian:2 network:1 connect:1 via:1 fiber:1 optic:1 cable:2 estonia:1 finland:1 sweden:1 lattelecom:3 monopoly:2 lead:1 overwhelm:1 phone:3 private:1 customer:1 request:1 mostly:1 company:2 latvia:6 exist:1 million:3 connection:2 voice:3 communication:3 end:1 january:1 several:1 enter:1 aeronavigācijas:1 serviss:1 baltkom:1 tv:1 beta:1 telecom:4 latvenergo:1 tehniskais:1 centrs:1 optron:3 rigatta:1 telecentrs:1 telenets:1 telekom:1 baltija:1 csc:1 telephony:1 provider:3 provide:2 cheap:1 foreign:1 call:2 well:1 local:1 regulator:1 sprk:1 try:1 competitive:1 environment:1 new:1 compete:1 last:1 mile:1 broadcast:3 radio:3 station:2 fm:1 shortwave:1 television:4 plus:1 repeater:1 state:2 public:2 broadcaster:1 latvijas:1 televīzija:1 internet:4 isps:1 optical:1 voip:3 user:1 country:1 code:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 lv:1 see:1 also:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 utility:1 commission:1 department:1 blog:1 late:1 hype:1 gsm:3 bite:1 triatel:1 cdma:1 nulltel:1 |@bigram mobile_cellular:2 fiber_optic:1 cellular_phone:1 mobile_phone:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 plus_repeater:1 repeater_television:1 provider_isps:1 external_link:1 |
2,654 | Position_(poker) | Position in poker refers to the order in which players are seated around the table and the related poker strategy implications. Players who act first are in "early position"; players who act later are in "late position". A player "has position" on opponents acting before him and is "out of position" to opponents acting after him. Position in Poker Because players act in clockwise order, a player "has position" on opponents seated to his right, except when the opponent has the button and certain cases in the first betting round of games with blinds. The primary advantage held by a player in late position is that he will have more information with which to make better decisions than players in early position, who will have to act first, without the benefit of this extra information. Changing Position Also, as earlier opponents fold, the probability of a hand being the best goes up as the number of opponents goes down. The blinds are the least desirable position because you're forced to contribute to the pot and you must act first on all betting rounds after the flop. Although the big blind has a big advantage on the first round of betting, it is on average the biggest money losing position. Texas hold 'em example There are 10 players playing $4/$8 fixed limit. Alice pays the $2 small blind. Bob pays the $4 big blind. Carol is under the gun (first to act). If Carol has a hand like K♥ J♠, she may choose to fold. With 9 opponents remaining to act, there is approximately a 40% chance that at least one of them will have a better hand than Carol's like A-A, K-K, Q-Q, J-J, A-K, A-J or K-Q. And even if no one does, seven of them (all but the two players in the blind) will have position on Carol in the next three betting rounds. Now instead, suppose David in the cut-off position (to the right of the button) has the same K♥ J♠ and all players fold to him. In this situation, there are only three opponents left to act, so the odds that one of them has a better hand are considerably less (only around 16%). Secondly, two of those three (Alice and Bob) will be out of position to David on later betting rounds. A common play would be for David to raise and hope that the button (the only player who has position on David) folds. David's raise might simply steal the blinds if they don't have playable hands, but if they do play, David will be in good shape to take advantage of his position in later betting rounds. See also Poker jargon Poker strategy Aggressive plays Bluffing plays Check-raise plays Defense plays Drawing plays Isolation plays Protection plays Slow plays Stealing plays Notes External links Table Position in Poker Importance of Position in Poker Advice on Positional Play in Texas Holdem (including example hands) | Position_(poker) |@lemmatized position:19 poker:7 refers:1 order:2 player:12 seat:2 around:2 table:2 related:1 strategy:2 implication:1 act:10 first:6 early:3 later:2 late:3 opponent:8 clockwise:1 right:2 except:1 button:3 certain:1 case:1 betting:2 round:6 game:1 blind:7 primary:1 advantage:3 hold:2 information:2 make:1 good:4 decision:1 without:1 benefit:1 extra:1 change:1 also:2 fold:4 probability:1 hand:6 best:1 go:2 number:1 least:2 desirable:1 force:1 contribute:1 pot:1 must:1 bet:4 flop:1 although:1 big:4 average:1 money:1 lose:1 texas:2 em:1 example:2 play:13 fix:1 limit:1 alice:2 pay:2 small:1 bob:2 carol:4 gun:1 like:2 k:6 j:5 may:1 choose:1 remain:1 approximately:1 chance:1 one:3 q:3 even:1 seven:1 two:2 next:1 three:3 instead:1 suppose:1 david:6 cut:1 situation:1 leave:1 odds:1 considerably:1 less:1 secondly:1 common:1 would:1 raise:3 hope:1 might:1 simply:1 steal:2 playable:1 shape:1 take:1 see:1 jargon:1 aggressive:1 bluff:1 check:1 defense:1 draw:1 isolation:1 protection:1 slow:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 importance:1 advice:1 positional:1 holdem:1 include:1 |@bigram betting_round:1 poker_jargon:1 jargon_poker:1 external_link:1 |
2,655 | Jonah | The Prophet Jonah, as depicted by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel. According to the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh/Old Testament) and Islamic Qur'an, Jonah ( ; , Yunus or يونان, Yunaan ; Latin Ionas ; "Dove") was a prophet who was swallowed by a great fish. The story of Jonah Russian Orthodox icon of the Prophet Jonah, 18th century (Iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia). In the Tanakh/Old Testament of the Bible, Jonah's story is told at length in the Book of Jonah. He is also mentioned in 2 Kings (as a prophet in the time of King Jeroboam II, from the Galilean village of Gath-hepher near Nazareth). In the New Testament, Jonah is mentioned in Matthew and Luke . According to the book of Jonah, he was the son of Amittai (meaning 'My Truth'). God orders Jonah to go to the city of Nineveh to prophesy against it "for their great wickedness is come up before me" . Jonah seeks to flee from "the presence of the Lord" by going to Jaffa and sailing to Tarshish. A huge storm arises and the sailors, realizing this is no ordinary storm, cast lots and learn that Jonah is to blame. Jonah admits this and states that if he is thrown overboard the storm will cease. The sailors try to get the ship to the shore but in failing feel forced to throw him overboard, at which point the sea calms. Jonah is miraculously saved by being swallowed by a large fish specially prepared by God where he spent three days and three nights (Jonah 1:17). In chapter two, while in the great fish, Jonah prays to God in his affliction and commits to thanksgiving and to paying what he has vowed. God commands the fish to vomit Jonah out. God again orders Jonah to visit Nineveh and to prophecy to its inhabitants. This time he goes and enters the city crying, "In forty days Nineveh shall be overthrown." The people of Nineveh believed his word and proclaimed a fast. The king of Nineveh put on sackcloth and sat in ashes and made a proclamation to decree fasting, sackcloth, prayer, and repentance. God saw their works and spared the city at that time . Displeased by this, Jonah refers to his earlier flight to Tarshish while asserting that, since God is merciful, it was inevitable that God would turn from the threatened calamities. He then leaves the city and makes himself a shelter, waiting to see whether or not the city will be destroyed. God causes a plant (in Hebrew a kikayon) to grow over Jonah's shelter to give him some shade from the sun. Later, God causes a worm to bite the plant's root and it withers. Jonah, now being exposed to the full force of the sun, becomes faint and desires that God take him out of the world. But God says to him, Jonah in Christianity Jesus made reference to Jonah when he was asked for a miraculous sign by the Pharisees and teachers of the Law. Jonah's restoration after three days inside the great fish pre-figured the Resurrection of Jesus Christ after two days in the tomb. But He [Jesus] answered them, "An evil and adulterous generation asks for a sign, but no sign will be given to it except the sign of the prophet Jonah. For just as Jonah was in the belly of the huge fish for three days and three nights, so the Son of Man will be in the heart of the earth for three days and three nights. The people of Nineveh will stand up at the judgement with this generation and condemn it, because they repented when Jonah preached to them – and now, something greater than Jonah is here!" Matthew 12:39-41 NET Jonah is regarded as a saint by a number of Christian denominations. He is commemorated as a prophet in the Calendar of Saints of the Missouri Synod of the Lutheran Church on September 22. On the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar his feast day is September 22 also (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, September 22 currently falls on October 5 of the modern Gregorian Calendar). He is commemorated with the other minor prophets in the Calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 31. Jonah in Islam See also : Islamic view of Jonah Like many important Biblical characters, Jonah is also important in Islam as a prophet who is faithful to God (Allah) and delivers His messages. He is known to Muslims by his Arabic name, Yunus "Arabic: يونس", and also as (The One with the Whale "Arabic: ذو النون"). Sura 10 (equivalent to chapter 10) of the Qur'an is named "Sura Yunus|سورة يونس" after him, although he only receives one reference, in verse 98. The full story of Prophet Jonah is recounted in Sura 37, verses 139-149: 37:139 So also was Jonah among those sent (by Us). 37:140 When he ran away (like a slave from captivity) to the ship (fully) laden, 37:141 He (agreed to) cast lots, and he was condemned: 37:142 Then the whale did swallow him, and he had done acts worthy of blame. 37:143 Had it not been that he (repented and) glorified God, 37:144 He would certainly have remained inside the belly of the whale till the Day of Resurrection. 37:145 But We cast him forth on the naked shore in a state of sickness, 37:146 And We caused to grow, over him, a spreading plant of the gourd kind. 37:147 And We sent him (with the message) to a hundred thousand (men) or more. 37:148 And they believed; so We permitted them to enjoy (their life) for a while. 37:149 Now ask them their opinion: Is it that thy Lord has (only) daughters, and they have sons? According historical narrations about Prophet Mohammad's life, after 10 years receiving revelation, Muhammad went to the city of Ta'if to see if its leaders would allow him to preach his message from there rather than Makkah, but he was cast from the city by the urchins and children. He took shelter in the garden of Utbah and Shaybah, two members of the Quraysh tribe. They sent their servant, Addas, to serve him grapes for, although they were displeased at his Prophethood, their tribal bond - important in Jahili (pre-Islamic time) culture - took precedence. The Prophet asked Addas where he was from and the servant replied Niniwah. "The town of Yunus, son of Matta," the Prophet replied. Addas was shocked because he knew that the pagan Arabs had no knowledge of Yunus. He then asked how Muhammad knew of this man. "We are brothers," the Prophet replied. "Yunus was a Prophet of Allah and I, too, am a Prophet of Allah." Addas immediately accepted Islam and kissed the hands and feet of the Prophet.(Summarized from the book of story of the prophet Muhammad by Ibn Hisham Volume 1 pg.419-421) Narrated Ibn 'Abbas: The Prophet said, "One should not say that I am better than Jonah (i.e. Yunus) bin Matta." So, he mentioned his father Matta (Volume 4, Book 55, Number 608:Sahih Bukhari) Jonah in Judaism The book of Jonah (Yonah יונה) is one of the 12 minor prophets included in the Jewish Bible. According to tradition Jonah was the boy brought back to life by Elijah the prophet, and hence shares many of his characteristics (particularly his desire for 'strict judgment'). The book of Jonah is read every year, in its original Hebrew, on Yom Kippur - the Day of Atonement, as the Haftorah at the afternoon mincha prayer. One of the most important ideas in the Jewish religion is Teshuva - the ability to repent and be forgiven by God. The essence and the source of the idea of Teshuva is said to be the book of Jonah: Jonah, the son of truth, (The name of his father "Amitai" in Hebrew means truth,) refuses to ask the people of Ninveh to repent. He seeks the truth only, and no forgiveness. When forced to go, his call is heard loud and clear. The people of Ninveh repent ecstatically, "fasting, including the sheep", and the Jewish scripts are critical of this Babelonian Talmud:Sanhedrin 61a . When praying, Jonah repeats God's 13 traits failing to say the last one which is "...and Truthful", and changing it with "...and whome is willing to forgive the bad". Another translation could be: "...and who regrets the bad". . God responds by showing Jonah that he is "angry at doing good", and that he too would agree to spare an ephemeral plant "Kikayon" - The small Castor tree - is a synonym in Hebrew to "ephemeral" if it has importance for him. See also Jonah in Rabbinic Literature. Jonah in the Bahá'í Faith The Bahá'í Faith views Jonah as a prophet. H.M. Balyuzi, Baha'u'llah - The King of Glory, p. 182 Jonah in sailors' superstition A long-established expression among sailors uses the term "A Jonah" as meaning a person (either a sailor or a passenger) whose presence on board brings bad luck and endangers the ship. This presumably arose from Christian sailors taking the Biblical story at face value. Later on, this meaning was extended to "A Jonah" referring to "a person who carries a jinx, one who will bring bad luck to any enterprise" An example of a so-called "Jonah", would be that of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who was supposedly cursed to be lost at sea due to him killing an albatross The person of Jonah The greatest detail on his personal history is to be found in the Book of Jonah, traditionally ascribed to Jonah himself (although this is not stated in Scripture). In the book, Jonah is a reluctant and non-compassionate prophet. This story contains a twofold characterization of Jonah: first as a reluctant prophet of doom to the heathen city of Nineveh, and second as a "Son of man" type. The character of Jonah, who wants Nineveh destroyed, is contrasted with that of God, who is compassionate towards Jews and Gentiles, humans and animals. The fish Depiction of Jonah and the "great fish" on the south doorway of the Gothic-era Dom St. Peter in Worms, Germany. Interpretations of the "fish" fall into three general categories: A big fish or whale (of unspecified species) did indeed swallow Jonah. A special creation (not any fish we know of) of God accomplished the act. There was not a fish: the story is an allegory, the fish is a literary device in the story, the story is a vision or a dream. etc. Translation Though it is often called a whale today, the Hebrew, as throughout scripture, refers to no species in particular, simply sufficing with "great fish" or "big fish" (whales are today classified as mammals and not fish, but no such distinction was made in antiquity). While some Bible scholars suggest the size and habits of the White Shark correspond better to the representations given of Jonah's being swallowed, normally an adult human is too large to be swallowed whole. Theological Topic Search In Jonah 2:1 (1:17 in English translation), the original Hebrew text reads dag gadol (דג גדול), which literally means "big fish." The Septuagint translates this phrase into Greek as ketos megas (κητος μεγας). The term ketos alone means "huge fish," and in Greek mythology the term was closely associated with sea monsters, including sea serpents. (See the Theoi Project "Ketea" for more information regarding Greek mythology and the Ketos.) Jerome later translated this phrase as piscis granda in his Latin Vulgate. He translated ketos, however, as cetus in Matthew 12:40. At some point cetus became synonymous with "whale" (the study of whales is now called cetology). In his 1534 translation, William Tyndale translated the phrase in Jonah 2:1 as "greate fyshe" and he translated the word ketos (Greek) or cetus (Latin) in Matthew 12:40 as "whale". Tyndale's translation was later incorporated into the Authorized Version of 1611. Since then, the "great fish" in Jonah 2 has been most often interpreted as a whale. Suggested Explanations While many modern Christians and Jews are content to view the story of Jonah as a spiritual metaphor, for those who believe that the bible is literally true (or based on similar true events) the story presents several challenges. There is no currently existing sea creature that could swallow a grown man whole, or keep him alive in its stomach for any length of time. Some believers claim that God, being omnipotent, simply created a unique creature when needed. Others have attempted more elaborate explanations. There is anecdotal evidence that the throats of many large whales, as well as possibly the whale shark, could accommodate passage of an adult human. Some have speculated that chapter 2 of Jonah was about Jonah's experience inside the stomach after being swallowed. Specifically that the seaweed mentioned in 2:5 was a protective seaweed. However, Chapter 2,of the Book of Jonah is not an account of what happened inside the belly of said speculated creature, but rather Jonah thanking God while in the stomach for saving him. Jonah 2 is Jonah speaking to God about his condition before he was technically saved from drowning by the whale. The seaweed mentioned in Jonah 2:5 was not a "protective" seaweed, but rather an trapping seaweed. Jonah, after being tossed overboad, found himself drowning and becoming tangled in the seaweed. Hill, Andrew and Walton, John H.-Survey of the Old Testament Pg. 495-501 Jonah Mosaic at St. Anne Melkite Greek Catholic Church, North Hollywood. However, doubts have been cast that any existing whale or fish would be able to repeat the feat described, either due to size of mouth, narrowness of throat, or because it diverges so wildly from these animals' normal eating habits. The largest whales - baleen whales, a group which includes the blue whale - eat plankton and "it is commonly said that this species would be choked if it attempted to swallow a herring." Lydekker's New Natural History, Vol, III, p. 6 The sperm whale, on the other hand, has "a small mouth... Its food is torn to pieces before being swallowed," according to Dr. C. H. Townsend, a former Acting Director of the American Museum of Natural History and the New York Aquarium. He further states that "there is no evidence that such a feat would be possible." However, Herman Melville, author of Moby Dick and a professional whaler, wrote about a sailor who was swallowed by a sperm whale. The whale was later captured, and the man rescued, unharmed except for his skin being bleached by stomach acid. As for the whale shark, Dr. E. W. Gudger, an Honorary Associate in Ichthyology at the American Museum of Natural History, noted that "while the mouth is cavernous, the throat itself is only four inches wide and has a sharp elbow or bend behind the opening. This gullet would not permit the passage of a man's arm." In another publication he also noted that "the whale shark is not the fish that swallowed Jonah." The Scientific Monthly, March, 1940, p. 227 "Essays of an Atheist," Woolsey Teller. Copyright 1945, The Truth Seeker Company, Inc., found online here. Prehistoric Animals There may be, however, some other possible candidates for the creature that could swallow a whole human. Creationist science, according to their chronology, would have easily accept both huge headed Jurassic pliosaurs (such as Liopleurodon) and Cretaceous gigantic mossasaurs (like Hainosaurus), due to enormous mouths of those sea monsters. Even more plausible candidate would have been the eel-whale Basilosaurus, both because of the lesser timegap and the area (Egypt) in which its fossil remnants had been discovered. The representation of Jonah's sea monster in early Christian art is quite constant and unchanged during several centuries, and depicts a long, serpent-bodied creature with whale- or fishlike tail end. Its muzzle is clearly mammalian, and its head is equipped with ears, which existence in the case of Basilosaurus is uncertain. Moreover, the very same creature had been used in art previously, as one of the protagonists in many representations of the drama illustrating the Perseus' rescue of a chained princess from the jaws of a sea monster. Most striking is the fact that this event from Greek mythology supposedly occurred at the very same spot from Eastern Mediterannean coast (today's Lebanon) where Jonah embarked the ship, trying to avoid the task that God had given to him. Concerning that the remnants of Basilosaurus were found in this area, this long-bodied whale seem to be the most plausible candidate for the sea monster in question. However, the current scientific chronology presumes that Basilosaurus was extinct millions of years before the human race appeared on the surface of the Earth. Since the Bible states that "Jonah was inside the 'fish' for three days and three nights", it is highly questionable how he got sufficient oxygen to breathe and stay alive during that time. A fish's gills would not supply him with any, and neither would a whale's mouth, since a whale's digestive and respiratory system are not connected otherwise the whale might drown while trying to eat. One may argue that applying contemporary taxonomy from a literalist perspective does little to further our understanding of this story, written in a time when such knowledge did not yet exist (and as such was less relevant than in our time) and all large sea creatures had the same symbolism so that a generic term could easily suffice. Another argument is that Jonah being swallowed was a divine miracle and thus the type of fish/whale is immaterial. God either used whatever sea life was available or created a large fish/whale to serve his purpose of causing Jonah to repent and to carry out His command of preaching repentance. A similar instance can be found in Book of Numbers, chapter 22, versus 28 through 30 where The Lord gives Balaam's donkey the power of human speech in order to have a conversation with Balaam. Various locations Depiction of Jonah in a champlevé enamel (1181) by Nicholas of Verdun in the Verduner altar at Klosterneuburg abbey, Austria. Place of birth: Mentioned in 2 Kings 14:25, the town of Gath Hepher has saved its name to this day, near the Gallilean Arab town of Mashhad, where a monument for Nebi Yunes still exists. The Israeli Gat Hepher industrial zone is erected on that mountain. Location of landing: In the city of Ashdod the light-tower hill is called Givat-Yonah, on the holy Muslim site of Nebbi Yunes, according to traditions of the three monotheistic religions, the site where Jonah was thrown by the large fish. Aerial photos taken by German pilots during WWI clearly show the Nebbi Yunes sanctuary, near the British landing site at the beginning of the British 1918 Jerusalem offensive. A second look at the land of Israel by Prof. B.Z. Kedar The city of Jaffa has a main street named after Jonah. The ancient port of Jaffa is still intact and functional. Archeologic diggings find that the port has been functioning at this location as early as 300 BC. Another sanctuary and mosque called Nebi Yunes, is in the Palestinian West Bank town of Halhul, a few kilometers north of Hebron. Muslim tradition has it that this is the burial site of Jonah the prophet. A sign erected by the Israeli ministry of religions says that this is Jonah's burial site, but according to Jewish traditions this is the location of the burial of the prophets Nathan and Gad Hahozeh. The Jama Naballa Jonas is a sanctuary of Jonah's grave, near the city of Mosul (today in Iraq), near the ancient remnants of Ninveh. There is a sanctuary of Jonah's grave, near the city of Sarafand in Lebanon. This is in accordance with several ancient Jewish writings about Jonah being the son of the woman from "Zarephath" (Sarafand) mentioned in the stories of Elijah. Jonah, Jason and Gilgamesh The story of the hero Jason in Greek mythology shares several similarities with the story of Jonah which have been noted by Joseph Campbell and more recent authors such as Gildas Hamel. "Taking the Argo to Nineveh: Jonah and Jason in a Mediterranean context," Judaism Summer, 1995; reproduced online here. Drawing on the Book of Jonah and Greco-Roman sources — including Greek vases and the accounts of Apollonius of Rhodes, Valerius Flaccus and Orphic Argonautica — Hamel identifies a number of shared motifs, including the names of the heroes, the presence of a dove, the idea of "fleeing" like the wind and causing a storm, the attitude of the sailors, the presence of a sea-monster or dragon threatening the hero or swallowing him, and the form and the word used for the "gourd" (kikayon). The Greek rendering of the name Jonah was Jonas, which differs from Jason only in the order of sounds —both os are omegas. This may suggest that the Greeks confused accounts of Jonah with those of their own hero, but Hamel argues that the Hebrew author was reacting to and adapting this mythological material to communicate his own, quite different message. Campbell also attempted to draw parallels with the epic of Gilgamesh, in which Gilgamesh obtains a plant from the bottom of the sea. Similarities of the accounts, however, are minor: in the Book of Jonah a worm (in Hebrew tola'ath, "maggot") bites the plant's root causing it to wither, while in the epic of Gilgamesh the plant is eaten by a serpent. See also James Bartley References External links Jonah and Repentance Prophet on the Run: Jonah and Yom Kippur The Book of Jonah (Hebrew and English) The Book of Jonah (NIV) Jewish Encyclopedia: Jonah Catholic Encyclopedia: Jonah Jonah from an Islamic viewpoint A Guide to Jonah Prophet Jonah Orthodox icon and synaxarion An examination of the "James Bartley" story who some claimed was swallowed by a whale in 1891 and survived the encounter. | Jonah |@lemmatized prophet:27 jonah:101 depict:2 michelangelo:1 sistine:1 chapel:1 accord:8 hebrew:10 bible:6 tanakh:2 old:3 testament:4 islamic:4 qur:2 yunus:7 يونان:1 yunaan:1 latin:3 ionas:1 dive:1 swallow:16 great:9 fish:26 story:16 russian:1 orthodox:3 icon:2 century:2 iconostasis:1 kizhi:1 monastery:1 karelia:1 russia:1 tell:1 length:2 book:15 also:10 mention:7 king:5 time:8 jeroboam:1 ii:1 galilean:1 village:1 gath:2 hepher:3 near:6 nazareth:1 new:3 matthew:4 luke:1 son:7 amittai:1 mean:5 truth:5 god:24 order:4 go:5 city:12 nineveh:9 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2,656 | Grothendieck_topology | In category theory, a branch of mathematics, a Grothendieck topology is a structure on a category C which makes the objects of C act like the open sets of a topological space. A category together with a choice of Grothendieck topology is called a site. Grothendieck topologies axiomatize the notion of an open cover. Using the notion of covering provided by a Grothendieck topology, it becomes possible to define sheaves on a category and their cohomology. This was first done in algebraic geometry and algebraic number theory by Alexander Grothendieck to define the étale cohomology of a scheme. It has been used to define other cohomology theories since then, such as l-adic cohomology, flat cohomology, and crystalline cohomology. While Grothendieck topologies are most often used to define cohomology theories, they have found other applications as well, such as to John Tate's theory of rigid analytic geometry. There is a natural way to associate a site to an ordinary topological space, and Grothendieck's theory is loosely regarded as a generalization of classical topology. Under meager point-set hypotheses, namely sobriety, this is completely accurate—it is possible to recover a sober space from its associated site. However simple examples such as the indiscrete topological space show that not all topological spaces can be expressed using Grothendieck topologies. Conversely, there are Grothendieck topologies which do not come from topological spaces. Introduction André Weil's famous Weil conjectures proposed that certain properties of equations with integral coefficients should be understood as geometric properties of the algebraic variety that they defined. His conjectures postulated that there should be a cohomology theory of algebraic varieties which gave number-theoretic information about their defining equations. This cohomology theory was known as the "Weil cohomology", but using the tools he had available, Weil was unable to construct it. In the early 1960s, Alexander Grothendieck introduced étale maps into algebraic geometry as algebraic analogues of local analytic isomorphisms in analytic geometry. He used étale coverings to define an algebraic analogue of the fundamental group of a topological space. Soon Jean-Pierre Serre noticed that some properties of étale coverings mimicked those of open immersions, and that consequently it was possible to make constructions which imitated the cohomology functor H1. Grothendieck saw that it would be possible to use Serre's idea to define a cohomology theory which he suspected would be the Weil cohomology. To define this cohomology theory, Grothendieck needed to replace the usual, topological notion of an open covering with one that would use étale coverings instead. Grothendieck also saw how to phrase the definition of covering abstractly; this is where the definition of a Grothendieck topology comes from. Definition Motivation The classical definition of a sheaf begins with a topological space X. A sheaf associates information to the open sets of X. This information can be phrased abstractly by letting O(X) be the category whose objects are the open subsets U of X and whose morphisms are the inclusion maps U → V of open sets U and V of X. We will call such maps open immersions, just as in the context of schemes. Then a presheaf on X is a contravariant functor from O(X) to the category of sets, and a sheaf is a presheaf which satisfies the gluing axiom. The gluing axiom is phrased in terms of pointwise covering, i.e., {Ui} covers U if and only if i Ui = U. Because the value of a presheaf on an open set determines the value on any smaller set by restriction, it is equivalent to work with the collection of all open subsets V contained in some Ui. A Grothendieck topology encodes the information about collections of open subsets of U and which collections cover U without any reference to the space itself. Sieves In a Grothendieck topology, the notion of a collection of open subsets of U stable under inclusion is replaced by the notion of a sieve. If c is any given object in C, a sieve on c is a subfunctor of the functor Hom(−, c); (this is the Yoneda embedding applied to c). In the case of O(X), a sieve S on an open set U corresponds to a collection of open subsets of U "selected" by S. More precisely, consider that for any open subset V of U, S(V) will be a subset of Hom(V, U), which has only one element, the open immersion V → U. Then V will be considered "selected" by S if and only if S(V) is nonempty. If S is a sieve on X, and f: Y → X is a morphism, then left composition by f gives a sieve on Y called the pullback of S along f, denoted by fS. It is defined as the fibered product S ×Hom(−, X) Hom(−, Y) together with its natural embedding in Hom(−, Y). More concretely, for each object Z of C, fS(Z) = { g: Z → Y | fg S(Z) }, and fS inherits its action on morphisms by being a subfunctor of Hom(−, Y). In the classical example, the pullback of a collection {Vi} of subsets of U along an inclusion W → U is the collection {Vi∩W}. Covering Sieves A classical topology on a set X is a collection of distinguished subsets, called open sets. This selection is subject to certain conditions: the axioms of a topological space. By comparison, a Grothendieck topology J on a category C is a collection, for each object c of C, of distinguished sieves on c, called covering sieves of c and denoted by J(c). This selection will be subject to certain axioms, stated below. Continuing the previous example, a sieve S on an open set U in O(X) will be a covering sieve if and only if the union of all the open sets V for which S(V) is nonempty equals U; in other words, if and only if S gives us a collection of open sets which cover U in the classical sense. Axioms The conditions we impose on a Grothendieck topology are: (T 1) (Base change) If S is a covering sieve on X, and f: Y → X is a morphism, then the pullback fS is a covering sieve on Y. (T 2) (Local character) Let S be a covering sieve on X, and let T be any sieve on X. Suppose that for each object Y of C and each arrow f: Y → X in S(Y), the pullback sieve fT is a covering sieve on Y. Then T is a covering sieve on X. (T 3) (Identity) Hom(−, X) is a covering sieve on X for any object X in C. The base change axiom corresponds to the idea that if {} covers U, then {Ui ∩ V} should cover U ∩ V. The local character axiom corresponds to the idea that if {Ui} covers U and {Vij}j Ji covers Ui for each i, then the collection {Vij} for all i and j should cover U. Lastly, the identity axiom corresponds to the idea that any set is covered by all its possible subsets. Alternative Axioms In fact, it is possible to put these axioms in another form where their geometric character is more apparent, assuming that the underlying category C contains certain fibered products. In this case, instead of specifying sieves, we can specify that certain collections of maps with a common codomain should cover their codomain. These collections are called covering families. If the collection of all covering families satisfies certain axioms, then we say that they form a Grothendieck pretopology. These axioms are: (PT 0) (Existence of fibered products) For all objects X of C, and for all morphisms X0 → X which appear in some covering family of X, and for all morphisms Y → X, the fibered product X0 ×X Y exists. (PT 1) (Stability under base change) For all objects X of C, all morphisms Y → X, and all covering families {Xα → X}, the family {Xα ×X Y → Y} is a covering family. (PT 2) (Local character) If {Xα → X} is a covering family, and if for all α, {Xβα → Xα} is a covering family, then the family of composites {Xβα → Xα → X} is a covering family. (PT 3) (Isomorphisms) If f: Y → X is an isomorphism, then {f} is a covering family. For any pretopology, the collection of all sieves that contain a covering family from the pretopology is always a Grothendieck topology. For categories with fibered products, there is a converse. Given a collection of arrows {Xα → X}, we construct a sieve S by letting S(Y) be the set of all morphisms Y → X that factor through some arrow Xα → X. This is called the sieve generated by {Xα → X}. Now choose a topology. Say that {Xα → X} is a covering family if and only if the sieve that it generates is a covering sieve for the given topology. It is easy to check that this defines a pretopology. (PT 3) is sometimes replaced by a weaker axiom: (PT 3') (Identity) If 1X : X → X is the identity arrow, then {1X} is a covering family. (PT 3) implies (PT 3'), but not conversely. However, suppose that we have a collection of covering families that satisfies (PT 0) through (PT 2) and (PT 3'), but not (PT 3). These families generate a pretopology. The topology generated by the original collection of covering families is then the same as the topology generated by the pretopology, because the sieve generated by an isomorphism Y → X is Hom(−, X). Consequently, if we restrict our attention to topologies, (PT 3) and (PT 3') are equivalent. Sites and sheaves Let C be a category and let J be a Grothendieck topology on C. The pair (C, J) is called a site. A presheaf on a category is a contravariant functor from C to the category of all sets. Note that for this definition C is not required to have a topology. A sheaf on a site, however, should allow gluing, just like sheaves in classical topology. Consequently, we define a sheaf on a site to be a presheaf F such that for all objects X and all covering sieves S on X, the natural map Hom(Hom(−, X), F) → Hom(S, F) induced by the inclusion of S into Hom(−, X) is a bijection. Halfway in between a presheaf and a sheaf is the notion of a separated presheaf, where the natural map above is required to be only an injection, not a bijection, for all sieves S. Using the Yoneda lemma, it is possible to show that a presheaf on the category O(X) is a sheaf on the topology defined above if and only if it is a sheaf in the classical sense. Sheaves on a pretopology have a particularly simple description: For each covering family {Xα → X}, the diagram must be an equalizer. For a separated presheaf, the first arrow need only be injective. Similarly, one can define presheaves and sheaves of abelian groups, rings, modules, and so on. One can require either that a presheaf F is a contravariant functor to the category of abelian groups (or rings, or modules, etc.), or that F be an abelian group (ring, module, etc.) object in the category of all contravariant functors from C to the category of sets. These two definitions are equivalent. Examples The discrete and indiscrete topologies Let C be any category. To define the discrete topology, we declare all sieves to be covering sieves. If C has all fibered products, this is equivalent to declaring all families to be covering families. To define the indiscrete topology, we declare only the sieves of the form Hom(−, X) to be covering sieves. The indiscrete topology is also known as the biggest or chaotic topology, and it is generated by the pretopology which has only isomorphisms for covering families. A sheaf on the indiscrete site is the same thing as a presheaf. The canonical topology Let C be any category. The Yoneda embedding gives a functor Hom(−, X) for each object X of C. The canonical topology is the biggest topology such that every representable presheaf Hom(−, X) is a sheaf. A covering sieve or covering family for this site is said to be strictly universally epimorphic. A topology which is less fine than the canonical topology, that is, for which every covering sieve is strictly universally epimorphic, is called subcanonical. Subcanonical sites are exactly the sites for which every presheaf of the form Hom(−, X) is a sheaf. Most sites encountered in practice are subcanonical. Small site associated to a topological space We repeat the example which we began with above. Let X be a topological space. We defined O(X) to be the category whose objects are the open sets of X and whose morphisms are inclusions of open sets. The covering sieves on an object U of O(X) were those sieves S satisfying the following condition: If W is the union of all the sets V such that S(V) is non-empty, then W = U. This topology can also naturally be expressed as a pretopology. We say that a family of inclusions {Vα U} is a covering family if and only if the union Vα equals U. This site is called the small site associated to a topological space X. Big site associated to a topological space Let Spc be the category of all topological spaces. Given any family of functions {uα : Vα → X}, we say that it is a surjective family or that the morphisms uα are jointly surjective if uα(Vα) equals X. We define a pretopology on Spc by taking the covering families to be surjective families all of whose members are open immersions. Let S be a sieve on Spc. S is a covering sieve for this topology if and only if: For all Y and every morphism f : Y → X in S(Y), there exists a V and a g : V → X such that g is an open immersion, g is in S(V), and f factors through g. If W is the union of all the sets f(Y), where f : Y → X is in S(Y), then W = X. Fix a topological space X. Consider the comma category Spc/X of topological spaces with a fixed continuous map to X. The topology on Spc induces a topology on Spc/X. The covering sieves and covering families are almost exactly the same; the only difference is that now all the maps involved commute with the fixed maps to X. This is the big site associated to a topological space X . Notice that Spc is the big site associated to the one point space. This site was first considered by Jean Giraud. The big and small sites of a manifold Let M be a manifold. M has a category of open sets O(M) because it is a topological space, and it gets a topology as in the above example. For two open sets U and V of M, the fiber product U ×M V is the open set U ∩ V, which is still in O(M). This means that the topology on O(M) is defined by a pretopology, the same pretopology as before. Let Mfd be the category of all manifolds and continuous maps. (Or smooth manifolds and smooth maps, or real analytic manifolds and analytic maps, etc.) Mfd is a subcategory of Spc, and open immersions are continuous (or smooth, or analytic, etc.), so Mfd inherits a topology from Spc. This lets us construct the big site of the manifold M as the site Mfd/M. We can also define this topology using the same pretopology we used above. Notice that to satisfy (PT 0), we need to check that for any continuous map of manifolds X → Y and any open subset U of Y, the fibered product U ×Y X is in Mfd/M. This is just the statement that the preimage of an open set is open. Notice, however, that not all fibered products exist in Mfd because the preimage of a smooth map at a critical value need not be a manifold. Topologies and schemes Fix a scheme X. There is more than one natural site associated to X. All of the following sites are subcanonical, and they are ordered from coarsest to finest. The big and small Zariski sites All schemes are topological spaces. We get the small Zariski site of X by considering X as a topological space and looking at the site O(X). To define the big Zariski site, let Zar be the category whose objects are schemes and whose morphisms are morphisms of schemes. We define a pretopology on Zar by taking the covering families to be surjective families of scheme-theoretic open immersions. This defines a topology whose covering sieves S are characterized by the following two properties: For all Y and every morphism f : Y → X in S(Y), there exists a V and a g : V → X such that g is an open immersion, g is in S(V), and f factors through g. If W is the union of all the sets f(Y), where f : Y → X is in S(Y), then W = X. Despite their outward similarities, the topology on Zar is not the restriction of the topology on Spc! This is because there are morphisms of schemes which are topologically open immersions but which are not scheme-theoretic open immersions. For example, let A be a non-reduced ring and let N be its ideal of nilpotents. The quotient map A → A/N induces a map Spec A/N → Spec A which is the identity on underlying topological spaces. To be a scheme-theoretic open immersion it must also induce an isomorphism on structure sheaves, which this map does not do. In fact, this map is a closed immersion. We call Zar/X the big Zariski site of X . The big and small Nisnevich sites A family of morphisms {uα : Xα → X} is a Nisnevich cover if the family is jointly surjective and each uα is an étale morphism with the following additional property: For every point x ∈ X, there exists an α and a point u ∈ Xα such that the induced map of residue fields k(x) → k(u) is an isomorphism. (We call such an étale morphism with this property a Nisnevich morphism.) We define a pretopology on the category of schemes and morphisms of schemes by declaring covering families to be exactly the Nisnevich covers. This generates a topology called the Nisnevich topology. We write Nis for the category of schemes with the Nisnevich topology. The small Nisnevich site of X is the category O(XNis) whose objects are schemes U with a fixed Nisnevich morphism U → X. The morphisms are morphisms of schemes compatible with the fixed maps to X. The big Nisnevich site of X is the category Nis/X, that is, the category of schemes with a fixed map to X, considered with the Nisnevich topology. Nisnevich called this topology the completely decomposed topology. He introduced it in order to provide a cohomological interpretation of the class set of an affine group scheme (originally defined in adelic terms) and used it to partially prove the Grothendieck-Serre conjecture on rationally trivial torsors. This topology has also found important applications in algebraic K-theory, A¹ homotopy theory and the theory of motives. The big and small étale sites We say that a family of morphisms {uα : Xα → X} is an étale cover if the family is jointly surjective and each uα is an étale morphism. We define a pretopology on the category of schemes and morphisms of schemes by declaring covering families to be exactly the étale covers. This generates a topology called the étale topology. We write Ét for the category of schemes with the étale topology. The small étale site of X is the category O(Xét) whose objects are schemes U with a fixed étale morphism U → X. The morphisms are morphisms of schemes compatible with the fixed maps to X. The big étale site of X ' is the category Ét/X, that is, the category of schemes with a fixed map to X, considered with the étale topology. We can define the étale topology using less data. First, we notice that the étale topology is finer than the Zariski topology. Consequently, to define an étale cover of a scheme X, it suffices to first cover X by open affine subschemes, that is, to take a Zariski cover, and then to define an étale cover of an affine scheme. We define an étale cover of an affine scheme X to be a surjective family {uα : Xα → X} such that the set of all α is finite, each Xα is affine, and each uα is étale. Then an étale cover of X is a family {uα : Xα → X} which becomes an étale cover after base changing to any open affine subscheme of X''. Flat sites Bibliography | Grothendieck_topology |@lemmatized category:34 theory:13 branch:1 mathematics:1 grothendieck:22 topology:60 structure:2 c:29 make:2 object:17 act:1 like:2 open:38 set:28 topological:21 space:23 together:2 choice:1 call:15 site:33 axiomatize:1 notion:6 cover:67 use:13 provide:2 become:2 possible:7 define:29 sheaf:17 cohomology:14 first:5 algebraic:8 geometry:4 number:2 alexander:2 étale:25 scheme:27 since:1 l:1 adic:1 flat:2 crystalline:1 often:1 find:2 application:2 well:1 john:1 tate:1 rigid:1 analytic:6 natural:5 way:1 associate:9 ordinary:1 loosely:1 regard:1 generalization:1 classical:7 meager:1 point:4 hypothesis:1 namely:1 sobriety:1 completely:2 accurate:1 recover:1 sober:1 however:4 simple:2 example:6 indiscrete:5 show:2 express:2 conversely:2 come:2 introduction:1 andré:1 weil:5 famous:1 conjecture:3 propose:1 certain:6 property:6 equation:2 integral:1 coefficient:1 understand:1 geometric:2 variety:2 postulate:1 give:8 theoretic:4 information:4 defining:1 know:2 tool:1 available:1 unable:1 construct:3 early:1 introduce:2 map:23 analogue:2 local:4 isomorphism:6 covering:5 fundamental:1 group:5 soon:1 jean:2 pierre:1 serre:3 notice:5 mimic:1 immersion:12 consequently:4 construction:1 imitate:1 functor:6 saw:2 would:3 idea:4 suspect:1 need:4 replace:3 usual:1 one:6 instead:2 also:6 phrase:3 definition:6 abstractly:2 motivation:1 begin:2 x:108 let:17 whose:10 subset:11 u:39 morphisms:19 inclusion:6 v:24 context:1 presheaf:13 contravariant:4 satisfy:3 gluing:2 axiom:13 glue:1 term:2 pointwise:1 e:1 ui:6 value:3 determine:1 small:10 restriction:2 equivalent:4 work:1 collection:18 contain:3 encode:1 without:1 reference:1 sieve:40 stable:1 subfunctor:2 hom:16 yoneda:3 embed:2 apply:1 case:2 corresponds:1 select:2 precisely:1 consider:7 element:1 nonempty:2 f:23 morphism:10 leave:1 composition:1 pullback:4 along:2 denote:2 fibered:8 product:9 embedding:1 concretely:1 z:4 g:9 fg:1 fs:1 inherits:2 action:1 vi:2 w:8 distinguished:1 selection:2 subject:2 condition:3 comparison:1 j:6 distinguish:1 state:1 continue:1 previous:1 union:5 equal:3 word:1 sense:2 impose:1 base:4 change:4 character:4 suppose:2 arrow:5 ft:1 identity:5 correspond:3 vij:2 ji:1 lastly:1 alternative:1 fact:2 put:1 another:1 form:4 apparent:1 assume:1 underlying:1 specify:2 common:1 codomain:2 family:39 satisfies:2 say:6 pretopology:16 pt:15 existence:1 appear:1 exists:1 stability:1 xα:16 α:3 xβα:2 composite:1 always:1 converse:1 factor:3 generate:9 choose:1 easy:1 check:2 sometimes:1 weak:1 implies:1 original:1 restrict:1 attention:1 pair:1 note:1 require:3 allow:1 induce:3 bijection:2 halfway:1 separated:2 injection:1 lemma:1 particularly:1 description:1 diagram:1 must:2 equalizer:1 injective:1 similarly:1 presheaves:1 abelian:3 ring:4 module:3 either:1 etc:4 functors:1 two:3 examples:1 discrete:2 declare:5 big:14 chaotic:1 isomorphisms:1 thing:1 canonical:3 every:6 representable:1 strictly:2 universally:2 epimorphic:2 less:2 fine:2 subcanonical:4 exactly:4 encounter:1 practice:1 repeat:1 following:4 non:2 empty:1 naturally:1 vα:4 spc:10 function:1 uα:10 surjective:7 jointly:3 take:3 member:1 exist:4 fix:2 comma:1 fixed:8 continuous:4 induces:1 almost:1 difference:1 involve:1 commute:1 giraud:1 manifold:8 get:2 fiber:1 still:1 mean:1 mfd:6 smooth:4 real:1 subcategory:1 statement:1 preimage:2 critical:1 order:2 coarsest:1 finest:1 zariski:6 sit:3 look:1 zar:4 characterize:1 despite:1 outward:1 similarity:1 topologically:1 reduce:1 n:3 ideal:1 nilpotents:1 quotient:1 spec:2 underlie:1 closed:1 nisnevich:11 additional:1 induced:1 residue:1 field:1 k:3 write:2 ni:2 xnis:1 compatible:2 decomposed:1 cohomological:1 interpretation:1 class:1 affine:6 originally:1 adelic:1 partially:1 prove:1 rationally:1 trivial:1 torsors:1 important:1 homotopy:1 motif:1 ét:2 xét:1 data:1 suffice:1 subschemes:1 finite:1 subscheme:1 bibliography:1 |@bigram grothendieck_topology:14 topological_space:20 algebraic_geometry:2 alexander_grothendieck:2 étale_cohomology:1 analytic_geometry:2 andré_weil:1 weil_conjecture:1 jean_pierre:1 pierre_serre:1 contravariant_functor:3 fibered_product:8 cover_sieve:18 xα_x:13 define_pretopology:6 pt_pt:4 functor_category:1 contravariant_functors:1 smooth_manifold:1 morphisms_morphisms:3 étale_morphism:4 étale_cover:7 étale_topology:5 zariski_topology:1 |
2,657 | Clientâ%80%93server_model | The client-server software architecture model distinguishes client systems from server systems, which communicate over a computer network. A client-server application is a distributed system comprising both client and server software. A client software process may initiate a communication session, while the server waits for requests from any client. Description Client-server describes the relationship between two computer programs in which one program, the client program, makes a service request to another, the server program. Standard networked functions such as email exchange, web access and database access, are based on the client-server model. For example, a web browser is a client program at the user computer that may access information at any web server in the world. To check your bank account from your computer, a web browser client program in your computer forwards your request to a web server program at the bank. That program may in turn forward the request to its own database client program that sends a request to a database server at another bank computer to retrieve your account balance. The balance is returned to the bank database client, which in turn serves it back to the web browser client in your personal computer, which displays the information for you. The client-server model has become one of the central ideas of network computing. Most business applications being written today use the client-server model. So do the Internet's main application protocols, such as HTTP, SMTP, Telnet, DNS, etc. In marketing, the term has been used to distinguish distributed computing by smaller dispersed computers from the "monolithic" centralized computing of mainframe computers. But this distinction has largely disappeared as mainframes and their applications have also turned to the client-server model and become part of network computing. Each instance of the client software can send data requests to one or more connected servers. In turn, the servers can accept these requests, process them, and return the requested information to the client. Although this concept can be applied for a variety of reasons to many different kinds of applications, the architecture remains fundamentally the same. The most basic type of client-server architecture employs only two types of hosts: clients and servers. This type of architecture is sometimes referred to as two-tier. It allows devices to share files and resources. The two tier architecture means that the client acts as one tier and application in combination with server acts as another tier. These days, clients are most often web browsers, although that has not always been the case. Servers typically include web servers, database servers and mail servers. Online gaming is usually client-server too. In the specific case of MMORPG, the servers are typically operated by the company selling the game; for other games one of the players will act as the host by setting his game in server mode. The interaction between client and server is often described using sequence diagrams. Sequence diagrams are standardized in the Unified Modeling Language. When both the client- and server-software are running on the same computer, this is called a single seat setup. Specific types of clients include web browsers, email clients, and online chat clients. Specific types of servers include web servers, ftp servers, application servers, database servers, name servers, mail servers, file servers, print servers, and terminal servers. Most web services are also types of servers. Comparison to Peer-to-Peer architecture Another type of network architecture is known as peer-to-peer, because each host or instance of the program can simultaneously act as both a client and a server, and because each has equivalent responsibilities and status. Peer-to-peer architectures are often abbreviated using the acronym P2P. Both client-server and P2P architectures are in wide usage today. You can find more details in Comparison of Centralized (Client-Server) and Decentralized (Peer-to-Peer) Networking. both client server and P2P will work on windows and Linux. Comparison to Client-Queue-Client architecture While classic Client-Server architecture requires one of the communication endpoints to act as a server, which is much harder to implement, Client-Queue-Client allows all endpoints to be simple clients, while the server consists of some external software, which also acts as passive queue (one software instance passes its query to another instance to queue, e.g. database, and then this other instance pulls it from database, makes a response, passes it to database etc.). This architecture allows greatly simplified software implementation. Peer-to-Peer architecture was originally based on Client-Queue-Client concept. Advantages In most cases, a client-server architecture enables the roles and responsibilities of a computing system to be distributed among several independent computers that are known to each other only through a network. This creates an additional advantage to this architecture: greater ease of maintenance. For example, it is possible to replace, repair, upgrade, or even relocate a server while its clients remain both unaware and unaffected by that change. This independence from change is also referred to as encapsulation. All the data is stored on the servers, which generally have far greater security controls than most clients. Servers can better control access and resources, to guarantee that only those clients with the appropriate permissions may access and change data. Since data storage is centralized, updates to that data are far easier to administer than what would be possible under a P2P paradigm. Under a P2P architecture, data updates may need to be distributed and applied to each "peer" in the network, which is both time-consuming and error-prone, as there can be thousands or even millions of peers. Many mature client-server technologies are already available which were designed to ensure security, 'friendliness' of the user interface, and ease of use. It functions with multiple different clients of different capabilities. Disadvantages Traffic congestion on the network has been an issue since the inception of the client-server paradigm. As the number of simultaneous client requests to a given server increases, the server can become severely overloaded. Contrast that to a P2P network, where its bandwidth actually increases as more nodes are added, since the P2P network's overall bandwidth can be roughly computed as the sum of the bandwidths of every node in that network. The client-server paradigm lacks the robustness of a good P2P network. Under client-server, should a critical server fail, clients’ requests cannot be fulfilled. In P2P networks, resources are usually distributed among many nodes. Even if one or more nodes depart and abandon a downloading file, for example, the remaining nodes should still have the data needed to complete the download See also Hybrid client Inter-server Mainframe computer Mobile software Name server Observer pattern Push technology Pull technology Servent Standalone server Thin client References | Clientâ%80%93server_model |@lemmatized client:54 server:60 software:9 architecture:16 model:5 distinguish:2 system:4 communicate:1 computer:12 network:13 application:7 distributed:1 comprise:1 process:2 may:5 initiate:1 communication:2 session:1 wait:1 request:9 description:1 describe:2 relationship:1 two:4 program:10 one:8 make:2 service:2 another:5 standard:1 function:2 email:2 exchange:1 web:11 access:5 database:9 base:2 example:3 browser:5 user:2 information:3 world:1 check:1 bank:4 account:2 forward:2 turn:4 send:2 retrieve:1 balance:2 return:2 serf:1 back:1 personal:1 display:1 become:3 central:1 idea:1 compute:4 business:1 write:1 today:2 use:5 internet:1 main:1 protocol:1 http:1 smtp:1 telnet:1 dns:1 etc:2 marketing:1 term:1 distribute:4 computing:2 small:1 dispersed:1 monolithic:1 centralize:3 mainframe:3 distinction:1 largely:1 disappear:1 also:5 part:1 instance:5 data:7 connected:1 accept:1 requested:1 although:2 concept:2 apply:2 variety:1 reason:1 many:3 different:3 kind:1 remain:3 fundamentally:1 basic:1 type:7 employ:1 host:3 sometimes:1 refer:2 tier:4 allow:3 device:1 share:1 file:3 resource:3 mean:1 act:6 combination:1 day:1 often:3 always:1 case:3 typically:2 include:3 mail:2 online:2 gaming:1 usually:2 specific:3 mmorpg:1 operate:1 company:1 sell:1 game:3 player:1 set:1 mode:1 interaction:1 sequence:2 diagram:2 standardize:1 unified:1 modeling:1 language:1 run:1 call:1 single:1 seat:1 setup:1 chat:1 ftp:1 name:2 print:1 terminal:1 comparison:3 peer:12 know:2 simultaneously:1 equivalent:1 responsibility:2 status:1 abbreviate:1 acronym:1 wide:1 usage:1 find:1 detail:1 decentralize:1 networking:1 work:1 window:1 linux:1 queue:5 classic:1 require:1 endpoint:2 much:1 hard:1 implement:1 simple:1 consist:1 external:1 passive:1 pass:2 query:1 e:1 g:1 pull:2 response:1 greatly:1 simplify:1 implementation:1 originally:1 advantage:2 enable:1 role:1 among:2 several:1 independent:1 create:1 additional:1 great:2 ease:2 maintenance:1 possible:2 replace:1 repair:1 upgrade:1 even:3 relocate:1 unaware:1 unaffected:1 change:3 independence:1 encapsulation:1 store:1 generally:1 far:2 security:2 control:2 better:1 guarantee:1 appropriate:1 permission:1 since:3 storage:1 update:2 easy:1 administer:1 would:1 paradigm:3 need:2 time:1 consuming:1 error:1 prone:1 thousand:1 million:1 mature:1 technology:3 already:1 available:1 design:1 ensure:1 friendliness:1 interface:1 multiple:1 capability:1 disadvantage:1 traffic:1 congestion:1 issue:1 inception:1 number:1 simultaneous:1 give:1 increase:2 severely:1 overloaded:1 contrast:1 bandwidth:3 actually:1 node:5 add:1 overall:1 roughly:1 sum:1 every:1 lack:1 robustness:1 good:1 critical:1 fail:1 cannot:1 fulfil:1 depart:1 abandon:1 downloading:1 still:1 complete:1 download:1 see:1 hybrid:1 inter:1 mobile:1 observer:1 pattern:1 push:1 servent:1 standalone:1 thin:1 reference:1 |@bigram client_server:25 web_browser:5 unified_modeling:1 ftp_server:1 peer_peer:5 user_interface:1 traffic_congestion:1 |
2,658 | James_Cook | Captain James Cook FRS RN ( – 14 February 1779) was an English explorer, navigator and cartographer, ultimately rising to the rank of Captain in the Royal Navy. Cook was the first to map Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean during which he achieved the first European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands as well as the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand. James Cook at the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager per Collingridge (2002) and joined the Royal Navy in 1755. He saw action in the Seven Years' War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. This allowed General Wolfe to make his famous stealth attack on the Plains of Abraham, and helped to bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society. This notice came at a crucial moment both in his personal career and in the direction of British overseas exploration, and led to his commission in 1766 as commander of HM Bark Endeavour for the first of three Pacific voyages. Cook charted many areas and recorded several islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. His achievements can be attributed to a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, courage in exploring dangerous locations to confirm the facts (for example dipping into the Antarctic circle repeatedly and exploring around the Great Barrier Reef), an ability to lead men in adverse conditions, and boldness both with regard to the extent of his explorations and his willingness to exceed the instructions given to him by the Admiralty. Cook died in Hawaii in a fight with Hawaiians during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779. Early life Cook was born in relatively humble circumstances in the village of Marton in Yorkshire, today a suburb belonging to the town of Middlesbrough. He was baptised in the local church of St. Cuthbert's where today his name can be seen in the church register. Cook was one of five children of James Cook, a Scottish farm labourer, and his locally born wife Grace Pace. per Horwitz (2003) In 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his father's employer, Thomas Skottowe paid for him to attend the local school (now a museum). In 1741, after 5 years schooling, he began work for his father, who had by now been promoted to farm manager. When he had time off from the farm, he'd take himself off up nearby Roseberry Topping, climbing which gave him his first taste for adventure and exploration which was to stay with him for life. Cook's Cottage, his parents' last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, having been moved from England and reassembled brick by brick in 1934. In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved to the fishing village of Staithes to be apprenticed in a grocery/haberdashery business, where he first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window. After 18 months, not proving suitable for shop work, his boss William Sanderson took Cook to the nearby port town of Whitby and introduced him to John and Henry Walker. The Walkers were prominent local ship-owners and Quakers, and were in the coal trade. Their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their small fleet of vessels plying coal along the English coast. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of this apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and astronomy, all skills he would need one day to command his own ship. His three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea. He soon progressed through the merchant navy ranks, starting with his 1752 promotion to Mate (officer in charge of navigation) aboard the collier brig Friendship. In 1755, within a month of being offered command of this vessel, he volunteered for service in the Royal Navy, as Britain was re-arming for what was to become the Seven Years' War. Despite the need to start back at the bottom of the naval hierarchy, Cook realised his career would advance more quickly in military service. Family life Cook married Elizabeth Batts (1742-1835), the daughter of Samuel Batts, keeper of the Bell Inn, Wapping Famous 18th century people of Barking and Dagenham Info Sheet #22, LB Barking & Dagenham and one of his mentors, on the 21st of December 1762 at St. Margaret's Church in Barking, Essex. The couple had six children: James (1763-1794), Nathaniel (1764-1781), Elizabeth (1767-1771), Joseph (1768-1768), George (1772-1772) and Hugh (1776-1793). When not at sea, Cook lived in the East End of London. He attended St. Paul's Church, Shadwell, where his son James was baptised. Stepney Historical Trust has placed a plaque on Free Trade Wharf in the Highway, Shadwell to commemorate his life in the East End of London. Start of Royal Navy career James Cook's 1775 chart of Newfoundland On 7 June 1755 Cook volunteered to join the Royal Navy at Wapping, sensing an imminent war was approaching. His first posting was with HMS Eagle under Hugh Palliser, sailing with the ship in March of 1756 with the rank of boatswain. Within two years of joining the Royal Navy Cook passed his master's examinations at Trinity House, Deptford qualifying him to navigate and handle a ship of the King's fleet. G. Williams (2002) He then joined the frigate HMS Solebay as master under Captain Robert Craig. During this period he served in several minor actions in the vicinity of the British Isles. Life in the Royal Navy (1755-1767), The Captain Cook Society: Cook's Log, by Paul Capper 1985-1996 During the Seven Years' War, he served in North America as master of Pembroke Dean & Kemp, Oxford Companion of Ships and the Sea (Oxford U Press, 2005) In 1758 he took part in the major amphibious assault which captured Louisbourg from the French. Cook then participated in the siege of Quebec City before the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759. He showed a talent for surveying and cartography and was responsible for mapping much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege, allowing General Wolfe to make his famous stealth attack on the Plains of Abraham. Cook's surveying skills were put to good use in the 1760s, mapping the jagged coast of Newfoundland. Cook surveyed the northwest stretch in 1763 and 1764, the south coast between the Burin Peninsula and Cape Ray in 1765 and 1766, and the west coast in 1767. Cook’s five seasons in Newfoundland produced the first large-scale and accurate maps of the island’s coasts; they also gave Cook his mastery of practical surveying, achieved under often adverse conditions, and brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society at a crucial moment both in his personal career and in the direction of British overseas discovery. Following on from his exertions in Newfoundland, it was at this time that Cook wrote, he intended to go not only: "... farther than any man has been before me, but as far as I think it is possible for a man to go." First voyage (1768–71) A plaque describing Cook's landing at Kurnell, Australia, in April 1770 In 1766, the Royal Society hired Cook to travel to the Pacific Ocean to observe and record the transit of Venus across the Sun. He sailed from England in 1768, rounded Cape Horn and continued westward across the Pacific to arrive at Tahiti on 13 April 1769, where the observations were to be made. However, the result of the observations were not as conclusive or accurate as had been hoped. Cook later mapped the complete New Zealand coastline, making only some minor errors. He then sailed west, reaching the south-eastern coast of the Australian continent on 19 April 1770, and in doing so his expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline. At this time, the International Date Line had yet to be agreed, and so, the dates in Cook's journal are a day earlier than those accepted today. On 23 April he made his first recorded direct observation of indigenous Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point, noting in his journal "...and were so near the Shore as to distinguish several people upon the Sea beach they appear'd to be of a very dark or black Colour but whether this was the real colour of their skins or the C[l]othes they might have on I know not." Cook's journal: daily entry for 22 April 1770 National Library of Australia On 29 April Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the Kurnell Peninsula, which he named Botany Bay after the unique specimens retrieved by the botanists Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander. It is here that James Cook made first contact with an Aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/11/10/1036308574533.html . After his departure from Botany Bay he continued northwards, and a mishap occurred when Endeavour ran aground on a shoal of the Great Barrier Reef, on 11 June. The ship was badly damaged and his voyage was delayed almost seven weeks while repairs were carried out on the beach (near the docks of modern Cooktown, at the mouth of the Endeavour River). Once repairs were complete the voyage continued, sailing through Torres Strait and on 22 August he landed on Possession Island, where he claimed the entire coastline he had just explored as British territory. He returned to England via the Cape of Good Hope and Saint Helena, arriving on 12 July 1771. Interlude Cook's journals were published upon his return, and he became something of a hero among the scientific community. Among the general public, however, the aristocratic botanist Joseph Banks was a bigger hero. Banks even attempted to take command of Cook's second voyage, but removed himself from the voyage before it began, and Johann Reinhold Forster and his son Georg Forster were taken on as scientists for the voyage. Cook's son George was born five days before he left for his second voyage. Captain Cook: Obsession and Discovery TV documentary, Part 2 The routes of Captain James Cook's voyages. The first voyage is shown in red, second voyage in green, and third voyage in blue. The route of Cook's crew following his death is shown as a dashed blue line. Second voyage (1772–75) James Cook's 1777 South-Up map of South Georgia Shortly after his return, Cook was promoted from Master to Commander. Then once again he was commissioned by the Royal Society to search for the mythical Terra Australis. On his first voyage, Cook had demonstrated by circumnavigating New Zealand that it was not attached to a larger landmass to the south; and although by charting almost the entire eastern coastline of Australia he had shown it to be continental in size, the Terra Australis being sought was supposed to lie further to the south. Despite this evidence to the contrary Dalrymple and others of the Royal Society still believed that this massive southern continent should exist. Cook commanded HMS Resolution on this voyage, while Tobias Furneaux commanded its companion ship, HMS Adventure. Cook's expedition circumnavigated the globe at a very high southern latitude, becoming one of the first to cross the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773. He also surveyed, mapped and took possession for Britain of South Georgia explored by Anthony de la Roché in 1675, discovered and named Clerke Rocks and the South Sandwich Islands ('Sandwich Land'). In the Antarctic fog, Resolution and Adventure became separated. Furneaux made his way to New Zealand, where he lost some of his men following a fight with Māori, and eventually sailed back to Britain, while Cook continued to explore the Antarctic, reaching 71°10'S on 31 January 1774. Cook almost encountered the mainland of Antarctica, but turned back north towards Tahiti to resupply his ship. He then resumed his southward course in a second fruitless attempt to find the supposed continent. On this leg of the voyage he brought with him a young Tahitian named Omai, who proved to be somewhat less knowledgeable about the Pacific than Tupaia had been on the first voyage. On his return voyage, in 1774 he landed at the Friendly Islands, Easter Island, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, and Vanuatu. His reports upon his return home put to rest the popular myth of Terra Australis. Another accomplishment of the second voyage was the successful employment of the Larcum Kendall K1 chronometer, which enabled Cook to calculate his longitudinal position with much greater accuracy. Cook's log was full of praise for the watch and the charts of the southern Pacific Ocean he made with its use were remarkably accurate - so much so that copies of them were still in use in the mid 20th century. Captain James Cook: His voyages of exploration and the men that accompanied him (National Maritime Museum) accessed 10 Oct 2007 Upon his return, Cook was promoted to the rank of Captain and given an honorary retirement from the Royal Navy, as an officer in the Greenwich Hospital. His fame now extended beyond the Admiralty and he was also made a Fellow of the Royal Society and awarded the Copley Gold Medal, painted by Nathaniel Dance-Holland, dined with James Boswell and described in the House of Lords as "the first navigator in Europe". G. Williams (2002) But he could not be kept away from the sea. A third voyage was planned to find the Northwest Passage. Cook travelled to the Pacific and hoped to travel east to the Atlantic, while a simultaneous voyage travelled the opposite way. Third voyage (1776–79) and death A statue of James Cook stands in Waimea, Kauai commemorating his first contact with the Hawaiian Islands at the town's harbour on January 1778 On his last voyage, Cook once again commanded HMS Resolution, while Captain Charles Clerke commanded HMS Discovery. Ostensibly the voyage was planned to return Omai to Tahiti; this is what the general public believed, as he had become a favourite curiosity in London. Principally the purpose of the voyage was an attempt to discover the famed Northwest Passage. After returning Omai, Cook travelled north and in returning from forays on the Alaskan coast (see below) in 1778 became the first European to visit the Hawaiian Islands. In passing and after initial landfall in January 1778 at Waimea harbour, Kauai, Cook named the archipelago the "Sandwich Islands" after the fourth Earl of Sandwich, the acting First Lord of the Admiralty. From the South Pacific he travelled northeast to explore the west coast of North America, landing near the First Nations village at Yuquot in Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island, although he unknowingly sailed past the Strait of Juan de Fuca. He explored and mapped the coast from California all the way to the Bering Strait, on the way identifying what came to be known as Cook Inlet in Alaska. It has been said that, in a single visit, Cook charted the majority of the North American northwest coastline on world maps for the first time, determined the extent of Alaska and closed the gaps in Russian (from the West) and Spanish (from the South) exploratory probes of the Northern limits of the Pacific. The Bering Strait proved to be impassable, although he made several attempts to sail through it. He became increasingly frustrated on this voyage, and perhaps began to suffer from a stomach ailment; it has been speculated that this led to irrational behaviour towards his crew, such as forcing them to eat walrus meat, which they found inedible. Cook returned to Hawai`i in 1779. After sailing around the archipelago for some eight weeks, he made landfall at Kealakekua Bay, on 'Hawai`i Island', largest island in the Hawaiian Archipelago. Cook's arrival may have coincided with the Makahiki, a Hawaiian harvest festival of worship for the Polynesian god Lono. Indeed the form of Cook's ship, HMS Resolution, or more particularly the mast formation, sails and rigging, resembled certain significant artifacts that formed part of the season of worship. Similarly, Cook's clockwise route around the islands before making landfall resembled the processions that took place in a clockwise direction around the island during the Lono festivals. It has been argued (most extensively by Marshall Sahlins) that such coincidences were the reasons for Cook's (and to a limited extent, his crew's) initial deification by some Hawaiians who treated Cook as an incarnation of Lono. Though this view was first suggested by members of Cook's expedition, the idea that any Hawaiians understood Cook to be Lono, and the evidence presented in support of it was challenged in 1992. G. Obeyesekere, The Apotheosis of Captain Cook (1992) Waimea on the island of Kauai, as seen from the ocean. Waimea was Cook's first landing point in Hawai`i in 1778. After a month's stay, Cook got under sail again to resume his exploration of the Northern Pacific. However, shortly after leaving Hawai`i Island, the foremast of the Resolution broke and the ships returned to Kealakekua Bay for repairs. It has been hypothesized that the return to the islands by Cook's expedition was not just unexpected by the Hawaiians but unwelcome because the season of Lono had recently ended (though this presumes that Cook was connected in some way with Lono and Makahiki). In any case, tensions rose and a number of quarrels broke out between the Europeans and Hawaiians. On 14 February at Kealakekua Bay, some Hawaiians took one of Cook's small boats. Normally, as thefts were quite common in Tahiti and the other islands, Cook would have taken hostages until the stolen articles were returned. Indeed, he attempted to take hostage the King of Hawai`i, Kalaniopu`u. The Hawaiians prevented this, and Cook's men had to retreat to the beach. As Cook turned his back to help launch the boats, he was struck on the head by the villagers and then stabbed to death as he fell on his face in the surf. V. Collingridge (2003) page 410 et seq. Obsession and Betrayal The Hawaiians dragged his body away. Four of the Marines with Cook were also killed and two wounded in the confrontation. The Death of Cook painted by John Cleveley in 1784 Some scholars suggest that Cook's return to Hawai`i outside the season of worship for Lono, which was synonymous with 'peace', and thus in the season of 'war' (being dedicated to Kū, god of war) may have upset the equilibrium and fostered an atmosphere of resentment and aggression from the local population. Coupled with a jaded grasp of native diplomacy and a burgeoning but limited understanding of local politics, Cook may have inadvertently contributed to the tensions that ultimately brought about his demise. The esteem in which he was nevertheless held by the Hawaiians resulted in his body being retained by their chiefs and elders. Following the practice of the time, Cook's body underwent funerary rituals similar to those reserved for the chiefs and highest elders of the society. The body was disemboweled, baked to facilitate removal of the flesh, and the bones were carefully cleaned for preservation as religious icons in a fashion somewhat reminiscent of the treatment of European saints in the Middle Ages. Some of Cook's remains, disclosing some corroborating evidence to this effect, were eventually returned to the British for a formal burial at sea following an appeal by the crew. V. Collingridge (2003) page 413 Obsession and Betrayal The belief of some of Cook's crew and later commentators that Cook's flesh was eaten by Hawaiians is strongly disputed, as Hawaiians of that era did not practice cannibalism. Clerke took over the expedition and made a final attempt to pass through the Bering Strait. Following the death of Clerke, Resolution and Discovery returned home in October 1780 commanded by John Gore, a veteran of Cook's first voyage, and Captain James King. Cook's account of his third and final voyage was completed upon their return by King. Cook's protégés A number of the junior officers who served under Cook went on to distinctive accomplishments of their own. William Bligh, Cook's sailing master, was given command of HMS Bounty in 1787 to sail to Tahiti and return with breadfruit. Bligh is most known for the mutiny of his crew which resulted in his being set adrift in 1789. He later became governor of New South Wales, where he was subject of another mutiny — the only successful armed takeover of an Australian colonial government. George Vancouver, one of Cook's midshipmen, later led a voyage of exploration to the Pacific Coast of North America from 1791 to 1794. George Dixon sailed under Cook on his third expedition, and later commanded an expedition of his own. Legacy A statue of James Cook in Greenwich, London, England Cook's 12 years sailing around the Pacific Ocean contributed much to European knowledge of the area. Several islands such as Sandwich Islands (Hawaii) were encountered for the first time by Europeans, and his more accurate navigational charting of large areas of the Pacific was a major achievement. To create accurate maps, latitude and longitude need to be known. Navigators had been able to work out latitude accurately for centuries by measuring the angle of the sun or a star above the horizon with an instrument such as a backstaff or quadrant. Longitude was more difficult to measure accurately because it requires precise knowledge of the time difference between points on the surface of the earth. Earth turns a full 360 degrees relative to the sun each day. Thus longitude corresponds to time: 15 degrees every hour, or 1 degree every 4 minutes. Cook gathered accurate longitude measurements during his first voyage due to his navigational skills, the help of astronomer Charles Green and by using the newly published Nautical Almanac tables, via the lunar distance method — measuring the angular distance from the moon to either the sun during daytime or one of eight bright stars during night-time to determine the time at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and comparing that to his local time determined via the altitude of the sun, moon, or stars. On his second voyage Cook used the K1 chronometer made by Larcum Kendall, which was the shape of a large pocket watch, 13 cm (5 inches) in diameter. It was a copy of the H4 clock made by John Harrison, which proved to be the first to keep accurate time at sea when used on the ship Deptford's journey to Jamaica, 1761-1762. Ever the observer, Cook was the first European to have extensive contact with various people of the Pacific. He correctly concluded there was a relationship among all the people in the Pacific, despite their being separated by thousands of miles of ocean (see Malayo-Polynesian languages). In New Zealand the coming of Cook is often used to signify the onset of colonisation. per Horwitz (2003) James Cook also came up with the theory that Polynesians originated from Asia, which was later proved to be correct by scientist Bryan Sykes. Cook was accompanied by many scientists, whose observations and discoveries added to the importance of the voyages. Joseph Banks, a botanist, went on the first voyage along with fellow botanist Daniel Solander from Sweden. Between them they collected over 3,000 plant species. Banks became one of the strongest promoters of the settlement of Australia by the British, based on his own personal observations. There were several artists on the first voyage. Sydney Parkinson was involved in many of the drawings, completing 264 drawings before his death near the end of the voyage. They were of immense scientific value to British botanists. Cook's second expedition included the artist William Hodges, who produced notable landscape paintings of Tahiti, Easter Island, and other locations. His contributions were recognized during his era. In 1779, when the American colonies were at war with Britain in their war for independence, Benjamin Franklin wrote to captains of American warships at sea, Unknown to Franklin, Cook had met his death a month before this "passport" was written. recommending that if they came into contact with Cook's vessel, to: Captain Cook memorial statue at the Catani Gardens St Kilda, Victoria, Australia The site where he was killed in Hawaii is marked by a white obelisk and about of land around it is chained off. This land, though in Hawaii, has been given to the United Kingdom. Therefore, the site is officially a part of the UK. With the jurisdictions reversed exactly the same sort of situation exists at Runnymede where the U.S. has extraterritorial jurisdiction over a monument to John F. Kennedy. A nearby town is named Captain Cook, Hawaii as well as several businesses. Cook appeared on a United States coin, the 1928 Hawaiian Sesquicentennial half dollar. Minted during the celebration marking the 150th anniversary of his discovery of the islands, its low mintage (10,008) has made this example of Early United States commemorative coins both scarce and expensive. The first tertiary education institution in North Queensland, Australia was named after him, with James Cook University opening in Townsville in 1970. Numerous other institutions, landmarks and place names reflect the importance of Cook's contribution to knowledge of geography. These also include the Cook Islands, the Cook Strait, and the crater Cook on the Moon. Tributes also abound in post-industrial Middlesbrough, and include a primary school Profile of Captain Cook Primary School at BBC News , shopping square Captain Cook Shopping Square and the Bottle 'O Notes a public artwork by Claes Oldenburg erected in the town's Central Gardens in 1993. His nearby birthplace of Marton is the location of both the James Cook University Hospital, a teaching hospital, and the Captain Cook Birthplace Museum. The Royal Research Ship RRS James Cook was built in 2006 to replace the RRS Charles Darwin in the UK's Royal Research Fleet. See also List of people on stamps of Ireland Death of Cook — Painting depicting the event Australian places named by James Cook Stepney Historical Trust Notes References Aughton, Peter. 2002, Endeavour: The Story of Captain Cook's First Great Epic Voyage. Cassell & Co., London. John Cawte Beaglehole, biographer of Cook and editor of his Journals. Collingridge, Vanessa. Feb. 2003 Captain Cook: The Life, Death and Legacy of History's Greatest Explorer, Ebury Press, ISBN 0-09-188898-0 Edwards, Philip, ed. 2003, James Cook: The Journals. Prepared from the original manuscripts by J. C. Beaglehole 1955-67. Penguin Books, London. Forster, Georg. A Voyage Round the World, ed. 1986 (published first 1777 as: A Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years, 1772, 3, 4, and 5), Wiley-VCH (January 1, 1986). ISBN 978-3050001807 Horwitz, Tony. Oct. 2003, Blue Latitudes: Boldly Going Where Captain Cook Has Gone Before, Bloomsbury, ISBN 0-7475-6455-8 Andrew Kippis, The Life and Voyages of Captain James Cook, Westminster 1788, George Newnes, London/Charles Scribner's Sons, New York 1904. Obeyesekere, Gananath. 1992, The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05752-4. Rae, Julie, 1997 "Captain James Cook Endeavours" Stepney Historical Trust London Richardson, Brian. 2005. Longitude and Empire: How Captain Cook's Voyages Changed the World University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 0-7748-1190-0. Sydney Daily Telegraph. 1970, Captain Cook: His Artists - His Voyages. The Sydney Daily Telegraph Portfolio of Original Works by Artists who sailed with Captain Cook. Australian Consolidated Press, Sydney. Thomas, Nicholas. 2003, The Extraordinary Voyages of Captain James Cook. Walker & Co., New York. ISBN 0-8027-1412-9 Villiers, Alan John, 1903-. Captain James Cook. Newport Beach, CA : Books on Tape, 1983. Williams, Glyndwr, ed. 1997, Captain Cook's Voyages: 1768-1779. The Folio Society, London. Williams, G (Prof.), 2002 Captain Cook: Explorer, Navigator and Pioneer, BBC History 2002 External links 'Cook, James (1728 - 1779)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 1, Melbourne University Press, 1966, pp 243–244 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online Captain Cook Society The Endeavour journal (1) and The Endeavour journal (2), as kept by James Cook - digitised and held by the National Library of Australia Captain James Cook: The World's Explorer Life in the Pacific of the 1700s: The Cook/Forster Collection of the Georg August University of Göttingen exhibition at the Honolulu Academy of Arts, 23 February - 14 May 2006 The South Seas Project: maps and online editions of the Journals of James Cook's First Pacific Voyage. 1768-1771, Includes full text of journals kept by Cook, Joseph Banks and Sydney Parkinson, as well as the complete text of John Hawkesworth's 1773 Account of Cook's first voyage. See a c. 1780 map of Cook's third voyage by Rigobert Bonne, Carte de la Côte N.O. de l'Amérique et de la Côte N.E. de l'Asie reconnues en 1778 et 1779 / par M. Bonne, Ingenieur-Hydrographe de la Marine hosted by the Portal to Texas History. Discovery of New Zealand Captain Cook's Voyages by Izidor Hafner, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. Cook's Pacific Encounters: Cook-Forster Collection online Images and descriptions of more than 300 artefacts collected during the three Pacific voyages of James Cook. 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2,659 | Intelligence_quotient | The IQs of a large enough population can be modeled with a Normal Distribution. An intelligence quotient, or IQ, is a score derived from one of several different standardized tests attempting to measure intelligence. The term "IQ," borrowed from the German Intelligenz-Quotient, was coined by the German psychologist William Stern in 1912 as a proposed method of scoring early modern children's intelligence tests such as those developed by Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon in the early 20th Century. i.e. as a quotient of "mental age" and "chronological age." Although the term "IQ" is still in common use, the scoring of modern IQ tests such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is now based on a projection of the subject's measured rank on the Gaussian bell curve with a center value (average IQ) of 100, and a standard deviation of 15, although different tests may have different standard deviations. IQ scores have been shown to be associated with such factors as morbidity and mortality, parental social status, Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns (Report of a Task Force established by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological Association - Released August 7, 1995 - A slightly edited version was published in the American Psychologist, Feb 1996. Official Journal of the APA) and to a substantial degree, parental IQ. While its inheritance has been investigated for nearly a century, controversy remains as to how much is inheritable, and the mechanisms of inheritance are still a matter of some debate. The same study suggests that the heritable component of IQ becomes more significant with age. IQ scores are used in many contexts: as predictors of educational achievement or special needs, by social scientists who study the distribution of IQ scores in populations and the relationships between IQ score and other variables, and as predictors of job performance and income. The average IQ scores for many populations have been rising at an average rate of three points per decade since the early 20th century with most of the increase in the lower half of the IQ range: a phenomenon called the Flynn effect. It is disputed whether these changes in scores reflect real changes in intellectual abilities, or merely methodological problems with past or present testing. History The modern IQ score is a mathematical transformation of a raw score on an IQ test, based on the rank of that score in a normalization sample. See: quantile, percentile, percentile rank. Modern scores are sometimes referred to as "deviance IQ", while older method age-specific scores are referred to as "ratio IQ." The two methodologies yield similar results near the middle of the bell curve, but the older ratio IQs yielded far higher scores for the intellectually gifted— for example, Marilyn vos Savant, who appeared in the Guinness Book of World Records, obtained a ratio IQ of 228. While this score could make sense using Binet's formula (and even then, only for a child), on the Gaussian curve model it would be an exceptional 7.9 standard deviations above the mean and hence virtually impossible in a population with a normal IQ distribution (see normal distribution). In addition, IQ tests like the Wechsler were not intended to discriminate reliably much beyond IQ 145, as ceiling effects become a concern. Since the publication of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), almost all intelligence scales have adopted the normal distribution method of scoring. The use of the normal distribution scoring method makes the term "intelligence quotient" an inaccurate description, mathematically speaking, of the intelligence measurement, but "I.Q." still enjoys colloquial usage, and is used to describe all of the intelligence scales currently in use. Heritability The role of genes and environment (nature and nurture) in determining IQ is reviewed in Plomin et al. (2001, 2003). Plomin et al. (2001, 2003) Until recently heritability was mostly studied in children. Various studies find the heritability of IQ between 0.4 and 0.8 in the United States; that is, depending on the study, a little less than half to substantially more than half of the variation in IQ among the children studied was due to variation in their genes. The remainder was thus due to environmental variation and measurement error. A heritability in the range of 0.4 to 0.8 implies that IQ is "substantially" heritable. The effect of restriction of range on IQ was examined by Matt McGue and colleagues, who wrote that "restriction in range in parent disinhibitory psychopathology and family SES had no effect on adoptive-sibling correlations ... IQ." On the other hand, a 2003 study by Eric Turkheimer, Andreana Haley, Mary Waldron, Brian D'Onofrio, Irving I. Gottesman demonstrated that the proportions of IQ variance attributable to genes and environment vary with socioeconomic status. They found that in impoverished families, 60% of the variance in IQ "in a sample of 7-year-old twins" is accounted for by the shared environment, and the contribution of genes was close to zero. It is reasonable to expect that genetic influences on traits like IQ should become less important as one gains experiences with age. Surprisingly, the opposite occurs. Heritability measures in infancy are as low as 20%, around 40% in middle childhood, and as high as 80% in adulthood. The American Psychological Association's 1995 task force on "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" concluded that within the white population the heritability of IQ is "around .75." The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart, a multiyear study of 100 sets of reared-apart twins which was started in 1979, concluded that about 70% of the variance in IQ was found to be associated with genetic variation. Some of the correlation of IQs of twins may be a result of the effect of the maternal environment before birth, shedding some light on why IQ correlation between twins reared apart is so robust. There are a number of points to consider when interpreting heritability: A high heritability does not mean that the environment has no effect on the development of a trait, or that learning is not involved. Vocabulary size, for example, is very substantially heritable (and highly correlated with general intelligence) although every word in an individual's vocabulary is learned. In a society in which plenty of words are available in everyone's environment, especially for individuals who are motivated to seek them out, the number of words that individuals actually learn depends to a considerable extent on their genetic predispositions. A common error is to assume that because something is heritable it is necessarily unchangeable. As previously noted, heritable traits can depend on learning, and they may be subject to other environmental effects as well. The value of heritability can change if the distribution of environments (or genes) in the population is substantially altered. For example, an impoverished or suppressive environment could fail to support the development of a trait, and hence restrict individual variation. Differences in variation of heritability are found between developed and developing nations. This could affect estimates of heritability. Another example is Phenylketonuria which previously caused mental retardation for everyone who had this genetic disorder. Today, this can be prevented by following a modified diet. On the other hand, there can be effective environmental changes that do not change heritability at all. If the environment relevant to a given trait improves in a way that affects all members of the population equally, the mean value of the trait will rise without any change in its heritability (because the differences among individuals in the population will stay the same). This has evidently happened for height: the heritability of stature is high, but average heights continue to increase. Even in developed nations, high heritability of a trait within a given group has no necessary implications for the source of a difference between groups. See: Ethnic Differences in Children's Intelligence Test Scores: Role of Economic Deprivation, Home Environment, and Maternal Characteristics Environment Environmental factors play a role in determining IQ. Proper childhood nutrition appears critical for cognitive development; malnutrition can lower IQ. A recent study found that the FADS2 gene, along with breastfeeding, adds about seven IQ points to those with the "C" version of the gene. Those with the "G" version of the FADS2 gene see no advantage. Gene governs IQ boost from breastfeeding Musical training in childhood also increases IQ. Schellenberg, E. G. (2004). "Music lessons enhance IQ." Psychol Sci 15(8): 511-4. Recent studies have shown that training in using one's working memory may increase IQ. (Klingberg et al., 2002) Family environment In the developed world, personality traits in some studies show that, contrary to expectations, environmental effects actually can cause non-related children raised in the same family ("adoptive siblings") to be as different as children raised in different families. Harris (1998) There are some family effects on the IQ of children, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance, however, by adulthood this correlation approaches zero. For IQ, adoption studies show that, after adolescence, adoptive siblings are no more similar in IQ than strangers (IQ correlation near zero), while full siblings show an IQ correlation of 0.6. Twin studies reinforce this pattern: monozygotic (identical) twins raised separately are highly similar in IQ (0.86), more so than dizygotic (fraternal) twins raised together (0.6) and much more than adoptive siblings (~0.0). Biased older studies? Stoolmiller (1999) found that the range restriction of family environments that goes with adoption, that adopting families tend to be more similar on for example socio-economic status than the general population, means that the role of the shared family environment has been underestimated in previous studies. Corrections for range correction applied to adoption studies indicate that socio-economic status could account for as much as 50% of the variance in IQ. However, the effect of restriction of range on IQ for adoption studies was examined by Matt McGue and colleagues, who wrote that "restriction in range in parent disinhibitory psychopathology and family socio-economic status had no effect on adoptive-sibling correlations [in] IQ". Eric Turkheimer and colleagues (2003), Eric Turkheimer and colleagues (2003) not using an adoption study, included impoverished US families. Results demonstrated that the proportions of IQ variance attributable to genes and environment vary nonlinearly with socio-economic status. The models suggest that in impoverished families, 60% of the variance in IQ is accounted for by the shared family environment, and the contribution of genes is close to zero; in affluent families, the result is almost exactly the reverse. Socioeconomic status modifies heritability of iq in young children Eric Turkheimer, Andreana Haley, Mary Waldron, Brian D'Onofrio, Irving I. Gottesman. Psychological Science 14 (6), 623–628. 2003 They suggest that the role of shared environmental factors may have been underestimated in older studies which often only studied affluent middle class families. New Thinking on Children, Poverty & IQ November 10, 2003 Connect for Kids Maternal (fetal) environment A meta-analysis, by Devlin and colleagues in Nature (1997), of 212 previous studies evaluated an alternative model for environmental influence and found that it fits the data better than the 'family-environments' model commonly used. The shared maternal (fetal) environment effects, often assumed to be negligible, account for 20% of covariance between twins and 5% between siblings, and the effects of genes are correspondingly reduced, with two measures of heritability being less than 50%. Bouchard and McGue reviewed the literature in 2003, arguing that Devlin's conclusions about the magnitude of heritability is not substantially different from previous reports and that their conclusions regarding prenatal effects stands in contradiction to many previous reports. They write that: Chipuer et al. and Loehlin conclude that the postnatal rather than the prenatal environment is most important. The Devlin et al. conclusion that the prenatal environment contributes to twin IQ similarity is especially remarkable given the existence of an extensive empirical literature on prenatal effects. Price (1950), in a comprehensive review published over 50 years ago, argued that almost all MZ twin prenatal effects produced differences rather than similarities. As of 1950 the literature on the topic was so large that the entire bibliography was not published. It was finally published in 1978 with an additional 260 references. At that time Price reiterated his earlier conclusion. Research subsequent to the 1978 review largely reinforces Price’s hypothesis. The Dickens and Flynn model Dickens and Flynn Dickens and Flynn (2001) postulate that the arguments regarding the disappearance of the shared family environment should apply equally well to groups separated in time. This is contradicted by the Flynn effect. Changes here have happened too quickly to be explained by genetic heritable adaptation. This paradox can be explained by observing that the measure "heritability" includes both a direct effect of the genotype on IQ and also indirect effects where the genotype changes the environment, in turn affecting IQ. That is, those with a higher IQ tend to seek out stimulating environments that further increase IQ. The direct effect can initially have been very small but feedback loops can create large differences in IQ. In their model an environmental stimulus can have a very large effect on IQ, even in adults, but this effect also decays over time unless the stimulus continues (the model could be adapted to include possible factors, like nutrition in early childhood, that may cause permanent effects). The Flynn effect can be explained by a generally more stimulating environment for all people. The authors suggest that programs aiming to increase IQ would be most likely to produce long-term IQ gains if they taught children how to replicate outside the program the kinds of cognitively demanding experiences that produce IQ gains while they are in the program and motivate them to persist in that replication long after they have left the program. William T. Dickens and James R. Flynn, Heritability Estimates Versus Large Environmental Effects:The IQ Paradox Resolved, Psychological Review 2001. Vol. 108, No. 2. 346-369. William T. Dickens and James R. Flynn, "The IQ Paradox: Still Resolved," Psychological Review 109, no. 4 (2002). IQ and the brain In 2004, Richard Haier, professor of psychology in the Department of Pediatrics and colleagues at University of California, Irvine and the University of New Mexico used MRI to obtain structural images of the brain in 47 normal adults who also took standard IQ tests. The study demonstrated that general human intelligence appears to be based on the volume and location of gray matter tissue in the brain also demonstrated that, of the brain's gray matter, only about 6 percent appeared to be related to IQ. Many different sources of information have converged on the view that the frontal lobes are critical for fluid intelligence. Patients with damage to the frontal lobe are impaired on fluid intelligence tests (Duncan et al. 1995). The volume of frontal grey (Thompson et al. 2001) and white matter (Schoenemann et al. 2005) have also been associated with general intelligence. In addition, recent neuroimaging studies have limited this association to the lateral prefrontal cortex. Duncan and colleagues (2000) showed using Positron Emission Tomography that problem-solving tasks that correlated more highly with IQ also activate the lateral prefrontal cortex. More recently, Gray and colleagues (2003) used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to show that those individuals that were more adept at resisting distraction on a demanding working memory task had both a higher IQ and increased prefrontal activity. For an extensive review of this topic, see Gray and Thompson (2004). A study involving 307 children (age between six to nineteen) measuring the size of brain structures using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and measuring verbal and non-verbal abilities has been conducted (Shaw et al. 2006). The study has indicated that there is a relationship between IQ and the structure of the cortex—the characteristic change being the group with the superior IQ scores starts with thinner cortex in the early age then becomes thicker than average by the late teens. There is "a highly significant association" between the CHRM2 gene and intelligence according to a 2006 Dutch family study. The study concluded that there was an association between the CHRM2 gene on chromosome 7 and Performance IQ, as measured by the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised. The Dutch family study used a sample of 667 individuals from 304 families. A similar association was found independently in the Minnesota Twin and Family Study (Comings et al. 2003) and by the Department of Psychiatry at the Washington University. Significant injuries isolated to one side of the brain, especially those occurring at a young age, may not significantly affect IQ. Studies reach conflicting conclusions regarding the controversial idea that brain size correlates positively with IQ. Jensen and Reed claim no direct correlation exists in nonpathological subjects. Reed, T.E., & Jensen, A.R. 1993. Cranial capacity: new Caucasian data and comments on Rushton's claimed Mongoloid-Caucasoid brain-size differences. Intelligence, 17, 423-431 A more recent meta-analysis suggests otherwise. McDaniel, M.A. (2005) Big-brained people are smarter: A meta-analysis of the relationship between in vivo brain volume and intelligence. Intelligence, 33, 337-346. PDF An alternative approach has sought to link differences in neural plasticity with intelligence, and this view has recently received some empirical support. Trends in IQ Since the twentieth century, IQ scores have increased at an average rate of around three IQ points per decade in most parts of the world. (Flynn, 1999) This phenomenon has been named the Flynn effect (aka the "Lynn-Flynn effect") named after Richard Lynn and James R. Flynn. Attempted explanations have included improved nutrition, a trend towards smaller families, better education, greater environmental complexity, and heterosis. Some factions believe that modern education has become more geared toward IQ tests, thus rendering higher scores, but not necessarily higher intelligence. Tests are therefore renormalized occasionally to obtain mean scores of 100, for example WISC-R (1974), WISC-III (1991) and WISC-IV (2003). This adjustment specifically addresses the variation over time, allowing us to compare scores from different times. Some researchers argue that the Flynn effect may have ended in some developed nations starting in the mid 1990s, namely in Denmark Teasdale, Thomas W., and David R. Owen. (2005). "A long-term rise and recent decline in intelligence test performance: The Flynn Effect in reverse." Personality and Individual Differences. 39(4):837-843. and in Norway. Mutability Though generally believed to be immutable, recent research suggests that certain mental activities can change the brain's raw ability to process information, leading to the conclusion that intelligence can be altered or changed over time. Studies into the neuroscience of animals indicate that challenging activities can produce changes in gene expression patterns of the brain. (Training Degus to Use Rakes and Iriki's earlier research with macaque monkeys indicating brain changes.) A study on young adults published in April 2008 by a team from the Universities of Michigan and Bern supports the possibility of the transfer of fluid intelligence from specifically designed working memory training. Further research will be needed to determine nature, extent and duration of the proposed transfer: Among other questions, it remains to be seen whether the results extend to other kinds of fluid intelligence tests than the matrix test used in the study, and if so, whether, after training, fluid intelligence measures retain their correlation with educational and occupational achievement or if the value of fluid intelligence for predicting performance on other tasks changes. It is also unclear whether the training is durable of extended periods of time. Group differences Among the most controversial issues related to the study of intelligence is the observation that intelligence measures such as IQ scores vary between populations. While there is little scholarly debate about the existence of some of these differences, the reasons remain highly controversial both within academia and in the public sphere. Health Persons with a higher IQ have generally lower adult morbidity and mortality. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, severe depression and schizophrenia are less prevalent in higher IQ bands. A study of 11,282 individuals in Scotland who took intelligence tests at ages 7, 9 and 11 in the 1950s and 1960s, found an "inverse linear association" between childhood IQ scores and hospital admissions for injuries in adulthood. The association between childhood IQ and the risk of later injury remained even after accounting for factors such as the child's socioeconomic background. Research in Scotland has also shown that a 15-point lower IQ meant people had a fifth less chance of living to 76, while those with a 30-point disadvantage were 37% less likely than those with a higher IQ to live that long. A decrease in IQ has also been shown as an early predictor of late-onset Alzheimer's Disease and other forms of dementia. In a 2004 study, Cervilla and colleagues showed that tests of cognitive ability provide useful predictive information up to a decade before the onset of dementia. However, when diagnosing individuals with a higher level of cognitive ability, in this study those with IQ's of 120 or more, patients should not be diagnosed from the standard norm but from an adjusted high-IQ norm that measured changes against the individual's higher ability level. In 2000, Whalley and colleagues published a paper in the journal Neurology, which examined links between childhood mental ability and late-onset dementia. The study showed that mental ability scores were significantly lower in children who eventually developed late-onset dementia when compared with other children tested. Several factors can lead to significant cognitive impairment, particularly if they occur during pregnancy and childhood when the brain is growing and the blood-brain barrier is less effective. Such impairment may sometimes be permanent, or may sometimes be partially or wholly compensated for by later growth. Several harmful factors may also combine, possibly causing greater impairment. Developed nations have implemented several health policies regarding nutrients and toxins known to influence cognitive function. These include laws requiring fortification of certain food products and laws establishing safe levels of pollutants (e.g. lead, mercury, and organochlorides). Comprehensive policy recommendations targeting reduction of cognitive impairment in children have been proposed. In terms of the effect of one's intelligence on health, high childhood IQ correlates with one's chance of becoming a vegetarian in adulthood, and inversely correlates with the chances of smoking, becoming obese, and having serious traumatic accidents in adulthood. Sex Men and women have statistically significant differences in average scores on tests of particular abilities. Douglas N. Jackson and J. Philippe Rushton, Males have greater g: Sex differences in general mental ability from 100,000 17- to 18-year-olds on the Scholastic Assessment Test, Intelligence, Volume 34, Issue 5, September-October 2006, Pages 479-486. Lynn, R., & Irwing, P. (2004). Sex differences on the Progressive Matrices: A meta-analysis. Intelligence, 32, 481−498 Studies also illustrate consistently greater variance in the performance of men compared to that of women (i.e., men are more represented at the extremes of performance) Deary, I.J., Irwing, P., Der, G., & Bates, T.C. (2007). "Brother–sister differences in the g factor in intelligence: Analysis of full, opposite-sex siblings from the NLSY1979." Intelligence, 35(5): 451-456. . IQ tests are weighted on these sex differences so there is no bias on average in favor of one sex, however the consistent difference in variance is not removed. Because the tests are defined so there is no average difference it is difficult to put any meaning on a statement that one sex has a higher intelligence than the other. However some people have made claims like this even using unbiased IQ tests. For instance claims that men tend to outperform women on average by 3-4 IQ points based on tests of medical students where the greater variance of mens' IQ can be expected to contribute to the result, or where a 'correction' is made for different maturation ages. Publications Race The 1996 Task Force investigation on Intelligence sponsored by the American Psychological Association concluded that there are significant variations in I.Q. across races. The problem of determining the causes underlying this variation relates to the question of the contributions of "nature and nurture" to I.Q. Most scientists believe there is insufficient data to resolve the contributions of heredity and environment. One of the most notable researchers arguing for a strong hereditary basis is Arthur Jensen. In contrast, Richard Nisbett , the long-time director of the Culture and Cognition program at the University of Michigan, argues that intelligence is a matter of environment and biased standards that praise a certain type of “intelligence” (success on standardized tests) over another. In a recent editorial in the New York Times entitled, “All Brains Are the Same Color“, Dr. Nisbett argues against the hypothesis that IQ differences between blacks and whites are genetic. He notes that decades of research have not supported the assertion that one of the races in the United States is biologically inferior in terms of innate intelligence. Rather, he argues, “Whites showed better comprehension of sayings, better ability to recognize similarities and better facility with analogies — when solutions required knowledge of words and concepts that were more likely to be known to whites than to blacks. But when these kinds of reasoning were tested with words and concepts known equally well to blacks and whites, there were no differences. Within each race, prior knowledge predicted learning and reasoning, but between the races it was prior knowledge only that differed.”ll Positive correlations with IQ While IQ is sometimes treated as an end unto itself, scholarly work on IQ focuses to a large extent on IQ's validity, that is, the degree to which IQ correlates with outcomes such as job performance, social pathologies, or academic achievement. Different IQ tests differ in their validity for various outcomes. Traditionally, correlation for IQ and outcomes is viewed as a means to also predict performance; however readers should distinguish between prediction in the hard sciences and the social sciences. Other tests One study found a correlation of .82 between g (general intelligence factor) and scores; another has found correlation of .81 between g and GCSE scores. Correlations between IQ scores (general cognitive ability) and achievement test scores are reported to be .81 by Deary and colleagues, with the percentage of variance accounted for by general cognitive ability ranging "from 58.6% in Mathematics and 48% in English to 18.1% in Art and Design". Ian J. Deary, Steve Strand, Pauline Smith and Cres Fernandes, Intelligence and educational achievement, Intelligence, Volume 35, Issue 1, January-February 2007, Pages 13-21. Job performance According to Schmidt and Hunter, "for hiring employees without previous experience in the job the most valid predictor of future performance is general mental ability." Schmidt, F. L. and Hunter, J. E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in psychology: practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 262–274. The validity depends on the type of job and varies across different studies, ranging from 0.2 to 0.6. Hunter, J. E. and Hunter, R. F. (1984). Validity and utility of alternative predictors of job performance. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 72–98. However IQ mostly correlates with cognitive ability only if IQ scores are below average, making it less useful for predicting performance of higher scorers. Also, IQ is related to the "academic tasks" (auditory and linguistic measures, memory tasks, academic achievement levels) and much less related to tasks where precise hand work ("motor functions") is required. For highly qualified activities (research, management) high IQ scores are very relevant, whereas for less qualified activities, physical ability (body speed, hand-eye coordination) is more important. According to Marley Watkins and colleagues, IQ is a causal influence on future academic achievement, whereas academic achievement does not substantially influence future IQ scores. Marley W. Watkins, Pui-Wa Lei and Gary L. Canivez, Psychometric intelligence and achievement: A cross-lagged panel analysis, Intelligence, Volume 35, Issue 1, January-February 2007, Pages 59-68. Treena Eileen Rohde and Lee Anne Thompson write that general cognitive ability but not specific ability scores predict academic achievement, with the exception that processing speed and spatial ability predict performance on the SAT math beyond the effect of general cognitive ability. Treena Eileen Rohde and Lee Anne Thompson, Predicting academic achievement with cognitive ability, Intelligence, Volume 35, Issue 1, January-February 2007, Pages 83-92. The American Psychological Association's report Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns states that other individual characteristics such as interpersonal skills, aspects of personality, etcetera, are probably of equal or greater importance, but at this point we do not have equally reliable instruments to measure them , although, more recently, others argue that since most of professional tasks are now standardized or automated, and ranked IQ is a stable measurement over time with high correlation with many positive personal traits from the general population, it is the best tool to help determining the best hiring and job placement at any stage in a career, independently of experience, personality bias or any formal training one may acquire. Income Some researchers claim that "in economic terms it appears that the IQ score measures something with decreasing marginal value. It is important to have enough of it, but having lots and lots does not buy you that much." Detterman and Daniel, 1989. Other studies show that ability and performance for jobs are linearly related, such that at all IQ levels, an increase in IQ translates into a concomitant increase in performance. Coward, W.M. and Sackett, P.R. (1990). Linearity of ability-performance relationships: A reconfirmation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75:297–300. Charles Murray, coauthor of The Bell Curve, found that IQ has a substantial effect on income independently of family background. Murray, Charles (1998). Income Inequality and IQ, AEI Press PDF The American Psychological Association's report Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns states that IQ scores account for about one-fourth of the social status variance and one-sixth of the income variance. Statistical controls for parental SES eliminate about a quarter of this predictive power. Psychometric intelligence appears as only one of a great many factors that influence social outcomes. One reason why some studies claim that IQ only accounts for a sixth of the variation in income is because many studies are based on young adults (many of whom have not yet completed their education). On pg 568 of The g Factor, Arthur Jensen claims that although the correlation between IQ and income averages a moderate 0.4 (one sixth or 16% of the variance), the relationship increases with age, and peaks at middle age when people have reached their maximum career potential. In the book, A Question of Intelligence, Daniel Seligman cites an IQ income correlation of 0.5 (25% of the variance). A 2002 study The Inheritance of Inequality Bowles, Samuel; Gintis, Herbert. The Journal of Economic Perspectives. Volume 16, Number 3, 1 August 2002, pp. 3-30(28) further examined the impact of non-IQ factors on income and concluded that an offspring's inherited wealth, race, and schooling are more important as factors in determining income than IQ. For example, in 2004 African-American workers had the second-highest median earnings of American minority groups after Asian Americans and among minority groups, only Asian Americans were more likely to hold white-collar occupations (management, professional, and related fields) despite the significant IQ gap between African and Asian Americans. Other correlations with IQ In addition, IQ and its correlation to health, violent crime, gross state product, and government effectiveness are the subject of a 2006 paper in the publication Intelligence. The paper breaks down IQ averages by U.S. states using the federal government's National Assessment of Educational Progress math and reading test scores as a source. There is a correlation of -0.19 between IQ scores and number of juvenile offences in a large Danish sample; with social class controlled, the correlation dropped to -0.17. Similarly, the correlations for most "negative outcome" variables are typically smaller than 0.20, which means that test scores are associated with less than 4% of their total variance. It is important to realize that the causal links between psychometric ability and social outcomes may be indirect. Children with poor scholastic performance may feel alienated. Consequently, they may be more likely to engage in delinquent behavior, compared to other children who do well. IQ is also negatively correlated with certain diseases. Tambs et al. Tambs K, Sundet JM, Magnus P, Berg K. "Genetic and environmental contributions to the covariance between occupational status, educational attainment, and IQ: a study of twins." Behav Genet. 1989 Mar;19(2):209–22. PMID 2719624. found that occupational status, educational attainment, and IQ are individually heritable; and further found that "genetic variance influencing educational attainment ... contributed approximately one-fourth of the genetic variance for occupational status and nearly half the genetic variance for IQ". In a sample of U.S. siblings, Rowe et al. Rowe, D. C., W. J. Vesterdal, and J. L. Rodgers, "The Bell Curve Revisited: How Genes and Shared Environment Mediate IQ-SES Associations," University of Arizona, 1997 report that the inequality in education and income was predominantly due to genes, with shared environmental factors playing a subordinate role. Public policy In the United States, certain public policies and laws regarding military service, education, public benefits, crime, and employment incorporate an individual's IQ or similar measurements into their decisions. However, in 1971, for the purpose of minimizing employment practices that disparately impacted racial minorities, the U.S. Supreme Court banned the use of IQ tests in employment, except in very rare cases Nicholas Lemann. The IQ Meritocracy. Time 100 link . Internationally, certain public policies, such as improving nutrition and prohibiting neurotoxins, have as one of their goals raising, or preventing a decline in, intelligence. Criticism and views Binet Alfred Binet, a French psychologist, did not believe that IQ test scales qualified to measure intelligence. He neither invented the term "intelligence quotient" nor supported its numerical expression. He stated: Binet had designed the Binet-Simon intelligence scale in order to identify students who needed special help in coping with the school curriculum. He argued that with proper remedial education programs, most students regardless of background could catch up and perform quite well in school. He did not believe that intelligence was a measurable fixed entity. Binet cautioned: The Mismeasure of Man Some scientists dispute psychometrics entirely. In The Mismeasure of Man, Harvard professor and paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould argued that intelligence tests were based on faulty assumptions and showed their history of being used as the basis for scientific racism, although did not at any point attempt to scientifically refute intelligence tests. He wrote: He spent much of the book criticizing the concept of IQ, including a historical discussion of how the IQ tests were created and a technical discussion of why g is simply a mathematical artifact. Later editions of the book included criticism of The Bell Curve. Gould did not dispute the stability of test scores, nor the fact that they predict certain forms of achievement. He did argue, however, that to base a concept of intelligence on these test scores alone is to ignore many important aspects of mental ability. Relation between IQ and intelligence According to Dr. C. George Boeree of Shippensburg University, intelligence is a person's capacity to (1) acquire knowledge (i.e. learn and understand), (2) apply knowledge (solve problems), and (3) engage in abstract reasoning. It is the power of one's intellect, and as such is clearly a very important aspect of one's overall well-being. Psychologists have attempted to measure it for well over a century. Several other ways of measuring intelligence have been proposed. Daniel Schacter, Daniel Gilbert, and others have moved beyond general intelligence and IQ as the sole means to describe intelligence. The Waning of I.Q. by David Brooks, The New York Times Test bias The American Psychological Association's report Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns states that IQ tests as predictors of social achievement are not biased against people of African descent since they predict future performance, such as school achievement, similarly to the way they predict future performance for European descent. However, IQ tests may well be biased when used in other situations. A 2005 study stated that "differential validity in prediction suggests that the WAIS-R test may contain cultural influences that reduce the validity of the WAIS-R as a measure of cognitive ability for Mexican American students," Culture-Fair Cognitive Ability Assessment Steven P. Verney Assessment, Vol. 12, No. 3, 303-319 (2005) indicating a weaker positive correlation relative to sampled white students. Other recent studies have questioned the culture-fairness of IQ tests when used in South Africa. Case for Non-Biased Intelligence Testing Against Black Africans Has Not Been Made: A Comment on Rushton, Skuy, and Bons (2004) 1*, Leah K. Hamilton1, Betty R. Onyura1 and Andrew S. Winston International Journal of Selection and Assessment Volume 14 Issue 3 Page 278 - September 2006 Standard intelligence tests, such as the Stanford-Binet, are often inappropriate for children with autism and dyslexia; the alternative of using developmental or adaptive skills measures are relatively poor measures of intelligence in autistic children, and have resulted in incorrect claims that a majority of children with autism are mentally retarded. Outdated methodology A 2006 paper argues that mainstream contemporary test analysis does not reflect substantial recent developments in the field and "bears an uncanny resemblance to the psychometric state of the art as it existed in the 1950s." The attack of the psychometricians. Denny Borsboom. Psychometrika Vol. 71, No. 3, 425–440. September 2006. It also claims that some of the most influential recent studies on group differences in intelligence, in order to show that the tests are unbiased, use outdated methodology. Some argue that IQ scores are used as an excuse for not trying to reduce poverty or otherwise improve living standards for all. Claimed low intelligence has historically been used to justify the feudal system and unequal treatment of women (see sex and intelligence). In contrast, others claim that the refusal of "high-IQ elites" to take IQ seriously as a cause of inequality is itself immoral. The view of the American Psychological Association In response to the controversy surrounding The Bell Curve, the American Psychological Association's Board of Scientific Affairs established a task force in 1995 to write a consensus statement on the state of intelligence research which could be used by all sides as a basis for discussion. The full text of the report is available through several websites. In this paper the representatives of the association regret that IQ-related works are frequently written with a view to their political consequences: "research findings were often assessed not so much on their merits or their scientific standing as on their supposed political implications". The task force concluded that IQ scores do have high predictive validity for individual differences in school achievement. They confirm the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They agree that individual differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by genetics and that both genes and environment, in complex interplay, are essential to the development of intellectual competence. They state there is little evidence to show that childhood diet influences intelligence except in cases of severe malnutrition. The task force agrees that large differences do exist between the average IQ scores of blacks and whites, and that these differences cannot be attributed to biases in test construction. The task force suggests that explanations based on social status and cultural differences are possible, and that environmental factors have raised mean test scores in many populations. Regarding genetic causes, they noted that there is not much direct evidence on this point, but what little there is fails to support the genetic hypothesis. The APA journal that published the statement, American Psychologist, subsequently published eleven critical responses in January 1997, several of them arguing that the report failed to examine adequately the evidence for partly-genetic explanations. High IQ societies A high IQ society is an organization that limits membership to people who are within a certain high percentile of IQ test results. (For example, Mensa International) Pop culture usage Many websites and magazines use the term IQ to refer to technical or popular knowledge in a variety of subjects not related to intelligence, including sex, poker, and American football, among a wide variety of other topics. These tests are generally not standardized and do not fit within the normal definition of intelligence. Intelligence tests such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Stanford-Binet, Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities, or the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-II, to name some of the best constructed, are not merely placing a test taker's score within the norm, as presumably are the thousands of alleged "IQ Tests" found on the internet, but they are also testing factors (e.g., fluid and crystallized intelligence, working memory, and the like) that were previously found to represent pure measures of intelligence using factor analysis. This claim may not be made for the hundreds of online tests marketing themselves as IQ Tests, a distinction that may be unfortunately lost upon the public taking them. Reference charts IQ reference charts are tables suggested by psychologists to divide intelligence ranges in various categories. See also Academia Autodidacticism Child prodigy Cultural intelligence Curiosity quotient CHC Theory Emotional intelligence EQ SQ theory Genetics of intelligence Graduate Record Examination Intellectual giftedness IQ and Global Inequality IQ and the wealth of nations IQ reference chart Late bloomer List of admission tests to colleges and universities Nature versus nurture Neurology Psychology Race Differences in Intelligence Savant syndrome Scholarly method Sentience quotient Social IQ Sociology Spiritual intelligence Theory of multiple intelligences Triarchic theory of intelligence Triple Nine Society References Notes Bibliography External links Mainstream Science on Intelligence PDF Reprint - Mainstream science on intelligence: An editorial with 52 signatories, history, and bibliography. 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2,660 | Daniel_Ortega | José Daniel Ortega Saavedra () (born 11 November 1945) is the former 79th and current 83rd President of Nicaragua between 10 January 1985 and 25 April 1990 and from 10 January 2007. For much of his life, he has been a leader in the Sandinista National Liberation Front (Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional or FSLN). After a popular rebellion resulted in the overthrow and exile of dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle in 1979, Ortega became a member of the ruling multipartisan junta and was later elected president, serving from 1985 to 1990. His first period in office was characterized by a controversial program of land reform and wealth redistribution, hostility from the United States, and armed rebellion by U.S.-backed Contras. Ortega was defeated by Violeta Barrios de Chamorro in the 1990 presidential election, but he remained an important figure in Nicaraguan opposition politics. He was an unsuccessful candidate for president in 1996 and 2001 before winning the 2006 presidential election. Ortega wins Nicaraguan election: Nicaragua's former leader, Daniel Ortega, has won the country's presidential election 8 November 2006 Personal life Early years Ortega was born to a middle-class family in La Libertad, department of Chontales, Nicaragua. His parents, Daniel Ortega and Lidia Saavedra, were in opposition to the regime of Anastasio Somoza Debayle. His mother was imprisoned by Somoza's National Guard for being in possession of "love letters" which the police stated were coded political missives. He has two brothers, Humberto Ortega, former General, military leader and published writer, and Camilo Ortega, who died during combat in 1978. Ortega was arrested for political activities at the age of 15. In 1963, he attended the Universidad Centroamericana in Managua, where he studied law, and quickly joined the then-underground FSLN. Ortega was imprisoned in 1967 for taking part in robbing a branch of the Bank of America brandishing a machine gun, but was released in late 1974 along with other Sandinista prisoners in exchange for Somocista hostages. While he was imprisoned at the El Modelo jail, just outside of Managua, he wrote poems, one of which he titled "I Never Saw Managua When Miniskirts Were in Fashion". After his release, Ortega was exiled to Cuba, where he received several months of guerrilla training. He later returned to Nicaragua secretly. Ortega married Rosario Murillo in 1978 in a secret ceremony (conducted by a Spanish priest turned guerrilla fighter) Reuters, 1 November 2006, FACTBOX-Five facts about Nicaragua's Daniel Ortega and moved to Costa Rica with her three children from a previous marriage. Ortega remarried Murillo in 2005 to have the marriage recognized by the Roman Catholic Church. The couple has eight children, three of them together. Reuters, 1 November 2006, FACTBOX-Five facts about Nicaragua's Daniel Ortega She is currently the government's spokeswoman, government minister, among other positions. Ortega adopted stepdaughter Zoilamérica Narváez in 1986, through a court case. Envio, March 2002, No 248 Case 12,230: Zoilamérica Narváez vs. the Nicaraguan State Sexual abuse allegations In 1998, Daniel Ortega's adopted stepdaughter Zoilamérica Narváez released a 48-page report Zoilamerica Narvaez 48-page testimony about sexual abuse; Zoilamerica Narvaez 48-page testimony about sexual abuse (in English) describing her allegations that Ortega had systematically sexually abused her from 1979, when she was 11, until 1990. Time, March 23, 1998, An Ugly Family Affair: Charges of sexual abuse leveled against Sandinista leader Daniel Ortega swirl atop a power struggle Ortega and his wife Murillo denied the allegations. The Guardian, 7 November 2006, From comandante to caudillo</ref> The case could not proceed in Nicaraguan courts because Ortega had immunity from prosecution as a member of parliament, and the five-year statute of limitations for sexual abuse and rape charges was judged to have been exceeded. Narváez took a complaint to the Inter American Human Rights Commission, which was ruled admissible on 15 October 2001. On 4 March 2002 the Nicaraguan government accepted the Commission's recommendation of a friendly settlement. As of 2006 Ortega continues to deny the allegations, but Narváez has not withdrawn them.<ref name=guardian071106>The Guardian, 7 November 2006, From comandante to caudillo In 2006, Hillel Neuer, the executive director of UN Watch, expressed concern that election of Ortega, described as having "highly substantiated" charges of sexual abuse raised against him, to the Presidency of Nicaragua, could undermine worldwide NGO efforts against child abuse and sexual violence. The Sandinista revolution (1979-1990) When Somoza was overthrown by the FSLN in July 1979, Ortega became a member of the five-person Junta of National Reconstruction, which also included Sandinista militant Moisés Hassan, novelist Sergio Ramírez, businessman Alfonso Robelo, and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, the widow of a martyred journalist. The FSLN came to dominate the junta, Robelo and Chamorro resigned, and Ortega became the de facto ruler of the country. In 1981, United States President Ronald Reagan condemned the FSLN for joining with Soviet-backed Cuba in supporting Marxist revolutionary movements in other Latin American countries such as El Salvador. Some within the Reagan Administration authorized the CIA to begin financing, arming and training rebels, some of whom were former officers from Somoza's National Guard, as anti-Sandinista guerrillas. These were known collectively as the Contras. This also led to one of the largest political scandals in US history, (the Iran Contra Affair), when Oliver North and several members of the Reagan Administration defied the Boland Amendment helping sell arms to Iran, and then using the proceeds to fund the Contras. Between 1980 and 1989, over 30,000 Nicaraguans died in the conflict between the Sandinista government and the Contras. Thomas Walker, Nicaragua: Living in the Shadow of the Eagle, 4th Ed. (Westview Press, 2003) In November 1984, Ortega called national elections; he won the presidency with 63% of the vote and took office on 10 January 1985. According to many independent observers, the 1984 elections were perhaps the freest and fairest in Nicaraguan history up until then. A report by an Irish parliamentary delegation stated: "The electoral process was carried out with total integrity. The seven parties participating in the elections represented a broad spectrum of political ideologies." The general counsel of New York's Human Rights Commission described the election as "free, fair and hotly contested." A study by the U.S. Latin American Studies Association (LASA) concluded that the FSLN (Sandinista Front) "did little more to take advantage of its incumbency than incumbent parties everywhere (including the U.S.) routinely do." Thirty-three percent of the Nicaraguan voters cast ballots for one of six opposition parties – three to the right of the Sandinistas, three to the left – which had campaigned with the aid of government funds and free TV and radio time. Two conservative parties captured a combined 23 percent of the vote. They held rallies across the country (a few of which were disrupted by FSLN supporters) and blasted the Sandinistas in harsh terms. Most foreign and independent observers noted this pluralism in debunking the Reagan administration charge – prominent in the U.S. press – that it was a "Soviet-style sham" election. 'The Sandinistas won't submit to free elections' Article from "Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting" ]. November 1987 Some opposition parties boycotted it, allegedly under pressure from U.S. embassy officials, and it was denounced as being unfair by the Reagan administration. Ronald Reagan. Remarks Following Discussions With President Jose Napoleon Duarte of El Salvador. 16 May 1985 Reagan thus maintained that he was justified to continue supporting the Contras' "democratic resistance". Interim years (1990 - 2006) In the 1990 presidential election, Ortega lost to Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, his former colleague in the junta. Chamorro was supported by a 14-party anti-Sandinista alliance known as the National Opposition Union (Unión Nacional Opositora, UNO), an alliance that ranged from conservatives and liberals to communists. Contrary to what most observers expected, Chamorro shocked Ortega and won the election. In Ortega's concession speech the following day he vowed to keep "ruling from below" a reference to the power that the FSLN still wielded in various sectors. He was also quoted saying: Ortega ran for election again, in October 1996 and November 2001, but lost on both occasions to Arnoldo Alemán and Enrique Bolaños, respectively. In these elections, a key issue was the allegation of corruption. In Ortega's last days as president, through a series of legislative acts known as "The Piñata", estates that had been seized by the Sandinista government (some valued at millions and even billions of US dollars) became the private property of various FSLN officials, including Ortega himself. Ortega's policies became more moderate during his time in opposition, and he gradually reduced much of his former Marxist rhetoric in favor of an agenda of more moderate democratic socialism. His Roman Catholic faith has become more intense in recent years as well, leading Ortega to embrace a variety of socially conservative policies; in 2006 the FSLN endorsed a strict law banning all abortions in Nicaragua. Ortega was instrumental in creating the controversial strategic pact between the FSLN and the Constitutional Liberal Party (Partido Liberal Constitucionalista, PLC). The controversial alliance of Nicaragua's two major parties aimed at distributing the powers between the PLC and FSLN, and preventing other parties from rising. "El Pacto," as it is known in Nicaragua, is said to have personally benefited former presidents Ortega and Alemán greatly, while constraining then president Enrique Bolaños. One of the key accords of the pact was to lower the percentage necessary to win a presidential election in the first round from 45% to 35%, a change in electoral law that would become decisive in Ortega's favor in the 2006 elections. 2006 Presidential Election The 2006 Nicaraguan presidential election was held on 5 November 2006. In the run up to the election FSLN presidential candidate Ortega converted to Catholicism and publicly "reconciled" with Cardinal Miguel Obando y Bravo; he also selected former Contra leader Jaime Morales Carazo as his vice-presidential candidate. Robert Burbach, CounterPunch, 27 February 2009, Et Tu, Daniel? The Betrayal of the Sandinista Revolution Ortega won the election with 37.99% of the votes cast, fewer - both in absolute numbers and as percentage of all votes - than in his previous three attempts. The Nicaraguan Liberal Alliance (ALN) won 28.30%, the Liberal Constitutional Party (PLC) won 27.11%, the Movement for Sandinista Renewal (MRS) 6.29% and the Alternative for Change (AC) 0.29%. The FSLN was the party out in force to celebrate a victory on the following night. International observers, including the Carter Center, judged the election to be free and fair. Ortega was congratulated by president Hugo Chávez of Venezuela, and then-president Fidel Castro of Cuba. BBC Article Second chance for Nicaragua's Ortega . Chávez, who spoke by telephone, chanted "long live the Sandinista revolution!" The White House confirmed on 8 January 2007 that U.S. President Bush also had called Ortega to congratulate him on his election victory. Herty Lewites – who was also running for president before his death in July 2006 – suggested that Ortega's pact with Alemán had given Ortega de facto control of the bodies responsible for administering the election, and thus that Ortega would most likely have won. Under the old law, Ortega would have gone to a second round against Eduardo Montealegre (he would have needed 45% instead of 35%.) Second presidency (2006 - present) While supporting abortion rights during his presidency during the 1980s, Ortega has since embraced the Catholic Church's position of strong opposition. Nicaragua brings in abortion ban: Nicaraguan President Enrique Bolaños has signed into law a ban on all abortions, even in cases when a woman's life is judged to be at risk 18 November 2006 While non-emergency abortions have long been illegal in Nicaragua, recently even abortions "in the case where the pregnancy endangers the mother's life" have been made illegal in the days before the election, with a six-year prison term in such cases too – a move supported by Ortega. Abortion Outlawed in Nicaragua Ten Days Before Controversial Elections 27 October 2006 Soon after his inauguration, Ortega met with Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. The two heads of state toured shantytowns in Managua. Ortega told the press that the "revolutions of Iran and Nicaragua are almost twin revolutions...since both revolutions are about justice, liberty, self-determination, and the struggle against imperialism." Nicaragua e Iran, "Unión Invencible" Hauser, Karim BBC Mundo, June 2007 In June 2008 the Nicaraguan Supreme Electoral Council disqualified the MRS and the Conservative Party from participation. Robert Burbach, CounterPunch, 27 February 2009, Et Tu, Daniel? The Betrayal of the Sandinista Revolution In November, 2008, the Supreme Electoral Council received national and international criticism following irregularities in municipal elections, but agreed to review results for Managua only, while the opposition demanded a nationwide review. For the first time since 1990, the Council decided not to allow national or international observers to witness the election. Instances of intimidation, violence, and harassment of opposition political party members and NGO representatives have been recorded. Official results show Sandinista candidates winning 94 of the 146 municipal mayorships, compared to 46 for the main opposition Liberal Constitutional Party (PLC). The opposition claimed that marked ballots were dumped and destroyed, that party members were refused access to some of the vote counts and that tallies from many polling places were altered. LA Times, 20 November 2008, Voter fraud allegations directed at Nicaragua's Sandinistas As a result of the fraud allegations, the European Union suspended $70m of aid, and the US $64m. Daily Times (Pakistan), 20 February 2009, COMMENT: The Mugabe of Latin America —Carlos R Chamorro With the 2008 economic downturn Ortega said that capitalism is in its death throes and the Bolivarian Alternative for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA) is the most advanced, Christian and fairest project. He also said God was punishing the United States with the financial crisis for trying to impose its economic principles on poor countries. "It's incredible that in the most powerful country in the world, which spends billions of dollars on brutal wars ... people do not have enough money to stay in their homes." http://uk.reuters.com/article/oddlyEnoughNews/idUKTRE4997KH20081010 http://insidecostarica.com/dailynews/2008/october/11/reg01.htm During an interview with Sir David Frost for the Al Jazeera English programme Frost Over The World in March 2009, Ortega suggested that he would like to change the constitution to allow him to run again for president. Foreign policy On 6 March 2008, following the 2008 Andean diplomatic crisis, Ortega announced that Nicaragua was breaking diplomatic ties with Colombia "in solidarity with the Ecuadoran people". "Nicaragua breaks diplomatic relations with Colombia" 6 March 2008 CNN Ortega also stated, "We are not breaking relations with the Colombian people. We are breaking relations with the terrorist policy practiced by Álvaro Uribe's government". The relations were restored with the resolution at a Rio Group summit held in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, on 7 March 2008. At the summit Colombia's Álvaro Uribe, Ecuador's Rafael Correa, Venezuela's Hugo Chávez and Ortega publicly shook hands in a show of good will. The handshakes, broadcast live throughout Latin America, appeared to be a signal that a week of military buildups and diplomatic repercussions was over. After the handshakes, Ortega said he would re-establish diplomatic ties with Colombia. Uribe then quipped that he would send him the bill for his ambassador's plane fare. On 25 May 2008, Ortega, upon learning of the death of FARC guerrilla leader Manuel Marulanda in Colombia, expressed condolences to the family of Marulanda and solidarity with the FARC and called Marulanda an extraordinary fighter who battled against profound inequalities in Colombia. The declarations were protested by the Colombian government and criticized in the major Colombian media outlets because FARC actions are deemed criminal. On 2 September 2008, during ceremonies for the 29th anniversary of the founding of the Nicaraguan army, Ortega announced that "Nicaragua recognizes the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia and fully supports the Russian government's position." Ortega's decision made Nicaragua the first and only country after Russia to recognize the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia from Georgia. Nicaragua recognizes South Ossetia and Abkhazia References External links Office of the President Extended bio by CIDOB Foundation (in Spanish) Daniel Ortega: Sandanista leader, Nicaraguan president September 1997 Remember Daniel Ortega? He's back. September 15, 2005 An old-school Ortega keeps the pink flag flying November 2, 2006 Leftward Tilt: Political Shift in Latin America 2007 Intellectuals condemn authoritarian Ortega June 24, 2008 Et Tu, Daniel?: The Betrayal of the Sandinista Revolution by Roger Burbach, March 1 2009 be-x-old:Даніэль Артэга | Daniel_Ortega |@lemmatized josé:1 daniel:12 ortega:64 saavedra:2 born:1 november:14 former:8 current:1 president:17 nicaragua:23 january:4 april:1 much:2 life:4 leader:7 sandinista:17 national:8 liberation:1 front:2 frente:1 de:6 liberación:1 nacional:2 fsln:14 popular:1 rebellion:2 result:4 overthrow:2 exile:2 dictator:1 anastasio:2 somoza:5 debayle:2 become:7 member:6 ruling:2 multipartisan:1 junta:4 later:2 elect:1 serve:1 first:4 period:1 office:3 characterize:1 controversial:4 program:1 land:1 reform:1 wealth:1 redistribution:1 hostility:1 united:3 state:8 arm:3 u:9 back:3 contra:7 defeat:1 violeta:3 barrio:3 chamorro:7 presidential:9 election:28 remain:1 important:1 figure:1 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fully:1 russian:1 decision:1 russia:1 georgia:1 external:1 link:1 extend:1 bio:1 cidob:1 foundation:1 sandanista:1 remember:1 school:1 pink:1 flag:1 fly:1 leftward:1 tilt:1 shift:1 intellectual:1 authoritarian:1 roger:1 x:1 даніэль:1 артэга:1 |@bigram daniel_ortega:9 anastasio_somoza:2 somoza_debayle:2 violeta_barrio:3 presidential_election:7 la_libertad:1 humberto_ortega:1 costa_rica:1 sexually_abuse:1 deny_allegation:2 immunity_prosecution:1 statute_limitation:1 de_facto:2 ronald_reagan:2 el_salvador:2 iran_contra:1 boland_amendment:1 westview_press:1 hotly_contest:1 enrique_bolaños:3 partido_liberal:1 presidential_candidate:2 hugo_chávez:2 chávez_venezuela:1 fidel_castro:1 mahmoud_ahmadinejad:1 self_determination:1 economic_downturn:1 bolivarian_alternative:1 billion_dollar:1 al_jazeera:1 diplomatic_relation:1 álvaro_uribe:2 santo_domingo:1 domingo_dominican:1 dominican_republic:1 rafael_correa:1 medium_outlet:1 south_ossetia:3 ossetia_abkhazia:2 external_link:1 |
2,661 | Ordered_field | In mathematics, an ordered field is a field together with a total ordering of its elements that agrees in a certain sense with the field operations. This concept was introduced by Emil Artin in 1927. Definition There are two equivalent definitions, depending on which properties one takes as the definition for an ordered field. Def 1: A total order on F A field (F,+,*) together with a total order ≤ on F is an ordered field if the order satisfies the following properties: if a ≤ b then a + c ≤ b + c if 0 ≤ a and 0 ≤ b then 0 ≤ a b It follows from these axioms that for every a, b, c, d in F: Either −a ≤ 0 ≤ a or a ≤ 0 ≤ −a. We are allowed to "add inequalities": If a ≤ b and c ≤ d, then a + c ≤ b + d We are allowed to "multiply inequalities with positive elements": If a ≤ b and 0 ≤ c, then ac ≤ bc. Def 2: An ordering on F An ordering of a field F is a subset P ⊂ F that has the following properties: F is the disjoint union of P, −P, and the element 0. That is, for each x ∈ F, exactly one of the following conditions is true: x = 0, x ∈ P or −x ∈ P. For x and y in P, both x+y and xy are in P. The elements of the subset P are called the positive elements of F. We next define x < y to mean that y − x ∈ P (so that y − x > 0 in a sense). This relation satisfies the expected properties: If x < y and y < z, then x < z. (transitivity) If x < y and z > 0, then xz < yz. If x < y and x,y > 0, then 1/y < 1/x The statement x ≤ y will mean that either x < y or x = y. Properties of ordered fields 1 is positive. (Justification: either 1 is positive or −1 is positive. If −1 is positive, then (−1)(−1) is positive, which is a contradiction) An ordered field has characteristic 0. (Since 1 > 0, then 1 + 1 > 0, and 1 + 1 + 1 > 0, etc. If the field had characteristic p > 0, then −1 would be the sum of p − 1 ones, but −1 is not positive). In particular, finite fields cannot be ordered. Squares are non-negative. 0 ≤ a² for all a in F. (Follows by a similar argument to 1 > 0) Every subfield of an ordered field is also an ordered field (inheriting the induced ordering). The smallest subfield is isomorphic to the rationals (as for any other field of characteristic 0), and the order on this rational subfield is the same as the order of the rationals themselves. If every element of an ordered field lies between two elements of its rational subfield, then the field is said to be Archimedean. For example, the real numbers form an Archimedean field, but every hyperreal field is non-Archimedean. An ordered field K is the real number field if it satisfies the axiom of Archimedes and the Cauchy sequence of K converges within K. Topology induced by the order If F is equipped with the order topology arising from the total order ≤, then the axioms guarantee that the operations + and * are continuous, so that F is a topological field. Examples of ordered fields Examples of ordered fields are: the rational numbers the real algebraic numbers the computable numbers the real numbers the field of real rational functions , where p(x) and q(x), are polynomials with real coefficients, can be made into an ordered field where the polynomial p(x) = x is greater than any constant polynomial, by defining that whenever , for . This ordered field is not Archimedean. The field of formal Laurent series with real coefficients , where x is taken to be infinitesimal and positive real closed fields superreal numbers hyperreal numbers The surreal numbers form a proper class rather than a set, but otherwise obey the axioms of an ordered field. Every ordered field can be embedded into the surreal numbers. Which fields can be ordered? Every ordered field is a formally real field, i.e., 0 cannot be written as a sum of nonzero squares. Conversely, every formally real field can be equipped with a compatible total order, that will turn it into an ordered field. (This order is often not uniquely determined.) Finite fields cannot be turned into ordered fields, because they do not have characteristic 0. The complex numbers also cannot be turned into an ordered field, as −1 is a square (of the imaginary number i) and would thus be positive. Also, the p-adic numbers cannot be ordered, since Q2 contains a square root of −7 and Qp (p > 2) contains a square root of 1 − p. References | Ordered_field |@lemmatized mathematics:1 ordered:19 field:38 together:2 total:5 ordering:3 element:7 agree:1 certain:1 sense:2 operation:2 concept:1 introduce:1 emil:1 artin:1 definition:3 two:2 equivalent:1 depend:1 property:5 one:3 take:2 def:2 order:14 f:13 satisfy:3 following:3 b:8 c:6 follow:2 axiom:4 every:7 either:3 allow:2 add:1 inequality:2 multiply:1 positive:10 ac:1 bc:1 subset:2 p:16 disjoint:1 union:1 x:23 exactly:1 condition:1 true:1 xy:1 call:1 next:1 define:2 mean:2 relation:1 expected:1 z:3 transitivity:1 xz:1 yz:1 statement:1 justification:1 contradiction:1 characteristic:4 since:2 etc:1 would:2 sum:2 particular:1 finite:2 cannot:5 square:5 non:2 negative:1 similar:1 argument:1 subfield:4 also:3 inherit:1 induced:1 small:1 isomorphic:1 rational:6 lie:1 say:1 archimedean:4 example:3 real:10 number:13 form:2 hyperreal:2 k:3 archimedes:1 cauchy:1 sequence:1 converges:1 within:1 topology:2 induce:1 equip:2 arise:1 guarantee:1 continuous:1 topological:1 algebraic:1 computable:1 function:1 q:1 polynomial:3 coefficient:2 make:1 great:1 constant:1 whenever:1 formal:1 laurent:1 series:1 infinitesimal:1 close:1 superreal:1 surreal:2 proper:1 class:1 rather:1 set:1 otherwise:1 obey:1 embed:1 formally:2 e:1 write:1 nonzero:1 conversely:1 compatible:1 turn:3 often:1 uniquely:1 determine:1 complex:1 imaginary:1 thus:1 adic:1 contain:2 root:2 qp:1 reference:1 |@bigram disjoint_union:1 cauchy_sequence:1 uniquely_determine:1 |
2,662 | Politics_of_Kenya | The Politics of Kenya take place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Kenya is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Recent constitutional amendments have enabled sharing of executive powers between the President and a Prime Minister. Executive power is exercised by the government, with powers shared between the President and a Prime Minister, who coordinates and supervises the cabinet. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Executive branch |President |Mwai Kibaki |PNU |29 December 2007 |- |Vice-President |Kalonzo Musyoka |ODM-K |18 January 2008 |- |Prime Minister |Raila Odinga |ODM |17 April 2008 |} The president is elected for a five year term by the people. The constitution of Kenya has three requirements for any candidate to be declared winner: to get the largest number of votes among all contestants nationwide in absolute terms to win at least 25% of the vote in at least five of Kenya's eight provinces to be elected member of parliament in a constituency. If none of the candidates fulfills all three requirements there is to be a runoff between the two contenders with the highest number of votes. The president appoints the vice president and cabinet members from among those elected to the National Assembly. Under the power sharing agreement signed by President Mwai Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga of the Orange Democratic Movement, the post of prime minister was constitutionally created and ministers appointed to reflect political parties' relative strength in the National Assembly. The Raila Odinga led party, the Orange Democratic Movement is currently the largest party in Kenya's parliament. Under the power-sharing agreement, each of the two major parties also nominated a deputy prime minister. BBC News - Kenya rivals agree to share power 02.28.08 See also: Kenyan ministers. Legislative branch The unicameral National Assembly or Bunge has 224 members, 210 members elected for a five year term in single-seat constituencies, 12 members nominated by political parties in proportion to their share of seats won in the single-member constituencies and 2 ex officio members: the attorney general and the speaker. Political parties and elections Judicial branch The judiciary is headed by a High Court, consisting of a chief justice and High Court judges and judges of Kenya's Court of Appeal (no associate judges), all appointed by the president. Administrative divisions Local administration is divided among 69 rural districts, each headed by a presidentially appointed commissioner. The districts are joined to form seven rural provinces. The government supervises administration of districts and provinces. The administrative divisions are 8 provinces: Central, Coast, Eastern, Nairobi, North Eastern, Nyanza, Rift Valley, Western. Political conditions Political Parade in Lamu, held in July, 2001Since independence, Kenya has maintained remarkable stability despite changes in its political system and crises in neighboring countries. Particularly since the re-emergence of multiparty democracy, Kenyans have enjoyed an increased degree of freedom. A cross-party parliamentary reform initiative in the fall of 1997 revised some oppressive laws inherited from the colonial era that had been used to limit freedom of speech and assembly. This improved public freedoms and contributed to generally credible national elections in December 1997. In December 2002, Kenya held democratic and open elections and elected Mwai Kibaki as their new president. The elections, which were judged free and fair by local and international observers, marked an important turning point in Kenya's democratic evolution. President Kibaki campaigned on a policy of generating economic growth, improving education, combating corruption, and implementing a new constitution, the draft of which was produced by Professor Ghai under the Moi regime. Considerable success has been achieved in the first two policy areas, the constitutional process has become mired (see below) and the fight against corruption has been a disaster. There has been a major scandal (Anglo-Leasing), which the government has failed to investigate, John Githongo the Anti-Corruption head has resigned in protest and donor nations, in particular the British, have made public criticisms of the lack of progress. Following disagreements between the partners in the current government coalition, constitutional reform has proceeded slower than anticipated. The NAK faction (allied to president Kibaki) favours a centralized presidential system, while the LDP faction - which has fewer parliamentary seats in the coalition than NAK - demands a federal, parliamentary system. A Kenyan private security officerPrior to the 2002 election, a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)was agreed between NAK and LDP, which laid the basis for the two groups to fight the election under the NARC (Rainbow Alliance) banner. The MoU agreed that a new constitution would be established shortly after the election, which provided for the new role of a strong Prime Minister while weakening the role of President. Raila Odinga, the leader of LDP, maintains aspirations to become Prime Minister. However, the proposed new constitution has been modified by the government from what was written by Professor Ghai and amended by the Bomas committee. This maintains a strong President, who controls a weaker Prime Minister. This has led to a split between NAK and LDP, with the former campaigning for a 'Yes' vote in the forthcoming referendum on the constitution and the latter a 'No'. Also supporting a 'No' vote is the majority of Uhuru Kenyatta's KANU party, the sole party of government from independence to 2002. It is possible that the political alignment over the referendum could signal a wider re-alignment before the 2007 elections. Internal wrangling within the governing coalition has also negatively affected other crucial areas of governance, notably the planned large-scale privatization of government-owned enterprises. The 2007 presidential elections were largely believed to have been flawed with international observers stating that they did not meet regional or international standards. Most observers suggest that the tallying process for the presidential results were rigged to the advantage of the incumbent president Mwai Kibaki, despite overwhelming indications that his rival and current Prime Minister of Kenya, Raila Odinga, won the election. In July 2008, exit polls commissioned by the US government were released, revealing that Odinga had won the election by a comfortable margin of 6%, well outside of the poll's 1.3% margin of error. The Nation, July 8, 2008 http://www.nationmedia.com/dailynation/nmgcontententry.asp?category_id=2&newsid=127059 US-funded exit poll says Raila won election There was significant and widespread violence in the country - Clashes in Kenya (2007–present) - following the unprecedented announcement of Kibaki as the winner of the 2007 presidential elections. The two rivals were later united in a grand coalition government following international mediation, led by former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, under a power-sharing National Accord on Reconciliation Act, entrenched in the constitution. Following the agreement, power was shared between President Mwai Kibaki and Prime Minister, Raila Odinga. References International organization participation Kenya is member of ACP, AfDB, AU C, EADB, ECA, FAO, G-15, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, ITUC, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OPCW, UN, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMEE, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMISET, UNMOP, UNU, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO References Notes from Nairobi Blog about Kenyan politics for The Walrus magazine, BBC News - Kenya rivals agree to share power 28 February 2008. Photojournalist's Account - Images of Kenya's last presidential election CIA World Factbook Entry Kenyan politics External links (Full text of book at link.) Strengthening U.S. Ties With Kenya Michael Johns, Heritage Foundation, April 24, 1990 | Politics_of_Kenya |@lemmatized politics:3 kenya:16 take:1 place:1 framework:1 presidential:6 representative:1 democratic:5 republic:1 whereby:1 president:17 head:5 state:2 government:11 multi:1 party:10 system:4 recent:1 constitutional:3 amendment:1 enable:1 sharing:2 executive:4 power:10 prime:11 minister:13 exercise:1 share:7 coordinate:1 supervise:2 cabinet:2 legislative:2 vest:1 national:6 assembly:5 judiciary:2 independent:1 legislature:1 branch:3 mwai:5 kibaki:8 pnu:1 december:3 vice:2 kalonzo:1 musyoka:1 odm:2 k:1 january:1 raila:7 odinga:7 april:2 elect:5 five:3 year:2 term:3 people:1 constitution:6 three:2 requirement:2 candidate:2 declare:1 winner:2 get:1 large:3 number:2 vote:5 among:3 contestant:1 nationwide:1 absolute:1 win:4 least:2 eight:1 province:4 member:8 parliament:2 constituency:3 none:1 fulfill:1 runoff:1 two:5 contender:1 high:3 appoint:4 agreement:3 sign:1 orange:2 movement:2 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2,663 | Nomic | Nomic is a game created in 1982 by philosopher Peter Suber in which the rules of the game include mechanisms for the players to change those rules, usually beginning through a system of democratic voting. Nomic actually refers to a large number of games based on the initial ruleset laid out by Peter Suber in his book The Paradox of Self-Amendment. (The ruleset was actually first published in Douglas Hofstadter's column Metamagical Themas in Scientific American in June 1982. The column discussed Suber's then-upcoming book, which was published some years later.) The game is in some ways modeled on modern government systems, and demonstrates that any rule-changing system can get into a situation in which the laws are contradictory or insufficient to determine what is legal. Because the game models (and exposes conceptual questions about) a legal system and the problems of legal interpretation, it is named after (), Greek for "law". (See also nomos.) While the victory condition in Suber's initial ruleset is the accumulation of 100 points by the roll of a die, he once said that "this rule is deliberately boring so that players will quickly amend it to please themselves." Players can change the rules to such a degree that points can become irrelevant in favor of a true currency, or make victory an unimportant concern. Any rule in the game, including the rules specifying the criteria for winning and even the rule that rules must be obeyed, can be changed. Any loophole in the ruleset, however, may allow the first player to discover it the chance to pull a "scam" and modify the rules to win the game. Complicating this process is the fact that Suber's initial ruleset allows for the appointment of judges to preside over issues of rule interpretation. Gameplay The game can be played face-to-face with as many written notes as are required, or through any of a number of Internet media (usually an archived mailing list). Initially, gameplay occurs in clockwise order, with each player taking a turn. In that turn, they propose a change in rules that all the other players vote on, and then roll a die to determine the number of points they add to their score. If this rule change is passed, it comes into effect at the end of their round. Any rule can be changed with varying degrees of difficulty, including the core rules of the game itself. As such, the gameplay may quickly change. Rules are divided up into two types: mutable and immutable. The main difference between these is that immutable rules must be changed into mutable rules (called transmuting) before they can be modified or removed. Immutable rules also take precedence over mutable ones. A rule change may be: the addition of a new mutable rule an amendment to a mutable rule the repeal of a mutable rule the transmutation of a rule from mutable to immutable or the transmutation of a rule from immutable to mutable Alternative starting rulesets exist for Internet and mail games, wherein gameplay occurs in alphabetical order by surname, and points added to the score are based on the success of a proposed rule change rather than random dice rolls. Variants Not only can every aspect of the rules be altered in some way over the course of a game of Nomic, but myriad variants also exist: some that have themes, begin with a single rule, or begin with a dictator instead of a democratic process to validate rules. Others combine Nomic with an existing game (such as Monopoly, Chess, or in one humorously paradoxical attempt, Mornington Crescent ). There is even a version in which the players are games of Nomic themselves. Even more unusual variants include a ruleset in which the rules are hidden from players' view, and a game which, instead of allowing voting on rules, splits into two sub-games, one with the rule, and one without it. Online versions often have initial rulesets where play is not turn-based; typically, players in such games may propose rule changes at any time, rather than having to wait for their turn. One spin-off of a now-defunct Nomic (Nomic World) is the Fantasy Rules Committee, which adds every legal rule submitted by a player to the ruleset until no more rules are possible. Then, all the "fantasy rules" are repealed and the game begins again. The fictional game Calvinball, played by the main characters in the comic strip Calvin and Hobbes, is sometimes compared to Nomic. However, Calvinball appears to have a permanent rule that the same rules may never be used twice; a nomic, at least in its initial state, has no truly permanent rules. Notes Games of Nomic sometimes last for a very long time - Agora has been running since 1993. The longevity of nomic games can pose a serious problem, in that the rulesets can grow so complex that current players do not fully understand them and prospective players are deterred from joining. One currently-active game, BlogNomic, gets around this problem by dividing the game into "dynasties"; every time someone wins, a new dynasty begins, and all the rules except a privileged few are repealed. This keeps the game relatively simple and accessible. Nomicron is similar in that it has rounds — when a player wins a round, a convention is started to plan for the next round. Several rounds experimented with an alternate form of ruleset made up of books and pages. Another facet of Nomic is the way in which the implementation of the rules affects the way the game of Nomic itself works. ThermodyNomic, for example, had a ruleset in which rule changes were carefully considered before implementation, and rules were rarely introduced which provide loopholes for the players to exploit. B Nomic, by contrast, was once described by one of its players as "the equivalent of throwing logical hand grenades." This is essentially part of the differentiation between "procedural" games, where the aim (acknowledged or otherwise) is to tie the entire ruleset into a paradoxical condition on your turn (a player who has no legal move available wins), and "substantive" games, which try to avoid paradox and reward winning by achieving certain goals, such as attaining a given number of points. While Nomic is traditionally capitalized as the proper name of the game it describes, it has also sometimes been used in a more informal way as a lowercased generic term, nomic, referring to anything with Nomic-like characteristics, including games where the rules may be changed during play as well as non-gaming situations where it can be alleged that "rules lawyers" are tinkering with the process used to amend rules and policies (in an organization or community) in a manner akin to a game of Nomic. Online play The game of Nomic is particularly suited to being played online, where all proposals and rules can be shared in web pages or email archives for ease of reference. The Nomic Wiki at nomic.net contains a list of active online Nomics. See also Calvinball Mao Bartok Dvorak Fluxx 21 1000 Blank White Cards Mornington Crescent King's Cup References External links The original initial ruleset, as created by Peter Suber nomic.net contains a Nomic Wiki, the Nomic FAQ, a Nomic Bulletin Board, links to Internet Nomics, a large archive of dead games, and a variety of other resources. The Nomic page of Peter Suber contains, among other things, a list of Nomic games past and present. A Nomic thesis on the "Mousetrap", published by a former player of Agora, demonstrates the complicated legal, cultural, and psychological elements of Nomic. | Nomic |@lemmatized nomic:29 game:32 create:2 philosopher:1 peter:4 suber:7 rule:48 include:5 mechanism:1 player:17 change:14 usually:2 begin:5 system:4 democratic:2 voting:1 actually:2 refers:1 large:2 number:4 base:3 initial:6 ruleset:11 lay:1 book:3 paradox:2 self:1 amendment:2 first:2 publish:3 douglas:1 hofstadter:1 column:2 metamagical:1 themas:1 scientific:1 american:1 june:1 discuss:1 upcoming:1 year:1 later:1 way:5 model:2 modern:1 government:1 demonstrate:2 get:2 situation:2 law:2 contradictory:1 insufficient:1 determine:2 legal:6 expose:1 conceptual:1 question:1 problem:3 interpretation:2 name:2 greek:1 see:2 also:5 nomos:1 victory:2 condition:2 accumulation:1 point:5 roll:3 die:2 say:1 deliberately:1 bore:1 quickly:2 amend:2 please:1 degree:2 become:1 irrelevant:1 favor:1 true:1 currency:1 make:2 unimportant:1 concern:1 specify:1 criterion:1 win:5 even:3 must:2 obey:1 loophole:2 however:2 may:6 allow:2 discover:1 chance:1 pull:1 scam:1 modify:2 complicate:1 process:3 fact:1 allows:1 appointment:1 judge:1 preside:1 issue:1 gameplay:4 play:6 face:2 many:1 write:1 note:2 require:1 internet:3 medium:1 archived:1 mailing:1 list:3 initially:1 occurs:1 clockwise:1 order:2 take:2 turn:5 propose:3 vote:2 add:3 score:2 pass:1 come:1 effect:1 end:1 round:5 vary:1 difficulty:1 core:1 divide:2 two:2 type:1 mutable:8 immutable:5 main:2 difference:1 call:1 transmuting:1 remove:1 precedence:1 one:7 addition:1 new:2 repeal:3 transmutation:2 alternative:1 start:2 rulesets:3 exist:3 mail:1 wherein:1 occur:1 alphabetical:1 surname:1 success:1 rather:2 random:1 dice:1 variant:3 every:3 aspect:1 alter:1 course:1 myriad:1 theme:1 single:1 dictator:1 instead:2 validate:1 others:1 combine:1 monopoly:1 chess:1 humorously:1 paradoxical:2 attempt:1 mornington:2 crescent:2 version:2 unusual:1 hide:1 view:1 split:1 sub:1 without:1 online:4 often:1 typically:1 time:3 wait:1 spin:1 defunct:1 world:1 fantasy:2 committee:1 submit:1 possible:1 fictional:1 calvinball:3 character:1 comic:1 strip:1 calvin:1 hobbes:1 sometimes:3 compare:1 appear:1 permanent:2 never:1 use:3 twice:1 least:1 state:1 truly:1 last:1 long:1 agora:2 run:1 since:1 longevity:1 pose:1 serious:1 grow:1 complex:1 current:1 fully:1 understand:1 prospective:1 deter:1 join:1 currently:1 active:2 blognomic:1 around:1 dynasty:2 someone:1 except:1 privileged:1 keep:1 relatively:1 simple:1 accessible:1 nomicron:1 similar:1 convention:1 plan:1 next:1 several:1 experiment:1 alternate:1 form:1 page:3 another:1 facet:1 implementation:2 affect:1 work:1 thermodynomic:1 example:1 carefully:1 consider:1 rarely:1 introduce:1 provide:1 exploit:1 b:1 contrast:1 describe:2 equivalent:1 throw:1 logical:1 hand:1 grenade:1 essentially:1 part:1 differentiation:1 procedural:1 aim:1 acknowledge:1 otherwise:1 tie:1 entire:1 move:1 available:1 substantive:1 try:1 avoid:1 reward:1 winning:1 achieve:1 certain:1 goal:1 attain:1 give:1 traditionally:1 capitalize:1 proper:1 informal:1 lowercased:1 generic:1 term:1 refer:1 anything:1 like:1 characteristic:1 well:1 non:1 gaming:1 allege:1 lawyer:1 tinker:1 policy:1 organization:1 community:1 manner:1 akin:1 particularly:1 suit:1 proposal:1 share:1 web:1 email:1 archive:2 ease:1 reference:2 wiki:2 net:2 contain:2 nomics:2 mao:1 bartok:1 dvorak:1 fluxx:1 blank:1 white:1 card:1 king:1 cup:1 external:1 link:2 original:1 faq:1 bulletin:1 board:1 dead:1 variety:1 resource:1 contains:1 among:1 thing:1 past:1 present:1 thesis:1 mousetrap:1 former:1 complicated:1 cultural:1 psychological:1 element:1 |@bigram peter_suber:4 douglas_hofstadter:1 mailing_list:1 alphabetical_order:1 dice_roll:1 mornington_crescent:2 comic_strip:1 calvin_hobbes:1 external_link:1 bulletin_board:1 |
2,664 | Cement | In the most general sense of the word, a cement is a binder, a substance which sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the term "opus caementicium" to describe masonry which resembled concrete and was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick additives which were added to the burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment and cement. Cements used in construction are characterized as hydraulic or non-hydraulic. The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and concrete - the bonding of natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material which is durable in the face of normal environmental effects. Cement should not be confused with concrete as the term cement explicitly refers to the dry powder substance. Upon the addition of water and/or additives the cement mixture is referred to as concrete, especially if aggregates have been added. History Early uses It is uncertain where it was first discovered that a combination of hydrated non-hydraulic lime and a pozzolan produces a hydraulic mixture (see also: Pozzolanic reaction), but concrete made from such mixtures was first used on a large scale by Roman engineers Hill, Donald: A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times, Routledge 1984, p106 . They used both natural pozzolans (trass or pumice) and artificial pozzolans (ground brick or pottery) in these concretes. Many excellent examples of structures made from these concretes are still standing, notably the huge monolithic dome of the Pantheon in Rome and the massive Baths of Caracalla. PURE NATURAL POZZOLAN CEMENT The vast system of Roman aqueducts also made extensive use of hydraulic cement. Aqueduct Architecture: Moving Water to the Masses in Ancient Rome The use of structural concrete disappeared in medieval Europe, although weak pozzolanic concretes continued to be used as a core fill in stone walls and columns. Modern cement Modern hydraulic cements began to be developed from the start of the Industrial Revolution (around 1800), driven by three main needs: Hydraulic renders for finishing brick buildings in wet climates Hydraulic mortars for masonry construction of harbor works etc, in contact with sea water. Development of strong concretes. In Britain particularly, good quality building stone became ever more expensive during a period of rapid growth, and it became a common practice to construct prestige buildings from the new industrial bricks, and to finish them with a stucco to imitate stone. Hydraulic limes were favored for this, but the need for a fast set time encouraged the development of new cements. Most famous among these was Parker's "Roman cement." A J Francis, The Cement Industry 1796-1914: A History, David & Charles, 1977, ISBN 0-7153-7386-2, Ch 2 This was developed by James Parker in the 1780s, and finally patented in 1796. It was, in fact, nothing like any material used by the Romans, but was a "Natural cement" made by burning septaria - nodules that are found in certain clay deposits, and that contain both clay minerals and calcium carbonate. The burnt nodules were ground to a fine powder. This product, made into a mortar with sand, set in 5-15 minutes. The success of "Roman Cement" led other manufacturers to develop rival products by burning artificial mixtures of clay and chalk. John Smeaton made an important contribution to the development of cements when he was planning the construction of the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755-9) in the English Channel. He needed a hydraulic mortar that would set and develop some strength in the twelve hour period between successive high tides. He performed an exhaustive market research on the available hydraulic limes, visiting their production sites, and noted that the "hydraulicity" of the lime was directly related to the clay content of the limestone from which it was made. Smeaton was a civil engineer by profession, and took the idea no further. Apparently unaware of Smeaton's work, the same principle was identified by Louis Vicat in the first decade of the nineteenth century. Vicat went on to devise a method of combining chalk and clay into an intimate mixture, and, burning this, produced an "artificial cement" in 1817. James Frost, Francis op. cit., Ch 5 working in Britain, produced what he called "British cement" in a similar manner around the same time, but did not obtain a patent until 1822. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin patented a similar material, which he called Portland cement, because the render made from it was in color similar to the prestigious Portland stone. All the above products could not compete with lime/pozzolan concretes because of fast-setting (giving insufficient time for placement) and low early strengths (requiring a delay of many weeks before formwork could be removed). Hydraulic limes, "natural" cements and "artificial" cements all rely upon their belite content for strength development. Belite develops strength slowly. Because they were burned at temperatures below 1250 °C, they contained no alite, which is responsible for early strength in modern cements. The first cement to consistently contain alite was made by Joseph Aspdin's son William in the early 1840s. This was what we call today "modern" Portland cement. Because of the air of mystery with which William Aspdin surrounded his product, others (e.g. Vicat and I C Johnson) have claimed precedence in this invention, but recent analysis Hewlett op. cit., Ch 1 of both his concrete and raw cement have shown that William Aspdin's product made at Northfleet, Kent was a true alite-based cement. However, Aspdin's methods were "rule-of-thumb": Vicat is responsible for establishing the chemical basis of these cements, and Johnson established the importance of sintering the mix in the kiln. William Aspdin's innovation was counter-intuitive for manufacturers of "artificial cements", because they required more lime in the mix (a problem for his father), because they required a much higher kiln temperature (and therefore more fuel) and because the resulting clinker was very hard and rapidly wore down the millstones which were the only available grinding technology of the time. Manufacturing costs were therefore considerably higher, but the product set reasonably slowly and developed strength quickly, thus opening up a market for use in concrete. The use of concrete in construction grew rapidly from 1850 onwards, and was soon the dominant use for cements. Thus Portland cement began its predominant role. Types of modern cement Portland cement Cement is made by heating limestone with small quantities of other materials (such as clay) to 1450°C in a kiln, in a process known as calcination. The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement', the most commonly used type of cement (often referred to as OPC). Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-speciality grout. The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape desired, and once hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element. Portland cement may be gray or white. Portland cement blends These are often available as inter-ground mixtures from cement manufacturers, but similar formulations are often also mixed from the ground components at the concrete mixing plant. Portland Blastfurnace Cement contains up to 70% ground granulated blast furnace slag, with the rest Portland clinker and a little gypsum. All compositions produce high ultimate strength, but as slag content is increased, early strength is reduced, while sulfate resistance increases and heat evolution diminishes. Used as an economic alternative to Portland sulfate-resisting and low-heat cements. Portland Flyash Cement contains up to 30% fly ash. The fly ash is pozzolanic, so that ultimate strength is maintained. Because fly ash addition allows a lower concrete water content, early strength can also be maintained. Where good quality cheap fly ash is available, this can be an economic alternative to ordinary Portland cement. Portland Pozzolan Cement includes fly ash cement, since fly ash is a pozzolan, but also includes cements made from other natural or artificial pozzolans. In countries where volcanic ashes are available (e.g. Italy, Chile, Mexico, the Philippines) these cements are often the most common form in use. Portland Silica Fume cement. Addition of silica fume can yield exceptionally high strengths, and cements containing 5-20% silica fume are occasionally produced. However, silica fume is more usually added to Portland cement at the concrete mixer. Masonry Cements are used for preparing bricklaying mortars and stuccos, and must not be used in concrete. They are usually complex proprietary formulations containing Portland clinker and a number of other ingredients that may include limestone, hydrated lime, air entrainers, retarders, waterproofers and coloring agents. They are formulated to yield workable mortars that allow rapid and consistent masonry work. Subtle variations of Masonry cement in the US are Plastic Cements and Stucco Cements. These are designed to produce controlled bond with masonry blocks. Expansive Cements contain, in addition to Portland clinker, expansive clinkers (usually sulfoaluminate clinkers), and are designed to offset the effects of drying shrinkage that is normally encountered with hydraulic cements. This allows large floor slabs (up to 60 m square) to be prepared without contraction joints. White blended cements may be made using white clinker and white supplementary materials such as high-purity metakaolin. Colored cements are used for decorative purposes. In some standards, the addition of pigments to produce "colored Portland cement" is allowed. In other standards (e.g. ASTM), pigments are not allowed constituents of Portland cement, and colored cements are sold as "blended hydraulic cements". Very finely ground cements are made from mixtures of cement with sand or with slag or other pozzolan type minerals which are extremely finely ground. Such cements can have the same physical characteristics as normal cement but with 50% less cement particularly due to their increased surface area for the chemical reaction. Even with intensive grinding they can use up to 50% less energy to fabricate than ordinary Portland cements. Non-Portland hydraulic cements Pozzolan-lime cements. Mixtures of ground pozzolan and lime are the cements used by the Romans, and are to be found in Roman structures still standing (e.g. the Pantheon in Rome). They develop strength slowly, but their ultimate strength can be very high. The hydration products that produce strength are essentially the same as those produced by Portland cement. Slag-lime cements. Ground granulated blast furnace slag is not hydraulic on its own, but is "activated" by addition of alkalis, most economically using lime. They are similar to pozzolan lime cements in their properties. Only granulated slag (i.e. water-quenched, glassy slag) is effective as a cement component. Supersulfated cements. These contain about 80% ground granulated blast furnace slag, 15% gypsum or anhydrite and a little Portland clinker or lime as an activator. They produce strength by formation of ettringite, with strength growth similar to a slow Portland cement. They exhibit good resistance to aggressive agents, including sulfate. Calcium aluminate cements are hydraulic cements made primarily from limestone and bauxite. The active ingredients are monocalcium aluminate CaAl2O4 (CA in Cement chemist notation) and Mayenite Ca12Al14O33 (C12A7 in CCN). Strength forms by hydration to calcium aluminate hydrates. They are well-adapted for use in refractory (high-temperature resistant) concretes, e.g. for furnace linings. Calcium sulfoaluminate cements are made from clinkers that include ye'elimite (Ca4(AlO2)6SO4 or C4A3 in Cement chemist's notation) as a primary phase. They are used in expansive cements, in ultra-high early strength cements, and in "low-energy" cements. Hydration produces ettringite, and specialized physical properties (such as expansion or rapid reaction) are obtained by adjustment of the availability of calcium and sulfate ions. Their use as a low-energy alternative to Portland cement has been pioneered in China, where several million tonnes per year are produced G C Bye, Portland Cement 2nd Ed, Thomas Telford, 1999, ISBN 07277-2766-4, pp 206-8 L Zhang, M Su, Y Wang, Development of the use of sulfo- and ferroaluminate cements in China in Adv. Cem. Res. 11 No1, pp 15-21 . Energy requirements are lower because of the lower kiln temperatures required for reaction, and the lower amount of limestone (which must be endothermically decarbonated) in the mix. In addition, the lower limestone content and lower fuel consumption leads to a CO2 emission around half that associated with Portland clinker. However, SO2 emissions are usually significantly higher. "Natural" Cements correspond to certain cements of the pre-Portland era, produced by burning argillaceous limestones at moderate temperatures. The level of clay components in the limestone (around 30-35%) is such that large amounts of belite (the low-early strength, high-late strength mineral in Portland cement) are formed without the formation of excessive amounts free lime. As with any natural material, such cements have very variable properties. Geopolymer cements are made from mixtures of water-soluble alkali metal silicates and aluminosilicate mineral powders such as fly ash and metakaolin. Environmental and social impacts Cement manufacture causes environmental impacts at all stages of the process. These include emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and vibration when operating machinery and during blasting in quarries, and damage to countryside from quarrying. Equipment to reduce dust emissions during quarrying and manufacture of cement is widely used, and equipment to trap and separate exhaust gases are coming into increased use. Environmental protection also includes the re-integration of quarries into the countryside after they have been closed down by returning them to nature or re-cultivating them. Climate Cement manufacture contributes greenhouse gases both directly through the production of carbon dioxide when calcium carbonate is heated, producing lime and carbon dioxide EIA - Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the U.S. 2006-Carbon Dioxide Emissions , and also indirectly through the use of energy, particularly if the energy is sourced from fossil fuels. The cement industry produces 5% of global man-made CO2 emissions, of which 50% is from the chemical process, and 40% from burning fuel. The Cement Sustainability Initiative: Progress report, World Business Council for Sustainable Development, published 2002-06-01 The amount of CO2 emitted by the cement industry is nearly 900 kg of CO2 for every 1000 kg of cement produced. Newly developed cement types from Novacem http://www.imperialinnovations.co.uk/?q=node/176 and Eco-cement can absorb CO2 from ambient air during hardening. http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/dec/31/cement-carbon-emissions Fuels and raw materials A cement plant consumes 3 to 6 GJ of fuel per tonne of clinker produced, depending on the raw materials and the process used. Most cement kilns today use coal and petroleum coke as primary fuels, and to a lesser extent natural gas and fuel oil. Selected waste and by-products with recoverable calorific value can be used as fuels in a cement kiln, replacing a portion of conventional fossil fuels, like coal, if they meet strict specifications. Selected waste and by-products containing useful minerals such as calcium, silica, alumina, and iron can be used as raw materials in the kiln, replacing raw materials such as clay, shale, and limestone. Because some materials have both useful mineral content and recoverable calorific value, the distinction between alternative fuels and raw materials is not always clear. For example, sewage sludge has a low but significant calorific value, and burns to give ash containing minerals useful in the clinker matrix. Guidelines for the Selection and Use of Fuels and Raw Materials in the Cement Manufacturing Process, World Business Council for Sustainable Development, published 2005-06-01 Local impacts Producing cement has significant positive and negative impacts at a local level. On the positive side, the cement industry may create employment and business opportunities for local people, particularly in remote locations in developing countries where there are few other opportunities for economic development. Negative impacts include disturbance to the landscape, dust and noise, and disruption to local biodiversity from quarrying limestone (the raw material for cement). Cement business Cement output in 2004 In 2002 the world production of hydraulic cement was 1,800 million metric tons. The top three producers were China with 704, India with 100, and the United States with 91 million metric tons for a combined total of about half the world total by the world's three most populous states. "For the past 18 years, China consistently has produced more cement than any other country in the world. [...] China's cement export peaked in 1994 with 11 million tons shipped out and has been in steady decline ever since. Only 5.18 million tons were exported out of China in 2002. Offered at $34 a ton, Chinese cement is pricing itself out of the market as Thailand is asking as little as $20 for the same quality." http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/FA07Ad02.html Asia Times Jan 7, 2004 "Demand for cement in China is expected to advance 5.4% annually and exceed 1 billion metric tons in 2008, driven by slowing but healthy growth in construction expenditures. Cement consumed in China will amount to 44% of global demand, and China will remain the world's largest national consumer of cement by a large margin." http://cementamericas.com/mag/cement_chinas_cement_demand/ Nov 1, 2004 In 2006 it was estimated that China manufactured 1.235 billion metric tons of cement, which is 44% of the world total cement production. China now no. 1 in CO2 emissions; USA in second position: more info, NEAA, published 2007-06-19, accessed 2007-07-20 See also BET theory Cement chemist notation Cement render Concrete curing Fly ash Portland cement Rosendale cement Further reading Friedrich W. Locher: Cement : Principles of production and use, Duesseldorf, Germany: Verlag Bau + Technik GmbH, 2006, ISBN 3-7640-0420-7 Javed I. Bhatty, F. MacGregor Miller, Steven H. Kosmatka; editors: Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing, SP400, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois, USA, 2004, ISBN 0-89312-234-3 "Cement Industry Is at Center of Climate Change Debate" article by Elizabeth Rosenthal in the New York Times October 26, 2007 References External links British Cement Association (UK) Cembureau (EU) Portland Cement Association (US) Verein Deutscher Zementwerke e. V. (VDZ), (Germany) Carbon dioxide emission from the global cement industry (in 1994) International cement industry Sustainability Initiative How is Cement Made? Flash Animation Cement by the Barrel and Cask, Concrete in Australia, 26 3: 10-13, 2000 | Cement |@lemmatized general:1 sense:1 word:2 cement:139 binder:3 substance:3 set:5 hardens:1 independently:1 bind:1 material:17 together:1 trace:1 roman:8 use:37 term:2 opus:1 caementicium:1 describe:1 masonry:6 resemble:1 concrete:25 make:21 crushed:1 rock:1 burnt:3 lime:18 volcanic:2 ash:11 pulverize:1 brick:4 additive:1 add:3 obtain:3 hydraulic:19 later:1 refer:4 cementum:1 cimentum:1 cäment:1 construction:6 characterize:1 non:4 important:2 production:7 mortar:7 bonding:1 natural:9 artificial:7 aggregate:3 form:5 strong:2 building:3 durable:1 face:1 normal:2 environmental:4 effect:2 confuse:1 explicitly:1 dry:2 powder:4 upon:2 addition:7 water:7 additives:1 mixture:9 especially:1 history:3 early:8 uncertain:1 first:4 discover:1 combination:1 hydrated:1 pozzolan:9 produce:19 see:2 also:8 pozzolanic:3 reaction:4 large:5 scale:1 engineer:2 hill:1 donald:1 engineering:1 classical:1 medieval:2 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2,665 | Irrealism_(the_arts) | Irrealism is a term that has been used by various writers in the fields of philosophy, literature, and art to denote specific modes of unreality and/or the problems in concretely defining reality. While in philosophy the term specifically refers to a position put forward by the American philosopher Nelson Goodman, in literature and art it refers to a variety of writers and movements. If the term has nonetheless retained a certain consistency in its use across these fields and would-be movements, it perhaps reflects the word’s position in general English usage: though the standard dictionary definition of irreal gives it the same meaning as unreal, irreal is very rarely used in comparison with unreal. Thus, it has generally been used to describe something which, while unreal, is so in a very specific or unusual fashion, usually one emphasizing not just the "not real," but some form of estrangement from our generally accepted sense of reality. Irrealism in Literature In literature, the term irrealism was first used extensively in the United States in the 1970s to describe the post-realist "new fiction" of writers such as Donald Barthelme or John Barth. More generally, it described the notion that all forms of writing could only "offer particular versions of reality rather than actual descriptions of it," and that a story need not offer a clear resolution at its end. John Gardner, in The Art of Fiction, cites in this context the work of Barthelme and its "seemingly limitless ability to manipulate [literary] techniques as modes of apprehension [which] apprehend nothing." (Gardner 1984) Though Barth, in a 1974 interview, stated, "irrealism—not antirealism or unrealism, but irrealism—is all that I would confidently predict is likely to characterize the prose fiction of the 1970s," (Bellamy 1974) this did not prove to be the case. Instead writing in the United States quickly returned to its realist orthodoxy and the term irrealism fell into disuse. In recent years, however, the term has been revived in an attempt to describe and categorize, in literary and philosophical terms, how it is that the work of an irrealist writer differs from the work of writers in other, non-realistic genres (e.g., the fantasy of J.R.R. Tolkien, the magical realism of Gabriel Garcia Marquez) and what the significance of this difference is. This can be seen in Dean Swinford's essay Defining irrealism: scientific development and allegorical possibility. Approaching the issue from a structuralist and narratological point of view, he has defined irrealism as a "peculiar mode of postmodern allegory" that has resulted from modernity’s fragmentation and dismantling of the well-ordered and coherent medieval system of symbol and allegory. Thus a lion, when presented in a given context in medieval literature, could only be interpreted in a single, approved way. Contemporary literary theory, however, denies the attribution of such fixed meanings. According to Swinford, this change can be attributed in part to the fact that "science and technical culture have changed perceptions of the natural world, have significantly changed the natural world itself, thereby altering the vocabulary of symbols applicable to epistemological and allegorical attempts to understand it." Thus irreal works such as Italo Calvino's Cosmicomics and Jorge Luis Borges' Ficciones can be seen as an attempt to find a new allegorical language to explain our changed perceptions of the world that have been brought about by our scientific and technical culture, especially concepts such as quantum physics or the theory of relativity. "The Irrealist work, then, operates within a given system," writes Swinford, "and attests to its plausibility, despite the fact that this system, and the world it represents, is often a mutation, an aberration." The online journal The Cafe Irreal , on the other hand, has defined irrealism as being a type of existentialist literature in which the means are continually and absurdly rebelling against the ends that we have determined for them. An example of this would be Franz Kafka's story Metamorphosis, in which the salesman Gregor Samsa's plans for supporting his family and rising up in rank by hard work and determination are suddenly thrown topsy-turvy by his sudden and inexplicable transformation into a man-sized insect. Such fiction is said to emphasize the fact that human consciousness, being finite in nature, can never make complete sense of, or successfully order, a universe that is infinite in its aspects and possibilities. Which is to say: as much as we might try to order our world with a certain set of norms and goals (which we consider our real world), the paradox of a finite consciousness in an infinite universe creates a zone of irreality ("that which is beyond the real") that offsets, opposes, or threatens the real world of the human subject. Irrealist writing often highlights this irreality, and our strange fascination with it, by combining the unease we feel because the real world doesn't conform to our desires with the narrative quality of the dream state (where reality is constantly and inexplicably being undermined); it is thus said to communicate directly, "by feeling rather than articulation, the uncertainties inherent in human existence or, to put it another way... the irreconcilability between human aspiration and human reality." If the irreal story can be considered an allegory, then, it would be an allegory that is "so many pointers to an unknown meaning," in which the meaning is felt more than it is articulated or systematically analyzed. Irrealism in Art Various writers have addressed the question of Irrealism in Art. Many salient observations on Irrealism in Art are found in Nelson Goodman's Languages of Art. Goodman himself produced some multimedia shows, one of which inspired by hockey and is entitled Hockey Seen: A Nightmare in Three Periods and Sudden Death. Garret Rowlan, writing in The Cafe Irreal, writes that the malaise present in the work of the Italian artist Giorgio de Chirico, "which recalls Kafka, has to do with the sense of another world lurking, hovering like the long shadows that dominate de Chirico's paintings, which frequently depict a landscape at twilight's uncertain hour. Malaise and mystery are all by-products of the interaction of the real and the unreal, the rub and contact of two worlds caught on irrealism's shimmering surface." The writer Dean Swinford, (whose concept of irrealism was described at length in the section "Irrealism in Literature"), wrote that the artist Remedios Varos, in her painting The Juggler, "creates a personal allegorical system which relies on the predetermined symbols of Christian and classical iconography. But these are quickly refigured into a personal system informed by the scientific and organized like a machine...in the Irreal work, allegory operates according to an altered, but constant and orderly iconographic system." Artist, Tristan Tondino, has made a number of claims about Irrealism. Most of his claims are found in his paintings, many of which are Lettrist Abstractions. "There is no specific style to Irrealist Art. It is the result of awareness that every human act is the result of the limitations of the world of the actor." Tondino 2003, Zot - Giving a Painter Crap... In Australia, the art journal the art life has recently detected the presence of a "New Irrealism" among the painters of that country, which is described as being an "approach to painting that is decidedly low key, deploying its effects without histrionic showmanship, while creating an eerie other world of ghostly images and abstract washes." What exactly constituted the "old" irrealism, they do not say. Irrealism in Music Some hardcore bands in Italy have claimed to be irrealist. See also Franz Kafka Nikolai Gogol Rene Magritte Kōbō Abe Giorgio de Chirico Magnus Mills Jorge Luis Borges Donald Barthelme John Barth Remedios Varo Footnotes References | Irrealism_(the_arts) |@lemmatized irrealism:19 term:7 use:5 various:2 writer:7 field:2 philosophy:2 literature:7 art:10 denote:1 specific:3 mode:3 unreality:1 problem:1 concretely:1 define:4 reality:5 specifically:1 refer:2 position:2 put:2 forward:1 american:1 philosopher:1 nelson:2 goodman:3 variety:1 movement:2 nonetheless:1 retain:1 certain:2 consistency:1 across:1 would:4 perhaps:1 reflect:1 word:1 general:1 english:1 usage:1 though:2 standard:1 dictionary:1 definition:1 irreal:7 give:4 meaning:4 unreal:4 rarely:1 comparison:1 thus:4 generally:3 describe:6 something:1 unusual:1 fashion:1 usually:1 one:2 emphasize:2 real:6 form:2 estrangement:1 accept:1 sense:3 first:1 extensively:1 united:2 state:4 post:1 realist:2 new:3 fiction:4 donald:2 barthelme:3 john:3 barth:3 notion:1 writing:1 could:2 offer:2 particular:1 version:1 rather:2 actual:1 description:1 story:3 need:1 clear:1 resolution:1 end:2 gardner:2 cite:1 context:2 work:8 seemingly:1 limitless:1 ability:1 manipulate:1 literary:3 technique:1 apprehension:1 apprehend:1 nothing:1 interview:1 antirealism:1 unrealism:1 confidently:1 predict:1 likely:1 characterize:1 prose:1 bellamy:1 prove:1 case:1 instead:1 write:6 quickly:2 return:1 orthodoxy:1 fell:1 disuse:1 recent:1 year:1 however:2 revive:1 attempt:3 categorize:1 philosophical:1 irrealist:5 differs:1 non:1 realistic:1 genre:1 e:1 g:1 fantasy:1 j:1 r:2 tolkien:1 magical:1 realism:1 gabriel:1 garcia:1 marquez:1 significance:1 difference:1 see:4 dean:2 swinford:4 essay:1 scientific:3 development:1 allegorical:4 possibility:2 approach:2 issue:1 structuralist:1 narratological:1 point:1 view:1 peculiar:1 postmodern:1 allegory:5 result:3 modernity:1 fragmentation:1 dismantling:1 well:1 order:3 coherent:1 medieval:2 system:6 symbol:3 lion:1 present:2 interpret:1 single:1 approved:1 way:2 contemporary:1 theory:2 deny:1 attribution:1 fixed:1 accord:2 change:3 attribute:1 part:1 fact:3 science:1 technical:2 culture:2 perception:2 natural:2 world:12 significantly:1 thereby:1 alter:2 vocabulary:1 applicable:1 epistemological:1 understand:1 italo:1 calvino:1 cosmicomics:1 jorge:2 luis:2 borges:2 ficciones:1 find:3 language:2 explain:1 changed:1 bring:1 especially:1 concept:2 quantum:1 physic:1 relativity:1 operate:2 within:1 attest:1 plausibility:1 despite:1 represent:1 often:2 mutation:1 aberration:1 online:1 journal:2 cafe:2 hand:1 type:1 existentialist:1 mean:1 continually:1 absurdly:1 rebel:1 determine:1 example:1 franz:2 kafka:3 metamorphosis:1 salesman:1 gregor:1 samsa:1 plan:1 support:1 family:1 rise:1 rank:1 hard:1 determination:1 suddenly:1 thrown:1 topsy:1 turvy:1 sudden:2 inexplicable:1 transformation:1 man:1 sized:1 insect:1 say:4 human:6 consciousness:2 finite:2 nature:1 never:1 make:2 complete:1 successfully:1 universe:2 infinite:2 aspect:1 much:1 might:1 try:1 set:1 norm:1 goal:1 consider:2 paradox:1 create:3 zone:1 irreality:2 beyond:1 offset:1 opposes:1 threaten:1 subject:1 highlight:1 strange:1 fascination:1 combine:1 unease:1 feel:2 conform:1 desire:1 narrative:1 quality:1 dream:1 constantly:1 inexplicably:1 undermine:1 communicate:1 directly:1 articulation:1 uncertainty:1 inherent:1 existence:1 another:2 irreconcilability:1 aspiration:1 many:3 pointer:1 unknown:1 felt:1 articulate:1 systematically:1 analyze:1 address:1 question:1 salient:1 observation:1 produce:1 multimedia:1 show:1 inspire:1 hockey:2 entitle:1 nightmare:1 three:1 period:1 death:1 garret:1 rowlan:1 malaise:2 italian:1 artist:3 giorgio:2 de:3 chirico:3 recall:1 lurking:1 hover:1 like:2 long:1 shadow:1 dominate:1 painting:2 frequently:1 depict:1 landscape:1 twilight:1 uncertain:1 hour:1 mystery:1 product:1 interaction:1 rub:1 contact:1 two:1 catch:1 shimmer:1 surface:1 whose:1 length:1 section:1 remedios:2 varos:1 paint:2 juggler:1 personal:2 rely:1 predetermined:1 christian:1 classical:1 iconography:1 refigured:1 inform:1 organize:1 machine:1 constant:1 orderly:1 iconographic:1 tristan:1 tondino:2 number:1 claim:3 lettrist:1 abstraction:1 style:1 awareness:1 every:1 act:1 limitation:1 actor:1 zot:1 painter:2 crap:1 australia:1 life:1 recently:1 detect:1 presence:1 among:1 country:1 decidedly:1 low:1 key:1 deploy:1 effect:1 without:1 histrionic:1 showmanship:1 eerie:1 ghostly:1 image:1 abstract:1 wash:1 exactly:1 constitute:1 old:1 music:1 hardcore:1 band:1 italy:1 also:1 nikolai:1 gogol:1 rene:1 magritte:1 kōbō:1 abe:1 magnus:1 mill:1 varo:1 footnote:1 reference:1 |@bigram confidently_predict:1 fell_disuse:1 italo_calvino:1 jorge_luis:2 luis_borges:2 franz_kafka:2 gregor_samsa:1 topsy_turvy:1 de_chirico:3 |
2,666 | Altaic_languages | Altaic is a disputed language family that is generally held by its proponents to include the Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic language families (Georg et al. 1999:73–74). These languages are spoken in a wide arc stretching from northeast Asia through Central Asia to Anatolia and eastern Europe (Turks, Kalmyks). The group is named after the Altai Mountains, a mountain range in Central Asia. These language families share numerous characteristics. The debate is over the origin of their similarities. One camp, often called the "Altaicists", views these similarities as arising from common descent from a Proto-Altaic language spoken several thousand years ago. The other camp, often called the "anti-Altaicists", views these similarities as arising from areal interaction between the language groups concerned. Some linguists believe the case for either interpretation is about equally strong; they have been called the "skeptics" (Georg et al. 1999:81). Another view accepts Altaic as a valid family but includes in it only Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic. This view was widespread prior to the 1960s, but has almost no supporters among specialists today (Georg et al. 1999:73–74). The expanded grouping, including Korean and, from the early 1970s on, Japanese, came to be known as "Macro-Altaic", leading to the designation by back-formation of the smaller grouping as "Micro-Altaic". A minority of Altaicists continues to support the inclusion of Korean but not that of Japanese (Poppe 1976:470, Georg et al. 1999:65, 74). Micro-Altaic would include about 66 living languages, to which Macro-Altaic would add Korean, Japanese, and the Ryukyuan languages for a total of about 74. (These are estimates, depending on what is considered a language and what is considered a dialect. They do not include earlier states of language, such as Old Japanese.) Micro-Altaic would have a total of about 348 million speakers today, Macro-Altaic about 558 million. Distribution of the Altaic languages across Eurasia. History of the Altaic idea The Altai Mountains give their name to the proposed language family. The idea that the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages are each others' closest relatives was allegedly first published in 1730 by Philip Johan von Strahlenberg, a Swedish officer who traveled in the eastern Russian Empire while a prisoner of war after the Great Northern War. However, as has been pointed out by Alexis Manaster Ramer and Paul Sidwell (1997), Strahlenberg actually opposed the idea of a closer relationship between the languages which later became known as "Altaic". Nicholas Poppe (1965:125) presents the following view: However, von Strahlenberg's classification deserves mentioning as the first attempt at classification of a large number of languages some of which are Altaic. The term "Altaic", as the name for a language family, was introduced in 1844 by Matthias Castrén, a pioneering Finnish philologist who made major contributions to the study of the Uralic languages. As originally formulated by Castrén, Altaic included not only Turkic, Mongolian, and Manchu-Tungus (=Tungusic) but also Finno-Ugric and Samoyed (Poppe 1965:126). Finno-Ugric and Samoyed are not included in later formulations of Altaic. They came to be grouped in a separate family, known as Uralic (though doubts long persisted about its validity). Castrén's Altaic is thus equivalent to what later came to be known as Ural-Altaic (ib. 127). More precisely, Ural-Altaic came to subgroup Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic as "Uralic" and Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic as "Altaic", with Korean sometimes added to Altaic, and less often Japanese. For much of the 19th and early 20th centuries, many linguists who studied Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic regarded them as members of a common Ural-Altaic family, together with Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic, based on such shared features as vowel harmony and agglutination. While the Ural-Altaic hypothesis can still be found in encyclopedias, atlases, and similar general reference works, it has not had any adherents in the linguistics community for decades. It has been characterized by Sergei Starostin as "an idea now completely discarded" (Starostin et al. 2003:8). In 1857, the Austrian scholar Anton Boller suggested adding Japanese to Altaic or more precisely to Ural-Altaic (Miller 1986:34). For Korean, G.J. Ramstedt and E.D. Polivanov put forward additional etymologies in favor of its inclusion in the 1920s. The culmination of decades of research and publication on the part of the author, Ramstedt's two-volume work Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft ('Introduction to Altaic Linguistics') was published in 1952–1957. It rejected grouping the Uralic languages in a common family with the Altaic ones and included Korean in Altaic, an inclusion followed by most leading Altaicists to date. Ramstedt's first volume, Lautlehre ('Phonology'), contained the first comprehensive attempt to identify regular correspondences between the sound systems of the Altaic language families. The second volume was Formenlehre ('Morphology'). (The second volume was actually published first, in 1952, with the first volume following in 1957.) Ramstedt did not live to see the publication of his great work. He died in 1950, and the work was edited and seen through the press by Pentti Aalto, a student of his. In 1960, Nicholas Poppe presented what was in effect a heavily revised version of Ramstedt’s volume on phonology (Miller 1991:298) that has since set the standard in Altaic studies. Further contributions to Altaic linguistics in the 1960s were made by scholars such as Karl H. Menges and, on particular points, by Vladislav Illich-Svitych and others. In the meantime, knowledge of the branches of Altaic and the individual languages of which they are composed made great strides, thanks in large part to the efforts of Vera Cincius (also spelled Tsintsius) on Tungusic (Poppe 1965:97–98) and of Poppe himself on Mongolic, with contributions by many other scholars. Ramstedt and Cincius each had several students who carried on and extended their work (Poppe 1965:136, 98), as did Poppe. Poppe (1965:148) considered the issue of the relationship of Korean to Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic was not settled. In his view, there were three real possibilities: (1) Korean did not belong with the other three genealogically, but had been influenced by an Altaic substratum; (2) Korean was related to the other three at the same level they were related to each other; (3) Korean had split off from the other three before they underwent a series of characteristic changes. Poppe leaned toward the third possibility (ib.), but did not commit himself to it in this work. Roy Andrew Miller's 1971 book Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages convinced most Altaicists that Japanese also belonged to Altaic (Poppe 1976:470). Since then, the standard set of languages included in Altaic has comprised Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese. An alternative classification, though one with much less currency among Altaicists, was proposed by John C. Street (1962), according to which Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic forms one grouping and Korean-Japanese-Ainu another, the two being linked in a common family that Street designated as "North Asiatic". The same schema was adopted by James Patrie (1982) in the context of an attempt to classify the Ainu language. The Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic and Korean-Japanese-Ainu groupings were also posited by Joseph Greenberg (2000–2002) who, however, treated them as independent members of a larger family, which he termed Eurasiatic. A language family or a Sprachbund? Even as Ramstedt's Einführung was making converts and generating the modern school of Altaic studies, a newly invigorated attack on the validity of the Altaic language family was taking shape. Gerard Clauson (1956), Gerhard Doerfer (1963), and Alexander Shcherbak argued that the words and features shared by Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic were for the most part borrowings and that the rest could be attributed to chance resemblances. They argued that while there were words shared by Turkic and Mongolic, by Mongolic and Tungusic, and by all three, there were none (Doerfer: few) shared by Turkic and Tungusic but not Mongolic. If all three families had a common ancestor, we should expect losses to happen at random, not only at the geographical margins of the family; on the other hand, we should expect exactly the observed pattern if borrowing is responsible. Furthermore, they argued that many of the typological features of the supposedly Altaic languages, such as agglutinative morphology and SOV word order, usually occur together in languages. In sum, the idea was that Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic form a Sprachbund – the result of convergence through intensive borrowing and long contact among speakers of languages that are not necessarily closely related. The proponents of this hypothesis are sometimes called "the Anti-Altaicists". Doubt was also raised about the affinities of Korean and Japanese; in particular, some authors tried to connect Japanese to the Austronesian languages (Starostin et al. 2003:8–9). Since then, the debate has raged back and forth, with defenses of Altaic in the wide sense (e.g. Sergei Starostin 1991), advocacy of a family consisting of Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic but not Turkic or Mongolic ("Macro-Tungusic", J. Marshall Unger 1990), and wholesale rejections (e.g. Doerfer 1988) being published. Starostin's (1991) lexicostatistical research showed that the proposed Altaic groups shared about 15–20% of potential cognates within a 110-word Swadesh-Yakhontov list (e.g. Turkic–Mongolic 20%, Turkic–Tungusic 18%, Turkic–Korean 17%, Mongolic–Tungusic 22%, Mongolic–Korean 16%, Tungusic–Korean 21%). Altogether, Starostin concluded that the Altaic grouping was substantiated, though "older than most other language families in Eurasia, such as Indo-European or Finno-Ugric, and this is the reason why the modern Altaic languages preserve few common elements". In 2003, Claus Schönig published a critical overview of the history of the Altaic hypothesis up to that time. He concluded (2003:403): Generally, the more carefully the areal factor has been investigated, the smaller the size of the residue open to the genetic explanation has tended to become. According to many scholars it only comprises a small number of monosyllabic lexical roots, including the personal pronouns and a few other deictic and auxiliary items. For these, other possible explanations have also been proposed. Most importantly, the 'Altaic' languages do not seem to share a common basic vocabulary of the type normally present in cases of genetic relationship. A further step in the debate was the publication of An Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages by Sergei Starostin, Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak in 2003. The research for the dictionary included contributions by several young Altaic scholars, among them Ilya Gruntov and Martine Robbeets. The result of some twenty years of work, it contains 2800 proposed cognate sets, a complete set of regular sound correspondences based on those proposed sets, and a number of grammatical correspondences, as well as a few important changes to the reconstruction of Proto-Altaic. For example, while most of today's Altaic languages have vowel harmony, Proto-Altaic as reconstructed by Starostin et al. lacked it – instead various vowel assimilations between the first and second syllables of words occurred in Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic. It tries hard to distinguish loans between Turkic and Mongolic and between Mongolic and Tungusic from cognates, and it suggests words that occur in Turkic and Tungusic but not Mongolic (Starostin et al. 2003:20); all other combinations between the five branches also occur in the book. It lists 144 items of shared basic vocabulary (2003:230–234) (mostly already present in Starostin 1991 (2003:234)), including words for such items as 'eye', 'ear', 'neck', 'bone', 'blood', 'water', 'stone', 'sun', and 'two'. This work has not changed the mind of any of the principal authors in the field, however. The debate continues unabated—e.g. S. Georg 2004, A. Vovin 2005, S. Georg 2005 (anti-Altaic); S. Starostin 2005, V. Blažek 2006, M. Robbeets 2007, A. Dybo and G. Starostin 2008 (pro-Altaic). Postulated Urheimat Old Turkic inscription in the Orkhon script, c. 8th century, among the oldest known texts in an Altaic language. Kyzyl, Russia. The earliest known texts in a language attributed to Altaic by its proponents are the Orkhon inscriptions, dating from the 8th century AD. They are written in a Turkic language. They were deciphered in 1893 by the Danish linguist Vilhelm Thomsen in a scholarly race with his rival, the Germano-Russian linguist Wilhelm Radloff. However, Radloff was the first to publish the inscriptions. The prehistory of the peoples speaking these languages is largely unknown at the present time. Whereas for certain other linguistic groups, such as the speakers of Indo-European, Uralic, and Austronesian, we are able to frame substantial hypotheses, even if these are disputed, in the case of the proposed Altaic family everything remains to be done. As Roy Andrew Miller (1991:319–320) describes the situation: No one knows the earliest histories of the Proto-Turkic, Proto-Mongolian, and Proto-Tungus speakers—where they lived, how frequently they changed sites, or how often their paths crossed and recrossed. There are no early written records. There are no genuinely early histories. In the absence of written records, there are several ways to study the (pre)history of a people: Identification of archaeological cultures, comprised of the material remains found at dwelling sites, burial grounds, and other places where people left traces of their activity. Physical anthropology, which studies the physical characteristics of peoples, ancient and modern. Genetics, in particular the study of ancient DNA. Philology, which studies the evidence in language families for their primitive locations and the nature of their cultures. (For an example, see Proto-Uralic language.) Mythology and legend often contain important clues to the earlier history of peoples. Glottochronology, which attempts to estimate the time depth of a language family based on an assumed rate of change in languages. Related to this is lexicostatistics, which attempts to determine the degree of relation between a set of languages by comparing the percentage of basic vocabulary (words like "I", "you", "heart", "stone", "two", "be", "and") they share in common. Developing a family tree of languages and noting the relative distance of the splits that occur in it. Observing evidence for contact between languages, which may indicate approximately when and where they were adjacent to each other. All of these methods remain to be applied to the languages attributed to Altaic with the same degree of focus and intensity they have been applied to the Indo-European family (e.g. Mallory 1989, Anthony 2007). In the absence of more extensive studies in this area, most claims about the prehistory of the Altaic-speaking peoples must be viewed as extremely preliminary. This includes the following remarks. According to one line of reasoning, if the languages grouped as Altaic are genetically related, their great differences from each other would point to a very ancient date for their proto-language, in the Mesolithic or even the Upper Paleolithic period. (Miller 1991 however emphasizes the commonalities of these languages in all major areas: phonology, vocabulary, inflections, and syntax). Speakers of an Altaic protolanguage might have entered Central Asia following the disappearance of the West Siberian Glacial Lake, which almost completely covered the flatlands of western Siberia up to the foothills of the Kuznetsk Alatau and Altai mountain ranges. With the Late Glacial warming, up to the Atlantic Phase of the Post-Glacial Optimum, Mesolithic groups moved north into this area from the Hissar (6000–4000 BCE) and Keltiminar (5500–3500 BCE) cultures. These groups brought with them the bow and arrow and the dog, elements of what Kent Flannery has called the "broad-spectrum revolution". The Keltiminar culture occupied the semi-desert and desert areas of the Karakum and Kyzyl Kum deserts and the deltas of the Amu Darya and Zeravshan rivers (Whitney Coolidge 2005). The Keltiminar people practised a mobile hunting, gathering, and fishing subsistence system. Over time, they adopted stockbreeding. Some seek the origin of the proposed Micro-Altaic group in the spread of the Karasuk culture and the appearance of northern Mongol Dinlin elements. The Karasuk culture is the result of a migration of the eastern part of the Dinlins. Its influence extended as far as the Ordos region of China and across into Manchuria and northern Korea. The Karasuk people lived in permanent settlements in frame-type houses. The economy was complex. They bred large-horned livestock, horses, and sheep. They developed a high level of bronze metallurgy. Characteristic of the Karasuk culture are extensive cemeteries. Tombs are fenced with stone slabs laid on crest. Others equate the Karasuk culture with the origin of the Karasuk languages, a recently proposed language family that includes the Yeniseian languages and Burushaski but none of the suggested members of Altaic. Associating languages with archeological discoveries in the absence of written evidence is always a delicate matter. This hypothesis was dealt a major blow when the Yeniseian languages were firmly linked to the Na-Dené languages of North America in a family now called Dené-Yeniseian (Bulletin of the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas 264, 31 March 2008). According to one view, Turkic and Mongolic are more closely related to each other than either is to Tungusic. If so, the split between Turkic and Mongolic would have been the last division within the Altaic group. It has been suggested that this occurred just prior to the Xiongnu period of Central Asian history. This would imply a considerably more shallow time depth for Proto-Altaic, or at least Proto-Micro-Altaic, than the late Stone Age. Such conflicts remain to be resolved. List of Altaicists and critics of Altaic Note: This list is limited to linguists who have worked specifically on the Altaic problem since the publication of the first volume of Ramstedt's Einführung in 1952. The dates given are those of works concerning Altaic. For Altaicists, the version of Altaic they favor is given at the end of the entry. Altaicists Pentti Aalto (1955). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean. Anna V. Dybo (S. Starostin et al. 2003, A. Dybo and G. Starostin 2008). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean–Japanese. Karl H. Menges (1975). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean–Japanese. Roy Andrew Miller (1971, 1980, 1986, 1996). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean–Japanese. Oleg A. Mudrak (S. Starostin et al. 2003). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean–Japanese. Nicholas Poppe (1965). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and perhaps Korean. Alexis Manaster Ramer. Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean–Japanese. Martine Robbeets (2004, 2005, 2007, 2008). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean–Japanese. G.J. Ramstedt (1952–1957). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean. George Starostin (A. Dybo and G. Starostin 2008). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean–Japanese. Sergei Starostin (1991, S. Starostin et al. 2003). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean–Japanese. John C. Street (1962). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and Korean–Japanese–Ainu, grouped as "North Asiatic". Talat Tekin (1994). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean. Major critics of Altaic Gerard Clauson (1956, 1959, 1962). Gerhard Doerfer (1963, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1981, 1985, 1988, 1993). Stefan Georg (2004, 2005). Juha Janhunen (1992). Claus Schönig (2003). Alexander Shcherbak. Alexander Vovin (2005). Formerly an advocate of Altaic (1994, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001), now a critic of it. Alternate hypotheses Joseph Greenberg (2000–2002). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and Korean–Japanese–Ainu, grouped in Eurasiatic. James Patrie (1982). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and Korean–Japanese–Ainu, grouped in a common taxon (cf. John C. Street 1962). J. Marshall Unger (1990). Tungusic–Korean–Japanese ("Macro-Tungusic"), with Turkic and Mongolic as separate language families. Comparative grammar of the proposed Altaic language family Reconstructed phonology Based on the proposed correspondences listed below, the following phoneme inventory has been reconstructed for the hypothetical Proto(-Macro)-Altaic language (taken from Blažek's [2006] summary of the newest Altaic etymological dictionary [Starostin et al. 2003] and transcribed into the IPA): Consonants Bilabial Alveolar or dental Alveolopalatal Postalveolar Palatal Velar Plosives aspirated voiceless voiced Affricates aspirated voiceless voiced Fricatives voiceless voiced 1 Nasals Trills 2 Approximants 2 1 This phoneme only occurred at the beginnings of words. 2 These phonemes only occurred in the interior of words. Vowels Front Back unrounded rounded Close /i/ /y/ /u/ Mid /e/ /ø/ /o/ Near-open /æ/ Open /a/ It is not clear whether /æ/, /ø/, /y/ were monophthongs as shown here (presumably ) or diphthongs (); the evidence is equivocal. In any case, however, they only occurred in the first (and sometimes only) syllable of any word. Every vowel occurred in long and short versions which were different phonemes in the first syllable. Starostin et al. (2003) treat length together with pitch as a prosodic feature. Prosody As reconstructed by Starostin et al. (2003), Proto-Altaic was a pitch accent or tone language; at least the first, and probably every, syllable could have high or low pitch. Sound correspondences If a Proto(-Macro)-Altaic language really existed, it should be possible to reconstruct regular sound correspondences between that protolanguage and its descendants; such correspondences would make it possible to distinguish cognates from loanwords (in many cases). Such attempts have repeatedly been made. The latest version is reproduced here, taken from Blažek's (2006) summary of the newest Altaic etymological dictionary (Starostin et al. 2003) and transcribed into the IPA. When a Proto-Altaic phoneme developed differently depending on its position in a word (beginning, interior, or end), the special case (or all cases) is marked with a hyphen; for example, Proto-Altaic disappears (marked "0") or becomes /j/ at the beginning of a Turkic word and becomes /p/ elsewhere in a Turkic word. Consonants Only single consonants are considered here. In the middle of words, clusters of two consonants were allowed in Proto-Altaic as reconstructed by Starostin et al. (2003); the correspondence table of these clusters spans almost 7 pages in their book (83–89), and most clusters are only found in one or a few of the reconstructed roots. Proto-Altaic Proto-Turkic Proto-Mongolic Proto-Tungusic Proto-Korean Proto-Japonic ²² ³ 4 6, ², 4 7 8 4 4 14 4 ¹ The Khalaj language has /h/ instead. (It also retains a number of other archaisms.) However, it has also added /h/ in front of words for which no initial consonant (except in some cases /ŋ/, as expected) can be reconstructed for Proto-Altaic; therefore, and because it would make them dependent on whether Khalaj happens to have preserved any given root, Starostin et al. (2003:26–28) have not used Khalaj to decide whether to reconstruct an initial in any given word and have not reconstructed a /h/ for Proto-Turkic even though it was probably there. ² The Monguor language has /f/ here instead (Kaiser & Shevoroshkin 1988); it is therefore possible that Proto-Mongolian also had /f/ which then became /h/ (and then usually disappeared) in all descendants except Monguor. Tabgač and Kitan, two extinct Mongolic languages not considered by Starostin et al. (2003), even preserve /p/ in these places (Blažek 2006). ³ This happened when the next consonant in the word was , , or . 4 In front of /i/. 5 When the next consonant in the word was /h/. 6 This happened "in syllables with original high pitch" (Starostin et al. 2003:135). 7 When followed by /æ/, /ø/, /y/. 8 When the next consonant in the word was /r/. 9 When the preceding consonant was , , , or , or when the next consonant was /g/. 10 When the following vowel was /a/, /ə/, or followed by /j/. 11 When followed by /i/ and then another vowel, or by /j/. 12 When preceded by a vowel preceded by /i/. 13 When followed by /a/. 14 Starostin et al. (2003) follow a minority opinion (Vovin 1993) in interpreting the sound of the Middle Korean letter as or rather than [z]. (Dybo & Starostin 2008:footnote 50) 15 When followed by /u/. 16 When followed by /a/, /o/, or /e/. 17 When followed by /i/ or /u/. Vowels Vowel harmony is pervasive in the languages attributed to Altaic: most Turkic and Mongolic as well as some Tungusic languages have it, Korean is arguably in the process of losing its traces, and it is (controversially) hypothesized for Old Japanese. (Vowel harmony is also typical of the neighboring Uralic languages and was often counted among the arguments for the Ural-Altaic hypotheses.) Nevertheless, Starostin et al. (2003) reconstruct Proto-Altaic as lacking vowel harmony. Instead, according to them, vowel harmony originated in each daughter branch as assimilation of the vowel in the first syllable to the vowel in the second syllable (which was usually modified or lost later). "The situation therefore is very close, e.g., to Germanic [see Germanic umlaut] or to the Nakh languages in the Eastern Caucasus, where the quality of non-initial vowels can now only be recovered on the basis of umlaut processes in the first syllable." (Starostin et al. 2003:91) The table below is taken from Starostin et al. (2003): Proto-Altaic Proto-Turkic Proto-Mongolic Proto-Tungusic Middle Korean Proto-Japonic first s. second s. first syllable /a/ /a/ /a/, /a/1, 1 /a/ /a/ /a/, /e/ /a/ /a/ /e/ /a/, /a/, /i/ /a/ /a/, /e/ /ə/ /a/ /i/ , /a/ /a/, /e/ /a/ /a/, /e/, /i/ /i/ /a/ /o/ /o/, /ja/, /aj/ /a/, /i/, /e/ /a/ /ə/, /o/ /a/ /a/ /u/ /a/ /a/, /o/, /u/ /a/ /a/, /ə/, /o/, /u/ /u/ /e/ /a/ /a/, /e/ /e/ /a/, /e/ /a/ /e/ /e/ /ja/-, , /e/2 /e/, /ja/ /e/ /a/, /e/, /i/, /ə/ /e/ /i/ /ja/-, /ɛ/, /e/2 /e/, /i/ /e/ /i/, , /a/, /e/ /i/ /e/ /o/ /ʌ/, /e/ /a/, /e/, /y/3, /ø/3 /e/ /ə/, /o/, /u/ /ə/, /a/ /e/ /u/ /e/, /a/, /o/3 /e/ /o/, /u/, /a/ /u/ /i/ /a/ , /i/ /i/ /i/ /a/, /e/ /a/ /i/ /e/ , /e/2 /e/, /i/ /i/ /i/, /i/ /i/ /i/ /i/ /i/, /e/1 /i/ /i/ /i/ /i/ /o/ /i/ /i/ /o/, /u/, /i/, /ə/ /i/ /u/ , /i/ /i/ /i/ /i/, /u/ /o/ /a/ /o/ /o/, /u/ /o/, /u/ /a/, /e/ /a/ /o/ /e/ /ø/, /o/ /ø/, /y/, /o/ /o/, /u/ , /o/, /u/ /ə/ /o/ /i/ /ø/, /o/ /ø/ /o/, /u/ /o/, /u/ /u/ /o/ /o/ /o/ /u/ /o/, /u/ /a/, /e/ /ə/ /o/ /u/ /o/ /o/, /u/ /o/, /u/ /ə/, /o/, /u/ /u/ /u/ /a/ /u/, /o/ /a/, /o/, /u/ /o/, /u/ /a/, /e/ /a/ /u/ /e/ /y/ /o/, /u/, /y/ /u/ /a/, /e/ /ua/, /a/1 /u/ /i/ /y/, /u/ /y/, /ø/ /u/ /o/, /u/, /u/ /u/ /o/ /u/ /o/, /u/ /o/, /u/ /o/, /u/, /ə/ /u/ /u/ /u/ /o/, /u/ /o/, /u/ /o/, /u/ /u/ /æ/ /a/ /ia/, /ja/, /a/ /ia/, /i/4 /ə/, /a/3 /a/ /æ/ /e/ /ia/, /ja/ /i/, /a/, /e/ /i/ /i/, /e/, /je/ /ə/ /æ/ /i/ /ia/, /ja/, /i/, /e/ /ia/, /i/4 /ə/, /e/, /je/ /i/ /æ/ /o/ /ia/, /ja/, /a/1 /e/ /o/, /u/ /ə/, /o/, /u/ /a/ /æ/ /u/ /e/, /a/, 1 /a/, /o/, /u/ /o/, /u/ /o/, /u/, /e/, /je/ /u/ /ø/ /a/ /ia/, /ja/, /a/1 /a/, /o/, /u/ /o/, /u/ /o/, /u/, /ə/ /a/ /ø/ /e/ /e/, /a/, 1 /e/, /ø/ /o/, /u/ /o/, /u/, /je/ /ə/, /u/ /ø/ /i/ /ia/, /ja/, /a/1 /i/, /e/, /ø/ /o/, /u/ /o/, /u/, /ə/ /i/ /ø/ /o/ /o/, /u/ /ø/, /y/, /o/, /u/ /i/ /i/, /e/, /je/ /ə/, /a/ /ø/ /u/ /u/, /o/ /e/, /i/, /u/ /ia/, /i/4 /ə/, /u/, /je/ /u/ /y/ /a/ /o/, /u/, /i/ /o/, /u/ /a/, /e/ /a/ /y/ /e/ /y/, /ø/, /i/2 /ø/, /y/, /o/, /u/ /y/, /u/1 /a/, /e/, /ja/, /je/, /o/, /u/ /u/, /ə/ /y/ /i/ /y/, /ø/ /ø/, /y/, /o/, /u/ /i/, /u/1 , /i/, /o/, /u/ /i/ /y/ /o/ /u/, /o/ /o/, /u/ /y/ /a/, /e/, /ja/, /je/, /o/, /u/ /u/, /ə/ /y/ /u/ /i/, /o/, /u/, /y/, /ø/ /o/, /u/ /o/, /u/, /i/, /u/ 1 When preceded by a bilabial consonant. 2 When followed by a trill, /l/, or . 3 When preceded or followed by a bilabial consonant. 4 When preceded by a fricative (). Prosody Length and pitch in the first syllable evolved as follows according to Starostin et al. (2003), with the caveat that it is not clear which pitch was high and which was low in Proto-Altaic (Starostin et al. 2003:135). For simplicity of input and display every syllable is symbolized as "a" here: Proto-Altaic Proto-Turkic Proto-Mongolic Proto-Tungusic Proto-Korean Proto-Japonic 1 2 1 2 ¹ "Proto-Mongolian has lost all traces of the original prosody except for voicing *p > *b in syllables with original high pitch" (Starostin et al. 2003:135). ² "[…] several secondary metatonic processes happened […] in Korean, basically in the verb subsystem: all verbs have a strong tendency towards low pitch on the first syllable." (Starostin et al. 2003:135) Morphological correspondences Because grammar is less easily borrowed than words, grammar is usually considered stronger evidence for language relationships than vocabulary. Starostin et al. (2003) have reconstructed the following correspondences between the case and number suffixes (or clitics) of the (Macro-)Altaic languages (taken from Blažek, 2006): Case Proto-Altaic Proto-Turkic (*), Old Turkic Proto-Mongolic (*), Classical Mongolian Proto-Tungusic Proto-Korean (*), Middle Korean Proto-Japonic (*), Old Japanese nominative: 0 0 0 0 0 0 accusative: partitive: * (accusative) (possessive) genitive: * dative-locative: (locative-ablative) (attributive) (attributive-locative) dative-instrumental: (instrumental) (dative-locative) dative-directive: (dative) (directive) comitative-locative: (instrumental-lative) comitative-equative: (equative) (ablative), (terminative) (comitative) allative: (directive) * (allative) directive: (lative) instrumental-ablative: * terminal dative (ablative) singulative: * Number dual: * (plural for paired objects) (plural) * (plural for paired objects) plural: * * * plural: * plural: * * * /V/ symbolizes an uncertain vowel. Suffixes reconstructed for Proto-Turkic, Proto-Mongolic, Proto-Korean, or Proto-Japonic, but not attested in Old Turkic, Classical Mongolian, Middle Korean, or Old Japanese are marked with asterisks. Selected cognates Personal pronouns The table below is taken (with slight modifications) from Blažek (2006) and transcribed into IPA. Proto-Altaic Proto-Turkic Proto-Mongolic (*), Classical Mongolian Proto-Tungusic Proto-Korean (*), Middle Korean Proto-Japonic "I" (nominative) * 1 "me" (oblique cases) * "I" * (oblique) 1 "thou" (nominative) * 1 "thee" (oblique cases) ?* "thou" * "we" (nominative) * "us" (oblique cases) * "ye" (nominative) * "you" (oblique) 1 이기문, 국어사 개설, 탑출판사, 1991. As above, forms not attested in Classical Mongolian or Middle Korean but reconstructed for their ancestors are marked with an asterisk, and /V/ represents an uncertain vowel. Other basic vocabulary The following table is a brief selection of further proposed cognates in basic vocabulary across the Altaic family (from Starostin et al. [2003]). Proto-Altaic meaning Proto-Altaic Proto-Turkic Proto-Mongolic Proto-Tungusic Proto-Korean Proto-Japonic that /di/- or /ti/- /te-re/ /ta/ /tjé/ /tso-re/ eye /ni-dy/ /nia-sa/5 /nú-n/ /mà/- neck /mje-k/ /nəmpV/ breast 1 /køkø-n/2 /kuku-n/2 /kokajŋi/ "pith; medulla; core" /kəkə-rə/1 "heart" stone 3 star /ho-dun/ /osi/4 1 Contains the Proto-Altaic dual suffix : "both breasts" – "chest" – "heart". 2 Contains the Proto-Altaic singulative suffix -/nV/: "one breast". 3 Compare Baekje */turak/ "stone" (Blažek 2006). 4 This is in the Jurchen language. In modern Manchu it is usiha. 5 This is disputed by Georg (2004), who states: "The traditional Tungusological reconstruction *yāsa [ = ] cannot be replaced by the nasal-initial one espoused here, needed for the comparison." However, Starostin (2005) mentions evidence from several Tungusic languages cited by Starostin et al. (2003). Georg (2005) does not accept this, referring to Georg (1999/2000) and an upcoming paper. By that time, Starostin was already dead (Starostin 2005 was published posthumously). Numerals and related words In the Indo-European family, the numerals are remarkably stable. This is a rather exceptional case; especially words for higher numbers are often borrowed wholesale. (Perhaps the most famous cases are Japanese and Korean, which have two complete sets of numerals each – one native, one Chinese.) Indeed, the Altaic numerals are less stable than the Indo-European ones, but nevertheless Starostin et al. (2003) reconstruct them as follows: Proto-Altaic meaning Proto-Altaic Proto-Turkic Proto-Mongolic Proto-Tungusic Proto-Korean Proto-Japonic 1 /byri/ /bir/ /byri/ "all, each" "at first" /pi-tə/ single /nøŋe/ /nige/ "1" /noŋ/~/non/ "be the first, begin" /nəmi/ "only" front /emo/ /øm-gen/ "upper part of breast" /emy/- /emu/~/ume/ "1" /upe/ "upper" /mape/ "front" single, one of a pair "one of a pair" /son-du-/ "odd" 1 "1" or /hə̀t-/ 1 /sa/- "together, reciprocally" 2 /tybu/ 2 "2 (feminine)"3 4 pair, couple /eki/ "2", "twins"; ? "20" /(h)ekire/ "twins" different, other /gojV/ /gojar/ "2" /goj/~/gia/ /kía/ pair, half /puta/- "2" 3 /ŋy/ "30"5 /gu-rban/; "30" 6 /mi/-7 (footnote 8) /ìlù/ /øløŋ/9 /ila-n/ "3" /ùrù-pu/ "bissextile (year or month)" object consisting of 3 parts /séjra/ "trident, pitchfork" "3" /sárápi/ "rake, pitchfork" 4 /dø-rben/; "40"10 /dy-gin/ /də/- 5 /ta-bun/; /ta-bin/ "50"11 /tà/- /i-tu-/12 6 ; "60"13 14 /mu/- 7 15 /jeti/ ; /dala-n/ "70"15 /nada-n/ /nìr-(kúp)/ or /tarikuni/16 /nana/- 8 /jè-t-/17 /da/- 9 /xegyn/ /kəkənə/ 10 or /tøbe/ /təwə/18,/-so/"-0"/i-so/50 many, a big number "100" 19 /jér(h)/ "10" "10,000" /jə̀rə̀/ "many" "10" /ha-rban/ "10", /ha-na/ "all" 20 -/pə/, -/pua/ "-00"21 20 "40"22 /kori-n/ /xori-n/ /pata-ti/23 100 ?/jom/ "big number, all" 24 1000 /dymen/ or /tymen/ "10,000"25 /ti/ 1 Manchu /soni/ "single, odd". 2 Old Bulgarian /tvi-rem/ "second". 3 Kitan has "2" (Blažek 2006). 4 is probably a contraction of -/ubu/-. 5 The /y/- of "3" "may also reflect the same root, although the suffixation is not clear." (Starostin et al. 2003:223) 6 Compare Silla /mir/ "3" (Blažek 2006). 7 Compare Goguryeo /mir/ "3" (Blažek 2006). 8 "third (or next after three = fourth)", "consisting of three objects" 9 "song with three out of four verses rhyming (first, second and fourth)" 10 Kitan has /dur/ "4" (Blažek 2006). 11 Kitan has /tau/ "5" (Blažek 2006). 12 "(the prefixed i- is somewhat unclear: it is also used as a separate word meaning ‘fifty’, but the historical root here is no doubt *tu-)" (Starostin et al. 2003:223). – Blažek (2006) also considers Goguryeo * "5" (from */uti/) to be related. 13 Kitan has /nir/ "6" (Blažek 2006). 14 Middle Korean has "6", which may fit here, but the required loss of initial "is not quite regular" (Starostin et al. 2003:224). 15 The Mongolian forms "may suggest an original proto-form" or /ladi/ "with dissimilation or metathesis in" Proto-Mongolic (Starostin et al. 2003:224). – Kitan has /dol/ "7". 16 二中歷 nichureki. 17 "Problematic" (Starostin et al. 2003:224). 18 Compare Goguryeo /tok/ "10" (Blažek 2006). 19 Manchu "a very big number". 20 Orok "a bundle of 10 squirrels", Nanai "collection, gathering". 21 "Hundred" in names of hundreds. 22 Starostin et al. (2003) suspect this to be a reduplication: * "20 + 20". 23 /kata-ti/ would be expected; Starostin et al. (2003) think that this irregular change from /k/ to /p/ is due to influence from "2" /puta-tu/. 24 From *. 25 Also see Tümen. Modern peoples Although there is no Altaic ethnicity or culture, there is a large degree of ethno-linguistic identity within each of the groups that constitute the Altaic proposal, which are independent of the validity of Altaic as a linguistic construct. These ethno-linguistic groups are: Turkic peoples, speaking principally Turkic languages, Iranian languages, and Russian (over 200 million Turkic speakers in Central Asia, North Asia, the Caucasus, Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, Iran, and Iraq; a few languages are endangered.) Mongol peoples, speaking Mongolic languages, Chinese, Tibetan, and Russian (about 9 million Mongolic speakers in Mongolia, China, Russian Siberia, and Kalmykia) Tungusic peoples, speaking Chinese, Tungusic languages, and Russian (about 63,000 speakers in East Asia and North Asia; the languages are endangered) Koreans, speaking the Korean language (about 80 million Korean speakers) Japanese peoples, speaking Japonic languages (about 130 million speakers) The Turkic and Mongol peoples of Central Asia have long had intensive cultural, linguistic, religious, and military interactions, and the term Turco-Mongol refers to Turkic and Mongolic peoples or tribes in combination, particularly in the context of the conquests of the Xiongnu, who appear to have been a union of Turkic, Mongol, Yeniseian, and other (unidentified) peoples; as well as of the medieval Mongol Empire (Turco-Mongol Empire). The appearance of Turks differs from east to west, looking more Eurasian toward the west and more Mongoloid toward the east. This is due to an admixture with conquered or neighboring peoples during Turco-Mongolic expansion. Bibliography Works cited Aalto, Pentti. 1955. "On the Altaic initial *p-." Central Asiatic Journal 1, 9–16. Anthony, David W. 2007. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Blažek, Václav. 2006. "Current progress in Altaic etymology." Linguistica Online, 30 January 2006. Boller, Anton. 1857. Nachweis, daß das Japanische zum ural-altaischen Stamme gehört. Wien. Clauson, Gerard. 1956. "The case against the Altaic theory." Central Asiatic Journal 2, 181–187. Clauson, Gerard. 1959. "The case for the Altaic theory examined." Akten des vierundzwanzigsten internationalen Orientalisten-Kongresses, edited by H. Franke. Wiesbaden: Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, in Komission bei Franz Steiner Verlag. Clauson, Gerard. 1968. "A lexicostatistical appraisal of the Altaic theory." Central Asiatic Journal 13: 1–23. Doerfer, Gerhard. 1963. "Bemerkungen zur Verwandtschaft der sog. altaische Sprachen", 'Remarks on the relationship of the so-called Altaic languages'. In Gerhard Doerfer, Türkische und mongolische Elemente im Neupersischen, Bd. I: Mongolische Elemente im Neupersischen, 1963, 51–105. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. Doerfer, Gerhard. 1973. "Lautgesetze und Zufall: Betrachtungen zum Omnicomparativismus." Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft 10. Doerfer, Gerhard. 1974. "Ist das Japanische mit den altaischen Sprachen verwandt?" Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 114.1. Doerfer, Gerhard. 1985. Mongolica-Tungusica. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Doerfer, Gerhard. 1988. Grundwort und Sprachmischung: Eine Untersuchung an Hand von Körperteilbezeichnungen. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. Dybo, Anna V. and Georgiy S. Starostin. 2008. "In defense of the comparative method, or the end of the Vovin controversy." Aspects of Comparative Linguistics 3, 109–258. Moscow: RSUH Publishers. Georg, Stefan, Peter A. Michalove, Alexis Manaster Ramer, and Paul J. Sidwell. 1999. "Telling general linguists about Altaic." Journal of Linguistics 35:65–98. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Georg, Stefan. 1999 / 2000. "Haupt und Glieder der altaischen Hypothese: die Körperteilbezeichnungen im Türkischen, Mongolischen und Tungusischen" ('Head and members of the Altaic hypothesis: The body-part designations in Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic'). Ural-altaische Jahrbücher, neue Folge B 16, 143–182. Georg, Stefan. 2004. Review of Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages. Diachronica 21.2, 445–450. Georg, Stefan. 2005. "Reply [to Starostin 2005]." Diachronica 22.2, 455–457. Greenberg, Joseph H. 2000–2002. Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family, 2 volumes. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Manaster Ramer, Alexis and Paul Sidwell. 1997. "The truth about Strahlenberg's classification of the languages of Northeastern Eurasia." Journal de la Société finno-ougrienne 87, 139–160. Menges, Karl. H. 1975. Altajische Studien II. Japanisch und Altajisch. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. Mallory, J.P. 1989. In Search of the Indo-Europeans. London: Thames and Hudson. Miller, Roy Andrew. 1971. Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226527190. Miller, Roy Andrew. 1980. Origins of the Japanese Language: Lectures in Japan during the Academic Year 1977–1978. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0295957662. Miller, Roy Andrew. 1986. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. London: Athlone Press. ISBN 0485112515. Miller, Roy Andrew. 1991. "Genetic connections among the Altaic languages." In Sydney M. Lamb and E. Douglas Mitchell (editors), Sprung from Some Common Source: Investigations into the Prehistory of Languages, 1991, 293–327. ISBN 0804718970. Miller, Roy Andrew. 1996. Languages and History: Japanese, Korean and Altaic. Oslo: Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture. ISBN 9748299694. Patrie, James. 1982. The Genetic Relationship of the Ainu Language. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0824807243. Poppe, Nicholas. 1960. Vergleichende Grammatik der altaischen Sprachen. Teil I. Vergleichende Lautlehre, 'Comparative Grammar of the Altaic Languages, Part 1: Comparative Phonology'. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. (Only part to appear of a projected larger work.) Poppe, Nicholas. 1965. Introduction to Altaic Linguistics. Ural-altaische Bibliothek 14. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Poppe, Nicholas. 1976. Review of Karl H. Menges, Altajische Studien II. Japanisch und Altajisch (1975). In The Journal of Japanese Studies 2.2, 470–474. Ramstedt, G.J. 1952. Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft II. Formenlehre, 'Introduction to Altaic Linguistics, Volume 2: Morphology', edited and published by Pentti Aalto. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. Ramstedt, G.J. 1957. Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft I. Lautlehre, 'Introduction to Altaic Linguistics, Volume 1: Phonology', edited and published by Pentti Aalto. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. Ramstedt, G.J. 1966. Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft III. Register, 'Introduction to Altaic Linguistics, Volume 3: Index', edited and published by Pentti Aalto. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. Robbeets, Martine. 2005. Is Japanese related to Korean, Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic? Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Robbeets, Martine. 2007. "How the actional suffix chain connects Japanese to Altaic." In Turkic Languages 11.1, 3–58. Schönig, Claus. 2003. "Turko-Mongolic Relations." In The Mongolic Languages, edited by Juha Janhunen, 403–419. London: Routledge. Starostin, Sergei A. 1991. Altajskaja problema i proisxoždenie japonskogo jazyka, 'The Altaic Problem and the Origin of the Japanese Language'. Moscow: Nauka. Starostin, Sergei A., Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak. 2003. Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages, 3 volumes. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004131531. Starostin, Sergei A. 2005. "Response to Stefan Georg's review of the Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages." Diachronica 22(2), 451–454. Strahlenberg, P.J.T. von. 1730. Das nord- und ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia.... Stockholm. (Reprint: 1975. Studia Uralo-Altaica. Szeged and Amsterdam.) Strahlenberg, P.J.T. von. 1738. Russia, Siberia and Great Tartary, an Historico-geographical Description of the North and Eastern Parts of Europe and Asia.... (Reprint: 1970. New York: Arno Press.) English translation of the previous. Street, John C. 1962. Review of N. Poppe, Vergleichende Grammatik der altaischen Sprachen, Teil I (1960). Language 38, 92–98. Tekin, Talat. 1994. "Altaic languages." In The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol. 1, edited by R.E. Asher. Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press. Unger, J. Marshall. 1990. "Summary report of the Altaic panel." In Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology, edited by Philip Baldi, 479–482. Berlin - New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Vovin, Alexander. 1993. "About the phonetic value of the Middle Korean grapheme ." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 56(2), 247–259. Vovin, Alexander. 1994. "Genetic affiliation of Japanese and methodology of linguistic comparison." Journal de la Société finno-ougrienne 85, 241–256. Vovin, Alexander. 2001. "Japanese, Korean, and Tungusic: evidence for genetic relationship from verbal morphology." Altaic Affinities (Proceedings of the 40th Meeting of PIAC, Provo, Utah, 1997), edited by David B. Honey and David C. Wright, 83–202. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. Vovin, Alexander. 2005. "The end of the Altaic controversy" (review of Starostin et al. 2003). Central Asiatic Journal 49.1, 71–132. Whitney Coolidge, Jennifer. 2005. Southern Turkmenistan in the Neolithic: A Petrographic Case Study. Oxbow Books. 이기문, 국어사 개설, 탑출판사, 1991. Further reading Greenberg, Joseph H. 1997. "Does Altaic exist?" In Irén Hegedus, Peter A. Michalove, and Alexis Manaster Ramer (editors), Indo-European, Nostratic and Beyond: A Festschrift for Vitaly V. Shevoroshkin, Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man, 1997, 88–93. (Reprinted in Joseph H. Greenberg, Genetic Linguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, 325–330.) Hahn, Reinhard F. 1994. LINGUIST List 5.908, 18 August 1994. Janhunen, Juha. 1992. "Das Japanische in vergleichender Sicht." Journal de la Société finno-ougrienne 84, 145–161. Johanson, Lars. 1999. "Cognates and copies in Altaic verb derivation." Language and Literature – Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages: Studies in Honour of Roy Andrew Miller on His 75th Birthday, edited by Karl H. Menges and Nelly Naumann, 1–13. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. (Also: HTML version.) Johanson, Lars. 1999. "Attractiveness and relatedness: Notes on Turkic language contacts." Proceedings of the Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: Special Session on Caucasian, Dravidian, and Turkic Linguistics, edited by Jeff Good and Alan C.L. Yu, 87–94. Berkeley: Berkeley Linguistics Society. Johanson, Lars. 2002. Structural Factors in Turkic Language Contacts, translated by Vanessa Karam. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press. Kortlandt, Frederik. 1993. "The origin of the Japanese and Korean accent systems." Acta Linguistica Hafniensia 26, 57–65. Martin, Samuel E. 1966. "Lexical evidence relating Korean to Japanese." Language 12.2, 185–251. Nichols, Johanna. 1992. Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Robbeets, Martine. 2004. "Belief or argument? The classification of the Japanese language." Eurasia Newsletter 8. Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University. Ruhlen, Merritt. 1987. A Guide to the World's Languages. Stanford University Press. Sinor, Denis. 1990. Essays in Comparative Altaic Linguistics. Bloomington: Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 0933070268. See also Ural-Altaic languages Classification of Japanese Korean language Ainu language Nostratic languages External links Altaic family tree Ethnologue (Micro-Altaic) Monumenta altaica Altaic linguistics website, maintained by Ilya Gruntov Altaic Etymological Dictionary, database version by Sergei A. Starostin, Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak (does not include introductory chapters) LINGUIST List 5.911 defense of Altaic by Alexis Manaster Ramer (1994) LINGUIST List 5.926 1. Remarks by Alexander Vovin. 2. Clarification by J. Marshall Unger. 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2,667 | Lex_Luthor | Lex Luthor is a fictional character, a supervillain who appears in comic books published by DC Comics. He is the archenemy of Superman and first appeared in Action Comics #23 (Apr. 1940), and was created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster. Luthor is described as "a power-mad, evil scientist" of incredible technological prowess. Siegel, Jerry (w), Sikela, John (p). "The Skeletons in Armor. Action Comics #47 (1942). DC Comics. His goals typically center on killing Superman, usually as a stepping stone to world domination. Though he periodically wears a powered exoskeleton, Luthor has traditionally lacked superpowers or a dual identity. The character was originally depicted as a mad scientist who, in the vein of pulp novels, wreaks havoc on the world with his futuristic weaponry. In his earliest appearances, Luthor is shown with a full head of red hair; despite this, the character later became bald as the result of an artist's mistake. A 1962 story by Robert Bernstein expanded upon Luthor's origin and motivations, revealing him to be a childhood friend of Superboy who lost his hair in a chemical spill. Following the 1985 limited series Crisis on Infinite Earths, the character was re-imagined as a Machiavellian industrialist and white-collar criminal, even briefly serving as President of the United States. In recent years, various writers have revived Luthor's mad scientist persona from the 1940s, most notably in the 2005 series All Star Superman. The character was ranked as the eighth greatest villain by Wizard on its "100 Greatest Villains of All Time" list. McCallum, Pat (July 2006). "100 Greatest Villains Ever". Wizard (177) IGN's list of the Top 100 Comic Book Villians Of All Time List ranked Lex Luthor as #4. Lex Luthor is Number 4 Publication history Creation and development Luthor's appearance in Superman (vol. 1) #4 (1940). Art by Paul Cassidy. By some accounts, the seeds for Luthor's character first appeared in The Reign of the Super-Man, also written by Siegel and Shuster. In the original short story, a bald scientist uses a piece of alien meteor to give a vagrant named Bill Dunn telepathic abilities, which Dunn abuses for personal gain. Although Luthor would not appear until two years after Superman's debut, a central theme to his character—a dichotomy of science versus superpowers—was in place. Daniels, Les. Superman: The Complete History: The Life and Times of the Man of Steel. Chronicle Books, 1998, pg. 66. ISBN 0811842312 Superman Enemies: Lex Luthor. UGO Networks. Retrieved on 2008-11-19. The character's original incarnation, as drawn by Joe Shuster, appeared only twice between 1940-1941. In his debut, "Luthor" (who is referred to only by his surname) is a wily genius who resides in a flying city suspended by a dirigible. Having taken control of several European countries through his machinations, he tries to provoke a war between the two fictional nations of Galonia and Toran, but is stopped by Superman. Siegel, Jerry (w), Shuster, Joe (p, i). Action Comics #23 (1940). DC Comics. Daniels (1998), p. 13. In his earliest appearances, Luthor is shown as a middle-aged man with a full head of red hair. Less than a year later, however, an artistic goof resulted in Luthor being depicted as completely bald in a newspaper strip. Siegel, Jerry (w), Novak, Leo (p, i). Superman (vol. 1) #10 (1941). DC Comics. The original error is attributed to Leo Novak, a studio artist who illustrated for the Superman dailies during this period. Cronin, Brian (2006-11-26) Comic Book Urban Legends Revealed #79. Comic Book Resources. Retrieved on 2007-7-18. One theory is that Novak mistook Luthor for the Ultra-Humanite, a frequent foe of Superman who, in his Golden Age incarnation, resembled a balding, elderly man. Other evidence suggests Luthor's design was confused with that of a stockier, bald henchman in Superman (vol. 1) #4 (1940); Luthor's next appearance occurs in Superman (vol. 1) #10 (1941), in which Novak depicted him as significantly heavier, with visible jowls. The character's abrupt hair loss has been made reference to several times over the course of his history. When the concept of the DC multiverse began to take hold, Luthor's red-haired incarnation was rewritten as Alexei Luthor, Lex's counterpart from a parallel universe. During the early 1960s, writer Robert Bernstein altered Luthor's backstory to incorporate his hair loss into his origin. In the origin story printed in Adventure Comics #271 (1962), young Lex Luthor is shown as an aspiring scientist who resides in Smallville, the hometown of Superboy. Luthor saves Superboy from a chance encounter with Kryptonite. In gratitude Superboy builds Luthor a laboratory, where weeks later he manages to create an artificial form of life. Grateful in turn to Superboy, Luthor creates an antidote for Kryptonite poisoning. However, an accidental fire breaks out in Luthor's lab. Superboy uses his super-breath to extinguish the flames, inadvertently spilling chemicals which cause Luthor to go bald; in the process, he also destroys Luthor's artificial life form. Believing Superboy intentionally destroyed his discoveries, Luthor attributes his actions to jealousy and vows revenge. Bernstein, Robert (w), Fradon, Ramona (p). "How Luthor Met Superboy!" Adventure Comics #271 (1960). DC Comics. This revised origin makes Luthor's fight with Superman a personal one, and suggests that if events had unfolded differently, Luthor might have been a more noble person. These elements were played up in various stories throughout the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in Elliot S. Maggin's novel Last Son of Krypton. 1980s-1990s Cover art to The Man of Steel #4, by John Byrne. In the 1986 limited series The Man of Steel, John Byrne rewrote Lex Luthor from scratch, intending to make him a villain that the 1980s would recognize: an evil corporate executive. Initially brutish and overweight, the character later evolved into a sleeker, more athletic version of his old self. In a example indicative of Byrne's realistic approach, Luthor is no longer recounted as having lost his hair in a chemical fire; rather, his hairline is shown to be receding naturally over time. Collaborator Marv Wolfman recalled: The Modern Age Lex Luthor is a product of child abuse (a common archetype among supervillains) and early poverty. Born in the Suicide Slum district of Metropolis, he is instilled with a desire to become a self-made man. As a teenager, he takes out a large insurance policy on his parents without their knowledge, then sabotages their car's brakes, causing their deaths. Upon graduating from MIT, Luthor founds his own business, LexCorp, which grows to dominate much of Metropolis. Luthor does not physically appear in The Man of Steel until the fourth issue, which takes place over a year after Superman's arrival in Metropolis. When Lois Lane and Clark Kent are invited to a society gala aboard Luthor's yacht, terrorists seize the ship without warning, forcing Superman to intervene. Byrne, John (w, p), Giordano, Dick (i). The Man of Steel #4 (1986). DC Comics. Luthor observes Superman in action, and once the gunmen are dispatched, hands the hero a personal check in an attempt to hire him. But when Luthor admits that he had not only anticipated the attack, but had arranged for it to occur in order to lure Superman out, the Mayor deputizes Superman to arrest Luthor for reckless endangerment. This, coupled with the indignation that Superman is the only person he could not buy off, threaten, or otherwise control, results in Luthor's pledge to destroy Superman at any cost. Despite general acceptance of Byrne and Wolfman's characterization, some writers have called for a return to Luthor's original status as a mad scientist. Regarding the character's effectiveness as a corrupt billionaire, author Neil Gaiman commented: Luthor's romantic aspirations toward Lois Lane, established early on in the series, become a focal point of the stories immediately following it. Adventures of Superman #424, January 1987. He is shown making repeated attempts to court her during The Man of Steel, though Lois plainly does not return his feelings. Byrne, John (w), Giordano, Dick (i). The Man of Steel #2 (1986). DC Comics. Marv Wolfman originally planned for the two to have been engaged, with Lois leaving him for Superman, giving Luthor another reason to hate his foe. MarvWolfman.com Modern depictions Superman: Birthright, a limited series written by Mark Waid in 2004, offers an alternate look at Luthor's history, including his youth in Smallville and his first encounter with Superman. The story borrows heavily from the 2001 television series Smallville, which follows Clark Kent's life as a teenager and into early manhood; among the elements lifted from the show is Lex Luthor's problematic relationship with his wealthy father, Lionel. Birthright also reinvents the Silver Age concept of Luthor befriending Clark Kent as a young man. During a failed attempt to communicate with Krypton, an explosion erupts which singes off Luthor's hair. Waid, Mark (w), Yu, Leinil Francis (p, i). Superman: Birthright #8 (2004). DC Comics. Waid's original intention was to jettison the notion of Lex Luthor being an evil businessman, restoring his status as a mad scientist. However, he ultimately conceded that the CEO Luthor would be easier for readers to recognize. In Birthright, Luthor remains a wealthy corporate magnate; in contrast to Byrne's characterization, however, LexCorp is founded upon Luthor's study of extraterrestrial life, thereby providing a link between himself and Superman. Waid, Mark (w), Yu, Leinil Francis (p, i). Superman: Birthright #6 (2004). DC Comics. In the retrospective section of the Superman: Birthright trade paperback, Waid explains: Birthright was initially intended to establish a new origin for Superman and Luthor. Singh, Arune. (2004-3-11) Super-Stars (Part 1): Mark Waid's "Birthright," The Official Origin. Comic Book Resources. Retrieved on 2008-9-10. However, the canonicity of the series was eventually discredited by stories which followed it, to Waid's disappointment. Kistler, Alan. (2005-10-30). Mark Waid Talks “Superman Returns” and “Birthright”. Superman Homepage. Retrieved on 2008-10-09. A concise biography for Luthor, later outlined in Action Comics #850, first appeared in the 2007 limited series Countdown to Final Crisis. Luthor's current origin appears to be a synthesis of aspects from the Silver Age continuity and The Man of Steel. Recent changes to the DC Comics continuity are revealed to be a result of the 2005 series Infinite Crisis, which created an alternate timeline called "New Earth". As outlined in a backup proflie in 52, the post Action Comics #850 Lex Luthor of current "New Earth" continuity is the son of business mogul Lionel Luthor and his socialite spouse, Leticia. As shown previously in Superman: Birthright and the pre-Crisis stories, he spends part of his adolescence in Smallville, Kansas. It is here that Luthor comes into acquaintance with Clark Kent, Lana Lang, and Pete Ross. He is described as having left Smallville "under a cloud of rumor and suspicion." He later resurfaces in Metropolis and founds LexCorp. Luthor's rise to the Presidency and his removal from office are also recounted in this biography, however contrary to Birthright his hair is once again shown to have naturally receded over time, as in The Man of Steel. Fictional character biography Silver age Lex Luthor as he appeared in Crisis on Infinite Earths #9. In the pre-Crisis continuity, Lex Luthor's driving ambitions are to kill Superman and enslave Earth as a stepping stone to dominating the universe. Action Comics #294 (1962) In Action Comics #271 (1942), Superman acknowledges that Luthor "could have been a mighty force for good in the world, yet he chose to direct his great scientific brain into criminal channels." Action Comics #47 (1942) Although none of his attempts to kill Superman work permanently (though a classic non-canonical story from 1961 entitled "The Death of Superman" has Luthor finally killing Superman after lulling him by pretending to go straight), Daniels (1998), p. 109. Action Comics #225, Feb 1957: "The Death of Superman" Luthor routinely manages to escape from prison and threaten the world again. Scifipedia - Lex Luthor. Retrieved on 2007-7-18. Though he is a noted criminal on Earth, Luthor is revered on the alien world of Lexor, where he rediscovered the planet's lost technology and rebuilt society for its inhabitants. As a result, he becomes a hero in the eyes of Lexor's people, whereas Superman is detested as a villain. Superman (vol. 1) #43, November/December 1946: “The Molten World!” He eventually marries a local woman named Ardora, Action Comics # 318, November 1964: "The Death of Luthor". with whom he fathers a son. After its debut, Superman (vol. 1) #164. Lexor appears sporadically in various Superman comics as Luthor's base of operations, where he wages assaults on Superman. During one such battle, an energy salvo from Luthor's battle suit accidentally overloads the "Neutrarod"—a spire Luthor had built to counter Lexor's geological instability—resulting in the annihilation of Lexor's inhabitants, including his wife and son. Luthor eventually returns to Earth, unable to accept his own role in Lexor's destruction and blaming Superman for it. Action Comics #544, June 1983: "Luthor Unleashed". For a short period Lex Luthor was emperor of the small eastern European country of Krashtinistan which he made into one of the world's leading economic powers. During this period he became hailed as a saviour and started to export the new brand of economics known as Lexonism to the rest of the world. Action Comics #610, June 1987: "Luthor Unlimited". This scheme fell through after Lois Lane revealed he had merely been printing huge quantities of other countries money and causing them to suffer hyperinflation. Even after this Lex managed to cling to power despite the massive recession his scheme eventually caused in Krashtinistan. He was finally ousted from power after radical clerics of the Broken Hand orchestrated a coup to reinstall the nation's original divine monarchy (their last living member being Adar Ghen aka Stormchild). Lex Luthor barely escaped with his life, requiring the use of an intercontinental ballistic missile he had refitted as an escape pod. Action Comics #620, June 1987: "Luthor Unlimited". During the 12-issue limited series Crisis on Infinite Earths, Luthor allies himself with fellow Superman foe Brainiac to recruit an army of supervillains spanning the DC Multiverse, intending to take advantage of the confusion caused by the Crisis. However, once it becomes clear that it is as much in their interests to save the multiverse as anyone else's, Luthor and Brainiac reluctantly ally their faction with Superman and the other heroes. At the conclusion of the series, reality is altered so that each of the different universes fall into their proper place, converging into one. Afterward, Luthor is subsequently returned to prison with all his memories of the alliance forgotten. Luthor's trademark battlesuit from this era—a heavily-armored, flight-capable suit with kryptonite fixtures embedded in its gauntlets Superman Homepage - Who's Who In the Superman Comics: Lex Luthor. Retrieved on 2007-7-18. —has reappeared in recent continuity, most notably during Infinite Crisis. Modern age Cover art to Supergirl/Lex Luthor Special #1, by Kerry Gammill. As part of the continuity changes which followed The Man of Steel, Luthor is shown actively participating in the creation of two Superman villains, Bizarro (the failed result of an attempt to clone Superman) and the cyborg Metallo. Upon discovering that Metallo is powered by a 'heart' of kryptonite rock in Superman (vol. 2) #2, Luthor steals it in order to fashion a kryptonite ring for himself. He wears the alien ore around his finger as a symbol that he is untouchable, even to the Man of Steel. Superman (vol. 2) #22, February 1987 Luthor eventually suffers from a severe cancer brought on by long-term radiation exposure to the ring; Action Comics #600. before this, kryptonite was mistakenly assumed to produce a 'clean' radiation that is harmless to humans. His hand requires amputation to prevent the cancer's spread, but by then it has already metastasized, and his condition is terminal. Luthor decides to fake his own death by boarding a jet on a proposed trip around the world and crashing it in the Andes; this is merely a cover for the removal of his brain from his cancer-ridden body and the growth of a cloned body around it, whereupon he passes himself off as his hitherto unknown, illegitimate 21-year-old son and heir, Lex Luthor II. His deception is benefited by a vibrant new body with a beard and full head of red hair, as well as assuming an Australian accent as part of his fake backstory. Action Comics #670. Luthor II inherits control of LexCorp and seduces the then current Supergirl, Matrix, due to his resemblance to her creator. Action Comics #677. Luthor's clone body eventually begins to deteriorate and age (and lose its hair) at a rapid rate, a side-effect of a disease that affects all clones. Meanwhile, Lois Lane discovers proof of Luthor's clone harvesting and false identity; Superman (vol. 2) #77. with help from Superman, she exposes the truth, and a despondent Matrix helps to apprehend Luthor. In the end, Luthor becomes a permanent prisoner in his own body, unable to even blink, and swearing vengeance on Superman. Aid comes in the form of the demon Neron; Luthor promptly sells his soul in exchange for Neron restoring his body to vibrant health, though he once more loses his hair and a return to an older age than his 21-year-old cloned form, albeit one that is apparently still younger than before his cancer, or at any rate in far better shape. Superman: The Man of Tomorrow #1. Returning to Metropolis, Luthor freely turns himself over to the police and is put on trial. He is acquitted on all counts when Luthor claims to have been kidnapped by renegade scientists from Cadmus Labs, who replaced him with a violent clone that is allegedly responsible for all the crimes Luthor is charged with. Action Comics #737 President of the United States Cover to Lex 2000 #1, featuring Lex Luthor as President of the United States. Art by Glen Orbik. Deciding to turn to politics, Luthor becomes President of the United States, winning the election on a platform of promoting technological progress. His first action as president was to take a proposed moratorium on fossil-based fuels to the U.S. Congress. Luthor is assisted by the extreme unpopularity of the previous administration's mishandling of the Gotham City earthquake crisis. After six months, Gotham is restored and rejoins America. Ironically, Batman ultimately learns that the entire debacle was the fault of Luthor alone as he attempted to take control of Gotham by forging deeds for the land in his name, which results in Bruce Wayne severing all commercial ties between the U.S. government and his company, Wayne Enterprises, in protest of Luthor's election as President. Luthor responds in turn by arranging for the murder of Wayne's lover, Vesper Fairchild, and framing Wayne for the murder. An early triumph of Luthor's first term occurs during the Our Worlds At War comic book crossover, in which he coordinates the U.S. Army, Earth's superheroes and a number of untrustworthy alien forces to battle the main villain of the story arc, Imperiex. As it is eventually revealed, however, Luthor knew about the alien invasion in advance and did nothing to alert Earth's heroes to it, leading to Topeka, Kansas being destroyed by an Imperiex probe. Removal from office A cadre of superheroes eventually break ranks from the Justice League to oppose Luthor. Batman, who had previously forbade any attempt to unseat Luthor from office by force, led the storming of the White House. This was predicated by an attempt on Luthor's part to link Superman to a kryptonite asteroid that is hurtling toward Earth. In a desperate gambit, Luthor uses a variant combination of the "super-steroid" Venom (a chemical associated with the Batman villain Bane), liquid synthetic Kryptonite, and an Apokoliptian battlesuit to fight Superman directly. The madness that is a side effect of Venom takes hold, and during the ensuing fight with Superman and Batman, Luthor admits he had traded the creature Doomsday to Darkseid in return for weapons during the Our Worlds at War crisis; in doing so, he inadvertently provides a confession which is captured on video by Batman. Returning to the LexCorp building to regroup, Luthor finds that the acting C.E.O., Talia Head, has sold the entirety of the company assets to the Wayne Foundation, forcing Luthor to escape and go into hiding. Following Luthor's bankruptcy and total disgrace, Vice President Pete Ross briefly assumes his place as President. Based on the official DC timeline, Luthor serves fewer than three years. Infinite Crisis Alexander Luthor, Jr., the son of Earth-Three's Lex Luthor, returned to the DC Universe along with other survivors from Crisis on Infinite Earths as part of a scheme to create a perfect Earth, under the pretense of restoring Earth-Two. To this end, he assumed Luthor's identity and created a new Secret Society of Super Villains. In response, the real Luthor took on the identity of Mockingbird and formed a supervillain version of the Secret Six in order to counter Alexander's organization. Luthor confronts his impostor In Infinite Crisis #3, but is intercepted by Superboy-Prime, who is allied with Alexander. Luthor later visits Conner Kent, who is in recovery at Titans Tower. He slips Conner a crystal shard which shows the location of Alexander's Arctic Fortress. At the end of Infinite Crisis #7, Luthor oversees Alexander's execution at the hands of the Joker. 52 Cover art for 52: Week 39, by J.G. Jones. In the opening weeks of 52, the Gotham City Police Department finds what appears to be Luthor's body in an alley. John Henry Irons examines the body at S.T.A.R. Labs and notes that the corpse was altered postmortem to make it resemble Lex Luthor. During a press conference, the genuine Luthor publicly states that the body is that of an impostor from another Earth, and the true culprit of the crimes with which Luthor is being charged. 52: Week 3 Though Alexander's body had a missing finger and a different appearance from Lex at the time of his death, 52 editor Stephen Wacker has confirmed that the body found in Gotham is indeed Alex, and that Luthor had it altered before the police discovered it. Newsarama interview with Stephen Wacker Luthor immediately sets out to build a church, which he names the Luthoran Church; he becomes spokesman for a new procedure, created by the Everyman Project, that engineers ordinary citizens to develop superpowers. During the autopsy of Alex Luthor, he secretly exposes John to the chemicals involved in his creating his new army of super-heroes, turning John into a literal man of steel. When approached by John's niece Natasha Irons, Luthor gladly allows her to be one of his first test subjects. Using Natasha and several other volunteers, Luthor forms his own team of superheroes which are introduced as the new Infinity Inc. In Week 21, Infinity Inc. is in the midst of a battle with Blockbuster (which Luthor has created as well), when he demonstrates that he can 'shut off' the powers of each of his agents; this results in the death of his speedster, Trajectory. 52: Week 21 At the stroke of midnight on New Year's Eve, Luthor sets in motion a calculated plot to discredit Supernova, a new hero who has taken over defending Metropolis in Superman's absence. Luthor triggers a mass-shutdown of the powers of everyone who has undertaken the Everyman program, except for the members of Infinity Inc. As multiple flight-powered Everymen plummet to their deaths, underground gas mains rupture from the impact, which adds civilians to the death toll. Luthor's plot ultimately fails when Supernova is able to minimize the disaster with a spectacular rescue. 52: Week 35 While investigating Luthor in order to root out his motive, Natasha Irons discovers that Luthor has been testing himself to see if he is compatible with the artificial meta-gene treatment. 52: Week 39 John Henry Irons leads an assault on Luthor's building; despite the destruction of his armor during the fight, he confronts Luthor - only to find himself badly outclassed, as Luthor demonstrates nearly all of Superman's powers. However, Natasha uses her uncle's hammer to trigger an electromagnetic pulse which shuts down the synthetic metagene long enough for Steel to knock Lex unconscious. 52: Week 40 Lex is disgraced as a result, and later faces indictment when the members of the Everymen realize they have been used. One Year Later and Countdown One year after the events of Infinite Crisis, Luthor has been cleared of over 120 criminal counts ranging from malfeasance to first-degree murder relating to the New Year's Eve massacre from 52. However, his role in the massacre has permanently ruined his public image and thanks to the machinations of Doctor Sivana, he has lost most of his wealth and all of his control over his newly reformed LexCorp, which is now being run by Lana Lang. He blames Clark Kent for writing several articles unraveling his schemes and pledges vengeance on Metropolis after an angry mob jeers him on the courthouse steps. After amassing large quantities of Kryptonite, including kidnapping the supervillains Metallo and the Kryptonite Man, Lex uses it to power a Kryptonian battleship controlled through a "sunstone" crystal. Action Comics #839 Superman manages to destroy the Kryptonite-powered ship and recover the crystal, but Lex manages to escape custody yet again. Action Comics #840 Lex later sends Bizarro after the newly arrived "Superboy" only for the creature to be defeated by Superman. Undaunted, Luthor gathers together a new Revenge Squad to fight against invading Kryptonians led by General Zod. In JLA, Luthor (alongside Joker and Cheetah III) gathers together a new "Injustice League" and, outfitted in a new version of his warsuit (although still green and purple, it no longer has clear design derivations from the pre-Crisis warsuit as the McGuinness design did), sets out to destroy the Justice League with them. On a related note during this section, he was responsible for creating the third Shaggy Man and the third Blockbuster. Luthor plays a large role in the Countdown to Final Crisis tie-in event, Salvation Run. Having been sent to the prison planet after his Injustice League was defeated, Lex quickly assumes control of the amassed villains, receiving competition only from Joker and Gorilla Grodd, who convince half of the villains to join them. He does fight the Joker until the battle was interrupted by an attack by Desaad's Parademons. After the attack, Luthor manages to get the villains off the planet with a makeshift teleporter, secretly powered by Neutron, Heatmonger, Plasmus, Warp and Thunder and Lightning. When called a "monster" by Thunder, Luthor claims it is the ones who sent them there who are the real monsters, and that he is the hero. He later sets the teleporter to self-destruct after he uses it, killing the attacking Parademons, and his living batteries. Final Crisis In Justice League of America (vol. 2) #21, Luthor can be seen associating with Libra's Secret Society of Super Villains and placed in its Inner Circle. Lex Luthor wanted Libra to prove himself, so Libra sends Clayface to blow up the Daily Planet. As Lex Luthor attempted to ambush Libra after learning that he's a prophet of Darkseid, Lex Luthor soon ends up surrounded by Justifiers. Libra tells Lex Luthor to make a final choice... swear an oath to Darkseid or become a mindless slave. In Final Crisis #5, Lex Luthor was seen when Libra blamed Calculator for cracking the computer codes that will help the resistance. Lex Luthor is silent on the matter, but has been picked to lead the rearguard action against the heroes at Blüdhaven. He assumes it's an honor, but he doesn't look very pleased. During Final Crisis #6, Libra figures out Luthor had been the mole in the Society of Supervillains. Luthor, in league with Doctor Sivana, seemingly destroys Libra and overturns the Anti-Life Equation being broadcast into the Justifiers' helmets. New Krypton Luthor ended up imprisoned for his crimes, but rather that going to jail General Sam Lane had him serve out his sentence working for the secretive Project 7734. While still forced to wear chains, Luthor was assigned the job of accessing the knowledge stored within the captured Brainiac Action Comics #871 (January 2009) who had recently been defeated by Superman (as seen during the Brainiac storyline). Luthor successfully accessed Brainiac’s brain and after Metallo and Reactron were taken to Kandor as prisoners of the Kryptonians who had now settled on Earth he used Brainiac to reactivate the Colun’s ship that was also being held in Kandor. Brainiac’s robots attacked the Kryptonians, providing a distraction as Metallo and Reactron used their Kryptonite hearts to kill their captors and murder Zor-El Action Comics #872 (February 2009) . After his success with Brainiac, Luthor was given the seemingly dead body of Doomsday, who had been defeated by the Kryptonians, to study as it had “potential” Action Comics #873 (March 2009) . Relationships and family In the pre-Crisis continuity, Luthor is shown as having very few personal attachments. Shamed by his crimes, his parents (Jules and Arlene) disown him, move away and change their name to the anagram "Thorul". Luthor has a younger sister named Lena, an empath who grows up unaware of her familial connection with the noted supervillain. Protective of his sister, Luthor takes measures to hide his fraternity, and is assisted towards this end by both Superman and Supergirl. In The Man of Steel contunity, Lex Luthor has been married eight times, though the first seven marriages occurred off-panel in Luthor's past. His eighth marriage to Contessa Erica Alexandra Del Portenza (aka the "Contessa") is based on mutual greed; Superman: The Man of Tomorrow #5. the Contessa buys controlling interest in LexCorp after Luthor is indicted, compelling him to marry her in order to regain control of his company. The Contessa becomes pregnant Superman (vol. 2) #119 and starts using the unborn child to dominate Lex into doing her bidding. Luthor's response is to imprison her while she is drugged during childbirth, keeping her in a permanently-unconscious state. The Contessa later escapes to an island mansion, Superman: The Man of Steel #77. but upon being elected President, Luthor targets her home with a barrage of missiles and destroys it. President Luthor: Secret Files & Origins #1. James D. Hudnall's Lex Luthor: The Unauthorized Biography further expands on Luthor's origin. The story details how Luthor was sent to live with a foster family following the sabotage of his parents' car. His foster parents, Casey and Emily Griggs, conspire to embezzle his insurance, and coerce their daughter, Lena, into seducing Lex in order to learn the location of the money. Due to her own romantic feelings toward Lex, Lena refuses, and is beaten to death by her father. Lex is absent from the home at the time of the murder, having been talked into going to a football game by his schoolmate Perry White. Lex Luthor: The Unauthorized Biography (1989) Once he has established his preeminence in Metropolis, Luthor takes vengeance on Griggs, secretly hiring him to assassinate Frank Berkowitz, the city's popular four-term mayor, who refuses to knuckle under to Luthor's dominance, then personally killing him once the deed is done. http://www.supermanhomepage.com/comics/who/who-intro.php?topic=griggs-casey As an adult, this incident motivates Luthor to begin an affair with Perry's wife, Alice, during a period when Perry is missing and assumed dead. Alice becomes pregnant shortly afterward, though the timing of the conception means an equal possibility of either Luthor or White being the father. The child, Jerry White, later learns of his true parentage during his late teens, shortly before being killed by a local street gang he is associated with. The loss of a potential heir weighs heavily on Luthor's mind, particularly when he is dying of cancer; while mulling over his fate, Luthor visits Jerry's gravesite. Superman (vol. 2) #49. In Smallville, its revealed that his parents names are Lionel and Lillian Luthor. However, Lillian only appears in flashbacks as she died when Lex was young. In Smallville, its revealed that Lex had a brother called Julian Luthor who died as a child. In later episodes we find out that Lex cloned Julian in a lab and implanted false memories in order to trick Julian into thinking Lex had raised him since childhood. Lex's motive was such that Lex felt lonely and so he recreated his long dead brother. Luthor has shown an unusual level of compassion for Conner Kent, a hybrid clone created from the DNA of Superman and Luthor himself. After Connor's death at the conclusion of the Infinite Crisis, Luthor is shown visiting a memorial statue of Connor in Metropolis and placing flowers there. Action Comics #837 In the alternate future timeline of Titans Tomorrow Teen Titans (vol. 3) #17-19 (2005) , in which Conner still exists, Luthor acts as a caring, fatherly figure to him. Teen Titans (vol. 3) #51 (2007) Other versions Alternate versions of Lex Luthor In other media Lyle Talbot was the first actor to portray the character in a live-action film, appearing in the 1950 serial Atom Man vs. Superman. Daniels (1998), p. 75. The character has appeared in a total of four Superman films, with the only exception being Superman III (1983). In the original Richard Donner films, Luthor is a vain, money-hungry gangster who plots outrageous disasters for Superman to try to avert. He is regularly captured by Superman and sent to prison, only to escape — in a manner similar to the comics — at the opening of the next film. Two-time Academy Award winner Gene Hackman portrays Luthor in the 1978 Superman film, along with two of its sequels, Superman II (1980) and Superman IV (1987). In 2004, Kurt Carley portrayed Luthor in Sandy Collora's fan film World's Finest. In 2006, the role was inherited by Academy Award winner Kevin Spacey in Superman Returns, set sometime after the events of Superman II. Following another stint in jail, Luthor is released on a string of technicalities and inherits a dying widow's fortune. He immediately sets out to avenge himself on Superman, first by ransacking the Fortress of Solitude, and later through the abduction of Lois Lane and her son Jason. Other actors who have portrayed Luthor include Scott James Wells and Sherman Howard in the television series Superboy; John Shea in the 1990s series Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman; and Michael Rosenbaum in the 2000s Smallville. He has also been voiced in animation by Stan Jones in the 1970s/80s Superfriends franchise and by Clancy Brown in the 1990s/2000s DC animated universe and a 2007 episode of The Batman, among others. Lex Luthor is also a playable character in 2008's Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe, sporting his trademark battle armor. In the "Bar Mitzvah Shuffle" episode of American Dad!, a group of bald students sitting at a table having lunch at Steve Smith's school are not skinheads, but members of the Lex Luthor fan club. The skinheads are at the next table. Notes References Daniels, Les. Superman: The Complete History: The Life and Times of the Man of Steel. Chronicle Books, 1998. ISBN 0811842312 External links Lex Luthor at DCComics.com Lex Luthor chronology index Superman Homepage - Lex Luthor biography Supermanica entry on Lex Luthor The Justice League Watchtower - Lex Luthor | Lex_Luthor |@lemmatized lex:58 luthor:196 fictional:3 character:15 supervillain:3 appear:14 comic:45 book:8 publish:1 dc:16 archenemy:1 superman:85 first:11 action:28 apr:1 create:11 jerry:6 siegel:5 joe:3 shuster:4 describe:2 power:12 mad:5 evil:3 scientist:8 incredible:1 technological:2 prowess:1 w:8 sikela:1 john:11 p:10 skeleton:1 armor:3 goal:1 typically:1 center:1 kill:8 usually:1 step:3 stone:2 world:12 domination:1 though:8 periodically:1 wear:3 powered:1 exoskeleton:1 traditionally:1 lack:1 superpower:3 dual:1 identity:4 originally:2 depict:3 vein:1 pulp:1 novel:2 wreaks:1 havoc:1 futuristic:1 weaponry:1 early:7 appearance:5 show:13 full:3 head:4 red:4 hair:11 despite:4 later:14 become:12 bald:6 result:10 artist:2 mistake:1 story:11 robert:3 bernstein:3 expand:1 upon:5 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2,668 | Molecular_cloud | Within a few million years the light from bright stars will have boiled away this molecular cloud of gas and dust. The cloud has broken off from the Carina Nebula. Newly formed stars are visible nearby, their images reddened by blue light being preferentially scattered by the pervasive dust. This image spans about two light-years and was taken by the orbiting Hubble Space Telescope in 1999. A molecular cloud, sometimes called a stellar nursery if star formation is occurring within, is a type of interstellar cloud whose density and size permits the formation of molecules, most commonly molecular hydrogen (H2). Molecular hydrogen is difficult to detect by infrared and radio observations, so the molecule most often used to determine the presence of H2 is CO (carbon monoxide). The ratio between CO luminosity and H2 mass is thought to be constant, although there are reasons to doubt this assumption in observations of some other galaxies. Occurrence Within our own galaxy molecular gas accounts for less than one percent of the volume of the interstellar medium (ISM), yet it is also the densest part of the medium comprising roughly one-half of the total gas mass interior to the Sun's galactic orbit. The bulk of the molecular gas is contained in a molecular ring between 3.5 to 7.5 kiloparsecs from the centre of the galaxy (the Sun is about 8.5 kiloparsecs from the center). Large scale carbon monoxide maps of the galaxy show that the position of this gas correlates with the spiral arms of the galaxy. That molecular gas occurs predominantly in the spiral arms argues that molecular clouds must form and dissociate on a timescale shorter than 10 million years - the time it takes for material to pass through the arm region. Vertically, the molecular gas inhabits the narrow midplane of the Galactic disc with a characteristic scale height, Z, of approximately 50–75 parsec, much thinner than the warm atomic (Z=130–400 pc) and warm ionized (Z=1000 pc) gaseous components of the ISM. The exception to the ionized gas distribution are HII regions which are bubbles of hot ionized gas created in molecular clouds by the intense radiation given off by young massive stars and as such they have approximately the same vertical distribution as the molecular gas. This smooth distribution of molecular gas is averaged out over large distances, however the small scale distribution of the gas is highly irregular with most of it concentrated in discrete clouds and cloud complexes. Types of molecular cloud Giant molecular clouds (GMCs) Vast assemblages of molecular gas with masses of 104–106 times the mass of the sun are called Giant molecular clouds (GMC). The clouds can reach tens of parsecs in diameter and have an average density of 10²–10³ particles per cubic centimetre (the average density in the solar vicinity is one particle per cubic centimetre). Substructure within these clouds is a complex pattern of filaments, sheets, bubbles, and irregular clumps. The densest parts of the filaments and clumps are called "molecular cores", whilst the densest molecular cores are, unsurprisingly, called "dense molecular cores" and have densities in excess of 104–106 particles per cubic centimeter. Observationally molecular cores are traced with carbon monoxide and dense cores are traced with ammonia. The concentration of dust within molecular cores is normally sufficient to block light from background stars such that they appear in silhouette as dark nebulae. GMCs are so large that "local" ones can cover a significant fraction of a constellation such that they are often referred to by the name of that constellation, e.g. the Orion Molecular Cloud (OMC) or the Taurus Molecular Cloud (TMC). These local GMCs are arrayed in a ring around the sun called the Gould Belt. Electronic preprint The most massive collection of molecular clouds in the galaxy, the Sagittarius B2 complex, forms a ring around the galactic centre at a radius of 120 parsec. The Sagittarius region is chemically rich and is often used as an exemplar by astronomers searching for new molecules in interstellar space. Sagittarius B2 and its Line of Sight Small molecular clouds Isolated gravitationally bound small molecular clouds with masses less than a few hundred times the mass of the sun are called Bok globules. The densest parts of small molecular clouds are equivalent to the molecular cores found in GMCs and are often included in the same studies. High-latitude diffuse molecular clouds In 1984 IRAS identified a new type of diffuse molecular cloud. These were diffuse filamentary clouds that are visible at high galactic latitudes (looking out of the plane of the galactic disc). These clouds would have a typical density of 30 particles per cubic centimeter. Processes Star formation It is believed that the creation of newborn stars occurs exclusively within molecular clouds. This is a natural consequence of their low temperatures and high densities, since the gravitational force acting to collapse the cloud may exceed the internal pressures that are acting "outward" to prevent a collapse. Also there is observed evidence that the large, star-forming clouds are confined to a large degree by their own gravity (like stars, planets, and galaxies) rather than external pressure (like clouds in the sky). The evidence comes from the fact that the "turbulent" velocities inferred from CO linewidth scale in the same manner as the orbital velocity (a virial relation). Physics The physics of molecular clouds are poorly understood and much debated. Their internal motions are governed by turbulence in a cold, magnetized gas, for which the turbulent motions are highly supersonic but comparable to the speeds of magnetic disturbances. This state is thought to lose energy rapidly, requiring either an overall collapse or a steady reinjection of energy. At the same time, the clouds are known to be disrupted by some process—most likely the effects of massive stars—before a significant fraction of their mass has become stars. Molecular clouds, and especially "Giant" molecular clouds (GMCs), are often the home of astronomical masers. References See also Orion Molecular Cloud Complex | Molecular_cloud |@lemmatized within:6 million:2 year:3 light:4 bright:1 star:11 boil:1 away:1 molecular:36 cloud:32 gas:14 dust:3 break:1 carina:1 nebula:2 newly:1 form:3 visible:2 nearby:1 image:2 redden:1 blue:1 preferentially:1 scatter:1 pervasive:1 span:1 two:1 take:2 orbit:2 hubble:1 space:2 telescope:1 sometimes:1 call:6 stellar:1 nursery:1 formation:3 occur:3 type:3 interstellar:3 whose:1 density:6 size:1 permit:1 molecule:3 commonly:1 hydrogen:2 difficult:1 detect:1 infrared:1 radio:1 observation:2 often:5 use:2 determine:1 presence:1 co:3 carbon:3 monoxide:3 ratio:1 luminosity:1 mass:7 think:2 constant:1 although:1 reason:1 doubt:1 assumption:1 galaxy:7 occurrence:1 account:1 less:2 one:4 percent:1 volume:1 medium:2 ism:2 yet:1 also:3 dense:6 part:3 comprise:1 roughly:1 half:1 total:1 interior:1 sun:5 galactic:5 bulk:1 contain:1 ring:3 kiloparsecs:2 centre:2 center:1 large:5 scale:4 map:1 show:1 position:1 correlate:1 spiral:2 arm:3 predominantly:1 argue:1 must:1 dissociate:1 timescale:1 short:1 time:4 material:1 pass:1 region:3 vertically:1 inhabit:1 narrow:1 midplane:1 disc:2 characteristic:1 height:1 z:3 approximately:2 parsec:3 much:2 thin:1 warm:2 atomic:1 pc:2 ionized:1 gaseous:1 component:1 exception:1 ionize:2 distribution:4 hii:1 bubble:2 hot:1 create:1 intense:1 radiation:1 give:1 young:1 massive:3 vertical:1 smooth:1 average:3 distance:1 however:1 small:4 highly:2 irregular:2 concentrate:1 discrete:1 complex:4 giant:3 gmcs:5 vast:1 assemblage:1 gmc:1 reach:1 ten:1 diameter:1 particle:4 per:4 cubic:4 centimetre:2 solar:1 vicinity:1 substructure:1 pattern:1 filament:2 sheet:1 clump:2 core:7 whilst:1 unsurprisingly:1 excess:1 centimeter:2 observationally:1 trace:2 ammonia:1 concentration:1 normally:1 sufficient:1 block:1 background:1 appear:1 silhouette:1 dark:1 local:2 cover:1 significant:2 fraction:2 constellation:2 refer:1 name:1 e:1 g:1 orion:2 omc:1 taurus:1 tmc:1 array:1 around:2 gould:1 belt:1 electronic:1 preprint:1 collection:1 sagittarius:3 radius:1 chemically:1 rich:1 exemplar:1 astronomer:1 search:1 new:2 line:1 sight:1 isolate:1 gravitationally:1 bound:1 hundred:1 bok:1 globule:1 equivalent:1 find:1 include:1 study:1 high:3 latitude:2 diffuse:3 ira:1 identify:1 filamentary:1 look:1 plane:1 would:1 typical:1 process:2 believe:1 creation:1 newborn:1 exclusively:1 natural:1 consequence:1 low:1 temperature:1 since:1 gravitational:1 force:1 act:2 collapse:3 may:1 exceed:1 internal:2 pressure:2 outward:1 prevent:1 observed:1 evidence:2 forming:1 confine:1 degree:1 gravity:1 like:2 planet:1 rather:1 external:1 sky:1 come:1 fact:1 turbulent:2 velocity:2 infer:1 linewidth:1 manner:1 orbital:1 virial:1 relation:1 physics:1 physic:1 poorly:1 understood:1 debate:1 motion:2 govern:1 turbulence:1 cold:1 magnetize:1 supersonic:1 comparable:1 speed:1 magnetic:1 disturbance:1 state:1 lose:1 energy:2 rapidly:1 require:1 either:1 overall:1 steady:1 reinjection:1 know:1 disrupt:1 likely:1 effect:1 become:1 especially:1 home:1 astronomical:1 maser:1 reference:1 see:1 |@bigram molecular_cloud:20 carina_nebula:1 interstellar_cloud:1 carbon_monoxide:3 hii_region:1 cubic_centimetre:2 cubic_centimeter:2 poorly_understood:1 |
2,669 | Michael_Ventris | Michael George Francis Ventris (July 12, 1922 – September 6, 1956) was an English architect and classical scholar who, along with John Chadwick, was responsible for the decipherment of Linear B. Ventris was educated in Switzerland and at Stowe School. (Stowe is an 18th century country house; by contrast, his mother, Dorothea (Dora) Ventris, lived in Berthold Lubetkin's Highpoint modernist apartments in Highgate). He could speak six European languages and read Latin and classical Greek. He enrolled at the Architectural Association School of Architecture in 1940 and graduated in 1948, after interrupting his training to serve as a navigator in the Royal Air Force. A few years after deciphering Linear B in 1951-1953, Ventris, who himself lived in Hampstead, died in a car crash, aged 34. Linear B At the beginning of the 20th century, archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans began excavating Knossos, an ancient city on the island of Crete. In doing so he uncovered a great many clay tablets inscribed with an unknown script. Some were older and were named Linear A. The bulk were of more recent vintage, and were dubbed Linear B. Evans spent the next several decades trying to decipher both, to no avail. Part of the difficulty stemmed from Evans himself — he had strong opinions about the nature of Cretan civilization and was convinced that Linear B was a language he called "Minoan." A powerful political force in the academic world, he succeeded in cutting off any investigation into the possibility that the language on the tablets was Greek, despite some hints that this was the case. Ventris' initial theory was that Etruscan and "Minoan" were related and that this might provide a key to decipherment. Although this proved incorrect, it was a link he continued to explore until the early 1950s. Shortly after Evans died, Alice Kober noted that certain words in Linear B inscriptions had changing word endings — perhaps declensions in the manner of Latin or Greek. Using this clue, Ventris constructed a series of grids associating the symbols on the tablets with consonants and vowels. While which consonants and vowels they were remained mysterious, Ventris learned enough about the structure of the underlying language to begin guessing. Some Linear B tablets had been discovered on the Greek mainland, and there was reason to believe that some of the chains of symbols he had encountered on the Cretan tablets were names. Noting that certain names appeared only in the Cretan texts, he made the inspired guess that those names applied to cities on the island. This proved to be correct. Armed with the symbols he could decipher from this, Ventris soon unlocked much text and determined that the underlying language of Linear B was in fact Greek. This overturned Evans' theories of Minoan history by establishing that Cretan civilization, at least in the later periods associated with the Linear B tablets, had been part of Mycenean Greece. See also Linear B Mycenaean Greece Decipherment Publications Further reading Fiction on the untimely demise of M. Ventris during his effort to decipher Linear A as an Hellenic language References Simon Tetlow, Ben Harris, David Roques and A. G. Meredith - Michael Ventris Remembered (Stowe School, 1984) External links Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory - Digitized Letters of Michael Ventris Character of Ventris A Very English Genius: How Michael Ventris Cracked Linear B - BBC documentary film broadcast 17 August 2005 The Ventris Papers | Michael_Ventris |@lemmatized michael:4 george:1 francis:1 ventris:14 july:1 september:1 english:2 architect:1 classical:2 scholar:1 along:1 john:1 chadwick:1 responsible:1 decipherment:3 linear:13 b:11 educate:1 switzerland:1 stowe:3 school:3 century:2 country:1 house:1 contrast:1 mother:1 dorothea:1 dora:1 live:2 berthold:1 lubetkin:1 highpoint:1 modernist:1 apartment:1 highgate:1 could:2 speak:1 six:1 european:1 language:6 read:2 latin:2 greek:5 enrol:1 architectural:1 association:1 architecture:1 graduate:1 interrupt:1 training:1 serve:1 navigator:1 royal:1 air:1 force:2 year:1 decipher:4 hampstead:1 die:2 car:1 crash:1 age:1 beginning:1 archaeologist:1 sir:1 arthur:1 evans:5 begin:2 excavate:1 knossos:1 ancient:1 city:2 island:2 crete:1 uncover:1 great:1 many:1 clay:1 tablet:6 inscribe:1 unknown:1 script:2 old:1 name:4 bulk:1 recent:1 vintage:1 dub:1 spend:1 next:1 several:1 decade:1 try:1 avail:1 part:2 difficulty:1 stem:1 strong:1 opinion:1 nature:1 cretan:4 civilization:2 convince:1 call:1 minoan:3 powerful:1 political:1 academic:1 world:1 succeed:1 cut:1 investigation:1 possibility:1 despite:1 hint:1 case:1 initial:1 theory:2 etruscan:1 relate:1 might:1 provide:1 key:1 although:1 proved:1 incorrect:1 link:1 continue:1 explore:1 early:1 shortly:1 alice:1 kober:1 note:2 certain:2 word:2 inscription:1 change:1 ending:1 perhaps:1 declension:1 manner:1 use:1 clue:1 construct:1 series:1 grid:1 associate:2 symbol:3 consonant:2 vowel:2 remain:1 mysterious:1 learn:1 enough:1 structure:1 underlying:2 guess:2 discover:1 mainland:1 reason:1 believe:1 chain:1 encounter:1 appear:1 text:2 make:1 inspired:1 apply:1 prove:1 correct:1 arm:1 soon:1 unlocked:1 much:1 determine:1 fact:1 overturned:1 history:1 establish:1 least:1 late:1 period:1 mycenean:1 greece:2 see:1 also:1 mycenaean:1 publication:1 far:1 fiction:1 untimely:1 demise:1 effort:1 hellenic:1 reference:1 simon:1 tetlow:1 ben:1 harris:1 david:1 roques:1 g:1 meredith:1 remember:1 external:1 links:1 program:1 aegean:1 prehistory:1 digitized:1 letter:1 character:1 genius:1 crack:1 bbc:1 documentary:1 film:1 broadcast:1 august:1 paper:1 |@bigram decipherment_linear:1 clay_tablet:1 tablet_inscribe:1 alice_kober:1 michael_ventris:3 external_links:1 |
2,670 | Advanced_Chemistry | Advanced Chemistry is a German hip hop group from Heidelberg, a scenic city in Baden-Württemberg, South Germany. Advanced Chemistry was founded in 1987 by Toni L, Linguist, Gee-One, DJ Mike MD (Mike Dippon) and MC Torch. Each member of the group holds German citizenshhip, and Toni L, Linguist, and Torch are of Italian, Ghanaian, and Haitian backgrounds, respectively. Pennay, Mark "Rap in Germinay" in Mitchell, Tony ed. Global Noise. Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 2001. . Influenced by North American socially conscious rap and the Native tongues movement, Advanced Chemistry is regarded as one of the main pioneers in German hip hop. They were one of the first groups to rap in German (although their name is in English). Furthermore, their songs tackled controversial social and political issues, distinguishing them from early German hip hop group "Die Fantastischen Vier" (The Fantastic Four), which had a more light-hearted, playful, party image. . The rivalry between Advanced Chemistry and Die Fantastischen Vier has served to highlight a dichotomy in the routes that hip hop has taken in becoming a part of the German soundscape. While Die Fantastischen Vier may be said to view hip hop primarily as an esthetic art form, Advanced Chemistry understand hip hop as being inextricably linked to the social and political circumstances under which it is created. For Advanced Chemistry, hip hop is a “vehicle of general human emancipation,”. Brown, Timothy S. "'Keeping it Real' in a Different 'Hood:(African-) Americanization and Hip-hop in Germany." In The Vinyl Ain'tFinal: Hip Hop and the Globalization of Black Popular Culture, ed. by Dipannita Basu and Sidney J. Lemelle, 137-50. London In their undertaking of social and political issues, the band introduced the term "Afro-German" in to the context of German hip hop, and the theme of race is highlighted in much of their music. projekt migration With the release of the single “Fremd im eigenen Land”, Advanced Chemistry separated itself from the rest of the rap being produced in Germany. This single was the first of its kind to go beyond simply imitating US rap and addressed the current issues of the time. Fremd im eigenen Land which translates to “foreign in my own country” dealt with the widespread racism that non-white German citizens faced. This change from simple imitation to political commentary was the start of German identification with rap. . Hip hop in Germany : Nomadic Wax After the reunification of Germany, an abundance of anti-immigrant sentiment emerged, as well as attacks on the homes of refugees in the early 90's. Advanced Chemistry came to prominence in the wake of these actions because of their pro-multicultural society stance in their music. Advanced Chemistry's attitudes revolve around their attempts to create a distinct "Germanness" in hip hop, as opposed to imitating American hip hop as other groups had done. Torch has said, "What the Americans do is exotic for us because we don't live like they do. What they do seems to be more interesting and newer. But not for me. For me it's more exciting to experience my fellow Germans in new contexts...For me, it's interesting to see what the kids try to do that's different from what I know." Brown, Timothy S. “‘Keeping it Real’ in a Different ‘Hood: (African-) Americanization and Hip-hop in Germany.” In The Vinyl Ain’t Final: Hip Hop and the Globalization of Black Popular Culture, ed. by Dipannita Basu and Sidney J. Lemelle, 137-50. London; A Advanced Chemistry were the first to use the term "Afro-German" in a hip hop context. This was part of the pro-immigrant political message they sent via their music. deutschrap.com: Classic German Hip-Hop While Advanced Chemistry's use of the German language in their rap allows them to make claims to authenticity and true German heritage, bolstering pro-immigration sentiment, their style can also be problematic for immigrant notions of any real ethnic roots. Indeed, part of the Turkish ethnic minority of Frankfurt views Advanced Chemistry's appeal to the German image as a "symbolic betrayal of the right of ethnic minorities to 'roots' or to any expression of cultural heritage." In this sense, their rap represents a complex social discourse internal to the German soundscape in which they attempt to negotiate immigrant assimilation into a xenophobic German culture with the maintenance of their own separate cultural traditions. It is quite possibly the feelings of alienation from the pure-blooded German demographic that drive Advanced Chemistry to attack nationalistic ideologies by asserting their "Germanness" as a group composed primarily of ethnic others. The response to this pseudo-German authenticity can be seen in what Andy Bennett refers to as "alternative forms of local hip hop culture which actively seek to rediscover and, in many cases, reconstruct notions of identity tied to cultural roots." Bennett, Andy. "Hip-Hop am Main, Rappin' on the Tyne: Hip-hop Culture as a Local Construct in Two European Cities." In That's the Joint!: The Hip-hop Studies Reader, 177-200. New York; London: Routledge, 2004. These alternative local hip hop cultures include Oriental hip hop, the members of which cling to their Turkish heritage and are confused by Advanced Chemistry's elicitation of a German identity politics to which they technically do not belong. This cultural binary illustrates that rap has taken different routes in Germany and that, even among an already isolated immigrant population, there is still disunity and, especially, disagreement on the relative importance of assimilation versus cultural defiance. According to German hip hop enthusiast 9@home, Advanced Chemistry is part of a "hip-hop movement [which] took a clear stance for the minorities and against the [marginalization] of immigrants who...might be German on paper, but not in real life," 9@home. "German Hip Hop 1: Advanced Chemistry." Leave Your Nine at Home. 13 Oct. 2007. Vanila Mist. 27 Mar. 2008 <http://leaveyournineathome.wordpress.com/2007/10/13/german-hip-hop-1-advanced-chemistry/>. which speaks to the group's hope of actually being recognized as German citizens and not foreigners, despite their various other ethnic and cultural ties. Market Conditions for Rap One of the first issues that confronts us when we move outside of the English speaking market for recorded music is to establish whether or not the discrete musical genres we know from that market are fully congruent with similar divisions in other pop worlds. This is important in two ways. First, although no single country comes close to matching the amounts spent on recorded music in the United States, these markets are nonetheless economically significant. Germany for instance, is the largest single market in western Europe, with estamated annual sales of U.S. $3.74 billion in 1996. This represents around 30 percent of reported U.S. sales and makes Germany the third biggest music market in the world. Michell, Tony Global Noise (Rap and Hip-Hop outside the USA) Published by Wesleyan University Press, Middletown CT. 06549 (C)2001 Advanced Chemistry frequently rapped about their lives and experiences as children of immigrants, The Atlantic Times :: Archive exposing the marginalization experienced by most ethnic minorities in Germany, and the feelings of frustration and resentment that being denied a German identity can cause. Bennett, Andy. "Hip-Hop am Main, Rappin' on the Tyne: Hip-hop Culture as a Local Construct in Two European Cities." In That's the Joint!: The Hip-hop Studies Reader, 177-200. New York; London: Routledge, 2004, p. 183-184 . The song "Fremd im eigenem Land" (Foreign in your own nation) was released by Advanced Chemistry in November of 1992. [http://www.discogs.com/artist/Advanced+Chemistry Advanced Chemistry Discography] The single became a staple in the German hip hop scene. It made a strong statement about the status of immigrants throughout Germany, as the group was composed of multi-national and multi-racial members. The video shows several members brandishing their German passports as a demonstration of their German citizenship to skeptical and unaccepting 'ethnic' Germans. Brown, Timothy S. "'Keeping it Real' in a Different 'Hood:(African-) Americanization and Hip-hop in Germany." In The Vinyl Ain'tFinal: Hip Hop and the Globalization of Black Popular Culture, ed. by Dipannita Basu and Sidney J. Lemelle, 137-50. London This idea of national identity is important, as many rap artists in Germany have been of foreign origin. These so-called Gastarbeiter (guest workers) children saw breakdance, graffiti, rap music, and hip hop culture as a means of expressing themselves. Schmidt, Johannes. Die Unterrichtspraxis/Teaching German>Vol. 36, No. 1. (Spring, 2003) pp. 1-14. Since the release "Fremd im eigenen Land, many other German-language rappers have also tried to confront anti-immigrant ideas and develop themes of citizenship. Thus, rap and hip hop are central to local strategies of resistance to racism and racial exclusion in Germany. However, though many ethnic minority youth in Germany find the these German identity themes appealing, others view the desire of immigrants to be seen as German negatively, and they have actively sought to revive and recreate concepts of identity in connection to traditional ethnic origins. Advanced Chemistry helped to found the German chapter of the Zulu nation. http://leaveyournineathome.wordpress.com/2007/10/13/german-hip-hop-1-advanced-chemistry/. Accessed March 26. Last updated October 13, 2007. . Several years after the founding, Gee One and DJ Mike MD left the group seeking to realize new dreams. Members include Toni L, Linguist, Torch; affiliated: Boulevard Bou. Discography 1992 - "Fremd im eigenen Land" (12"/MCD, MZEE) 1993 - "Welcher Pfad führt zur Geschichte" (12"/MCD, MZEE) 1994 - "Operation § 3" (12"/MCD) 1994 - "Dir fehlt der Funk!" (12"/MCD) 1995 - Advanced Chemistry (2xLP/CD) External links Official Website of MC Torch Website of Toni L. Official Website of Linguist Official Website DJ Mike MD (Mike Dippon) Website of 360° Records References | Advanced_Chemistry |@lemmatized advanced:18 chemistry:24 german:37 hip:37 hop:37 group:9 heidelberg:1 scenic:1 city:3 baden:1 württemberg:1 south:1 germany:15 found:1 toni:4 l:4 linguist:4 gee:2 one:5 dj:3 mike:5 md:3 dippon:2 mc:2 torch:5 member:5 hold:1 citizenshhip:1 italian:1 ghanaian:1 haitian:1 background:1 respectively:1 pennay:1 mark:1 rap:15 germinay:1 mitchell:1 tony:2 ed:4 global:2 noise:2 middletown:2 wesleyan:2 university:2 press:2 influence:1 north:1 american:3 socially:1 conscious:1 native:1 tongue:1 movement:2 regard:1 main:3 pioneer:1 first:5 although:2 name:1 english:2 furthermore:1 song:2 tackle:1 controversial:1 social:4 political:5 issue:4 distinguish:1 early:2 die:4 fantastischen:3 vi:1 fantastic:1 four:1 light:1 hearted:1 playful:1 party:1 image:2 rivalry:1 vier:2 serve:1 highlight:2 dichotomy:1 route:2 take:3 become:2 part:4 soundscape:2 may:1 say:2 view:3 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2,671 | National_Baseball_Hall_of_Fame_and_Museum | The National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum is an American museum and hall of fame, located at 25 Main Street in Cooperstown, New York, operated by private interests serving as the central point for the study of the history of baseball in the United States and beyond, the display of baseball-related artifacts and exhibits, and the honoring of persons who have excelled in playing, managing, and serving the sport. The Hall's motto is "Preserving History, Honoring Excellence, Connecting Generations". The word Cooperstown is often used as shorthand (or a metonym) for the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum, just as the expression "Hall of Fame" is understood to mean the National Baseball Hall of Fame. History The Entrance to the Baseball Hall of Fame. The Hall of Fame was dedicated on June 12, 1939 by Lee Ferrick Andrews, grandson of Edward Clark, who was a founder of the Singer Sewing Machine Company. Stephen C. Clark was owner of a local hotel and sought to bring tourists to Cooperstown, which had been suffering economically when the Great Depression significantly reduced the local tourist trade and the Prohibition devastated the local hops industry. The erroneous claim that U.S. Civil War hero Abner Doubleday invented baseball in Cooperstown, a claim made by former National League president Abraham G. Mills and his 1905 Mills Commission, was instrumental in the early marketing of the Hall. An $8 million library and research facility opened in 1994. Dale Petroskey became the organization's president in 1999. In 2002, Baseball As America was launched, a traveling exhibit that toured ten American museums over six years. The Hall of Fame has also sponsored educational programming on the Internet to bring the Hall of Fame to schoolchildren who might not see it. In January 2006, the Hall of Fame also announced a partnership with Citgo to launch a traveling exhibit about Latin America's contributions to baseball. It is also an annual presence at the Major League Baseball All-Star Game, as it receives space at the Fest. The Hall and Museum completed a series of renovations in spring 2005. Jeff Idelson replaced Petroskey as president on April 16, 2008. He had been acting as president since March 25, 2008, when his predecessor was forced to resign for "fail[ing] to exercise proper fiduciary responsibility" while making "judgments that were not in the best interest of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum." The Official Site of Major League Baseball: News: HOF president Petroskey resigns from the Major League Baseball website Inductees Among baseball fans, "Hall of Fame" means not only the museum and facility in Cooperstown, but the pantheon of players, managers, umpires, executives, and pioneers who have been enshrined in the Hall. The first five men elected were Ty Cobb, Babe Ruth, Honus Wagner, Christy Mathewson and Walter Johnson, named in 1936. , 289 individuals had been elected to the Hall of Fame, including 202 former Major League players, 35 Negro Leaguers, 18 managers, 8 umpires, and 26 pioneers, executives, and organizers. The newest members are Joe Gordon, Jim Rice and Rickey Henderson. In addition to honoring Hall of Fame inductees, the National Baseball Hall of Fame has presented 30 men with the Ford C. Frick Award for excellence in broadcasting, and 57 with the J. G. Taylor Spink Award for excellence in baseball writing. While Frick and Spink Award honorees are not members of the Hall of Fame, they are recognized in an exhibit in the Hall of Fame's library. Plaques of the First Class of Inductees Players are currently inducted into the Hall of Fame through election by either the Baseball Writers Association of America (or BBWAA), or the Veterans Committee, which is now composed of living Hall of Famers; additional special committees, some including recipients of the two major awards, are also regularly formed to make selections. Five years after retirement, any player with 10 years of major league experience who passes a screening committee (which removes from consideration players of clearly lesser qualification) is eligible to be elected by BBWAA members with 10 years' membership or more. From a final ballot typically including 25–40 candidates, each writer may vote for up to 10 players; until the late 1950s, voters were advised to cast votes for the maximum 10 candidates. Any player named on 75% or more of all ballots cast is elected. A player who is named on fewer than 5% of ballots is dropped from future elections. In some instances, the screening committee had restored their names to later ballots, but in the mid-1990s, dropped players were made permanently ineligible for Hall of Fame consideration, even by the Veterans Committee. A 2001 change in the election procedures restored the eligibility of these dropped players; while their names will not appear on future BBWAA ballots, they may be considered by the Veterans Committee. Under special circumstances, certain players may be deemed eligible for induction even though they have not met all requirements. This resulted in the induction of Addie Joss, who was elected in 1978 despite only playing in nine seasons due to his death from meningitis. Additionally, if an otherwise eligible player dies before his fifth year of retirement, then that player may be placed on the ballot at the first election at least six months after his death. Roberto Clemente's induction in 1973 set the precedent when the writers chose to put him up for consideration after his death on New Year's Eve, 1972. The five-year waiting period was established in 1954 after an evolutionary process. In 1936 all players were eligible, including active ones. From the 1937 election until the 1945 election, there was no waiting period, so any retired player was eligible, but writers were discouraged from voting for current major leaguers. Since there was no formal rule preventing a writer from casting a ballot for an active player, the scribes did not always comply with the informal guideline; Joe DiMaggio received a vote in 1945, for example. From the 1946 election until the 1954 election, an official one-year waiting period was in effect. (DiMaggio, for example, retired after the 1951 season and was first eligible in the 1953 election.) The modern rule establishing a wait of five years was passed in 1954, although an exception was made for Joe DiMaggio because of his high level of previous support, thus permitting him to be elected within four years of his retirement. Contrary to popular belief, no formal exception was made for Lou Gehrig, other than to hold a special one-man election for him. There was no waiting period at that time and Gehrig met all other qualifications, so he would have been eligible for the next regular election after he retired during the 1939 season, but the BBWAA decided to hold a special election at the 1939 Winter Meetings in Cincinnati, specifically to elect Gehrig (most likely because it was known that he was terminally ill, making it uncertain that he would live long enough to see another election). Nobody else was on that ballot, and the numerical results have never been made public. Since no elections were held in 1940 or 1941, the special election permitted Gehrig to enter the Hall while still alive. If a player fails to be elected by the BBWAA within 20 years of his retirement from active play, he may be selected by the Veterans Committee, which now holds elections for players only for induction in odd-numbered years. However, only players whose careers began in 1943 or later will be eligible for election by the main Veterans Committee, in accordance with changes to the voting process for that body instituted in July 2007. These changes also established three separate committees to select other figures: One committee votes on managers and umpires for induction in every even-numbered year. The first vote by this committee was conducted in 2007 for induction in 2008. One committee votes on executives and builders for induction in every even-numbered year. This committee also conducted its first vote in 2007 for induction in 2008. One committee will vote every five years on players whose careers began in 1942 or earlier. It conducted its first vote as part of the election process for induction in 2009. Players of the Negro Leagues have also been considered at various times, beginning in 1971. In 2005 the Hall completed a study on African American players between the late 19th century and the integration of the major leagues in 1947, and conducted a special election for such players in February 2006; seventeen figures from the Negro Leagues were chosen in that election, in addition to the eighteen previously selected. Predictably, the selection process catalyzes endless debate among baseball fans over the merits of various candidates. Even players already elected remain for years the subjects of discussions as to whether their elections were deserved or in error. For example, Bill James' book Whatever Happened to the Hall of Fame? goes into detail about who he believes does and does not belong in the Hall of Fame. The museum According to the Hall of Fame, approximately 350,000 visitors enter the museum each year, and the running total has surpassed 14 million. These visitors see only a fraction of its 35,000 artifacts, 2.6 million library items (such as newspaper clippings and photos) and 130,000 baseball cards. First floor Plaque Gallery in 2001. The central pillar is for the newest (2000) inductes at the time. Gallery during 2007 HOF induction weekend Baseball at the Movies houses baseball movie memorabilia while a screen shows footage from those movies. The Bullpen Theater is the site of daily programming at the museum (trivia games, book discussions, etc.) and is decorated with pictures of famous relief pitchers. The Halper Gallery contains rotating exhibits. Induction Row contains artifacts pertinent to the most recent inductees and photos of past Hall of Fame Weekends. The Perez-Steele Art Gallery features art of all media related to baseball. The Plaque Gallery, the most recognizable site at the museum, contains induction plaques of all members. The Sandlot Kids Clubhouse has various interactive displays for young children. Scribes and Mikemen honors Spink and Frick winners with a photo display and has artifacts related to baseball writing and broadcasting. Floor-to-ceiling windows at the Scribes and Mikemen exhibit face an outdoor courtyard with statues of Johnny Podres and Roy Campanella (representing the Brooklyn Dodgers 1955 championship team), and an unnamed AAGPBL player. A Satchel Paige statue was unveiled and dedicated during 2006 Induction Weekend. Second floor The Grandstand Theater features a 12 minute multimedia film. The 200 seat theater, complete with replica stadium seats, is decorated to resemble old Comiskey Park. National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum: Hall of Fame News The Game is the major feature of the second floor. It is where the most artifacts are displayed. The Game is set up in a timeline format, starting with baseball's beginnings and culminating with the game we know today. There are several offshoots of this meandering timeline: The Babe Ruth Room Diamond Dreams (women in baseball) The Hank Aaron Room (also details the 500 home run club) Pride and Passion (Negro Leagues exhibit) Taking The Field (19th century baseball) The Today's Game exhibit is built like a baseball clubhouse, with 30 glass-enclosed locker stalls, one for each Major League franchise. In each stall there is a jersey and other items from the designated big league team, along with a brief team history. A center display case holds objects donated to the Hall of Fame from the past year or two. Fans can also look into a room designed to look like a manager's office. Outside is a display case with rotating artifacts. Currently the space is devoted to the World Baseball Classic. Third floor The display of Ichiro Suzuki Autumn Glory is devoted to post-season baseball and has, among other artifacts, replicas of World Series rings. An Education Gallery hosts school groups and, in the summer, presentations about artifacts from the museum's collection. In the gallery foyer is a TV that continually plays baseball bloopers and the popular Abbott and Costello routine "Who's on First?" and a display case with rotating exhibits. The Records Room has charts showing active and all-time leaders in various baseball statistical categories. The statistics charts are posted on the walls, leaving the center space for other purposes: BBWAA awards: Replicas of various awards distributed by the BBWAA at the end of each season, along with a list of past winners. A case dedicated to Ichiro Suzuki setting the major league record for base hits in a single season, with 262 in 2004. A case full of World Series Rings from prior years from the 1900s to present. An inductee database touch-screen computer with statistics for every inductee. Programs from every World Series. Sacred Ground is the newest museum section, opened after the 2003–05 renovation. It is devoted entirely to ballparks and everything about them, especially the fan experience and the business of a ballpark. The centerpiece is a computer tour of Boston's old South End Grounds, Comiskey Park, and Ebbets Field. Controversies Veterans Committee The most lasting controversy in Hall of Fame elections has been the actions and composition of the Veterans Committee established in 1953. The official name is "Committee on Baseball Veterans", but the short form is regularly used by the Hall itself, and is universally used by baseball media. Although few of the BBWAA selections have been particularly controversial, the Veterans Committee had at times, before its 2001 restructuring, seemed to pass over the most worthy candidates in order to enshrine contemporaries and teammates of the committee members. In 2001, the Veterans Committee was reformed to comprise the living Hall of Fame members and other honorees. The revamped Committee held three elections—in 2003 and 2007 for both players and non-players, and in 2005 for players only. No individual was elected in that time, sparking criticism among some observers who expressed doubt whether the new Veterans Committee would ever elect a player. The Committee members – most of whom were Hall members – were accused of being reluctant to elect new candidates in the hope of heightening the value of their own selection. After no one was selected for the third consecutive election in 2007, Hall of Famer Mike Schmidt noted, "The same thing happens every year. The current members want to preserve the prestige as much as possible, and are unwilling to open the doors." In 2007, the committee and its selection processes were again reorganized; the main committee now includes all living members of the Hall, and will vote on a reduced number of candidates from among players whose careers began in 1943 or later. Separate committees, including sportswriters and broadcasters, will select umpires, managers and executives, as well as players from earlier eras. In the first election to be held under the 2007 revisions, two managers and three executives were elected in December 2007 as part of the 2008 election process. The next Veterans Committee elections for players were held in December 2008 as part of the 2009 election process; the main committee did not select a player, while the panel for pre-World War II players elected Joe Gordon in its first vote. The main committee will vote as part of the election process for inductions in odd-numbered years, while the pre-WWII panel will vote every five years, and the panel for umpires, managers, and executives votes as part of the election process for inductions in even-numbered years. Sale of historic items A further controversy erupted in 1972, when it emerged that some historic items given to the Hall had been sold on the collectibles market. It subsequently transpired that these had been lent to the Baseball Commissioner's Office, from where they had been taken and sold to offset personal financial problems by an assistant to Commissioner Bowie Kuhn, possibly without verifying their ownership. Under pressure from the New York Attorney General, the Commissioner's Office made reparations, but damage had been done to the Hall of Fame's reputation. Non-induction of banned players An ongoing controversy facing the Hall of Fame concerns the status of Shoeless Joe Jackson and Pete Rose. Jackson and Rose were both banned from baseball for life for actions related to gambling on their own teams—Jackson was determined to have cooperated with those who conspired to lose the 1919 World Series on purpose, and Rose voluntarily accepted a permanent spot on the ineligible list in return for MLB's promise to make no official finding in relation to alleged betting on the Cincinnati Reds when he was their manager in the 1980s. (Baseball's Rule 21, prominently posted in every clubhouse locker room, mandates permanent banishment from the sport for having a gambling interest of any sort on a game in which a player or manager is directly involved.) While Jackson and Rose had outstanding playing careers that would usually merit Hall of Fame induction, the Hall of Fame disallows election of anyone on the permanent suspension list. (Many others have been permanently suspended, but none have Hall of Fame qualifications on the level of Jackson or Rose. A select few, such as Hal Chase and Eddie Cicotte, would be reasonable candidates had they not been banned.) Baseball fans are deeply split on the issue of whether these two should be exonerated or remain banned. Writer Bill James, though he advocates Rose eventually making it into the Hall of Fame, compared the people who want to put Jackson in the Hall of Fame to "those women who show up at murder trials wanting to marry the cute murderer." James (1995:358) Players with multiple teams The Hall has also recently changed its stance regarding team identification. Although all the teams for which a player played are usually listed in the text of the plaque, most players are depicted wearing the cap of one specific team. The rules of the Hall state that the player will be depicted wearing the cap of his "primary" team. Although the Hall always had the final say regarding which cap would appear, for many years the Hall deferred to the wishes of players for whom more than one team could be considered their "primary" team, allowing such players to choose the cap that would appear on their plaques. Some examples of honorees associated with multiple teams are the following: Frank Robinson: Robinson chose to have the Baltimore Orioles cap displayed on his plaque, although he had played ten seasons with the Cincinnati Reds and only six seasons with Baltimore. Robinson won four pennants and two World Series with the Orioles and just one pennant with Cincinnati. Coincidentally, his second World Series ring came in the 1970 World Series against the Reds. His numbers with the Orioles and the Reds were very good and he won an MVP award while playing for each team. Catfish Hunter: When elected to the Hall of Fame in 1987, Hunter declined to choose between the teams for which he played — the Oakland Athletics and New York Yankees — as he had been successful with both teams. His plaque shows him wearing a cap without a logo. Nolan Ryan: Born and raised in Texas, Ryan entered the Hall in 1999 wearing a Texas Rangers cap on his plaque, although he spent only five seasons with the Rangers, and had longer and more successful tenures with the Houston Astros (nine seasons, 1980–88) and California Angels (eight seasons, 1972–79). Ryan's only championship was as a member of the New York Mets in 1969. Ryan finished his career with the Rangers, reaching his 5000th strikeout and 300th win, and throwing the last two of his record-setting seven career no-hitters. Reggie Jackson: Jackson chose a New York Yankees cap over an Oakland Athletics cap. As a member of the Kansas City/Oakland A's, Jackson played ten seasons (1967–75, '87), winning three World Series (1972, 1973, 1974) and the 1973 AL MVP Award. While he played just five years in New York (1977-81), winning two World Series (1977-78), Jackson's crowning achievement came as a Yankee, when he hit three home runs on consecutive pitches in the decisive Game 6 of the 1977 World Series. Carlton Fisk: Fisk went into the hall with a Boston Red Sox cap on his plaque in 2000 despite playing with the Chicago White Sox longer and posting more significant numbers with the White Sox. Fisk's choice of the Red Sox was likely because of his being a New England native, as well as his famous walk-off home run in Game Six of the 1975 World Series with which he is most associated. Dave Winfield: Winfield had spent the most years in his career with the Yankees and had had great success there, but ultimately chose to go into the Hall as a Padre due to his feud with Yankees owner George Steinbrenner. In 2001, the Hall of Fame decided to change the policy on cap logo selection as a result of rumors that some teams were offering compensation, such as number retirement, money, or organizational jobs, in exchange for the cap designation. (For example, though Wade Boggs denied the claims, some media reports had said that his contract with the Tampa Bay Devil Rays required him to request depiction in the Hall of Fame as a Devil Ray). Although the decision would be a mutual responsibility, the Hall, not the players, would have the final say in such matters. Newly elected members affected by the change include the following: Gary Carter: Inducted in 2003, Carter was the first player to be affected by the new policy. Carter won his only championship with the 1986 New York Mets, and wanted his induction plaque to depict him wearing a Mets cap, even though he had spent twelve years (1974–84, 1992) with the Montreal Expos and only five (1985–89) with the Mets. The Hall of Fame decided that his plaque would instead show Carter with an Expos cap. Wade Boggs: Boggs's only championship was as a member of the 1996 New York Yankees, for whom he played from 1993–97, but his best career numbers were posted during his eleven years (1982–92) wearing the Boston Red Sox uniform. Boggs would eventually be depicted wearing a Boston cap for his 2005 induction, despite his acrimonious relationship with Red Sox management. See also Members of the Hall of Fame (alphabetical listing) Members of the Hall of Fame (by year of election) Nisei Baseball Research Project Notes and references External links Official website Hall of Fame History from Major League Baseball Gravesites of Baseball Hall of Famers from stewthornley.net | National_Baseball_Hall_of_Fame_and_Museum |@lemmatized national:7 baseball:41 hall:63 fame:42 museum:14 american:3 locate:1 main:5 street:1 cooperstown:5 new:16 york:8 operate:1 private:1 interest:3 serve:2 central:2 point:1 study:2 history:5 united:1 state:2 beyond:1 display:9 related:1 artifact:8 exhibit:9 honoring:1 person:1 excel:1 playing:3 managing:1 sport:2 motto:1 preserve:2 honor:3 excellence:3 connect:1 generation:1 word:1 often:1 use:3 shorthand:1 metonym:1 expression:1 understood:1 mean:2 entrance:1 dedicate:3 june:1 lee:1 ferrick:1 andrew:1 grandson:1 edward:1 clark:2 founder:1 singer:1 sew:1 machine:1 company:1 stephen:1 c:2 owner:2 local:3 hotel:1 seek:1 bring:2 tourist:2 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2,672 | Identical_particles | Identical particles, or indistinguishable particles, are particles that cannot be distinguished from one another, even in principle. Species of identical particles include elementary particles such as electrons, as well as composite microscopic particles such as atoms and molecules. There are two main categories of identical particles: bosons, which can share quantum states, and fermions, which are forbidden from sharing quantum states (this property of fermions is known as the Pauli exclusion principle.) Examples of bosons are photons, gluons, phonons, and helium-4 atoms. Examples of fermions are electrons, neutrinos, quarks, protons and neutrons, and helium-3 atoms. The fact that particles can be identical has important consequences in statistical mechanics. Calculations in statistical mechanics rely on probabilistic arguments, which are sensitive to whether or not the objects being studied are identical. As a result, identical particles exhibit markedly different statistical behavior from distinguishable particles. For example, the indistinguishability of particles has been proposed as a solution to Gibbs' mixing paradox. Distinguishing between particles There are two ways in which one might distinguish between particles. The first method relies on differences in the particles' intrinsic physical properties, such as mass, electric charge, and spin. If differences exist, we can distinguish between the particles by measuring the relevant properties. However, it is an empirical fact that microscopic particles of the same species have completely equivalent physical properties. For instance, every electron in the universe has exactly the same electric charge; this is why we can speak of such a thing as "the charge of the electron". Even if the particles have equivalent physical properties, there remains a second method for distinguishing between particles, which is to track the trajectory of each particle. As long as we can measure the position of each particle with infinite precision (even when the particles collide), there would be no ambiguity about which particle is which. The problem with this approach is that it contradicts the principles of quantum mechanics. According to quantum theory, the particles do not possess definite positions during the periods between measurements. Instead, they are governed by wavefunctions that give the probability of finding a particle at each position. As time passes, the wavefunctions tend to spread out and overlap. Once this happens, it becomes impossible to determine, in a subsequent measurement, which of the particle positions correspond to those measured earlier. The particles are then said to be indistinguishable. Quantum mechanical description of identical particles Symmetrical and antisymmetrical states Asymmetric wavefunction for a (fermionic) 2-particle state in an infinite square well potential. Symmetric wavefunction for a (bosonic) 2-particle state in an infinite square well potential. We will now make the above discussion concrete, using the formalism developed in the article on the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics. For simplicity, consider a system composed of two identical particles. As the particles possess equivalent physical properties, their state vectors occupy mathematically identical Hilbert spaces. If we denote the Hilbert space of a single particle as H, then the Hilbert space of the combined system is formed by the tensor product . Let n denote a complete set of (discrete) quantum numbers for specifying single-particle states (for example, for the particle in a box problem we can take n to be the quantized wave vector of the wavefunction.) Suppose that one particle is in the state n1, and another is in the state n2. What is the quantum state of the system? We might guess that it is which is simply the canonical way of constructing a basis for a tensor product space from the individual spaces. However, this expression implies that we can identify the particle with n1 as "particle 1" and the particle with n2 as "particle 2", which conflicts with the ideas about indistinguishability discussed earlier. Actually, it is an empirical fact that identical particles occupy special types of multi-particle states, called symmetric states and antisymmetric states. Symmetric states have the form Antisymmetric states have the form Note that if n1 and n2 are the same, our equation for the antisymmetric state gives zero, which cannot be a state vector as it cannot be normalized. In other words, in an antisymmetric state the particles cannot occupy the same single-particle states. This is known as the Pauli exclusion principle, and it is the fundamental reason behind the chemical properties of atoms and the stability of matter. Exchange symmetry The importance of symmetric and antisymmetric states is ultimately based on empirical evidence. It appears to be a fact of nature that identical particles do not occupy states of a mixed symmetry, such as There is actually an exception to this rule, which we will discuss later. On the other hand, we can show that the symmetric and antisymmetric states are in a sense special, by examining a particular symmetry of the multiple-particle states known as exchange symmetry. Let us define a linear operator P, called the exchange operator. When it acts on a tensor product of two state vectors, it exchanges the values of the state vectors: P is both Hermitian and unitary. Because it is unitary, we can regard it as a symmetry operator. We can describe this symmetry as the symmetry under the exchange of labels attached to the particles (i.e., to the single-particle Hilbert spaces). Clearly, P² = 1 (the identity operator), so the eigenvalues of P are +1 and −1. The corresponding eigenvectors are the symmetric and antisymmetric states: In other words, symmetric and antisymmetric states are essentially unchanged under the exchange of particle labels: they are only multiplied by a factor of +1 or −1, rather than being "rotated" somewhere else in the Hilbert space. This indicates that the particle labels have no physical meaning, in agreement with our earlier discussion on indistinguishability. We have mentioned that P is Hermitian. As a result, it can be regarded as an observable of the system, which means that we can, in principle, perform a measurement to find out if a state is symmetric or antisymmetric. Furthermore, the equivalence of the particles indicates that the Hamiltonian can be written in a symmetrical form, such as It is possible to show that such Hamiltonians satisfy the commutation relation According to the Heisenberg equation, this means that the value of P is a constant of motion. If the quantum state is initially symmetric (antisymmetric), it will remain symmetric (antisymmetric) as the system evolves. Mathematically, this says that the state vector is confined to one of the two eigenspaces of P, and is not allowed to range over the entire Hilbert space. Thus, we might as well treat that eigenspace as the actual Hilbert space of the system. This is the idea behind the definition of Fock space. Fermions and bosons The choice of symmetry or antisymmetry is determined by the species of particle. For example, we must always use symmetric states when describing photons or helium-4 atoms, and antisymmetric states when describing electrons or protons. Particles which exhibit symmetric states are called bosons. As we will see, the nature of symmetric states has important consequences for the statistical properties of systems composed of many identical bosons. These statistical properties are described as Bose-Einstein statistics. Particles which exhibit antisymmetric states are called fermions. As we have seen, antisymmetry gives rise to the Pauli exclusion principle, which forbids identical fermions from sharing the same quantum state. Systems of many identical fermions are described by Fermi-Dirac statistics. Parastatistics are also possible. In certain two-dimensional systems, mixed symmetry can occur. These exotic particles are known as anyons, and they obey fractional statistics. Experimental evidence for the existence of anyons exists in the fractional quantum Hall effect, a phenomenon observed in the two-dimensional electron gases that form the inversion layer of MOSFETs. There is another type of statistic, known as braid statistics, which are associated with particles known as plektons. The spin-statistics theorem relates the exchange symmetry of identical particles to their spin. It states that bosons have integer spin, and fermions have half-integer spin. Anyons possess fractional spin. N particles The above discussion generalizes readily to the case of N particles. Suppose we have N particles with quantum numbers n1, n2, ..., nN. If the particles are bosons, they occupy a totally symmetric state, which is symmetric under the exchange of any two particle labels: Here, the sum is taken over all possible permutations p acting on N elements. The square root on the right hand side is a normalizing constant. The quantity Nj stands for the number of times each of the single-particle states appears in the N-particle state. In the same vein, fermions occupy totally antisymmetric states: Here, sgn(p) is the signature of each permutation (i.e. +1 if p is composed of an even number of transpositions, and −1 if odd.) Note that we have omitted the ΠjNj term, because each single-particle state can appear only once in a fermionic state. These states have been normalized so that Measurements of identical particles Suppose we have a system of N bosons (fermions) in the symmetric (antisymmetric) state and we perform a measurement of some other set of discrete observables, m. In general, this would yield some result m1 for one particle, m2 for another particle, and so forth. If the particles are bosons (fermions), the state after the measurement must remain symmetric (antisymmetric), i.e. The probability of obtaining a particular result for the m measurement is We can show that which verifies that the total probability is 1. Note that we have to restrict the sum to ordered values of m1, ..., mN to ensure that we do not count each multi-particle state more than once. Wavefunction representation So far, we have worked with discrete observables. We will now extend the discussion to continuous observables, such as the position x. Recall that an eigenstate of a continuous observable represents an infinitesimal range of values of the observable, not a single value as with discrete observables. For instance, if a particle is in a state |ψ>, the probability of finding it in a region of volume d³x surrounding some position x is As a result, the continuous eigenstates |x> are normalized to the delta function instead of unity: We can construct symmetric and antisymmetric multi-particle states out of continuous eigenstates in the same way as before. However, it is customary to use a different normalizing constant: We can then write a many-body wavefunction, where the single-particle wavefunctions are defined, as usual, by The most important property of these wavefunctions is that exchanging any two of the coordinate variables changes the wavefunction by only a plus or minus sign. This is the manifestation of symmetry and antisymmetry in the wavefunction representation: The many-body wavefunction has the following significance: if the system is initially in a state with quantum numbers n1, ..., nN, and we perform a position measurement, the probability of finding particles in infinitesimal volumes near x1, x2, ..., xN is The factor of N! comes from our normalizing constant, which has been chosen so that, by analogy with single-particle wavefunctions, Because each integral runs over all possible values of x, each multi-particle state appears N! times in the integral. In other words, the probability associated with each event is evenly distributed across N! equivalent points in the integral space. Because it is usually more convenient to work with unrestricted integrals than restricted ones, we have chosen our normalizing constant to reflect this. Finally, it is interesting to note that that antisymmetric wavefunction can be written as the determinant of a matrix, known as a Slater determinant: Statistical properties Statistical effects of indistinguishability The indistinguishability of particles has a profound effect on their statistical properties. To illustrate this, let us consider a system of N distinguishable, non-interacting particles. Once again, let nj denote the state (i.e. quantum numbers) of particle j. If the particles have the same physical properties, the nj'''s run over the same range of values. Let ε(n) denote the energy of a particle in state n. As the particles do not interact, the total energy of the system is the sum of the single-particle energies. The partition function of the system is where k is Boltzmann's constant and T is the temperature. We can factorize this expression to obtain where If the particles are identical, this equation is incorrect. Consider a state of the system, described by the single particle states [n1, ..., nN]. In the equation for Z, every possible permutation of the ns occurs once in the sum, even though each of these permutations is describing the same multi-particle state. We have thus over-counted the actual number of states. If we neglect the possibility of overlapping states, which is valid if the temperature is high, then the number of times we count each state is approximately N!. The correct partition function is Note that this "high temperature" approximation does not distinguish between fermions and bosons. The discrepancy in the partition functions of distinguishable and indistinguishable particles was known as far back as the 19th century, before the advent of quantum mechanics. It leads to a difficulty known as the Gibbs paradox. Gibbs showed that if we use the equation Z = ξN, the entropy of a classical ideal gas is where V is the volume of the gas and f is some function of T alone. The problem with this result is that S is not extensive - if we double N and V, S does not double accordingly. Such a system does not obey the postulates of thermodynamics. Gibbs also showed that using Z = ξN/N! alters the result to which is perfectly extensive. However, the reason for this correction to the partition function remained obscure until the discovery of quantum mechanics. Statistical properties of bosons and fermions There are important differences between the statistical behavior of bosons and fermions, which are described by Bose-Einstein statistics and Fermi-Dirac statistics respectively. Roughly speaking, bosons have a tendency to clump into the same quantum state, which underlies phenomena such as the laser, Bose-Einstein condensation, and superfluidity. Fermions, on the other hand, are forbidden from sharing quantum states, giving rise to systems such as the Fermi gas. This is known as the Pauli Exclusion Principle, and is responsible for much of chemistry, since the electrons in an atom (fermions) successively fill the many states within shells rather than all lying in the same lowest energy state. We can illustrate the differences between the statistical behavior of fermions, bosons, and distinguishable particles using a system of two particles. Let us call the particles A and B. Each particle can exist in two possible states, labelled and , which have the same energy. We let the composite system evolve in time, interacting with a noisy environment. Because the and states are energetically equivalent, neither state is favored, so this process has the effect of randomizing the states. (This is discussed in the article on quantum entanglement.) After some time, the composite system will have an equal probability of occupying each of the states available to it. We then measure the particle states. If A and B are distinguishable particles, then the composite system has four distinct states: , , , and . The probability of obtaining two particles in the state is 0.25; the probability of obtaining two particles in the state is 0.25; and the probability of obtaining one particle in the state and the other in the state is 0.5. If A and B are identical bosons, then the composite system has only three distinct states: , , and . When we perform the experiment, the probability of obtaining two particles in the state is now 0.33; the probability of obtaining two particles in the state is 0.33; and the probability of obtaining one particle in the state and the other in the state is 0.33. Note that the probability of finding particles in the same state is relatively larger than in the distinguishable case. This demonstrates the tendency of bosons to "clump." If A and B are identical fermions, there is only one state available to the composite system: the totally antisymmetric state . When we perform the experiment, we inevitably find that one particle is in the state and the other is in the state. The results are summarized in Table 1: Table 1: Statistics of two particles Particles Both 0 Both 1 One 0 and one 1 Distinguishable 0.25 0.25 0.5 Bosons 0.33 0.33 0.33 Fermions 0 0 1 As can be seen, even a system of two particles exhibits different statistical behaviors between distinguishable particles, bosons, and fermions. In the articles on Fermi-Dirac statistics and Bose-Einstein statistics, these principles are extended to large number of particles, with qualitatively similar results. The homotopy class To understand why we have the statistics that we do for particles, we first have to note that particles are point localized excitations and that particles that are spacelike separated do not interact. In a flat d-dimensional space M, at any given time, the configuration of two identical particles can be specified as an element of M × M. If there is no overlap between the particles, so that they do not interact (at the same time, we are not referring to time delayed interactions here, which are mediated at the speed of light or slower), then we are dealing with the space [M × M]/{coincident points}, the subspace with coincident points removed. (x,y) describes the configuration with particle I at x and particle II at y. (y,x) describes the interchanged configuration. With identical particles, the state described by (x,y) ought to be indistinguishable (which ISN'T the same thing as identical!) from the state described by (y,x). Let's look at the homotopy class of continuous paths from (x,y) to (y,x). If M is Rd where , then this homotopy class only has one element. If M is R2, then this homotopy class has countably many elements (i.e. a counterclockwise interchange by half a turn, a counterclockwise interchange by one and a half turns, two and a half turns, etc, a clockwise interchange by half a turn, etc). In particular, a counterclockwise interchange by half a turn is NOT homotopic to a clockwise interchange by half a turn. Lastly, if M is R, then this homotopy class is empty. Obviously, if M is not isomorphic to Rd, we can have more complicated homotopy classes... What does this all mean? Let's first look at the case d 3. The universal covering space of [M × M]/{coincident points}, which is none other than [M × M]/{coincident points} itself, only has two points which are physically indistinguishable from (x, y), namely (x, y) itself and (y, x). So, the only permissible interchange is to swap both particles. Performing this interchange twice gives us (x, y) back again. If this interchange results in a multiplication by +1, then we have Bose statistics and if this interchange results in a multiplication by −1, we have Fermi statistics. Now how about R2? The universal covering space of [M × M]/{coincident points} has infinitely many points which are physically indistinguishable from (x,y). This is described by the infinite cyclic group generated by making a counterclockwise half-turn interchange. Unlike the previous case, performing this interchange twice in a row does not lead us back to the original state. So, such an interchange can generically result in a multiplication by exp(iθ) (its absolute value is 1 because of unitarity...). This is called anyonic statistics. In fact, even with two DISTINGUISHABLE particles, even though (x, y) is now physically distinguishable from (y, x), if we go over to the universal covering space, we still end up with infinitely many points which are physically indistinguishable from the original point and the interchanges are generated by a counterclockwise rotation by one full turn which results in a multiplication by exp(iφ). This phase factor here is called the mutual statistics. As for R''', even if particle I and particle II are identical, we can always distinguish between them by the labels "the particle on the left" and "the particle on the right". There is no interchange symmetry here and such particles are called plektons. The generalization to n identical particles doesn't give us anything qualitatively new because they are generated from the exchanges of two identical particles. 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2,673 | Nürburgring | The Nürburgring, simply known as "The Ring" by enthusiasts, is a motorsport race track in Nürburg, Germany. It was built in the 1920s around the village and medieval castle of Nürburg in the Eifel, which is about south of Cologne, and northwest of Frankfurt. Nicknamed The Green Hell by Jackie Stewart, it is widely considered the toughest, most dangerous and most demanding purpose-built race track in the world. Originally, the track featured four track configurations: the long Gesamtstrecke ("Whole Course"), which in turn consisted of the Nordschleife ("Northern Loop"), and the Südschleife ("Southern Loop"). There also was a warm-up loop called Zielschleife ("Finish Loop") or better known as Betonschleife, around the pit area. maps of Nürburgring configurations Between 1982 and 1983 the start-finish area was demolished to create a new GP-Strecke, and this is currently used for all major and international racing events. However, the Nordschleife is still in use. The Nürburgring also plans to build a massive Air Thrust Coaster by S&S Power in 2009. It will be called Ring°Racer and will reach speeds of nearly , making it the fastest roller coaster in the world, claiming the record from Kingda Ka. 1927–1939: "Nürburg-Ring" Detailed Nürburgring map showing both the Nordschleife and the new GP section. In the early 1920s, races called ADAC Eifelrennen were held on public roads in the Eifel mountains. This soon was considered impractical and dangerous. In order to provide work and lure tourists into the area, the construction of a dedicated race track was proposed, following the examples of Italy's Monza and Berlin's AVUS, yet with a completely different character. The layout of the circuit in the mountains was similar to the Targa Florio, one of the most important motor races at that time. The original Nürburgring was meant to be a showcase for German automotive engineering and racing talent, and was built with both purposes in mind. Construction of the track, designed by the Eichler Architekturbüro from Ravensburg (led by Architect Gustav Eichler), began in September 1925. The track was completed in spring of 1927, and the ADAC Eifelrennen races were continued there. The first World Cycling Championship race took place on 1927-06-19, and the first German Grand Prix a month later. In addition, the track was opened to the public in the evenings and at weekends, as a one-way toll road. The Gesamtstrecke consisted of 174 bends (prior to 1971 changes), and was in width on average. In 1939 the full Ring was used for the last time in major racing events, as future Grands Prix would be held only on the Nordschleife. Motorcycles and minor races mainly used the shorter and safer Südschleife. Many memorable pre-war races took place at the circuit, featuring the talents of early Ringmeister (Ringmasters) such as Rudolf Caracciola, Tazio Nuvolari and Bernd Rosemeyer. 1947–1970: The Green Hell After World War II, racing recommenced in the 1950s and the Nordschleife of the Nürburgring again became the main venue for the German Grand Prix as part of the Formula One World Championship (with the exception of 1959 when it was held on the AVUS in Berlin). A new group of Ringmeisters arose to dominate the race - Alberto Ascari, Juan Manuel Fangio, Stirling Moss, Jim Clark, John Surtees, Jackie Stewart and Jacky Ickx. Map showing the relative location of the Nürburgring. (around Nürburg, not to scale). On August 5, 1961, during practice for the 1961 German Grand Prix, Phil Hill became the first person to complete a lap of the Nordschleife in under 9 minutes, with a stunning lap of 8-minutes 55.2-seconds (153.4 km/h or 95.3 mph) in the Ferrari 156 "Sharknose" Formula 1 car. Even 40 years later, the highest performing road cars have difficulty breaking 8 minutes without a professional racing driver or one very familiarized with the track. Also, several rounds of the German motorcycle Grand Prix were held, mostly on the "Südschleife", but the Hockenheimring and Solituderennen were the main sites for Grand Prix motorcycle racing. In 1953, the ADAC 1000 km Nürburgring race was introduced, an Endurance race and Sports car racing event that counted towards the World Sportscar Championship for decades. The 24 Hours Nürburgring for touring car racing was added in 1970. By the late 1960s, the Nordschleife and many other tracks were becoming increasingly dangerous for the latest generation of F1 cars. In 1967, a chicane was added before the start/finish straight, called Hohenrain, in order to reduce speeds at the pit lane entry. In 1970, after the fatal crash of Piers Courage at Zandvoort, the F1 drivers decided at the French Grand Prix to boycott the Ring unless major changes were made, as they did at Spa the year before. The changes were not possible on short notice, and the German GP was moved to the Hockenheimring which already had been modified. 1971–1983: Changes Nürburgring circuit map, taken at German Grand Prix 1964; the legend advises "No driving in the Eifel (mountains) without a lap on the Nürburgring" According to the demands of the F1 drivers, the Nordschleife was reconstructed by taking out some bumps and installing Armco safety barriers. The track was also made straighter, following the race line, which reduced the official number of corners. The German GP could be hosted at the Ring again, for another 3 years from 1971 to 1973. Safety was improved again later on, e.g. by removing the jumps on the long main straight and widening it. A second series of 3 more F1 races were held until 1976, but even higher demands by the F1 drivers and the FIA's CSI commission were too expensive or impossible to meet. So the 1976 race was deemed the last ever, even before it was held. Primarily due to its extraordinary length of over , and the lack of space due to its situation on the sides of the mountains, the Ring was unable to meet the ever-increasing safety requirements, and was also unsuitable for the burgeoning television market. Niki Lauda, the reigning world champion and only person ever to lap the full Nordschleife in under 7 minutes (6:58.6, 1975), proposed to the other drivers that the circuit should be boycotted in 1976 because of the safety arrangements. The other drivers voted against the idea and the race went ahead. Ironically, it was Lauda who crashed in his Ferrari, probably due to failure of the rear suspension. As his car was still loaded with fuel in lap 2, he was badly burned, being saved by the combined actions of fellow drivers Arturo Merzario, Guy Edwards, Brett Lunger and Harald Ertl rather than by the ill equipped track marshals. Also, the crash proved that the distances were rather long for regular fire engines and ambulances, even though the "ONS-Staffel" was equipped with a Porsche 911 rescue car, marked (R). For Formula One, this crash marked the end of the old Nürburgring. It never hosted another F1 race again as the German Grand Prix was moved to the Hockenheimring for 1977. In 1980, the German motorcycle Grand Prix was held for the last time on the old Ring, moving also permanently to Hockenheim. A year later, in 1981, work began on a 4.5 km (2.8 miles) long new circuit which was built on and around the old pits area. At the same time, a bypass shortened the Nordschleife to 20,832 m (12.947 mi), and with an additional small pit lane, this version was used for races in 1983, e.g. the 1000km Nürburgring endurance race, while construction work was going on nearby. In training for that race, the late Stefan Bellof set the all-time lap record for the Nordschleife in his Porsche 956, which is still unbeaten at 6:11.13, or over in average - partially because no major racing has taken place there since 1984. The former Südschleife had not been modified in 1970/71 and was abandoned a few years later in favour of the improved Nordschleife. It is now mostly gone (in part due to the construction of the new circuit) or converted to a normal public road, but since 2005 a vintage car event is hosted on the old track layout, including part of the parking area. Vintage Nürburgring vintage-nuerburgring.de. Retrieved 2007-10-18. 1984: The new Grand Prix track The new Nürburgring was completed in 1984 and called GP-Strecke. It was built to meet the highest safety standards, but was considered in character a mere shadow of its older sibling. Some fans, who had to sit much further away from the track, called it Eifelring, Ersatzring, Green Party Ring or similar, believing it did not deserve to be called Nürburgring. The new circuit also had a characteristic of many of the circuits at the time, in which is consisted of few overtaking opportunities. To celebrate its opening, an exhibition race was held, on May 12th, featuring an array of notable drivers. Driving identical Mercedes 190E 2.3-16, the line-up was Jack Brabham, Phil Hill, Denis Hulme, James Hunt, Jacques Laffite, Niki Lauda, Carlos Reutemann, Keke Rosberg, Jody Scheckter, Manfred Schurti, Ayrton Senna and John Watson. Senna won ahead of Lauda, Reutemann, Rosberg, Watson, Hulme and Jody Scheckter. Besides other major international events, it has seen the brief return of Formula One to the 'Ring, as the 1984 European Grand Prix was held at the track, followed by the 1985 German Grand Prix; the only time thus far that the "new" Nürburgring has hosted its country's race. As F1 did not stay, other events were the highlights at new the Ring, 1000km Nürburgring, DTM, motorcycles, and rather new type of events, like Truck Racing, Vintage car racing at the AvD "Oldtimer Grand Prix", and even the "Rock am Ring" concerts. Following the success and first world championship of Michael Schumacher, a second German F1 race was held at the Ring between 1995 and 2006, called the European Grand Prix or, in 1997 and 1998, the Luxembourg Grand Prix. For 2002, the track was changed, by replacing the former "Castrol-chicane" at the end of the start/finish straight by a sharp right-hander (nicknamed "Haug-Hook"), in order to create an overtaking opportunity. Also, a slow Omega-shaped section was inserted, on the site of the former kart track. This extended the GP track from , while at the same time, the Hockenheimring was shortened from . In recent years, both the Ring and the Hockenheimring events have been losing money due to high and rising license fees charged by Bernie Ecclestone and low attendance due to high ticket prices; starting with the 2007 Formula 1 season, Hockenheim and Nürburgring will alternate for hosting of the German GP. The Ring has, however, kept its association with the tragic. Despite the high standards, a few single-seater drivers were paralysed or killed in freak accidents. In F1, Ralf Schumacher hit his brother in 1997, which may have cost Michael the championship. In 1999, in changing conditions, Johnny Herbert managed to score the only win for the team of former Ringmeister Jackie Stewart. One of the highlights of the 2005 season was Kimi Räikkönen's spectacular exit, while in the last lap of the race, when his suspension gave way after being rattled lap after lap by a flat-spotted tire that was not changed due to the short lived "one set of tires" rule. Prior to the 2007 European Grand Prix, the Audi S (bends 8 and 9) was renamed Schumacher S after Michael Schumacher. Notable fatal accidents 1928: Čeněk Junek, first fatal racing accident 1950: Theodor Weissenberger German WWII Fighter Ace 1954: Onofre Marimón, first F1 driver to have a fatal accident at the Ring 1958: Peter Collins, F1 1964: Carel Godin de Beaufort, F1 1966: John Taylor, F1 1969: Gerhard Mitter, F2 1981: Herbert Müller, sportscar While it is unusual for deaths to occur during sanctioned races, there are several fatalities and many accidents each year during public sessions. It is not unusual for the track to be closed several times a day for cleanup, repair, and medical intervention. The track management does not publish any official figures, but regular visitors to the track have used police reports to estimate the number of fatalities at somewhere between 3-12 in a full year. Nordschleife racing today Several touring car series are still competing on the Nordschleife, using either only the simple version with its separate small pit lane, or a combined long track that uses a part of the modern F1 track plus its huge pit facilities. Entry level of competition is a regularity test (GLP) for road legal cars. Two racing series (RCN/CHC and VLN) compete on 15 Saturdays each year, for several hours. The annual highlight is the 24 Hours Nürburgring weekend, held usually in mid-June, featuring 220 cars (from small cars to Turbo Porsches or factory race cars built by BMW, Opel, Audi, Mercedes-Benz), over 700 drivers (amateurs and professionals) and up to 290,000 spectators. Several automotive media outlets and manufacturers use the Nordschleife as a standard to publish their lap times achieved with production vehicles. BMW Sauber’s Nick Heidfeld made history on 28 April 2007 as the first driver in over 30 years to tackle the Nürburgring Nordschleife track in a contemporary Formula One car. Heidfeld’s 3 demonstration laps round the German circuit in an F1.06 were the highlight of festivities celebrating BMW’s contribution to motorsport. About 45,000 spectators showed up for the main event, the 3rd 4 hour VLN race of the season, and the subsequent show by Heidfeld. Conceived largely as a photo opportunity, the lap times were not as low as the car was capable of, BMW instead choosing to run the chassis at a particularly high ride height to allow for the Nordschleife's abrupt gradient changes and limit maximum speeds accordingly. Former F1 driver Hans-Joachim Stuck was injured during the VLN race when he crashed his BMW Z4. Nordschleife public access Nordschleife is often open to the public. 3 Caterhams seen here entering Brünnchen, a favourite spectator vantage point. Porsche GT3 RS approaching Adenauer Forst, a blind chicane on the Nordschleife that catches-out many of the unwary. The Nordschleife has remained a one-way, public toll-road for nearly 80 years except when it is closed off for testing purposes, training lessons or racing events. Since its opening in 1927, the track has been used by the public for the so-called "Touristenfahrten", i.e. to anyone with a road legal car or motorcycle, as well as tour buses, motor homes or cars with trailers. It is opened mainly on Sundays, but also on many Saturdays and weekday evenings. During the winter months, depending on weather conditions and maintenance work, the track may be closed for weeks. During Touristenfahrten sessions, German road law (StVO) applies despite a common misconception assuming it is derestricted like in races. There is no general speed limit, however speed limits exist in certain areas in order to reduce noise and risks. As on public roads, passing on the right is prohibited, and the police take an extremely dim view of poor driving as they prosecute offenders with the aid of helicopters. The cost for driving a single lap of the Nordschleife is €22 for each car or motorcycle. Multi-lap tickets can be purchased for a lower per-lap price, such as 4 laps at a cost of €75 (€19 per lap). Additional multi-lap prices are 8 laps for €145, 15 laps for €250, or 25 laps for €390. An annual ticket with unlimited laps, valid from January to December, can be purchased for €1075. All prices are current for the 2009 calendar year, and include VAT. This Nürburgring version is a popular attraction for many driving and riding enthusiasts from all over the world, partly because of its history and the considerable challenge it still provides. The lack of oncoming traffic and intersections sets it apart from regular roads, and the absence of a blanket speed limit makes it an additional attraction mainly for foreigners. Normal ticket buyers on these tourist days cannot quite complete a full lap of the 20.8 km (13 mile) Nordschleife, which is bypassing the modern GP-Strecke, as they are required to slow down and pass through a "pit lane" section where the toll gates are installed. Since 2006, season ticket holders only can pass mobile toll gates on the track itself, in order to reduce the length of queues at the fixed barriers. Another expensive mistake results in a ride on the recovery truckDrivers interested in lap times (a dangerous thing to worry about, as running stop watches are frequently found in crashed vehicles) often time themselves from the first bridge after the barriers to the last gantry before the exit. In the event of an accident, the local police are known to make note of any timing devices present (stopwatches, etc.) in the police report. Consequently, the driver's insurance coverage may be voided leaving the driver fully liable for any and all damage. Normal, non-racing, non-timed driving accidents should be covered by driver's insurance, but it is increasingly common for UK insurers especially to put in exclusion clauses that mean drivers and riders have third-party cover only. Accidents are common, though, and those considering driving around the Nordschleife should read the rules that apply, as well as the "dos" and "don'ts". The 'ring has caught many people out. There is very little run-off and the armco barrier will be hit at almost any speed, should a vehicle leave the tarmac. Drivers who do crash have a responsibility of warning following vehicles that there has been an incident. They should not try to continue driving as spilled fluids are a hazard to others, especially bikes, and it might be regarded as an attempt to escape the hefty bill for an armco repair. The 'Ring, although being to all intents and purposes a race track when used for racing, still remains a public road when opened to the public, and it is policed as such. Anyone caught or reported as driving dangerously can be fined or banned by the authorities. The costs can also be prohibitive with vehicle recovery, track closure penalties and armco repairs putting some unfortunates up to €15,000 out-of-pocket. New for 2008 sees the possible TÜV testing of vehicles for which on-track complaints have been received by the authorities. This is only likely to be an issue for heavily modified vehicles, but German TÜV testing is far more rigorous than the UK MOT test. Vehicles which fail these on-the-spot inspections risk being banned from the circuit. Commercial aspects One of the original purposes of the Nordschleife was as a test track for auto manufacturers, and its demanding layout had been traditionally used as a proving ground, mainly by BMW and Porsche. Weekdays are often booked for socalled Industriefahrten for auto makers and the media. With the advent of the internet, awareness of the Nordschleife has risen in Germany and abroad, also in print media. In 1999, Porsche reported that their new GT3 had lapped the Ring in under 8 minutes, and in subsequent years, also manufacturers from overseas showed up to test cars. Some high performance models are promoted with videotaped laps published on the web, and the claimed lap times are generating discussions. Few of these supercars are actually entered in racing where the claims could be backed up. The TV Series Top Gear have also used the Nordschleife for their challenges, often involving Sabine Schmitz. Also, other pastimes are hosted at the Ring, like since 1985 the "Rock am Ring", Germany's biggest Rock Festival, attracting close to 100,000 rock fans each year. In 2009, new commercial areas including a shopping mall and a rollercoaster will be opened. In Computer Games Following contemporary Formula 1 simulations depicting the GP track, in 1998 the racing simulation Grand Prix Legends featured the Green Hell and the 1967 Formula One season. Games for consoles followed: Dreamcast: Ferrari F355 Challenge PlayStation 2: Gran Turismo 4, Enthusia Professional Racing, Tourist Trophy, TOCA Race Driver 3 PlayStation 3: Gran Turismo 5, Race Driver: GRID, Ferrari Challenge Xbox: Project Gotham Racing 2, Forza Motorsport Xbox 360: Project Gotham Racing 3, Project Gotham Racing 4, Race Driver: GRID, Forza Motorsport 2 PC: Race Driver: GRID, VDrift, Grand Prix Legends, GTR Evolution, GTR2 - Modded by GTR4u.de, rFactor - several versions, BMW M3 Challenge, the first modded by Com8/Ghengis99 and the second modded by raceking/gringosan Nordschleife Map Locations of note Flugplatz ("the airfield") The Nordschleife was formerly known for its abundance of sharp crests, causing fast moving, firmly sprung racing cars to jump clear off the track surface at many locations. Although by no means the most fearsome, Flugplatz is perhaps the most aptly (although coincidentally) named and widely remembered. The name of this part of the track comes from a small airfield, which was located in the early years close to the track in this area. Chris Irwin's career was ended following a massive accident at Flugplatz, in a Ford 3L GT sports car. Bergwerk ("the mine") Perhaps the most notorious corner on the long circuit, Bergwerk has been responsible for more than its fair share of serious and fatal accidents. A tight righthand corner, coming just after a long, fast section and a lefthand kink on a small crest, where Carel Godin de Beaufort fatally crashed. The fast kink was also the scene of Niki Lauda's infamous fiery accident during the 1976 German Grand Prix. Caracciola Karussell ("the carousel") Although being one of the slower corners on the Nordschleife, Karussell is perhaps its most iconic. One of two berm-style, banked corners, the entrance to the corner is blind, although Juan Manuel Fangio is reputed to have advised a young driver to "aim for the tallest tree"; a feature that was also built into the rendering of the circuit in the Gran Turismo 4 video game as well as Grand Prix Legends. The combination of a recognisable corner, slow moving cars, and the variation in viewing angle as cars rotate around the banking mean that this is one of the circuit's most popular locations for photographers. Named for Rudolf Caracciola who reportedly made the corner his own by hooking the inside tyres into a drainage ditch. As more concrete was uncovered and more competitors copied him, the trend took hold. At a later reconstruction the corner was remade with real concrete banking, as it remains to this day. See also Tower of the Nürburg castle 1000 km Nürburgring 24 Hours Nürburgring List of Formula One circuits List of Nordschleife lap times (racing) Nürburgring lap times List of Nordschleife lap times (sport auto) References External links Official English website Database of sportscar laptimes Satellite image by Google Maps with old layout highlighted The Uk's #1 Nurburgring Tour Nurburgring Accommodation & RaceCar Rental German Red Cross at Nürburgring | Rescue and Medical (german) Audio walkthrough of the GP track, for use with games | Nürburgring |@lemmatized nürburgring:26 simply:1 know:4 ring:21 enthusiast:2 motorsport:4 race:48 track:37 nürburg:5 germany:3 build:8 around:6 village:1 medieval:1 castle:2 eifel:3 south:1 cologne:1 northwest:1 frankfurt:1 nickname:1 green:4 hell:3 jackie:3 stewart:3 widely:2 consider:4 tough:1 dangerous:4 demand:3 purpose:5 world:9 originally:1 feature:6 four:1 configuration:2 long:7 gesamtstrecke:2 whole:1 course:1 turn:1 consist:3 nordschleife:32 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2,674 | Economy_of_Nepal | An isolated, agrarian society until the mid-20th century, Nepal entered the modern era in 1951 without schools, hospitals, roads, telecommunications, electric power, industry, or civil service. The country has, however, made progress toward sustainable economic growth since the 1950s and is committed to a program of economic liberalization. Nepal has used a series of five-year plans in an attempt to make progress in economic development. It completed its ninth economic development plan in 2002; its currency has been made convertible, and 17 state enterprises have been privatized. Foreign aid accounts for more than half of the development budget. Government priorities over the years have been the development of transportation and communication facilities, agriculture, and industry. Since 1975, improved government administration and rural development efforts have been emphasized. Agriculture remains Nepal's principal economic activity, employing 80% of the population and providing 37% of GDP. Only about 20% of the total area is cultivable; another 33% is forested; most of the rest is mountainous. Rice and wheat are the main food crops. The lowland Terai region produces an agricultural surplus, part of which supplies the food-deficient hill areas. Economic development in social services and infrastructure has made progress. A countrywide primary education system is under development, and Tribhuvan University has several campuses. Although eradication efforts continue, malaria had been controlled in the fertile but previously uninhabitable Terai region in the south. Kathmandu is linked to India and nearby hill regions by road and an expanding highway network. The capital was almost out of fuel and transport of supplies caused by a crippling general strike in southern Nepal on February 17 2008. Kathmandu nearly out of fuel, Nepal says. CNN. 2008-02-17. Retrieved 2008-04-13. Major towns are connected to the capital by telephone and domestic air services. The export-oriented carpet and garment industries have grown rapidly in recent years and together now account for approximately 70% of merchandise exports. Nepal was at number 92 of 119 countries on Global Hunger Index in 2007, between Pakistan and India. Imports/Exports Nepal's merchandise trade balance has improved somewhat since 2000 with the growth of the carpet and garment industries. In FY 2000-01 exports posted a greater increase (14%) than imports (4.5%), helping bring the trade deficit down by 4% from the previous year to $749 million. Trade with India rose rapidly after conclusion of the 1996 bilateral trade treaty between the two countries, and now accounts for 43% of all exports. Indian efforts to revise the treaty, which comes up for a 5-year review in December 2001, could dampen Nepal's export growth. The annual monsoon rain, or lack of it, strongly influences economic growth. From 1996 to 1999, real GDP growth averaged less than 4%. The growth rate recovered in 1999, rising to 6% before slipping slightly in 2001 to 5.5%. Strong export performance, including earnings from tourism, and external aid have helped improve the overall balance-of-payments situation and increase international reserves. Nepal receives substantial amounts of external assistance from India, the People's Republic of China, the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, Germany, and the Scandinavian countries. Several multilateral organizations, such as the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the UN Development Programme also provide assistance. In June 1998, Nepal submitted its memorandum on a foreign trade regime to the World Trade Organization and in May 2000 began direct negotiations on its accession. Resources Progress has been made in exploiting Nepal's ic resources, tourism and hydroelectricity. With eight of the world's 10 highest mountain peaks, including Mount Everest at 8,850 m ( In the early 1990s, one large public sector project and a number of private projects were planned; some have been completed. The most significant private sector financed hydroelectric projects currently in operation are the Khimti Khola (60 MW) and the Bhote Koshi Project (36 MW). The environmental impact of Nepal's hydroelectric projects has been limited by the fact that most are "run-of-river" with only one storage project undertaken to date. The largest under active consideration is the private sector West Seti (750 MW) storage project which is dedicated to exports. Negotiations with India for a power purchase agreement have been underway for several years, but agreement on pricing and capital financing remains a problem. Currently demand for electricity is increasing at 8%-10% a year. Population pressure on natural resources is increasing. Over-population is already straining the "carrying capacity" of the middle hill areas, particularly the Kathmandu Valley, resulting in the depletion of forest cover for crops, fuel, and fodder and contributing to erosion and flooding. Although steep mountain terrain makes exploitation difficult, mineral surveys have found small deposits of limestone, magnesite, zinc, copper, iron, mica, lead, and cobalt. Nepal is the largest mustard market in Asia. Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Nepal at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund and EconStats with figures in millions of Nepalese Rupees. Year Gross Domestic Product 1960 3,870 1965 5,602 1970 8,768 1975 16,571 1980 23,350 1985 46,586 1990 103,415 1995 219,174 2000 379,488 Statistics GDP: purchasing power parity - $38.29 billion (2003 est.) GDP - real growth rate: 3% (2003 est.) GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,400 (2003 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 40% industry: 20% services: 40% (2002 est.) Population below poverty line: 42% (1995-96 est.) Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 3.2% highest 10%: 29.8% (1995-96) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.9% (2002 est.) Labour force: 10 million (1996 est.) note: severe lack of skilled labour Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 81%, services 16%, industry 3% Unemployment rate: 47% (2001 est.) Budget: revenues: $665 million expenditures: $1.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY 99/00 est.) Industries: tourism, carpet, textile; small rice, jute, sugar, and oilseed mills; cigarette; cement and brick production Industrial production growth rate: 8.7% (FY 99/00) Electricity - production: 1,755 GWh (2001) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 8.5% hydro: 91.5% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (2001) Electricity - consumption: 1,764 GWh (2001) Electricity - exports: 95 GWh (2001) Electricity - imports: 227 GWh (2001) Oil - production: 0 barrel/day (2001 est.) Oil - consumption: 16,000 barrel/day (2,500 m³/d) 2001 Agriculture - products: rice, maize, wheat, sugarcane, root crops; milk, domestic buffalo meat Exports: $568 million f.o.b., but does not include unrecorded border trade with India (2002 est.) Exports - commodities: carpets, clothing, leather goods, jute goods, grain Exports - partners: India 50.5%, US 26%, Germany 6.6% (2003 est.) Imports: $1.419 billion f.o.b. (2002 est.) Imports - commodities: gold, machinery and equipment, petroleum products, fertilizer Imports - partners: India 22.9%, China 13.5%, UAE 12.6%, Singapore 7.1%, Saudi Arabia 5.5%, Kuwait 4.6%, (2003 est.) Debt - external: $2.7 billion (2001) Economic aid - recipient: $424 million (FY 00/01) Currency: 1 Nepalese rupee (NPR) = 100 paisa Exchange rates: Nepalese rupees (NPR) per USD$1 – 64.20 (2007), 78.88 (2002), 74.95 (2001), 68.253 (1999), 65.976 (1998), 58.010 (1997), 56.692 (1996), 51.890 (1995) F year: 16 July - 15 July References External links Global Economic Prospects: Growth Prospects for South Asia The World Bank, December 13, 2006 | Economy_of_Nepal |@lemmatized isolated:1 agrarian:1 society:1 mid:1 century:1 nepal:14 enter:1 modern:1 era:1 without:1 school:1 hospital:1 road:2 telecommunication:1 electric:1 power:4 industry:7 civil:1 service:5 country:4 however:1 make:6 progress:4 toward:1 sustainable:1 economic:10 growth:9 since:3 commit:1 program:1 liberalization:1 use:1 series:1 five:1 year:9 plan:3 attempt:1 development:9 complete:2 ninth:1 currency:2 convertible:1 state:2 enterprise:1 privatize:1 foreign:2 aid:3 account:3 half:1 budget:2 government:2 priority:1 transportation:1 communication:1 facility:1 agriculture:5 improve:3 administration:1 rural:1 effort:3 emphasize:1 remain:2 principal:1 activity:1 employ:1 population:4 provide:2 gdp:6 total:1 area:3 cultivable:1 another:1 forest:2 rest:1 mountainous:1 rice:3 wheat:2 main:1 food:2 crop:3 lowland:1 terai:2 region:3 produce:1 agricultural:1 surplus:1 part:1 supply:2 deficient:1 hill:3 social:1 infrastructure:1 countrywide:1 primary:1 education:1 system:1 tribhuvan:1 university:1 several:3 campus:1 although:2 eradication:1 continue:1 malaria:1 control:1 fertile:1 previously:1 uninhabitable:1 south:2 kathmandu:3 link:2 india:8 nearby:1 expand:1 highway:1 network:1 capital:4 almost:1 fuel:4 transport:1 cause:1 crippling:1 general:1 strike:1 southern:1 february:1 nearly:1 say:1 cnn:1 retrieve:1 major:1 town:1 connect:1 telephone:1 domestic:4 air:1 export:12 orient:1 carpet:4 garment:2 grow:1 rapidly:2 recent:1 together:1 approximately:1 merchandise:2 number:2 global:2 hunger:1 index:1 pakistan:1 import:6 trade:7 balance:2 somewhat:1 fy:4 post:1 great:1 increase:4 help:2 bring:1 deficit:1 previous:1 million:6 rise:2 conclusion:1 bilateral:1 treaty:2 two:1 indian:1 revise:1 come:1 review:1 december:2 could:1 dampen:1 annual:1 monsoon:1 rain:1 lack:2 strongly:1 influence:1 real:2 average:1 less:1 rate:6 recover:1 slip:1 slightly:1 strong:1 performance:1 include:4 earnings:1 tourism:3 external:4 overall:1 payment:1 situation:1 international:2 reserve:1 receive:1 substantial:1 amount:1 assistance:2 people:1 republic:1 china:2 united:2 kingdom:1 japan:1 germany:2 scandinavian:1 multilateral:1 organization:2 world:4 bank:3 asian:1 un:1 programme:1 also:1 june:1 submit:1 memorandum:1 regime:1 may:1 begin:1 direct:1 negotiation:2 accession:1 resource:3 exploit:1 ic:1 hydroelectricity:1 eight:1 high:2 mountain:2 peak:1 mount:1 everest:1 early:1 one:2 large:3 public:1 sector:4 project:7 private:3 significant:1 finance:1 hydroelectric:2 currently:2 operation:1 khimti:1 khola:1 mw:3 bhote:1 koshi:1 environmental:1 impact:1 limit:1 fact:1 run:1 river:1 storage:2 undertake:1 date:1 active:1 consideration:1 west:1 seti:1 dedicate:1 purchase:1 agreement:2 underway:1 pricing:1 financing:1 problem:1 demand:1 electricity:6 pressure:1 natural:1 already:1 strain:1 carry:1 capacity:1 middle:1 particularly:1 valley:1 result:1 depletion:1 cover:1 fodder:1 contribute:1 erosion:1 flooding:1 steep:1 terrain:1 exploitation:1 difficult:1 mineral:1 survey:1 find:1 small:2 deposit:1 limestone:1 magnesite:1 zinc:1 copper:1 iron:1 mica:1 lead:1 cobalt:1 mustard:1 market:2 asia:2 macro:1 trend:2 chart:1 gross:2 product:4 price:2 estimate:1 monetary:1 fund:1 econstats:1 figure:1 nepalese:3 rupee:3 statistic:1 purchasing:2 parity:2 billion:4 est:14 per:2 caput:1 composition:1 poverty:1 line:1 household:1 income:1 consumption:3 percentage:1 share:1 low:1 inflation:1 consumer:1 labour:2 force:2 note:1 severe:1 skilled:1 labor:1 occupation:1 unemployment:1 revenue:1 expenditure:2 na:1 textile:1 jute:2 sugar:1 oilseed:1 mill:1 cigarette:1 cement:1 brick:1 production:5 industrial:1 gwh:4 source:1 fossil:1 hydro:1 nuclear:1 oil:2 barrel:2 day:2 maize:1 sugarcane:1 root:1 milk:1 buffalo:1 meat:1 f:3 b:2 unrecorded:1 border:1 commodity:2 clothing:1 leather:1 good:2 grain:1 partner:2 u:1 gold:1 machinery:1 equipment:1 petroleum:1 fertilizer:1 uae:1 singapore:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 kuwait:1 debt:1 recipient:1 npr:2 paisa:1 exchange:1 usd:1 july:2 reference:1 prospect:2 |@bigram enterprise_privatize:1 monsoon_rain:1 balance_payment:1 mount_everest:1 kathmandu_valley:1 zinc_copper:1 gross_domestic:2 monetary_fund:1 gdp_purchasing:1 purchasing_power:2 per_caput:1 caput_purchasing:1 household_income:1 unemployment_rate:1 expenditure_na:1 production_gwh:1 gwh_electricity:3 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 consumption_gwh:1 export_gwh:1 import_gwh:1 rice_maize:1 maize_wheat:1 export_commodity:1 saudi_arabia:1 arabia_kuwait:1 external_link:1 |
2,675 | Agrarianism | Agrarianism is a social and political philosophy which stresses the viewpoint that a rural or semi-rural lifestyle, most especially agricultural pursuits such as farming or ranching, leads to a fuller, happier, cleaner, and more sustainable way of life for both individuals and society as a whole. Philosophy In the introduction to his 1969 book Agrarianism in American Literature, M. Thomas Inge defines agrarianism by the following basic tenets: Cultivation of the soil provides direct contact with nature; through the contact with nature the agrarian is acquires the virtues of "honor, manliness, self-reliance, courage, moral integrity, and hospitality" and follows the example of God when creating order out of chaos. The farmer "has a sense of identity, a sense of historical and religious tradition, a feeling of belonging to a concrete family, place, and region, which are psychologically and culturally beneficial." The harmony of this life checks the encroachments of a fragmented, alienated modern society which has grown to inhuman scale. In contrast, farming offers total independence and self-sufficiency. It has a solid, stable position in the world order. But urban life, capitalism, and technology destroy our independence and dignity while fostering vice and weakness within us. The agricultural community can provide checks and balances against the imbalances of modern society by its fellowship of labor and cooperation with other agrarians, while obeying the rhythms of nature. History In the 1910s and 1920s, agrarianism garnered significant popular attention, but was eclipsed in the postwar period. It has been revived somewhat in conjunction with the environmental movement, and has been drawing an increasing number of adherents. In 1930 the Southern Agrarians wrote in the "Introduction: A Statement of Principles" to their book I'll Take My Stand: The South and the Agrarian Tradition: "All the articles bear in the same sense upon the book's title-subject: all tend to support a Southern way of life against what may be called the American or prevailing way; and all as much as agree that the best terms in which to represent the distinction are contained in the phrase, Agrarian versus Industrial. ... Opposed to the industrial society is the agrarian, which does not stand in particular need of definition. An agrarian society is hardly one that has no use at all for industries, for professional vocations, for scholars and artists, and for the life of cities. Technically, perhaps, an agrarian society is one in which agriculture is the leading vocation, whether for wealth, for pleasure, or for prestige-a form of labor that is pursued with intelligence and leisure, and that becomes the model to which the other forms approach as well as they may. But an agrarian regime will be secured readily enough where the superfluous industries are not allowed to rise against it. The theory of agrarianism is that the culture of the soil is the best and most sensitive of vocations, and that therefore it should have the economic preference and enlist the maximum number of workers." I'll Take My Stand, Introduction: A Statement Of Principles, Southern Agrarians Recent agrarian thinkers are sometimes referred to as neo-Agrarian and include the likes of Wendell Berry and Gene Logsdon. They are characterized by seeing the world through an agricultural lens. Although much of Inge's principles, above, still apply to the New Agrarianism, the affiliation with a particular religion and patriarchal tendency have subsided to some degree. Similar social movements Agrarianism is not identical with the back-to-the-land movement, but it can be helpful to think of it in those terms. The agrarian philosophy is not to get people to reject progress, but rather to concentrate on the fundamental goods of the earth, communities of more limited economic and political scale than in modern society, and on simple living--even when this shift involves questioning the "progressive" character of some recent social and economic developments. Thus agrarianism is not industrial farming, with its specialization on products and industrial scale. Famous agrarians The name "agrarian" is properly applied to figures from Horace and Virgil, Pytor Stolypin and Thomas Jefferson, Transcendentalists like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, the Southern Agrarians of the 1920s and 1930s (also known as the Vanderbilt Agrarians) and present-day authors Wendell Berry, Gene Logsdon, Allan C. Carlson, and Victor Davis Hanson. The leader of the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union, Aleksandar Stamboliyski, is the only president of an Agrarian Party to have been the prime minister of a one-party agrarian government, from 1920-1923. Agrarian parties See also Agrarian socialism Agrarian society Agrarian system Physiocrats The Amish, Mennonites, and Hutterites International Agrarian Bureau Localism (politics) Nordic agrarian parties Permaculture References External links "Agrarianism" in American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia "Agrarian Valhalla: The Vanderbilt 12 and Beyond" by Joseph Scotchie, Southern Events Writings of a Deliberate Agrarian Biblical Agrarianism The New Agrarian The Agrarian Foundation Agraripedia Article from Chronicle | Agrarianism |@lemmatized agrarianism:10 social:3 political:2 philosophy:3 stress:1 viewpoint:1 rural:2 semi:1 lifestyle:1 especially:1 agricultural:3 pursuit:1 farming:2 ranching:1 lead:2 fuller:1 happy:1 clean:1 sustainable:1 way:3 life:5 individual:1 society:8 whole:1 introduction:3 book:3 american:3 literature:1 thomas:2 inge:2 defines:1 following:1 basic:1 tenet:1 cultivation:1 soil:2 provide:2 direct:1 contact:2 nature:3 agrarian:24 acquire:1 virtue:1 honor:1 manliness:1 self:2 reliance:1 courage:1 moral:1 integrity:1 hospitality:1 follow:1 example:1 god:1 create:1 order:2 chaos:1 farmer:1 sense:3 identity:1 historical:1 religious:1 tradition:2 feeling:1 belong:1 concrete:1 family:1 place:1 region:1 psychologically:1 culturally:1 beneficial:1 harmony:1 check:2 encroachment:1 fragmented:1 alienated:1 modern:3 grow:1 inhuman:1 scale:3 contrast:1 farm:1 offer:1 total:1 independence:2 sufficiency:1 solid:1 stable:1 position:1 world:2 urban:1 capitalism:1 technology:1 destroy:1 dignity:1 foster:1 vice:1 weakness:1 within:1 u:1 community:2 balance:1 imbalance:1 fellowship:1 labor:2 cooperation:1 agrarians:6 obey:1 rhythm:1 history:1 garner:1 significant:1 popular:1 attention:1 eclipse:1 postwar:1 period:1 revive:1 somewhat:1 conjunction:1 environmental:1 movement:3 draw:1 increase:1 number:2 adherent:1 southern:5 write:1 statement:2 principle:3 take:2 stand:3 south:1 article:2 bear:1 upon:1 title:1 subject:1 tend:1 support:1 may:2 call:1 prevailing:1 much:2 agree:1 best:2 term:2 represent:1 distinction:1 contain:1 phrase:1 versus:1 industrial:4 oppose:1 particular:2 need:1 definition:1 hardly:1 one:3 use:1 industry:2 professional:1 vocation:3 scholar:1 artist:1 city:1 technically:1 perhaps:1 agriculture:1 whether:1 wealth:1 pleasure:1 prestige:1 form:2 pursue:1 intelligence:1 leisure:1 become:1 model:1 approach:1 well:1 regime:1 secure:1 readily:1 enough:1 superfluous:1 allow:1 rise:1 theory:1 culture:1 sensitive:1 therefore:1 economic:3 preference:1 enlist:1 maximum:1 worker:1 recent:2 thinker:1 sometimes:1 refer:1 neo:1 include:1 like:2 wendell:2 berry:2 gene:2 logsdon:2 characterize:1 see:2 lens:1 although:1 still:1 apply:2 new:2 affiliation:1 religion:1 patriarchal:1 tendency:1 subside:1 degree:1 similar:1 identical:1 back:1 land:1 helpful:1 think:1 get:1 people:1 reject:1 progress:1 rather:1 concentrate:1 fundamental:1 good:1 earth:1 limited:1 simple:1 living:1 even:1 shift:1 involve:1 question:1 progressive:1 character:1 development:1 thus:1 specialization:1 product:1 famous:1 name:1 properly:1 figure:1 horace:1 virgil:1 pytor:1 stolypin:1 jefferson:1 transcendentalist:1 ralph:1 waldo:1 emerson:1 henry:1 david:1 thoreau:1 also:2 know:1 vanderbilt:2 present:1 day:1 author:1 allan:1 c:1 carlson:1 victor:1 davis:1 hanson:1 leader:1 bulgarian:1 national:1 union:1 aleksandar:1 stamboliyski:1 president:1 party:4 prime:1 minister:1 government:1 socialism:1 system:1 physiocrats:1 amish:1 mennonite:1 hutterites:1 international:1 bureau:1 localism:1 politics:1 nordic:1 permaculture:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 conservatism:1 encyclopedia:1 valhalla:1 beyond:1 joseph:1 scotchie:1 event:1 writing:1 deliberate:1 biblical:1 foundation:1 agraripedia:1 chronicle:1 |@bigram farming_ranching:1 self_sufficiency:1 thomas_jefferson:1 ralph_waldo:1 waldo_emerson:1 david_thoreau:1 davis_hanson:1 prime_minister:1 amish_mennonite:1 external_link:1 |
2,676 | Anton_Chekhov | Anton Pavlovich Chekhov ( – ) (, ) was a Russian short-story writer, playwright and physician, considered to be one of the greatest short-story writers in world literature. His career as a dramatist produced four classics and his best short stories are held in high esteem by writers and critics. "Greatest short story writer who ever lived." Raymond Carver (in Rosamund Bartlett’s introduction to About Love and Other Stories, XX); "Quite probably the best short-story writer ever." A Chekhov Lexicon, by William Boyd, The Guardian, 3 July 2004. Retrieved 16 February 2007. "Stories… which are among the supreme achievements in prose narrative." Vodka miniatures, belching and angry cats, George Steiner's review of The Undiscovered Chekhov, in The Observer, 13 May 2001. Retrieved 16 February 2007. Chekhov practised as a doctor throughout most of his literary career: "Medicine is my lawful wife," he once said, "and literature is my mistress." Letter to Alexei Suvorin, 11 September 1888. Letters of Anton Chekhov. Chekhov renounced the theatre after the disastrous reception of The Seagull in 1896; but the play was revived to acclaim in 1898 by Constantin Stanislavski's Moscow Art Theatre, which subsequently also produced Uncle Vanya and premiered Chekhov’s last two plays, Three Sisters and The Cherry Orchard. These four works present a special challenge to the acting ensemble "Actors climb up Chekhov like a mountain, roped together, sharing the glory if they ever make it to the summit". Actor Ian McKellen, quoted in Miles, 9. as well as to audiences, because in place of conventional action Chekhov offers a "theatre of mood" and a "submerged life in the text." "Chekhov's art demands a theatre of mood." Vsevolod Meyerhold, quoted in Allen, 13; "A richer submerged life in the text is characteristic of a more profound drama of realism, one which depends less on the externals of presentation." Styan, 84. Chekhov had at first written stories only for the money, but as his artistic ambition grew, he made formal innovations which have influenced the evolution of the modern short story. "Chekhov is said to be the father of the modern short story". Malcolm, 87; "He brought something new into literature." James Joyce, in Arthur Power, Conversations with James Joyce, Usborne Publishing Ltd, 1974, ISBN 978-0-86000-006-8, 57; "Tchehov's breach with the classical tradition is the most significant event in modern literature", John Middleton Murry, in Athenaeum, 8 April 1922, cited in Bartlett's introduction to About Love, XX. His originality consists in an early use of the stream-of-consciousness technique, later adopted by James Joyce and other modernists, combined with a disavowal of the moral finality of traditional story structure. "This use of stream-of-consciousness would, in later years, become the basis of Chekhov's innovation in stagecraft; it is also his innovation in fiction." Wood, 81; "The artist must not be the judge of his characters and of their conversations, but merely an impartial witness." Letter to Suvorin, 30 May 1888; In reply to an objection that he wrote about horse-thieves (The Horse-Stealers, retrieved 16 February 2007) without condemning them, Chekhov said readers should add for themselves the subjective elements lacking in the story. Letter to Suvorin, 1 April 1890. Letters of Anton Chekhov. He made no apologies for the difficulties this posed to readers, insisting that the role of an artist was to ask questions, not to answer them. "You are right in demanding that an artist should take an intelligent attitude to his work, but you confuse two things: solving a problem and stating a problem correctly. It is only the second that is obligatory for the artist." Letter to Suvorin, 27 October, 1888. Letters of Anton Chekhov. Life Early life The house in Taganrog, Russia, where Chekhov was born Anton Chekhov was born on 29 January 1860, the third of six surviving children, in Taganrog, a port on the Sea of Azov in southern Russia where his father, Pavel Yegorovich Chekhov, the son of a former serf, ran a grocery store. A director of the parish choir, devout Orthodox Christian, and physically abusive father, Pavel Chekhov has been seen by some historians as the model for his son's many portraits of hypocrisy. Wood, 78. Chekhov's mother, Yevgeniya, was an excellent storyteller who entertained the children with tales of her travels with her cloth-merchant father all over Russia. Payne, XVII. Simmons, 18. "Our talents we got from our father," Chekhov remembered, "but our soul from our mother." From the biographical sketch, adapted from a memoir by Chekhov's brother Mihail, which prefaces Constance Garnett's translation of Chekhov's letters, 1920. In adulthood, Chekhov was to criticise his brother Alexander's treatment of his wife and children by reminding him of Pavel’s tyranny: The Assumption Cathedral in Taganrog, Russia, where Anton Chekhov was christened on 10 February 1860 Chekhov attended a school for Greek boys, followed by the Taganrog gymnasium, now renamed the Chekhov Gymnasium, where he was kept down for a year at fifteen for failing a Greek exam. Bartlett, 4–5. He sang at the Greek Orthodox monastery in Taganrog and in his father's choirs. In a letter of 1892, he used the word "suffering" to describe his childhood and recalled: In 1876, Chekhov's father was declared bankrupt after over-extending his finances building a new house, He had been cheated by a contractor called Mironov. Rayfield, 31. and to avoid the debtor's prison fled to Moscow, where his two eldest sons, Alexander and Nikolai, were attending the university. The family lived in poverty in Moscow, Chekhov's mother physically and emotionally broken. Letter to cousin Mihail, 10 May 1877. Letters of Anton Chekhov. Chekhov was left behind to sell the family possessions and finish his education. The Taganrog Boys Gymnasium in the late 19th century Chekhov remained in Taganrog for three more years, boarding with a man called Selivanov who, like Lopakhin in The Cherry Orchard, had bailed out the family for the price of their house. Malcolm, 25. Chekhov had to pay for his own education, which he managed by—among other jobs—private tutoring, catching and selling goldfinches, and selling short sketches to the newspapers. Payne, XX. He sent every ruble he could spare to Moscow, along with humorous letters to cheer up the family. During this time he read widely and analytically, including Cervantes, Turgenev, Goncharov, and Schopenhauer; Letter to brother Mihail, 1 July 1876. Letters of Anton Chekhov. Simmons, 26. and he wrote a full-length comedy drama, Fatherless, which his brother Alexander dismissed as "an inexcusable though innocent fabrication." Simmons, 33. Chekhov also enjoyed a series of love affairs, one with the wife of a teacher. In 1879, Chekhov completed his schooling and joined his family in Moscow, having gained admission to the medical school at Moscow University. Rayfield, 69. Early writings Young Chekhov (left) with brother Nikolay in 1882 Chekhov now assumed responsibility for the whole family. Wood, 79. To support them and to pay his tuition fees, he daily wrote short, humorous sketches and vignettes of contemporary Russian life, many under pseudonyms such as "Antosha Chekhonte" (Антоша Чехонте) and "Man without a Spleen" (Человек без селезенки). His prodigious output gradually earned him a reputation as a satirical chronicler of Russian street life, and by 1882 he was writing for Oskolki (Fragments), owned by Nikolai Leikin, one of the leading publishers of the time. Rayfield, 91. Chekhov's tone at this stage was harsher than that familiar from his mature fiction. "There is in these miniatures an arresting potion of cruelty… The wonderfully compassionate Chekhov was yet to mature." Vodka miniatures, belching and angry cats, George Steiner's review of The Undiscovered Chekhov in The Observer, 13 May 2001. Retrieved 16 February 2007. In 1884, Chekhov qualified as a physician, which he considered his principal profession though he made little money from it and treated the poor for free. Malcolm, 26. In 1884 and 1885, Chekhov found himself coughing blood, and in 1886 the attacks worsened; but he would not admit tuberculosis to his family and friends, confessing to Leikin, "I am afraid to submit myself to be sounded by my colleagues." Letter to N.A .Leikin, 6 April 1886. Letters of Anton Chekhov. He continued writing for weekly periodicals, earning enough money to move the family into progressively better accommodation. Early in 1886 he was invited to write for one of the most popular papers in St. Petersburg, Novoye Vremya (New Times), owned and edited by the millionaire magnate Alexey Suvorin, who paid per line a rate double Leikin's and allowed him three times the space. Rayfield, 128. Suvorin was to become a lifelong friend, perhaps Chekhov's closest. They only ever fell out once, when Chekhov objected to the anti-Semitic attacks in New Times against Dreyfus and Zola in 1898. Rayfield, 448–50. In many ways, the right-wing Suvorin, whom Lenin later called "The running dog of the Tzar" (Payne, XXXV), was Chekhov's opposite; "Chekhov had to function like Suvorin's kidney, extracting the businessman's poisons." Wood, 79. Before long, Chekhov was attracting literary as well as popular attention. The sixty-four-year-old Dmitry Grigorovich, a celebrated Russian writer of the day, wrote to Chekhov after reading his short story The Huntsman, The Huntsman.. Retrieved 16 February 2007. "You have real talent—a talent which places you in the front rank among writers in the new generation." He went on to advise Chekhov to slow down, write less, and concentrate on literary quality. Chekhov replied that the letter had struck him "like a thunderbolt" and confessed, "I have written my stories the way reporters write up their notes about fires—mechanically, half-consciously, caring nothing about either the reader or myself." Malcolm, 32–3. The admission may have done Chekhov a disservice, since early manuscripts reveal that he often wrote with extreme care, continually revising. Payne, XXIV. Grigorovich's advice nevertheless inspired a more serious, artistic ambition in the twenty-six-year-old. In 1887, with a little string-pulling by Grigorovich, the short story collection At Dusk (V Sumerkakh) won Chekhov the coveted Pushkin Prize "for the best literary production distinguished by high artistic worth." Simmons, 160. Turning points Chekhov, 1889, aged 29Chekhov family and friends in 1890. (Top row, left to right) Ivan, Alexander, Father; (second row) unknown friend, Lika Mizinova, Masha, Mother, Seryozha Kiselev; (bottom row) Misha, Anton. That year, exhausted from overwork and ill health, Chekhov took a trip to Ukraine which reawakened him to the beauty of the steppe. "There is a scent of the steppe and one hears the birds sing. I see my old friends the ravens flying over the steppe." Letter to sister Masha, 2 April 1887. Letters of Anton Chekhov. On his return, he began the novella-length short story The Steppe, "something rather odd and much too original," eventually published in Severny Vestnik (The Northern Herald). Letter to Grigorovich, 12 January 1888. Quoted by Malcolm, 137. In a narrative which drifts with the thought processes of the characters, Chekhov evokes a chaise journey across the steppe through the eyes of a young boy sent to live away from home, his companions a priest and a merchant. The Steppe, which has been called a "dictionary of Chekhov's poetics", represented a significant advance for Chekhov, exhibiting much of the quality of his mature fiction and winning him publication in a literary journal rather than a newspaper. "The Steppe, as Michael Finke suggests, is 'a sort of dictionary of Chekhov's poetics,' a kind of sample case of the concealed literary weapons Chekhov would deploy in his work to come." Malcolm, 147. In autumn 1887, a theater manager named Korsh commissioned Chekhov to write a play, the result being Ivanov, written in a fortnight and produced that November. From the biographical sketch, adapted from a memoir by Chekhov's brother Mikhail, which prefaces Constance Garnett's translation of Chekhov's letters, 1920. Though Chekhov found the experience "sickening," and painted a comic portrait of the chaotic production in a letter to his brother Alexander, the play was a hit and was praised, to Chekhov's bemusement, as a work of originality. Letter to brother Alexander, 20 November 1887. Letters of Anton Chekhov. Mikhail Chekhov considered Ivanov a key moment in his brother's intellectual development and literary career. From this period comes an observation of Chekhov's which has become known as "Chekhov's Gun," noted by Ilia Gurliand from a conversation: "If in Act I you have a pistol hanging on the wall, then it must fire in the last act." Rayfield, 203. Simmons, 190. The death of Chekhov's brother Nikolai from tuberculosis in 1889 influenced A Dreary Story, finished that September, about a man who confronts the end of a life which he realizes has been without purpose. A Dreary Story.. Retrieved 16 February 2007. Simmons, 186–91. Mihail Chekhov, who recorded his brother's depression and restlessness after Nikolai's death, was researching prisons at the time as part of his law studies, and Anton Chekhov, in a search for purpose in his own life, himself soon became obsessed with the issue of prison reform. Sakhalin Statue, Tomsk. "Anton Pavlovich in Tomsk—drunkard's view, lying in a ditch, who never read Kashtanka." Print issues, Siberia. In 1890, Chekhov undertook an arduous journey by train, horse-drawn carriage, and river steamer to the far east of Russia and the katorga, or penal colony, on Sakhalin Island, north of Japan, where he spent three months interviewing thousands of convicts and settlers for a census. The letters Chekhov wrote during the two-and-a-half month journey to Sakhalin are considered among his best. Malcolm, 129. His remarks to his sister about Tomsk were to become notorious. Simmons, 223. Rayfield, 224. The inhabitants of Tomsk later retaliated by erecting a mocking statue of Chekhov. What Chekhov witnessed on Sakhalin shocked and angered him, including floggings, embezzlement of supplies, and forced prostitution of women: "There were times," he wrote, when "I felt that I saw before me the extreme limits of man's degradation." Wood, 85. Rayfield 230. He was particularly moved by the plight of the children living in the penal colony with their parents. For example: Monument, Alexandrovsk-Sakhalinsky, Sakhalin Chekhov later concluded that charity and subscription were not the answer, but that the government had a duty to finance humane treatment of the convicts. His findings were published in 1893 and 1894 as Ostrov Sakhalin (The Island of Sakhalin), a work of social science, not literature, and worthy and informative rather than brilliant. Malcolm, 125. Such is the general critical view of the work, but Simmons calls it a "valuable and intensely human document." Simmons, 229. Chekhov found literary expression for the hell of Sakhalin in his long short story The Murder, The Murder.. Retrieved 16 February 2007. the last section of which is set on Sakhalin, where the murderer Yakov loads coal in the night, longing for home. Melikhovo In 1892, Chekhov bought the small country estate of Melikhovo, about forty miles south of Moscow, where he lived until 1899 with his family. "It's nice to be a lord," he joked to Shcheglov; but he took his responsibilities as a landlord seriously and soon made himself useful to the local peasants. As well as organising relief for victims of the famine and cholera outbreaks of 1892, he went on to build three schools, a fire station, and a clinic, and to donate his medical services to peasants for miles around, despite frequent recurrences of his tuberculosis. Payne, XXXI. Mikhail Chekhov, a member of the household at Melikhovo, described the extent of his brother's medical commitments: Chekhov at Melikhovo Chekhov’s expenditure on drugs was considerable; but the greatest cost was making journeys of several hours to visit the sick, which reduced his time for writing. From the biographical sketch, adapted from a memoir by Chekhov's brother Mihail, which prefaces Constance Garnett's translation of Chekhov's letters, 1920. Chekhov’s work as a doctor, however, enriched his writing by bringing him into intimate contact with all sections of Russian society: for example, he witnessed at first hand the peasants' unhealthy and cramped living conditions, which he recalled in his short story Peasants. Chekhov visited the upper classes as well, recording in his notebook: "Aristocrats? The same ugly bodies and physical uncleanliness, the same toothless old age and disgusting death, as with market-women." Note-Book.. Retrieved 16 February 2007. Chekhov began writing his play The Seagull in 1894, in a lodge he had built in the orchard at Melikhovo. In the two years since moving to the estate, he had refurbished the house, taken up agriculture and horticulture, tended orchard and pond, and planted many trees, which, according to Mikhail, he "looked after… as though they were his children. Like Colonel Vershinin in his Three Sisters, as he looked at them he dreamed of what they would be like in three or four hundred years." The first night of The Seagull on 17 October 1896 at the Alexandrinsky Theatre in Petersburg was a fiasco, booed by the audience, and the play's reception stung Chekhov into renouncing the theatre. Rayfield, 394–8. But the play so impressed the theatre director Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko that he convinced his colleague Constantin Stanislavski to direct it for the innovative Moscow Art Theatre in 1898. Benedetti, Stanislavski: An Introduction, 25. Stanislavski's attention to psychological realism and ensemble playing coaxed the buried subtleties from the text and restored Chekhov's interest in playwriting. Chekhov and the Art Theatre, in Stanislavski's words, were united in a common desire "to achieve artistic simplicity and truth on the stage." Allen, 11. The Art Theatre commissioned more plays from Chekhov and the following year staged Uncle Vanya, which Chekhov had completed in 1896. Rayfield, 390–1. Rayfield draws from his critical study Chekhov's "Uncle Vanya" and the "Wood Demon" (1995), which anatomised the evolution of the Wood Demon into Uncle Vanya—"one of Chekhov's most furtive achievements." Yalta Chekhov with Leo Tolstoy at Yalta, 1900 In March 1897 Chekhov suffered a major hemorrhage of the lungs while on a visit to Moscow and, with great difficulty, was persuaded to enter a clinic, where the doctors diagnosed tuberculosis on the upper part of his lungs and ordered a change in his manner of life. Letter to Suvorin, 1 April 1897. Letters of Anton Chekhov. After his father's death in 1898, Chekhov bought a plot of land on the outskirts of Yalta and built a villa there, into which he moved with his mother and sister the following year. Though he planted trees and flowers in Yalta, kept dogs and tame cranes, and received guests such as Leo Tolstoy and Maxim Gorky, Chekhov was always relieved to leave his "hot Siberia" for Moscow or travels abroad. He vowed to move to Taganrog as soon as a water supply was installed there. Olga Knipper, Memoir, in Benedetti, Dear Writer, Dear Actress, 37, 270. Bartlett, 2. In Yalta he completed two more plays for the Art Theatre, composing with greater difficulty than in the days when he "wrote serenely, the way I eat pancakes now"; he took a year each over Three Sisters and The Cherry Orchard. Malcolm, 170–1. On 25 May 1901 Chekhov married Olga Knipper—quietly, owing to his horror of weddings—a former protegée and sometime lover of Nemirovich-Danchenko whom he had first met at rehearsals for The Seagull. "I have a horror of weddings, the congratulations and the champagne, standing around, glass in hand with an endless grin on your face." Letter to Olga Knipper, 19 April 1901. Benedetti, Dear Writer, Dear Actress, 125. "Olga's relations with Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko were more than professional." Rayfield, 500. Up to that point, Chekhov, called "Russia's most elusive literary bachelor", Harvey Pitcher in Chekhov's Leading Lady, quoted in Malcolm, 59. had preferred passing liaisons and visits to brothels over commitment; "Chekhov had the temperament of a philanderer. Sexually, he preferred brothels or swift liaisons." Wood, 78. he had once written to Suvorin: Chekhov and Olga, 1901, on honeymoon The letter proved prophetic of Chekhov's marital arrangements with Olga: he lived largely at Yalta, she in Moscow, pursuing her acting career. In 1902, Olga suffered a miscarriage; and Donald Rayfield has offered evidence, based on the couple's letters, that conception may have occurred when Chekhov and Olga were apart, although Russian scholars have conclusively refuted that claim. Rayfield also tentatively suggests, drawing on obstetric clues, that Olga suffered an ectopic pregnancy rather than a miscarriage. Rayfield, 556–7. There was certainly tension between the couple after the miscarriage, though Simmons, 569, and Benedetti, Dear Writer, Dear Actress, 241, put this down to Chekhov's mother and sister blaming the miscarriage on Olga's late-night lifestyle of socialising with her actor friends. The literary legacy of this long-distance marriage is a correspondence which preserves gems of theatre history, including shared complaints about Stanislavski's directing methods and Chekhov's advice to Olga about performing in his plays. Benedetti, Dear Writer, Dear Actress: The Love Letters of Olga Knipper and Anton Chekhov. In Yalta, Chekhov wrote one of his most famous stories, The Lady with the Dog (also called Lady with Lapdog), The Lady with the Dog.. Retrieved 16 February 2007. which depicts what at first seems a casual liaison between a married man and a married woman in Yalta. Neither expects anything lasting from the encounter, but they find themselves drawn back to each other, risking the security of their family lives. Death By May 1904, Chekhov was terminally ill with tuberculosis. "Everyone who saw him secretly thought the end was not far off," Mikhail Chekhov recalled, "but the nearer Chekhov was to the end, the less he seemed to realize it." On 3 June he set off with Olga for the German spa town of Badenweiler in the Black Forest, from where he wrote outwardly jovial letters to his sister Masha describing the food and surroundings and assuring her and his mother that he was getting better. In his last letter, he complained about the way the German women dressed. Letter to sister Masha, 28 June 1904. Letters of Anton Chekhov. Chekhov's grave, Novodevichy Cemetery, Moscow Chekhov’s death has become one of "the great set pieces of literary history", Malcolm, 62. retold, embroidered, and fictionalised many times since, notably in the short story Errand by Raymond Carver. In 1908, Olga wrote this account of her husband’s last moments: Chekhov’s body was transported to Moscow in a refrigerated railway car for fresh oysters, a detail which offended Gorky. "Banality revenged itself upon him by a nasty prank, for it saw that his corpse, the corpse of a poet, was put into a railway truck 'For the Conveyance of Oysters'." Maxim Gorky in Reminiscences of Anton Chekhov.. Retrieved 16 February 2007. Some of the thousands of mourners followed the funeral procession of a General Keller by mistake, to the accompaniment of a military band. Chekhov was buried next to his father at the Novodevichy Cemetery. Malcolm, 91; Alexander Kuprin in Reminiscences of Anton Chekhov.. Retrieved 16 February 2007. Legacy A few months before he died, Chekhov told the writer Ivan Bunin he thought people might go on reading him for seven years. "Why seven?" asked Bunin. "Well, seven and a half," Chekhov replied. "That’s not bad. I’ve got six years to live." Payne, XXXVI. Chekhov with Gorky at Yalta Always modest, Chekhov could hardly have imagined the extent of his posthumous reputation. The ovations for The Cherry Orchard in the year of his death showed him how high he had risen in the affection of the Russian public—by then he was second in literary celebrity only to Tolstoy, Tolstoy, a great admirer of Chekhov's short stories, divided them into two groups of "first quality" and "second quality." In the first category were: Children, The Chorus Girl, A Play, Home, Misery, The Runaway, In Court, Vanka, Ladies, The Malefactors, The Boys, Darkness, Sleepy, The Helpmate, The Darling; in the second: A Transgression, Sorrow, The Witch, Verochka, In a Strange Land, The Cook's Wedding, A Tedious Business, An Upheaval, Oh! The Public!, The Mask, A Woman's Luck, Nerves, The Wedding, A Defenseless Creature, Peasant Wives. He had these stories bound into a book which he read repeatedly with great satisfaction. - Simmons, pg. 595. who outlived him by six years—but after his death, Chekhov's fame soon spread further afield. Constance Garnett's translations won him an English-language readership and the admiration of writers such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and Katherine Mansfield, the last arguably to the point of plagiarism. The issues surrounding the close similarities between Mansfield's 1910 story The Child Who Was Tired and Chekhov's Sleepy are summarised in William H. New's Reading Mansfield and Metaphors of Reform, McGill-Queen’s Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-7735-1791-2, 15–17. The Russian critic D.S. Mirsky, who lived in England, explained Chekhov's popularity in that country by his "unusually complete rejection of what we may call the heroic values." Wood, 77. In Russia itself, Chekhov's drama fell out of fashion after the revolution but was later adapted to the Soviet agenda, with the character Lopakhin, for example, reinvented as a hero of the new order, taking an axe to the cherry orchard. Allen, 88. "They won't allow a play which is seen to lament the lost estates of the gentry." Letter of Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, quoted by Anatoly Smeliansky in Chekhov at the Moscow Art Theatre, from The Cambridge Companion to Chekhov, 31–2. One of the first non-Russians to praise Chekhov's plays was George Bernard Shaw, who subtitled his Heartbreak House "A Fantasia in the Russian Manner on English Themes" and noted similarities between the predicament of the British landed class and that of their Russian counterparts as depicted by Chekhov: "the same nice people, the same utter futility." Anna Obraztsova, Bernard Shaw's Dialogue with Chekhov, in Miles, 43–4. In America, Chekhov's reputation began its rise slightly later, partly through the influence of Stanislavski's system of acting, with its notion of subtext: "Chekhov often expressed his thought not in speeches," wrote Stanislavski, "but in pauses or between the lines or in replies consisting of a single word… the characters often feel and think things not expressed in the lines they speak." Reynolds, Elizabeth (ed), Stanislavski's Legacy, Theatre Arts Books, 1987, ISBN 978-0-87830-127-0, 81, 83. "It was Chekhov who first deliberately wrote dialogue in which the mainstream of emotional action ran underneath the surface. It was he who articulated the notion that human beings hardly ever speak in explicit terms among each other about their deepest emotions, that the great, tragic, climactic moments are often happening beneath outwardly trivial conversation." Martin Esslin, from Text and Subtext in Shavian Drama, in 1922: Shaw and the last Hundred Years, ed. Bernard. F. Dukore, Penn State Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0-271-01324-4, 200. The Group Theatre, in particular, developed the subtextual approach to drama, influencing generations of American playwrights, screenwriters, and actors, including Clifford Odets, Elia Kazan and, in particular, Lee Strasberg. In turn, Strasberg's Actors Studio and the "Method" acting approach influenced many actors, including Marlon Brando and Robert De Niro, though by then the Chekhov tradition may have been distorted by a preoccupation with realism. "Lee Strasberg became in my opinion a victim of the traditional idea of Chekhovian theatre… [he left] no room for Chekhov's imagery." Georgii Tostonogov on Strasberg's production of Three Sisters in The Drama Review (winter 1968), quoted by Styan, 121. In 1981, the playwright Tennessee Williams adapted The Seagull as The Notebook of Trigorin. Despite Chekhov's eminence as a playwright, some writers believe his short stories represent the greater achievement. "The plays lack the seamless authority of the fiction: there are great characters, wonderful scenes, tremendous passages, moments of acute melancholy and sagacity, but the parts appear greater than the whole." A Chekhov Lexicon, by William Boyd, The Guardian, 3 July 2004. Retrieved 16 February 2007. Raymond Carver, who wrote the short story Errand about Chekhov's death, believed Chekhov the greatest of all short-story writers: Bust of Chekhov at Badenweiler Ernest Hemingway, another writer influenced by Chekhov, was more grudging: "Chekhov wrote about 6 good stories. But he was an amateur writer." Letter from Ernest Hemingway to Archibald MacLeish, 1925 (from Selected Letters, p. 179), in Ernest Hemingway on Writing, Ed Larry W. Phillips, Touchstone, (1984) 1999, ISBN 978-0-684-18119-6, 101. And Vladimir Nabokov once complained of Chekhov's "medley of dreadful prosaisms, ready-made epithets, repetitions." Wood, 82. But he also declared The Lady with the Dog "one of the greatest stories ever written" and described Chekhov as writing "the way one person relates to another the most important things in his life, slowly and yet without a break, in a slightly subdued voice." From Vladimir Nabokov's Lectures on Russian Literature, quoted by Francine Prose in Learning from Chekhov, 231. For the writer William Boyd, Chekhov's breakthrough was to abandon what William Gerhardie called the "event plot" for something more "blurred, interrupted, mauled or otherwise tampered with by life." "For the first time in literature the fluidity and randomness of life was made the form of the fiction. Before Chekhov, the event-plot drove all fictions." William Boyd, referring to the novelist William Gerhardie's analysis in Anton Chekhov: A Critical Study, 1923. A Chekhov Lexicon, by William Boyd, The Guardian, 3 July 2004. Retrieved 16 February 2007. Virginia Woolf mused on the unique quality of a Chekhov story in The Common Reader (1925): See also Bibliography of Anton Chekhov List of short stories by Anton Chekhov Flash fiction Physician writer Notes References Allen, David, Performing Chekhov, Routledge (UK), 2001, ISBN 978-0-415-18934-7 Bartlett, Rosamund, and Anthony Phillips (translators), Chekhov: A Life in Letters, Penguin Books, 2004, ISBN 978-0-14-044922-8 Bartlett, Rosamund, Chekhov: Scenes from a Life, Free Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-7432-3074-2 Benedetti, Jean (editor and translator), Dear Writer, Dear Actress: The Love Letters of Olga Knipper and Anton Chekhov, Methuen Publishing Ltd, 1998 edition, ISBN 978-0-413-72390-1 Benedetti, Jean, Stanislavski: An Introduction, Methuen Drama, 1989 edition, ISBN 978-0-413-50030-4 Chekhov, Anton, About Love and Other Stories, translated by Rosamund Bartlett, Oxford University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-19-280260-6 Chekhov, Anton, The Undiscovered Chekhov: Fifty New Stories, translated by Peter Constantine, Duck Editions, 2001, ISBN 978-0-7156-3106-5 Chekhov, Anton, Forty Stories, translated and with an introduction by Robert Payne, New York, Vintage, 1991 edition, ISBN 978-0-679-73375-1 Chekhov, Anton, Letters of Anton Chekhov to His Family and Friends with Biographical Sketch, translated by Constance Garnett, Macmillan, 1920. Full text at Gutenberg. Retrieved 16 February 2007. Chekhov, Anton, Note-Book of Anton Chekhov, translated by S. S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf, B.W. Huebsch, 1921. Full text at Gutenberg. Retrieved 16 February 2007. Chekhov, Anton, The Other Chekhov, edited by Okla Elliott and Kyle Minor, with story introductions by Pinckney Benedict, Fred Chappell, Christopher Coake, Paul Crenshaw, Dorothy Gambrell, Steven Gillis, Michelle Herman, Jeff Parker, Benjamin Percy, and David R. Slavitt. New American Press, 2008 edition, ISBN 978-0972967983 Chekhov, Anton, Seven Short Novels, translated by Barbara Makanowitzky, W.W.Norton & Company, 2003 edition, ISBN 978-0-393-00552-3 Finke, Michael, Chekhov's 'Steppe': A Metapoetic Journey, an essay in Anton Chekhov Rediscovered, ed Savely Senderovich and Munir Sendich, Michigan Russian Language Journal, 1988, ISBN 9999838855 Gerhardie, William, Anton Chekhov, Macdonald, (1923) 1974 edition, ISBN 978-0-356-04609-9 Gorky, Maksim, Alexander Kuprin, and I.A. Bunin, Reminiscences of Anton Chekhov, translated by S. S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf, B.W.Huebsch, 1921. Read at eldritchpress. Retrieved 16 February 2007. Gottlieb, Vera, and Paul Allain (eds), The Cambridge Companion to Chekhov, Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-521-58917-8 Jackson, Robert Louis, Dostoevsky in Chekhov's Garden of Eden—'Because of Little Apples', in Dialogues with Dostoevsky, Stanford University Press, 1993, ISBN 978-0-8047-2120-2 Klawans, Harold L., Chekhov's Lie, 1997, ISBN 1-888799-12-9. About the challenges of combining writing with the medical life. Malcolm, Janet, Reading Chekhov, a Critical Journey, Granta Publications, 2004 edition, ISBN 978-1-86207-635-8 Miles, Patrick (ed), Chekhov on the British Stage, Cambridge University Press, 1993, ISBN 978-0-521-38467-4 Nabokov, Vladimir, Anton Chekhov, in Lectures on Russian Literature, Harvest/HBJ Books, [1981] 2002 edition, ISBN 978-0-15-602776-2. Pitcher, Harvey, Chekhov's Leading Lady: Portrait of the Actress Olga Knipper, J Murray, 1979, ISBN 978-0-7195-3681-6 Prose, Francine, Learning from Chekhov, in Writers on Writing, ed. Robert Pack and Jay Parini, UPNE, 1991, ISBN 978-0-87451-560-2 Rayfield, Donald, Anton Chekhov: A Life, Henry Holt & Co, 1998, ISBN 978-0-8050-5747-8 Simmons, Ernest J., Chekhov: A Biography, University of Chicago Press, (1962) 1970 edition, ISBN 978-0-226-75805-3 Stanislavski, Constantin, My Life in Art, Methuen Drama, 1980 edition, ISBN 978-0-413-46200-8 Styan, John Louis, Modern Drama in Theory and Practice, Cambridge University Press, 1981, ISBN 978-0-521-29628-1 Wood, James, What Chekhov Meant by Life, in The Broken Estate: Essays in Literature and Belief, Pimlico, 2000 edition, ISBN 978-0-7126-6557-5 Zeiger, Arthur,The Plays of Anton Chekov, Claxton House, Inc., New York, NY, 1945. External links The Grave of Anton Chekhov Campaign to save Chekhov's house in Yalta Works by Anton Chekhov at Internet Archive. Scanned books, color, some illustrated, original editions. Recorded Stories of Anton Chekhov at Internet Archive. Translated by Constance Garnett, Marion Fell, and others. Presented in mp3 and ogg format. 201 Stories by Anton Chekhov, translated by Constance Garnett presented in chronological order of Russian publication with annotations. Антон Павлович Чехов Texts of Chekhov's works in the original Russian. Retrieved 16 February 2007. Web page A.P. Chekhov on a site of the Taganrog Central Public Library named after A. P. Chekhov The International competition of philological, culture and film studies works dedicated to Anton Chekhov’s life and creative work . All Constance Garnett's translations of the short stories and letters are available, plus the edition of the Note-book translated by S. S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf - see the "References" section for print publication details of all of these. Site also has translations of all the plays. 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2,677 | Military_of_Honduras | <tr><th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#8888dd>Honduras <tr><td colspan=2 align=center>Military manpower <tr><td>Military age<td>18 years of age for voluntary two-three year military service (2004) <tr><td>Availability<td>males age 18-49:1,537,232 (2005 est.) <tr><td>Fit for military service<td> males age 18-49: 1,100,991 (2005 est.) <tr><td>Reaching military age annually<td> males: 82,105 (2005 est.) <tr><td colspan=2 align=center>Military expenditures <tr><td>Dollar figure<td>$52.8 million (2005 est.) <tr><td>Percent of GDP<td>2.55% (2005 est.) This article deals with the armed forces of Honduras. History Events during the 1980s in El Salvador and Nicaragua led Honduras — with US assistance — to expand its armed forces considerably, laying particular emphasis on its air force, which came to include a squadron of US-provided F-5s. The resolution of the civil wars in El Salvador and Nicaragua and across-the-board budget cuts made in all ministries has brought reduced funding for the Honduran armed forces. The abolition of the draft has created staffing gaps in the now all-volunteer armed forces. The military now is far below its authorized strength, and further reductions are expected. In January 1999, the Constitution was amended to abolish the position of military commander-in-chief of the armed forces, thus codifying civilian authority over the military. Since 2002 soldiers have been involved in crime prevention and law enforcement, patrolling the streets of the major cities alongside the national police. Branches Branches of Honduras' armed forces include Army (Ejército de Honduras) Navy (Fuerza Naval de Honduras) Air Force (Fuerza Aérea Hondureña) Air Force The FAH operates from bases at Tegucigalpa, Comayagua,[], San Pedro Sula, and La Ceiba. Aircraft inventory As of March 17 2009: "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2008, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 28 2008. FAH Honduran F-5E Tiger preparing for takeoff righft|A Honduran Air Force A-37 Dragonfly aircraft during a combined U.S./Honduran training operation in 1983. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Stored |----- | Commander 1000 || || utility transport || || || 1 || |----- | Bell UH-1H Iroquois || || utility helicopter || || 2 || 2 || |----- | Bell 412 || || transport helicopter || 412SP || 5 || 3 || |----- | Cessna T-41D Mescalero || || trainer || T-41D Mescalero || || 4 || |----- | Maule MXT-7-180 || || trainer || || 4 || || |----- | Cessna 180 Skywagon || || utility || || 1 || |----- | Cessna 182 Skylane || || utility || || || 2 || |----- | Cessna 185 Skywagon || || utility || || 1 || 2 || |----- | Cessna 310 || || utility transport || || || 1 || |----- | Cessna A-37 Dragonfly || || attackreconnaissance || A-37BOA-37 || 54 || |----- | Douglas C-47 Skytrain || || tactical transport || C-47 || || 7 || |----- | Embraer EMB 312 Tucano || || trainer || || 9 || |----- | CASA C-101 || || trainer || || || 4 || |----- | IAI Arava || || tactical transport || 201 || 1 || |----- | IAI-1124 Westwind || || VIP transport || 1124 || 1 || |----- | Lockheed C-130A Hercules || || tactical transport || C-130A || 1 || 3 || |----- | MD 500 Defender || || utility helicopter || MD 500D || 2 || 1 || |----- | Northrop F-5E/F Tiger II || || fightertrainer || F-5E Tiger IIF-5F Tiger II || 92 || |----- | Piper PA-31 Navajo || || utility transport || || || 2 || |----- | Piper PA-42 Cheyenne || || utility transport || || || 1 || |} A C-101 Aviojet aircraft of the Honduran Air Force. References See also CIA World Factbook Honduras External links Honduran military's official site Honduran Air Force Academy official site Honduran Air force Order of Battle, Maps, Squadrons, Badges, Photos, Airbases, Database, etc. | Military_of_Honduras |@lemmatized tr:9 th:1 colspan:3 align:9 center:3 bgcolor:1 honduras:7 td:14 military:11 manpower:1 age:5 year:2 voluntary:1 two:1 three:1 service:3 availability:1 male:3 est:5 fit:1 reach:1 annually:1 expenditure:1 dollar:1 figure:1 million:1 percent:1 gdp:1 article:1 deal:1 armed:4 force:13 history:1 event:1 el:2 salvador:2 nicaragua:2 lead:1 u:3 assistance:1 expand:1 considerably:1 lay:1 particular:1 emphasis:1 air:7 come:1 include:2 squadron:2 provide:1 f:5 resolution:1 civil:1 war:1 across:1 board:1 budget:1 cut:1 make:1 ministry:1 bring:1 reduce:1 funding:1 honduran:8 arm:2 abolition:1 draft:1 create:1 staff:1 gap:1 volunteer:1 far:1 authorized:1 strength:1 reduction:1 expect:1 january:2 constitution:1 amend:1 abolish:1 position:1 commander:2 chief:1 thus:1 codify:1 civilian:1 authority:1 since:1 soldier:1 involve:1 crime:1 prevention:1 law:1 enforcement:1 patrol:1 street:1 major:1 city:1 alongside:1 national:1 police:1 branch:2 army:1 ejército:1 de:2 navy:1 fuerza:2 naval:1 aérea:1 hondureña:1 fah:2 operate:1 base:1 tegucigalpa:1 comayagua:1 san:1 pedro:1 sula:1 la:1 ceiba:1 aircraft:5 inventory:2 march:1 world:2 aerospace:1 source:1 book:1 aviation:1 week:1 space:1 technology:1 tiger:4 prepare:1 takeoff:1 righft:1 dragonfly:2 combined:1 training:1 operation:1 style:6 text:6 left:6 background:6 aacccc:6 origin:1 type:1 version:1 store:1 utility:9 transport:9 bell:2 uh:1 iroquois:1 helicopter:3 cessna:6 mescalero:2 trainer:4 maule:1 mxt:1 skywagon:2 skylane:1 attackreconnaissance:1 douglas:1 c:6 skytrain:1 tactical:3 embraer:1 emb:1 tucano:1 casa:1 iai:2 arava:1 westwind:1 vip:1 lockheed:1 hercules:1 md:2 defender:1 northrop:1 ii:2 fightertrainer:1 iif:1 piper:2 pa:2 navajo:1 cheyenne:1 aviojet:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 cia:1 factbook:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 site:2 academy:1 order:1 battle:1 map:1 badge:1 photo:1 airbases:1 database:1 etc:1 |@bigram align_center:3 center_bgcolor:1 tr_td:8 td_colspan:2 el_salvador:2 commander_chief:1 fuerza_aérea:1 san_pedro:1 pedro_sula:1 la_ceiba:1 inventory_aerospace:1 align_left:6 background_aacccc:6 bell_uh:1 uh_iroquois:1 utility_helicopter:2 utility_cessna:3 cessna_utility:1 vip_transport:1 piper_pa:2 external_link:1 |
2,678 | The_Elephant_6_Recording_Company | The Elephant 6 Recording Company (or simply Elephant 6) is a collective of American musicians who spawned some of the most notable independent bands of the 1990s, including The Apples in Stereo, The Olivia Tremor Control, Neutral Milk Hotel, Elf Power, and Of Montreal. Dressy Bessy Tom Kielty Boston Globe, (March 22, 2002). History Foundation The collective was officially founded in Denver, Colorado (but figuratively in Athens, Georgia) by childhood friends Robert Schneider, Bill Doss, Will Cullen Hart, and Jeff Mangum . The four grew up making music and sharing cassette tapes in Ruston, Louisiana while attending high school together. They started several bands and pet projects; Doss and Hart with The Olivia Tremor Control (then called Synthetic Flying Machine), Mangum with Neutral Milk Hotel, and Schneider with the The Apples in Stereo. It was Schneider who created the E6 record label when he moved to Denver, Colorado in late 1991 to attend the University of Colorado at Boulder. There, he and new friends founded The Apples (which eventually became The Apples in Stereo). Recorded by April 1993, The Apples' Tidal Wave 7" EP was the first E6 release. Doss had moved to Athens where he joined Hart and Mangum in Synthetic Flying Machine, which became The Olivia Tremor Control. They released California Demise as their first recording, and E6's second. Success, disbandment and continuation Several Elephant 6 projects began to find commercial success in the late 1990s, including Beulah, Dressy Bessy, Elf Power, The Music Tapes, and Of Montreal, as well as the founding bands. Most of the bands subsequently signed with major record labels; E6 as an entity slowly deteriorated until the collective called it quits — due to recording difficulties and lack of organization — in 2002. The collective's bands all moved on to various labels and projects of their own. However, many band members are still friends and even tour together under various guises. Though most of the collective's members span the country, many live together on the Orange Twin Conservation Community in Athens. The term "Elephant 6" has since come to refer to a broad range of bands and spin-off projects that the record label has spawned. The Elephant 6 mantra has become a symbol for the circle of friends sharing similar ideas and goals. In 2007 The Apples in Stereo featured the Elephant 6 logo on their album New Magnetic Wonder, announcing "The Elephant 6 Recording Company re-opens our doors and windows, and invites the world: join together with your friends and make something special, something meaningful, something to remember when you are old." This marked the first major release in five years to bear the Elephant 6 logo. In 2008, Julian Koster released his long awaited Music Tapes For Clouds and Tornadoes under the name The Music Tapes. He also assembled The Elephant 6 Holiday Surprise Tour which featured contributions from Will Cullen Hart and Bill Doss of Olivia Tremor Control, Scott Spillane of the Gerbils, Andrew Reiger and Laura Carter of Elf Power, Theo Hilton of Nana Grizol, John Fernandes and Eric Harris of OTC, Music Tapes and Circulatory System, Robbie Cucchiaro of Music Tapes, Charlie Johnston and Suzanne Allison of The 63 Crayons, Nesey Gallons, and Jeff Mangum. See also Indie rock Psych folk List of record labels References Cooper, Kim "Neutral Milk Hotel's In the Aeroplane Over the Sea (33 1/3)", 2005 External links Elephant6.com – The official site about the collective. Optical Atlas – An unofficial site with almost daily blog postings of current E6 happenings. E6 Townhall – An official Elephant Six message board. E6 2008 Concert on NPR Music | The_Elephant_6_Recording_Company |@lemmatized elephant:10 record:8 company:2 simply:1 collective:6 american:1 musician:1 spawn:2 notable:1 independent:1 band:7 include:2 apple:6 stereo:4 olivia:4 tremor:4 control:4 neutral:3 milk:3 hotel:3 elf:3 power:3 montreal:2 dressy:2 bessy:2 tom:1 kielty:1 boston:1 globe:1 march:1 history:1 foundation:1 officially:1 found:2 denver:2 colorado:3 figuratively:1 athens:3 georgia:1 childhood:1 friend:5 robert:1 schneider:3 bill:2 dos:4 cullen:2 hart:4 jeff:2 mangum:4 four:1 grow:1 make:2 music:7 share:2 cassette:1 tape:6 ruston:1 louisiana:1 attend:2 high:1 school:1 together:4 start:1 several:2 pet:1 project:4 call:2 synthetic:2 flying:2 machine:2 create:1 label:5 move:3 late:2 university:1 boulder:1 new:2 eventually:1 become:3 april:1 tidal:1 wave:1 ep:1 first:3 release:4 join:2 california:1 demise:1 recording:1 second:1 success:2 disbandment:1 continuation:1 begin:1 find:1 commercial:1 beulah:1 well:1 founding:1 subsequently:1 sign:1 major:2 entity:1 slowly:1 deteriorate:1 quit:1 due:1 difficulty:1 lack:1 organization:1 various:2 however:1 many:2 member:2 still:1 even:1 tour:2 guise:1 though:1 span:1 country:1 live:1 orange:1 twin:1 conservation:1 community:1 term:1 since:1 come:1 refer:1 broad:1 range:1 spin:1 mantra:1 symbol:1 circle:1 similar:1 idea:1 goal:1 feature:2 logo:2 album:1 magnetic:1 wonder:1 announce:1 open:1 door:1 window:1 invite:1 world:1 something:3 special:1 meaningful:1 remember:1 old:1 mark:1 five:1 year:1 bear:1 julian:1 koster:1 long:1 awaited:1 cloud:1 tornado:1 name:1 also:2 assemble:1 holiday:1 surprise:1 contribution:1 scott:1 spillane:1 gerbil:1 andrew:1 reiger:1 laura:1 carter:1 theo:1 hilton:1 nana:1 grizol:1 john:1 fernandes:1 eric:1 harris:1 otc:1 circulatory:1 system:1 robbie:1 cucchiaro:1 charlie:1 johnston:1 suzanne:1 allison:1 crayon:1 nesey:1 gallon:1 see:1 indie:1 rock:1 psych:1 folk:1 list:1 reference:1 cooper:1 kim:1 aeroplane:1 sea:1 external:1 link:1 com:1 official:2 site:2 optical:1 atlas:1 unofficial:1 almost:1 daily:1 blog:1 posting:1 current:1 happening:1 townhall:1 six:1 message:1 board:1 concert:1 npr:1 |@bigram olivia_tremor:4 boston_globe:1 denver_colorado:2 cassette_tape:1 colorado_boulder:1 long_awaited:1 external_link:1 |
2,679 | History_of_India | This article is about the history of the Indian Subcontinent prior to the Partition of British India in 1947. For the history of the modern Republic of India, see History of the Republic of India. For the histories of Pakistan and Bangladesh see History of Pakistan and History of Bangladesh. Also for South India see History of South India. The known history of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, which spread and flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent, from c. 3300 to 1300 BCE. Its Mature Harappan period lasted from 2600-1900 BCE. This Bronze Age civilization collapsed at the beginning of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Iron Age Vedic period, which extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plains and which witnessed the rise of major kingdoms known as the Mahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms Magadha, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha were born in the 6th century BCE, who propagated their Shramanic philosophies among the masses. Later, successive empires and kingdoms ruled the region and enriched its culture - from the Achaemenid Persian empire around 543 BCE, to Alexander the Great in 326 BCE. The Indo-Greek Kingdom, founded by Demetrius of Bactria, included Gandhara and Punjab from 184 BCE; it reached its greatest extent under Menander, establishing the Greco-Buddhist period with advances in trade and culture. The subcontinent was united under the Maurya Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. It subsequently became fragmented, with various parts ruled by numerous Middle kingdoms for the next ten centuries. Its northern regions were united once again in the 4th century CE, and remained so for two centuries thereafter, under the Gupta Empire. This period, of Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known among its admirers as the "Golden Age of India." During the same time, and for several centuries afterwards, Southern India, under the rule of the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas, experienced its own golden age, during which Indian civilization, administration, culture, and religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of Asia. Kerala had maritime business links with the Roman Empire from around AD 77. Muslim rule in the subcontinent began in 712 CE when the Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh and Multan in southern Punjab, setting the stage for several successive invasions between the 10th and 15th centuries CE from Central Asia, leading to the formation of Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent, including the Ghaznavid, the Ghorid, the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. Mughal rule came to cover most of the northern parts of the subcontinent. Mughal rulers introduced middle-eastern art and architecture to India. In addition to the Mughals, several independent Hindu kingdoms, such as the Maratha Empire, the Vijayanagara Empire and various Rajput kingdoms, flourished contemporaneously, in Western and Southern India respectively. The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline in the early eighteenth century, which provided opportunities for the Afghans, Balochis and Sikhs to exercise control over large areas in the northwest of the subcontinent until the British East India Company gained ascendancy over South Asia. Beginning in the mid-18th century and over the next century, India was gradually annexed by the British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the First War of Indian Independence, after which India was directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of both rapid development of infrastructure and economic decline. During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, and later joined by the Muslim League. The subcontinent gained independence from Great Britain in 1947, after being partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan. Pre-Historic Era Stone Age Bhimbetka rock painting Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley in Central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleistocene era, somewhere between 200,000 to 500,000 years ago. Though most traces of the out of Africa migration along the shores of the Indian Ocean seem to have been lost. Due to flooding in the post-Ice Age period, recent finds in Tamil Nadu (at c. 75,000 years ago, before and after the explosion of the Toba volcano) indicate the presence of the first anatomically modern humans in the area. The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent covered a timespan of around 25,000 years, starting around 30,000 years ago. More extensive settlement of the subcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice Age, or approximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka in modern Madhya Pradesh, India. Early Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by the Mehrgarh findings (7000 BCE onwards) in present day Balochistan, Pakistan. Traces of a Neolithic culture have been found submerged in the Gulf of Khambat in India, radiocarbon dated to 7500 BCE. Late Neolithic cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region between 6000 and 2000 BCE and in southern India between 2800 and 1200 BCE. The region of the subcontinent that is now the country of Pakistan has been inhabited continuously for at least two million years. The ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements and some of its major civilizations. The earliest archaeological site in South Asia is the palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley. Village life began with the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh, while the first urban civilization of the region was the Indus Valley Civilization, with major sites at Mohenjo Daro, Lothal and Harappa. Bronze Age Ancient Lothal as envisaged by the Archaeological Survey of India. "Priest King" of Indus Valley Civilization The Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE with the beginning of the Indus Valley Civilization. It was centered on the Indus River and its tributaries, and extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley, See map on page 263 the Ganges-Yamuna Doab, Indian Archaeology, A Review. 1958-1959. Excavations at Alamgirpur. Delhi: Archaeol. Surv. India, pp. 51–52. Gujarat, and northern Afghanistan. The civilization is primarily located in modern day India (Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan provinces) and today's Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan provinces). Historically part of Ancient India, it is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations along with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin. The Indus Valley Civilization which flourished from about 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE marked the beginning of the urban civilization on the subcontinent. The ancient civilization included urban centers such as Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Lothal in modern day India and Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-daro in modern day Pakistan. The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, road-side drainage system and multi-storied houses. Vedic period Map of North India in the late Vedic period. Swastika The Vedic period is characterized by Indo-Aryan culture associated with the texts of Vedas, sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts, next to those of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Vedic period lasted from about 1500 BCE to 500 BCE, laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society. The Aryas established Vedic civilization all over North India, and increasingly so in the Gangetic Plain. This period was a result of immigrations of Indo-Aryan speaking tribes who called themselves Arya (ārya, Aryans). They overlaid the existing civilizations of local people whom they called Dasyus. The origin of Aryans are disputed, one stream of thought insists on their origin in Central Asia whereas another stream of thought says that they were already living in India since the times before Indus Valley civilisation as evidenced by some of the writings in Rig Veda. The Out of India theory even claims that Aryans emigrated from India to settle all of Central Asia and Europe. The late 19th century "Aryan Invasion theory" has long been substituted by scholars with a more nuanced theory of migrations, various scenarios of which are being presently researched. Early Vedic society consisted of largely pastoral groups, with late Harappan urbanization having been abandoned. India: Reemergence of Urbanization. Retrieved on May 12, 2007. After the Rigveda, Aryan society became increasingly agricultural, and was socially organized around the four Varnas. In addition to the principal texts of Hinduism the Vedas, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins during this period. Early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the presence of Ochre Coloured Pottery in archaeological findings. Vaishali was the capital of "Licchavi," world's second republic only after Arwad. http://p2.www.britannica.com/eb/article-9074639/Vaisali Vaisali, Encyclopedia Britannica. The kingdom of the Kurus M. WItzel, Early Sanskritization. Origins and development of the Kuru State. B. Kölver (ed.), Recht, Staat und Verwaltung im klassischen Indien. The state, the Law, and Administration in Classical India. München : R. Oldenbourg 1997, 27-52 = Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, vol. 1,4, December 1995, corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Gray Ware culture and the beginning of the Iron Age in Northwestern India, around 1000 BCE with the composition of the Atharvaveda, the first Indian text to mention iron, as , literally "black metal." The Painted Grey Ware culture spanning much of Northern India was prevalent from about 1100 to 600 BCE. The later part of this period corresponds with an increasing movement away from the prevalent tribal system towards establishment of kingdoms, called Mahajanapadas. The Mahajanapadas Gautama Buddha undertaking extreme ascetic practices before his enlightenment on the bank of river Falgu in Bodh Gaya, Bihar, India. Detail of a leaf with, The Birth of Mahavira (the 24th Jain Tirthankara), from the Kalpa Sutra, c.1375-1400. Adi Shankara, an Indian philosopher who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta by using the Upanishads for reference. The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most powerful kingdoms and republics of the era, located mainly across the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains, however there were a number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth of Ancient India. The stupa of Sariputta at Nalanda University. "The first great university in recorded history." In the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many mentioned during Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far back as 1000 BCE. By 500 BCE, sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as the Mahajanapadas — Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Machcha (or Matsya), Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, Kamboja — stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharastra. This period was that of the second major urbanisation in India after the Indus Valley Civilization. Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been present across the rest of the subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other states elected their rulers. The educated speech at that time was Sanskrit, while the dialects of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits. Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by 500/400 BCE, by the time of Siddhartha Gautama. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha. Hindu rituals at that time were complicated and conducted by the priestly class. It is thought that the Upanishads, late Vedic texts dealing mainly with incipient philosophy, were composed in the later Vedic Age and early in this period of the Mahajanapadas (from about 600 - 400 BCE). Upanishads had a substantial effect on Indian philosophy, and were contemporary to the development of Buddhism and Jainism, indicating a golden age of thought in this period. It is believed that in 537 BCE, that Siddhartha Gautama attained the state of "enlightenment", and became known as the 'Buddha' - the elightened one. Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Jain Tirthankara according to Jains) propagated a similar theology, that was to later become Jainism. Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London ISBN 1860641482 - Jainism's major teacher is the Mahavira, a contemporary of the Buddha, and who died approximately 526 BCE. Page 114 However, Jain orthodoxy believes it predates all known time. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Jain Tirthankars, and an ascetic order similar to the sramana movement. Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London ISBN 1860641482 - “The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira.” Page 115 The Buddha's teachings and Jainism had doctrines inclined toward asceticism, and were preached in Prakrit, which helped them gain acceptance amongst the masses. They have profoundly influenced practices that Hinduism and Indian spiritual orders are associated with namely, vegetarianism, prohibition of animal slaughter and ahimsa (non-violence). While the geographic impact of Jainism was limited to India, Buddhist nuns and monks eventually spread the teachings of Buddha to Central Asia, East Asia, Tibet, Sri Lanka and South East Asia. Persian and Greek invasions Asia in 323BC, the Nanda Empire and Gangaridai Empire in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbors. Much of the northwestern Indian Subcontinent (present day Eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in c. 520 BCE during the reign of Darius the Great, and remained so for two centuries thereafter. In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire, reaching the north-west frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There, he defeated King Puru in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern-day Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab. Alexander's march East put him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire of Magadha and Gangaridai Empire of Bengal. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, was convinced that it was better to return. The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on Indian civilization. The political systems of the Persians was to influence future forms of governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the Mauryan dynasty. In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism. Maurya Period Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great The Maurya Empire (322–185 B.C), ruled by the Mauryan dynasty, was geographically extensive, powerful, and a political military empire in ancient India. The great Maurya empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya and this empire was flourished by Ashoka the Great. At its greatest extent, the Empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan and much of what is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. The Empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded a big portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga which was won by Ashoka the Great. Early Middle Kingdoms — The Golden Age Ancient India during the rise of Sunga Empire and Satavahana Empire. Kushan Empire of Ancient India. Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola c. 1030 C.E. Badami Chalukya Empire The middle period was a time of notable cultural development. The Satavahanas, also known as the Andhras, was a dynasty which ruled in Southern and Central India starting from around 230 BCE. Satakarni, the sixth ruler of the Satvahana dynasty, defeated the Sunga dynasty of North India. Gautamiputra Satakarni was another notable ruler of the dynasty. Kuninda Kingdom was a small Himalayan state that survived from around the 2nd century BCE to roughly the 3rd century CE. The Kushanas invaded north-western India about the middle of the 1st century CE, from Central Asia, and founded an empire that eventually stretched from Peshawar to the middle Ganges and, perhaps, as far as the Bay of Bengal. It also included ancient Bactria (in the north of modern Afghanistan) and southern Tajikistan. The Western Satraps (35-405 CE) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India. They were the successors of the Indo-Scythians (see below) and contemporaneous with the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, and the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in Central India. Different empires such as the Pandyan Kingdom, Chola Empire, Chera dynasty, Kadamba Dynasty, Western Ganga Dynasty, Pallavas and Chalukya dynasty dominated the southern part of the Indian peninsula, at different periods of time. Several southern kingdoms formed overseas empires that stretched across South East Asia. The kingdoms warred with each other and Deccan states, for domination of the south. Kalabhras, a Buddhist kingdom, briefly interrupted the usual domination of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in the South. Northwestern hybrid cultures The founder of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, Demetrius I "the Invincible" (205–171 BCE). The north-western hybrid cultures of the subcontinent included the Indo-Greeks, the Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians, and the Indo-Sassinids. The first of these, the Indo-Greek Kingdom, founded when the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius invaded the region in 180 BCE, extended over various parts of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. Lasting for almost two centuries, it was ruled by a succession of more than 30 Greek kings, who were often in conflict with each other. The Indo-Scythians was a branch of the Indo-European Sakas (Scythians), who migrated from southern Siberia first into Bactria, subsequently into Sogdiana, Kashmir, Arachosia, Gandhara and finally into India; their kingdom lasted from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. Yet another kingdom, the Indo-Parthians (also known as Pahlavas) came to control most of present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, after fighting many local rulers such as the Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the Gandhara region. The Sassanid empire of Persia, who were contemporaries of the Guptas, expanded into the region of present-day Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian and Persian cultures gave birth to the Indo-Sassanid culture. Roman trade with India Coin of the Roman emperor Augustus found at the Pudukottai, South India. Roman trade with India started around 1 CE following the reign of Augustus and his conquest of Egypt, theretofore India's biggest trade partner in the West. The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing, and according to Strabo (II.5.12. "At any rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Ethiopia, and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos to India, whereas formerly, under the Ptolemies, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise." Strabo II.5.12. Source ), by the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India. So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the Kushans for their own coinage, that Pliny (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India: These trade routes and harbour are described in detail in the 1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Gupta Dynasty The Gupta Empire Kalidasa's Sanskrit play Abhijñānaśākuntala is one of the Legacy of the Gupta Empire. In the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Dynasty unified northern India. During this period, known as India's Golden Age of Hindu renaissance, Hindu culture, science and political administration reached new heights. Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty. The earliest available Puranas are also thought to have been written around this period. The empire came to an end with the attack of the Huns from central Asia. After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana king Harsha, who established an empire in the first half of the seventh century. The White Huns, who seem to have been part of the Hephthalite group, established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the fifth century, with their capital at Bamiyan. They were responsible for the downfall of the Gupta dynasty, and thus brought an end to what historians consider a golden age in northern India. Nevertheless, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by this state of flux in the north. Late Middle Kingdoms — The Classical Age The classical age in India began with the Guptas and the resurgence of the north during Harsha's conquests around the 7th century, and ended with the fall of the Vijayanagar Empire in the South, due to pressure from the invaders to the north in the 13th century. This period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The Kanauj Triangle was the focal point of empires - the Rashtrakutas of Deccan, the Pratiharas of Malwa then Kannauj, and the Palas of Bengal. King Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in the 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. His kingdom collapsed after his death. From the 7th to the 9th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Pratiharas of Malwa and later Kannauj, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala kingdom, and the Pratiharas fragmented into various states. These were the first of the Rajputs, a series of kingdoms which managed to survive in some form for almost a millennium until Indian independence from the British. The first recorded Rajput kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan in the 6th century, and small Rajput dynasties later ruled much of northern India. One Rajput of the Chauhan clan, Prithvi Raj Chauhan, was known for bloody conflicts against the encroaching Islamic Sultanates. The Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-seventh century to the early eleventh century. Whilst the northern concept of a pan-Indian empire had collapsed at the end of Harsha's empire, the ideal instead shifted to the south. The Chalukya Empire ruled parts of southern and central India from 550 to 750 from Badami, Karnataka and again from 970 to 1190 from Kalyani, Karnataka. The Pallavas of Kanchi were their contemporaries further to the south. With the decline of the Chalukya empire, their feudatories, Hoysalas of Halebidu, Kakatiya of Warangal, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and a southern branch of the Kalachuri divided the vast Chalukya empire amongst themselves around the middle of 12th century. Later during the middle period, the Chola kingdom emerged in northern Tamil Nadu, and the Chera kingdom in Kerala. By 1343, all these kingdoms had ceased to exist giving rise to the Vijayanagar empire. Southern Indian kingdoms of the time expanded their influence as far as Indonesia, controlling vast overseas empires in Southeast Asia. The ports of South India were involved in the Indian Ocean trade, chiefly involving spices, with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east. Miller, J. Innes. (1969). The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. ISBN 0-19-814264-1. Search for India's ancient city. BBC News. Retrieved on June 22, 2007. Literature in local vernaculars and spectacular architecture flourished till about the beginning of the 14th century when southern expeditions of the sultan of Delhi took their toll on these kingdoms. The Hindu Vijayanagar dynasty came into conflict with Islamic rule (the Bahmani Kingdom) and the clashing of the two systems, caused a mingling of the indigenous and foreign culture that left lasting cultural influences on each other. The Vijaynagar Empire eventually declined due to pressure from the first Delhi Sultanates who had managed to establish themselves in the north, centered around the city of Delhi by that time. More than 55% of the epigraphical inscriptions, about 55,000, found by the Archaeological Survey of India in India are in Tamil language and 60% from Tamil Nadu alone The Islamic Sultanates Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia. After the Arab invasion of India's ancient western neighbour Persia, expanding forces in that area were keen to invade India, which was the richest classical civilization, with a flourishing international trade and the only known diamond mines in the world. After resistance for a few centuries by various north Indian kingdoms, short lived Islamic empires (Sultanates) were established and spread across the northern subcontinent over a period of a few centuries. But, prior to Turkic invasions, Muslim trading communities had flourished throughout coastal South India, particularly in Kerala, where they arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian peninsula, through trade links via the Indian Ocean. However, this had marked the introduction of an Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion in Southern India's pre-existing dharmic Hindu culture, often in puritanical form. Later, the Bahmani Sultanate and Deccan Sultanates flourished in the south. Delhi Sultanate Qutub Minar is the world's tallest brick minaret, commenced by Qutb-ud-din Aybak of the Slave dynasty. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Turkics and Pashtuns invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the 13th century, in the former Rajput holdings. Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximate to the ancient extent of the Guptas, while the Khilji Empire was also able to conquer most of central India, but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting most of the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the inter-mingling of the local speakers of Sanskritic prakrits with the Persian, Turkic and Arabic speaking immigrants under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to stake a claim to enthroning one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultan (1236-1240). A Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur began a trek starting in 1398 to invade the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi. Timur - conquest of India The Sultan's army was defeated on December 17, 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins. The Mughal era Approximate extent of the Mughal Empire in the 17th century. Taj Mahal, built by the Mughals In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which lasted for over 200 years. The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires (The Mughal Empire) The Mughal Dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a slow decline after 1707 and was finally defeated during the 1857 War of Independence also called the Indian Rebellion of 1857. This period marked vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority were ruled over by the Mughal emperors, most of them showed religious tolerance, liberally patronising Hindu culture. The famous emperor Akbar, who was the grandson of Babar, tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. However, later emperors such as Aurangazeb tried to establish complete Muslim dominance and as a result several historical temples were destroyed during this period and taxes imposed on non-Muslims. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, which at its peak occupied an area similar to the ancient Maurya Empire, several smaller empires rose to fill the power vacuum or themselves were contributing factors to the decline. The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever existed. In 1739, Nader Shah defeated the Mughal army at the huge Battle of Karnal. After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne. Iran in the Age of the Raj During the Mughal era, the dominant political forces consisted of the Mughal Empire and its tributaries and, later on, the rising successor states - including the Maratha confederacy - who fought an increasingly weak and disfavoured Mughal dynasty. The Mughals, while often employing brutal tactics to subjugate their empire, had a policy of integration with Indian culture, which is what made them successful where the short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had failed. Akbar the Great was particularly famed for this. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the Jazia Tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal Emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local Maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating unique Indo-Saracenic architecture. It was the erosion of this tradition coupled with increased brutality and centralization that played a large part in their downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively non-pluralistic policies on the general population, that often inflamed the majority Hindu population. Post-Mughal Regional Kingdoms The Maratha Empire in 1760. The last Hindu empire of India. Harmandir Sahib or The Golden Temple The post-Mughal era was dominated by the rise of the Maratha suzerianity as other small regional states (mostly post-Mughal tributary states) emerged, and also by the increasing activities of European powers (see colonial era below). The Maratha Kingdom was founded and consolidated by Shivaji. By the 18th century, it had transformed itself into the Maratha Empire under the rule of the Peshwas. By 1760, the Empire had stretched across practically the entire subcontinent. This expansion was brought to an end by the defeat of the Marathas by an Afghan army led by Ahmad Shah Abdali at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). The last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War. Mysore was a kingdom of southern India, which was founded around 1400 CE by the Wodeyar dynasty. The rule of the Wodeyars was interrupted by Hyder Ali and his son Tippu Sultan. Under their rule Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes against the combined forces of the British and Marathas, but mostly against the British with some aid or promise of aid from the French. Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad declaring himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. It was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948. Both Mysore and Hyderabad became princely states in British India. The Punjabi kingdom, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a political entity that governed the region of modern day Punjab. This was among the last areas of the subcontinent to be conquered by the British. The Anglo-Sikh wars marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire. Around the 18th century modern Nepal was formed by Gorkha rulers, and the Shahs and the Ranas very strictly maintained their national identity and integrity. Colonial era Vasco da Gama's maritime success to discover for Europeans a new sea route to India in 1498 paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. From: Oliver J. Thatcher, ed., The Library of Original Sources (Milwaukee: University Research Extension Co., 1907), Vol. V: 9th to 16th Centuries, pp. 26-40. The Portuguese soon set up trading-posts in Goa, Daman, Diu and Bombay. The next to arrive were the Dutch, the British—who set up a trading-post in the west-coast port of Surat in 1619—and the French. The internal conflicts among Indian Kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Although these continental European powers were to control various regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they would eventually lose all their territories in India to the British islanders, with the exception of the French outposts of Pondicherry and Chandernagore, the Dutch port of Travancore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman, and Diu. The British Raj The British East India Company had been given permission by the Mughal emperor Jahangir in 1617 to trade in India. From: James Harvey Robinson, ed., Readings in European History, 2 Vols. (Boston: Ginn and Co., 1904-1906), Vol. II: From the opening of the Protestant Revolt to the Present Day, pp. 333–335. Gradually their increasing influence led the de-jure Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to grant them dastaks or permits for duty free trade in Bengal in 1717. The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, the de facto ruler of the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these permits. This led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the 'army' of East India Company, led by Robert Clive, defeated the Nawab's forces. This was the first political foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired in India. Clive was appointed by the Company as its first 'Governor of Bengal' in 1757. After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Company acquired the civil rights of administration in Bengal from the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II; it marked the beginning of its formal rule, which was to engulf eventually most of India and extinguish the Moghul rule and dynasty itself in a century. The East India Company monopolized the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation system called the Permanent Settlement which introduced a feudal like structure (See Zamindar) in Bengal. By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of the Indian sub-continent, which included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh. Their policy was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups. During the British Raj, famines in India, often attributed to failed government policies, were some of the worst ever recorded, including the Great Famine of 1876–78, in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. 1. Verso, 2000. ISBN 1859847390 pg 7 and the Indian famine of 1899–1900, in which 1.25 to 10 million people died. Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. 1. Verso, 2000. ISBN 1859847390 pg 173 The Third Plague Pandemic started in China in the middle of the 19th century, spreading plague to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone. Plague. WHO The first major movement against the British Company's high handed rule resulted in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the "Indian Mutiny" or "Sepoy Mutiny" or the "First War of Independence". After a year of turmoil, and reinforcement of the East India Company's troops with British soldiers, the British overcame the rebellion. The nominal leader of the uprising, the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, was exiled to Burma, his children were beheaded and the Moghul line abolished. In the aftermath all power was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as a colony; the Company's lands were controlled directly and the rest through the rulers of what it called the Princely states. There were 565 princely states when the Indian subcontinent became independent from Britain in August 1947. Kashmir: The origins of the dispute, BBC News, January 16, 2002 The Indian Independence movement Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru in 1937. Rabindranath Tagore is Asia's first Nobel laureate and composer of India's national anthem. The first step toward Indian independence and western-style democracy was taken with the appointment of Indian councilors to advise the British viceroy, and with the establishment of provincial Councils with Indian members the councillors' participation was subsequently widened in legislative councils. From 1920 leaders such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi began mass movements to campaign against the British Raj. Subash Chandara Bose was another freedom fighter who formed army forces against British rule.Bhagat Singh was also an Indian freedom fighter, considered to be one of the most influential revolutionaries of the Indian independence movement. He is often referred to as Shaheed Bhagat Singh (the word shaheed means "martyr"). Veerapandiya Kattabomman was also another freedom fighter who started his freedom movement against British rule by refusing to pay tax to British Government. Revolutionary activities against the British rule also took place throughout the Indian sub-continent, and these movements succeeded in bringing Independence to the Indian sub-continent in 1947. One year later, Gandhi was assassinated. However, he did live long enough to free his homeland. Independence and Partition Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. The Muslims had always been a minority, and the prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made them wary of independence; they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the Raj. In 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi came onto the scene, calling for unity between the two groups in an astonishing display of leadership that would eventually lead the country to independence. The profound impact Gandhi had on India and his ability to gain independence through a totally non-violent mass movement made him one of the most remarkable leaders the world has ever known. He led by example, wearing homespun clothes to weaken the British textile industry and orchestrating a march to the sea, where demonstrators proceeded to make their own salt in protest against the British monopoly. Indians gave him the name Mahatma, or Great Soul, first suggested by the Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore. The British promised that they would leave India by 1947. British Indian territories gained independence in 1947, after being partitioned into the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. Following the division of pre-partition Punjab and Bengal provinces, rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in several parts of India, including Punjab, Bengal and Delhi, leaving some 500,000 dead. Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations ever recorded in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan. See also History of South Asia History of the Republic of India History of Pakistan History of Bangladesh Indianized kingdom Contributions of Indian Civilization Economic history of India History of Buddhism History of Hinduism History of Jainism History of Sikhism Religion in India Indian Religions Indian philosophy Indian maritime history Military history of India Kingdoms of Ancient India Timeline of Indian history Historic figures of ancient India Indian nationalism Harappan mathematics Negationism in India - Concealing the Record of Islam Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent Imperialism in Asia#The British in India References Further reading R.S. Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India, (Motilal Banarsidass, Fifth Revised Edition, Delhi, 2005), ISBN 8120808983. Translated into Hindi and Tamil. R.S. Sharma, Sudras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A D 600(Motilal Banarsidass, Third Revised Edition, Delhi, 1990; Reprint, Delhi, 2002). Translated into Bengali, Hindi, Telugu, Kannada, Urdu and Marathi (two volumes). R.S. Sharma, Perspectives in Social and Economic History of Early India, paperback edn., (Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 2003). Translated into Hindi, Russian and Bengali. Gujrati, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil and Telugu translations projected. R.S. Sharma, Material Culture and Social Formations in Ancient India, (Macmillan Publishers, Delhi, 1985). Translated into Hindi, Russian and Bengali. Gujrati, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil and Telugu translations projected. R.S. Sharma, Urban Decay in India (c.300-1000), (Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1987). Translated into Hindi and Bengali. R.S. Sharma, Advent of the Aryans in India (Manohar Publishers, Delhi, 2003). R.S. Sharma, Early Medieval Indian Society: A Study in Feudalisation (Orient Longman Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, 2003). R.S. Sharma, Looking for the Aryans, (Orient Longman, Madras, 1995, ISBN 8125006311). R.S. Sharma, India's Ancient Past, (Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 978-0195687859). R.S. Sharma, Indian Feudalism (Macmillan Publishers India Ltd., 3rd Revised Edition, Delhi, 2005). R.S. Sharma, The State and Varna Formations in the Mid-Ganga Plains: An Ethnoarchaeological Vew (New Delhi, Manohar, 1996). R.S. Sharma, Origin of the State in India (Dept. of History, University of Bombay, 1989) R.S. Sharma, Land Revenue in India: Historical Studies, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1971. R.S. Sharma, Light on Early Indian Society and Economy, Manaktala, Bombay, 1966. R.S. Sharma, Survey of Research in Economic and Social History of India: a project sponsored by Indian Council of Social Science Research, Ajanta Publishers, 1986. R.S. Sharma, Communal History and Rama's Ayodhya, People's Publishing House (PPH), 2nd Revised Edition, September, 1999, Delhi. Translated into Bengali, Hindi, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. Two versions in Bengali. R.S. Sharma, Social Changes in Early Medieval India (Circa A.D.500-1200), People's Publishing House, Delhi. R.S. Sharma, In Defence of "Ancient India", People's Publishing House, Delhi. R.S. Sharma, Rahul Sankrityayan and Social Change, Indian History Congress, 1993. R.S. Sharma, Indo-European languages and historical problems (Symposia papers), Indian History Congress, 1994. R.S. Sharma, Some economic aspects of the caste system in ancient India, Patna, 1952. R.S. Sharma, Ancient India, a Textbook for Class XI, National Council of Educational Research and Training, 1980. Translated into Bengali, Hindi, Japanese, Korean, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. Italian and German translations projected. Revised and enlarged book as India's Ancient Past, (Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 978-0195687859). R.S. Sharma, Transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages in India (K. P. Jayaswal memorial lecture series), Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Research Institute, Patna, 1992. R.S. Sharma, A Comprehensive History of India: Volume Four, Part I: the Colas, Calukyas and Rajputs (Ad 985-1206), sponsored by Indian History Congress, People's Publishing House, 1992, Delhi. R.S. Sharma, Rethinking India's Past, (Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0195697872). Allan, J. T. Wolseley Haig, and H. H. Dodwell, The Cambridge Shorter History of India (1934) Chandavarkar, Raj. The Origins of Industrial Capitalism in India: Business Strategies and the Working Class in Bombay 1900-1940 (1994) Cohen, Stephen P. India: Emerging Power (2002) Daniélou, Alain. A Brief History of India (2003) Das, Gurcharan. India Unbound: The Social and Economic Revolution from Independence to the Global Information Age (2002) Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 - This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List) Keay, John. India: A History (2001) Kishore, Prem and Anuradha Kishore Ganpati. India: An Illustrated History (2003) Kulke, Hermann and Dietmar Rothermund. A History of India. 3rd ed. (1998) Mahajan, Sucheta. Independence and partition: the erosion of colonial power in India, New Delhi [u.a.] : Sage 2000, ISBN 0-7619-9367-3 R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, and Kaukinkar Datta. An Advanced History of India London: Macmillan. 1960. ISBN 0-333-90298-X R.C. Majumdar, The History and Culture of the Indian People, New York: The Macmillan Co., 1951. Mcleod, John. The History of India (2002) Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991 (1993) Smith, Vincent. The Oxford History of India (1981) Spear, Percival. The History of India Vol. 2 (1990) Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (2004) von Tunzelmann, Alex. Indian Summer (2007). Henry Holt and Company, New York. ISBN 0-8050-8073-2 Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India'' 6th ed. 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2,680 | Johann_Friedrich_Agricola | Johann Friedrich Agricola (4 January 1720 – 2 December 1774) was a German composer, organist, singer, pedagogue, and writer on music. He sometimes wrote under the pseudonym Flavio Anicio Olibrio. Biography Johann Friedrich Agricola was born in Dobitschen, Thuringia. While a student of law at Leipzig he studied music under Johann Sebastian Bach. In 1741 he went to Berlin, where he studied musical composition under Johann Joachim Quantz. He was soon generally recognized as one of the most skillful organists of his time. The success of his comic opera, Il Filosofo convinto in amore, performed at Potsdam in 1750, led to an appointment as court composer to Frederick the Great. In 1759, on the death of Karl Heinrich Graun, he was appointed conductor of the royal orchestra. He married the noted operatic soprano Benedetta Emilia Molteni, a marriage of which the king apparently disapproved. Agricola died in Berlin at 54. During his lifetime, Agricola wrote a number of Italian operas, as well as Lieder, chorale preludes, various other keyboard pieces and church music, especially oratorios and cantatas. His reputation chiefly rests, however, on his theoretical and critical writings on musical subjects. In 1754 he co-wrote with Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach an obituary for J.S. Bach. His 1757 Anleitung zur Singekunst (Introduction to the Art of Singing) is Pier Francesco Tosi's 1723 treatise Opinioni de' cantori antichi e moderni with Agricola's own extensive comments. External links | Johann_Friedrich_Agricola |@lemmatized johann:4 friedrich:2 agricola:5 january:1 december:1 german:1 composer:2 organist:2 singer:1 pedagogue:1 writer:1 music:3 sometimes:1 write:3 pseudonym:1 flavio:1 anicio:1 olibrio:1 biography:1 bear:1 dobitschen:1 thuringia:1 student:1 law:1 leipzig:1 study:2 sebastian:1 bach:3 go:1 berlin:2 musical:2 composition:1 joachim:1 quantz:1 soon:1 generally:1 recognize:1 one:1 skillful:1 time:1 success:1 comic:1 opera:2 il:1 filosofo:1 convinto:1 amore:1 perform:1 potsdam:1 lead:1 appointment:1 court:1 frederick:1 great:1 death:1 karl:1 heinrich:1 graun:1 appoint:1 conductor:1 royal:1 orchestra:1 marry:1 noted:1 operatic:1 soprano:1 benedetta:1 emilia:1 molteni:1 marriage:1 king:1 apparently:1 disapprove:1 die:1 lifetime:1 number:1 italian:1 well:1 lied:1 chorale:1 prelude:1 various:1 keyboard:1 piece:1 church:1 especially:1 oratorio:1 cantata:1 reputation:1 chiefly:1 rest:1 however:1 theoretical:1 critical:1 writing:1 subject:1 co:1 carl:1 philipp:1 emanuel:1 obituary:1 j:1 anleitung:1 zur:1 singekunst:1 introduction:1 art:1 sing:1 pier:1 francesco:1 tosi:1 treatise:1 opinioni:1 de:1 cantori:1 antichi:1 e:1 moderni:1 extensive:1 comment:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram johann_friedrich:2 johann_sebastian:1 sebastian_bach:1 chorale_prelude:1 carl_philipp:1 philipp_emanuel:1 emanuel_bach:1 external_link:1 |
2,681 | Minotaur | In Greek mythology, the Minotaur (Greek: , Mīnṓtauros) was a creature that was part man and part bull. semibovumque virem; semivirumque bovem, according to Ovid, Ars Amatoria 2.24, one of the three lines that his friends would have deleted from his work, and one of the three that he, selecting independently, would preserve at all cost, in the apocryphal anecdote told by Albinovanus Pedo. (noted by J. S. Rusten, "Ovid, Empedocles and the Minotaur" The American Journal of Philology 103.3 (Autumn 1982, pp. 332-333) p. 332. It dwelt at the center of the Labyrinth, which was an elaborate maze-like construction Labyrinth patterns as painted or inscribed do not have dead ends like a maze; instead, a single path winds to the center, where, with a single turn, the alternate path leads out again. built for King Minos of Crete and designed by the architect Daedalus and his son Icarus who were ordered to build it to hold the Minotaur. The historical site of Knossos, with over 1300 maze like compartments C. Michael Hogan. 2007. Knossos fieldnotes, The Modern Antiquarian, ed. Julian Cope is identified as the site of the labyrinth. The Minotaur was eventually killed by Theseus, the son of Aegeas. The term Minotaur derives from the Greek: Μῑνώταυρος (Mīnṓtauros), Etymologically it is a compound of the name Μίνως (Minos) and the noun ταύρος (tauros) "bull", thus it translated as "Bull of Minos". The bull was known in Crete as Asterion, a name shared with Minos's foster-father. The Hesiodic Catalogue of Women, says of Zeus' establishment of Europa in Crete: "...he made her live with Asterion the king of the Cretans. There she conceived and bore three sons, Minos, Sarpedon and Rhadamanthys." Birth and appearance Minotaur locked in battle with Theseus. Bronze by Antoine-Louis Barye (Louvre) After he ascended the throne of Crete, Minos struggled with his brothers for the right to rule. Minos prayed to Poseidon to send him a snow-white bull, as a sign of approval. He was to sacrifice the bull in honor of Poseidon but decided to keep it instead because of its beauty. To punish Minos, Poseidon caused Pasiphaë, Minos' wife, to fall madly in love with the bull from the sea, the Cretan Bull. In Greek mythology, the Cretan Bull was equally the bull that carried away Europa. She had Daedalus, the famous architect, make a wooden cow for her. Pasiphaë climbed into the decoy in order to copulate with the white bull. The offspring of their coupling was a monster called the Minotaur. Nowhere has the essence of the myth been expressed more succinctly than in the Heroides attributed to Ovid, where Pasiphaë's daughter complains of the curse of her unrequited love: "the bull's form disguised the god, Pasiphaë, my mother, a victim of the deluded bull, brought forth in travail her reproach and burden." The Minotaur, as the Greeks imagined him, had the body of a man and the head and tail of a bull. One of the figurations assumed by the river god Achelous in wooing Deianira is as a man with the head of a bull, according to Sophocles' Trachiniai. Pasiphaë nursed him in his infancy, but he grew and became ferocious. Minos, after getting advice from the Oracle at Delphi, had Daedalus construct a gigantic labyrinth to hold the Minotaur. Its location was near Minos' palace in Knossos. Tribute price that brought Theseus Rhyton in the shape of a bull's head at the Greek pavilion at Expo '88 Androgeus, son of Minos, had been killed by the Athenians, who were jealous of the victories he had won at the Panathenaic festival. Others say he was killed at Marathon by the Cretan bull, his mother's former taurine lover, which Aegeus, king of Athens, had commanded him to slay. The common tradition is that Minos waged war to avenge the death of his son, and won. Catullus, in his account of the Minotaur's birth, Carmen 64. refers to another version in which Athens was "compelled by the cruel plague to pay penalties for the killing of Androgeos." Aegeus must avert the plague caused by his crime by sending "young men at the same time as the best of unwed girls as a feast" to the Minotaur. Minos required that seven Athenian youths and seven maidens, drawn by lots, be sent every ninth year (some accounts say every year) to be devoured by the Minotaur. When the third sacrifice approached, Theseus volunteered to slay the monster. He promised to his father, Aegeus, that he would put up a white sail on his journey back home if he was successful and would have the crew put up black sails if he was killed. In Crete, Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, fell in love with Theseus and helped him navigate the labyrinth, which had a single path to the center. In most accounts she gave him a ball of thread, allowing him to retrace his path. Theseus killed the Minotaur with the sword of Aegeus and led the other Athenians back out of the labyrinth. But he forgot to put up the white sail, so when his father saw the ship he presumed Theseus was dead and threw himself into the sea, thus committing suicide. Plutarch, Theseus, 15—19; Diodorus Siculus i. I6, iv. 61; Bibliotheke iii. 1,15 Etruscan view This essentially Athenian view of the Minotaur as the antagonist of Theseus, reflects the literary sources, which are biased in favour of Athenian perspectives. The Etruscans, who paired Ariadne with Dionysus, never with Theseus, offered an alternative Etruscan view of the Minotaur, never seen in Greek arts: on an Etruscan red-figure wine-cup of the early-to-mid fourth century Pasiphaë tenderly dandles an infant Minotaur on her knee. The wine cup is illustrated in Larissa Bonfante and Judith Swaddling, Etruscan Mythology (Series The Legendary Past, British Museum/University of Texas) 2006, fig.29 p. 44 ("early fourth century") (on-line illustration). Interpretations Theseus fighting the Minotaur by Jean-Etienne Ramey, marble, 1826, Tuileries Gardens, Paris. The contest between Theseus and the Minotaur was frequently represented in Greek art. A Knossian didrachm exhibits on one side the labyrinth, on the other the Minotaur surrounded by a semicircle of small balls, probably intended for stars; one of the monster's names was Asterion ("star"). The ruins of Minos' palace at Knossos have been found, but the labyrinth has not. The enormous number of rooms, staircases and corridors in the palace has led archaeologists to believe that the palace itself was the source of the labyrinth myth. Homer, describing the shield of Achilles, remarked that the labyrinth was Ariadne's ceremonial dancing ground. Some modern mythologists regard the Minotaur as a solar personification and a Minoan adaptation of the Baal-Moloch of the Phoenicians. The slaying of the Minotaur by Theseus in that case indicates the breaking of Athenian tributary relations with Minoan Crete. According to A. B. Cook, Minos and Minotaur are only different forms of the same personage, representing the sun-god of the Cretans, who depicted the sun as a bull. He and J. G. Frazer both explain Pasiphae's union with the bull as a sacred ceremony, at which the queen of Knossos was wedded to a bull-formed god, just as the wife of the Tyrant in Athens was wedded to Dionysus. E. Pottier, who does not dispute the historical personality of Minos, in view of the story of Phalaris, considers it probable that in Crete (where a bull-cult may have existed by the side of that of the labrys) victims were tortured by being shut up in the belly of a red-hot brazen bull. The story of Talos, the Cretan man of brass, who heated himself red-hot and clasped strangers in his embrace as soon as they landed on the island, is probably of similar origin. A historical explanation of the myth refers to the time when Crete was the main political and cultural potency in the Aegean Sea. As the fledgling Athens (and probably other continental Greek cities) was under tribute to Crete, it can be assumed that such tribute included young men and women for sacrifice. This ceremony was performed by a priest disguised with a bull head or mask, thus explaining the imagery of the Minotaur. It may also be that this priest was son to Minos. Once continental Greece was free from Crete's dominance, the myth of the Minotaur worked to distance the forming religious consciousness of the Hellene poleis from Minoan beliefs. See also in Mesopotamian mythology Shedu had a bull body and a human head. Molech or Ba'al worshipped in the Middle East, and depicted as a man with the head of a bull. The Egyptian god Apis is often depicted as a bull, or bull-headed man. Ushi-oni Another bull-headed monster; from Japanese folklore. References Minotaur in Greek Myth source Greek texts and art. 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2,682 | East_Berlin | East Berlin was the name given to the eastern part of Berlin between 1949 and 1990. It consisted of the Soviet sector of Berlin that was established in 1945. The American, British and French sectors became West Berlin, a de facto part of West Germany. Despite its status as part of an occupied city, East Berlin was claimed as the capital of East Germany. From 13 August 1961 until 9 November 1989 East Berlin was separated from West Berlin by the Berlin Wall. The East German government referred to East Berlin simply as "Berlin" or often "Berlin, Hauptstadt der DDR" (Berlin, capital of the GDR). The term "Democratic Sector" was also used until the 1960s. (See also Naming conventions) The Western Allies (the USA, Britain and France) never formally acknowledged the authority of the East German government to govern East Berlin; the official Allied protocol recognized only the authority of the Soviet Union in East Berlin in accordance with the occupation status of Berlin as a whole. The United States Command Berlin, for example, published detailed instructions for U.S. military and civilian personnel wishing to visit East Berlin. In fact, the three Western commandants regularly protested the presence of the East German National People's Army (NVA) in East Berlin, particularly on the occasion of military parades. Nevertheless, the three Western Allies eventually established embassies in East Berlin in the 1970s, although they never recognized it as the capital of East Germany. Treaties instead used terms such as "seat of government." On 3 October 1990, West and East Germany were reunited, thus formally ending the existence of East Berlin. East Berlin today Map of East Berlin in 1987 Since reunification, the German government has spent vast amounts of money on reintegrating the two halves of the city and bringing services and infrastructure in the former East Berlin up to the standard established in West Berlin. Despite this, there are still obvious differences between eastern and western Berlin. Eastern Berlin has a distinctly different visual aspect, partly because of the greater survival of prewar façades and streetscapes, some still showing signs of wartime damage, and partly because of the distinctive style of urban Stalinist architecture used in the GDR. As in other former East German cities, a small number of GDR-era names commemorating socialist heroes have been preserved, such as Karl-Marx-Allee, Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz and Karl-Liebknecht-Straße; this followed a long process of review in which many such street names were deemed inappropriate and were changed. Still visible throughout former East Berlin are the characteristic "Ampelmännchen" on some pedestrian traffic lights. These days they are also visible in parts of the former West Berlin following a civic debate about whether the "Ampelmännchen" should be abolished or disseminated more widely. Soviet and East German Commandants of East Berlin Marx-Engels-Platz and the Palast der Republik in East Berlin in the summer of 1989. The Fernsehturm (TV Tower) is visible in the background + Name Term Nikolay Berzarin 2 May 1945 - 16 June 1945 Aleksandr Gorbetov 17 June 1945 - 19 November 1945 Dimitry Smirnov 19 November 1945 - 1 April 1946 Aleksandr Kotikov 1 April 1946 - 7 June 1950 Sergey Dienghin 7 June 1950 - April 1953 Pavel Dibrova April 1953 - 23 June 1956 Andrey Chamov 28 June 1956 - 26 February 1958 Nikolay Zakharov 26 February 1958 - 9 May 1961 Andrey Soloviev 9 May 1961 - 22 August 1962 Helmut Poppe 22 August 1962 - 31 May 1971 Artur Kunath 1 June 1971 - 31 August 1978 Karl-Heinz Drews 1 September 1978 - 31 December 1988 Wolfgang Dombrowski 1 January 1989 - 30 September 1990 Detlef Wendorf 1 October 1990 - 2 October 1990 Boroughs of East Berlin Boroughs of East Berlin At the time of German reunification, East Berlin comprised the boroughs of Friedrichshain Hellersdorf (since 1986) Hohenschönhausen (since 1985) Köpenick Lichtenberg Marzahn (since 1979) Mitte Pankow Prenzlauer Berg Treptow Weißensee Images of East Berlin See also History of Berlin Berlin Wall Bonn Cold War Checkpoint Charlie East Germany Ghost station History of Germany since 1945 West Berlin References External links Berlin Photos 1989-1999 East Berlin Past and Present Pictures of the GDR and East Berlin 1949-1973 Old East Berlin Fades Away Amid Renovations The Lives of Others official website | East_Berlin |@lemmatized east:32 berlin:41 name:5 give:1 eastern:3 part:4 consist:1 soviet:3 sector:3 establish:3 american:1 british:1 french:1 become:1 west:7 de:1 facto:1 germany:6 despite:2 status:2 occupied:1 city:3 claim:1 capital:3 august:4 november:3 separate:1 wall:2 german:7 government:4 refer:1 simply:1 often:1 hauptstadt:1 der:2 ddr:1 gdr:4 term:3 democratic:1 also:4 use:3 see:2 convention:1 western:4 ally:3 usa:1 britain:1 france:1 never:2 formally:2 acknowledge:1 authority:2 govern:1 official:2 protocol:1 recognize:2 union:1 accordance:1 occupation:1 whole:1 united:1 state:1 command:1 example:1 publish:1 detailed:1 instruction:1 u:1 military:2 civilian:1 personnel:1 wish:1 visit:1 fact:1 three:2 commandant:2 regularly:1 protest:1 presence:1 national:1 people:1 army:1 nva:1 particularly:1 occasion:1 parade:1 nevertheless:1 eventually:1 embassy:1 although:1 treaty:1 instead:1 seat:1 october:3 reunite:1 thus:1 end:1 existence:1 today:1 map:1 since:5 reunification:2 spend:1 vast:1 amount:1 money:1 reintegrate:1 two:1 half:1 bringing:1 service:1 infrastructure:1 former:4 standard:1 still:3 obvious:1 difference:1 distinctly:1 different:1 visual:1 aspect:1 partly:2 great:1 survival:1 prewar:1 façades:1 streetscapes:1 show:1 sign:1 wartime:1 damage:1 distinctive:1 style:1 urban:1 stalinist:1 architecture:1 small:1 number:1 era:1 commemorate:1 socialist:1 hero:1 preserve:1 karl:3 marx:2 allee:1 rosa:1 luxemburg:1 platz:2 liebknecht:1 straße:1 follow:2 long:1 process:1 review:1 many:1 street:1 deem:1 inappropriate:1 change:1 visible:3 throughout:1 characteristic:1 ampelmännchen:2 pedestrian:1 traffic:1 light:1 day:1 civic:1 debate:1 whether:1 abolish:1 disseminate:1 widely:1 engels:1 palast:1 republik:1 summer:1 fernsehturm:1 tv:1 tower:1 background:1 nikolay:2 berzarin:1 may:4 june:7 aleksandr:2 gorbetov:1 dimitry:1 smirnov:1 april:4 kotikov:1 sergey:1 dienghin:1 pavel:1 dibrova:1 andrey:2 chamov:1 february:2 zakharov:1 soloviev:1 helmut:1 poppe:1 artur:1 kunath:1 heinz:1 drews:1 september:2 december:1 wolfgang:1 dombrowski:1 january:1 detlef:1 wendorf:1 borough:3 time:1 comprise:1 friedrichshain:1 hellersdorf:1 hohenschönhausen:1 köpenick:1 lichtenberg:1 marzahn:1 mitte:1 pankow:1 prenzlauer:1 berg:1 treptow:1 weißensee:1 image:1 history:2 bonn:1 cold:1 war:1 checkpoint:1 charlie:1 ghost:1 station:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 photo:1 past:1 present:1 picture:1 old:1 fade:1 away:1 amid:1 renovation:1 life:1 others:1 website:1 |@bigram de_facto:1 der_ddr:1 soviet_union:1 karl_marx:1 rosa_luxemburg:1 deem_inappropriate:1 marx_engels:1 der_republik:1 karl_heinz:1 checkpoint_charlie:1 external_link:1 |
2,683 | Geography_of_Egypt | The Geography of Egypt can be split into two general sections. Egypt is located in the northern part of Africa; however, it includes the Sinai Peninsula, which is considered part of Southwest Asia. Therefore, Egypt is located in both North Africa and Southwest Asia. Egypt has shorelines on the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. It borders Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. Egypt, covering 1,001,449 square kilometers of land, is about the same size as Texas and New Mexico combined, four times the size of the and double that of France. Its longest distance from north to south is 1,024 kilometers, and from east to west is 1,240 kilometers. Egypt's natural boundaries consist of more than 2,900 kilometers of coastline along the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Suez, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea. Governorates Egypt is divided into twenty-six governorates (sometimes called provinces), which include four city governorates: Alexandria (Al Iskandariyah), Cairo (Al Qahirah), Port Said (Bur Said) and Suez. Also included are the nine governorates of Lower Egypt in the Nile Delta region, the eight governorates of Upper Egypt along the Nile River south from Cairo to Aswan, and the five frontier governorates covering Sinai and the deserts that lie west and east of the Nile. Natural regions Topography of EgyptEgypt is predominantly desert. An area of only 35,000 square kilometers - 3.5 % of the total land area - is cultivated and permanently settled. Most of the country lies within the wide band of desert that stretches from Africa's Atlantic Coast across the continent and into southwest Asia. Egypt's geological history has produced four major physical regions: the Nile Valley and Delta, the Western Desert (also known as the Libyan Desert), the Eastern Desert (also known as the Arabian Desert), the Sinai Peninsula. Despite covering only about 5.5% of the total area of Egypt, the Nile Valley and Nile Delta are the most important regions, being the country's only cultivable regions and supporting about 99% of the population. The Nile valley extends approximately 800 km from Aswan to the outskirts of Cairo. The Nile Valley is also known as Upper Egypt, while the Nile Delta region is known as Lower Egypt. Steep rocky cliffs rise along the banks of the Nile in some stretches, while other areas along the Nile are flat, with space for agricultural production. In the past, flooding of the Nile during the summer provided silt and water to make agriculture possible on land that is otherwise very dry. Since construction of the Aswan Dam, agriculture in the Nile valley depends on irrigation. The Nile delta consists of low, flat-lying areas. Some parts of the delta are marshy and water-logged, and thus not suitable for agriculture. Other areas of the delta are used for agriculture. Nile Valley and Delta Nile delta, and the entire course of the Nile The Nile Valley and Delta, the most extensive oasis on earth, was created by the world's longest river and its seemingly inexhaustible sources. Without the topographic channel that permits the Nile to flow across the Sahara, Egypt would be entirely desert. The Nile River traverses about 1,600 kilometers through Egypt and flows northward from the Egyptian-Sudanese border to the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is a combination of three long rivers whose sources are in central Africa: the White Nile, the Blue Nile, and the Atbara. The White Nile, which begins at Lake Victoria in Uganda, supplies about 28% of the Nile's waters in Egypt. In its course from Lake Victoria to Juba in southern Sudan, the elevation of the White Nile's channel drops more than 600 meters. In its 1,600-kilometer course from Juba to Khartoum, Sudan's capital, the river descends only 75 meters. In southern and central Sudan, the White Nile passes through a wide, flat plain covered with swamp vegetation and slows almost to stagnation. The Blue Nile, which originates at Lake Tana in Ethiopia, provides an average of 58% of the Nile's waters in Egypt. It has a steeper gradient and flows more swiftly than the White Nile, which it joins at Khartoum. Unlike the White Nile, the Blue Nile carries a considerable amount of sediment. For several kilometers north of Khartoum, water closer to the eastern bank of the river is visibly muddy and comes from the Blue Nile, while the water closer to the western bank is clearer and comes from the White Nile. The much shorter Atbara River, which also originates in Ethiopia, joins the main Nile north of Khartoum between the fifth and sixth cataracts (areas of steep rapids) and provides about 14% of the Nile's waters in Egypt. During the low-water season, which runs from January to June, the Atbarah shrinks to a number of pools. But, in late-summer, when torrential rains fall on the Ethiopian plateau, the Atbarah provides 22% of the Nile's flow. The Blue Nile has a similar pattern. It contributes 17% of the Nile's waters in the low-water season and 68% during the high-water season. In contrast, the White Nile provides only 10% of the Nile's waters during the high-water season but contributes more than 80% during the low-water period. Thus, before the Aswan High Dam was completed in 1971, the White Nile watered the Egyptian stretch of the river throughout the year, whereas the Blue Nile, carrying seasonal rain from Ethiopia, caused the Nile to overflow its banks and deposit a layer of fertile mud over adjacent fields. The great flood of the main Nile usually occurred in Egypt during August, September, and October, but it sometimes began as early as June at Aswan and often did not completely wane until January. The Nile enters Egypt a few kilometers north of Wadi Halfa, a Sudanese town that was completely rebuilt on high ground when its original site was submerged in the reservoir created by the Aswan High Dam. As a result of the dam's construction, the Nile actually begins its flow into Egypt as Lake Nasser, which extends south from the dam 320 kilometers to the border and an additional 158 kilometers into Sudan. Lake Nasser's waters fill the area through Lower Nubia (Upper Egypt and northern Sudan) within the narrow gorge between the cliffs of sandstone and granite created by the flow of the river over many centuries. Below Aswan the cultivated floodplain strip widens to as much as twenty kilometers. North of Isna (160 kilometers north of Aswan), the plateau on both sides of the valley rises as high as 550 meters above sea level; at Qina (about 90 kilometers north of Isna) the 300-meter limestone cliffs force the Nile to change course to the southwest for about 60 kilometers before turning northwest for about 160 kilometers to Asyut. Northward from Asyut, the escarpments on both sides diminish, and the valley widens to a maximum of twenty-two kilometers. The Nile reaches the Delta at Cairo. At Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary that has been filled by silt deposits to form a fertile, fan-shape delta about 250 kilometers wide at the seaward base and about 160 kilometers from north to south. The Nile Delta extends over approximately 22,000 square kilometers (roughly equivalent in area to Massachusetts). According to historical accounts from the first century A.D., seven branches of the Nile once ran through the Delta. According to later accounts, the Nile had only six branches by around the twelfth century. Since then, nature and man have closed all but two main outlets: the east branch, Damietta (also seen as Dumyat; 240 kilometers long), and the west branch, Rosetta (235 kilometers long). Both outlets are named after the ports located at their mouths. A network of drainage and irrigation canals supplements these remaining outlets. In the north near the coast, the Delta embraces a series of salt marshes and lakes. The most notable among them are Idku, Al Burullus, and Manzilah. The fertility and productivity of the land adjacent to the Nile depends largely on the silt deposited by floodwaters. Archaeological research indicates that people once lived at a much higher elevation along the river than they do today, probably because the river was higher or the floods more severe. The timing and the amount of annual flow were always unpredictable. Measurements of annual flows as low as 1.2 billion cubic meters and as high as 4.25 billion cubic meters have been recorded. For centuries Egyptians attempted to predict and take advantage of the flows and moderate the severity of floods. The construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam, transformed the mighty river into a large and predictable irrigation ditch. Lake Nasser, the world's largest artificial lake, has enabled planned use of the Nile regardless of the amount of rainfall in Central Africa and East Africa. The dams have also affected the Nile Valley's fertility, which was dependent for centuries not only on the water brought to the arable land but also on the materials left by the water. Researchers have estimated that beneficial silt deposits in the valley began about 10,000 years ago. The average annual deposit of arable soil through the course of the river valley was about nine meters. Analysis of the flow revealed that 10.7 million tons of solid matter passed Cairo each year. Today the Aswan High Dam obstructs most of this sediment, which is now retained in Lake Nasser. The reduction in annual silt deposits has contributed to rising water tables and increasing soil salinity in the Delta, the erosion of the river's banks in Upper Egypt, and the erosion of the alluvial fan along the shore of the Mediterranean Sea. Western Desert The Western Desert covers about 700,000 square kilometers (equivalent in size to Texas) and accounts for about two-thirds of Egypt's land area. This immense desert to the west of the Nile spans the area from the Mediterranean Sea south to the Sudanese border. The desert's Jilf al Kabir Plateau has an altitude of about 1,000 meters, an exception to the uninterrupted territory of basement rocks covered by layers of horizontally bedded sediments forming a massive plain or low plateau. The Great Sand Sea lies within the desert's plain and extends from the Siwa Oasis to Jilf al Kabir. Escarpments (ridges) and deep depressions (basins) exist in several parts of the Western Desert, and no rivers or streams drain into or out of the area. The government has considered the Western Desert a frontier region and has divided it into two governorates at about the twenty-eighth parallel: Matruh to the north and New Valley (Al Wadi al Jadid) to the south. There are seven important depressions in the Western Desert, and all are considered oases except the largest, Qattara, the water of which is salty. The Qattara Depression is approximately 15,000 square kilometers (about the size of Connecticut and Rhode Island) and is largely below sea level (its lowest point is 133 meters below sea level). Badlands, salt marshes, and salt lakes cover the sparsely inhabited Qattara Depression. Limited agricultural production, the presence of some natural resources, and permanent settlements are found in the other six depressions, all of which have fresh water provided by the Nile or by local groundwater. The Siwah Oasis, close to the Libyan border and west of Qattara, is isolated from the rest of Egypt but has sustained life since ancient times. The Siwa's cliff-hung Temple of Amun was renowned for its oracles for more than 1,000 years. Herodotus and Alexander the Great were among the many illustrious people who visited the temple in the pre-Christian era. The other major oases form a topographic chain of basins extending from the Faiyum Oasis (sometimes called the Fayyum Depression) which lies sixty kilometers southwest of Cairo, south to the Bahariya, Farafirah, and Dakhilah oases before reaching the country's largest oasis, Kharijah. A brackish lake, Birket Qarun, at the northern reaches of Al Fayyum Oasis, drained into the Nile in ancient times. For centuries sweetwater artesian wells in the Fayyum Oasis have permitted extensive cultivation in an irrigated area that extends over 1,800 square kilometers (694 square miles). Eastern Desert A large plume of Saharan Desert dust (light brownish pixels) were blowing over Libya and Egypt northward over the Mediterranean Sea toward the Middle East, on February 2, 2003. The topographic features of the region east of the Nile are very different from those of the Western Desert. The relatively mountainous Eastern Desert rises abruptly from the Nile and extends over an area of approximately 220,000 square kilometers (roughly equivalent in size to Utah). The upward-sloping plateau of sand gives way within 100 kilometers to arid, defoliated, rocky hills running north and south between the Sudan border and the Delta. The hills reach elevations of more than 1,900 meters. The region's most prominent feature is the easterly chain of rugged mountains, the Red Sea Hills, which extend from the Nile Valley eastward to the Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea. This elevated region has a natural drainage pattern that rarely functions because of insufficient rainfall. It also has a complex of irregular, sharply cut wadis that extend westward toward the Nile. The Eastern Desert is generally isolated from the rest of the country. There is no oasis cultivation in the region because of the difficulty in sustaining any form of agriculture. Except for a few villages on the Red Sea coast, there are no permanent settlements. The importance of the Eastern Desert lies in its natural resources, especially oil. A single governorate, the capital of which is at Al Ghardaqah, administers the entire region. Sinai Peninsula This triangular area covers about 61,100 square kilometers (slightly smaller than West Virginia, USA). Similar to the desert, the peninsula contains mountains in its southern sector that are a geological extension of the Red Sea Hills, the low range along the Red Sea coast that includes Mount Catherine (Jabal Katrinah), the country's highest point--2,642 meters. The Red Sea may have been named after these mountains, which are red. The southern side of the peninsula has a sharp escarpment that subsides after a narrow coastal shelf that slopes into the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. The elevation of Sinai's southern rim is about 1,000 meters. Moving northward, the elevation of this limestone plateau decreases. The northern third of Sinai is a flat, sandy coastal plain, which extends from the Suez Canal into the Gaza Strip and Israel. Before the Israeli military occupied Sinai during the June 1967 War (Arab-Israeli war, also known as the Six-Day War), a single Egyptian governorate administered the whole peninsula. By 1982 after all of Sinai was returned to Egypt, the central government divided the peninsula into two governorates. North Sinai has its capital at Al Arish and the South Sinai has its capital in At Tur. Urban and rural areas The 1996 census counted 57 percent of Egypt's population as rural, including those residing in agricultural areas in the Nile Valley and Delta, as well as the much smaller number of persons living in desert areas. Rural areas differ from the urban in terms of poverty, fertility rates, and other social factors. Agriculture is a key component of the economy in rural areas, though some people are employed in the tourist industry or other non-farm occupations. In 1992, the percentage of Egypt's population employed in agriculture was 33 percent. The agricultural industry is dependent on irrigation from the Nile River. See also Northern coast of Egypt Notes References External links Map Ancient Egyptian Geography | Geography_of_Egypt |@lemmatized geography:2 egypt:30 split:1 two:6 general:1 section:1 locate:3 northern:5 part:4 africa:6 however:1 include:5 sinai:10 peninsula:7 consider:3 southwest:5 asia:3 therefore:1 north:13 shorelines:1 mediterranean:6 sea:19 red:10 border:6 libya:2 west:7 sudan:7 south:10 gaza:2 strip:3 israel:2 east:7 cover:8 square:9 kilometer:29 land:6 size:5 texas:2 new:2 mexico:1 combine:1 four:3 time:3 double:1 france:1 long:5 distance:1 natural:5 boundary:1 consist:2 coastline:1 along:7 gulf:4 suez:4 aqaba:2 governorates:8 divide:3 twenty:4 six:4 sometimes:3 call:2 province:1 city:1 alexandria:1 al:10 iskandariyah:1 cairo:7 qahirah:1 port:2 say:2 bur:1 also:11 nine:2 low:11 nile:66 delta:18 region:12 eight:1 upper:4 river:16 aswan:10 five:1 frontier:2 desert:24 lie:6 topography:1 egyptegypt:1 predominantly:1 area:20 total:2 cultivate:1 permanently:1 settle:1 country:5 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2,684 | Microsoft | Microsoft Corporation (, ) is an United States-based multinational computer technology corporation that develops, manufactures, licenses, and supports a wide range of software products for computing devices. Headquartered in Redmond, Washington, USA, its most profitable products are the Microsoft Windows operating system and the Microsoft Office suite of productivity software. The company was founded to develop and sell BASIC interpreters for the Altair 8800. Microsoft rose to dominate the home computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by the Windows line of operating systems. Its products have all achieved near-ubiquity in the desktop computer market. One commentator notes that Microsoft's original mission was "a computer on every desk and in every home, running Microsoft software." Microsoft possesses footholds in other markets, with assets such as the MSNBC cable television network, the MSN Internet portal, and the Microsoft Encarta multimedia encyclopedia. The company also markets both computer hardware products such as the Microsoft mouse as well as home entertainment products such as the Xbox, Xbox 360, Zune and MSN TV. The company's initial public stock offering (IPO) was in 1986; the ensuing rise of the company's stock price has made four billionaires and an estimated 12,000 millionaires from Microsoft employees. Chapman, Merrill R., In search of stupidity: over 20 years of high-tech marketing disasters (2nd Edition) , Apress, ISBN 1-59059-721-4. * Throughout its history the company has been the target of criticism, including monopolistic business practices and anti-competitive strategies including refusal to deal and tying. The U.S. Justice Department and the European Commission, among others, have ruled against Microsoft for various antitrust violations. homepage at the United States Department of Justice History 1975–1984: Founding Following the launch of the Altair 8800, William Henry Gates III, (known as Bill Gates) called the creators of the new microcomputer, Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS), offering to demonstrate an implementation of the BASIC programming language for the system. After the demonstration, MITS agreed to distribute Altair BASIC. Gates left Harvard University, moved to Albuquerque, New Mexico where MITS was located, and founded Microsoft there. The company's first international office was founded on November 1, 1978, in Japan, entitled "ASCII Microsoft" (now called "Microsoft Japan"). On January 1, 1979, the company moved from Albuquerque to a new home in Bellevue, Washington. Steve Ballmer joined the company on June 11, 1980, and later succeeded Bill Gates as CEO. Among pre-IBM-PC products were the software package TASC (The AppleSoft Compiler), which compiled a BASIC program into Apple machine language, and the hardware Microsoft Softcard, an add-on Z80 processor card for the Apple II and compatible computers which allowed the use of the CP/M operating system instead of Applesoft and Apple DOS. DOS (Disk Operating System) was the operating system that brought the company its first real success. On August 12, 1981, after negotiations with Digital Research failed, IBM awarded a contract to Microsoft to provide a version of the CP/M operating system, which was set to be used in the upcoming IBM Personal Computer (PC). For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, which IBM renamed to PC-DOS. Later, the market saw a flood of IBM PC clones after Columbia Data Products successfully cloned the IBM BIOS, and by aggressively marketing MS-DOS to manufacturers of IBM-PC clones, Microsoft rose from a small player to one of the major software vendors in the home computer industry. The company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as a publishing division named Microsoft Press. 1985–1994: IPO, OS/2 and Windows In August 1985, Microsoft and IBM partnered in the development of a different operating system called OS/2. On November 20, 1985, Microsoft released its first retail version of Microsoft Windows, originally a graphical extension for its MS-DOS operating system. On March 13, 1986 the company went public with an initial public offering (IPO), with a starting initial offering price of $21.00 and ending at the first day of trading as at US $28.00. The ensuing rise of the stock price has made four billionaires and an estimated 12,000 millionaires from Microsoft employees. Chapman, Merrill R., In search of stupidity: over 20 years of high-tech marketing disasters (2nd Edition), Apress, ISBN 1-59059-721-4. * In 1987, Microsoft eventually released their first version of OS/2 to OEMs. See May 1987 releases. IPO Microsoft's Initial Public Offering occurred on March 14, 1986. The stock closed at $27.75 per share after peaking at $29.25 shortly after the opening. Microsoft's two founders, Gates and Allen, were made instant millionaires. Gates owned 45% of the company's 24.7 million outstanding shares and Allen roughly 25%. Gates' stake was therefore $234 million and Microsoft's total-value $520million, at that time. Wired 7.09: The World's First Trillionaire Post-IPO In 1989, Microsoft introduced its flagship office suite, Microsoft Office. The software bundled separate office productivity applications, such as Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel. On May 22, 1990 Microsoft launched Windows 3.0. The new version of Microsoft's operating system boasted such new features as streamlined user interface graphics and improved protected mode capability for the Intel 386 processor; it sold over 100,000 copies in two weeks. Windows at the time generated more revenue for Microsoft than OS/2, and the company decided to move more resources from OS/2 to Windows. In the ensuing years, the popularity of OS/2 declined, and Windows quickly became the favored PC platform. During the transition from MS-DOS to Windows, the success of Microsoft's product Microsoft Office allowed the company to gain ground on application-software competitors, such as WordPerfect and Lotus 1-2-3. According to The Register, Novell, an owner of WordPerfect for a time, alleged that Microsoft used its inside knowledge of the DOS and Windows kernels and of undocumented Application Programming Interface features to make Office perform better than its competitors. Eventually, Microsoft Office became the dominant business suite, with a market share far exceeding that of its competitors. In 1993, Microsoft released Windows NT 3.1, a business operating system with the Windows 3.1 user interface but an entirely different kernel. 1995–2005: Internet and legal issues In 1995, Microsoft released Windows 95, a new version of the company's flagship operating system which featured a completely new user interface, including a novel start button; more than a million copies of Microsoft Windows 95 were sold in the first four days after its release. The company also released its web browser, Internet Explorer, with the Windows 95 Plus! Pack in August 1995 and subsequent Windows versions. On, May 26, 1995, following Bill Gates's internal "Internet Tidal Wave memo", Gates, Bill - The Internet Tidal Wave. Microsoft, May 26, 1995. Made publicly available at United States Department of Justice. United States v. Microsoft Trial Exhibits. Microsoft began to expand its product line into computer networking and the World Wide Web. On August 24, 1995, it launched a major online service, MSN (Microsoft Network), as a direct competitor to AOL. MSN became an umbrella service for Microsoft's online services. The company continued to branch out into new markets in 1996, starting with a joint venture with NBC to create a new 24/7 cable news station, MSNBC. Microsoft entered the personal digital assistant (PDA) market in November with Windows CE 1.0, a new built-from-scratch version of their flagship operating system, specifically designed to run on low-memory, low-performance machines, such as handhelds and other small computers. Later in 1997, Internet Explorer 4.0 was released for both Mac OS and Windows, marking the beginning of the takeover of the browser market from rival Netscape. In October, the Justice Department filed a motion in the Federal District Court in which they stated that Microsoft had violated an agreement signed in 1994, and asked the court to stop the bundling of Internet Explorer with Windows. The year 1998 was significant in Microsoft's history, with Bill Gates appointing Steve Ballmer as president of Microsoft but remaining as Chair and CEO himself. The company released Windows 98, an update to Windows 95 that incorporated a number of Internet-focused features and support for new types of devices. On April 3, 2000, a judgment was handed down in the case of United States v. Microsoft, calling the company an "abusive monopoly" and forcing the company to split into two separate units. Part of this ruling was later overturned by a federal appeals court, and eventually settled with the U.S. Department of Justice in 2001. In 2001, Microsoft released Windows XP, the first version that encompassed the features of both its business and home product lines. Before XP was released, Microsoft had to maintain both the NT and the 9x codebase. XP introduced a new graphical user interface, the first such change since Windows 95. In late 2001, with the release of the Xbox, Microsoft entered the multi-billion-dollar game console market dominated by Sony and Nintendo. Microsoft encountered turmoil in March 2004 when antitrust legal action was brought against it by the European Union for abusing its current dominance with the Windows operating system (see European Union Microsoft antitrust case), eventually resulting in a judgment to produce new versions of its Windows XP platform—called Windows XP Home Edition N and Windows XP Professional N—that did not include its Windows Media Player, as well as a fine of €497 million ($613 million). (from the official EU website) 2006–present: Vista and other transitions On June 27, 2008, Bill Gates retired from day-to day activities in the company, following a two year transition period from his role as Chief Software Architect, which was taken by Ray Ozzie, but remained the company's chairman, head of the Board of Directors and would act as an adviser on key projects. Windows Vista, released in January 2007, is Microsoft's latest operating system and had sold 300 million copies by december 2008. Microsoft Office 2007, released at the same time, features a "Ribbon" user interface which is a significant departure from its predecessors. Relatively strong sales of both titles helped to produce a record profit in 2007. On February 1, 2008, Microsoft made an unsolicited bid to purchase internet services competitor Yahoo! for up to $44.6 billion, 5th UPDATE: Microsoft Offers To Buy Yahoo For $44.6 Billion though this offer was rejected on February 10. On May 3, 2008, Microsoft withdrew their offer. Microsoft announced on February 21, 2008 that it will share information about its products and technology to make it easier for developers to create software that works with its products. Microsoft offers to share some secrets and followed that up by providing such information Microsoft Publicly Posts Additional Protocol Documentation . However, the European Union continued to demonstrate its dissatisfaction with the company for its lack of compliance with the March 2004 judgment and subsequently, on February 27, 2008 imposed a fine of €899 million ($1.4 billion), then the largest fine in the history of EU competition policy. In its January 2009 report of financial results, Microsoft announced layoffs of up to 5,000 employees in response to slowing economic activity due to the ongoing financial crisis. On February 12, 2009, Microsoft announced its intent to open a small chain of Microsoft-branded retail stores. David Porter, a former executive at Wal-Mart and DreamWorks, was named corporate vice president of Retail Stores. "The Marketing Doctor says: Brand Winners... And Losers: Microsoft and Peanut Corp." Marketing Doctor Blog. February 14, 2009. Product divisions To be more precise in tracking performance of each unit and delegating responsibility, Microsoft reorganized into seven core business groups—each an independent financial entity—in April 2002. Later, on September 20, 2005, Microsoft announced a rationalization of its original seven business groups into the three core divisions that exist today: the Windows Client, MSN and Server and Tool groups were merged into the Microsoft Platform Products and Services Division; the Information Worker and Microsoft Business Solutions groups were merged into the Microsoft Business Division; and the Mobile and Embedded Devices and Home and Entertainment groups were merged into the Microsoft Entertainment and Devices Division. Platform Products and Services Division The current logo of Microsoft Windows, the company's signature product. This division produces Microsoft's flagship product, the Windows operating system. It has been produced in many versions, including Windows 3.1, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows 2000, Windows Me, Windows Server 2003, Windows XP and Windows Vista. Almost all IBM compatible personal computers come with Windows preinstalled. The current desktop version of Windows is Windows Vista. The online service MSN, the cable television station MSNBC and the Microsoft online magazine Slate are all part of this division. (Slate was acquired by The Washington Post on December 21, 2004.) At the end of 1997, Microsoft acquired Hotmail, the most popular webmail service, which it rebranded as "MSN Hotmail". In 1999, Microsoft introduced MSN Messenger, an instant messaging client, to compete with the popular AOL Instant Messenger. Along with Windows Vista, MSN Messenger became Windows Live Messenger. Microsoft Visual Studio is the company's set of programming tools and compilers. The software product is GUI-oriented and links easily with the Windows APIs, but must be specially configured if used with non-Microsoft libraries. The current version is Visual Studio 2008. The previous version, Visual Studio 2005 was a major improvement over its predecessor, Visual Studio.Net 2003, named after the .NET initiative, a Microsoft marketing initiative covering a number of technologies. Microsoft's definition of .NET continues to evolve. As of 2004, .NET aims to ease the development of Microsoft Windows-based applications that use the Internet, by deploying a new Microsoft communications system, Indigo (now renamed Windows Communication Foundation). This is intended to address some issues previously introduced by Microsoft's DLL design, which made it difficult, even impossible in some situations, to manage, install multiple versions of complex software packages on the same system (see DLL-hell), and provide a more consistent development platform for all Windows applications (see Common Language Infrastructure). In addition, the Company established a set of certification programs to recognize individuals who have expertise in its software and solutions. Similar to offerings from Cisco, Sun Microsystems, Novell, IBM, and Oracle Corporation, these tests are designed to identify a minimal set of proficiencies in a specific role; this includes developers ("Microsoft Certified Solution Developer"), system/network analysts ("Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer"), trainers ("Microsoft Certified Trainers") and administrators ("Microsoft Certified Systems Administrator" and "Microsoft Certified Database Administrator"). Microsoft offers a suite of server software, entitled Windows Server System. Windows Server 2003, an operating system for network servers, is the core of the Windows Server System line. Another server product, Systems Management Server, is a collection of tools providing remote-control abilities, patch management, software distribution and a hardware/software inventory. Other server products include: Microsoft SQL Server, a relational database management system; Microsoft Exchange Server, for certain business-oriented e-mail and scheduling features; Small Business Server, for messaging and other small business-oriented features; and Microsoft BizTalk Server, for business process management. Business Division Front entrance to building 17 on the main campus of the company's Redmond campus. The Microsoft Business Division produces Microsoft Office, which is the company's line of office software. The software product includes Word (a word processor), Access (a personal relational database application), Excel (a spreadsheet program), Outlook (Windows-only groupware, frequently used with Exchange Server), PowerPoint (presentation software), and Publisher (desktop publishing software). A number of other products were added later with the release of Office 2003 including Visio, Project, MapPoint, InfoPath and OneNote. The division also develops financial and business management software for companies. These products include products formerly produced by the Business Solutions Group, which was created in April 2001 with the acquisition of Great Plains. Subsequently, Navision was acquired to provide a similar entry into the European market, resulting in the planned release of Microsoft Dynamics NAV in 2006. The group markets Axapta and Solomon, catering to similar markets, which is scheduled to be combined with the Navision and Great Plains lines into a common platform called Microsoft Dynamics. Entertainment and Devices Division The Xbox 360, Microsoft's second system in the gaming console market. Microsoft has attempted to expand the Windows brand into many other markets, with products such as Windows CE for PDAs and its "Windows-powered" Smartphone products. Microsoft initially entered the mobile market through Windows CE for handheld devices, which today has developed into Windows Mobile 6. The focus of the operating system is on devices where the OS may not directly be visible to the end user, in particular, appliances and cars. The company produces MSN TV, formerly WebTV, a television-based Internet appliance. Microsoft used to sell a set-top Digital Video Recorder (DVR) called the UltimateTV, which allowed users to record up to 35 hours of television programming from a direct-to-home satellite television provider DirecTV. This was the main competition in the UK for British Sky Broadcasting's (BSkyB) SKY + service, owned by Rupert Murdoch. UltimateTV has since been discontinued, with DirecTV instead opting to market DVRs from TiVo Inc. before later switching to their own DVR brand. Microsoft sells computer games that run on Windows PCs, including titles such as Age of Empires, Halo and the Microsoft Flight Simulator series. It produces a line of reference works that include encyclopedias and atlases, under the name Encarta. Microsoft Zone hosts free premium and retail games where players can compete against each other and in tournaments. Microsoft entered the multi-billion-dollar game console market dominated by Sony and Nintendo in late 2001, with the release of the Xbox. The company develops and publishes its own video games for this console, with the help of its Microsoft Game Studios subsidiary, in addition to third-party Xbox video game publishers such as Electronic Arts and Activision, who pay a license fee to publish games for the system. The Xbox also has a successor in the Xbox 360, released on November 22, 2005 in North America and other countries. With the Xbox 360, Microsoft hopes to compensate for the losses incurred with the original Xbox. However, Microsoft made some decisions considered controversial in the video gaming community, such as releasing the console with high failure rates, selling two different versions of the system, one without the hard disk drive and providing limited backward compatibility with only particular Xbox titles. . In addition to the Xbox line of products, Microsoft also markets a number of other computing-related hardware products as well, including mice, keyboards, joysticks, and gamepads, along with other game controllers, the production of which is outsourced in most cases. As of November 15, 2007, Microsoft announced the purchase of Musiwave, Openwave's mobile phone music sales business. Economic impact One of Bill Gates' key visions for the company was to "to get a workstation running our software onto every desk and eventually in every home". <ref>Quote from ComputerWorld 1985 (7/22); there is as yet no documented use of this vision statement prior to 1985. Gates wrote in The Road Ahead that he was 'guided by a belief that the computer would be a valuable tool on every office desktop and in every home'.</ref> Because of their huge market share in home and business operating systems, they play an important role in the economics of software. Microsoft has footholds in other markets besides operating systems and office suites, with assets such as the MSNBC cable television network, the MSN Internet portal, and the Microsoft Encarta multimedia encyclopedia. The company also markets both computer hardware products such as the Microsoft mouse and home entertainment products such as the Xbox, Xbox 360, Zune and MSN TV. User culture Technical reference for developers and articles for various Microsoft magazines such as Microsoft Systems Journal (or MSJ) are available through the Microsoft Developer Network, often called MSDN. MSDN also offers subscriptions for companies and individuals, and the more expensive subscriptions usually offer access to pre-release beta versions of Microsoft software. In recent years, Microsoft launched a community site for developers and users, entitled Channel9, which provides many modern features such as a wiki and an Internet forum. Another community site that provides daily videocasts and other services, On10.net, launched on March 3, 2006. Most free technical support available through Microsoft is provided through online Usenet newsgroups (in the early days it was also provided on CompuServe). There are several of these newsgroups for nearly every product Microsoft provides, and often they are monitored by Microsoft employees. People who are helpful on the newsgroups can be elected by other peers or Microsoft employees for Microsoft Most Valuable Professional (MVP) status, which entitles people to a sort of special social status, in addition to possibilities for awards and other benefits. * Corporate affairs Corporate structure The company is run by a Board of Directors consisting of ten people, made up of mostly company outsiders (as is customary for publicly traded companies). Current members of the board of directors are: Steve Ballmer, James Cash, Jr., Dina Dublon, Bill Gates, Raymond Gilmartin, Reed Hastings, David Marquardt, Charles Noski, Helmut Panke, and Jon Shirley. The ten board members are elected every year at the annual shareholders' meeting, and those who do not get a majority of votes must submit a resignation to the board, which will subsequently choose whether or not to accept the resignation. There are five committees within the board which oversee more specific matters. These committees include the Audit Committee, which handles accounting issues with the company including auditing and reporting; the Compensation Committee, which approves compensation for the CEO and other employees of the company; the Finance Committee, which handles financial matters such as proposing mergers and acquisitions; the Governance and Nominating Committee, which handles various corporate matters including nomination of the board; and the Antitrust Compliance Committee, which attempts to prevent company practices from violating antitrust laws. There are several other aspects to the corporate structure of Microsoft. For worldwide matters there is the Executive Team, made up of sixteen company officers across the globe, which is charged with various duties including making sure employees understand Microsoft's culture of business. The sixteen officers of the Executive Team include the Chairman and Chief Software Architect, the CEO, the General Counsel and Secretary, the CFO, senior and group vice presidents from the business units, the CEO of the Europe, the Middle East and Africa regions; and the heads of Worldwide Sales, Marketing and Services; Human Resources; and Corporate Marketing. In addition to the Executive Team there is also the Corporate Staff Council, which handles all major staff functions of the company, including approving corporate policies. The Corporate Staff Council is made up of employees from the Law and Corporate Affairs, Finance, Human Resources, Corporate Marketing, and Advanced Strategy and Policy groups at Microsoft. Other Executive Officers include the Presidents and Vice Presidents of the various product divisions, leaders of the marketing section, and the CTO, among others. Stock Microsoft Corp (NYSE:MSFT) stock price (source: ZenoBank.com) When the company debuted its IPO in March 13, 1986, the stock price was US $21. (Microsoft Excel format) By the close of the first trading day, the stock had closed at $28, equivalent to 9.7 cents when adjusted for the company's first nine splits. The initial close and ensuing rise in subsequent years made several Microsoft employees millions. The stock price peaked in 1999 at around US $119 (US $60.928 adjusting for splits). While the company has had nine stock splits, the first of which was in September 18, 1987, the company did not start offering a dividend until January 16, 2003. The dividend for the 2003 fiscal year was eight cents per share, followed by a dividend of sixteen cents per share the subsequent year. The company switched from yearly to quarterly dividends in 2005, for eight cents a share per quarter with a special one-time payout of three dollars per share for the second quarter of the fiscal year. Despite the company's ninth split on February 2, 2003 and subsequent increases in dividend payouts, the price of Microsoft's stock largely remained steady for the next several years, * * with a rise in stock price around the release of Windows Vista and a fall during the economic crisis of 2008. Diversity Flags raised in front of the Microsoft Sammamish Campus in Issaquah, Washington. The flag on the left is the flag of Microsoft's gay and lesbian employees group GLEAM. In 2005, Microsoft received a 100% rating in the Corporate Equality Index from the Human Rights Campaign, a ranking of companies by how progressive the organization deems their policies concerning LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual and transsexual) employees. Partly through the work of the Gay and Lesbian Employees at Microsoft (GLEAM) group, Microsoft added gender expression to its anti-discrimination policies in April 2005, and the Human Rights Campaign upgraded Microsoft's Corporate Equality Index from its 86% rating in 2004 to its current 100% rating. In April 2005, Microsoft received wide criticism for withdrawing support from Washington state's H.B. 1515 bill that would have extended the state's current anti-discrimination laws to people with alternate sexual orientations. Microsoft was accused of bowing to pressure from local evangelical pastor Ken Hutcherson who met with a senior Microsoft executive and threatened a national boycott of Microsoft's products. Microsoft Caves on Gay Rights Microsoft also revealed they were paying evangelical conservative Ralph Reed's company Century Strategies a $20,000 monthly fee. Payments to Reed Sully Microsoft Over 2,000 employees signed a petition asking Microsoft to reinstate support for the bill. Under harsh criticism from both outside and inside the company's walls, Microsoft decided to support the bill again in May 2005. Microsoft hires many foreign workers as well as domestic ones, and is an outspoken opponent of the cap on H1B visas, which allow companies in the United States to employ certain foreign workers. Bill Gates claims the cap on H1B visas make it difficult to hire employees for the company, stating "I'd certainly get rid of the H1B cap." Logos and slogans In 1987, Microsoft adopted its current logo, the so-called "Pac-Man Logo", designed by Scott Baker. According to the March 1987 Computer Reseller News Magazine, "The new logo, in Helvetica italic typeface, has a slash between the o and s to emphasize the "soft" part of the name and convey motion and speed." Dave Norris, a Microsoft employee, ran an internal joke campaign to save the old logo, which was green, in all uppercase, and featured a fanciful letter O, nicknamed the blibbet, but it was discarded. Microsoft's logo with the "Your potential. Our passion." tagline below the main corporate name, is based on the slogan Microsoft had as of 2008. In 2002, the company started using the logo in the United States and eventually started a TV campaign with the slogan, changed from the previous tagline of "Where do you want to go today?." Environmental record Microsoft is ranked the 2nd worst company for the environment of the 18 rated in Greenpeace's Greener Electronics guide. It received a score of 2.2/10, ahead only of Nintendo. Microsoft has taken actions to become more environmentally friendly. Microsoft vs. Google: Who's greener? - CNET News.com Some examples include: Microsoft Research India developed a project called Digital Green in 2008, which aims to educate farmers in India on how to use azolla - an aquatic fern fed to cows, yielding increased milk production. The New York Times Microsoft Goes Far Afield to Study Emerging Markets." Vance, Ashlee. Oct. 27, 2008. The Greening of Corporate America: #3Microsoft Environmental Stewardship Microsoft has phased out the use of polyvinyl chloride plastic in its packaging material, following action by competitors. Polyvinyl chloride, also referred to as PVC or vinyl, can release toxins into the environment during production and if it is burned after production. These toxins are synthetic chemicals that can be linked to cancer, and issues with the reproductive and immune systems. In six months time, Microsoft was able to eliminate approximately 361,000 pounds of polyvinyl packaging by transitioning to a packaging utilizing polyethylene terephthalate plastic (PET). The company claims to be examining eco-friendly packaging made of corn starch, sugar, and vegetable oil. Microsoft to phase out toxic plastics - CNET News.com The company has installed over 2,000 solar panels spanning on top of its buildings in its Silicon Valley campus. Microsoft Solar - Solar Times These panels supply 480 kilowatts of power, generating approximately 15 percent of the total energy needed by the campus and cutting the greenhouse gasses that would otherwise be produced to supply that power. Microsoft has created one of the worlds largest private bus systems (the "Connector") as mass transit system in the Seattle area. Employees, interns, vendors and contractors are encouraged to use regional public mass transit with subsidised fares. For on-campus transportation, the "Shuttle Connect" uses a large fleet of hybrid cars, saving over 20,000 galons of fuel per year. http://www.microsoft.com/environment/our_commitment/articles/alternative_commuting.aspx The company uses an irrigation system at its Redmond campus that senses upcoming weather changes, saving 11 million gallons of water per year. Microsoft Environment :: Microsoft Smart and Sustainable Building Practices The company has received a silver certification from the U.S. Green Building Council's LEED program for environmental design. Beginning in June 2008, Microsoft has added compost bins in all cafeterias on its Redmond campus, and replaced all polystyrene plates and cups and plastic flatware with biodegradable alternatives. In the first two months after this transition, the Redmond campus reduced its non-compost trash output by 50%. Criticism Anti-competitive Since the 1980s, Microsoft has been the focus of much controversy in the computer industry. The majority of criticism has been for its business tactics, often described with the motto "embrace, extend and extinguish". Microsoft initially embraces a competing standard or product, then extends it to produce their own version which is then incompatible with the standard, which in time extinguishes competition that does not or cannot use Microsoft's new version. These and other tactics have resulted in lawsuits brought by companies and governments, and billions of dollars in rulings against Microsoft. * * * In January 2009, Opera Software ASA filed a complaint to the European Commission stating that Microsoft's inclusion of Internet Explorer with Windows-based personal computers is a violation of European competition laws. Freedom and privacy Free software proponents point to the company's joining of the Trusted Computing Platform Alliance (TCPA) as a cause of concern. A group of companies that seek to implement an initiative called Trusted Computing, (computing in which a computer is not only secured for its owner, but also secured against its owner as well) TCPA is decried by critics as it allows software developers and platform controllers to enforce indiscriminate restrictions over how consumers use software, and over how computers behave. Advocates of free software also take issue with Microsoft's promotion of Digital Rights Management (DRM) and total cost of ownership (TCO) comparisons with its "Get the facts" campaign. Digital Rights Management is a technology that allows content providers to impose restrictions on the methods by which digital media is used on consumer hardware in ways; and subsequently, detractors contend that such technology may infringe on fair use and other rights, especially given that it restricts legal activities such as re-mixing or reproduction of material for use in slide shows or the resale of the goods by the customer. http://www.eff.org/issues/drm Misrepresentation The "Get the facts" campaign argues that Windows Server has a lower TCO than Linux and lists a variety of studies in order to prove its case. Proponents of Linux unveiled their own study arguing that, contrary to one of Microsoft's claims, Linux has lower management costs than Windows Server. Another study by the Yankee Group claims that upgrading from one version of Windows Server to another costs a significant fraction (a quarter to a third) of the switching costs from Windows Server to Linux, even for large enterprises, and that the other major reasons for a switch away from Windows servers were the increased security and reliability of Linux servers and a chance to escape the Microsoft "lock-in". In 2004, the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) of the UK warned Microsoft that an ad from the campaign which claimed that "Linux was ... 10 times more expensive than Windows Server 2003", was "misleading", as the hardware chosen for the Linux server was needlessly expensive. The ASA's complaint was that "the measurements for Linux were performed on an IBM zSeries [mainframe], which was more expensive and did not perform as well as other IBM series." The comparison was to Windows Server 2003 running on two 900 MHz Intel Xeon CPUs. David Meyer writing on Zdnet.com pointed out that, "Microsoft has a long history of applying for, and being granted patents for, inventions that many argue--and can sometimes demonstrate--were based on earlier work carried out by others, or based on a common, self-evident idea." This was in response to its 2008 patent application for the ability to progress in page-up or page-down increments with a single keystroke — a method that has been pervasive for decades. See also General Pirates of Silicon Valley − A movie based on the rise of Apple and Microsoft. Microsoft Actimates − Set of toys developed by Microsoft. PCsafety − Part of Microsoft's technical support that deals with malware and virus issues. Trustworthy Computing − Microsoft's initiative for increasing security and reliability on PCs. Ultra Mobile PC − Joint specification by Microsoft and others for a small form factor tablet PC. Microsoft Studios − A division responsible for the creation of video content for Microsoft and its partners. Microsoft Research − A division responsible for the research of computer science. Studies related to Microsoft Microsoft litigation Virus Information Alliance - An international partnership created by the Microsoft Corporation in association with various antivirus vendors. Optimization (Infrastructure & Application Platform) Lists List of mergers and acquisitions by Microsoft List of assets owned by Microsoft Corporation List of Microsoft software applications List of Microsoft topics List of Microsoft Office Programs Notes and references External links Microsoft — Official website'' be-x-old:Microsoft | Microsoft |@lemmatized microsoft:196 corporation:5 united:7 state:12 base:8 multinational:1 computer:21 technology:5 develop:7 manufacture:1 license:2 support:7 wide:3 range:1 software:30 product:35 compute:4 device:7 headquarter:1 redmond:5 washington:5 usa:1 profitable:1 window:55 operate:11 system:39 office:15 suite:5 productivity:2 company:62 found:3 sell:7 basic:4 interpreter:1 altair:3 rise:7 dominate:3 home:13 market:25 ms:2 mid:1 follow:7 line:8 achieve:1 near:1 ubiquity:1 desktop:4 one:9 commentator:1 note:2 original:3 mission:1 every:8 desk:2 run:7 posse:1 foothold:1 asset:3 msnbc:4 cable:4 television:6 network:6 msn:12 internet:14 portal:2 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2,685 | Osman_I | Osman I, Osman Gazi or Othman I El-Gazi (1258, Söğüt, Anatolia, Turkey – February 1326, Söğüt) Ottoman: عثمان بن أرطغرل, or Osman Bey or I.Osman or Osman Sayed II) was the leader of the Ottoman Turks, and the founder of the dynasty that established and ruled the Ottoman Empire. The Empire, named after him, would prevail as a worldpower for over six centuries. He was Sultan of Iconium from 1299 to 1317 and then Sultan of Rûm or Anatolia from 1317 to 1326. Osman declared the independence of his own small kingdom from the Seljuk Turks in 1299. The westward drive of the Mongol invasions had pushed scores of Muslims toward Osman's Anatolian principality, a power base that Osman was quick to consolidate. As the Byzantine Empire declined, the Ottoman Empire rose to take its place. Origins of empire Ertuğrul, Osman's father, led the Turkic Kayi tribe west into Anatolia, fleeing the Mongol onslaught. His mother was named Khaima. He pledged allegiance to Sultan Alaeddin Keykubat of the Seljuk principality of Rum, who gave him permission to establish an emirate and expand it if he could, at the expense of the neighboring Byzantine provinces. This location was auspicious, as the wealthy Byzantine Empire was weakening to his West, while in the east, Muslim forces under the Seljuk Turks were splintered and distracted in the face of relentless Mongol aggression and internal bickering. Baghdad had been sacked by Hulagu Khan in 1258, the very year Osman I was born. Accordingly, Ertuğrul founded a town known as Sogut, which became the initial capital of his territory. Osman became chief, or Bey, upon his father’s death in 1281. By this time, mercenaries were streaming into his realm from all over the Islamic world to fight against and hopefully plunder the weakening Orthodox empire. In addition, the Turkic population of Osman's emirate were constantly reinforced by a flood of refugees, fleeing from the Mongols. Of these, many were Ghazi warriors, or fighters for Islam, border fighters who believed they were fighting for the expansion or defense of Islam. Under the strong and able leadership of Osman, these forces quickly proved a formidable force, and the foundations of the Empire were quickly laid. 24 years of age at his accession, Osman had already proven his skill as a leader and warrior. His early fortunes and exploits are favorite subjects of Oriental writers, especially in love stories of his wooing and winning the fair Mal Hatun. These legends have been romanticized by the poetical pens which recorded them in later years. The Ottoman writers attached great importance to this legendary, dreamlike conception of the founder of their empire. Ottoman historians often dwell on the prophetic significance of his name, which means "bone-breaker", signifying the powerful energy with which he and his followers appeared to show in the following centuries of conquest. "Osman" also refers to a large species of vulture, commonly called the royal vulture, which is considered the emblem of sovereignty and warlike power in the East, comparable to the eagle in the nations of the West. On the other hand, the name Osman is the Turkish variation of the Muslim name Othman, or Uthman. After the last prince of the family of Alaeddin, to whom Osman's empire was indebted for its foundation in Asia Minor, died, there was no one to compete with Osman for the headship of the Turkish people of the region and dominion over the whole peninsula, save the Emir of Karamanoğullari. A long and fierce struggle between the descendants of Osman and Karamanogullari princes for ascendancy commenced in Osman’s lifetime, extending through the reigns of many of his successors. Osman himself had gained some advantages over his Karamanli rival; but the weak and wealthy possessions of the Byzantine Emperor in northwest Asia Minor were more tempting marks for his ambition than the Karamanoglu plains, and it was over the cities and armies of the ailing Byzantine Empire that the triumphs of the last 26 years of Osman’s life were achieved. Osman I left his mark on the history of the region. He is remembered as the founder of a powerful empire and one of the symbols of the Ghazi tradition. A considerable portion of the Turkish people called themselves Osmanlı (Ottoman) until the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. Military victories Illustration of Osman rallying Ghazi warriors into battle. In 1302, after soundly defeating a Byzantine force near Nicaea, Osman began settling his forces closer to Byzantine controlled areas. The Fall of Constantinople 1453 By Steven Runciman, pg 32 Large numbers of Ghazi warriors, Islamic scholars and dervishes began settling in Osman-controlled areas, and migrants composed the bulk of his army. The influx of Ghazi warriors and adventurers of differing backgrounds into these lands spurred subsequent Ottoman rulers to title themselves "Sultan of Ghazis". The Fall of Constantinople 1453 By Steven Runciman, pg. 32 . Alarmed by Osman's growing influence, the Byzantines gradually fled the Anatolian countryside and dedicated their resources to the Navy instead. Byzantine leadership was determined to prevent Osman from crossing into Europe and attempted to contain Ottoman expansion westward. Osman however continued to press westward and captured the Byzantine city of Ephesus near the Aegean Sea. The Fall of Constantinople 1453 By Steven Runciman, pg 32 Further strengthened by the influx of migrants into his territory, Osman also moved eastward and seized Byzantine domains in the Black Sea region of Anatolia. Osman's last campaign, before dying of old age, was against the Byzantines in the city of Bursa. The Fall of Constantinople 1453 By Steven Runciman, pg. 33 Although Osman did not physically participate in the battle, the victory at Bursa proved to be extremely vital for the Ottomans as the city served as a staging ground against the Byzantines in Constantinople, and as a newly adorned capital for Osman's son, Orhan. A sleepless night There is a well known story about a sleepless night Osman spent before taking the throne. One day, when he was 19-years old, Ertugrul went to visit a distant friend with his family, where he would remain overnight. The host of the house shows Osman his room and everyone retires for the night. Just after he prepares to go to sleep Osman notices the Quran hanging on the wall. His respect for the holy book of Islam keeps him from laying down, and as he is a visitor, he cannot take the Quran out of the room. He decides not to sleep until morning and sits beside the sofa. He cannot bear to stay awake and falls asleep for a short time just before dawn. As he sleeps, he dreams he sees a crescent coming out of the chest of his mentor, Sheik Edebali, and going into his body. Afterwards an enormous plane tree emerges from his chest and covers all the sky, shading the earth, the people enjoying and benefiting from his shade. He then wakes. When he and his family get back to their village he recounts this dream to his mentor, Sheik Edebali, who smiles after hearing the dream and tells Osman that Allah would grant him and his descendants an enormous empire and he will see the hand of Sheikh Edebali's daughter in marriage. Because of his loyalty to Islam, his sharpness, his courage and generosity, he was nominated to be the reguler of the Kayi Clan. Last testament In directing his son to continue the administrative policies set forth by Sheik Edebali, Osman stated: Literature about Osman Ghazi Osman has been celebrated by Oriental writers for his physical beauty, and for “his wondrous length and strength of arm.” Like Artaxerxes Longimanus of the old dynasty of Persian kings, Liu Bei in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Gautama the Buddha, and the Highland chieftain of whom William Wordsworth sang, Osman is said to have been able to touch his knees with his hands when standing upright. He was often depicted as unsurpassed in skill and grace as a horseman; and the jet black color of his hair, his beard, and eyebrows, gained him in youth the title of “Kara” (“Black”) Osman. The epithet “Kara,” a frequent occurrence in Turkish lore, implies the highest degree of manly beauty, when applied to a person. He dressed simply, in the tradition of the first warriors of Islam, and like them he wore a turban of white linen, wreathed round a red center. His loose flowing kaftan was of one color and had long open sleeves. Marriages and Children He married in 1280 Valide Sultan (1324) Kamariya Sultana Mal, daughter of Abdulaziz Bey. He also married a daughter of Sheikh Edebali. Ala ed-din or Alaeddin, died in 1333 Orhan I - son of Kamariya Sultana Mal Kashif Tchioban Melik Hamid Pazarlu See also Ghazan Andronicus II Palaeologus Catalan Company Modun Bumin Seljuk References Incorporates text from History of Ottoman Turks (1878) External links | Osman_I |@lemmatized osman:42 gazi:2 othman:2 el:1 söğüt:2 anatolia:4 turkey:1 february:1 ottoman:12 عثمان:1 بن:1 أرطغرل:1 bey:3 say:2 ii:2 leader:2 turks:1 founder:3 dynasty:2 establish:2 rule:1 empire:14 name:5 would:3 prevail:1 worldpower:1 six:1 century:2 sultan:5 iconium:1 rûm:1 declare:1 independence:1 small:1 kingdom:2 seljuk:4 turk:3 westward:3 drive:1 mongol:4 invasion:1 push:1 score:1 muslim:3 toward:1 anatolian:2 principality:2 power:2 base:1 quick:1 consolidate:1 byzantine:13 decline:1 rise:1 take:3 place:1 origin:1 ertuğrul:2 father:2 lead:1 turkic:2 kayi:2 tribe:1 west:3 flee:3 onslaught:1 mother:1 khaima:1 pledge:1 allegiance:1 alaeddin:3 keykubat:1 rum:1 give:1 permission:1 emirate:2 expand:1 could:1 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2,686 | Anaïs_Nin | Anaïs Nin (; born Angela Anaïs Juana Antolina Rosa Edelmira Nin y Culmell) (February 21 1903 - January 14 1977) was a Cuban-Spanish-French author who became famous for her published journals, which span more than 60 years, beginning when she was 11 years old and ending shortly before her death. Nin is also famous for her erotica. Early life Anaïs Nin was born in Neuilly, France, to two artistic parents. Her father, Joaquin Nin, was a Cuban "Her Catalan-Cuban father was a celebrated pianist and composer" "Joaquin Nin, a prominent Catalan-Cuban pianist and composer" pianist and composer, and her mother Rosa Culmell Anaïs Nin was a classically trained Cuban singer http://www.morbidoutlook.com/nonfiction/articles/2001_03_anaisnin.html" of French and Danish ancestry. Her paternal great-grandfather fled France during the Revolution, going first to Haiti, then New Orleans, and finally to Cuba where he helped build that country's first railroad. Diaries, Volume 1, 1931-1934 After her parents separated, her mother moved Anaïs and her two brothers, Thorvald Nin and Joaquin Nin-Culmell from Barcelona to New York City. According to her diaries, Volume One, 1931 - 1934, Nin abandoned formal schooling at the age of 16 and began working as a model. On 3 March 1923, in Havana, Cuba, she married her first husband, Hugh Parker Guiler (1898-1985), a banker and artist, later known as "Ian Hugo" when he became a filmmaker of experimental films in the late 1940s. The couple moved to Paris the following year, where Guiler pursued his banking career and Nin began to pursue her interest in writing. Her first published work was a critical evaluation of D. H. Lawrence called D. H. Lawrence: An Unprofessional Study. She also explored the field of psychotherapy, studying under the likes of Otto Rank, a disciple of Sigmund Freud. During the war, Nin sent her books to Frances Steloff of the Gotham Book Mart in New York for safekeeping. http://www.anaisnin.com/history/Steloff.html Personal life According to her diaries,Volume One, 1931 - 1934, Nin shared a bohemian lifestyle with Henry Miller during her time in Paris. There is no mention of her husband in that edited edition. In 1939, Nin and Hugh Parker Guiler moved back to New York City. Nin appeared in the Kenneth Anger film Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome (1954) as Astarte, the Maya Deren film Ritual in Transfigured Time (1946), and in Bells of Atlantis (1952), a film directed by Guiler under the name "Ian Hugo" with a soundtrack of electronic music by Louis and Bebe Barron. In 1947, at the age of 44, she met and began living with Rupert Pole (1919-2006), sixteen years her junior. On 17 March 1955, she married him at Quartzsite, Arizona, returning with Pole to live in California. Bair biography, 1995 and IMDB. Guiler remained in New York City and was unaware of Nin's second marriage until after her death in 1977. After Guiler's death in 1985, the unexpurgated versions of her journals were commissioned by Pole. Nin often cited authors Djuna Barnes and D. H. Lawrence as inspirations. She states in Volume One of her diaries that she and Henry Miller drew inspiration from Marcel Proust, André Gide, Jean Cocteau, Paul Valéry, and Arthur Rimbaud. Journals Anaïs Nin is perhaps best remembered as a diarist. Her journals, which span several decades, provide a deeply explorative insight into her personal life and relationships. Nin was acquainted, often quite intimately, with a number of prominent authors, artists, psychoanalysts, and other figures, and wrote of them often, especially Otto Rank. Moreover, as a female author describing a primarily masculine constellation of celebrities, Nin's journals have acquired importance as a counterbalancing perspective. Previously unpublished works are coming to light in A Café in Space, the Anais Nin Literary Journal, which most recently includes "Anais Nin and Joaquín Nin y Castellanos: Prelude to a Symphony—Letters between a father and daughter." Erotic writings Nin is hailed by many critics as one of the finest writers of female erotica. She was one of the first women to explore fully the realm of erotic writing, and certainly the first prominent woman in modern Europe to write erotica. Before her, erotica written by women was rare, with a few notable exceptions, such as the work of Kate Chopin. According to Volume I of her diaries, 1931-1934, published in 1966 (Stuhlmann), Nin first came across erotica when she returned to Paris with her mother and two brothers in her late teens. They rented the apartment of an American man who was away for the summer, and Nin came across a number of French paperbacks: "One by one, I read these books, which were completely new to me. I had never read erotic literature in America… They overwhelmed me. I was innocent before I read them, but by the time I had read them all, there was nothing I did not know about sexual exploits… I had my degree in erotic lore." Faced with a desperate need for money, Nin and Miller began in the 1940s to write erotic and pornographic narratives for an anonymous "collector" for a dollar a page, somewhat as a joke. DELTA OF VENUS, by Anaïs Nin Nin considered the characters in her erotica to be extreme caricatures and never intended the work to be published, but changed her mind in the early 1970s and allowed them to be published as Delta of Venus and Little Birds. Nin was a friend, and in some cases lover, of many leading literary figures, including Henry Miller, Antonin Artaud, Edmund Wilson, Gore Vidal, James Agee, and Lawrence Durrell. Her passionate love affair and friendship with Miller strongly influenced her both as a woman and an author. The rumor that Nin was bisexual was given added circulation by the Philip Kaufman film Henry & June. This rumor is substantiated by at least two encounters Nin writes about in the 1937-39 journal, one with her brother's ex-girlfriend where nothing much happens. Nin is passive to her counterpart's struggle with her own sexuality (in the end the latter becomes insanely jealous and needy after joining Nin and her husband on their vacation. Nin describes the relief of putting her on an early plane home.) She has a ménage à trois in a hotel and falls for the woman, who leaves abruptly. They meet much later and recount the episode. Nin is bisexual, but enjoyed men far more. (See Henry Miller and Gonzalo More). Nin's unexpurgated journals are quite clear that she had sexual relations with Miller's wife, June. Nin's being is so stirred by June that at one point she says (paraphrasing), "I have become June." To Anais and Henry, June is a femme fetale---irresistable, cunning, erotic. Nin gives June money, jewelry, clothes, oftentimes leaving herself broke. In her unexpurgated journals, she wrote that she had an incestuous relationship with her father, although nothing beyond the reference. When Nin's father hears the title of her book, House Of Incest, he says half-jokingly how it is going to give people the impression that they're lovers, as if to say, "Oh my I hope people don't actually believe it." There are references to experiments with bestiality and sexual relationships and experiences with women. Later life and legacy In 1973 she received an honorary doctorate from the Philadelphia College of Art. She was elected to the United States National Institute of Arts and Letters in 1974. She died in Los Angeles, California on January 14 1977; her body was cremated, and her ashes were scattered over Santa Monica Bay. Rupert Pole was named Nin's literary executor, and he arranged to have new unexpurgated editions of Nin's books and diaries published between 1985 and his death in 2006. In 1990 Philip Kaufman directed the film Henry & June based on Nin's novel Henry and June from The Journal of Love – The Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin, 1931-1932. She was portrayed in the film by Maria de Medeiros. Quotes "Life shrinks or expands in proportion to one's courage." "This diary is my kief, hashish, and opium pipe. This is my drug and my vice." "...for no one has ever loved an adventurous woman as they have loved adventurous men." "And the day came when the risk to remain tight in a bud was more painful than the risk it took to blossom." "I do not want to be the leader. I refuse to be the leader. I want to live darkly and richly in my femaleness. I want a man lying over me, always over me. His will, his pleasure, his desire, his life, his work, his sexuality the touchstone, the command, my pivot. I don’t mind working, holding my ground intellectually, artistically; but as a woman, oh, God, as a woman I want to be dominated. I don’t mind being told to stand on my own feet, not to cling, be all that I am capable of doing, but I am going to be pursued, fucked, possessed by the will of a male at his time, his bidding." "How wrong is it for women to expect the man to build the world she wants, rather than set out to create it herself." "I postpone death by living, by suffering, by error, by risking, by giving, by losing." "Each friend represents a world in us, a world not possibly born until they arrive, and it is only by this meeting that a new world is born." "I am an excitable person who only understands life lyrically, musically, in whom feelings are much stronger as reason. I am so thirsty for the marvelous that only the marvelous has power over me. Anything I cannot transform into something marvelous, I let go. Reality doesn't impress me. I only believe in intoxication, in ecstasy, and when ordinary life shackles me, I escape, one way or another. No more walls." "Something is always born of excess: great art was born of great terror, great loneliness, great inhibitions, instabilities, and it always balances them." "Love never dies a natural death. It dies because we don't know how to replenish its source. It dies of blindness and errors and betrayals. It dies of illness and wounds; it dies of weariness, of withering, of tarnishing." "Dreams are necessary to life." "We don't see things as they are, we see them as we are." "People living deeply have no fear of death." List of works D. H. Lawrence: An Unprofessional Study Collages Winter of Artifice Under a Glass Bell House of Incest Delta of Venus Little Birds Cities of the Interior, in five volumes: Ladders to Fire Children of the Albatross The Four-Chambered Heart A Spy in the House of Love Seduction of the Minotaur The Diary of Anaïs Nin (7 volumes) The Early Diary of Anaïs Nin (4 volumes) The Novel of the Future In Favor of the Sensitive Man Henry and June Incest Fire Nearer the Moon Notes References Deirdre Bair, Anaïs Nin: A Biography (New York: Putnam, 1995) ISBN 0-399-13988-5 See also List of Cuban American writers List of Cuban Americans Barthold Fles Otto Rank External links The Official Anais Nin Blog The Anais Nin Literary Journal Anaïs Nin.com Encyclopaedia Britannica, Anais Nin Works by or about Anaïs Nin at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated) Unofficial Anaïs Nin website Anaïs Nin The House of Incest Ian Hugo Fox, Margalit. (30 July 2006). 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2,687 | Gestapo | The (contraction of Geheime Staatspolizei: "Secret State Police") was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. Under the overall administration of the Schutzstaffel (SS), it was administered by the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA) ("Reich Main Security Office") and was considered a sister organization of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) ("security service") and also a suboffice of the Sicherheitspolizei (SIPO) ("security police"). Gestapo was also present in concentration camps as here in Lager Nordhausen, a subcamp of the Mittelbau-Dora KZ complex History Rudolf Diels first Chief of the Gestapo 1933-1934 Heinrich Müller is at the extreme right in this 1939 photograph, apparently taken for propaganda purposes. Shown from left to right are a minor SS functionary (Huber), Arthur Nebe, and then three of the people most responsible for the Holocaust: Heinrich Himmler, Reinhardt Heydrich and Müller himself. According to the apparent 1939 archival caption, these men are planning the investigation of the bomb assassination attempt on Adolf Hitler on 8 November 1939 in Munich. As part of the deal in which Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of the German Empire, Hermann Göring was named as Interior Minister of Prussia. This gave him command of the largest police force in Germany. Soon afterward, Göring detached the political and intelligence departments from the police and filled their ranks with Nazis. On April 26, 1933; Göring merged the two units as the Gestapo. He originally wanted to name it the Secret Police Office (), but discovered the German initials "GPA" would be too similar to the Soviet GPU. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich Its first commander was Rudolf Diels, a protégé of Hermann Göring (the commander of the Luftwaffe and an influential Nazi Party official). Diels was best known as the primary interrogator of Marinus van der Lubbe after the Reichstag fire. The Reich Interior Minister, Wilhelm Frick in late 1933, wanted to integrate all the police forces of the German states. Göring outflanked him by removing the Prussian political and intelligence departments from the state interior ministry. Göring himself took over the Gestapo in 1934 and urged Hitler to extend the agency's authority throughout Germany. This represented a radical departure from German tradition, which held that law enforcement was (mostly) a Land (state) and local matter. In this, he ran into conflict with Heinrich Himmler, who was police chief of the second most powerful German state, Bavaria. Frick did not have the muscle to take on Göring himself so he allied with Himmler and Heydrich. With Frick's support, Himmler (pushed on by his right hand man, Heydrich) took over the political police of state after state. Soon only Prussia was left. On 20 April 1934, Göring and Himmler agreed to put aside their differences (largely because of mutual hatred and growing dread of the Sturmabteilung) and Göring transferred full authority over the Gestapo to Himmler, who was also named chief of all German police forces outside Prussia. Himmler on April 22, 1934 named Heydrich the head of the Gestapo. Himmler was later named the chief of all German police on June 17, 1936. At that point, the Gestapo was incorporated into the SIPO or Sicherheitspolizei with the KRIPO or Kriminalpolizel (Criminal Police) and considered a sister organisation of the SD or Sicherheitsdienst. Reinhard Heydrich was head of the SIPO, Gestapo, KRIPO and SD. Heinrich Müller, was the chief of operations of the Gestapo. He answered to Heydrich. Heydrich answered only to Himmler. The Gestapo had the authority to investigate treason, espionage and sabotage cases, and cases of criminal attacks on the Nazi Party and Germany. A law passed by the government in 1936 gave the Gestapo carte blanche to operate without judicial oversight. The Gestapo was specifically exempted from responsibility to administrative courts, where citizens normally could sue the state to conform to laws. As early as 1935, however, a Prussian administrative court had ruled that the Gestapo's actions were not subject to judicial review. A further law passed later in the year gave the Gestapo responsibility for setting up and administering concentration camps. In September 1939 the security and police agencies of Nazi Germany were consolidated into the Reich Main Security Office (RSHA), headed by Heydrich. The Gestapo became Amt IV (Department IV) of RSHA and Müller became the Gestapo Chief, with Heydrich as his immediate superior. After Heydrich's assassination in 1942, Ernst Kaltenbrunner became head of RSHA, and Müller remained the Gestapo Chief, a position he occupied until the end of the war. Adolf Eichmann was Müller's direct subordinate and head of Department IV, Section B4, which dealt with Jews. The power of the Gestapo most open to misuse was called Schutzhaft – "protective custody", a euphemism for the power to imprison people without judicial proceedings. An oddity of the system was that the prisoner had to sign his or her own Schutzhaftbefehl, an order declaring that the person had requested imprisonment – presumably out of fear of personal harm (which, in a way, was true). In addition, thousands of political prisoners throughout Germany – and from 1941, throughout the occupied territories under the Night and Fog Decree – simply disappeared while in Gestapo custody. During World War II, the Gestapo was expanded to around 46,000 members. Student opposition By February and March, 1942, student protests were calling for an end to the Nazi regime. These included the non-violent resistance of Hans and Sophie Scholl, two leaders of the White Rose student group. However, resistance groups and those who were in moral or political opposition to the Nazis were stalled by the fear of reprisals from the Gestapo. In fact, reprisals did come in response to the protests. Fearful of an internal overthrow, the forces of Himmler and the Gestapo were unleashed on the opposition. The first five months of 1943 witnessed thousands of arrests and executions as the Gestapo exercised their powers over the German public. Student opposition leaders were executed in late February, and a major opposition organization, the Oster Circle, was destroyed in April, 1943. The German opposition was in an unenviable position by the late spring and early summer of 1943. On one hand, it was next to impossible for them to overthrow Hitler and the party; on the other, the Allied demand for an unconditional surrender meant no opportunity for a compromise peace, which left the people no option (in their eyes) other than continuing the military struggle. Nevertheless, some Germans did speak out and show signs of protest during the summer of 1943. Despite fear of the Gestapo after the mass arrests and executions of the spring, the opposition still plotted and planned. Some Germans were convinced that it was their duty to apply all possible expedients to end the war as quickly as possible; that is, to further the German defeat by all available means. The Gestapo cracked down ruthlessly on the dissidents in Germany, just as they did everywhere else. During June, July and August, the Gestapo continued to move swiftly against the opposition, rendering any organised opposition impossible. Arrests and executions were common. Terror against the people had become a way of life. A second major reason was that the opposition's peace feelers to the Western Allies did not meet with success. This was part because of the aftermath of the Venlo incident of 1939, when SD and Gestapo agents posing as anti-Nazis in the Netherlands kidnapped two British Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) officers lured to a meeting to discuss peace terms. That prompted Winston Churchill to ban any further contact with the German opposition. In addition, the British and Americans did not want to deal with anti-Nazis because they were fearful that the Soviet Union would believe they were attempting to make deals behind the Soviets' back. Nuremberg Trials Between November 14, 1945 and October 3, 1946, the Allies established an International Military Tribunal (IMT) to try twenty-two of twenty-four major Nazi war criminals and six groups for crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity. Nineteen of the twenty-two were convicted. Leaders, organisers, instigators and accomplices participating in the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy to commit the crimes specified were declared responsible for all acts performed by any persons in execution of such plan. The official positions of defendants as heads of state or holders of high government offices were not to free them from responsibility or mitigate their punishment; nor was the fact that a defendant acted pursuant to an order of a superior to excuse him from responsibility, although it might be considered by the IMT in mitigation of punishment. At the trial of any individual member of any group or organisation, the IMT was authorised to declare (in connection with any act of which the individual was convicted) that the group or organisation to which he belonged was a criminal organization. When a group or organization was thus declared criminal, the competent national authority of any signatory had the right to bring persons to trial for membership in that organisation, with the criminal nature of the group or organisation assumed proved. These groups – the Nazi party and government leadership, the German General Staff and High Command (OKW); the Sturmabteilung (SA); the Schutzstaffel (SS), including the Sicherheitsdienst (SD); and the Gestapo – had an aggregate membership exceeding two million, making a large number of their members liable to trial if the organisations were convicted. The trials began in November, 1945. On October 1, 1946 the IMT rendered its judgement on twenty-one top officials of the Third Reich: eighteen were sentenced to death or to extensive prison terms, and three acquitted. The IMT also convicted three of the groups: the Nazi leadership corps, the SS (including the SD) and the Gestapo. Gestapo members Hermann Göring and Arthur Seyss-Inquart were individually convicted. Three groups were acquitted of collective war crimes charges, but this did not relieve individual members of those groups from conviction and punishment under the denazification programme. Members of the three convicted groups were subject to apprehension by Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union and France). Moreover, even though individual members of the convicted groups might be acquitted of war crimes, they still remained subject to trial under the denazification programme. Aftermath The Gestapo ceased to exist after the Nuremberg Trials. In 1997 Cologne transformed the former regional Gestapo headquarters in that city – the EL-DE Haus – into a museum to document the organization's actions. In various countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Gestapo is used as a derogatory name for all police forces, but particularly the communist-era riot police, such as ZOMO. Elsewhere, the term is commonly used to describe any group involved in overzealous enforcement of specific tastes or views (e.g. "the style Gestapo"). Organization From its conception the Gestapo was a well established bureaucratic mechanism, having been created from the Prussian Secret Police. In 1934 the Gestapo was transferred from the Prussian Interior Ministry to the authority of the Schutzstaffel (SS), and for the next five years underwent a considerable expansion. In the fall of 1939 the SIPO (made up of the Gestapo and KRIPO) together with the SD were all placed under the authority of the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA), the Reich Main Security Office of the SS. All under Heydrich until his death in 1942. Within the RSHA the Gestapo was known as Amt IV ("Dept. or Office IV") with Müller the Chief. The internal organization of the group is outlined below. Referat N: Central Intelligence Office The Central Command Office of the Gestapo, formed in 1941. Before 1939 the Gestapo command was under the authority of the office of the Sicherheitspolizei und Sicherheitsdienst (SD). However, the SD envied the power of the Gestapo and the Gestapo did not care for what it saw as interference from SD agents. Later after September 1939 the Gestapo was run directly through the overall command of the RSHA. However, after Heydrich's death in June 1942, and as the war progressed, Müller's power and the independence grew substantially. This trickled down the chain of his subordinates, such as the commanding general of this office. It led to much more independence of action. Department A (Enemies) Communists (A1) Countersabotage (A2) Reactionaries and Liberals (A3) Assassinations (A4) Department B (Sects and Churches) Atheists Catholics (B1) Protestants (B2) Freemasons (B3) Evolutionists Jews (B4) Homosexuals Zaiton M Kassim Khan (B6) Anti Hadith Leader - Roslin Rozani (B7) Department C (Administration and Party Affairs) The central administrative office of the Gestapo, responsible for card files of all personnel including all officials. Department D (Occupied Territories) A repeat of departments A and B for use outside the Reich. Opponents of the Regime (D1) Churches and Sects (D2) Department E (Counterintelligence) In the Reich (E1) Policy Formation (E2) In the West (E3) In Scandinavia (E4) In the East (E5) In the South (E6) Local offices The local of the Gestapo, known as Staatspolizeistellen and Staatspolizeileitstellen, answered to a local commander known as the Inspekteur der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD ("inspector of the security police and security services") who, in turn, was under the dual command of Referat N of the Gestapo and also his local SS and Police Leader. The classic image of the Gestapo officer, dressed in trench coat and hat, can be attributed to Gestapo offices in German cities and larger towns. This image seems to have been popularized by the assassination of the former Chancellor General Kurt von Schleicher in 1934. General von Schleicher and his wife were gunned down in their Berlin home by three men dressed in black trench coats and wearing black fedoras. The killers of General von Schleicher were widely believed to have been Gestapo men. At a press conference held later the same day Hermann Göring was asked by foreign correspondents to respond to a hot rumour that General von Schleicher had been murdered in his home. Göring stated that the Gestapo had attempted to arrest Schleicher, but that he had been "shot while attempting to escape". Auxiliary duties The Gestapo also maintained offices at all Nazi concentration camps, held an office on the staff of the SS and Police Leaders, and supplied personnel as needed to formations such as the Einsatzgruppen. Personnel assigned to these auxiliary duties were often removed from the Gestapo chain of command and fell under the authority of other branches of the SS. Uniforms See also: SS uniform Insignia pins worn on SS commissioned and non-commissioned officers' hats: the SS version of the national eagle and the Totenkopf The black SS Uniform was abolished in 1939. After the Gestapo came under the authority of the RSHA all SD and Gestapo branches were issued field-gray uniforms. The wartime gray uniform was worn in office and while on service duties and in occupied countries because agents in civilian clothes had been shot by members of the Wehrmacht thinking that they were partisans. When Gestapo agents were in service outside their offices they wore civilian clothes. Thus with the exception of very high-ranking members of the Gestapo – people like Heinrich Müller – Gestapo people generally wore civilian clothing in keeping with the secret, plainclothes nature of their work. There were in fact very strict protocols protecting the identity of Gestapo field personnel. In most cases, when asked for identification, an operative was only required to present his warrant disc. This identified the operative as Gestapo without revealing personal identity and agents, except when ordered to do so by an authorized official, were not required to show picture identification, something all non-Gestapo people were expected to do. Daily operations Contrary to popular belief, the Gestapo was not an omnipotent agency that had agents in every nook and cranny of German society. "V-men", as undercover Gestapo agents were known, were used to infiltrate Social Democratic and Communist opposition groups, but this was the exception, not the rule. Mallmann & Paul, quoted in Crew, p 181 The District Office in Nuremberg, which had the responsibility for all of northern Bavaria employed a total of 80-100 informers in the years 1943-1945. The Gestapo office in Saarbrücken had at its service 50 informers in 1939. As historian Robert Gellately's analysis of the local offices established, the Gestapo was for the most part made up of bureaucrats and clerical workers who depended upon denunciations by ordinary Germans for their information. Rees, p 64-65 Indeed, the Gestapo was overwhelmed with denunciations and spent most of its time sorting out the credible from the less credible denunciations. Rees, p 65 Far from being an all-powerful agency that knew everything about what was happening in German society, the local offices were understaffed and overworked, struggling with the paper load caused by so many denunciations. Mallmann & Paul, quoted in Crew, p 175 The ratio of Gestapo officers to the population of the areas they were responsible for was extremely low; for example, for Lower Franconia, with a population of about one million in the 1930s, there was only one Gestapo office with 28 staff, half of whom were clerical workers. Before World War II, in the cities of Stettin and Frankfurt am Main, Gestapo personnel totalled 41 for both cities. Mallmann & Paul, quoted in Crew, p 174 The city of Hanover had only 42 Gestapo personnel, Bielefeld 18, Braunschweig 26, Bremen 44, and Dortmund 76. In Düsseldorf, the local Gestapo office, which had the responsibility for the entire Lower Rhine region, which comprised 4 million people had 281 employees. After 1939, when many Gestapo personnel were called up for war-related work, the level of overwork and understaffing at the local offices was much increased. Furthermore, for information about what was happening in German society, the Gestapo were mostly dependent upon these denunciations. Rees, p 64 80% of all Gestapo investigations were started in response to information provided by denunciations by "ordinary" Germans; while 10% were started in response in to information provided by other branches of the German government and another 10% started in response to information that the Gestapo itself unearthed. Thus, it was ordinary Germans by their willingness to denounce one another who supplied the Gestapo with the information that determined whom the Gestapo arrested. The popular picture of the Gestapo with its spies everywhere terrorizing German society has been firmly rejected by most historians as a myth invented after the war as a cover for German society's widespread complicity in allowing the Gestapo to work. Mallmann & Paul, quoted in Crew, p 168-169 Work done by social historians such as Detlev Peukert, Robert Gellately, Reinhard Mann, Inge Marssolek, René Otto, Klaus-Michael Mallamann and Paul Gerhard, which by focusing on what the local offices were doing has shown the Gestapo's almost total dependence on denunciations from ordinary Germans, and very much discredited the older "Big Brother" picture with the Gestapo having its eyes and ears everywhere. Mallmann & Paul, quoted in Crew, p 172-173 Cooperation with the NKVD Since autumn of 1939 Soviet secret police (NKVD) and Gestapo closely collaborated in the aftermath of the partition of Poland. Several conferences took place (see: Gestapo-NKVD Conferences). Exchanges of prisoners took place as early as December 1939. In March 1940 representatives of the NKVD and Gestapo met for the third time in the best known of these conferences which lasted for one week in Zakopane, to coordinate the pacification of resistance in Poland. The Soviet Union delivered hundreds of German and Austrian communists to the Gestapo, as unwanted foreigners, together with relevant documents. The Soviet-Nazi cooperation continued through up to the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. Counterintelligence The Polish government in exile in London during World War II received sensitive military information about Nazi Germany from agents and informants throughout Europe. After Germany conquered Poland in the autumn of 1939, Gestapo officials believed that they had neutralized Polish intelligence activities. Polish Intelligence Resistance Some of the Polish information about the movement of German police and SS units to the East during the German invasion of the Soviet Union in the autumn of 1941 was similar to information British intelligence secretly got through intercepting and decoding German police and SS messages sent by radio telegraphy. In 1942, the Gestapo discovered a cache of Polish intelligence documents in Prague and were surprised to see that Polish agents and informants had been gathering detailed military information and smuggling it out to London, via Budapest and Istanbul. The Poles identified and tracked German military trains to the Eastern front and identified four Ordnungspolizei ("order police") battalions sent to conquered areas of the Soviet Union in October 1941 and engaged in war crimes and mass murder. Polish agents also gathered detailed information about the morale of German soldiers in the East. After uncovering a sample of the information the Poles had reported, Gestapo officials concluded that Polish intelligence activity represented a very serious danger to Germany. As late as June 6, 1944, Heinrich Müller, concerned about the leakage of information to the Allies, set up a special unit called Sonderkommando Jerzy that was meant to root out the Polish intelligence network in western and southwestern Europe. Notes Bibliography Books Editors of Time-Life Books (1988). The SS: The Third Reich Series. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books. Padfield, Peter (1990). Himmler: Reichsfuhrer-SS. New York: Henry Holt and Company. Journal Articles (translated as Omniscient, Omnipotent, Omnipresent? 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2,688 | Kosovo_War | The term Kosovo War or Kosovo Conflict is used to describe two sequential and at times parallel armed conflicts in Kosovo: Early 1998 –1999: War between Yugoslav police forces, Yugoslav paramilitaries, and the Kosovar Albanian paramilitaries. 1999: 1999 NATO bombing of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia between March 24 and June 10, 1999, during which NATO attacked Yugoslav military and civilian targets, Albanian rebels continued battles with Yugoslav forces, amidst a massive displacement of population in Kosovo. Pre-NATO intervention Kosovo in Tito's Yugoslavia (1945–1986) Tensions between the two communities had been simmering throughout the 20th century and had occasionally erupted into major violence, particularly during the First Balkan War, World War I and World War II. The Socialist government of Josip Broz Tito systematically repressed nationalist manifestations throughout Yugoslavia, seeking to ensure that no Yugoslav republic or nationality gained dominance over the others. In particular, the power of Serbia—the largest and most populous republic—was diluted by the establishment of autonomous governments in the province of Vojvodina in the north of Serbia and Kosovo in the south. Kosovo's borders did not precisely match the areas of ethnic Albanian settlement in Yugoslavia (significant numbers of Albanians were left in the Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia, while the far north of Kosovo remained largely ethnic Serbian). Nonetheless, the majority of its inhabitants since at least the 1921 census were Albanian. Kosovo's formal autonomy, established under the 1945 Yugoslav constitution, initially meant relatively little in practice. Tito's secret police cracked down hard on nationalists. In 1956, a number of [Albanians] were put on trial in Kosovo on charges of espionage and subversion. The threat of separatism was in fact minimal, as the few underground groups aiming for union with Albania were politically insignificant. Their long-term impact was substantial, though, as some—particularly the Revolutionary Movement for Albanian Unity, founded by Adem Demaci—were much later to form the political core of the Kosovo Liberation Army. Demaci himself was imprisoned in 1964 along with many of his followers.Yugoslavia underwent a period of economic and political crisis in 1969, as a massive government program of economic reform widened the gap between the rich north and poor south of the country. Student demonstrations and riots in Belgrade in June 1968 spread to Kosovo in November the same year, but were put down by the Yugoslav security forces. However, some of the students' demands—particularly for real representative powers for Albanians on both Serbian and Yugoslav state bodies, and better recognition of the Albanian language—were conceded by Tito. University of Priština was established as an independent institution in 1970, ending a long period when the institution had been run as an outpost of Belgrade University. The Albanianisation of education in Kosovo was hampered by the lack of Albanian-language educational materials in Yugoslavia, so an agreement was struck with Albania itself to supply textbooks. In 1974, Kosovo's political status was improved still further when a new Yugoslav constitution granted an expanded set of political rights. Along with Vojvodina, it was declared a province and gained many of the powers of a fully-fledged republic: a seat on the federal presidency and its own assembly, police force and national bank. Power was still exercised by the Communist Party, but it was now devolved mainly to ethnic Albanian communists.Tito's death on May 4, 1980 ushered in a long period of political instability, worsened by growing economic crisis and nationalist unrest. The first major outbreak occurred in Kosovo's main city, Pristina, in March 1981 when Albanian students rioted over long queues in their university canteen. This seemingly trivial dispute rapidly spread throughout Kosovo and took on the character of a national revolt, with massive popular demonstrations in many Kosovo towns. The protesters demanded that Kosovo should become the seventh republic of Yugoslavia. However, this was politically unacceptable to Serbia and the Republic of Macedonia. Some Serbs (and possibly some Albanian nationalists as well) saw the demands as being a prelude to a "Greater Albania" which could encompass parts of Montenegro, the Republic of Macedonia and Kosovo itself. The Communist Yugoslav presidency quelled the disturbances by sending in riot police and the army and proclaiming a state of emergency, although it did not repeal the province's autonomy as some Serbian Communists demanded. The Yugoslav press reported that about 11 people had been killed (although others claimed a death toll as high as 1, 000) and another 4, 200 were imprisoned. Kosovo's Communist Party also suffered purges, with several key figures (including its president) expelled. Hardliners instituted a fierce crackdown on nationalism of all kinds, Albanian and Serbian alike. Kosovo endured a heavy secret police presence throughout most of the 1980s that ruthlessly suppressed any unauthorized nationalist manifestations, both Albanian and Serbian. According to a report quoted by Mark Thompson, as many as 580, 000 inhabitants of Kosovo were arrested, interrogated, interned or reprimanded. Thousands of these lost their jobs or were expelled from their educational establishments. During this time, tension between the Albanian and Serbian communities continued to escalate. In 1969, the Serbian Orthodox Church had ordered its clergy to compile data on the ongoing problems of Serbs in Kosovo, seeking to pressure the government in Belgrade to do more to protect the Serbian faithful. In February 1982, a group of priests from Serbia proper petitioned their bishops to ask "why the Serbian Church is silent" and why it did not campaign against "the destruction, arson and sacrilege of the holy shrines of Kosovo". Such concerns did attract interest in Belgrade. Stories appeared from time to time in the Belgrade media claiming that Serbs and Montenegrins were being persecuted. There was a genuine perception among Serbian nationalists in particular that Serbs were being driven out of Kosovo. A significant fact contributing to fear and instability was large-scale drug trafficking by mafias of Kosovar Albanians. An additional factor was the worsening state of Kosovo's economy, which made the province a poor choice for Serbs seeking work. Albanians, as well as Serbs tended to favour their compatriots when employing new recruits, but the number of jobs was in any case too few for the population. To that end, it is believed that a large number of those declaring Albanian ethnicity are in fact from the Roma community who happen to be of Islamic faith. Kosovo was the poorest part of Yugoslavia: in 1979 the average per capita income was $795, compared with the national average of $2, 635 (and $5, 315 in Slovenia).'Kosovo and the rise of Slobodan Milošević (1986–1990) In Kosovo, growing Albanian nationalism and separatism led to growing ethnic tensions between Serbs and Albanians. An increasingly poisonous atmosphere led to wild rumors being spread around and otherwise trivial incidents being blown out of proportion. It was against this tense background that the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts (SANU, from its Serbian initials, САНУ) conducted a survey under Serbs who had left Kosovo in 1985 and 1986. The report concluded that a considerable part of those who had left had been under pressure by Albanians to do so. Sixteen prominent members of the SANU began work in June 1985 on a draft document that was leaked to the public in September 1986. The SANU Memorandum, as it has become known, was hugely controversial. It focused on the political difficulties facing Serbs in Yugoslavia, pointing to Tito's deliberate hobbling of Serbia's power and the difficulties faced by Serbs outside Serbia proper. The Memorandum paid special attention to Kosovo, arguing that the province's Serbs were being subjected to "physical, political, legal and cultural genocide" in an "open and total war" that had been ongoing since the spring of 1981. It claimed that Kosovo's status in 1986 was a worse historical defeat for the Serbs than any event since liberation from the Ottomans in 1804, thus ranking it above such catastrophes as the Nazi occupation or the First World War occupation of Serbia by the Austro-Hungarians. The Memorandum's authors claimed that 200, 000 Serbs had moved out of the province over the previous twenty years and warned that there would soon be none left "unless things change radically." The remedy, according to the Memorandum, was for "genuine security and unambiguous equality for all peoples living in Kosovo and Metohija [to be] established" and "objective and permanent conditions for the return of the expelled [Serbian] nation [to be] created." It concluded that "Serbia must not be passive and wait and see what the others will say, as it has done so often in the past." The SANU Memorandum met with many different reactions. The Albanians saw it as a call for Serbian supremacy at a local level. They claimed that all Serb emigrants had left Kosovo for economic reasons. Other Yugoslav nationalities—notably the Slovenes and Croats—saw a threat in the call for a more assertive Serbia. Serbs themselves were divided: many welcomed it, while the Communist old guard strongly attacked its message. One of those who denounced it was a Serbian Communist Party official named Slobodan Milošević. In November 1988, Kosovo's head of the provincial committee was arrested. In March 1989, Milošević announced an "anti-bureaucratic revolution" in Kosovo and Vojvodina, curtailing their autonomy as well as imposing a curfew and a state of emergency in Kosovo due to violent demonstrations, resulting in 24 deaths (including two policemen). Milošević and his government claimed that the constitutional changes were necessary to protect Kosovo's remaining Serbs against harassment from the Albanian majority. Kosovo under direct Serbian rule (1990–1996) Slobodan Milošević took the process of retrenchment a stage further in 1990 when he revoked the autonomy of Kosovo and Vojvodina and replaced locally chosen leaders with his sympathizers. Crucially, as both provinces had a vote in the eight member Yugoslav Presidency, this gave Milosevic an automatic four votes when combined with Serbia and Montenegro (which was closely allied to Serbia). Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Macedonia thus had to maintain an uneasy alliance to prevent Milošević from driving through constitutional changes. Serbia's political changes were ratified in a 5 July 1990 referendum across the entire republic of Serbia, including Kosovo. As a result of these measures more than 80, 000 Kosovo Albanians were expelled from their state jobs in Kosovo. A new Serb curriculum was imposed in all higher education in Kosovo-- a move which was rejected by Albanians who responded by creating their parallel education system. The impact on Kosovo was drastic. The reduction of its autonomy was accompanied by the abolition of its political institutions (including the League of Communists of Kosovo), with its assembly and government being formally disbanded. As most of Kosovo's industry was state-owned, the changes brought a wholesale change of corporate cadres. Technically, few were sacked outright: their companies required them to sign loyalty pledges, which most Albanians would not sign, although a few did and remained employed in Serbian state companies right up to 1999. Albanian cultural autonomy was also drastically reduced. The only Albanian-language newspaper, Rilindja, was banned and TV and radio broadcasts in Albanian ceased. Albanian was no longer an official language of the province. University of Pristina, seen as a hotbed of Albanian nationalism, was purged: 800 lecturers at Pristina University were sacked and 22, 500 of the 23, 000 students expelled. Some 40, 000 Yugoslav troops and police replaced the original Albanian-run security forces. A punitive regime was imposed that was harshly condemned as a "police state". Poverty and unemployment reached catastrophic levels, with about 80% of Kosovo's population becoming unemployed. As many as a third of adult male Albanians chose to go abroad (particularly to Germany and Switzerland) to find work. With Kosovo's Communist Party effectively broken up by Milošević's crackdown, the dominant Albanian political party position passed to the Democratic League of Kosovo, led by the writer Ibrahim Rugova. It responded to the abolition of Kosovo's autonomy by pursuing a policy of peaceful resistance. Rugova took the very practical line that armed resistance would be futile given Serbia's military strength and would lead only to a bloodbath in the province. He called on the Albanian populace to boycott the Yugoslav and Serbian states by not participating in any elections, by ignoring the military draft (compulsory in Yugoslavia) and most important by not paying any taxes or duties to the State. He also called for the creation of parallel Albanian schools, clinics and hospitals. In September 1991, the shadow Kosovo Assembly organized a referendum on independence for Kosovo. Despite widespread harassment and violence by Serbian security forces, the referendum achieved a reported 90% turnout among the province's Albanians, and a 98% vote—nearly a million votes in all—which approved the creation of an independent "Republic of Kosovo". In May 1992, a second referendum elected Rugova as President of Kosovo. The Serbian government declared that both referendums were illegal and their results null and void. The slide to war (1996–1998) Rugova's policy of passive resistance succeeded in keeping Kosovo quiet during the war with Slovenia, and the wars in Croatia and Bosnia during the early 1990s. However, as evidenced by the emergence of the KLA, this came at the cost of increasing frustration among the Albanian population of Kosovo. In the mid-1990s, Rugova pleaded for a United Nations peacekeeping force for Kosovo. In 1997, Milošević was promoted to the presidency of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (comprising Serbia and Montenegro since its inception in April 1992). Continuing Serbian repression had radicalized many Albanians, some of whom decided that only armed resistance would effect a change in the situation. On April 22, 1996, four attacks on Serbian security personnel were carried out virtually simultaneously in several parts of Kosovo. A hitherto unknown organization calling itself the "Kosovo Liberation Army" (KLA) subsequently claimed responsibility. The nature of the KLA was at first highly mysterious. In fact, it was initially a small, mainly clan-based but not very well organized group of radicalized Albanians, many of whom came from the Drenica region of western Kosovo. The KLA at this stage consisted mainly of local farmers and displaced and unemployed workers. It is widely believed that the KLA received financial and material support from the Kosovo Albanian diaspora, and from Albanian drug lords established elsewhere in Europe. In early 1997, Albania collapsed into chaos following the fall of President Sali Berisha. Military stockpiles were looted with impunity by criminal gangs, with much of the hardware ending up in western Kosovo and so boosting the growing KLA arsenal. Bujar Bukoshi, shadow Prime Minister in exile (in Zürich, Switzerland), created a group called FARK (Armed Forces of the Republic of Kosova) which was reported to have been disbanded and absorbed by the KLA in 1998. Most Albanians saw the KLA as legitimate "freedom fighters" whilst the Yugoslav government labeled them as "terrorists" attacking police and civilians. In 1998, the U.S. State Department listed the KLA as a terrorist organization, and in 1999 the Republican Policy Committee of the U.S. Senate expressed its troubles with the "effective alliance" of the Clinton administration with the KLA due to "numerous reports from reputable unofficial sources (...) that the KLA is closely involved with: the extensive Albanian crime network (...) [and with] terrorist organizations motivated by the ideology of radical Islam, including assets of Iran and of the notorious Osama Bin Laden (...)". On 2000, a BBC article stated that Nato at War shows how the United States, which had described the KLA as "terrorist", now sought to form a relationship with it. The U.S. envoy Robert Gelbard referred to the KLA as terrorists. Responding to criticism, he later clarified to the House Committee on International Relations that "while it has committed 'terrorist acts,' it has 'not been classified legally by the U.S. Government as a terrorist organization.'" On June 1998, he held talks with two men who claim they are political leaders. It should also be noted that neither the United States nor the other influential powers made any serious effort to stop money or weapons being channeled into Kosovo. Meanwhile, the U.S. held an "outer wall of sanctions" on Yugoslavia which had been tied to a series of issues, Kosovo being one of them. These were maintained despite the agreement at Dayton to end all sanctions. The Clinton administration claimed that Dayton bound Yugoslavia to hold discussions with Rugova over Kosovo. The crisis escalated in December 1997 at the Peace Implementation Council meeting in Bonn, where the International Community (as defined in the Dayton Agreement) agreed to give the High Representative in Bosnia sweeping powers, including the right to dismiss elected leaders. At the same time, Western diplomats insisted that Kosovo be discussed, and that Serbia and Yugoslavia be responsive to Albanian demands there. The delegation from Serbia stormed out of the meetings in protest. This was followed by the return of the Contact Group that oversaw the last phases of the Bosnian conflict and declarations from European powers demanding that Serbia solve the problem in Kosovo. KLA attacks had suddenly intensified, centered on the Drenica valley area, with the compound of one Adem Jashari being a particular focal point. Days after Robert Gelbard described the KLA as a terrorist group, Serbian police responded to the KLA attacks in the Likosane area, and pursued some of the KLA to Cirez, resulting in the deaths of 30 Albanian civilians and four Serbian policemen. The first serious action of the war had begun. Despite some accusations of summary executions and killings of civilians, condemnations from Western capitals were not as voluble as they would become later. Serb police began to pursue Jashari and his followers in the village of Donje Prekaz. A massive firefight at the Jashari compound led to the massacre of a further 60 Albanians, of which eighteen were women and ten were under the age of sixteen. This March 5 event provoked massive condemnation from the western capitals. Madeleine Albright stated that "this crisis is not an internal affair of the FRY". On the 24th of March, Serbian forces surrounded the village of Glodjane, in the Dukagjin operational zone, and attacked a rebel compound there. Despite their superior firepower, the Serbian forces failed to destroy the KLA unit which had been their objective. Although there were deaths and severe injuries on the Albanian side, the insurgency in Glodjane was far from stamped out. It was in fact to become one of the strongest centers of resistance in the upcoming war. Another centre of KLA activity was a part of northern Albania near the border, centered in the town of Tropoje. Following the 1997 Albanian civil conflict, parts of Albania ended up beyond the reach of national authorities. Moreover, the Albanian army's armories were looted. Many of these looted weapons ended up in the hands of the KLA whilst the KLA took over the border area. This was a staging ground for attacks and for shipping weapons to the Drenica stronghold. The path between these areas crossed Djakovica, the plains of Metohija, and to the Klina opstina, and were those areas hardest hit by KLA activity in the beginning. The KLA's first goal was thus to merge its Drenica stronghold with their stronghold in Albania proper, and this would shape the first few months of the fighting. The Serbs also continued their efforts at diplomacy, attempting to arrange talks with Ibrahim Rugova's staff (talks which Rugova and his staff refused to attend). After several failed meetings, Ratko Marković, chairman of the Serbian delegation to the meetings, invited representatives of Kosovo minority groups to attend and maintained his invitation to the Albanians. Serbian President Milan Milutinović attended one of the meetings, though Rugova did not. He and his staff insisted on talking to Yugoslav officials, not Serbian ones, and only to discuss the modalities of Kosovo independence. A new Serbian government was also formed at this time, led by the Socialist Party of Serbia and the Serbian Radical Party. Ultra-nationalist Radical Party chairman Vojislav Šešelj became a deputy prime minister. This increased the dissatisfaction with Serbia's position among Western diplomats and spokespersons. In early April, Serbia arranged for a referendum on the issue of foreign interference in Kosovo. Serbian voters decisively rejected foreign interference in this crisis. Meanwhile, the KLA claimed much of the area in and around Decani and ran a territory based in the village of Glodjane, encompassing its surroundings. So, on May 31, 1998, the Yugoslav army and the Serb Ministry of the Interior police began an operation to clear the border of the KLA. NATO's response to this offensive was mid-June's Operation Determined Falcon, an air show over the Yugoslav borders. During this time, the Yugoslav President Milošević reached an arrangement with Boris Yeltsin of Russia to stop offensive operations and prepare for talks with the Albanians, who, through this whole crisis, refused to talk to the Serbian side, but not the Yugoslav. In fact, the only meeting between Milošević and Ibrahim Rugova took place on 15 May, in Belgrade, two days after Richard Holbrooke announced that it would take place. One month later, Holbrooke, after a trip to Belgrade where he threatened Milosevic that if he did not obey "what's left of your country will implode", he visited the border areas affected by the fighting in early June; there he was famously photographed with the KLA. The publication of these images sent a signal to the KLA, its supporters and sympathizers, and to observers in general, that the U.S. was decisively backing the KLA and the oppressed Albanian population in Kosovo. The Yeltsin agreement included Milosevic's allowing international representatives to set up a mission in Kosovo-Metohija to monitor the situation there. This was the Kosovo Diplomatic Observer Mission (KDOM) that began operations in early July. The American government welcomed this part of the agreement, but denounced the initiative's call for a mutual cease fire. Rather, the Americans demanded that the Serbian-Yugoslavian side should cease fire "without linkage...to a cessation in terrorist activities". All through June and into mid July, the KLA maintained its advance. KLA surrounded Peć, Djakovica, and had set up an interim capital in the town of Mališevo (to the north of Orahovac). The KLA troops were infiltrating Suva Reka, and north to the area west of Priština. They threatened the Belacevec coal pits and captured them in late June, threatening energy supplies in the region. The tide turned in mid-July when the KLA captured Orahovac. On the 17th of July 1998 in the two close by villages to Orahovac, Retimlije and Opteruša. Similar, even if less systematic events took place in the town of Orahovac and the larger Serb village Velika hoċa. The Orthodox monastery of Zociste 5 km from Orehovac - famous for the relics of the Saints Kosmas and Damianos and revered also by local Albanians - was robbed, its monks deported to a KLA prison camp, and, while empty, the monastery church and all its buildings were leveled to the ground by mining. This led to a series of Serb and Yugoslav offensives which would continue into the beginning of August. A new set of KLA attacks in mid-August triggered Yugoslavian operations in south-central Kosovo south of the Pristina-Pec road. This wound down with the capture of Klecka on 23 August and the discovery of a KLA-run crematorium in which some of their victims were found. The 1st of September featured a KLA offensive around Prizren, causing Yugoslavian military activity there. In Metohija, around Pec, another offensive caused condemnation as international officials expressed fear that a large column of displaced people would be attacked. In early mid-September, for the first time, some KLA activity was reported in northern Kosovo around Podujevo. Finally, in late September, a determined effort was made to clear the KLA out of the northern and central parts of Kosovo and out of the Drenica valley itself. During this time many threats were made from Western capitals but these were tempered somewhat by the elections in Bosnia, as they did not want Serbian Democrats and Radicals to win. Following the elections, however, the threats intensified once again but a galvanizing event was needed. They got it on September 28, when the mutilated corpses of a family were discovered by KDOM outside the village of Gornje Obrinje; the bloody doll from there became the rallying image for the ensuing war. The other major issue for those who saw no option but to resort to the use of force was the estimated 250,000 displaced Albanians, 30,000 of whom were out in the woods, without warm clothing or shelter, with winter fast approaching. Meanwhile, the U.S. Ambassador to the Republic of Macedonia, Christopher Hill, was leading shuttle diplomacy between an Albanian delegation, led by Rugova, and the Yugoslav and Serbian authorities. It was these meetings which were shaping what was to be the peace plan to be discussed during a period of planned NATO occupation of Kosovo. During a period of two weeks, threats intensified, culminating in NATO's Activation Order being given. All was ready for the bombs to fly; Richard Holbrooke went to Belgrade in the hope of reaching an agreement with Milošević with regards to deploying a NATO presence in Kosovo. With him came General Michael Short, who threatened to destroy Belgrade. Long and painful discussions led to the Kosovo Verification Agreement on October 12, 1998. Yugoslav T-55 tank next OSCE vehicle Officially, the international community demanded an end to fighting. It specifically demanded that the Serbs end its offensives against the KLA, (without mention of an end to KLA-perpetrated attacks), whilst attempting to convince the KLA to drop its bid for independence. Moreover, attempts were made to persuade Milošević to permit NATO peacekeeping troops to enter Kosovo. This, they argued, would allow for the Christopher Hill peace process to proceed and yield a peace agreement. A ceasefire was brokered, commencing on October 25, 1998. It featured the Kosovo Verification Mission (KVM), which was large contingent of unarmed OSCE peace monitors (officially known as verifiers) moved into Kosovo. Their inadequacy was evident from the start. They were nicknamed the "clockwork oranges" in reference to their brightly coloured vehicles (in English, a "clockwork orange" signifies a useless object.) The ceasefire broke down within a matter of weeks and fighting resumed in December 1998 after the KLA occupied some bunkers overlooking the strategic Priština-Podujevo highway, not long after the Panda Bar Massacre, when the KLA shot up a cafe in Peć. The KLA allegedly assassinated the mayor of Kosovo Polje. The January to March 1999 phase of the war brought increasing insecurity in urban areas, including bombings and murders. Such attacks took place during the Rambouillet talks in February and as the Kosovo Verification Agreement unraveled in March. Killings on the roads continued and increased and there were military confrontations in, among other places, the Vucitrn area in February and the heretofore unaffected Kacanik area in early March. Račak incident Column of Yugoslav army vehicles. In front are two UAZ-469 jeeps, in middle is a M53/59 Praga, and on the end is a TAM-150 truck The Račak incident on January 15, 1999, was the culmination of the KLA attacks and Serbian reprisals that had continued throughout the winter of 1998–1999. The incident was immediately (before the investigation) condemned as a massacre by the Western countries and the United Nations Security Council, and later became the basis of one of the charges of war crimes leveled against Milošević and his top officials. The details of what happened at Račak were revealed shortly after Serb paramilitaries left the scene of the massacre. Rolling TV cameras featured United States Ambassador William Walker walking through mutilated bodies of Albanians. Shortly after that he held a press conference where he stated that he had just witnessed Serbian crimes against civilians. The massacre was the turning point of the war. NATO decided that the conflict could only be settled by introducing a military peacekeeping force under the auspices of NATO, to forcibly restrain the two sides. A carefully coordinated set of diplomatic initiatives was announced simultaneously on January 30, 1999: NATO issued a statement announcing that it was prepared to launch air strikes against Yugoslav targets "to compel compliance with the demands of the international community and [to achieve] a political settlement". While this was most obviously a threat to the Milošević government, it also included a coded threat to the Albanians: any decision would depend on the "position and actions of the Kosovo Albanian leadership and all Kosovo Albanian armed elements in and around Kosovo." In effect, NATO was saying to the Serbs "make peace or we'll bomb you" and to the Albanians "make peace or we'll abandon you to the Serbs." The Contact Group issued a set of "non-negotiable principles" which made up a package known as "Status Quo Plus"—effectively the restoration of Kosovo's pre-1990 autonomy within Serbia, plus the introduction of democracy and supervision by international organizations. It also called for a peace conference to be held in February 1999 at the Château de Rambouillet, outside Paris. The Rambouillet Conference (January–March 1999) The Rambouillet talks began on February 6, with NATO Secretary General Javier Solana negotiating with both sides. They were intended to conclude by February 19. The Serbian delegation was led by then president of Serbia Milan Milutinović, while Milošević himself remained in Belgrade. This was in contrast to the 1995 Dayton conference that ended war in Bosnia, where Milošević negotiated in person. The absence of Milošević was interpreted as a sign that the real decisions were being made back in Belgrade, a move that aroused criticism in Serbia as well as abroad; Kosovo's Serbian Orthodox bishop Artemije traveled all the way to Rambouillet to protest that the delegation was wholly unrepresentative. At this time speculation about an indictment for Milosevic for war crimes was rife, so his absence may have been motivated by fear for arrest. The first phase of negotiations was successful as can be seen in the historical evidence. In particular, the statement by the Contact Group co-chairmen on the 23 February 1999 that the negotiations have led to a consensus on substantial autonomy for Kosovo, including on mechanisms for free and fair elections to democratic institutions, for the governance of Kosovo, for the protection of human rights and the rights of members of national communities; and for the establishment of a fair judicial system. They went on to say that a political framework is now in place leaving the further work of finalizing the implementation Chapters of the Agreement, including the modalities of the invited international civilian and military presence in Kosovo. During the next month, however, NATO, under the influence of US diplomats Rubin and Albright, sought to impose a forced, as opposed to invited, military presence. The tilting of NATO towards the KLA organization is chronicled in the BBC Television "Moral Combat: NATO at War" program. This happened despite the fact, quoting General Klaus Naumann (Chairman of NATO Military Committee), that Ambassador Walker stated in the NAC (North Atlantic Council) that the majority of [ceasefire] violations was caused by the KLA. In the end, on 18 March 1999, the Albanian, American and British delegation signed what became known as the Rambouillet Accords while the Serbian and Russian delegations refused. The accords called for NATO administration of Kosovo as an autonomous province within Yugoslavia; a force of 30, 000 NATO troops to maintain order in Kosovo; an unhindered right of passage for NATO troops on Yugoslav territory, including Kosovo; and immunity for NATO and its agents to Yugoslav law. The American and British delegations must have known that the new version would never be accepted by the Serbs or the Contact Group. These latter provisions were much the same as had been applied to Bosnia for the SFOR (Stabilization Force) mission there. Of particular significance was the comment of Henry Kissinger, former U.S. Secretary of State, who defined the text: "The Rambouillet text, which called on Serbia to admit NATO troops throughout Yugoslavia, was a provocation, an excuse to start bombing. Rambouillet is not a document that a Serb could have accepted. It was a terrible diplomatic document that should never have been presented in that form)" (Henry Kissinger to the Daily Telegraph, 28 June 1999) While the accords did not fully satisfy the Albanians, they were much too radical for the Serbs, who responded by substituting a drastically revised text that even the Russians, traditional allies of the Serbs, found unacceptable. It sought to reopen the painstakingly negotiated political status of Kosovo and deleted all of the proposed implementation measures. Among many other changes in the proposed new version, it eliminated the entire chapter on humanitarian assistance and reconstruction, removed virtually all international oversight and dropped any mention of invoking "the will of the people [of Kosovo]" in determining the final status of the province. Even the word "peace" was deleted. Events proceeded rapidly after the failure at Rambouillet. In the week before the start of NATO bombing, Arkan appeared at the Hyatt hotel in Belgrade where most of Western journalists were staying and ordered all of them to leave Serbia.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,22121,00.html|title=Serbs Unplug CNN|author=Tony Karon|publisher=TIME Magazine|date=1999-03-25}}</ref> The international monitors from the OSCE withdrew on March 22, for fear of the monitors' safety ahead of the anticipated NATO bombing campaign. On March 23, the Serbian assembly accepted the principle of autonomy for Kosovo and non-military part of the agreement. But the Serbian side had objections to the military part of the Rambouillet agreement, particularly appendix B that foresees free access to all of Serbia for NATO troops, which it characterized as "NATO occupation". The full document was described "fraudulent" because the military part of the agreement was offered only at the very end of the talks without much possibility for negotiation, and because the other side, condemned in harshest terms as a "separatist–terrorist delegation", completely refused to meet delegation of FRY and negotiate directly during the Rambouillet talks at all. The following day, March 24, NATO bombing began. The NATO bombing campaign A Tomahawk cruise missile launches from the aft missile deck of the USS Gonzalez on March 31, 1999 A U.S. F-117 Nighthawk taxis to the runway before taking off from Aviano Air Base, Italy, on March 24, 1999 CK building in the moments after bombing. Post-strike bomb damage assessment photograph of the Sremska Mitrovica Ordnance Storage Depot, Serbia NATO's bombing campaign lasted from March 22 to June 11, 1999, involving up to 1, 000 aircraft operating mainly from bases in Italy and aircraft carriers stationed in the Adriatic. Tomahawk cruise missiles were also extensively used, fired from aircraft, ships and submarines. All of the NATO members were involved to some degree—even Greece, despite its public opposition to the war. Over the ten weeks of the conflict, NATO aircraft flew over 38, 000 combat missions. For the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) it was the first time it had participated in a conflict since World War II. The proclaimed goal of the NATO operation was summed up by its spokesman as "Serbs out, peacekeepers in, refugees back". That is, Yugoslav troops would have to leave Kosovo and be replaced by international peacekeepers in order to ensure that the Albanian refugees could return to their homes. The campaign was initially designed to destroy Yugoslav air defenses and high-value military targets. It did not go very well at first, with bad weather hindering many sorties early on. NATO had seriously underestimated Milošević's will to resist: few in Brussels thought that the campaign would last more than a few days, and although the initial bombardment was more than just a pin-prick, it was nowhere near the concentrated bombardments seen in Baghdad in 1991. On the ground, the ethnic cleansing campaign by the Serbians was stepped up and within a week of the war starting, over 300, 000 Kosovo Albanians had fled into neighboring Albania and Macedonia, with many thousands more displaced within Kosovo. By April, the United Nations was reporting that 850, 000 people—the vast majority of them Albanians—had fled their homes. NATO military operations switched increasingly to attacking Yugoslav units on the ground—hitting targets as small as individual tanks and artillery pieces—as well as continuing with the strategic bombardment. This activity was, however, heavily constrained by politics, as each target needed to be approved by all nineteen members states. Montenegro was bombed on several occasions but NATO eventually desisted in order to prop up the precarious position of its anti-Milošević leader, Đukanović. So-called "dual-use" targets, of use to both civilians and the military, were attacked: this included bridges across the Danube, factories, power stations, telecommunications facilities and—particularly controversially—the headquarters of Yugoslavian Leftists, a political party led by Milošević's wife, and the Serbian state television broadcasting tower. Some saw these actions as violations of international law and the Geneva Conventions in particular. NATO however argued that these facilities were potentially useful to the Yugoslav military and that their bombing was therefore justified. At the start of May, a NATO aircraft attacked an Albanian refugee convoy, believing it was a Yugoslav military convoy, killing around fifty people. NATO admitted its mistake five days later, but the Serbs accused NATO of deliberately attacking the refugees. On May 7, NATO bombs hit the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade, killing three Chinese journalists and outraging Chinese public opinion. NATO claimed they were firing at Yugoslav positions. The United States and NATO later apologized for the bombing, saying that it occurred because of an outdated map provided by the CIA. This was challenged by a joint report from The Observer (UK) and Politiken (Denmark) newspapers which claimed that NATO intentionally bombed the embassy because it was being used as a relay station for Yugoslav army radio signals. The bombing strained relations between China and NATO countries and provoked angry demonstrations outside Western embassies in Beijing. In another major incident - Dubrava prison in Kosovo - the Yugoslav government attributed 85 civilian deaths to NATO bombing. Human Rights Watch research in Kosovo determined that an estimated eighteen prisoners were killed by NATO bombs on May 21 (three prisoners and a guard were killed in an earlier attack on May 19. By the start of April, the conflict seemed little closer to a resolution and NATO countries began to think seriously about a ground operation—an invasion of Kosovo. This would have to be organised very quickly, as there was little time before winter set in and much work would have to be done to improve the roads from the Greek and Albanian ports to the envisaged invasion routes through Macedonia and northeastern Albania. U.S. President Bill Clinton was however extremely reluctant to commit American forces for a ground offensive. Instead, Clinton authorized a CIA operation to train the KLA to sabotage and destabilize the Serbian government. At the same time, Finnish and Russian negotiators continued to try to persuade Milošević to back down. He finally recognised that NATO was serious in its resolve to end the conflict one way or another and that Russia would not intervene to defend Serbia despite Moscow's strong anti-NATO rhetoric. Faced with little alternative, Milošević accepted the conditions offered by a Finnish–Russian mediation team and agreed to a military presence within Kosovo headed by the UN, but incorporating NATO troops. The Norwegian special forces Hærens Jegerkommando and Forsvarets Spesialkommando cooperated with the KLA in gathering intelligence information. Preparing for the invasion on 12 June. The Norwegian special forces sat together with the KLA on the Ramno mountain on the border between Macedonia and Kosovo and had an excellent scouting point for what was happening inside Kosovo. Together with British special forces, Norwegian special forces were the first to cross over the border into Kosovo. According to Keith Graves with the television network Sky News, the Norwegians were already inside Kosovo 2 days prior to the march in of other forces and were among the first to enter into Pristina . The Hærens Jegerkommando and Forsvarets Spesialkommando job was to clean the way between the striding parties and to make local deals to implement the peace deal between the Serbians and the Kosovo Albanians. This was done under very difficult circumstances. (Mentions work in Kosovo / Pristina) . Yugoslav withdrawal and entry of KFOR US Army M1 Abrams and Yugoslav army T-55 tanks during YA withdrawal On June 12, 1999, after Milosevic accepted the conditions, KFOR began entering Kosovo. KFOR, a NATO force, had been preparing to conduct combat operations but in the end its mission was only peacekeeping. It was based upon the Allied Rapid Reaction Corps headquarters commanded by then Lieutenant General Mike Jackson of the British Army. It consisted of British forces (a brigade built from 4th Armored and 5th Airborne Brigades), a French Army Brigade, a German Army brigade, which entered from the west while all the other forces advanced from the south, and Italian Army and United States Army brigades. The U.S. contribution, known as the Initial Entry Force, was led by the 1st Armored Division. Subordinate units included TF 1-35 Armor from Baumholder Germany, the 2nd Battalion, 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment from Fort Bragg, N.C; the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit from Camp Lejeune, North Carolina; the 1st Battalion, 26th Infantry Regiment from Schweinfurt Germany, and Echo Troop, 4th Cavalry Regiment, also from Schweinfurt, Germany. Also attached to the U.S. force was the Greek Army's 501st Mechanized Infantry Battalion. The initial U.S. forces established their area of operation around the towns of Urosevic, the future Camp Bondsteel, and Gnjilane, at Camp Monteith, and spent four months—the start of a stay which continues to date—establishing order in the south east sector of Kosovo. During the initial incursion the U.S. soldiers were greeted by Albanians cheering and throwing flowers as U.S. soldiers and KFOR rolled through their villages. Although no resistance was met, three U.S. soldiers from the Initial Entry Force lost their lives in accidents. Sergeant William Wright - B Company 9th Engineers (17 July 1999); Specialist Sherwood Brim - B Company 9th Engineers(17 July 1999); Private First Class Benjamin McGill - C Company 1st Battalion 26th Infantry (5 August 1995). Following the military campaign, the involvement of Russian peacekeepers proved to be tense and challenging to the NATO Kosovo force. The Russians expected to have an independent sector of Kosovo, only to be unhappily surprised with the prospect of operating under NATO command. Without prior communication or coordination with NATO, Russian forces entered Kosovo from Bosnia and seized the Pristina airport. Furthermore, in June 2000, arms trading relations between Russia and Serbia were exposed which lead to the retaliation and bombings of Russian Checkpoints and area Police Stations. Outpost Gunner was established on a high point in the Preševo Valley by Echo Battery 1/161 Field Artillery in an attempt to monitor and assist with peacekeeping efforts in the Russian Sector. Operating under the support of 2/3 Field Artillery, 1st Armored Division, the Battery was able to successfully deploy and continuously operate a Firefinder Radar which allowed the NATO forces to keep a closer watch on activities in the Sector and the Preševo Valley. Eventually a deal was struck whereby Russian forces operated as a unit of KFOR but not under the NATO command structure. Reaction to the war The legitimacy of NATO's bombing campaign in Kosovo has been the subject of much debate. NATO did not have the backing of the United Nations Security Council because the war was opposed by permanent members with ties to Yugoslavia, in particular Russia, who had threatened to veto any resolution authorizing force. NATO argued that their defiance of the Security Council was justified based on the claims of an "international humanitarian emergency". Criticism was also drawn by the fact that the NATO charter specifies that NATO is an organization created for defence of its members, but in this case it was used to attack a non-NATO country which was not directly threatening any NATO member. NATO claimed that instability in the Balkans was a direct threat to the security interests of NATO members, and military action was therefore justified by the NATO charter; however, the only NATO member country to which the instability was a direct threat was Greece. Many on the left of Western politics saw the NATO campaign as U.S. aggression and imperialism, while critics on the right considered it irrelevant to their countries' national security interests. Veteran anti-war campaigners such as Noam Chomsky, Edward Said, Justin Raimondo, and Tariq Ali were prominent in opposing the campaign. However, in comparison with the anti-war protests against the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the campaign against the war in Kosovo aroused much less public support. The television pictures of refugees being driven out of Kosovo made a vivid and simple case for NATO's actions, and the ulterior motives of Western powers as well as atrocities committed by the KLA went relatively unreported. The personalities were also very different—the NATO nations were mostly led by centre-left and moderately liberal leaders, most prominently U.S. President Bill Clinton, British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder and the Italian Prime Minister Massimo D'Alema. Anti-war protests were generally from the libertarian right, the far-left and Serbian émigrés, with many other left-wingers supporting the campaign on humanitarian grounds. The German participation in the operation was one of the reasons for Oskar Lafontaine's resignation from the post of Federal Minister of Finance and the chairman of the SPD. There was, however, criticism from all parts of the political spectrum for the way that NATO conducted the campaign. NATO officials sought to portray it as a "clean war" using precision weapons. The U.S. Department of Defense claimed that, up to June 2, 99.6% of the 20, 000 bombs and missiles used had hit their targets. However, the use of technologies such as depleted uranium ammunition and cluster bombs was highly controversial, as was the bombing of oil refineries and chemical plants, which led to accusations of "environmental warfare". The slow pace of progress during the war was also heavily criticised. Many believed that NATO should have mounted an all-out campaign from the start, rather than starting with a relatively small number of strikes and combat aircraft. Targets of the NATO bombing campaign Post-strike bomb damage assessment photograph of the Kragujevac Armor and Motor Vehicle Plant Crvena Zastava, Serbia The choice of targets was highly controversial. The destruction of bridges over the Danube greatly disrupted shipping on the river for months afterwards, causing serious economic damage to countries along the length of the river. Industrial facilities were also attacked, damaging the economies of many towns. In fact, as the Serbian opposition later complained, the Yugoslav military was using civilian factories as weapons plants: the Sloboda vacuum cleaner factory in the town of Čačak also housed a tank repair facility, while the Zastava car plant was wrongly bombed, because the weapons factory of the same name exists in the same city, but on a completely different location. There were more similar mistakes that showed a lack of intelligence services. Only state owned factories were targeted, leading many to suspect that the bombing campaign was partly designed to prepare the way for a free market-based reconstruction by wealthy foreign powers. No private or foreign owned industrial sites were bombed. Perhaps the most controversial deliberate attack of the war was that made against the headquarters of Serbian television on April 23, which killed at least fourteen people. NATO justified the attack on the grounds that the Serbian television headquarters was part of the Milošević regime's "propaganda machine". Opponents of Milošević inside Serbia charged that the managers of the state TV station had been forewarned of the attack but ordered staff to remain inside the building despite an air raid alert. Within Yugoslavia, opinion on the war was (unsurprisingly) split between highly critical among Serbs and highly supportive among Albanians—although not all Albanians felt that way; some appear to have blamed NATO for not acting quickly enough. Although Milošević was increasingly unpopular, the NATO campaign created a mood of national unity. Milošević did not leave matters entirely to chance, however. Many opposition supporters feared for their lives, particularly after the murder of the dissident journalist Slavko Curuvija on April 11, an act widely blamed on Milošević's secret police. In Montenegro, President Milo Đukanović—who opposed both the NATO bombardment and Serbian actions in Kosovo—publicly expressed fear of a "creeping coup" by Milošević supporters. Opinion in Yugoslavia's neighbours was much more mixed. Macedonia was the only Yugoslav republic apart from Montenegro not to have fought a war with Serbia and had tense relations between the Macedonian majority and a large Albanian minority. Its government did not approve of Milošević's actions, but it was also not very sympathetic towards the Albanian refugees. Albania was wholly supportive of NATO's actions, as might be expected given the ethnic ties between Albanians on both sides of the border. Croatia, Romania and Bulgaria granted overflight rights to NATO aircraft. Hungary was a new member of NATO and supported the campaign. Across the Adriatic, Italian public and political opinion was against the war, but the Italian government nonetheless allowed NATO full use of Italian air bases. In Greece, popular opposition to the war reached 96%. Criticism of the case for war A minority of critics have emerged since the end of the war. They have accused the coalition of leading a war in Kosovo under the false pretense of genocide. President Clinton of the United States, and his administration, were accused of inflating the number of Kosovar Albanians killed by Serbians. Clinton's Secretary of Defense William Cohen, giving a speech, said, "The appalling accounts of mass killing in Kosovo and the pictures of refugees fleeing Serb oppression for their lives makes it clear that this is a fight for justice over genocide." On CBS' Face the Nation Cohen claimed, "We've now seen about 100, 000 military-aged men missing... they may have been murdered." Clinton, citing the same figure, spoke of "at least 100, 000 (Kosovar Albanians) missing". Later, talking about Yugoslav elections, Clinton said, "they're going to have to come to grips with what Mr. Milošević ordered in Kosovo... they're going to have to decide whether they support his leadership or not; whether they think it's OK that all those tens of thousands of people were killed...". Clinton also claimed, in the same press conference, that "NATO stopped deliberate, systematic efforts at ethnic cleansing and genocide." Clinton compared the events of Kosovo to the Holocaust. CNN reported, "Accusing Serbia of 'ethnic cleansing' in Kosovo similar to the genocide of Jews in World War II, an impassioned President Clinton sought Tuesday to rally public support for his decision to send U.S. forces into combat against Yugoslavia, a prospect that seemed increasingly likely with the breakdown of a diplomatic peace effort." Clinton's State Department also claimed Yugoslav troops had committed genocide. The New York Times reported, "the Administration said evidence of 'genocide' by Yugoslav forces was growing to include 'abhorrent and criminal action' on a vast scale. The language was the State Department's strongest yet in denouncing Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević." Clines, Francis X (March 30, 1999). "NATO Hunting for Serb Forces; U.S. Reports Signs of 'Genocide'". The New York Times, p. A1. The State Department also gave the highest estimate of dead Albanians. The New York Times reported, "On April 19, the State Department said that up to 500, 000 Kosovar Albanians were missing and feared dead." Erlanger, Steven (November 11, 1999). "Early Count Hints at Fewer Kosovo Deaths". The New York Times, p. A6. After the bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, Chinese Premier Jiang Zemin said that the US was using its economic and military superiority to aggressively expand its influence and interfere in the internal affairs of other countries. Chinese leaders called the NATO campaign a dangerous precedent of naked aggression, a new form of colonialism, and an aggressive war that groundless in morality or law. It was seen as part of a plot by the US to destroy Yugoslavia, expand eastward and control all of Europe. Brian Frderking, The United States and the Security Council The United Nations Charter does not allow military interventions in other sovereign countries with few exceptions which in general need to be decided upon by the United Nations Security Council. The issue was brought before the UN Security Council by Russia, in a draft resolution which - inter alia - would affirm "that such unilateral use of force constitutes a flagrant violation of the United Nations Charter". China, Namibia and Russia voted for the resolution, the other members against, thus it failed to pass. On April 29, 1999 Yugoslavia filed a complaint at the International Court of Justice (ICJ) at The Hague against ten NATO member countries (Belgium, Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, Canada, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and the USA). The Court did not decide upon the case because Yugoslavia was not a member of the UN during the war. In Western countries, opposition to NATO's intervention was mainly from the libertarian right, and from most of the far left. In Britain, the war was opposed by many prominent conservative figures including former UK Foreign Secretary Sir Malcolm Rifkind, former Chancellor of the Exchequer Norman Lamont, and journalists Peter Hitchens and Simon Heffer, whereas opposition on the left was confined to The Morning Star newspaper and left wing MPs like Tony Benn and Alan Simpson. However, the Communist Party of Great Britain (Provisional Central Committee), a Leninist splinter-group, backed the Kosovo Liberation Army (while opposing NATO's intervention, seeing it as American-led imperialist opportunism) and support the complete secession of Kosovo from Serbia. When the war ended on June 11, 1999, it left Kosovo in chaos and Yugoslavia as a whole facing an unknown future. The war inflicted many casualties. Already by March 1999, the combination of fighting and the targeting of civilians had left an estimated 1, 500-2, 000 civilians and combatants dead. Final estimates of the casualties are still unavailable for either side. Casualties Civilians killed by NATO airstrikes Yugoslavia claimed that NATO attacks caused between 1, 200 and 5, 700 civilian casualties. NATO acknowledged killing at most 1, 500 civilians. Human Rights Watch counted a minimum of 488 civilian deaths (90 to 150 of them killed from cluster bomb use) in 90 separate incidents. Attacks in Kosovo overall were more deadly - a third of the incidents account for more than half of the deaths. Civilians killed by Yugoslav ground forces Various estimates of the number of killings attributed to Yugoslav ground forces have been announced through the years. The estimate of 10, 000 deaths is used by the U.S. State Department, which cited human rights abuses as its main justification for attacking Yugoslavia. Statistical experts working on behalf of the ICTY prosecution estimate that the total number of dead is about 10, 000. Their higher estimate was based on the controversial assumption that most people wouldn't report the killing or disappearance of a loved one. In June 2000 the Red Cross reported that 3, 368 civilians (2, 500 Albanians, 400 Serbs, and 100 Roma) were still missing, nearly one year after the conflict ("On April 19, the State Department said that up to 500, 000 Kosovar Albanians were missing and feared dead."). In August 2000 the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) announced that it had exhumed 2, 788 bodies in Kosovo, but declined to say how many were thought to be victims of war crimes. Earlier however, KFOR sources told Agence France Presse that of the 2, 150 bodies that had been discovered up until July 1999, about 850 were thought to be victims of war crimes. Agence France Presse -- English; August 03, 1999 11:05 GMT; Top UN official in Kosovo sparks storm over mass grave body count Some of the missing civilians were re-buried in mass graves in Serbia-proper. In July 2001, the Serbian authorities announced the discovery of four mass graves containing 836 bodies. The largest grave was found on a Serbian Police training ground in Batajnica just outside of Belgrade. A study by researchers from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia published in 2000 in medical journal the Lancet estimated that "12, 000 deaths in the total population" could be attributed to war. This number was achieved by surveying 1197 households from February, 1998, through June, 1999. 67 out of the 105 deaths reported in the sample population were attributed to war-related trauma, which extrapolates to be 12, 000 deaths if the same war-related mortality rate is applied to Kosovo's total population. The highest mortality rates were in men between 15-49 accounting for 5421 victims of war as well as for the man over 50 accounting for total of 5176 victims of the war. For persons younger than 15 the estimates were 160 victims for males and 200 for females. For the woman between 15-49 the estimate is that there was 510 victims and for the woman older than 50 years the estimate is 541 victims. The authors stated that it is not "possible to differentiate completely between civilian and military casualties". Civilians killed by the KLA According to a Serbian government report, from January 1, 1998 to June 10, 1999 the KLA killed 988 people and kidnapped 287; in the period from June 10, 1999, to November 11, 2001, when NATO had been in control in Kosovo, 847 people were reported to have been killed and 1, 154 kidnapped. This comprised both civilians and security forces personnel: of those killed in the first period, 335 were civilians, 351 were soldiers, 230 were police and 72 were unidentified; by nationality, 87 of killed civilians were Serbs, 230 Albanians, and 18 of other nationalities. The Humanitarian Law Center in Belgrade, an organization funded by the European Commission, have announced that it had identified 8, 000 Serbians out of a total of 12, 000 casualties they had identified in the Kosovo War. NATO losses Military casualties on the NATO side were light—according to official reports the alliance suffered no fatalities as a result of combat operations. However, in the early hours of May 5, an American military AH-64 Apache helicopter crashed not far from the border between Serbia and Albania. An American AH-64 helicopter crashed about 40 miles (64 km) northeast of Tirana, Albania's capital, very close to the Albanian/Kosovo border. According to CNN the crash happened 45 miles (72 km) northeast of Tirana. The two American pilots of the helicopter, Army Chief Warrant Officers David Gibbs and Kevin L. Reichert, died in that crash. They were the only NATO casualties during the war, according to NATO official statements. There were other casualties after the war, mostly due to land mines. After the war, the alliance reported the loss of the first U.S. stealth plane (a F-117 stealth fighter) ever shot down by enemy fire. Furthermore an F-16 fighter was lost near Šabac to Yugoslav air defences (although NATO reported it was an engine failiure) and whose remains are on display in Museum of Aviation in Belgrade, 32 unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) from different nations were lost. http://www.muzejrv.mod.gov.rs/ The wreckages of downed UAVs were shown on Serbian television during the war. A second F-117A was also heavily damaged, and although it made it back to its base, it never flew again. . Yugoslav military losses Wreckage of the Yugoslav MiG-29 jet fighter shot down on March 27, 1999, outside the town of Ugljevik, Bosnia and Herzegovina NATO did not release any official casualty estimates. The Yugoslav authorities claimed 462 soldiers were killed and 299 wounded by NATO airstrikes. The names of Yugoslav casualties were recorded in a "book of remembrance". Of military equipment, NATO destroyed around 50 Yugoslav aircraft, of which many were old and unflyable and were intentionally placed as decoys to draw attention away from valuable targets. Two notable exceptions were the 11 destroyed MiG-29s, and 6 G-4 Super Galebs which were destroyed right in their hardened aircraft shelter when someone forgot to close the shelter doors. At the end of war, NATO officially claimed they destroyed 93 Yugoslav tanks. Yugoslavia admitted a total of 13 destroyed tanks. The latter figure was verified by European inspectors when Yugoslavia rejoined the Dayton accords, by noting the difference between the number of tanks then and at the last inspection in 1995. The army lost 14 tanks (9 M-84's and 5 T-55's), 18 APCs and 20 artillery pieces. "The Kosovo Cover-Up" by John Barry and Evan Thomas, Newsweek, May 15, 2000. Most of the targets hit in Kosovo were decoys, such as tanks made out of plastic sheets with telegraph poles for gun barrels, or old World War II-era tanks which were not functional. Anti-aircraft defences were preserved by the simple expedient of not turning them on, preventing NATO aircraft from detecting them, but forcing them to keep above a ceiling of 15,000 ft (5, 000 m), making accurate bombing much more difficult. Towards the end of the war, it was claimed that carpet bombing by B-52 aircraft had caused huge casualties among Yugoslav troops stationed along the Kosovo–Albania border. Careful searching by NATO investigators found no evidence of any such large-scale casualties. However, the most significant loss for the Yugoslav Army was the damaged and destroyed infrastructure. Almost all military air bases and airfields (Batajnica, Lađevci, Slatina, Golubovci, Kovin, Đakovica) and other military buildings and facilities were badly damaged or destroyed. Unlike the units and their equipment, military buildings couldn't be camouflaged. Thus, defence industry and military technical overhaul facilities were also damaged seriously (Utva, Zastava Arms factory, Moma Stanojlović air force overhaul center, technical overhaul centers in Čačak and Kragujevac). Moreover, in an effort to weaken the Yugoslav Army, NATO targeted several important civilian facilities (Pančevo oil refinery, bridges and railroads). KLA losses Kosovo Liberation Army losses are difficult to analyze. According to some reports there were around 1, 000 casualties on KLA side. Difficulties arise in calculating an accurate figure, as KLA fighters dying in combat would sometimes be carried away by retreating KLA forces, and other times left on the battlefield and buried in mass graves by the Yugoslavs. Things are further complicated by the difficulty of determining who was a KLA member. For example, the Yugoslavs considered any armed Albanian to be a member of the KLA, regardless of whether he was officially a card-carrying member, so someone who is counted as a civilian by the Albanian side might be counted as a KLA combatant by the Serbs. Also, many members of the KLA were not wearing uniforms. Aftermath A Serbian Orthodox church destroyed by Albanians after the war Within three weeks, over 500,000 Albanian refugees had returned home. By November 1999, according to the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, 808, 913 out of 848, 100 had returned. However, the campaign of violence forced 200, 000 Serbs from Kosovo. Gypsies were also driven out after being harassed by Albanians. Since June 12, 1999, as many as 1,000 Serbs and Roma have been murdered or have gone missing as a result of KLA elements and possibly criminal gangs or vengeful individuals. The Yugoslav Red Cross had also registered 247, 391 mostly Serbian refugees by November. The new exodus was a severe embarrassment to NATO, which had established a peacekeeping force of 45,000 under the auspices of the United Nations Mission In Kosovo (UNMIK). Returning IDPs from the Republic of Macedonia were kept in a lead polluted refugee camp set up by KFOR / UNMIK in North Mitrovica. The charity, ran by Paul Polansky, claims 27 died from lead poisoning, denied by UNMIK who recognise only one death. According to Amnesty International, the presence of peacekeepers in Kosovo led to an increase in the trafficking of women for sexual exploitation. War crimes Serbian War Crimes The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia charged Milošević with crimes against humanity, violating the laws or customs of war, grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions and genocide for his role during the wars in Croatia, Bosnia, and Kosovo. Before the end of the bombing, Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević, along with Milan Milutinović, Nikola Šainović, Dragoljub Ojdanić and Vlajko Stojiljković were charged by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) with crimes against humanity including murder, forcible transfer, deportation and "persecution on political, racial or religious grounds". The ICTY also leveled indictments against KLA members Fatmir Limaj, Haradin Bala, Isak Musliu and Agim Murtezi, indicted for crimes against humanity. They were arrested on February 17–18, 2003. Charges were soon dropped against Agim Murtezi as a case of mistaken identity, whereas Fatmir Limaj was acquitted of all charges on 30 November 2005 and released. The charges were in relation to the prison camp run by the defendants at Lapusnik between May and July 1998. War crimes prosecutions have also been carried out in Yugoslavia. Yugoslav soldier Ivan Nikolić was found guilty in 2002 of war crimes in the deaths of two civilians in Kosovo. A significant number of Yugoslav soldiers were tried by Yugoslav military tribunals during the war. Kosovan War Crimes Further indictments were leveled in October 2003 against former armed forces chief of staff Nebojša Pavković, former army corps commander Vladimir Lazarević, former police official Vlastimir Đorđević and the current head of Serbia's public security, Sreten Lukić. All were indicted for crimes against humanity and violations of the laws or customs of war. In 2008, Carla Del Ponte published a book in which she alleged that, after the end of the war in 1999, Kosovo Albanians were smuggling organs of between 100 and 300 Serbs and other minorities from the province to Albania. Organ smuggling in Wall Street Journal ICTY and Serbian War Crimes Tribunal are currently investigating these allegations, as numerous witnesses and new materials have recently emerged. Le Figaro - Flash actu : trafic d'organes/Kosovo: aucune trace On March 2005, a U.N. tribunal indicted Kosovo Prime Minister Ramush Haradinaj for war crimes against the Serbs, on March 8 he tendered his resignation. Haradinaj, an ethnic Albanian, was a former commander who led units of the Kosovo Liberation Army and was appointed Prime Minister after winning an election of 72 votes to three in the Kosovo's Parliament in December 2004. Haradinaj was acquitted on all counts. The Office of the Prosecutor has appealed his acquittal, and as of July 2008, the matter remains unresolved. Nato War Crimes The Serbian government and a number of international pressure groups (e.g. Amnesty International) claimed that NATO had carried out war crimes during the conflict, notably the bombing of the Serbian TV headquarters in Belgrade on April 23 1999, where 16 people were killed and 16 were injured. Sian Jones of Amnesty stated "The bombing of the headquarters of Serbian state radio and television was a deliberate attack on a civilian object and as such constitutes a war crime". Amnesty: NATO bombing of Serbian TV 'war crime' The ICTY conducted an inquiry into these charges, but did not press charges, citing a lack of mandate. Military and political consequences Yugoslav Army M-84 tanks withdrawing from Kosovo The Kosovo war had a number of important consequences in terms of the military and political outcome. The status of Kosovo remains unresolved; international negotiations began in 2006 to determine the level of autonomy Kosovo would have, as envisaged under UN Security Council Resolution 1244, but failed. The province is administered by the United Nations despite its unilateral declaration of independence on February 17, 2008. The UN-backed talks, led by UN Special Envoy Martti Ahtisaari, had begun in February 2006. Whilst progress was made on technical matters, both parties remained diametrically opposed on the question of status itself. In February 2007, Ahtisaari delivered a draft status settlement proposal to leaders in Belgrade and Pristina, the basis for a draft UN Security Council Resolution which proposes 'supervised independence' for the province, which is in contrary to UN Security Council Resolution 1244. By July 2007 the draft resolution, which was backed by the United States, United Kingdom and other European members of the Security Council, had been rewritten four times to try to accommodate Russian concerns that such a resolution would undermine the principle of state sovereignty. Russia, which holds a veto in the Security Council as one of five permanent members, stated that it would not support any resolution which is not acceptable to both Belgrade and Priština. . Milošević survived the immediate aftermath of the war, but the effective loss of control over Kosovo was a major factor in provoking the popular revolt which overthrew him in 2000. The following year, he was subsequently arrested and taken to The Hague, where he was found dead in his cell on March 11, 2006, leaving his trial unfinished. The Kosovo war revealed how dependent the European members had become on the United States military — the vast majority of combat and non-combat operations were dependent on U.S. involvement and highlighted the lack of precision weapons in European armories. Some right-wing and military critics in the U.S. also blamed the alliance's agreement-by-consensus arrangements for hobbling and slowing down the campaign. The campaign exposed significant weaknesses in the U.S. arsenal, which were later addressed for the Afghanistan and Iraq campaigns. Apache attack helicopters and AC-130 Spectre gunships were brought up to the front lines but were never actually used after two Apaches crashed during training in the Albanian mountains. Stocks of many precision missiles were run down to critically low levels; had the campaign lasted much longer, NATO would have had to revert back to using "dumb" bombs for lack of anything better. Situation was not any better with the combat aircraft; continuous operations meant skipped maintenance schedules and many aircraft were withdrawn from service awaiting spare parts and service. Also, many of the precision-guided weapons proved unable to cope with Balkan weather, as the clouds blocked the laser guidance beams. This was resolved by retrofitting bombs with Global Positioning System satellite guidance devices that are immune to bad weather. Also, although pilotless surveillance aircraft were extensively used, it often proved the case that attack aircraft could not be brought to the scene quickly enough to hit targets of opportunity. This led to the fitting of missiles to Predator drones in Afghanistan, reducing the "sensor to shooter" time to virtually nil. Kosovo also demonstrated that even a high-tech force such as NATO could be thwarted by quite simple tactics, according to Wesley Clark and other NATO generals who analyzed these tactics a few years after the conflict. The Yugoslav army had long expected to need to resist a much stronger enemy; either Soviet or NATO; during the Cold War and had developed effective tactics of deception and concealment in response. These would have been unlikely to have resisted a full-scale invasion for long, but were probably effective in misleading overflying aircraft and satellites. Among the tactics used were: U.S. stealth aircraft were tracked with radars operating on long wavelengths. If stealth jets got wet or started to drop bombs they would become visible on the radar screens. An F-117 Nighthawk was spotted in this way and downed with a missile. Precision-guided missiles were often confused and unable to pinpoint radars, because radar beams were reflected off heavy farm machinery like old tractors and plows. Many low-tech approaches were used to confuse heat-seeking missiles and infrared sensors. Decoys such as small gas furnaces were used to simulate nonexistent positions on mountainsides. Dummy targets were used very extensively. Fake bridges, airfields and decoy planes and tanks were used. Tanks were made using old tires, plastic sheeting and logs, and sand cans and fuel set alight to mimic heat emissions. They fooled NATO pilots into bombing hundreds of such decoys, though General Clark's survey found that in Operation: Allied Force, NATO airmen hit just 25 decoys-an insignificant percentage of the 974 validated hits. However, NATO sources claim that this was due to operating procedures, which oblige troops, in this case aircraft, to engage any and all targets however unlikely they were real. The targets needed only to look real to be shot at, if detected, of course. NATO claimed that Yugoslav air force had been decimated. "Official data show that the Yugoslav army in Kosovo lost 26 percent of its tanks, 34 percent of its APCs, and 47 percent of the artillery to the air campaign." Old electronic jammers were used to block U.S. bombs equipped with satellite guidance. Hispano-Suiza anti-aircraft cannons from the World War II era were used effectively against slow-flying drone aircraft. As a result of their inability to locate mobile or concealed military targets, NATO forces increasingly turned to bombing infrastructure such as power stations, bridges and roads. This increasingly became the case during the latter stages of the bombing campaign. Military decorations As a result of the Kosovo War, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation created a second NATO medal, the NATO Medal for Kosovo Service, an international military decoration. Shortly thereafter, NATO created the Non-Article 5 Medal for Balkans service to combine both Yugoslavian and Kosovo operations into one service medal. Due to the involvement of the United States armed forces, a separate U.S. military decoration, known as the Kosovo Campaign Medal, was established by President Bill Clinton in the year 2000. See also Operation Eagle Eye (Kosovo) Operation Horseshoe Gallery References External links Indictment of Milosevic United Nations Text of Rambouillet Treaty - "Interim Agreement for Peace and Self-Government In Kosovo, Rambouillet, France - February 23, 1999," including Appendix B University of Pittsburgh Jurist Beginning of discussion (May 14, 1999 to June 8, 1999, specifically) of Appendix B of the Rambouillet Treaty on H-Diplo, the diplomatic history forum H-Net Through My Eyes website Imperial War Museum - Online Exhibition (Including images, videos and interviews with refugees from the War in Kosovo) Reports UNDER ORDERS: War Crimes in Kosovo Human Rights Watch OSCE Kosovo Verification Mission OSCE (Internet Archive) Operation Allied Force NATO HUMANITARIAN LAW VIOLATIONS IN KOSOVO HRW (1998) ABUSES AGAINST SERBS AND ROMA IN THE NEW KOSOVO HRW (1999) The Ethnic Cleansing of Kosovo U.S. State Department Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo: An Accounting U.S. State Department War and mortality in Kosovo, 1998 99: an epidemiological testimony The Lancet (PDF) Trebinje danas.comK. Mitrovica: Više od 100 povrijeđenih Srba, UNMIK policajaca i Kfora Media war in europe PBS Frontline Kosovo fact files BBC News Focus on Kosovo CNN How the (2008) Nobel Peace Prize was Won, by Gregory Elich, Counterpunch, published at Global Research. Diplomatic intervention of Finnish president Martti Ahtisaari on the conflict. 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2,689 | Jacopo_Amigoni | Juno Receiving the Head of Argos (1730-32) Oil on canvas, 108 x 72 cm. Moor Park, Rickmansworth, Hertfordshire. Jacopo Amigoni (also named Giacomo Amiconi, 1682 – 1752) was an Italian painter of the late-Baroque or Rococo period, who began his career in Venice, but traveled and was prolific throughout Europe, where his sumptuous portraits were much in demand. Biography He was born in Naples or Venice. Amigoni initially painted both mythological and religious scenes; but as the panoply of his patrons expanded northward, he began producing many parlour works depicting gods in sensuous languor or games. His style influenced Giuseppe Nogari. Among his pupils were Charles Joseph Flipart, Michelangelo Morlaiter, Pietro Antonio Novelli, Joseph Wagner, and Antonio Zucchi. Getty Museum Biography Starting in 1717, he is documented as working in Bavaria in the Castle of Nymphenburg (1719); in the castle of Schleissheim (1725-1729); and in the Benedictine abbey of Ottobeuren. He returned to Venice in 1726. His Arraignment of Paris hangs in the Villa Pisani at Stra. From 1730 to 1739 he worked in England, in Pown House, Moor Park and in the Theatre of Covent Garden. From there, he helped convince Canaletto to travel to England by telling him of the ample patronage available. From his travel to Paris in 1736, he met the celebrated castrato named Farinelli. Later in Madrid, he was to paint a self-portrait with the singer and entourage. Farinelli and friends He also encountered the painting of François Lemoine and Boucher. In 1739 he returned to Italy, perhaps to Naples and surely to Montecassino, in whose Abbey existed two canvases (destroyed during World War II). Until 1747, he travelled to Venice to paint for Sigismund Streit, for the Casa Savoia and other buildings of the city. In 1747 he left Italy and established himself in Madrid. There he became court painter to Ferdinand VI of Spain and director of the Royal Academy of Saint Fernando. He died in Madrid. Partial anthology Consul Marcus Curius Dentatus prefers turnips to the Samnites' gifts Caroline Wilhelmina of Brandenburg-Ansbach Print after Amigoni of Princess Amelia Sophia Eleanora Prints after portraits by Amigoni. Venus disarming cupid. Venus and Adonis References | Jacopo_Amigoni |@lemmatized juno:1 receive:1 head:1 argo:1 oil:1 canvas:2 x:1 cm:1 moor:2 park:2 rickmansworth:1 hertfordshire:1 jacopo:1 amigoni:4 also:2 name:2 giacomo:1 amiconi:1 italian:1 painter:2 late:1 baroque:1 rococo:1 period:1 begin:2 career:1 venice:4 travel:4 prolific:1 throughout:1 europe:1 sumptuous:1 portrait:3 much:1 demand:1 biography:2 bear:1 naples:2 initially:1 paint:3 mythological:1 religious:1 scene:1 panoply:1 patron:1 expand:1 northward:1 produce:1 many:1 parlour:1 work:3 depict:1 god:1 sensuous:1 languor:1 game:1 style:1 influence:1 giuseppe:1 nogari:1 among:1 pupil:1 charles:1 joseph:2 flipart:1 michelangelo:1 morlaiter:1 pietro:1 antonio:2 novelli:1 wagner:1 zucchi:1 getty:1 museum:1 start:1 document:1 bavaria:1 castle:2 nymphenburg:1 schleissheim:1 benedictine:1 abbey:2 ottobeuren:1 return:2 arraignment:1 paris:2 hang:1 villa:1 pisani:1 stra:1 england:2 pown:1 house:1 theatre:1 covent:1 garden:1 help:1 convince:1 canaletto:1 tell:1 ample:1 patronage:1 available:1 meet:1 celebrate:1 castrato:1 farinelli:2 later:1 madrid:3 self:1 singer:1 entourage:1 friend:1 encounter:1 painting:1 françois:1 lemoine:1 boucher:1 italy:2 perhaps:1 surely:1 montecassino:1 whose:1 exist:1 two:1 destroy:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 sigismund:1 streit:1 casa:1 savoia:1 building:1 city:1 leave:1 establish:1 become:1 court:1 ferdinand:1 vi:1 spain:1 director:1 royal:1 academy:1 saint:1 fernando:1 die:1 partial:1 anthology:1 consul:1 marcus:1 curius:1 dentatus:1 prefers:1 turnips:1 samnite:1 gift:1 caroline:1 wilhelmina:1 brandenburg:1 ansbach:1 print:2 princess:1 amelia:1 sophia:1 eleanora:1 venus:2 disarm:1 cupid:1 adonis:1 reference:1 |@bigram oil_canvas:1 benedictine_abbey:1 covent_garden:1 brandenburg_ansbach:1 venus_adonis:1 |
2,690 | Casimir_II_the_Just | This article is about the 12th century Polish king. For other uses, please see Casimir. Casimir the Just by Jan Matejko. Casimir II the Just (; 1138 – 5 May 1194), was a Duke of Wiślica during 1166–1173, Duke of Sandomierz since 1173 and Duke of Kraków and High Duke of Poland (see Seniorate Province) from 1177 until his death. The surname "the Just" wasn't contemporary; this only appears in the 16th century. He was the youngest son of Bolesław III Wrymouth, Duke of Poland, by his second wife Salome, daughter of Henry, Count of Berg-Schelklingen. Life Early Years Casimir, the sixth but fourth surviving son of the Ducal couple, was born in 1138, shortly before his father's death, but also is possible that he born shortly after, and in consequence, was posthumous. Maybe this was the reason that in the Bolesław III's Testament, he was omitted and left without any land. During his first years, Casimir and his sister Agnes (born in 1137) lived with their mother Salome in her widow land, Łęczyca. There, the young prince remained far away from the struggles of his older brothers Bolesław IV the Curly and Mieszko III the Old with their older half-brother Władysław II, who tried to reunificate all Poland under his rule. Salome of Berg died in 1144. Casimir and Agnes were cared by his older brother Bolesław IV and, although under his tutelage he could feel safe, he had any guarantee to receive part of the paternal inheritance in the future. When in 1154 he reached the proper age (according to the standards of that time), to take control over the lands of the family, he remained with nothing. Even worse, three years later (1157) his fate was decided in the successfully campaign of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. As a part of the treaty between Bolesław and Barbarossa, Casimir was sent to Germany as a hostage in order to secure the loyalty of his brother to the Emperor. It's unknown the fate of Casimir in the Imperial court. He returned to Poland certainly before 21 May 1161, because that day he appears in a document with two of his brothers, Bolesław IV and Henry of Sandomierz. The former opposition of his brothers caused that Casimir remained without lands. Duke of Wiślica The situation changed in 1166, when his brother Henry was killed in battle during the crusade against the Prussians; without issue, in his will he named Casimir the only heir of Sandomierz. However, Bolesław IV decided to divided the Duchy in three parts: the largest (who included the capital, Sandomierz) to him; the second (whithout any name) to Mieszko III and the third part, the district of Wiślica, was given to Casimir. Angry and disappointed with the decision of the High Duke, Casimir rebelled against him, with the support of by his brother Mieszko III the Old, the magnate Jaksa of Miechów and Sviatoslav, son of Piotr Włostowic, as well as Jan I, Archbishop of Gniezno and Gedko, Bishop of Kraków; also, almost all Lesser Poland was on his side. The quick actions of the High Duke finally stopped the rebellion. At the end, Casimir retain only Wiślica. In 1172 Mieszko III rebelled against the High Duke, and tried to persuaded his younger brother to join him. For unknown reasons, Casimir refused to participate. Bolesław IV died in 1173 and was succeeded by Mieszko III as High Duke. He decided to gave the rest of Sandomierz to Casimir, then his only surviving brother, who finally could take the Ducal title after the illegal usurpation of the late High Duke. Revolt against the rule of High Duke Mieszko III The strong and dictatorial of the new High Duke caused a deep disaffection among the nobility. This time the new revolt prepared in 1177 had a real chance of victory. The rebellion, apart of the Lesser Poland nobility, count with the support of Gedko, Bishop of Krakow, Mieszko's eldest son Odon, Bolesław I the Tall and Casimir. The reasons about his inclusion in the revolt, after being reconciled with Mieszko, are unknown. The battle for the supreme power had a quite strange course: Mieszko, completely surprised by the rebels in Greater Poland, withdrew to Poznan, where he stay for almost two years going heavy fighting with his son Odon. Finally, he was defeated and was forced to escape. Bolesław the Tall failed in conquest Krakow and with this the Seniorate, because he was busy fighting against his brother Mieszko I Tanglefoot and his own son Jarosław; soon defeated, he asked Casimir for help. After a successfully action in Silesia, he marched to Kraków, who was quickly conquest. Casimir, now Duke of Kraków, decided to conclude a treaty under which the Bolesław the Tall obtain the full authority over the Lower Silesia, in return for what Casimir granted to the then deposed Mieszko Tanglefoot the Lesser Poland districts of Bytom and Oświęcim, who formerly were a gift for Casimir's godson and namesake: Casimir, the only son of Mieszko Tanglefoot). Casimir II, High Duke of Poland The rebellion against Mieszko III in 1177 ended in a full success to Casimir, which not only conquest Kraków (including the districts of Sieradz and Łęczyca)—and with this the title of High Duke—, but also managed to extend his sovereignty over Silesia (then divided between four princes: Bolesław the Tall, Mieszko I Tanglefoot, Konrad Spindleshanks and Jarosław of Opole), Greater Poland (ruled by Odon), Masovia and Kuyavia (ruled by Leszek the White, then a minor and under the tutelage of his mother and the voivode Żyrona, one of his followers) and Gdańsk Pomerania (ruled by the Duke Sambor I as a vassal). However, Mieszko III worked intensively for their return, firstly in Bohemia, then in Germany and Pomerania. To achieve his ambitious of made hereditary the throne of Kraków (and with this the Seniorate) on his descendants, Casimir called an assembly of nobles at Łęczyca in 1180. He granted privileges to the nobles and the Church, lifting a tax on the profits of the clergy and relinquishing his rights over the lands of deceased bishops. By these acts, he won acceptance of the principle of hereditary succession to Kraków, though it would take more than a century to restore the Polish Kingship. In less than a year after the assembly of Łęczyca (first half of 1181), Mieszko III, with the assistance of Mestwin I of Pomerania conquest the Eastern greater Poland (including Gniezno and Kalisz) and managed to persuade his son Odon to submit (according to some historians, was there when Odon received from his father Poznań as a Duchy, on the borders of the Obra River). At the same time, Leszek of Masovia decided to escape from the influence of Casimir and named Mieszko the Younger (Mieszko III's son), as a governor of Masovia and Kuyavia, and with this, a tacit promise of succession over that lands. Foreign Politics. Relations with Kiev and the Succession of Halych For unknown reasons, Casimir didn't react to these events and decided only secure his authority over Lesser Poland. A diplomatic meeting occurred only in 1184 at the court of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa where Casimir (wanting to neutralize the actions of Mieszko III and retain the power over the country), paid homage to Barbarossa and give to him a high tribute. The most important issue during the reign of Casimir, in addition to his relations with his brother Mieszko III, was the issue of the politics towards Russian principalities. The first task before which he became in High Duke was his attempts to create a dipolmatic bonds with the Kievan Russians. The Grand Princes of Kiev were strongly associated with the previous High Dukes through marriages with Kievan princesses (Bolesław IV with Princess Wierzchosławą and Mieszko III with Princess Evdokia). For this purpose, in November 1178 Casimir arranged the marriage of his daughter Maria with Prince Vsevolod IV of Kiev Through this union, Casimir was a direct ancestor of the last Premyslids Kings of Bohemia and the Holy Roman Emperors of the House of Luxemburg. . His first major intervention in the affairs of the Russian princes occurred in 1180, when the beginning of the dispute between Prince Vasilko, Prince of Shumsk and Dorohychyn (also son-in-law of Bolesław IV) and Leszek of Masovia for the region of Wlodzimierz (Duchy of Minsk), as support of the former. The war ended with the success of Casimir, who conquest Wlodimierz and Brest, while Wasylko remained in Drohiczyn. The war has not definitively settled about the matter of the property of Brest, which was granted as a vassal state to Prince Sviatoslav, Vasilko's cousin and also Casimir's nephew (son of his sister Agnes). In 1182 was a new revolt against Svyatoslav's rule. Thanks to Casimir's intervention, Sviatoslav was restored in the throne. Nevertless, shortly after Casimir saw that the situation was unstable and finally decided to give the power to Sviatoslav's brother, Roman. In 1187 Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl of Halych died, and began a long struggle for his succession. Initially, the authority over the principality was taken by his younger son, Oleg, but soon he was murdered by the boyards and Halych was taken by the eldest son of Yaroslav, Vladimirko. Vladimirko's reign was also far from stability, a situation used by Prince Roman of Brest, who, with the help of his uncle Casimir, deposed him and take full control over Halych. The deposed Vladimirko escape to Hungary under the protection of King Béla III (his relative; Vladimirko's paternal grandmother was an Hungarian princess), who decided to send his army to Halych. After his defeat, Roman escape to Kraków and Vladimirko, as act of revenge, invaded the Lesser Poland. However, soon Béla III decided to join Halych to Hungary, and deposed Vladimirko, who was placed as Prince of Halych by the King's second son, Andrew. The war continue until two years later, when Casimir, after follow the instructions of Emperor Frederick, who decided to help Vladimirko after he declared himself his subject, restored his authority over Halych. Internal Politics. Brief Restoration of Mieszko III and the Succession over Masovia and Kuyavia In 1186 Leszek, Duke of Masovia and Kuyavia died. Before his death the sickly Duke decided to give all his lands to Casimir. Previously, Leszek had promise the inheritance to his older uncle Mieszko III, but his dictatorial proceedings had changed his mind and decided in Casimir's favor. Shortly after Leszek's death, Mieszko occuped Kuyavia, and Casimir only could take possession over Masovia. However, thanks to Masovian inheritance, Casimir became in the most powerful ruler of Poland. The involvement of Casimir in the Russian affairs was used in 1191 by Mieszko III, who could take control over Wawel and with this, the title of High Duke and the control over the Seniorate. Immediately, he declared Kraków an hereditary fief to his descendants, leaving his son Mieszko the Younger as a governor. The conflict was finally ended peacefully, as Casimir -after his return from Russia- regained the capital without fight, after Mieszko escape at the side of his father. He planned to found a University in Kraków, he had already started to build the building, but his sudden death balked Casimir II's plans. The university was later established by Casimir III. The last goal of Casimir's reign was at the beginning of 1194, when he organized an expedition against the Yotvingians. The expedition ended with a full success, and Casimir had a triumphant return to Kraków. After a banquet made to celebrate his return, Casimir died unexpectedly, on 5 May 1194. Some historians believed that he was poisoned. Relations with the Church During his reign, Casimir was very generous to the Church, especially with the Cistercians monasteries of Wąchocku, Jędrzejow, Koprzywnicy and Sulejów; with the Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Miechów and Regular Canonry of Czerwińsk nad Wisłą and Trzemeszno and the Order of the Knights Hospitaller in Zagość. He also tried to expand the cult of Saint Floriana, whose remains were brought to Kraków by Bishop Gedko. Marriage and Issue Around 1163, Casimir married with Helena (ca. 1140/42 – ca. 1202/06), daughter of Conrad II, Duke of Znaim, member of the Premyslid dynasty of Bohemia. http://homepage.mac.com/crowns/pl/avtxt.html Complete Genealogy of the Premyslids RUSSIA, Rurik. The Ipatiewskaia Chronicle records that Prince Mstislav was the first cousin of Leszek the White, son of Helena. In consequence, and after a genealogical reconstruction, the wife of Casimir maybe was Yelena Rostislavna of Kiev. But, according to Europäische Stammtafeln, Helena of Znaim was the only wife of Casimir the Just. . They had seven children: Complete Genealogy of the House of Piast POLAND Maria (1164 – 1194), married in November 1178 to Prince Vsevolod IV of Kiev. Casimir (ca. 1165? – 1 March 1167). Bolesław (ca. 1168/71 – 16 April 1182). He died accidentally, after falling from a tree. Odon, died in infancy. Only named in the Polish Wikipedia Biography of Casimir II the Just Adelaide (ca. 1177/84 – 8 December 1211), foundress of the convent of St. Jakob in Sandomierz. Only named in the Polish Wikipedia Biography of Casimir II the Just Leszek the White (ca. 1186/87 – Marcinkow, 23 November 1227). Konrad (ca. 1187/88 – 31 August 1247). 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2,691 | Delaware_General_Corporation_Law | Delaware General Corporation Law is the statute governing corporate law in the state of Delaware. Delaware is well known as a corporate haven. Over 50% of US publicly-traded corporations and 60% of the Fortune 500 companies are incorporated in the state. Delaware Division of Corporations Legal benefits Delaware began to stand out as a corporate haven when its laws began to give corporate management notable latitude in its powers to operate and control the corporation. This latitude has frequently come at the expense of the shareholders' ability to control the corporation. As the popularity of Delaware as a corporate home grew, Delaware also became known for the professionalism of its corporate governance lawyers and courts. Because of the extensive experience of the Delaware courts, Delaware has a more well-developed body of case law than other states, which serves to give corporations and their counsel greater guidance on matters of corporate governance and transaction liability issues. Disputes over the internal affairs of Delaware corporations are usually filed in the Delaware Court of Chancery, which is a separate court of equity (as opposed to a court of law). Because it is a court of equity, there are no juries, and its cases are heard by the judges, called chancellors. , there are one Chancellor and four Vice Chancellors. The court is a trial court, with one chancellor hearing each case. Litigants may appeal final decisions of the Court of Chancery to the Delaware Supreme Court. The status of Delaware as a corporate haven is not recent: following the example of New Jersey, which enacted corporate-friendly laws at the end of the 19th century to attract businesses from New York, Delaware played the game of fiscal competition by adopting in 1899 a general incorporation act aimed at attracting more businesses. Delaware has also attracted some major credit card banks because of its relaxed rules regarding interest. Many U.S. states have usury laws limiting the amount of interest a lender can charge. Federal law allows a national bank to "import" these laws from the state in which its principal office is located. http://www.occ.gov/interp/mar98/int822.pdf Delaware (amongst others) has relatively relaxed interest laws. So several national banks have decided to locate their principal office in Delaware. National banks are, however, corporations formed under federal law, not Delaware law. A corporation formed under Delaware state law benefits from the relaxed interest rules to the extent it conducts business in Delaware, but is subject to restrictions of other states' laws if it conducts business in other states. However, other states—such as Nevada—are more friendly to corporations in certain respects, especially in offering protection from hostile takeovers. Delaware's lax corporate laws are important because the United States has an important corporate law doctrine called the "internal affairs doctrine." Pursuant to this rule, corporations which act in more than one state are subject only to the laws of their state of incorporation. As a result, Delaware corporations are subject almost exclusively to Delaware law - even when they do business in many (or even all fifty) states. Without this rule, national corporations would be subject to the varying (and potentially inconsistent) laws of each state. With this rule, the states are incentivized to have the most relaxed corporate laws to encourage corporate formation (because this results in increased revenues and fees for the state). The reason Delaware is the home of most US corporations is because it has made itself the most attractive on this count. Whether this was a "race to the bottom" or a "race to the top" - that is, whether this incentive created positive or negative externalities - is a matter of vigorous debate in the academic literature. This is especially relevant because even when a corporation is sued out-of-state, the laws of the state of incorporation apply under the internal affairs doctrine. For example, if a corporation is chartered in Delaware, but they do business in California and as a result they are sued in California, the California court still must apply Delaware law. This is true even if the corporation only operates in California and has never had any other contact with Delaware aside from incorporating there. Because states like California have many consumer protection laws that states like Delaware have chosen not to enact, incorporation in Delaware shields these corporations from such legislation. While most states require to be at least one director and two officers in for-profit corporation, Delaware laws do not have this restriction. All offices may be hold by a single person who also can be the sole shareholder. The person, who does not need to be US citizen or resident, may also operate anonymously. Tax benefits and burdens Delaware charges no income tax on corporations not operating within the state, so taking advantage of Delaware's other benefits does not result in an income tax cost. That said, Delaware has a particularly aggressive tax on banks that locate in the state. Delaware often taxes as much as 100% of the bank's income in the state even if the bank does business in other states. http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/data2/delawarestatecases/656-2006.pdf This can result in duplicative taxation of the bank's income. In addition, Delaware has used its position as the state of incorporation to generate revenue from its abandoned and unclaimed property laws. (Under U.S. Supreme Court precedent, a state of incorporation gets to keep any "abandoned and unclaimed property", such as uncashed checks and unredeemed gift certificates, if the corporation does not have information about the location of the owner of the property. http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/91-111.ZO.html ) Delaware is becoming increasingly aggressive in auditing and assessing companies for unclaimed property. For example, it has deputized sister states to act as contingency fee auditor for unclaimed property. A state may levy, however, a franchise tax on the corporations incorporated in it. Franchise taxes in Delaware are actually far higher than in most other states which typically charge little or nothing beyond corporate income taxes on the portion of the corporation's business done in that state. Delaware's franchise taxes supply about one-fifth of its state revenue. Delaware 2005 Fiscal Notebook - State General Fund Revenues by Category (F.Y. 2002 - F.Y. 2005) See also Corporation Corporate haven The Delaware Journal of Corporate Law Say on pay Flag of convenience (business) United Kingdom company law References External links Delaware's General Corporation Law Delaware Department of State, Division of Corporations Official website, corporation name search. 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2,692 | Epistle_of_James | The Epistle of James is a book in the Christian New Testament. The author identifies himself as "James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ", traditionally understood as James the Just, the brother of Jesus (see Authorship and Composition). Framed within an overall theme of patient perseverance during trials and temptations, the text condemns various sins and calls on Christians to be patient while awaiting the Second Coming. The epistle has caused controversy: Protestant reformer Martin Luther argued that it was not the work of an apostle. WELS Q&A Luther's Treatment of the 'Disputed Books' of the New Testament Roman Catholicism Catechism of the Catholic Church at vatican.va: "1815 The gift of faith remains in one who has not sinned against it. But "faith apart from works is dead":[Jas 2:26] when it is deprived of hope and love, faith does not fully unite the believer to Christ and does not make him a living member of his Body." , Eastern Orthodoxy see Synod of Jerusalem, Schaff's Creeds of Christendom Synod of Jerusalem: "Article XIII.—Man is justified, not by faith alone, but also by works." and Mormonism See also Perfection (Latter Day Saints) claim it contradicts Luther's doctrine of justification through faith alone (Sola fide), which Luther derived from his translation of . ; Philip Schaff's The Protestant Spirit of Luther’s Version: "The most important example of dogmatic influence in Luther’s version is the famous interpolation of the word alone in Rom. 3:28 (allein durch den Glauben), by which he intended to emphasize his solifidian doctrine of justification, on the plea that the German idiom required the insertion for the sake of clearness. But he thereby brought Paul into direct verbal conflict with James, who says (James 2:24), "by works a man is justified, and not only by faith" ("nicht durch den Glauben allein"). It is well known that Luther deemed it impossible to harmonize the two apostles in this article, and characterized the Epistle of James as an "epistle of straw," because it had no evangelical character ("keine evangelische Art")." The Christian debate over Justification is still unsettled, see also Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, Biblical law in Christianity, and New Perspective on Paul. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia Catholic Encyclopedia article on the Epistle of St. James : "The subjects treated of in the Epistle are many and various; moreover, St. James not infrequently, whilst elucidating a certain point, passes abruptly to another, and presently resumes once more his former argument; hence it is difficult to give a precise division of the Epistle." Content The United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament Fourth Revised Edition, 1993 divides the letter into the following sections: Salutation (1:1) Faith and Wisdom (1:2-8) Poverty and Riches (1:9-11) Trial and Temptation (1:12-18) Hearing and Doing the Word (1:19-27) Warning against Partiality (2:1-13) Faith and Works (2:14-26)The Tongue (3:1-12) The Wisdom from Above (3:13-18) Friendship with the World (4:1-10) Judging a Brother (4:11-12) Warning against Boasting (4:13-17) Warning to the Rich (5:1-6) Patience and Prayer (5:7-20) The epistle was addressed to "the twelve tribes scattered abroad" (James 1:1), which is generally taken to mean a Jewish Christian audience. Epistle of St. James, Catholic Encyclopedia The object of the writer was to enforce the practical duties of the Christian life. The vices against which he warns them are: formalism, which made the service of God consist in washings and outward ceremonies, whereas he reminds them (1:27) that it consists rather in active love and purity; fanaticism, which, under the cloak of religious zeal, was tearing Jerusalem in pieces (1:20); fatalism, which threw its sins on God (1:13); meanness, which crouched before the rich (2:2); falsehood, which had made words and oaths play-things (3:2-12); partisanship (3:14); evil speaking (4:11); boasting (4:16); oppression (5:4). The great lesson which he teaches them as Christians is patience, patience in trial (1:2), patience in good works (1:22-25), patience under provocation (3:17), patience under oppression (5:7), patience under persecution (5:10); and the ground of their patience is that the coming of the Lord drawing nigh, which is to right all wrong (5:8). Authorship and composition Authorship The author identifies himself in the opening verse as "James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ". From the middle of the third century, patristic authors cited the Epistle as written by James the Just, a relation of Jesus and first Bishop of Jerusalem. Epistle of St. James, 1913 Catholic Encyclopdia Online Not numbered among the Twelve Apostles, unless he is identified as James the Less Catholic Encyclopedia: The Brethern of the Lord: "His [James the brother of the Lord] identity with James the Less (Mark 15:40) and the Apostle James, the son of Alpheus (Matthew 10:3; Mark 3:18), although contested by many Protestant critics, may also be considered as certain." , James was nonetheless a very important figure: Paul described him as "the brother of the Lord" in Galatians 1:19 and as one of the three "pillars of the Church" in 2:9. He is traditionally considered the first of the Seventy Disciples. John Calvin and others suggested that the author was the Apostle James, son of Alphaeus, who was often identified with James the Just. If written by James the Just, the place and time of the writing of the epistle would be Jerusalem, where James was residing before his martyrdom in 62. Authorship has also occasionally been attributed to the apostle James the Great, brother of John the Evangelist and son of Zebedee. The letter does mention persecutions in the present tense (2:6), and this is consistent with the persecution in Jerusalem during which James the Great was martyred (Acts 12:1). However, some challenge the early date on the basis of some of the letter’s content, which they interpret to be a clarification of St. Paul’s teachings on justification found in his Epistle to the Romans, written c. 54. If written by James the Great, the location would have also been Jerusalem, sometime before 45. Lastly, many scholars consider the epistle to be written in the late first or early second centuries, after the death of James the Just. Among the reasons for this are: Epistle of James the author introduces himself merely as "a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ", without invoking any special family relationship to Jesus. the cultured Greek language of the Epistle, it is contended, could not have been written by a Jerusalemite Jew. This argument has lost much force as recent insight into Greek influence on Judea at the time has come to light. It is plausible that the letter in Greek to the Jewish diaspora could have been composed with a secretary, as Jerome argued. Some scholars argue for a primitive version of the letter composed by James and then later polished by another writer. Oxford Bible Commentary p.1256, Oxford University Press 2001 the author fails to mention Jewish ritual requirements such as circumcision, whereas James the Just is known from Galatians and the Acts of the Apostles to have been particularly concerned with ministering to the Jewish and circumcised (however, since it is addressed to a Jewish audience, such requirements would naturally be taken for granted; moreover, the Epistle could have been written before the end of Paul's First Missionary Journey (AD 46-48), when the inclusion of gentiles first became an issue). the author fails to mention any details of Jesus's life (however, the doctrines resemble Jesus's own doctrines as recorded in the Gospels, more than Paul's doctrines). the epistle was only gradually accepted into the (non-Jewish) canon of the New Testament. Some see parallels between James and 1 Peter, 1 Clement, and the Shepherd of Hermas and take this to reflect the socio-economic situation Christians were dealing with in the late first or early second century. It thus could have been written anywhere in the Empire where Christians spoke Greek. There are some scholars who argued for Syria. Oxford Bible Commentary p.1256, Oxford University Press 2001 Composition The Interpreter's Bible calls James "... a Christian revision of a Jewish work.” TIB XII p. 21 James’ epistle is so Jewish that Adam Clarke The New Testament of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. The text carefully printed from the most correct copies of the present Authorized Version. Including the marginal readings and parallel texts. With a Commentary and Critical Notes. Designed as a help to a better understanding of the sacred writings. By Adam Clarke, LL.D. F.S.A. M.R.I.A. With a complete alphabetical index. Royal Octavo Stereotype Edition. Vol. II. [Volume VI together with the Old Testament volumes in Dad’s set] New York, Published by J. Emory and B. Waugh, for the Methodist Episcopal Church, at the conference office, 13 Crosby-Street. J. Collord, Printer. 1831. cites Talmudic sources for nearly every verse. The Interpreters’ Bible posits a preexistent Jewish “Book of Jacob” adapted to a Christian audience; rather than point out Jewish antecedents, it highlights the less numerous Christian accretions. “In the last decade of the nineteenth century … a French scholar” [L. Massebieau] “and a German scholar,” [Friedrich Spitta] “working wholly independently, published almost simultaneously conclusions that were identical. Both maintained that the epistle was originally a purely Jewish writing which has been converted into a Christian work by an editor who merely added ‘and of the Lord Jesus Christ’ in 1:1 and ‘our Lord Jesus Christ’ in 2:1. Both writers stressed in support of their theory the extraordinarily difficult grammatical problem offered by the Greek genitives in 2:1 … a problem solved at once by the theory of the interpolation. And they argued further that if this interpolation is accepted, a corresponding interpolation in 1:1 may be inferred; especially since 1:1, as it now reads, contains language unique in the New Testament… Then, since these two occurrences of ‘Jesus Christ’ are the only explicit Christian terms in the letter, the remainder, they argued, not only represented a use of Jewish tradition, but was Jewish tradition and nothing else. … “… a generation later Arnold Meyer … [n]oting that in Greek, Aramaic, and Hebrew, ‘James’ and ‘Jacob’ are the same word,… saw that if the Christian ‘interpolation’ in 1:1 was recognized as such, the original opening words could be read “Jacob, a servant of God, to the twelve tribes in the dispersion: Greeting.’… And for a letter from Jacob to the ‘twelve tribes’ a well-known biblical precedent was provided by Gen.” [Genesis] “49, where Jacob addresses the ‘ancestor’ of each tribe in turn…. Meyer undertook to demonstrate that similar references to the twelve tribes can be detected in James … “But even if Meyer is correct in his contention that a ‘Letter of Jacob’ forms the basis of James, it by no means follows that he is equally correct in contending that the former can be recovered by eliminating minimal Christian additions in 1:1; 2:1; 5:12; and 5:14. He seems vastly to have underestimated the contributions of the Christian editor. This appears most vividly in the long section 2:14-26 on the relative value of faith and works. … Not only is the general trend of the argument in 2:14-26 one impossible in Judaism, but the details of its wording show that the argument is directed against a non-Jewish opponent – an opponent who can be identified definitely as Paul… Only one conclusion appears to be possible: 2:14-26 was written not by a Jew, but by a Christian. … “Nor is 2:14-26 the only Christian passage in James. … “If this is correct, we have the solution of a difficulty in Meyer’s theory for which he has no satisfying answer." TIB XII pp. 4-11 TIB XII is abbreviation for The Interpreters Bible The Holy Scriptures in the King James and Revised Standard versions with general articles and introduction, exegesis, [and] exposition for each book of the Bible in twelve volumes, George Arthur Buttrick, Commentary Editor, Walter Russell Bowie, Associate Editor of Exposition, Paul Scherer, Associate Editor of Exposition, John Knox Associate Editor of New Testament Introduction and Exegesis, Samuel Terrien, Associate Editor of Old Testament Introduction and Exegesis, Nolan B. Harmon Editor, Abingdon Press, copyright 1955 by Pierce and Washabaugh, set up printed, and bound by the Parthenon Press, at Nashville, Tennessee, Volume XII, The Epistle of James [Introduction and Exegesis – Burton Scott Easton, Exposition - Gordon Poteat], the First and Second Epistles of Peter, The first, Second, and Third Epistles of John, The Epistle of Jude, The Revelation of St. John the Divine, General Articles, Indexes James, as is also the case with “certain other epistles, toward the close of some Pauline letters... and in Heb.” [Hebrews] “13” [has] “sequences of sayings-groups and isolated sayings arranged with little apparent logical order… this form was very familiar in the contemporary Hellenistic world, where similar somewhat miscellaneous collections of general moral instructions were widely employed in teaching ethics. If these instructions were phrased throughout in the third person such a collection was called a ‘gnomologium.’ But if the second person (singular or plural) was employed, so that the teachings were addressed – either actually or as a literary device – to an individual or to a group, then the collection was termed a ‘paraenesis.’ And in James we have a perfect example of a paraenesis… “While James is a paraenesis, as a whole and in all its parts, in many sections another highly specialized contemporary literary form is also evident – the form known as the ‘diatribe.’… for the present purposes it may be described adequately enough as copying the style of a speaker engaged in a lively oral debase with an opponent. Among ancient writers on ethics who use the diatribe form Epictetus is particularly notable; among Jewish authors the thoroughly Hellenized Philo often employs it. In the New Testament, Rom.” [Romans] “3:1-8 illustrates the form admirably. … “The fact that the Epistle of James is written throughout as a paraenesis, with frequent employment of the diatribe, shows that its author must be sought among those whose literary associates were with the Greek rather than with the Hebrew world. For the antecedents of true prose paraenesis among non-Greek-speaking Jews are so scanty as to be virtually nonexistent. … “On the other hand, the content of James, as contrasted with its literary form, belongs unequivocally to the Hebraic-Christian, and not to the Hellenistic world…. James, as we have it, is unambiguously the work of a Christian author, whose training was Hellenistic but whose religious background was firmly Hebraic." TIB XII 1955 The Interpreters Bible 1955 Volume XII op cit According to Sophie Laws' (revised by Walter T. Wilson) introduction to the Letter of James in the Harper Collins NRSV Study Bible, "The text opens with typical epistolary greetings but has no comparable ending, indicating that it may be a letter in literary form only, not a real piece of correspondence...The text has often been described as Christian wisdom literature, because like Proverbs and Sirach, it consists largely of moral exhortations and precepts of a traditional and eclectic nature." Sophie Laws (1993). "The Letter of James". in Wayne A. Meeks et al.. The HarperCollins Study Bible: New Revised Standard Version, with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books. New York: HarperCollins, p. 2052 Canonicity The Epistle was definitely quoted by Origen of Alexandria, and possibly a bit earlier by Irenaeus of Lyons Grant, Robert M. The Formation of the New Testament. New York: Harper & Row, 1965.p. 155, there are two possible allusions to James in Adversus Haereses. They are in 4.16.2 (James 2:23) and 5.1.1 (James 1:18,22) as well as Clement of Alexandria in a lost work according to Eusebius. The Epistle of James was included among the 27 New Testament books first listed by Athanasius of Alexandria and was confirmed as a canonical epistle of the New Testament by a series of councils in the fourth century. Today, virtually all denominations of Christianity consider this book to be a canonical epistle of the New Testament. See Biblical canon In the first centuries of the Church the authenticity of the Epistle was doubted by some, and among others by Theodore, Bishop of Mopsuestia in Cilicia; it is therefore deuterocanonical. It is missing in the Muratorian fragment, and because of the silence of several of the western churches regarding it, Eusebius classes it among the Antilegomena or contested writings (Historia ecclesiae, 3.25; 2.23). St. Jerome gives a similar appraisal but adds that with time it had been universally admitted. Gaius Marius Victorinus, in his commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians, openly questioned whether the teachings of James were heretical. Its late recognition in the Church, especially in the West, may be explained by the fact that it was written for or by Jewish Christians, and therefore not widely circulated among the Gentile Churches. There is some indication that a few groups distrusted the book because of its doctrine. In Reformation times a few theologians, most notably Martin Luther, argued that this epistle was too defective to be part of the canonical New Testament. Luther famously called it an Epistle of Straw This is probably due to the book's specific teaching that faith alone is not enough for salvation (), which seemed to contradict Luther's doctrine of sola fide (faith alone). Philip Schaff's History of the Christian Church, book 7, chapter 4 The Protestant Spirit of Luther’s Version states: The most important example of dogmatic influence in Luther’s version is the famous interpolation of the word alone in Rom. 3:28 (allein durch den Glauben), by which he intended to emphasize his solifidian doctrine of justification, on the plea that the German idiom required the insertion for the sake of clearness. But he thereby brought Paul into direct verbal conflict with James, who says (James 2:24), "by works a man is justified, and not only by faith" ("nicht durch den Glauben allein"). It is well known that Luther deemed it impossible to harmonize the two apostles in this article, and characterized the Epistle of James as an "epistle of straw," because it had no evangelical character ("keine evangelische Art"). Doctrine Justification The letter contains the following famous passage concerning salvation and justification: “What does it profit, my brethren, if someone says he has faith but does not have works? Can such faith save him? …You see then that a man is justified by works, and not by faith only…? For as the body without the spirit is dead, so faith without works is dead also.” (James 2:14, 24, 26) This passage has been cited in Christian theological debates, especially against the Protestant doctrine of Justification by faith alone. Gaius Marius Victorinus (4th century) associated James's teaching on works with the heretical Symmachian sect, followers of Symmachus the Ebionite, and openly questioned whether James's teachings were heretical. This passage has also been contrasted with the teachings of Paul of Tarsus, especially in his Epistle to the Romans (see Romans 3:28). One issue in the debate is the proper rendering of the Greek δικαιωθηναι (dikaiōthēnai). But see also New Perspective on Paul. Anointing of the Sick James's epistle is also the chief Biblical text for the Anointing of the Sick. James wrote: "Are any among you sick? They should call for the elders of the church and have them pray over them, anointing them with oil in the name of the Lord. And their prayer offered in faith will heal the sick, and the Lord will make them well. And anyone who has committed sins will be forgiven." (5:14,15). See also Textual variants in the Epistle of James Pauline Christianity Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification Sola fide Antinomianism Old Testament#Christian view of the Law Biblical canon Antilegomena References External links Online translation of the Epistle of James: Catholic Encyclopedia: Epistle of St. James: "Luther strongly repudiated the Epistle as "a letter of straw", and "unworthy of the apostolic Spirit", and this solely for dogmatic reasons, and owing to his preconceived notions, for the epistle refutes his heretical doctrine that Faith alone is necessary for salvation. ... For the question of apparent opposition between St. James and St. Paul with regard to "faith and works" see EPISTLE TO THE ROMANS." Jewish Encyclopedia: JAMES, GENERAL EPISTLE OF: "It has been assumed by most New Testament exegetes that these observations refer to Paul's doctrine concerning justification by faith, a doctrine which also is based upon Gen. xv. 6 (see Rom. iv. 3; Gal. iii. 6), but which is contradicted by James." 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica: James, Epistle of Marius Victorinus and the Teachings of James Early Christian Writings: The Epistle of James Justification in James 2 - a Catholic interpretation by James Akin NAB Introduction to James Sermons on James - texts of sermons on James by famous Protestant preachers John Piper (theologian), John F. MacArthur, J. Ligon Duncan and Charles Spurgeon. So Much for Straw - A Blog dedicated to the Epistle of James. | Epistle_of_James |@lemmatized epistle:48 james:68 book:10 christian:26 new:20 testament:17 author:10 identify:5 servant:4 god:6 lord:12 jesus:12 christ:8 traditionally:2 understand:1 brother:6 see:12 authorship:4 composition:3 frame:1 within:1 overall:1 theme:1 patient:2 perseverance:1 trial:3 temptation:2 text:7 condemn:1 various:2 sin:4 call:5 await:1 second:6 come:3 cause:1 controversy:1 protestant:6 reformer:1 martin:2 luther:14 argue:7 work:18 apostle:8 wels:1 q:1 treatment:1 disputed:1 roman:4 catholicism:1 catechism:1 catholic:8 church:9 vatican:1 va:1 gift:1 faith:21 remains:1 one:5 apart:1 dead:3 jas:1 deprive:1 hope:1 love:2 fully:1 unite:1 believer:1 make:4 living:1 member:1 body:2 eastern:1 orthodoxy:1 synod:2 jerusalem:7 schaff:3 creed:1 christendom:1 article:6 xiii:1 man:4 justified:3 alone:8 also:14 mormonism:1 perfection:1 latter:1 day:1 saint:1 claim:1 contradict:3 doctrine:15 justification:12 sola:3 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2,693 | Breton_language | The Breton language (Brezhoneg) is a Celtic language spoken in Brittany (Breizh/Bretagne), France. History The Brythonic community around the 6th century. The sea was a communication medium rather than a barrier. Celtic nations, with Brittany colored in black at the bottom. Breton is descended from the Brythonic branch of Insular Celtic languages brought by Romano-British and other Brythons to Armorica, perhaps from the end of the 3rd century onwards. The modern-day language most closely related to Breton is Cornish which are mutually comprenhensible, followed by Welsh. (The other regional language of Brittany, Gallo, is a Langue d'oïl derived from Latin.) Breton is spoken in Lower Brittany, roughly to the west of a line linking Plouha and La Roche-Bernard (east of Vannes). It comes from a Celtic language community (see image) between Great Britain and Armorica (present-day Brittany), and even Galicia. It was the language of the elite until the 12th century. However, afterwards it was only the language of the people of West Brittany (Breizh Izel), and the nobility, then successively the bourgeoisie, adopted French. As a written language, the Duchy of Brittany used Latin, switching to French in the 15th century. There exists a limited tradition of Breton literature. Old Breton has left some vocabulary which has served in the present day to produce philosophical and scientific terms in Modern Breton. The French Monarchy did not concern itself with the minority languages of France. The revolutionary period saw the introduction of policies favouring French over the regional languages, pejoratively referred to as patois. It was assumed by the revolutionaries that reactionary and monarchist forces preferred regional languages in an attempt to keep the peasant masses under-informed. Under the Third, Fourth and Fifth republics, humiliating practices geared towards stamping out Breton language and culture ICBL information about Breton prevailed in state schools until the late 1960s. Today, despite the political centralization of France and the important influence of the media, Breton is still spoken as an everyday language by about 200,000 people. This is, however, down from 1.3 million in 1930. At the beginning of the 20th century, half the population of Lower Brittany knew only Breton, the other half being bilingual. By 1950, there were only 100,000 monolingual Bretons, with even fewer nowadays. Ethnologue report A statistical survey Fañch Broudic, Qui parle breton aujourd'hui? Qui le parlera demain? Brest: Brud Nevez, 1999 performed in 1997 found around 300,000 speakers in Breizh izel, of which about 190,000 were aged 60 or over. Few of those of the 15-19 year-old age-group spoke Breton. Breton is now considered to be an endangered language. In 1925, thanks to Professor Roparz Hemon, the first issue appeared of the review Gwalarn. During its 19-year run, Gwalarn tried to raise the language to the level of other great “international” languages by creating original works covering all genres and by proposing Breton translations of internationally-recognized foreign works. In 1946, Al Liamm replaced Gwalarn. Other periodicals appeared and began to give Breton a fairly large body of literature for a minority language. In 1977, Diwan schools were founded to teach Breton by immersion. They taught a few thousand young people from elementary school to high school. See the education section for more information. The Asterix comic series has been translated into Breton. This is notable because, according to the comic, the Gaulish village where Asterix lives is in the Armoric peninsula, which is now Brittany. Some other comics have also been translated into Breton, including Tintin, Spirou, Titeuf, Hägar the Horrible, Peanuts and Yakari. Some movies (Lancelot, Shakespeare in Love, Marion du Faouet, Sezneg) and TV series (Columbo, Perry Mason) are also broadcast in Breton. Some poets, linguists, and writers who have written in Breton, for example Yann-Ber Kalloc'h, Roparz Hemon, Anjela Duval, Pêr-Jakez Helias and Youenn Gwernig, are now known internationally. Today, Breton is the only living Celtic language which is not recognized as an official language. The French State refuses to change the second article of the Constitution (added in 1994), which states that “the language of the Republic is French”. The first Breton dictionary, the Catholicon, was also the first French dictionary. Edited by Jehan Lagadec in 1464, it was a trilingual work containing Breton, French and Latin. Today the existence of bilingual dictionaries directly from Breton into languages such as English, Dutch, German, Spanish and Welsh demonstrates the determination of a new generation to gain international recognition for Breton. There also exists a monolingual dictionary, Geriadur Brezhoneg an Here, defining Breton words in Breton (first edition of 1995 contains about 10 000 words and the second 2001 edition contains 20 000 words). Geographic distribution and dialects Dialects of Breton Breton is spoken mainly in Western Brittany, but also in a more dispersed way in Eastern Brittany (where Gallo is spoken alongside Breton and French), and in areas around the world which have received Breton emigrants. The dialects of Breton as identified by ethnologists are Leoneg, Tregerieg, Gwenedeg, and Kerneveg (in French, respectively: léonard, trégorrois, vannetais, and cornouaillais). A fifth dialect was spoken up to the beginning of the 20th century in the Guérande region. There are no clear borders between those dialect areas because the language varies slightly from one village to the next. Compared to the other dialects, the Gwenedeg dialect is somewhat more distinct due to several pronunciation specificities. Official status Ofis ar Brezhoneg, the Breton language agency, was set up in 1999 by the Brittany region to promote and develop the use of Breton Ofis ar Brezhoneg State Breton is not an official language of France, despite pleas from autonomists and others for official recognition and for the language to be guaranteed a place in schools, the media, and other aspects of public life. Constitution In July 2008, the French Constitution was amended adding article 75-1, stating les langues régionales appartiennent au patrimoine de la France (the regional languages belong to the heritage of France). This is an important step in the recognition of Breton and other minority languages of France; however, it doesn't explicitly give more actual recognition or power to these languages. Region Bilingual sign in Vannes (Gwened) Nevertheless, the regional and departmental authorities do use Breton to a very limited extent, for example in signage. Some bilingual signage may also be seen, such as street name signs in Breton towns, and one station of the Rennes metro system has signs in both French and Breton. Under French law (the Toubon Law), it is illegal for commercial signage to be in Breton alone; it must be bilingual or else in French alone. Since commercial signage usually has limited physical space, signage is normally in French alone. Education Sign in French and Breton in Rennes, outside a school with bilingual classes An attempt by the French government to incorporate the independent Breton-language immersion schools (called Diwan) into the state education system was blocked by the French Constitutional Council on the grounds that, as the 1992 amendment to the Constitution of the 5th Republic states that French is the language of the Republic, no other language may be used as a language of instruction in state schools. The Toubon Law states that French is the language of public education, which means that Breton-language schools do not receive funding from the state, though the Bretagne Region funds bilingual schools. The Diwan schools were founded in 1977 to teach Breton by immersion. They taught a few thousand young people from elementary school to high school. They gained more and more fame due to their high level of results in school exams. Diwan FAQ, #6 Another teaching method is a bilingual approach by Div Yezh ("Two Languages") in the State schools, created in 1979, and Dihun ("Awakening") in the Catholic schools, created in 1990. Statistics Year Number Percentageof all studentsin Brittany 2005 10,397 1.24% 2006 11,092 1.30% 2007 11,732 1.38% 2008 12,333 ± 1.4% In 2008, 12,333 Données clés sur breton, Ofis ar Brezhoneg students (about 1.4% of all students in Brittany) attended Diwan, Div Yezh and Dihun schools, a number which is rapidly growing yearly. The president of the Regional Council, Jean-Yves Le Drian wanted the number to be 20,000 in 2010, though this is unlikely to be realised. Interview with Jean-Yves Le Drian, the president of the Region Council Some 4,500 to 5,000 adults followed a Breton language course (evening course, correspondence, ...) in 2007. The family transmission of Breton in 1999 is estimated to be only 3%. See the statistics at dihun.com for graphics about the three systems. Sounds BilabialLabiodentalAlveolarPostalveolarPalatalLabiopalatalVelarLabiovelarUvularPlosive Nasal Trill Fricative Approximant Lateral Grammar Verbal aspect As in English and Irish, verbs have grammatical aspect, showing a distinction between progressive and habitual actions: Me zo o komz gant ma amezeg "I am talking with my neighbour" Me a gomz gant ma amezeg [bep mintin] "I talk with my neighbour [every morning]" "Conjugated" prepositions As in other modern Celtic languages, Breton pronouns are fused into preceding prepositions to produce a sort of "conjugated" preposition. Below are some examples in Breton, Cornish, Welsh, and Irish. In Literary Welsh this prepositional form is often at the end of the sentence as in other Celtic languages. BretonCornishWelsh (Northern)IrishScottish GaelicEnglishul levr zo ganina book is with-meyma lyver genevmae gen i lyfrtá leabhar agamtha leabhar agamI have a bookur banne zo ganita drink is with-youyma diwes genesmae gennyt ti ddiodtá deoch agattha deoch agadyou have a drinkun urzhiataer zo gantaña computer is with-himyma jynn-amontya gansomae ganddo fo gyfrifiadur tá ríomhaire aigetha coimpiutair aigehe has a computerur bugel zo gantia child is with-heryma flogh gensimae ganddi hi blentyntá páiste aicitha pàisde aiceshe has a childur c'harr zo ganimp (or ganeomp)a car is with-usyma karr genenmae gennym ni gar tá gluaisteán againntha càr againnwe have a carun ti zo ganeoc'ha house is with-youyma chi genowghmae gennych chi dŷtá teach agaibhtha taigh agaibhyou [pl] have a house arc'hant zo ganto (or gante)money is with-themyma arghans gansamae ganddyn nhw arian tá airgead acutha airgead acathey have money Note that in the examples above the Goidelic languages (Irish and Scottish Gaelic) use the preposition meaning "at" to show possession while the Brythonic languages use "with". Initial consonant mutations Breton has four initial consonant mutations: though modern Breton lost the nasal mutation of Welsh, it also has a 'hard' mutation, in which voiced stops become voiceless, and a 'mixed' mutation, which is a mixture of hard and soft mutations. + Consonant Mutation in Breton Consonant Mutations Soft Aspirant Hard Mixed p b f t d z k g c'h b v p v d z t t g c'h k c'h gw w kw w m v v Vocabulary Some words that passed into French and in English The English words dolmen and menhir have been borrowed from French, which supposedly took them from Breton. However, this is uncertain: for instance, menhir is peulvan or maen hir ("long stone"), maen sav ("straight stone") (two words : noun + adjective) in Breton. Dolmen is a misconstructed word (it should be taol-vaen). Some studies state that these words were borrowed from Cornish. Maen hir can be directly translated from Welsh as "long stone" (which is exactly what a menhir or maen hir is). Orthography The first Breton texts, contained in the Leyde manuscript, were written at the end of the 8th century: fifty years prior to the Strasbourg Oaths, considered to be the earliest example of French. After centuries of orthography calqued on the French model, in the 1830s Le Gonidec created a modern phonetic system. During the early years of the 20th century, a group of writers known as Emglev ar Skrivanerien elaborated and reformed Le Gonidec's system, making it more suitable as a super-dialectal representation of the dialects of Cornouaille, Leon and Trégor. This KLT (from Kernev, Leon and Treger, the Breton names for Cornouaille, Leon and Trégor) orthography was established in 1911. At the same time writers using the more divergent Vannetais dialect developed a system also based on that of Le Gonidec to represent their dialect. Following proposals made during the 1920s, the KLT and Vannetais orthographies were merged in 1941 to create an orthographic system which could represent all four dialects. One of the most salient features of this Peurunvan wholly unified orthography was the inclusion of the <zh> digraph, which represents a /h/ in Vannetais which corresponds to a /z/ in the KLT dialects. This digraph also provides an alternate name for the orthography: Zedacheg i.e. ZH-ish. In 1955 a new orthography was proposed by François Falc'hun and the group Emgleo Breiz, which had the aim of using a set of graphemes closer to the conventions of French. This Orthographie Universitaire ("University Orthography", known in Breton as Skolveurieg) was given official recognition by the French authorities as the "official orthography of Breton in French education". This orthography was met with strong opposition and is largely only used by the magazine Brud Nevez and the publishing house Emgléo Breiz. Between 1971 and 1974 a new standard orthography has been devised - the etrerannyezhel or interdialectale. This system is based on derivation of the words. Today the majority of writers continue to use the Peurunvan orthography, including most Breton-language schools. See for an introduction to Breton orthography and pronunciation. Differences between Skolveurieg and Peurunvan Both orthographies make use of the Latin alphabet, with the supplemental signs â, ê, î, ñ, ô, û, ù, ü, and é which is used only in Skolveurieg. Differences between the two systems are particularly noticeable in word endings. In Peurunvan final obstruents which are devoiced in absolute final position and voiced in sandhi before voiced sounds are represented by a grapheme indicating a voiceless sound. In OU they are written as voiced but represented as voiceless before suffixes: braz big, brasoh bigger. In addition, Peurunvan maintains the KLT convention which distinguishes noun/adjective pairs with nouns written with a final voiced consonant and adjectives with a voiceless one. There is, however, no distinction in pronunciation, e.g. brezhoneg Breton language vs. brezhonek Breton (adj). Some examples of words in the different orthographies: Etrerannyezhel (1975) Peurunvan (1941) Skolveurieg (1956) glaw glav glao piw piv piou levr levr leor ewid evit evid gant gant gand anezhi anezhi anezi ouzhpenn ouzhpenn ouspenn brawañ bravañ brava pelec'h pelec'h peleh Examples Bilingual signage in Quimper/Kemper. Note the use of the word ti in the Breton for police station and tourist office, plus the variant da bep lec'h for all directions. Visitors to Brittany may encounter words and phrases (especially on signs and posters) such as the following: Breton English degemer mat welcome deuet mat oc'h you're welcome Breizh Brittany brezhoneg Breton (language) ti, "ty" house ti-kêr town hall kreiz-kêr town centre da bep lec'h all directions skol school skol-veur university bagad pipe band (nearly) fest-noz lit. "night fête", a fest deiz or "day fête" also exists kenavo goodbye krampouezh pancakes (a pancake = ur grampouezhenn) chistr cider chouchenn Breton mead war vor atao always at sea kouign amann rich butter and sugar cake See also Bretagne and Brittany List of Celtic language media Armorica Armoricani Julian Maunoir, 17th. century Breton language orthographer Celtic nations Welsh language Cornish language Irish language revival External links The official website of Ofis ar Brezhoneg Dictionaries Preder Learning Breton site including online lessons Breton site with learners' forum and lessons (mostly in French with some English) Other external links An interesting essay about the situation of the Breton language 100 Words relating to the internet in Breton Amsez Wask Breizh News in breton language from agence bretagne presse Bretagne Réunie BLOG BREIZH - Blog of information about Brittany with some interesting articles about Breton language A Taste of Breton Verse Irish and Breton language with Japanese translation incl.pronunciation sound files http://www.logosdictionary.com/pls/dictionary/new_dictionary.index_p A multilingual dictionary containing many Breton words alongside those of other languages Entry at Omniglot References | Breton_language |@lemmatized breton:78 language:54 brezhoneg:8 celtic:9 speak:7 brittany:18 breizh:6 bretagne:5 france:7 history:1 brythonic:3 community:2 around:3 century:10 sea:2 communication:1 medium:4 rather:1 barrier:1 nation:2 color:1 black:1 bottom:1 descend:1 branch:1 insular:1 bring:1 romano:1 british:1 brythons:1 armorica:3 perhaps:1 end:3 onwards:1 modern:5 day:4 closely:1 relate:2 cornish:4 mutually:1 comprenhensible:1 follow:3 welsh:7 regional:6 gallo:2 langue:1 oïl:1 derive:1 latin:4 low:2 roughly:1 west:2 line:1 link:3 plouha:1 la:2 roche:1 bernard:1 east:1 vannes:2 come:1 see:6 image:1 great:2 britain:1 present:2 even:3 galicia:1 elite:1 however:5 afterwards:1 people:4 izel:2 nobility:1 successively:1 bourgeoisie:1 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2,694 | Melbourne_Cup | The Melbourne Cup is Australia's major annual Thoroughbred horse race. Billed as The race that stops a nation, it is a race for three-year-olds and over, over a distance of 3,200 metres. It is the richest and most prestigious "two-mile" handicap in the world, and one of the richest turf races in the world. The event is held at 3 pm on the first Tuesday in November by the Victoria Racing Club, on the Flemington Racecourse in Melbourne. This day is a public holiday for all working within metropolitan Melbourne, but not for country Victoria. For Federal Public Servants it is also observed as a holiday in the entire state of Victoria, and since 2007 also in the Australian Capital Territory . No other horse race in the world has a public holiday dedicated to it. The race has been held since 1861 (see list of Melbourne Cup winners) and was originally held over two miles (about 3,218 metres) but following preparation for Australia's adoption of the metric system in the 1970s, the current race distance of 3,200 metres was established in 1972. This reduced the distance by 61ft 6in, and Rain Lover's 1968 race record of 3min.19.1sec was accordingly adjusted to 3min.17.9sec. The present record holder is the 1990 winner Kingston Rule with a time of 3min 16.3sec. The world record of 3:13.4 over 3200 metres is held by Japanese horse Deep Impact. Qualifying and race conditions The race is a quality handicap for horses 3 year olds and over, run over a distance of 3,200 metres, on the first Tuesday in November at Flemington Racecourse. The minimum handicap weight is 49 kg. There is no maximum weight, but the top allocated weight must not be less than 57 kg. The weight allocated to each horse is declared by the VRC Handicapper in early September. The Melbourne Cup race is a handicap contest in which the weight of the jockey and riding gear is adjusted with ballast to a nominated figure. Older horses carry more weight than younger ones, and weights are adjusted further according to the horse's previous results. Weight were theoretically calculated to give each horse an equal winning chance in the past, but in recent years the rules were adjusted to a "quality handicap" formula where superior horses are given less severe weight penalties than under pure handicap rules. Weight penalties After the declaration of weights for the Melbourne Cup, the winner of any handicap flat race of the advertised value of AUD$60,000 or over to the winner, or an internationally recognised Listed, Group, or Graded handicap flat race, shall carry such additional weight (if any), for each win, as the VRC Handicapper shall determine. Fees Entries for the Melbourne Cup usually close during the first week of August. The initial entry fee is $600 per horse. Around 300 to 400 horses are nominated each year, but the final field is limited to 24 starters. Following the allocation of weights, the owner of each horse must on four occasions before the race in November, declare the horse as an acceptor and pay a fee. First acceptance is $960, second acceptance is $1,450 and third acceptance is $2,420. The final acceptance fee, on the Saturday prior to the race, is $45,375. Should a horse be balloted out of the final field, the final declaration fee is refunded. Balloting conditions The race Directors retain the absolute discretion to exclude any horse from the race, or exempt any horse from the ballot on the race, but in order to reduce the field to the safety limit of 24, horses are balloted out based on a number of factors which include: prizemoney earned in the previous two years, wins or placings in certain lead-up races allocated handicap weight The winner of the following races are exempt from any ballot: Difficult to deny a ballotfree pass More Qualifying Races For Melbourne Cup Saab Quality Victoria Derby LKS Mackinnon Stakes Cox Plate Caulfield Cup Doncaster Cup (UK) Irish St. Leger (IRE) Tenno Sho (Spring) (JPN) Sankei Sho All Comers (JPN) Arlington Million (USA) San Juan Capistrano Handicap (USA) Australian Stayers Challenge Australian Stayers Challenge Quarantine International horses (New Zealand not included), which are entered for the Melbourne Cup, must undergo quarantine in an approved premises in their own country for a minimum period of 14 days before travelling to Australia. The premises must meet the Australian Government Standards. Prizemoney and trophies Prize money The total prize money awarded in 2008 was AUD$5.5 million, plus trophies valued at AUD$125,000. The first 10 past the post receive prizemoney, with the winner being paid AUD$3.3 million, down to tenth place which receives AUD$115,000. Prizemoney is distributed to the connections of each horse in the ratio of 85% to the owner, 10% to the trainer and 5% to the jockey. The 1985 Melbourne Cup became the first race run in Australia with prize money of $1 million, this was won by "What a Nuisance". The Prince and Princess of Wales (Charles and Diana) attended that year's Cup race meeting, arriving by boat. The Cup currently carries a AUD$500,000 bonus to the owner of the winning horse from the group one Irish St. Leger, run in September, if it then wins the Melbourne Cup in November. Trophies The 1976 cup won by Van Der Hum. The present trophy is made of 34 pieces of gold metal hand beaten for over 200 hours. Close inspection of the inside of the Cup will reveal small hammer imprints. As of 2008, the trophy values were increased and the Cup now contains 1.65 kg of 18-carat gold valuing the trophy at $125,000 dollars. The trophy awarded since 1919 is a three-handled gold loving cup. The winning trainer and jockey also receive a miniature replica of the cup (a practice which commenced in 1973) and the strapper is awarded the Tommy Woodcock Trophy, named after the strapper of Phar Lap. The trophy has changed in appearance greatly over the years since the first trophy was awarded in 1861, with several of them featuring model horses. The first trophy was a gold watch, until a silver bowl manufactured in England, with two ornate handles with a horse and rider on top, was introduced in 1865. The following year an ornate silver cup depicting Alexander taming the horse was presented. There was then a period where a trophy wasn’t presented, until 1876 when Edward Fischer an immigrant from Austria produced the first Australian-made gold trophy. It had two handles and an engraving of a horse race set at Flemington. A silver plated base sporting three silver horses was added in 1888, but in 1891 the prize changed to being a 15 inch high, 24 inch long trophy showing a Victory figure offering an olive wreath to a jockey. From 1899 the trophy was in the form of silver galloping horse embossed on a 3 foot long plaque, although it was said to look like a greyhound by some people. In the Second World War years (1942, 43 and 44) the winning owner received war bonds valued at 200 pounds. A new trophy is struck each year and becomes the property of the winning owner. In the event of a dead heat a second cup is on hand. A few years ago an annual tour was initiated to foster further interest in the event. A replica of the cup is taken to locations locally and internationally which have some connection to the Cup. Areas to which the Cup has been taken include the Middle East, New Zealand, United Kingdom and USA. The last Melbourne Cup trophy manufactured in England was made for the 1914 event. It was a chalice centred on a long base which had a horse at each end. A large rose bowl trophy was presented 1915-1918 and the current loving cup design was introduced in 1919. History Early years Seventeen horses contested the first Melbourne Cup on Thursday 7 November 1861, racing for the modest prize of 710 gold sovereigns (£710) cash and a hand-beaten gold watch, winner takes all The Masters Touch, Racing with Etienne de Mestre, Winner of 5 Melbourne Cups by Keith W. Paterson, Published by Keith W. Paterson [Nowra] (2008) (ISBN 9780646500287) “The history of the Cup dates back to 1861, the resultant brain child of Captain Frederick Standish, one time VRC Chairman and former Chief Commissioner of Police in Victoria. As a former member of the Victoria Turf Club he conceptually founded the great race with the club committed to offering modest prize-money and a hand beaten gold watch. The conditions for the race would state "a sweepstakes of 20 sovereigns" (starters)", 10 sovereigns forfeit” (acceptance) “or 5 sovereigns if declared" (nominated)", with 200 sovereigns added money".Flemington Racetrack . The prize was not, as some have suggested, the largest purse up to that time. In order to attract a bigger crowd to the fledgling Cup, the first secretary of the Victorian Racing Club, Robert Bagot (c. 1828-1881) decided to issue members with two ladies tickets, calculating that "where ladies went, men would follow". Race against uneven odds A large crowd of 4,000 men and women watched the race, although it has been suggested this was less than expected because of news reaching Melbourne of the death of explorers Burke and Wills History of the Melbourne Cup five days earlier on 2 November. Nevertheless the attendance was the largest at Flemington on any day for the past two years, with the exception of the recently run Two Thousand Guniea Stakes. The winner of this first Melbourne Cup race was a 16.3 hand bay stallion by the name of Archer in a time of 3.52.00, ridden by John Cutts, trained by Etienne de Mestre, and leased (and consequently raced in his own name) by de Mestre. As a lessee de Mestre "owned" and was fully responsible for Archer during the lease. Archer was leased from the "Exeter Farm" of Jembaicumbene near Braidwood, New South Wales. His owners were Thomas John "Tom" Roberts (a good school-friend of de Mestre's), Rowland H. Hassall (Roberts' brother-in-law), and Edmund Molyneux Royds and William Edward Royds (Roberts' nephews). Archer at Thoroughbred Heritage.com Shoalhaven Hall of Sporting Fame . The inaugural Melbourne Cup of 1861 was an eventful affair when one horse bolted before the start, and three of the seventeen starters fell during the race, two of which died. Archer, a Sydney "outsider" who drew scant favor in the betting, spread-eagled the field and defeated the favourite, and Victorian champion, Mormon by six lengths. Dismissed by the bookies, Archer took a lot of money away from Melbourne, 'refuelling interstate rivalry' and adding to the excitement of the Cup. Australian Government - Culture and recreation - Melbourne Cup The next day, Archer was raced in and won another 2 mile long distance race, the Melbourne Town Plate. It has become legend that Archer walked over 800 km (over 500 miles) to Flemington from de Mestre's stable at "Terara" near Nowra, New South Wales. Instead instead newspaper archives of the day reveal that he had travelled south from Sydney to Melbourne on the steamboat City Of Melbourne, together with de Mestre, and two of de Mestre’s other horses Exeter and Inheritor. Before being winched aboard the steamboat for the trip to Melbourne, the horses had arrived in Sydney in September 1861. Archer took the boat Archer travelled to Melbourne by steamboat again the following year (1862) to run in the second Melbourne Cup. This time he won 810 gold sovereigns (£810) cash and a gold watch before a crowd of 7000, nearly twice the size of the previous years large crowd in a time of 3.47.00, taking to two the number of Melbourne Cup wins by this horse. Archer had already won the 1862 AJC Queen Elizabeth Stakes in Randwick, Sydney, and returned to win his second Melbourne Cup carrying 10 stone 2 pounds. He defeated a field of twenty starters by eight lengths, a record that has never been beaten, and that was not matched for over 100 years. Mormon again running second. Winning the Melbourne Cup twice was a feat not repeated until more than seventy years later when Peter Pan won the race in 1932 and 1934, and winning the Melbourne Cup two years in a row was a feat not repeated until more than 100 years later when Rain Lover won in 1968 and 1969. Archer travelled to Melbourne by steamboat yet again the next year (1863). Despite his weight of 11 stone 4 pounds, Archer would have contested the third cup in 1863, but due to a Victorian public holiday trainer Etienne de Mestre's telegraphed acceptance form arrived late, and Archer was scratched on a technicality. In protest of this decision and in a show of solidarity, many of de Mestre's owners boycotted the third race and scratched their horses in sympathy. Australian Racing Museum - E de Mestre As a result the Melbourne Cup of that year ran with only 7 starters, the smallest number in the history of the Cup. In 1865, Adam Lindsay Gordon wrote a verse in which the Melbourne Cup winner was called Tim Whiffler. Two years later in 1867 two horses with the name Tim Whiffler ran in the Melbourne Cup. (The year before in 1866 two horses with the same name, Falcon, also ran in the Melbourne Cup.) To distinguish between the two Tim Whifflers they were called "Sydney" Tim Whiffler and "Melbourne" Tim Whiffler. "Sydney" Tim Whiffler actually won the Cup. The Einstein Factor - Australian Broadcasting Company Alan Jones He was trained by Etienne de Mestre, and like Archer before him raced in de Mestre's name but was leased from the "Exeter Farm". The Melbourne Cup was first run on a Tuesday in 1875, the first Tuesday in that month. On 7 November 1876 the running of the Melbourne Cup on the first Tuesday in November saw the three-year-old filly, Briseis, owned and trained by James Wilson Snr., win in a time of 3.36.25. Briseis then went on to creat a record that is never likely to be equalled, winning the VRC Derby, the Melbourne Cup and the VRC Oaks in the space of six days. She was ridden in the Melbourne Cup by the tiny featherweight figure of jockey Peter St. Albans. In 1876 at the recorded age thirteen (he was actually twelve, being 8 days short of his thirteenth birthday) Peter St. Albans , Peter St. Albans is also the youngest person ever to win a Melbourne Cup. Before 75,000 at Flemington Briseis, with St Albans in the saddle, comfortably won by 1 length in the biggest field of all time. "At 4 o'clock the starter released the 33 runners and they swept down the long Flemington straight in a thundering rush. Briseis, ridden by what one writer termed a mere child, (in the Cup) captured a rare double, the Victoria Race Club Derby and the Melbourne Cup. Shouts and hurrahs were heard, hats were thrown in the air and one excited individual fell on his back in the attempt to do a somersault. The boy who rode the winner was carried around the pack and is the hero of the day," reported the "Australasian Sketcher" in 1876. Both Peter St. Albans and Briseis have now become racing legends, and Briseis is regarded as one of the greatest mares foaled in Australia. Briseis wasn't the only sensation surrounding the 1876 Melbourne Cup. Two months before the event, on Saturday, September 9, the SS City Of Melbourne sailed for Melbourne from Sydney with a cargo including 13 racehorses, many of whom were considered serious contenders for the Melbourne Cup. The following day the ship ran into a savage storm and was hit by several rogue waves, with Nemesis (the winner of the 1876 AJC Metropolitan Handicap in Randwick, Sydney and favourite for the Cup, owned by John Moffat) and Robin Hood (another favourite, owned by Etienne de Mestre) being among the 11 horses that were killed. Newspaper report on the sinking of the SS City of Melbourne Betting on the big race was paralysed. To the dismay and anger of the public, bookmakers, showing no feeling, presented a purse (loaded with coins) to the captain as token of their appreciation for his part in saving them many thousands of pounds in bets already laid on the favourites who had perished. Perhaps they should have kept their money, however. The outsider Briseis comfortably won by 1 length in the biggest field of all time, and in an extremely good time, so it is unlikely that the horses who perished could have beaten her. The first Tuesday in November, Melbourne Cup Day, was officially gazetted a full public holiday in 1877. 1877 is also the year that the trainer Etienne de Mestre won his fourth Melbourne Cup with Chester owned by Hon. James White. In 1878, as in previous years De Mestre fielded more than one horse. He entered the favourite Firebell (owned by W.S. Cox) who finished last, Chester (owned by Hon. James White) the previous year's winner who fell, and Calamia (owned by de Mestre) who, though less fancied, won easily by two lengths. First prize was £1,790, the crowd was 80,000 and there were 30 starters. De Mestre's 1878 win with Calamia brought to 5 the number of Melbourne Cups he had won. On This Day In Shoalhaven This record was not to be matched for nearly 100 years when the trainer Bart Cummings won his fifth Melbourne Cup in 1975. Bart Cummings, regarded as the best Australian horse trainer of all time, went on to win 12 Melbourne Cups to 2008, and is still racing. Phar Lap winning the Melbourne Cup Race from Second Wind and Shadow King on 5th November, 1930. Phar Lap, the most famous horse in the world of his day, won the 1930 Melbourne Cup. He won the Melbourne Cup as the shortest priced favourite in the history of the race at 11/8 odds on. He had to be hidden away at Geelong before the race after an attempt was made to shoot him and only emerged an hour before the race time of the Cup. Flemington Phar Lap also competed in 1929 and 1931, but came 3rd and 8th respectively. There is controversy about who was the first Aboriginal jockey to ride a Melbourne Cup winner. It has been become legend that the first Aboriginal jockey to win the Melbourne Cup was the jockey who won the first and second Melbourne Cups in 1861 and 1862 - John Cutts riding Archer. He was not, however, an Aboriginal stockman born in the area around Nowra where Archer was trained. Instead Johnny Cutts was John 'Cutts' Dillon, the son of a Sydney clerk, a jockey who rode for many trainers in his long career, and who was one of the best known, best liked and most respected jockeys in New South Wales. The Masters Touch, Racing with Etienne de Mestre, Winner of 5 Melbourne Cups by Keith W. Paterson, Published by Keith W. Paterson [Nowra] (2008) (ISBN 9780646500287), Page 46 Although it would be romantic to believe that an Aboriginal jockey had won the first and second Melbourne Cups, the most famous horse race in Australia, the cold hard facts of history do not allow this notion. A competing legend is that Peter St. Albans was the first Aboriginal jockey to win the Melbourne Cup on Briseis in 1876. The legend arose as, not quite 13 years old, St. Albans was too young to ride in the 1876 Melbourne Cup. Thus, to allow him to race Briseis in the Cup, it was argued his birthdate and parents were unknown, and from this the legend of him being Aboriginal grew. The wonder filly and a boy who carved their names into history Both these legends, however, can definitely be disproved, and history had to wait nearly another 100 years. The first (and so far only) Aboriginal jockey to ride a Melbourne Cup winner was Frank Reys in 1973 on Gala Supreme. There has also been some confusion about this claim as his father was Filipino. To further confuse the issue, Frank Reys referred to his background as Filipino in most interviews of the day. He believed that it would have hindered his prospects had he admitted openly to his aboriginal heritage. Aboriginal jockeys who won the Melbourne Cup However, that Frank was not just Filipino but also Aboriginal can be proven. Frank's maternal grandmother was from the Djiribul people of Northern Queensland. Frank Reys Recent years The race has undergone several alterations over the past 10 years, the most visible being the arrival of many foreign-trained horses to contest the race in the last decade. Most have failed to cope with the conditions; the three successful "foreign raids" include two by Irish trainer Dermot K. Weld successful in 1993 and 2002 2002 Melbourne Cup result , and one in 2006 2006 Melbourne Cup result by Katsumi Yoshida of Japan's renowned Yoshida racing and breeding family. The attraction for foreigners to compete was, primarily, the low-profile change to the new "quality handicap" weighting system. The 1910 Melbourne Cup was won by Comedy King, the first foreign bred horse to do so. Subsequent foreign bred horses to win Cup were Backwood 1924; Belldale Ball 1980; At Talaq 1986; Kingston Rule 1990; Vintage Crop 1993; Jeune 1994; Media Puzzle 2002; Makybe Diva 2003, 2004, 2005 The 1938 Melbourne Cup was won by trainer Mrs. Allan McDonald who conditioned Catalogue. However, at the time women were not allowed to compete and as such her husband's name was officially recorded as the winning trainer. The 2001 edition was won by New Zealand mare Ethereal 2001 Melbourne Cup result , trained by Sheila Laxon, the first woman to formally train a Melbourne Cup winner. She also won the Caulfield Cup, a 2,400 metre race also held in Melbourne, and therefore has won the "Cups Double". Glen Boss and Makybe Diva shortly after winning the 2005 Melbourne Cup In 1973 the first (and so far only) Aboriginal jockey to ride a Melbourne Cup winner was Frank Reys on Gala Supreme. There has also been some confusion about Frank's aboriginality as his father was Filipino. To further confuse the issue, as he believed that it would have hindered his prospects to openly admit to his aboriginal heritage, Frank Reys referred to his background as Filipino in most interviews of the day. However, that Frank was not just Filipino but also Aboriginal can be proven: his maternal grandmother was from the Djiribul people of Northern Queensland. Frank Rey's place in history has also been contested. The first pretender who history has created is John Cutts on Archer in 1861 and 1862, the first and second Melbourne Cup. The second pretender who history has created is Peter St. Albans on Briseis in 1876. Neither of these jockeys, however, were Aboriginal, despite the legends that have risen up around them. For a fuller discussion of these points, with references, refer to the Early Years above. Maree Lyndon became the first female to ride in the Melbourne Cup when she partnered Argonaut Style in 1987. Unfortunately she ran second last in the 21 horse field. Melbourne Cup Facts In 2004 Makybe Diva 2004 Melbourne Cup result 2005 Melbourne Cup result became the first mare to win two cups, and also the first horse to win with different trainers, after David Hall moved to Hong Kong and transferred her to the Lee Freedman stables. The 2005 Melbourne Cup was held before a crowd of 106,479. Makybe Diva made history by becoming the only horse to win the race three times. Trainer Lee Freedman said after the race, "Go and find the youngest child on the course, because that's the only person here who will have a chance of seeing this happen again in their lifetime." The 2006 Melbourne Cup was won by the Japanese horse, Delta Blues 2006 Melbourne Cup result . Delta Blues won by a nose over a second Japanese horse, Pop Rock. Due to the 2007 Australian Equine influenza outbreak, believed to have been started by a horse brought into Australia from Japan, neither Delta Blues nor Pop Rock participated in the 2007 Melbourne Cup. Both horses are stabled in Japan. Corowa, NSW trained " Leica Falcon " was also not be permitted to race in Victoria, despite being close to the Victorian border . Leica Falcon was ordained as the new staying star of Australian racing in 2005 when he ran fourth in both the Caulfield Cup and in Makybe Diva's famous third Melbourne Cup victory. But serious leg injuries saw the horse not racing for another 20 months. The 2008 Melbourne Cup winner was Viewed 2008 Melbourne Cup result , ridden by Blake Shinn and trained by "Cups King" Bart Cummings. The win was Cummings twelfth success in race. Bauer ran second and C'est La Guerre third. Results and records 2007 Melbourne Cup, Derby Day Most wins by a horse: 3 - Makybe Diva (2003, 2004, 2005) 2 - Archer (1861, 1862) 2 - Peter Pan (1932, 1934) 2 - Rain Lover (1968, 1969) 2 - Think Big (1974, 1975) Most wins by a jockey: 4 - Bobby Lewis (1902, 1915, 1919, 1927) 4 - Harry White (1974, 1975, 1978, 1979) Most wins by a trainer: 12 - Bart Cummings (1965, 1966, 1967, 1974, 1975, 1977, 1979, 1990, 1991, 1996, 1999, 2008) 5 - Etienne de Mestre (1861, 1862, 1867, 1877, 1878) 5 - Lee Freedman (1989, 1992, 1995, 2004, 2005) Most wins by an owner: 4 - John Tait (1866, 1868, 1871, 1872) 4 - Etienne de Mestre (1861*, 1862*, 1867*, 1878) *The winners of these years were leased. 4 - Dato Tan Chin Nam (1974, 1975, 1996, 2008) Fastest recorded time: 3:16.3 - Kingston Rule (1990) Youngest jockey to win: Peter St. Albans (1876) on Briseis aged 13 (officially) -> (actually 12 years 11 months 23 days) The wonder filly and a boy who carved their names into history First (& only) Aboriginal jockey to win: Frank Reys (1973) on Gala Supreme First woman owner to win: Mrs E.A. Widdis (1915) with Patrobas First woman trainer to win: Mrs. A. McDonald (1938) with Catalogue. (Women then could not be registered as trainers. It was her husband who was the registered trainer.) Australian Racing Information First female jockey to ride: Maree Lynden (1987) on Argonaut Style First Australian female jockey to ride: Clare Lindop (2003) on Debben Melbourne Cup Trivia The first Melbourne Cup (1861) was run on a November Thursday over a distance of 2 miles (3,218 metres). Archer, the horse to win the first Melbourne Cup, was taken by steamboat to Melbourne. The Victorian Racing Club introduced the four day Spring Racing Carnival format in 1869. The Cup was first run on a Tuesday in 1875: the first Tuesday in November. Two years later, in 1877, the first Tuesday in November was declared a public holiday in Melbourne. In 1894 strand starts were introduced to Flemington. The first Cup start from the starting stalls was in 1958. “Fashions on the Field” was first held at the Carnival in 1962. In 1972 the metric system was introduced and the Cup distance shortened by about 18 metres (61ft 6in) to 3200 metres, slightly shorter than the traditional two mile distance. Rain Lover’s 1968 then race record fastest time of 3min.19.1sec was accordingly adjusted to 3min.17.9sec. The first cup in 1861 was watched by 4,000 people. At the time, Melbourne's population was 140,000. 2GB radio The first Melbourne Cup to attract 100,000 attendance was in 1880. In 2003 the first Melbourne Cup Tour was conducted around Australia, and the biggest crowd , of 122,736, is recorded at Flemington. The prize for the winner of the first Melbourne Cup in 1861 was £710 cash and a gold watch. Melbourne Cup Facts & Figures In 1888 the first Gold whip was presented to the winning Cup jockey (Mick O'Brien). The value of the gold cup presented to the winner is now over $60,000. In 1973 it was valued at just $3000. Phar Lap won $450,000 in 1930. 1985 was the year of the first sponsored Melbourne Cup, and the first million dollar Cup, with $650,000 for the winner. Prize money for the 2003 race was $4.6 million, with $2.7 million for the winner. In 2008 prize money consisted of $5.5 million and $150,000 in trophies. The winner got $3.3 million and trophies of $125,000 for the owner, $10,000 to trainer, $10,000 to jockey, and $5,000 to strapper. Prize money for 2nd was $835,000, 3rd $420,000, 4th $220,000, 5th $150,000, and 6th to 10th each $115,000. Melbourne Cup Preview In 1882 the first bookmakers were licensed at Flemington. 1931 was the first year the totalisator operated at the Melbourne Cup. The Totalisator Agency Board was introduced in 1961. There has never been a dead-heat for first in the Cup. The Melbourne Cup was first filmed in 1896. This race was won by Newhaven. The first radio broadcast of the Melbourne Cup was made by the Australian Broadcasting Company in 1925. The photo finish camera was first used in the 1948 Melbourne Cup. Rimfire beat Dark Marne. However, many on-course punters believe the result should have been reversed, and it was later found that the camera was incorrectly aligned. The race has been postponed twice because of rain - firstly in 1870 then in 1916. The Melbourne Cup was raced on Saturdays during the war years. 34 favourites have won the Melbourne Cup. Three horses have won at 100-1: The Pearl (1871), Wotan (1936) and Old Rowley (1940). The 'Most Winning Number' has been No 4 with 11 wins. Horses whose names start with I, Q, U, X and Y have never won the Cup. Unlucky 'Shadow King' made six attempts to win the cup in seven years between 1929 and 1935. He came 6th, 3rd, 2nd, 3rd, 2nd and 4th. In 1930 Phar Lap won the Melbourne Cup as the shortest priced favourite in the history of the race at 11/8 odds on. He had to be hidden away at Geelong before the race after an attempt was made to shoot him and only emerged an hour before the race time of the Cup. In 2007 Efficient became the first horse since Phar Lap to win the Derby and Cup in successive years. In 1954 Rising Fast won not only the Melbourne Cup, but the Turnbull Stakes, Caulfield Stakes, Caulfield Cup, Cox Plate, Mackinnon Stakes and the Fisher Plate on the final day of the Flemington Carnival. In 1876 the three-year-old filly Briseis created a record that is never likely to be equalled, winning the VRC Derby, Melbourne Cup and VRC Oaks in the space of six days. In 1876 Briseis was ridden by the youngest jockey who has ever won a Melbourne Cup, 12-year-old Peter St Albans who claimed to be 13. Frank Reys, the first aboriginal jockey to win the Melbourne cup in 1973, denied his aboriginal heritage and claimed only to be Filipino. The biggest winning margin was 8 lengths by Archer in 1862 and Rain Lover in 1968. Melbourne Cup Trivia The heaviest weight carried to victory was by Carbine in 1890 with 10 stone 5lbs (65.5 kg), and in the biggest field ever assembled (39). He also won at the then record time of 3.28.25. Carbine was also apparently a bit of a show-off and loved to stop and preen for the crowds. His trainer, Walter Hickenbotham, was famous for flicking his open umbrella at Carbine's legs to hurry him along. The umbrella is in a showcase at the Australian Racing Museum. The Age: From the horse's mouth In carrying 10 stone 2 lb to victory in 1962 Archer was the first of only three horses to win with 10 stone or more. The others have been Carbine (10 stone 5 lbs in 1890) and Poitrel (10 stone) in 1920. The horse to carry the heaviest weight of all time was Phar Lap (10 stone 10 pounds) in 1831 when he ran 8th. Melbourne Cup Stats The slowest winning time yet recorded for the race (3:52) was by Archer in 1861 in the first Melbourne Cup. In 1990 Kingston Rule ran the fastest time to win the Cup in 3 minutes 16.3 seconds. The two most successful Melbourne Cup jockeys with four wins each are Bobbie Lewis (1902, 1915, 1919, 1927) and Harry White (1974, 1975, 1978, 1979). The first horse to win in consecutive years was also the horse who won the 1st & 2nd Melbourne Cups in 1861 and 1862, Archer, a record he held for more than 100 years. Victorian craftswoman Therese Haynes was so enamoured of the horse Archer that in his lifetime she made a horseshoe ornament from his tail hair. She wove and coiled the hair to create a horseshoe-shaped plaque, placed in a silver setting, and mounted it on red satin. The ornament is today on display in the Australian Racing Museum. The Age: Race against uneven odds The only horses to win in consecutive years were: Archer (1861,1862), Rain Lover (1968,1969), Think Big (1974,1975) and Makybe Diva (2003,2004,2005). (Peter Pan won in 1932 and again in 1934.) Makybe Diva, the only horse to win 3 Melbourne Cups (2003,2004,2005), which also happened to be successive, was named after five women who used to work with the horse's owner, Tony Santic. They were: MAureen, KYlie, BElinda, DIanne and VAnessa. When Makybe Diva wins her third cup in 2005 she breaks her own weight carrying record for a winning mare by racing with 58kg. Her jockey Glen Boss becomes the first jockey to win three Cups in a row. When Claire Lindop (2003), the first Australian female jockey to ride in a Melbourne Cup, was introduced to the 100,000 spectators at Flemington, she got a bigger cheer than any of the 22 male jockeys. Sydney Morning Herald Sheila Laxon (2001), was the first woman trainer to officially win the Melbourne Cup. However Mrs. A. McDonald (1938) with Catalogue was really the first woman trainer to win. Women then could not be registered as trainers, and it was her husband who was the registered trainer. Mrs. A. Macdonald's win was as a female trainer of a female owned horse. Even if not the first woman trainer, Sheila Laxon (2001), the Welsh-born and New Zealand based trainer, won both the Caulfield and Melbourne Cup with Ethereal becoming the 11th horse to complete the double. Most successful trainer is Bart Cummings. He's responsible for 12 winners. (His father Jim Cummings trained one Cup winner, Comic Court in 1950.) Cummings wins his record 12th Cup in 2008 with Viewed winning by a nose over Bauer. Attendance The horse show as well as fashion show of Melbourne Cup takes place on the lawn The event is one of the most popular spectator events in Australia, with sometimes over 110,000 people, some dressed in traditional formal raceday wear and others in all manner of exotic and amusing costumes, attending the race. The record crowd was 122,736 in 2003. The 1926 running of the Cup was the first time that the 100,000 mark had been passed. Today the record at Flemington is held by the 2006 Victoria Derby when almost 130,000 attended. In 2007 a limit was placed on the Spring Carnival attendance at Flemington Racecourse and race-goers are now required to pre-purchase tickets. . 2008 - 107,000 http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,24603928-2862,00.html 2007 - 102,411 http://www.springracingcarnival.com.au/melbournecupinfo/AttendanceRecords.aspx 2006 - 106,691 2005 - 106,479 2004 - 98,181 2003 - 122,736 (record) Off the track Cornflower, the symbol of Melbourne Cup, Derby Day Woman's hat at the Melbourne Cup. 'Fashions On The Field' is a major focus of the day, with substantial prizes awarded for the best-dressed man and woman. The requirement for elegant hats, and more recently the alternative of a fascinator, almost single-handedly keeps Melbourne's milliners in business. Raceday fashion has occasionally drawn almost as much attention as the race itself, The miniskirt received worldwide publicity when model Jean Shrimpton wore one on Derby Day during Melbourne Cup week in 1965. Icons of England: The Miniskirt and Women's Lib Flowers, especially roses are an important component of the week's racing at Flemington. The racecourse has around 12,000 roses within its large expanse. Over 200 varieties of the fragrant flower are nurtured by a team of up to 12 gardeners. Each of the major racedays at Flemington has an official flower. Victoria Derby Day has the Corn Flower, Melbourne Cup Day is for the Yellow Rose, Oaks Day highlights the Pink Rose and Stakes Day goes to the Red Rose. In the Melbourne metropolitan area, the race day has been a gazetted public holiday since 1877, but around both Australia and New Zealand a majority of people watch the race on television and gamble, either through direct betting or participating in workplace cup "sweeps". As of April, 2007 the ACT also recognises Melbourne Cup Race Day as a holiday. In 2000 it was estimated that 80 percent of the adult Australian population placed a bet on the race that year. Tab Limited: 2000 Melbourne Cup (via Wayback Machine) In New Zealand the Melbourne Cup is the country's single biggest betting event, with carnival race-days held at several of the country's top tracks showing the cup live on big screens. See also List of Melbourne Cup winners Thoroughbred racing in Australia Melbourne Spring Racing Carnival Melbourne Cup Challenge / Frankie Dettori Racing videogame Notes External links New Zealand and the Melbourne Cup (NZHistory.net.nz) NZ and the Cup | Melbourne_Cup |@lemmatized melbourne:132 cup:164 australia:11 major:3 annual:2 thoroughbred:3 horse:69 race:83 bill:1 stop:2 nation:1 three:11 year:47 old:8 distance:8 metre:9 rich:2 prestigious:1 two:23 mile:6 handicap:12 world:6 one:14 turf:2 event:8 hold:10 pm:1 first:67 tuesday:9 november:13 victoria:10 club:6 flemington:18 racecourse:4 day:30 public:8 holiday:8 work:2 within:2 metropolitan:3 country:4 federal:1 servant:1 also:22 observe:1 entire:1 state:2 since:6 australian:18 capital:1 territory:1 dedicate:1 see:3 list:3 winner:28 originally:1 follow:3 preparation:1 adoption:1 metric:2 system:3 current:2 establish:1 reduce:2 rain:7 lover:6 record:20 accordingly:2 adjust:5 present:8 holder:1 kingston:4 rule:6 time:23 japanese:3 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2,695 | Australian_rules_football | Australian football AFL History Official Website of the Australian Football League is a football variant played between two teams of 18 players plus 4 interchange players outdoors on large oval-shaped grass fields (often modified cricket fields), with a ball in the shape of a prolate spheroid. It is also commonly referred to as Australian rules, Aussie rules, football, footy or AFL (although AFL is actually the name of the elite national league, not the sport). Australian Football (Official title of the code) The primary aim of the game is to score goals by kicking the ball between the middle two posts of the opposing goal. The winner is the team who has the higher total score at the end of the fourth quarter. http://afl.com.au/Portals/0/afl_docs/2007_LAWS_OF_THE_GAME.pdf (pg 10) Except for special circumstances, In some special situations such as the 1977 VFL Grand Final or other such knock out situations, if the score is tied, either extra time or a Rematch the following week is required to get a result if the score is tied then a draw is declared. Players may use any part of their body to advance the ball. The primary methods are kicking, handballing and running with the ball. There are restrictions on how the ball can be handled, for example players running with the ball must intermittently bounce or touch it on the ground, throwing the ball is not allowed and players must not get caught holding the ball. Unlike most similar sports, there is no offside rule and players can roam the field freely. Possession of the ball is in dispute at all times except when a free kick is paid. A distinctive feature of the game is the mark, where players anywhere on the field who catch a ball from a kick (with specific conditions), are awarded a free kick. http://afl.com.au/Portals/0/afl_docs/2007_LAWS_OF_THE_GAME.pdf (pg 51) Australian rules is a contact sport in which players can tackle using their hands or use their whole body to obstruct opponents. Dangerous physical contact (such as a pushing an opponent in the back), interference when marking and deliberately slowing the play are discouraged with free kicks, distance penalties or suspension, depending on the seriousness of the infringement. Frequent physical contests, aerial marking or "speckies", fast movement of both players and the ball and high scoring are the game's main attributes as a spectator sport. Details of the game's origins in Australia are obscure and still the subject of much debate. Accounts of various forms of "foot-ball" being played in the Victorian goldfields that shared similar attributes to Australian football date back to 1853. Australian football became organised in Melbourne in 1858 with a series of experimental rules in a bid to keep cricketers fit during the winter months and in 1859 the first laws of the game were published by the Melbourne Football Club. History Official Website of the Australian Football League Today Australian rules football is the most popular spectator sport in Australia http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/ProductsbyReleaseDate/E298CEE24565C911CA256DEF007248FF?OpenDocument http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/4174.02005-06?OpenDocument and is played extensively with competitions in all Australian states and two territories. While it is a professional sport only in Australia, it is played at amateur level in several countries and in several variations. The most prestigious and only national competition in Australia is the Australian Football League (AFL), which culminates in the annual AFL Grand Final, the highest attended club championship event in the world in 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2008. For a detailed history of the evolution and development of the finals system used by the Victorian Football League (VFL) and, later, by the Australian Football League (AFL) see Early VFL Final systems and McIntyre System. The league has governed the sport through the AFL Commission and the AFL Rules Committee, since it disbanded the Australian National Football Council in 1993 and International Australian Football Council in 2002. In 2008, the 150th anniversary of the first recorded games of Australian football were celebrated. Rules of the game Precise field and goal kicking using the ellipse shaped ball is the key skill in Australian rules football The playing field, which may be 135 to 185 metres long goal to goal and 110 to 15 metres wide boundary line to boundary line wing to wing. Approximately 3 to 5 metres of boundary line space from the boundary line to the fence is also required. The centre square is 50m x 50m. The curved fifty metre line is away from the centre of the goal. For professional Australian Football the 50 metre lines should not intersect the front or back edge of the centre square (which is why 150m from goal to goal is considered about regulation size (some grounds are longer)). Adjacent goal and behind posts are 6.4 metres apart. The goal square is 9m long. Both the ball and the field of play are oval in shape. No more than 18 players of each team are permitted to be on the field at any time. Up to four interchange (reserve) players may be swapped for those on the field at any time during the game. In Australian rules terminology, these players wait for substitution "on the bench" - an area with a row of seats on the sideline. In Round 8, 2008 a new rule was introduced for the remainder of the season. The AFL club has to lodge a piece of paper with an attendant AFL official detailing the player to come off the ground and his replacement. There is no offside rule nor are there set positions in the rules; unlike many other forms of football, players from both teams disperse across the whole field before the start of play. However, only four players from each team are allowed within the centre square before every centre bounce, which occurs at the commencement of each quarter, and to restart the game after a goal is scored. There are also other rules pertaining to allowed player positions during set plays (i.e., after a mark or free kick) and during kick-ins following the scoring of a behind. A game consists of four quarters and a timekeeper officiates their duration. In professional Australian Football, quarters are 20 minutes plus time on. Time on refers to clock being stopped when the ball is out of play, meaning that an average quarter could last for 27 to 31 minutes. At the end of each quarter, teams change their scoring end. Games are officiated by umpires. Australian football begins after the first siren, the umpire bounces the ball on the ground (or throws it into the air if the condition of the ground is poor), and the two ruckmen (typically the tallest players from each team), battle for the ball in the air on its way back down. The ball can be propelled in any direction by way of a foot, clenched fist (called a handball or handpass) or open-hand tap but it cannot be thrown under any circumstances. Throwing is defined in the rules quite broadly but is essentially any open hand disposal that causes the ball to move upward in the air. A player may run with the ball but it must be bounced or touched on the ground at least once every 15 metres. Opposition players may bump or tackle the player to obtain the ball and, when tackled, the player must dispose of the ball cleanly or risk being penalised for holding the ball. The ball carrier may only be tackled between the shoulders and knees. If the opposition player forcefully contacts a player in the back whilst performing a tackle, the opposition player will be penalised for a push in the back. If the opposition tackles the player with possession below the knees, it is ruled as a low tackle or a trip, and the team with possession of the football gets a free kick. If a player takes possession of the ball that has travelled more than 15 metres from another player's kick, by way of a catch, it is claimed as a mark and that player may then have a free kick (meaning that the game stops while he prepares to kick from the point at which he marked). Alternatively, he may choose to "play on:" forfeiting the set shot in the hope of pressing an advantage for his team (rather than allowing the opposition to reposition while he prepares for the free kick). Once a player has chosen to play on, normal play resumes and the player who took the mark is again able to be tackled. There are different styles of kicking depending on how the ball is held in the hand. The most common style of kicking seen in today's game, principally because of its superior accuracy, is the drop punt (the ball is dropped from the hands down, almost to the ground, to be kicked so that the ball rotates in a reverse end over end motion as it travels through the air). Other commonly used kicks are the torpedo punt (also known as the spiral or screw punt; the ball is held at an angle and kicked, which makes the ball spiral in the air, resulting in extra distance) and the checkside punt or "snap", used to curve the ball towards targets that are on an angle. Apart from free kicks or when the ball is in the possession of an umpire for a ball up or throw in, the ball is always in dispute and any player from either side can take possession of the ball. The two tall central posts are the goal posts, and the two shorter outer posts are the behind posts. A goal is scored when the football is propelled through the goal posts at any height (including above the height of the posts) by way of a kick from the attacking team. It may fly through on the full or bounce through, but must not have been touched, on the way, by any player from either team. A goal cannot be scored from the foot of an opposition (defending) player. A behind is scored when the ball passes between a goal post and a behind post at any height, or if the ball hits a goal post, or if an attacking player sends the ball between the goal posts by touching it with any part of the body other than a foot. A behind is also awarded to the attacking team if the ball touches any part of an opposition player, including his foot, before passing between the goal posts. When an opposition player deliberately scores a behind for the attacking team (generally as a last resort, because of the risk of their scoring a goal) this is termed a rushed behind. If the ball hits one of the behind posts, the ball is considered out of bounds and no score is awarded. A goal is worth 6 points whereas a behind is worth 1 point. The goal umpire signals a goal with two hands raised at elbow height, a behind with one hand, and then confirms the signal with the other goal umpire by waving flags above his head. The team that has scored the most points at the end of play wins the game. If the scores are level on points at the end of play, then the game is a draw; extra time applies only during finals matches in some competitions. As an example of a score report, consider a match between St Kilda Football Club and the Sydney Swans. St Kilda's score of 15 goals and 11 behinds equates to 101 points. Sydney's score of eight goals and ten behinds equates to a 58 point tally. St Kilda wins the match by a margin of 43 points. Such a result would be written as "St Kilda 15.11 (101) defeated Sydney Swans 8.10 (58)" and said "St Kilda fifteen eleven, one hundred and one defeated Sydney Swans eight ten, fifty-eight." Structure and competitions South Fremantle Football Club celebrate with "The Flag" and "The Cup" after winning the 2005 WAFL Premiership. Clubs, premierships and Grand Finals have been central to both the structure and culture of the sport since the earliest days. The football season, proper, is from March to August (early autumn to late winter in Australia) with finals being held in September. http://mm.afl.com.au/afl_archive/cp2/c2/webi/article/304261bn.pdf In the tropics, the game is sometimes played in the wet season (October to March). http://www.aflnt.com.au/_content/document/00054633-src.pdf (pg 7) Pre-season competitions in southern Australia usually begin in late February. The AFL is recognised by the Australian Sports Commission as being the National Sporting Organisation for Australian rules football. Australian Institute of Sport - Australian football There are also seven state/territory-based organisations in Australia, most of which are now either owned by or affiliated to the AFL. http://afl.com.au/Portals/0/afl_docs/2007_LAWS_OF_THE_GAME.pdf (pg 3) Most of these hold annual semi-professional club competitions while the others oversee more than one league. Local semi-professional or amateur organisations and competitions are often affiliated to their state organisations. The AFL is also the de facto world governing body for Australian rules football. There are also a number of affiliated organisations governing amateur clubs and competitions around the world. International - Official Website of the Australian Football League For almost all Australian rules club competitions the aim is to win the Premiership. The premiership is always decided by a finals series. The teams that occupy the highest positions on the ladder play off in a "semi-knockout" finals series. From the 1930s the finals series was usually contested by the top 4 teams (3rd versus 4th (First semifinal); 1st versus 2nd (Second semifinal); winner of First versus loser of Second (Preliminary final); the winner of Second versus winner of Preliminary playing in the Grand Final for the premiership). Many leagues have adopted a final series involving 5, 6 or 8 teams with a variety of methods used to determine the winner. The AFL finals system is contested by the top 8 teams. Unlike most soccer competitions there are usually no separate "league" and "cup" trophies. The team finishing first on the ladder is often referred to as a 'minor premier', although this bears little or no significance. In the AFL, this is the McClelland Trophy The McClelland Trophy and is considered a consolation prize. The team which finishes at the bottom of the ladder at the end of the season is said to receive 'the wooden spoon' AFL Explained - Official Website of the Australian Football League It is also rare for promotion and relegation to occur in Australian rules football competitions. History Origins A statue next to the Melbourne Cricket Ground on the approximate site of the 1858 "foot-ball" match between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College. Tom Wills is depicted umpiring behind two young players contesting the ball. The plaque reads: "Wills did more than any other person - as footballer and umpire, co-writer of the rules and promoter of the game - to develop Australian Football during its first decade." There is evidence of several unique forms of "foot-ball" being played during the Victorian gold rush in both the goldfields region of Victoria and Emerald Hill which may have shared a range of influences. The Geelong rules began to take shape around 1856, although there are no existing written records. The Melbourne rules were formed through a series of experimental matches and eventually became dominant. A letter by Tom Wills was published in Bell's Life in Victoria & Sporting Chronicle on 10 July 1858, called for a "foot-ball club" with a "code of laws" to keep cricketers fit during winter . This is widely regarded as the most significant milestone in the organisation of Australian football. It was during 1858 that references to the first "foot-ball" clubs in Melbourne began to appear, including Richmond Cricketers, St Kilda and Melbourne. Wills' letter attracted football players to an experimental match, at the Richmond Paddock (later known as Yarra Park next to the MCG) on 31 July 1858. Few details of the match have survived, though it is known that Wills both played in and umpired the game. On 7 August 1858 a famous match between Melbourne Grammar School and Scotch College began at Richmond Park, which was umpired by Wills and McAdam and also involved Scotch headmaster Thomas H. Smith. pg 36. Melbourne FC Since 1858 - An Illustrated History A second day of play took place on 21 August and a third, and final, day on 4 September. p303. While the full rules that were used is unknown, the match was played with a round ball, the distance between the goals was approximately half a mile (approximately 4 times longer than the modern MCG playing surface), there were 40 players per side and one goal each side was scored with the game being declared a draw. The two schools have competed annually ever since for the Cordner-Eggleston Cup. Scotch College - Cordner-Eggleston Cup Some regard these early matches as the first matches of Australian Football, however to many it is clear that the game was still in the process of evolving. First rules The Melbourne Football Club rules of 1859 are the oldest surviving set of laws for Australian football. The ten simple rules were drawn up on 17 May in a meeting was chaired by Wills and in attendance were journalists W. J. Hammersley and J. B. Thompson. Accounts of the people directly involved differ. Some sources claim that Thomas H. Smith, Thomas Smith himself made this claim in response to an article about the history of Melbourne FC in The Australasian published February 26, 1876 (from Melbourne FC Since 1858 - An Illustrated History pg 36). Smith's personal account mentions Thompson arriving after the decision to form the club Alex Bruce ibid and or H. C. A. Harrison Harrison's involvement in the early stages is believed by many to be due to him being perceived as the "father of the game" in later decades and subsequent erroneous reporting were also present. The meeting was held at the Parade Hotel, East Melbourne hosted by owner and Melbourne Cricket Club member Jerry Bryant. The publican was a friend of Tom Wills with a personal interest in introducing football to Melbourne's schools. Bryant had played a role in organising early football matches at the nearby Richmond Park and his son was one of the first players. pg 20-10. Melbourne FC Since 1858 - An Illustrated History. Goeff Slattery Publishing The rules were signed by Tom Wills, William Hammersley, J. Sewell, J. B. Thompson, Alex Bruce, T. Butterworth and Thomas H. Smith. Importantly, the rules were widely publicised and distributed. Early competition in Victoria A game at the Richmond Paddock in the 1860s. A pavilion at the MCG is on the left in the background. (A wood engraving made by Robert Bruce on 27 July 1866.) The Champion of the Colony (precursor to the Brownlow Medal) is an individual football award which was first granted in 1858. Notably in 1859 several new football clubs formed including the Castlemaine Football Club, Geelong Football Club (which Wills directly helped to form) and the Melbourne University Football Club. While many one-off matches are recorded to have taken place between several early teams from Melbourne's suburbs and country Victoria (such as the Ballarat and Geelong competitions), in the early days many had not yet formed clubs for regular competition. The first ever trophy for Australian Football, awarded by the Royal Caledonian Society of Melbourne and played under the Melbourne Rules was contested in 1861 between the Melbourne Football Club and Melbourne University, and was won by University. The competition continued into the early 1860s with the addition of other teams from Melbourne's suburbs. Two further competitions, the South Yarra Challenge Cup (which had evolved from the Caledonian Games) and "Second Twenties" were held between the late 1860s. There were some rival rules which eventually gave way to an acceptance of the Melbourne Rules. In 1860, the Melbourne Football Club redrafted its rules following the input of several other clubs. The requirement to bounce the ball while running was introduced in a significant redraft of the Melbourne Rules in 1866 by H. C. A. Harrison and his rules committee to satisfy the Geelong Football Club's own set of very different rules. G.M. Hibbins Sport and Racing in Colonial Melbourne: The Cousin and Me - Colden Harrison, Tom Wills and William Hammersley Lynedoch 2007 chs 8, 9 Behind posts were introduced at this time are also believed to have come directly from the Geelong rules. The new rules became known as the Victorian Rules which became more widely adopted. In 1869, a time limit - 100 minutes - was introduced to the game for the first time. Previous to this, winners were decided in a number of ways, but most commonly the first side to kick 2 goals. The relationship with cricket primarily came out of co-existence and many of football's founders were cricketers. As a result, the sport shares some terminology (i.e. "umpires" and "boundary"). However cricket authorities did not initially allow football to be played on their grounds and in the early years football was played primarily in parks. The first football match played at the MCG was not until 1876. Cricket authorities soon saw the opportunity to capitalise on the rapid growth of Australian Football, however, and soon most grounds in Victoria were expanded to accommodate the dual purpose, a situation which continues to this day. Football matches between 1859 and 1899 were played in a twenty a side format. An engraving of the first intercolonial match between Victoria and South Australia in Melbourne in 1879. Victoria won 7 goals to 0 Spread to other colonies Gradually the game – known at first as "Melbourne Rules" became "Victorian Rules" and then "Australian Rules" following its spread from Victoria into other Australian colonies, beginning with South Australia (1860), Tasmania (1864), Queensland (1866). In 1877, the sport's first governing bodies, the South Australian Football Association and the Victorian Football Association were formed on the 30th of April and the 17th of May respectively. The game began to be played in New South Wales in 1877, in Western Australia in 1881 and the Australian Capital Territory in 1911. By 1916, the game was first played in the Northern Territory, establishing a permanent presence in all Australian states and mainland territories. The game was also first played in New Zealand in 1876. The precursors of the South Australian National Football League (SANFL) and the West Australian Football League (WAFL) were strong, separate competitions by the 1890s. However late in the century the code began to in New South Wales and Queensland largely due to interstate rivalries and the lack of strong local governing bodies. In the case of Sydney, denial of access to grounds and the loss of professional players to other football codes directly inhibited to the game's growth. The first intercolonial match had been played between Victoria and South Australia on August 2, 1879. The late 1890s saw the formation of the Victorian Football League (VFL) which commenced play in 1897 as an eight-team competition composed of the stronger clubs from the VFA competition. By 1925, the VFL consisted of 12 teams, and had become the most prominent league in the game. Effects of the two world wars Australian soldiers, sailors, and airmen take part in an impromptu game of end-to-end Australian rules football in Central Australia in 1944. Both World War I and World War II had a devastating effect on the sport of Australian Rules. While scratch matches were played by Australian "diggers" in remote locations around the world, the game lost many of its great players to wartime service. Some competitions never fully recovered. World War I saw the game in New Zealand go into recess for three quarters of a century. In Queensland, the state league went into recess for the duration of the war. VFL club University left the league and went into recess due to severe casualties. The WAFL lost two clubs and the SANFL was suspended for one year in 1916 due to heavy club losses. The ANZAC Day clash is one example of how the war continues to be remembered in the football community. Interstate Football and the Australian National Football Council A New South Wales player outmarks a West Australian opponent in the goal square at the 1933 Australian Football Carnival held at the Sydney Cricket Ground. The Australian National Football Council's primary role was to govern the game at national level to facilitate interstate representative and club competition. The ANFC ran the Championship of Australia, the first national club competition which was first run in 1888 and saw clubs from different states compete on an even playing field. During this time, the Port Adelaide won a record four national club championships. Although clubs from other states were at times invited, the final was almost always between the premiers from the two strongest state competitions of the time, - South Australia and Victoria - and the majority of matches were played in Adelaide at the request of the SAFA/SAFL. By the 1960s, as VFL clubs increasingly recruited the best players from other states, they began to dominate the competition and the last match was played in 1976, with North Adelaide being the last non-Victorian winner in 1972. Between 1977 and 1987, the Australian Football Council (AFC) in conjunction with the VFL ran a night series which invited clubs and representative sides from around the country to participate in the "National Football League" for the Wills Cup, however Victorian sides still dominated. With the lack of international competition, representative matches between state teams were regarded with great importance. Originating from the early intercolonial matches, these tests continued well after Federation of Australia in 1901 and the Australian Football Council co-ordinated regular interstate carnivals. In 1908, a Jubilee Australasian Football Carnival was held to celebrate 50 years of Australian rules football. The carnival included teams representing Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, Tasmania, Western Australia and New Zealand. A False Dawn Again, due primarily to the VFL recruiting the best players, Victoria dominated interstate matches for three quarters of a century. Representative football was kept alive longer than the national club competition with the introduction of State of origin rules in 1977. The new rules mean that rather than representing the state of their adopted club, players would return to play for the state they were first recruited. This instantly broke Victoria's stranglehold over state titles and Western Australia and South Australia began to win many of their games against Victoria. Both New South Wales and Tasmania scored surprise victories at home against Victoria in 1990. Towards a national club competition An Australian Football League Premiership season match at Carrara Stadium on the Gold Coast between Adelaide and Melbourne. The AFL is the most attended national competition in Australia and the only fully professional league for Australian Rules in the world. In 1978, the term Barassi Line was used to describe the football dichotomy that had emerged in Australia over three quarters of a century and also the first suggestion of regular interstate club competition or national league. By 1980 in the space of just 25 years, the way the game was played had changed dramatically, with the phasing out of many of the game's kicking styles, changing rules and the influence of the handballing game and television. WICKS, B. M. Whatever Happened to Australian Rules ? Hobart, Tasmania, Libra Books. 1980, First Edition. (ISBN 0909619069) In 1982, in a move which heralded big changes within the sport, one of the original VFL clubs, South Melbourne, relocated to the rugby league stronghold of Sydney and became known as the Sydney Swans. In the late 1980s, strong interstate interest in the VFL led to a more national competition; two more non-Victorian clubs, the West Coast Eagles and the Brisbane Bears began playing in 1987. In their early years, the Sydney and Brisbane clubs continued to struggle both on and off-field and the AFL had to bail both out financially and grant significant draft concessions to keep them competitive. The league changed its name to the Australian Football League (AFL) following the 1989 season. In 1991, it gained its first South Australian team, Adelaide. During the next five years, two more non-Victorian teams, Fremantle and Port Adelaide, joined the league. The AFL, currently with 16 member clubs, is the sport's elite competition and the most powerful body and continues to seek further opportunities to expand into new markets. Following the emergence of the Australian Football League, the SANFL, WAFL and other state leagues rapidly declined to a secondary status. Apart from these there are many semi-professional and amateur leagues around Australia, where they play a very important role in the community, and particularly so in rural areas. The VFA, still in existence a century after the original schism, merged with the former VFL reserves competition in 1998. The new entity adopted the VFL name and remained a primarily state based competition. State of origin games also declined in importance, especially after an increasing number of withdrawals by AFL players. The AFL turned its focus for representation to an annual International Rules Series against Ireland in 1998 before abolishing State of Origin in 1999. The second-tier state and territorial leagues still contest interstate representative matches. Although Tasmanian AFL Bid has been ongoing, rather than pursue a national competition, the AFL's focus has become gaining marketshare in lucrative and broadcasting rights in the more populous Australian states and has advanced plans to create football franchises on the Gold Coast, Queensland (Gold Coast Football Club) and in Greater Western Sydney (Western Sydney Football Club). The AFL regularly schedules pre-season exhibition matches in all Australian states and territories as part of the Regional Challenge. Australian football internationally Action from a 1999 Aussie Rules match in Nauru at the Linkbelt Oval Australian rules football is played at an amateur level in various countries around the world. Over 30 countries are home to clubs or leagues who play regularly, with around 20 that have either affiliation or working agreements with the AFL. AFL International Development There have been several players in the VFL/AFL who were born outside Australia and since 1982, an increasing number of players have been recruited from outside Australia through initiatives such as the Irish experiment and more recently, international scholarship programs. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the game spread with the Australian Diaspora to areas such as New Zealand and South Africa, however this growth went into rapid decline following World War I. After World War II, the sport experienced a small amount of growth in the Pacific region, particularly in Nauru, Papua New Guinea and later New Zealand. Most of the current amateur clubs and leagues in existence have developed since the 1980s, when leagues began to be established in North America, Europe and Asia. As the size of the Australian diaspora has increased, so has the number of clubs outside Australia. This expansion has been further aided by multiculturalism and assisted by exhibition matches as well as exposure generated through players who have converted to and from other football codes. In Papua New Guinea, New Zealand, South Africa and the United States there are many thousands of players. Great Britain, Canada, Japan, Denmark and Sweden have also shown strong potential in the sport amongst local players in the lead up to the 2008 Australian Football International Cup. The AFL became the de facto governing body when it pushed for the closure of the International Australian Football Council in 2002. International Rules Football Since 1967 there have been many matches between Australian rules football teams (mainly from Australia) and Gaelic football teams (mainly from Ireland), under various sets of hybrid, compromise rules known as International rules football. In 1984, the first official representative matches of International Rules were played, and these were played annually each October between the AFL and the Gaelic Athletic Association between 1998 and 2006 as part of the official International Rules Series which attracted large crowds and media interest in both Ireland and Australia. In 2007 the international rules series was abandoned because of the aggression and the severity of the Australian team in the previous year. But in 2008, under new rules to protect the player with the ball, it resumed in Australia. Australian rules football culture Before the start of each AFL games, players run through a banner constructed by supporters. Australian rules football is popular amongst indigenous communities. Australian Rules is a sport rich in tradition and Australian cultural references, especially surrounding the rituals of gameday for players, officials and supporters. Australian rules football has attracted more overall interest among Australians (as measured by the Sweeney Sports report) than any other football code, and, when compared with all sports throughout the nation, has consistently ranked first in the winter reports, and most recently third behind cricket and swimming in summer. Media Release, Sweeney Sport report for 2006-07 In 2006, a total of 615, 549 registered participants played Australian football in Australia. More chase Sherrin than before Participation 7.84% between 2005-06. The Australian Sports Commission statistics show a 42% increase in the total number of participants over the 4 year period between 2001-2005. http://www.ausport.gov.au/scorsresearch/ERASS2005/ERASS2005_findings.pdf Participation in Exercise, Recreation and Sport Survey 2005 Annual Report Australian rules football is played in more than 30 countries around the world. In 2004, there were a total of over 25, 000 participants outside of Australia. http://www.worldfootynews.com/article.php?story=20050301074107992 World Footy Census This has grown to about 35, 000 people in 32 countries playing in structured competitions outside of Australia Curtis, R. (2008) "Pacific nations bemoan AFL neglect", The Sunday Age, 11 May 2008 Australian rules is the national sport of Nauru. Team Profile: Nauru Chiefs Many related games have emerged from football, mainly with variations of contact to encourage greater participation. These include Kick-to-kick (and its variants such as 'End to End Footy' and 'Markers Up'), Auskick, Rec Footy, Women's Australian rules football, 9-a-side Footy, Masters Australian Football, handball and longest-kick competitions. Players outside of Australia sometimes engage in related games on the available fields, like Metro Footy (played on gridiron fields) and Samoa Rules (played on rugby fields). Australian Football Hall of Fame For the centenary of the VFL/AFL in 1996, the Australian Football Hall of Fame was established. In that year 136 identities were inducted, including 100 players, 10 coaches, 10 umpires, 10 administrators and six media representatives. AFL Hall of Fame and Sensation The selections have caused some controversy, mainly because of the predominance of VFL players at the expense of those who played in other leagues in the years before there was a national competition. The elite Legend status was bestowed on 12 members of the Hall of Fame in 1996: Ron Barassi, Haydn Bunton Senior, Roy Cazaly, John Coleman, Jack Dyer, Polly Farmer, Leigh Matthews, John Nicholls, Bob Pratt, Dick Reynolds, Bob Skilton and Ted Whitten (see above list for further details). The following ten members have been promoted to the status of "Legend" since 1996: Ian Stewart (1997), Gordon Coventry (1998), Peter Hudson (1999), Kevin Bartlett (2000), Barrie Robran (2001), Bill Hutchison (2003), Jock McHale (2005), Darrel Baldock (2006), Norm Smith (2007) and Alex Jesaulenko (2008). Legends - Official Website of the Australian Football League References See also Anti-Football League Australian Football League Australian football around the world Australian rules football attendance records Australian rules football - Early years in Victoria Australian rules football in Australia Australian rules football positions Australian Sports Commission Austus - American football Hybrid Countries playing Australian rules football Early VFL Final systems Laws of Australian football Wikipedia listing of Australian rules football players Wikipedia listing of Australian rules football coaches Aussie Rules International (ARI) Australian Football International Cup Best and Fairest Awards Kick-to-kick List of Australian rules football clubs List of Australian rules football computer games List of Australian rules football terms Marn Grook Masters Australian Football Metro Footy Rec Footy Women's Australian rules football Women's Footy External links Laws of Australian Football 2008 Australian Football explained in 17 languages - a publication from AFL.com.au Aussie Rules Latest News Headlines Official sites Australian Football League (AFL) official site Aussie Rules International Masters - Australian Football for the over 30s Australian Institute of Sport AFL website Australian Sports Commission website Video Footy explained Promo History-related sites Full Points Footy - comprehensive history site | Australian_rules_football |@lemmatized australian:107 football:123 afl:41 history:10 official:12 website:7 league:38 variant:2 play:50 two:15 team:32 player:59 plus:2 interchange:2 outdoors:1 large:2 oval:3 shaped:1 grass:1 field:15 often:3 modify:1 cricket:8 ball:49 shape:4 prolate:1 spheroid:1 also:17 commonly:3 refer:2 rule:83 aussie:5 footy:11 although:5 actually:1 name:3 elite:3 national:19 sport:29 title:2 code:6 primary:3 aim:2 game:44 score:18 goal:31 kick:27 middle:1 post:15 oppose:1 winner:7 high:4 total:4 end:12 fourth:1 quarter:9 http:9 com:7 au:9 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2,696 | David_Janssen | David Janssen (March 27, 1931 – February 13, 1980) was a Golden Globe-winning Emmy Award- nominated American film and television actor who is best known for his starring role as Dr. Richard Kimble in the hit television series The Fugitive (1963–1967) with Barry Morse. Early life Janssen was born David Harold Meyer in Naponee, Nebraska, to banker Harold Edward Meyer (May 12, 1906 – November 4, 1990) and Berniece Graf (May 11, 1910 – November 26, 1995). They were married on May 22, 1930, in Nebraska and divorced in 1935. Following his parents' divorce, his mother moved with five-year-old David to Los Angeles, California. She eventually married Eugene Janssen (February 18, 1918 – March 30, 1996) on September 29, 1940 in Los Angeles. His father married Reva Kroeger in 1941. David used his stepfather's name after he entered show business as a child. He attended Fairfax High School in Los Angeles. His first film part was at the age of thirteen, and by his twenty-fifth birthday, he had appeared in twenty films and served two years as an enlisted man in the United States Army. During his Army days Janssen became friends with fellow soldiers Martin Milner and Clint Eastwood. Acting career Janssen appeared in many television series before he landed programs of his own. In 1956, he and Peter Breck appeared in John Bromfield's syndicated series Sheriff of Cochise in the episode "The Turkey Farmers". Later, he guest starred on NBC's medical drama The Eleventh Hour in the role of Hal Kincaid in the 1962 episode "Make Me a Place", with series co-stars Wendell Corey and Jack Ging. He joined Milner in a 1962 episode of Route 66 as the character Kamo in the episode "One Tiger to a Hill." He starred in the television series Richard Diamond, Private Detective (1957-60), the hit Quinn Martin production The Fugitive (1963-67), O'Hara, U.S. Treasury (1971–72), and Harry O (1974–76). The final episode of the hit television series The Fugitive still holds the record to this date for the greatest number of American homes with television sets to watch a TV serial, at 72% in August 1967. His films include To Hell and Back, the autobiography of Audie Murphy, who is considered the most decorated soldier in the military history of the United States, John Wayne's The Green Berets (1968), the science fiction film Marooned, and a starring role in Generation, a comedy that also featured Pete Duel, Kim Darby, and Carl Reiner. At the time of his death, Janssen had just begun filming a television movie playing the part of Father Damien, the priest who dedicated himself to the leper colony on the island of Molokai. The part was eventually reassigned to actor Ken Howard. Personal life He was married twice, first to Ellie Graham on August 23, 1959 in Las Vegas, Nevada; they divorced on August 23, 1969. He dated actress Rosemary Forsyth for a few years. From October 4, 1975 to his death, he was married to sometime actress and model Dani Crayne Greco, born Darlyne Danielle Swanson on December 25, 1934 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Dani was previously married to singer Buddy Greco; they divorced in April 1974. Death A smoker and a heavy drinker, plus a constant worker, Janssen was only 48 when he died of a sudden heart attack in 1980 in Malibu, California two days into filming. He was interred in the Hillside Memorial Cemetery in Culver City, California. Filmography Chief Crazy Horse (1955) Richard Diamond, Private Detective, 1957-1960Dondi (1961)Hell to Eternity (1960) which features the wartime career of Guy GabaldonRing of Fire (1961)Target: The Corruptors!, "The Middle Man" episode, February 2, 1962My Six Loves (1963) The Fugitive (1963–1967)Warning Shot (1967)The Green Berets (1968)The Shoes of the Fisherman (1968)Marooned (1969)Where It's At (1969)O'Hara, U.S. Treasury (1971-1972)Moon of the Wolf (1973)Birds of Prey (1973)Harry O: Such Dust As Dreams Are Made On (1973)Smile, Jenny, You're Dead (1974)Jacqueline Susann's Once Is Not Enough (1975)Harry O (1974-1976)The Swiss Conspiracy (1976)Two-Minute Warning (1976)Warhead aka "The Prisoner in the Middle" (1977)A Sensitive, Passionate Man (1977)Nowhere To Run aka "Winner Take All" (1978)Sono stato un agente C.I.A. aka "Covert Action" (1978)Centennial (1978)High Ice (1980)Inchon'' (scenes deleted, 1981) See also Lifestyle diseases External links The David Janssen Archive David Janssen on Find-A-Grave Official Website of Barry Morse (http://www.bartonmacleod.con Behind camera shots taken by Barton B. Mac Leod Photographer Bartonmacleod.com Behind camera shots taken by Barton B. 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2,697 | Giant_panda | The Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca, literally "cat-foot black-and-white") is a bear native to central-western and southwestern China. The Giant Panda was previously thought to be a member of the Procyonidae (raccoon) family. It is easily recognized by its large, distinctive black patches around the eyes, over the ears, and across its round body. Though belonging to the order Carnivora, the Giant Panda has a diet which is 99% bamboo. The Giant Panda may eat other foods such as honey, eggs, fish, yams, shrub leaves, oranges, and bananas when available. The Giant Panda lives in a few mountain ranges in central China, in Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Gansu provinces. It once lived in lowland areas, but farming, forest clearing, and other development now restrict the Giant Panda to the mountains. The Giant Panda is a conservation reliant endangered species.According to the latest report, China has 239 Giant Pandas in captivity and another 27 living outside the country. It also estimated that around 1,590 pandas are currently living in the wild. However, a 2006 study, via DNA analysis, estimated that there might be as many as 2,000 to 3,000 Giant Pandas in the wild. Though reports show that the numbers of wild pandas are on the rise, the International Union for Conservation of Nature believes there is not enough certainty to remove the Giant Panda from the endangered animal list. While the dragon has historically served as China's national emblem, in recent decades the Giant Panda has also served as an emblem for the country. Its image appears on a large number of modern Chinese commemorative silver, gold, and platinum coins. Though the Giant Panda is often assumed to be docile, it has been known to attack humans, presumably out of irritation rather than predatory behavior. Appearance A Giant Panda cub. At birth, the Giant Panda typically weighs 100-200g (4-8oz) and measures 15-17cm (6-6.7") in length The Giant Panda has a black-and-white coat. Adults measure around 1.5 m long and around 75 cm tall, at the shoulder. Males are 10-20% larger than females. Males can weigh up to 150 kg (330 pounds). Females are generally smaller than males, and can occasionally weigh up to 125 kg (275 pounds). The Giant Panda lives in mountainous regions, such as Sichuan, Gansu and Shaanxi. The Giant Panda has a body shape typical of bears. It has black fur on its ears, eye patches, muzzle, legs, and shoulders. The rest of the animal's coat is white. Although scientists do not know why these unusual bears are black and white, some speculate that the bold coloring provides effective camouflage into its shade-dappled snowy and rocky surroundings. The Giant Panda's thick, wooly coat keeps it warm in the cool forests of its habitat. The Giant Panda has large molar teeth and strong jaw muscles for crushing tough bamboo. The Giant Panda's paw has a "thumb" and five fingers; the "thumb" is actually a modified sesamoid bone, which helps the Giant Panda to hold bamboo while eating. Stephen Jay Gould used this example in his book of essays concerned with evolution and biology, The Panda's Thumb. The Giant Panda has the second longest tail in the bear family, with one that is 4- long. The longest belongs to the Sloth Bear. The Giant Panda can usually live to be 25-30 years old in captivity. Behavior In the wild, the Giant Panda is a terrestrial animal and primarily spends its life roaming and feeding in the bamboo forests of the Qinling Mountains and in the hilly Sichuan Province. Though generally alone, each adult has a defined territory and females are not tolerant of other females in their range. Pandas communicate through vocalization and scent marking such as clawing trees or spraying urine.The Giant Panda is able to climb and take shelter in hollow trees or rock crevices but does not establish permanent dens. For this reason, pandas do not hibernate, which is similar to other subtropical mammals, and will instead move to elevations with warmer temperatures. Pandas rely primarily on spatial memory rather than visual memory. Social encounters occur primarily during the brief breeding season in which pandas in proximity to one another will gather. After mating, the male leaves the female alone to raise the cub. Diet Pandas eating bamboo at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. Despite its taxonomic classification as a carnivore, the Giant Panda has a diet that is primarily herbivorous, which consists almost exclusively of bamboo. However, the Giant Panda still has the digestive system of a carnivore and does not have the ability to digest cellulose efficiently, and thus derives little energy and little protein from consumption of bamboo. The average Giant Panda eats as much as 9 to 14 kg (20 to 30 pounds) of bamboo shoots a day. Because the Giant Panda consumes a diet low in nutrition, it is important for it to keep its digestive tract full. The limited energy input imposed on it by its diet has affected the panda's behavior. The Giant Panda tends to limit its social interactions and avoids steeply sloping terrain in order to limit its energy expenditures. Two of the panda's most distinctive features, its large size and its round face, are adaptations to its bamboo diet. Panda researcher Russell Ciochon observed that: “[much] like the vegetarian gorilla, the low body surface area to body volume [of the giant panda] is indicative of a lower metabolic rate. This lower metabolic rate and a more sedentary lifestyle allow the giant panda to subsist on nutrient poor resources such as bamboo.” Similarly, the Giant Panda's round face is the result of powerful jaw muscles, which attach from the top of the head to the jaw. Large molars crush and grind fibrous plant material. Twenty-five species of bamboo are eaten by pandas in the wild, such as Fargesia dracocephala and Fargesia rufa. Only a few bamboo species are widespread at the high altitudes pandas now inhabit. Bamboo leaves contain the highest protein levels; stems have less. Because of the synchronous flowering, death, and regeneration of all bamboo within a species, the Giant Panda must have at least two different species available in its range to avoid starvation. While primarily herbivorous, the Giant Panda still retains decidedly ursine teeth, and will eat meat, fish, and eggs when available. In captivity, zoos typically maintain the Giant Panda's bamboo diet, though some will provide specially formulated biscuits or other dietary supplements. Classification For many decades the precise taxonomic classification of the Giant Panda was under debate as both it and the distantly related Red Panda share characteristics of both bears and raccoons. However, molecular studies suggest that the Giant Panda is a true bear and part of the Ursidae family, O'Brien, Nash, Wildt, Bush & Benveniste, A molecular solution to the riddle of the giant panda's phylogeny, Nature 317, 140 - 144 (12 September 1985) though it differentiated early in history from the main ursine stock. The Giant Panda's closest ursine relative is the Spectacled Bear of South America. Disagreement still remains about whether or not the Red Panda belongs in Ursidae, the raccoon family Procyonidae, or in its own family, Ailuridae. The Giant Panda has been referred to as a living fossil. The Red Panda and the Giant Panda, although completely different in appearance, share several features. They both live in the same habitat, they both live on a similar bamboo diet, and they both share a unique enlarged bone called the pseudo thumb, which allows them to grip the bamboo shoots they eat. Hua Mei (giant panda)|Hua Mei, the baby panda born at the San Diego Zoo in 1999 Subspecies Two subspecies of Giant Panda have been recognized on the basis of distinct cranial measurements, color patterns, and population genetics (Wan et al., 2005). The nominate subspecies Ailuropoda melanoleuca melanoleuca consists of most extant populations of panda. These animals are principally found in Sichuan and display the typical stark black and white contrasting colors. The Qinling Panda, Ailuropoda melanoleuca qinlingensis is restricted to the Qinling Mountains in Shaanxi at elevations of 1300–3000 m. The typical black and white pattern of Sichuan Giant Pandas is replaced with a dark brown versus light brown pattern. The skull of A. m. qinlingensis is smaller than its relatives, and it has larger molars. Uses and human interaction Unlike many other animals in Ancient China, pandas were rarely thought to have medical uses. In the past, pandas were thought to be rare and noble creatures; the mother of Emperor Wen of Han was buried with a panda skull in her vault. Emperor Taizong of Tang is said to have given Japan two pandas and a sheet of panda skin as a sign of goodwill. The Giant Panda was first made known to the West in 1869 by the French missionary Armand David, who received a skin from a hunter on March 11, 1869. The first westerner known to have seen a living Giant Panda is the German zoologist Hugo Weigold, who purchased a cub in 1916. Kermit and Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. became the first foreigners to shoot a panda, on an expedition funded by the Field Museum of Natural History in the 1920s. In 1936, Ruth Harkness became the first Westerner to bring back a live Giant Panda, a cub named Su-Lin who went to live at the Brookfield Zoo in Chicago. These activities were halted in 1937 because of wars; for the next half of the century, the West knew little of pandas. Gao Gao, an adult male Giant Panda at San Diego Zoo Panda diplomacy Loans of Giant Pandas to American and Japanese zoos formed an important part of the diplomacy of the People's Republic of China in the 1970s, as it marked some of the first cultural exchanges between the People's Republic and the West. This practice has been termed "Panda Diplomacy". By 1984, however, pandas were no longer used as agents of diplomacy. Instead, China began to offer pandas to other nations only on 10-year loans. The standard loan terms include a fee of up to US$ 1,000,000 per year and a provision that any cubs born during the loan are the property of the People's Republic of China. Since 1998, due to a WWF lawsuit, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service only allows a U.S. zoo to import a panda if the zoo can ensure that China will channel more than half of its loan fee into conservation efforts for the Giant Panda and its habitat. In May 2005, China offered a breeding pair to Taiwan. The issue became embroiled in cross-Strait relations--both over the underlying symbolism, and over technical issues such as whether the transfer would be considered "domestic" or "international," or whether any true conservation purpose would be served by the exchange. China's Panda Politics. Newsweek. October 15, 2007. Retrieved May 23, 2008. China's offer was not accepted until 2008, at the beginning of Ma Ying-jeou's presidency, and the pandas themselves arrived in December of that year. A contest to name the pandas was held in China, resulting in the names "Tuan Tuan" and "Yuan Yuan" (from tuanyuan, meaning "reunion" or "reunification"). President Ma declined to change their politically-charged names. China sends panda peace offering. The Guardian. December 28, 2008. Conservation The Giant Panda is an endangered species, threatened by continued habitat loss and by a very low birthrate, both in the wild and in captivity. The Giant Panda has been a target for poaching by locals since ancient times, and by foreigners since it was introduced to the West. Starting in the 1930s, foreigners were unable to poach Giant Pandas in China because of the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War, but pandas remained a source of soft furs for the locals. The population boom in China after 1949 created stress on the pandas' habitat, and the subsequent famines led to the increased hunting of wildlife, including pandas. During the Cultural Revolution, all studies and conservation activities on the pandas were stopped. After the Chinese economic reform, demand for panda skins from Hong Kong and Japan led to illegal poaching for the black market, acts generally ignored by the local officials at the time. Close up of a baby 7-month old panda cub in the Wolong Nature Reserve in Sichuan, China. Though the Wolong National Nature Reserve was set up by the PRC government in 1958 to save the declining panda population, few advances in the conservation of pandas were made, due to inexperience and insufficient knowledge of ecology. Many believed that the best way to save the pandas was to cage them. As a result, pandas were caged at any sign of decline, and suffered from terrible conditions. Because of pollution and destruction of their natural habitat, along with segregation due to caging, reproduction of wild pandas was severely limited. In the 1990s, however, several laws (including gun control and the removal of resident humans from the reserves) helped the chances of survival for pandas. With these renewed efforts and improved conservation methods, wild pandas have started to increase in numbers in some areas, even though they still are classified as a rare species. In 2006, scientists reported that the number of pandas living in the wild may have been underestimated at about 1,000. Previous population surveys had used conventional methods to estimate the size of the wild panda population, but using a new method that analyzes DNA from panda droppings, scientists believe that the wild panda population may be as large as 3,000. Although the species is still endangered, it is thought that the conservation efforts are working. As of 2006, there were 40 panda reserves in China, compared to just 13 reserves two decades ago. The Giant Panda is among the world's most adored and protected rare animals, and is one of the few in the world whose natural inhabitant status was able to gain a UNESCO World Heritage Site designation. The Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries, located in the southwest Sichuan province and covering 7 natural reserves, were inscribed onto the World Heritage List in 2006. Pandas gain world heritage status BBC News Panda sanctuaries now World Heritage sites United Press International Reproduction Panda Research and Breeding Centre in Chengdu Previously a problem to reproduction, pandas lose their interest in mating once in captivity. This has led some scientists to try extreme methods such as showing pandas videos of mating pandas and giving male pandas Viagra. The primary reproduction method had been artificial insemination. Only recently have researchers begun to have success with captive breeding programs and have determined that pandas have comparable breeding to some populations of the American Black Bear, a thriving bear family. The current reproductive rate is considered one young every two years. Pandas reach sexual maturity between the ages of 4 and 8, and may be reproductive until age 20. The mating season takes place between March and May, when a female goes into her estrous cycle which lasts for 2 or 3 days and only occurs once a year. During this time, two to five males can compete for one female; the male with the highest rank gets the female. When mating, the female is in a crouching, head-down position as the male mounts her from behind. Copulation time is short, ranging from thirty seconds to five minutes, but the male may mount her repeatedly to ensure successful fertilization. The whole gestation period ranges from 95 to 160 days. Baby pandas weigh only 90 to 130 grams (3.2 to 4.6 ounces), which is about 1/900 of the mother's weight. Usually, the female panda gives birth to one or two panda cubs. Since baby pandas are born very small and helpless, they need the mother's undivided attention, so she is able to care for only one of her cubs. She usually abandons one of her cubs, and it dies soon after birth. At this time, scientists do not know how the female chooses which cub to raise, and this is a topic of ongoing research. The father has no part in helping raise the cub. When the cub is first born, it is pink, furless, and blind. A panda cub is also extremely small, and it is difficult for the mother panda bear to protect it because of the baby's size. It nurses from its mother's breast 6 to 14 times a day for up to 30 minutes at a time. For three to four hours, the mother may leave the den to feed, which leaves the panda cub defenseless. One to two weeks after birth, the cub's skin turns gray where its hair will eventually become black. A slight pink color may appear on the panda's fur, as a result of a chemical reaction between the fur and its mother's saliva. A month after birth, the color pattern of the cub's fur is fully developed. A cub's fur is very soft and coarsens with age. The cub begins to crawl at 75 to 90 days; mothers play with their cubs by rolling and wrestling with them. The cubs are able to eat small quantities of bamboo after six months, though mother's milk remains the primary food source for most of the first year. Giant Panda cubs weigh 45 kg (99.2 pounds) at one year, and live with their mothers until they are 18 months to two years old. The interval between births in the wild is generally two years. Name There is no conclusive source for the origin of the Anglicized name "panda." The closest candidate that has been accepted as the source originates in the Nepali word ponya, possibly referring to the adapted wrist bone. The Western world originally applied this name to the Red Panda. Until 1901, when it was erroneously stated that it was related to the Red Panda, the Giant Panda was known as "mottled bear" (Ailuropus melanoleucus) or "particolored bear." Since the earliest collection of Chinese writings, the Chinese language has given the bear 20 different names of which the ones in use today are 大熊貓 (dà xióng māo), literally "large bear cat," or just 熊貓 (xióng māo), "bear cat." The name may have been inspired by the Giant Panda's eyes which have pupils that are cat-like vertical slits unlike other bear species with round pupils. Just as likely, the Red Panda's name was transferred to its larger cousin and labeled in texts as "large bear cat." Colloquially, locals from different provinces use the previously more physiologically accurate names such as 花熊 (hua xiong) "spotted bear" and 竹熊 (zhu xiong) "bamboo bear." In Taiwan, the modern name for panda is 貓熊 (māo xióng) "cat bear," where bear instead of cat is the base noun. Since this is grammatically correct, there is currently no effort to reverse the characters. Pandas in zoos A 2006 New York Times article outlined the economics of keeping pandas, which costs five times more than that of the next most expensive animal, an elephant. American zoos generally pay the Chinese government $1 million a year in fees, as part of a typical ten-year contract. San Diego's contract with China was to expire in 2008 but got a 5-year extension at about half of the previous yearly cost . The last contract, with the Memphis Zoo in Memphis, Tennessee, ends in 2013. North America As of 2007, five major North American zoos have Giant Pandas: One of four Giant Pandas at the Atlanta Zoo Chapultepec Zoo, Mexico City - home of Xi Hua, born on June 25, 1985, Shuan Shuan, born on June 15, 1987, and Xin Xin, born on July 1, 1990 from Tohui (Tohui born on Chapultepec Zoo on July 21, 1981 and died on November 16, 1993), all females San Diego Zoo, San Diego, California - home of Bai Yun (F), Gao Gao (M), Su Lin (F), and Zhen Zhen (F), born in August 2007. US National Zoo, Washington, D.C. - home of Mei Xiang (F), Tian Tian (M), and their offspring Tai Shan (M) Zoo Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia - home of Lun Lun (F), Yang Yang (M), Mei Lan (F), and Xi Lan (M) Memphis Zoo, Memphis, Tennessee - home of Ya Ya (F) and Le Le (M) Notable North American-born pandas Tai Shan in June 2007 Hua Mei, born 1999 in the San Diego Zoo, returned to China 2004. Mei Sheng, born 2003 in the San Diego Zoo, returned to China 2007. Tai Shan, born July 9, 2005 at the National Zoo in Washington. Lumpkin & Seidensticker 114 Su Lin, born August 2, 2005 at the San Diego Zoo. Mei Lan, born September 6, 2006 at Zoo Atlanta. Zhen Zhen, born August 3, 2007 at the San Diego Zoo. Xi Lan, born August 30, 2008 at Zoo Atlanta. Europe Giant Panda in Vienna’s zoo Tiergarten Schönbrunn Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Berlin, Germany — home of Bao Bao, age 27, the oldest male panda living in captivity; he has been in Berlin for 25 years and has never reproduced. Tiergarten Schönbrunn, Vienna, Austria — home to Yang Yang (F) and Long Hui (M), born in Wolong, China in 2000, and their new cub, Fu Long (M), born on August 23, 2007 at the zoo. The cub was the first to be born in Europe in 25 years. Zoo Aquarium, Madrid, Spain – home of Bing Xing (M) and Hua Zuiba (F). Arrived in Madrid on September 8, 2007. In 1978 China presented the King of Spain with two pandas, Shao Shao and Quian Quiang. Their cub, Chu-lin, born in 1982 died in 1996. Chu-lin was the first panda born in captivity using artificial insemination in Europe The Edinburgh Zoo is currently in negotiations with the Wolong Nature Preserve to obtain two Giant Pandas. Asia Adventure World, Shirahama, Wakayama - Until recently, home to Ei Mei (M), Mei Mei (F), Rau Hin (F), Ryu Hin and Syu Hin (male twins), and Kou Hin (M). In December 2006, twin cubs were born to Ei Mei and Mei Mei. Two cubs, Eiihin (M) and Meihin (F), were born to Rau Hin on September 13, 2008. Mei Mei, a mother of ten cubs, died on October 15, 2008. Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, Chengdu, Sichuan, China - Home to a number of captive Giant Pandas, including 2 year old Xiong Bang (M), who just arrived from Japan. Twelve cubs were born here in 2006. China Conservation and Research Center for the Giant Panda at the Wolong National Nature Reserve, Sichuan, China - Seventeen cubs were born here in 2006. Chiang Mai Zoo, Chiang Mai, Thailand - home to Chuang Chuang (M), Lin Hui (F), and a female cub born May 27, 2009 Taipei Zoo, Taipei, Taiwan - home to Tuan Tuan (M) and Yuan Yuan (F). Ocean Park, Hong Kong - home to Jia Jia (F) and An An (M) since 1999. Two new pandas, Le Le (M) and Ying Ying (F), were added to Ocean Park on April 26, 2007. Oji Zoo, Kobe, Hyōgo - home of Kou Kou (M), Tan Tan (F) Beijing Zoo, home of the internationally notorious Gu Gu. Australia Adelaide Zoo, Adelaide - future home to Wangwang (M) and Funi (F). They will arrive in 2009. Pandas in media The first sequences of pandas in the wild were shot by Franz Camenzind for ABC in about 1982. They were bought by BBC Natural History Unit for their weekly magazine show Nature. Recently, NHNZ has featured pandas in two documentaries. Panda Nursery (2006) featured China’s Wolong National Nature Reserve in the mountains in Sichuan Province; forty Giant Pandas and a dedicated team of staff play a crucial role in ensuring the survival of the species. As part of the Reserve’s panda breeding program, a revolutionary new method of rearing twin cubs called ‘swap-raising’ has been developed. Each cub is raised by both its natural mother and one of the Reserve’s veterinarians, Wei Rongping, to increase the chances of both cubs surviving. Growing Up: Giant Panda (2003) featured Chengdu Giant Panda Center in south-west China as one of the best in the world. Yet with female pandas' short fertility cycles and low birth rates, raising the captive panda population is an uphill battle. See also Pygmy Giant Panda Footnotes References AFP (via Discovery Channel) (2006, June 20). Panda Numbers Exceed Expectations. Associated Press (via CNN) (2006). Article link. Catton, Chris (1990). Pandas. Christopher Helm. Friends of the National Zoo (2006). Panda Cam: A Nation Watches Tai Shan the Panda Cub Grow. New York: Fireside Books. Goodman, Brenda (2006, February 12). Pandas Eat Up Much of Zoos' Budgets. The New York Times. Panda Facts At a Glance (N.d.). www.wwfchina.org. WWF China. Ryder, Joanne (2001). Little panda: The World Welcomes Hua Mei at the San Diego Zoo. New York: Simon & Schuster. Schaller, George B. (1993). The Last Panda. Chicago. University of Chicago Press. Wan, Q.-H., H. Wu, and S.-G. Fang (2005). "A New Subspecies of Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) from Shaanxi, China. Journal of Mammalogy 86: 397–402. Warren, Lynne (2006, July). "Panda, Inc." National Geographic. (About Mei Xiang, Tai Shan and the Wolong Panda Research Facility in Chengdu China). External links GLOBIO's Glossopedia; Giant Panda - Children's science and nature encyclopedia Panda Pioneer: the release of the first captive-bred panda 'Xiang Xiang' in 2006 WWF - environmental conservation organization Giant Panda Species Survival Plan Pandas International - panda conservation group Smithsonian National Zoo Live Panda Cams - Baby Panda Tai Shan and mother Mei Xiang Information from Animal Diversity Wolong Panda Club NPR News 2007/08/20 - Panda Romance Stems From Bamboo pandas are black and white and their babies are a form of pink | Giant_panda |@lemmatized giant:73 panda:169 ailuropoda:4 melanoleuca:5 literally:2 cat:7 foot:1 black:11 white:7 bear:39 native:1 central:2 western:2 southwestern:1 china:31 previously:3 think:4 member:1 procyonidae:2 raccoon:3 family:6 easily:1 recognize:2 large:11 distinctive:2 patch:2 around:4 eye:3 ear:2 across:1 round:4 body:4 though:9 belong:1 order:2 carnivora:1 diet:8 bamboo:20 may:12 eat:8 food:2 honey:1 egg:2 fish:3 yam:1 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2,698 | Legacy_system | A legacy system is an old computer system or application program that continues to be used, typically because it still functions for the users' needs, even though newer technology is available. "Legacy" may have little to do with the size or age of the system — mainframes run 64-bit Linux and Java alongside 1960s vintage code. Overview Organizations can have compelling reasons for keeping a legacy system, such as: The system works satisfactorily, and the owner sees no reason for changing it. The costs of redesigning or replacing the system are prohibitive because it is large, monolithic, and/or complex. Retraining on a new system would be costly in lost time and money, compared to the anticipated appreciable benefits of replacing it (which may be zero). The system requires close to 100 percent availability, so it cannot be taken out of service, and the cost of designing a new system with a similar availability level is high. Examples include systems to handle customers' accounts in banks, computer reservation systems, air traffic control, energy distribution (power grids), nuclear power plants, military defense installations, and systems such as the TOPS database. The way that the system works is not well understood. Such a situation can occur when the designers of the system have left the organization, and the system has either not been fully documented or documentation has been lost. The user expects that the system can easily be replaced when this becomes necessary. NASA example NASA's Space Shuttle program still uses a large amount of 1970s-era technology. Replacement is cost-prohibitive because of the expensive requirement for flight certification; the legacy hardware currently being used has completed the expensive integration and certification requirement for flight, but any new equipment would have to go through that entire process – requiring extensive tests of the new components in their new configurations – before a single unit could be used in the Space Shuttle program. This would make any new system that started the certification process a de facto legacy system by the time of completion. Additionally, because the entire Space Shuttle system, including ground and launch vehicle assets, was designed to work together as a closed system, and the specifications have not changed, all of the certified systems and components still serve well in the roles for which they were designed. It was advantageous for NASA – even before the Shuttle was scheduled to be retired in 2010 – to keep using many pieces of 1970s technology rather than to upgrade those systems. Potential problems Legacy systems are considered to be potentially problematic by many software engineers for several reasons (for example, see Bisbal et al., 1999). Legacy systems often run on obsolete (and usually slow) hardware, and spare parts for such computers may become increasingly difficult to obtain. If legacy software runs on only antiquated hardware, the cost of maintaining the system may eventually outweigh the cost of replacing both the software and hardware unless some form of emulation or backward compatibility allows the software to run on new hardware. These systems can be hard to maintain, improve, and expand because there is a general lack of understanding of the system; the staff who were experts on it have retired or forgotten what they knew about it, and staff who entered the field after it became "legacy" never learned about it in the first place. This can be worsened by lack or loss of documentation. Integration with newer systems may also be difficult because new software may use completely different technologies. The kind of bridge hardware and software that becomes available for different technologies that are popular at the same time are often not developed for differing technologies in different times, because of the lack of a large demand for it and the lack of associated reward of a large market economies of scale, though some of this "glue" does get developed by vendors and enthusiasts of particular legacy technologies (often called "retrocomputing" communities). Improvements on legacy software systems Where it is impossible to replace legacy systems through the practice of application retirement, it is still possible to enhance them. Most development often goes into adding new interfaces to a legacy system. The most prominent technique is to provide a Web-based interface to a terminal-based mainframe application. This may reduce staff productivity due to slower response times and slower mouse-based operator actions, yet it is often seen as an "upgrade", because the interface style is familiar to unskilled users and is easy for them to use. John McCormick discusses such strategies that involve middleware. Mainframe-web middleware - John McCormick Printing improvements are problematic because legacy software systems often add no formatting instructions, or they use protocols that are not usable in modern PC/Windows printers. A print server can be used to intercept the data and translate it to a more modern code. Rich Text Format (RTF) or PostScript documents may be created in the legacy application and then interpreted at a PC before being printed. Biometric security measures are difficult to implement on legacy systems. A workable solution is to use a telnet or http proxy server to sit between users and the mainframe to implement secure access to the legacy application. The change being undertaken in some organizations is to switch to Automated Business Process (ABP) software which generates complete systems. These systems can then interface to the organizations' legacy systems and use them as data repositories. This approach can provide a number of significant benefits: the users are insulated from the inefficiencies of their legacy systems, and the changes can be incorporated quickly and easily in the ABP software. Legacy support The term legacy support is often used with reference to obsolete or legacy computer hardware, whether peripherals or core components. Operating systems with "legacy support" can detect and use legacy hardware. It is also used as a verb for what vendors do for products in legacy mode – they "support", or provide software maintenance, for older products. A "legacy" product may have some advantage over a modern product, even if not one that causes a majority of the market to favor it over the newer offering. A product is only truly "obsolete" if it has an advantage to nobody – if no person making a rational decision would choose to acquire it new. In some cases, "legacy mode" refers more specifically to backward compatibility. The computer mainframe era saw many applications running in legacy mode. In the modern business computing environment, n-tier, or 3-tier architectures are more difficult to place into legacy mode as they include many components making up a single system. Government regulatory changes must also be considered in a system running in legacy mode. Virtualization technology allows for a resurgence of modern software applications entering legacy mode. Brownfield architecture IT has borrowed the term brownfield from the building industry, where undeveloped land (and especially unpolluted land) is described as greenfield and previously developed land – which is often polluted and abandoned – is described as brownfield. Definition of greenfield and brownfield deployment A brownfield architecture is an IT network design that incorporates legacy systems. A brownfield deployment is an upgrade or addition to an existing IT network and uses some legacy components. Alternative view There is an alternate point of view — growing since the "Dot Com" bubble burst in 1999 — that legacy systems are simply computer systems that are both installed and working. In other words, the term is not pejorative, but the opposite. Bjarne Stroustrup, creator of the C++ language, addressed this issue succinctly: IT analysts estimate that the cost to replace business logic is about five times that of reuse, and that's not counting the risks involved in wholesale replacement. Ideally, businesses would never have to rewrite most core business logic; debits must equal credits — they always have, and they always will. New software may increase the risk of system failures and security breaches; a regional airline fired its CEO due to the failure of an antiquated legacy crew scheduling system in 2004. Comair's Christmas Disaster: Bound To Fail - CIO.com - Business Technology Leadership The IT industry is responding to these concerns. "Legacy modernization" and "legacy transformation" refer to the act of reusing and refactoring existing, core business logic by providing new user interfaces (typically Web interfaces), sometimes through the use of techniques such as screen scraping and service-enabled access (e.g., through Web services). These techniques allow organisations to understand their existing code assets (using discovery tools), provide new user and application interfaces to existing code, improve workflow, contain costs, minimize risk, and enjoy classic qualities of service (near 100% uptime, security, scalability, etc.). The reexamination of attitudes toward legacy systems is also inviting more reflection on what makes legacy systems as durable as they are. Technologists are relearning the fact that sound architecture, practiced up front, helps businesses avoid costly and risky rewrites in the first place. The most common legacy systems tend to be those which embraced well-known IT architectural principles, with careful planning and strict methodology during implementation. Poorly designed systems often don't last, both because they wear out and because their reliability or usability are low enough that no one is inclined to make an effort to extend their term of service when replacement is an option. Thus, many organizations are rediscovering not only the value in the legacy systems themselves but also their philosophical underpinnings. See also Data migration Legacy code Legacy encoding Legacy port Software brittleness Stovepipe system References Further reading "Failure of a relatively new crew scheduling system during Christmas" by Stephanie Overby, CIO Magazine, May 1, 2005 "THE FAILURE OF THE DIGITAL COMPUTER" by Adam N. Rosenberg Bisbal, J., Lawless, D., Wu, B. & Grimson, J. (1999). Legacy Information Systems: Issues and Directions. IEEE Software, 16, 103-111. | Legacy_system |@lemmatized legacy:45 system:53 old:2 computer:7 application:8 program:3 continue:1 use:17 typically:2 still:4 function:1 user:7 need:1 even:3 though:2 new:17 technology:9 available:2 may:11 little:1 size:1 age:1 mainframe:5 run:6 bit:1 linux:1 java:1 alongside:1 vintage:1 code:5 overview:1 organization:5 compelling:1 reason:3 keep:2 work:4 satisfactorily:1 owner:1 see:4 change:5 cost:7 redesign:1 replace:6 prohibitive:2 large:4 monolithic:1 complex:1 retrain:1 would:5 costly:2 lost:1 time:6 money:1 compare:1 anticipate:1 appreciable:1 benefit:2 zero:1 require:2 close:1 percent:1 availability:2 cannot:1 take:1 service:5 design:5 similar:1 level:1 high:1 example:3 include:3 handle:1 customer:1 account:1 bank:1 reservation:1 air:1 traffic:1 control:1 energy:1 distribution:1 power:2 grid:1 nuclear:1 plant:1 military:1 defense:1 installation:1 tops:1 database:1 way:1 well:3 understood:1 situation:1 occur:1 designer:1 leave:1 either:1 fully:1 document:2 documentation:2 lose:1 expect:1 easily:2 become:4 necessary:1 nasa:3 space:3 shuttle:4 amount:1 era:2 replacement:3 expensive:2 requirement:2 flight:2 certification:3 hardware:8 currently:1 complete:2 integration:2 equipment:1 go:2 entire:2 process:3 extensive:1 test:1 component:5 configuration:1 single:2 unit:1 could:1 make:5 start:1 de:1 facto:1 completion:1 additionally:1 ground:1 launch:1 vehicle:1 asset:2 together:1 closed:1 specification:1 certified:1 serve:1 role:1 advantageous:1 schedule:3 retire:2 many:5 piece:1 rather:1 upgrade:3 potential:1 problem:1 consider:2 potentially:1 problematic:2 software:15 engineer:1 several:1 bisbal:2 et:1 al:1 often:9 obsolete:3 usually:1 slow:2 spare:1 part:1 increasingly:1 difficult:4 obtain:1 antiquate:1 maintain:2 eventually:1 outweigh:1 unless:1 form:1 emulation:1 backward:2 compatibility:2 allow:3 hard:1 improve:2 expand:1 general:1 lack:4 understanding:1 staff:3 expert:1 forget:1 know:2 enter:2 field:1 never:2 learn:1 first:2 place:3 worsen:1 loss:1 also:6 completely:1 different:3 kind:1 bridge:1 popular:1 develop:3 differ:1 demand:1 associated:1 reward:1 market:2 economy:1 scale:1 glue:1 get:1 vendor:2 enthusiast:1 particular:1 call:1 retrocomputing:1 community:1 improvement:2 impossible:1 practice:2 retirement:1 possible:1 enhance:1 development:1 add:2 interface:7 prominent:1 technique:3 provide:5 web:4 base:3 terminal:1 reduce:1 productivity:1 due:2 slower:1 response:1 mouse:1 operator:1 action:1 yet:1 style:1 familiar:1 unskilled:1 easy:1 john:2 mccormick:2 discus:1 strategy:1 involve:2 middleware:2 printing:1 formatting:1 instruction:1 protocol:1 usable:1 modern:5 pc:2 windows:1 printer:1 print:2 server:2 intercept:1 data:3 translate:1 rich:1 text:1 format:1 rtf:1 postscript:1 create:1 interpret:1 biometric:1 security:3 measure:1 implement:2 workable:1 solution:1 telnet:1 http:1 proxy:1 sit:1 secure:1 access:2 undertake:1 switch:1 automated:1 business:8 abp:2 generate:1 repository:1 approach:1 number:1 significant:1 insulate:1 inefficiency:1 incorporate:2 quickly:1 support:4 term:4 reference:2 whether:1 peripheral:1 core:3 operate:1 detect:1 verb:1 product:5 mode:6 maintenance:1 advantage:2 one:2 cause:1 majority:1 favor:1 offering:1 truly:1 nobody:1 person:1 rational:1 decision:1 choose:1 acquire:1 case:1 refers:1 specifically:1 saw:1 compute:1 environment:1 n:2 tier:2 architecture:4 government:1 regulatory:1 must:2 virtualization:1 resurgence:1 brownfield:6 borrow:1 building:1 industry:2 undeveloped:1 land:3 especially:1 unpolluted:1 describe:2 greenfield:2 previously:1 pollute:1 abandon:1 definition:1 deployment:2 network:2 addition:1 exist:4 alternative:1 view:2 alternate:1 point:1 grow:1 since:1 dot:1 com:2 bubble:1 burst:1 simply:1 installed:1 word:1 pejorative:1 opposite:1 bjarne:1 stroustrup:1 creator:1 c:1 language:1 address:1 issue:2 succinctly:1 analyst:1 estimate:1 logic:3 five:1 reuse:2 count:1 risk:3 wholesale:1 ideally:1 rewrite:2 debit:1 equal:1 credit:1 always:2 increase:1 failure:4 breach:1 regional:1 airline:1 fire:1 ceo:1 antiquated:1 crew:2 comair:1 christmas:2 disaster:1 bound:1 fail:1 cio:2 leadership:1 respond:1 concern:1 modernization:1 transformation:1 refer:1 act:1 refactoring:1 sometimes:1 screen:1 scrap:1 enabled:1 e:1 g:1 organisation:1 understand:1 discovery:1 tool:1 workflow:1 contain:1 minimize:1 enjoy:1 classic:1 quality:1 near:1 uptime:1 scalability:1 etc:1 reexamination:1 attitude:1 toward:1 invite:1 reflection:1 durable:1 technologist:1 relearn:1 fact:1 sound:1 front:1 help:1 avoid:1 risky:1 common:1 tend:1 embrace:1 architectural:1 principle:1 careful:1 planning:1 strict:1 methodology:1 implementation:1 poorly:1 last:1 wear:1 reliability:1 usability:1 low:1 enough:1 incline:1 effort:1 extend:1 option:1 thus:1 rediscover:1 value:1 philosophical:1 underpinnings:1 migration:1 encode:1 port:1 brittleness:1 stovepipe:1 far:1 read:1 relatively:1 stephanie:1 overby:1 magazine:1 digital:1 adam:1 rosenberg:1 j:2 lawless:1 wu:1 b:1 grimson:1 information:1 direction:1 ieee:1 |@bigram space_shuttle:3 cost_prohibitive:1 de_facto:1 et_al:1 backward_compatibility:2 proxy_server:1 tier_tier:1 bubble_burst:1 bjarne_stroustrup:1 user_interface:1 attitude_toward:1 |
2,699 | Foreign_relations_of_the_Marshall_Islands | While the Government of the Marshall Islands is free to conduct its own foreign relations, it does so under the terms of its Compact of Free Association with the United States. Since independence, the Republic of the Marshall Islands has established relations with 67 nations, including most other Pacific Island nations. Regional cooperation, through membership in various regional and international organizations, is a key element in its foreign policy. The Marshall Islands became a member of the United Nations in September 1991. The Marshall Islands maintains embassies in the United States, Fiji, the Philippines, Japan, and the Republic of China (Taiwan). They also maintain a consulate in Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. In May 2005, Chen Shui-bian, President of the Republic of China (Taiwan), became the first foreign head of state to make an official visit to the Marshall Islands. Disputes - international: The United States and the Marshall Islands governments both claim Wake Island, which puts the United States' armed forces in the ambiguous position of defending US territory while acting as guarantor of the territorial integrity of the Republic with which the US has a Compact of Free Association. See also Marshall Islands Marshallese diplomatic missions External links Permanent Mission of the Republic of the Marshall Islands to the United Nations RMI Embassy to the U.S. US Embassy in Majuro | Foreign_relations_of_the_Marshall_Islands |@lemmatized government:2 marshall:8 islands:6 free:3 conduct:1 foreign:3 relation:2 term:1 compact:2 association:2 united:6 state:5 since:1 independence:1 republic:5 establish:1 nation:4 include:1 pacific:1 island:4 regional:2 cooperation:1 membership:1 various:1 international:2 organization:1 key:1 element:1 policy:1 become:2 member:1 september:1 maintain:2 embassy:3 fiji:1 philippine:1 japan:1 china:2 taiwan:2 also:2 consulate:1 honolulu:1 hawaii:1 usa:1 may:1 chen:1 shui:1 bian:1 president:1 first:1 head:1 make:1 official:1 visit:1 dispute:1 claim:1 wake:1 put:1 arm:1 force:1 ambiguous:1 position:1 defend:1 u:4 territory:1 act:1 guarantor:1 territorial:1 integrity:1 see:1 marshallese:1 diplomatic:1 mission:2 external:1 link:1 permanent:1 rmi:1 majuro:1 |@bigram marshall_islands:6 honolulu_hawaii:1 chen_shui:1 shui_bian:1 territorial_integrity:1 diplomatic_mission:1 external_link:1 |
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