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2,400 | Empress_Suiko | was the 33rd tenno of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession, and the first of eight women to ascend the Chrysanthemum Throne. The seven Empresses who reigned after Suiko were: (a) Kōgyoku/Saimei, (b) Jitō, (c) Gemmei, (d) Genshō, (e) Kōken/Shōtoku, (f) Meishō, and (g) Go-Sakuramachi. Her reign spanned the years from 593 until her death in 628. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du Japon, pp. 39-42; Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, pp. 263-264; Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, pp. 126-129. Genealogy Before her ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, her personal name (her imina) Brown, pp. 264. [Up until the time of Emperor Jomei, the personal names of the emperors (their iminia) were very long and people did not generally use them. The number of characters in each name diminished after Jomei's reign.] was Mikekashiya-hime-no-mikoto. Varley, p. 126. , also called Toyomike Kashikiya hime no Mikoto. Ashton, William. (2005). Nihongi, p. 95 n2. Empress Suiko had several names including Princess Nukatabe and (possibly posthumous) Toyomike Kashikiya. She was the third daughter of Emperor Kimmei. Her mother was Soga no Iname's daughter, Soga no Kitashihime. Suiko was the younger sister of Emperor Yōmei. They had the same mother. Events of Suiko's life Empress Suiko was a consort to her half-brother, Emperor Bidatsu, but after Bidatsu's first wife died she became his official consort and was given the title Ōkisaki (official consort of the emperor). She bore two sons and three daughters. After Bidatsu's death, Suiko's brother, Emperor Yōmei, came to power for a brief period of about two years before dying of illness. Upon Yōmei's death, another power struggle arose between the Soga clan and the Mononobe clan, with the Sogas supporting Prince Hatsusebe and the Mononobes supporting Prince Anahobe. The Sogas prevailed once again and Prince Hatsusebe acceded to the throne as Emperor Sushun in 587. However, Sushun began to resent the power of Soga no Umako, the head of the Soga clan, and Umako, perhaps out of fear that Sushun might strike first, had him assassinated by in 592. When asked to accede to the throne to fill the power vacuum that subsequently developed, Suiko became the first of what would be several examples in Japanese history where a woman was chosen to accede to the throne to avert a power struggle. 593 : In the 2nd year of Sushun-tennō'''s reign (崇峻天皇2年), he died; and contemporary scholars then construed that the succession (‘‘senso’’) Varley, p. 44. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go-Murakami.] was received by the consort of former Emperor Bidatsu. Shortly thereafter, Empress Suiko is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’). Titsingh, p. 39; Brown, pp. 263-264; Varley, p. 126-127. Prince Shōtoku was appointed regent the following year. Although political power during Suiko's reign is widely viewed as having been wielded by Prince Shōtoku and Soga no Umako, Suiko was far from powerless. The mere fact that she survived and her reign endured is proof of not insignificant of political skills. In this period, there were difficulties other than political ones. For example, in 599, an earthquake destroyed buildings throughout Yamato province in what is now Nara Prefecture. Hammer, Joshua. (2006). Yokohama Burning: The Deadly 1923 Earthquake and Fire that Helped Forge the Path to World War II, p. 62-63. Suiko's refusal to grant Soga no Umako's request that he be granted the imperial territory known as Kazuraki no Agata in 624 is cited as evidence of her independence from his influence. Some of the many achievements under Empress Suiko's reign include the official recognition of Buddhism by the issuance of the Flourishing Three Treasures Edict in 594, the opening of relations with the Sui court in 600, the adoption of the Twelve Level Cap and Rank System in 603 and the adoption of the Seventeen-article constitution in 604. Suiko was also one of the first Buddhist monarchs in Japan and had taken the vows of a nun shortly before becoming empress. At a time when imperial succession was generally determined by clan leaders, rather than the emperor, Suiko left only vague indications of succession to two candidates while on her deathbed. One, Prince Tamura, was a grandson of Emperor Bidatsu and was supported by the main line of Sogas, including Soga no Emishi. The other, Prince Yamashiro, was a son of Prince Shōtoku and had the support of some lesser members of the Soga clan. After a brief struggle within the Soga clan in which one of Prince Yamashiro's main supporters was killed, Prince Tamura was chosen and he acceded to the throne as Emperor Jomei in 629. Empress Suiko ruled for 35 years. Although there were seven other reigning empresses, their successors were most often selected from amongst the males of the paternal Imperial bloodline, which is why some conservative scholars argue that the women's reigns were temporary and that male-only succession tradition must be maintained in the 21st century. "Life in the Cloudy Imperial Fishbowl," Japan Times. March 27, 2007. Empress Gemmei, who was followed on the throne by her daughter, Empress Genshō, remains the sole exception to this conventional argument. See also Japanese empresses Notes References Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Hammer, Joshua. (2006). Yokohama Burning: The Deadly 1923 Earthquake and Fire that Helped Forge the Path to World War II. New York: Simon & Schuster. 10-ISBN 0-743-26465-7; 13-ISBN 978-0-743-26465-5 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley).'' New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult | Empress_Suiko |@lemmatized tenno:1 japan:8 accord:1 traditional:1 order:1 succession:5 first:5 eight:1 woman:3 ascend:1 chrysanthemum:2 throne:8 seven:2 empress:11 reign:10 suiko:15 kōgyoku:1 saimei:1 b:1 jitō:2 c:2 gemmei:2 genshō:2 e:1 kōken:1 shōtoku:4 f:1 meishō:1 g:1 go:3 sakuramachi:1 span:1 year:6 death:3 titsingh:3 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:5 brown:4 delmer:2 et:1 al:1 gukanshō:3 varley:6 h:3 paul:4 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 genealogy:1 ascension:1 personal:2 name:4 imina:1 time:4 emperor:15 jomei:3 iminia:1 long:1 people:1 generally:2 use:1 number:1 character:1 diminish:1 mikekashiya:1 hime:2 mikoto:2 p:6 also:4 call:1 toyomike:2 kashikiya:2 ashton:1 william:2 nihongi:2 several:2 include:3 princess:1 nukatabe:1 possibly:1 posthumous:1 third:1 daughter:4 kimmei:1 mother:2 soga:10 iname:1 kitashihime:1 young:1 sister:1 yōmei:3 event:1 life:2 consort:4 half:1 brother:2 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2,401 | Aquarius_(constellation) | Aquarius (, genitive Aquarii ) is a constellation of the zodiac, situated between Capricornus and Pisces. Its name is Latin for water-bearer or cup-bearer, and its symbol is (), a representation of water. Aquarius is one of the oldest of the recognized constellations along the zodiac (the sun's apparent path). It is found in a region often called the Sea due to its profusion of constellations with watery associations such as Cetus the whale, Pisces the fish and Eridanus the river. Notable features See also: List of stars in Aquarius Planetary systems Gliese 876 is the first planetary system found around a red dwarf star. The planetary system has three planets, including one terrestrial planet 6-8 times the mass of Earth. 91 Aquarii b is a planet found around the orange giant star. The mass is 2.9 times Jupiter and the semimajor axis of 0.3 AU. Gliese 849 b is the first long-period Jupiter-like planet found around the red dwarf star. The semimajor axis is 2.35 AU and has mass of 0.82 Jupiter. Deep sky objects There are three deep sky objects that are on the Messier catalog: the globular clusters Messier 2, Messier 72, and the open cluster Messier 73. Two well-known planetary nebulae are located in Aquarius: the Saturn Nebula (NGC 7009), to the southwest of η Aquarii; and the famous Helix Nebula (NGC 7293), southwest of δ Aquarii. Visualizations Conventional Aquarius pours water from a jar into the mouth of the southern fish, as depicted in Urania's Mirror, a set of constellation cards published in London c.1825 The stars of Aquarius can be seen as resembling the figure of a man, and, when fainter naked eye stars are included, it can take on the image of a man with a bucket from which is pouring a stream of water. The water flows southwards into the mouth of the southern fish, Piscis Austrinus. Alternative Diagram of an alternate way to connect the stars of the constellation Aquarius. The water bearer is shown running while holding a vessel and spilling some water out of that vessel. The stars of the constellation Aquarius can be connected in an alternative way, which graphically shows the water bearer running while holding a vessel from which water is spilling. The water bearer's head is formed by the quadrangle of α Aqr, γ Aqr, η Aqr, and π Aqr: α Aqr being of the third magnitude. Star ζ Aqr, lodged within the quadrangle, represents an eye. The water bearer's torso is formed by the stars α Aqr and β Aqr, with β Aqr being of the third magnitude. The water bearer's left leg is formed by the stars β Aqr and ι Aqr, whereas his right leg is formed by the stars β Aqr, ν Aqr, μ Aqr, and ε Aqr, with these last two stars representing a foot. The water bearer's arm is formed by the stars α Aqr, θ Aqr, and λ Aqr, with λ Aqr being the hand. The water bearer is holding a vessel, perhaps a jar, which is formed by the stars ψ¹ Aqr, φ Aqr, λ Aqr, τ Aqr, and δ Aqr. The open top of the vessel consists of the triangle of stars ψ¹ Aqr, φ Aqr, and λ Aqr. Water is being poured from the vessel in a pair of streamlines. The streamline on the left is formed by the stars ψ¹ Aqr, 98 Aqr, 99 Aqr, and 101 Aqr. The streamline on the right is formed by the stars ψ¹ Aqr, 88 Aqr, 89 Aqr, and 86 Aqr. Mythology Aquarius is named "The Great One" in the Babylonian star catalogues and represents the god Ea himself. It contained the winter solstice in the Early Bronze Age. In Old Babylonian astronomy, Ea was the ruler of the southernmost quarter of the Sun's path, the "Way of Ea", corresponding to the period of 45 days on either side of winter solstice. In the Greek tradition, the constellation became represented as simply a single vase from which a stream poured down to Piscis Austrinus. The name in the Hindu zodiac is likewise kumbha "water-pitcher", showing that the zodiac reached India via Greek intermediaries. John H. Rogers, "Origins of the ancient contellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions", Journal of the British Astronomical Association 108 (1998) 9–28 Aquarius is sometimes identified with Ganymede, a beautiful youth in Greek mythology with whom Zeus fell in love and, in the disguise of an eagle (represented by the constellation Aquila) carried off to Olympus to be cup-bearer to the gods. The constellation of Crater is sometimes identified as his cup. Aquarius has also been identified as the pourer of the waters that flooded the Earth in the ancient Greek version of the Great Flood myth. As such, the constellation Eridanus the river is sometimes identified as a river being poured by Aquarius. Aquarius may also, together with the constellation Pegasus, be part of the origin of the myth of the Mares of Diomedes, which forms one of The Twelve Labours of Heracles. Its association with pouring out rivers, and the nearby constellation of Capricornus, may be the source of the myth of the Augean stable, which forms another of the labours. Astrology , the Sun appears in the constellation Aquarius from February 16 to March 11. In tropical astrology, the Sun is considered to be in the sign Aquarius from January 20 to February 18, and in sidereal astrology, from February 15 to March 14. Notes a. The dates of Aquarius for tropical astrology are approximate, typically either from January 21 to February 19, or from January 20 to February 18, depending on the exact time the Sun enters the sign each year, which varies slightly from year to year within a small range. References Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. H. A. Rey, The Stars—A New Way To See Them. Enlarged World-Wide Edition. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1997. ISBN 0-395-24830-2. External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Aquarius NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Aquarius WIKISKY.ORG: Aquarius constellation Star Tales – Aquarius | Aquarius_(constellation) |@lemmatized aquarius:20 genitive:1 aquarii:4 constellation:16 zodiac:4 situate:1 capricornus:2 pisces:2 name:3 latin:1 water:17 bearer:10 cup:3 symbol:1 representation:1 one:4 old:2 recognize:1 along:1 sun:5 apparent:1 path:2 find:4 region:1 often:1 call:1 sea:1 due:1 profusion:1 watery:1 association:3 cetus:1 whale:1 fish:3 eridanus:2 river:4 notable:1 feature:1 see:3 also:3 list:1 star:22 planetary:4 system:3 gliese:2 first:2 around:3 red:2 dwarf:2 three:2 planet:5 include:2 terrestrial:1 time:3 mass:3 earth:2 b:2 orange:1 giant:1 jupiter:3 semimajor:2 axis:2 au:2 long:1 period:2 like:1 deep:3 sky:2 object:2 messy:2 catalog:1 globular:1 cluster:2 messier:2 open:2 two:2 well:1 know:1 nebula:3 locate:1 saturn:1 ngc:2 southwest:2 η:2 famous:1 helix:1 δ:2 visualization:1 conventional:1 pours:1 jar:2 mouth:2 southern:2 depict:1 urania:1 mirror:1 set:1 card:1 publish:1 london:2 c:1 resemble:1 figure:1 man:2 fainter:1 naked:1 eye:2 take:1 image:1 bucket:1 pour:5 stream:2 flow:1 southward:1 piscis:2 austrinus:2 alternative:2 diagram:1 alternate:1 way:4 connect:2 show:3 run:2 hold:3 vessel:6 spill:2 graphically:1 head:1 form:10 quadrangle:2 α:4 aqr:35 γ:1 π:1 third:2 magnitude:2 ζ:1 lodge:1 within:2 represent:5 torso:1 β:4 leave:1 leg:2 ι:1 whereas:1 right:2 ν:1 μ:1 ε:1 last:1 foot:1 arm:1 θ:1 λ:4 hand:1 perhaps:1 φ:2 τ:1 top:1 consist:1 triangle:1 pair:1 streamlines:1 streamline:2 left:1 mythology:2 great:2 babylonian:2 catalogue:1 god:2 ea:3 contain:1 winter:2 solstice:2 early:1 bronze:1 age:1 astronomy:1 ruler:1 southernmost:1 quarter:1 corresponding:1 day:1 either:2 side:1 greek:4 tradition:2 become:1 simply:1 single:1 vase:1 hindu:1 likewise:1 kumbha:1 pitcher:1 reach:1 india:1 via:1 intermediary:1 john:1 h:2 rogers:1 origins:1 ancient:2 contellations:1 mesopotamian:1 journal:1 british:1 astronomical:1 sometimes:3 identify:4 ganymede:1 beautiful:1 youth:1 zeus:1 fell:1 love:1 disguise:1 eagle:1 aquila:1 carry:1 olympus:1 crater:1 pourer:1 flood:2 version:1 myth:3 may:2 together:1 pegasus:1 part:1 origin:1 mare:1 diomedes:1 twelve:1 labour:2 heracles:1 nearby:1 source:1 augean:1 stable:1 another:1 astrology:4 appear:1 february:5 march:2 tropical:2 consider:1 sign:2 january:3 sidereal:1 note:1 date:1 approximate:1 typically:1 depend:1 exact:1 enter:1 year:3 vary:1 slightly:1 small:1 range:1 reference:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 guide:2 collins:1 isbn:3 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 rey:1 new:1 enlarge:1 world:1 wide:1 edition:1 houghton:1 mifflin:1 boston:1 external:1 link:1 photographic:1 nightskyinfo:1 com:1 wikisky:1 org:1 tale:1 |@bigram constellation_zodiac:1 semimajor_axis:2 globular_cluster:1 planetary_nebula:1 nebula_ngc:2 depict_urania:1 urania_mirror:1 naked_eye:1 constellation_aquarius:5 aqr_aqr:6 winter_solstice:2 constellation_capricornus:1 augean_stable:1 sidereal_astrology:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 houghton_mifflin:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1 |
2,402 | Arbitrage | In economics and finance, arbitrage is the practice of taking advantage of a price differential between two or more markets: striking a combination of matching deals that capitalize upon the imbalance, the profit being the difference between the market prices. When used by academics, an arbitrage is a transaction that involves no negative cash flow at any probabilistic or temporal state and a positive cash flow in at least one state; in simple terms, a risk-free profit. A person who engages in arbitrage is called an arbitrageur—such as a bank or brokerage firm. The term is mainly applied to trading in financial instruments, such as bonds, stocks, derivatives, commodities and currencies. If the market prices do not allow for profitable arbitrage, the prices are said to constitute an arbitrage equilibrium or arbitrage-free market. An arbitrage equilibrium is a precondition for a general economic equilibrium. The assumption that there is no arbitrage is used in quantitative finance to calculate a unique risk neutral price for derivatives. Statistical arbitrage is an imbalance in expected nominal values. A casino has a statistical arbitrage in almost every game of chance that it offers—referred to as the house advantage, house edge, vigorish or house vigorish. Conditions for arbitrage Arbitrage is possible when one of three conditions is met: The same asset does not trade at the same price on all markets ("the law of one price"). Two assets with identical cash flows do not trade at the same price. An asset with a known price in the future does not today trade at its future price discounted at the risk-free interest rate (or, the asset does not have negligible costs of storage; as such, for example, this condition holds for grain but not for securities). Arbitrage is not simply the act of buying a product in one market and selling it in another for a higher price at some later time. The transactions must occur simultaneously to avoid exposure to market risk, or the risk that prices may change on one market before both transactions are complete. In practical terms, this is generally only possible with securities and financial products which can be traded electronically. In the most simple example, any good sold in one market should sell for the same price in another. Traders may, for example, find that the price of wheat is lower in agricultural regions than in cities, purchase the good, and transport it to another region to sell at a higher price. This type of price arbitrage is the most common, but this simple example ignores the cost of transport, storage, risk, and other factors. "True" arbitrage requires that there be no market risk involved. Where securities are traded on more than one exchange, arbitrage occurs by simultaneously buying in one and selling on the other. See rational pricing, particularly arbitrage mechanics, for further discussion. Mathematically it is defined as follows: and where means a portfolio at time t. Examples Suppose that the exchange rates (after taking out the fees for making the exchange) in London are £5 = $10 = ¥1000 and the exchange rates in Tokyo are ¥1000 = $12 = £6. Converting ¥1000 to $12 in Tokyo and converting that $12 into ¥1200 in London, for a profit of ¥200, would be arbitrage. In reality, this "triangle arbitrage" is so simple that it almost never occurs. But more complicated foreign exchange arbitrages, such as the spot-forward arbitrage (see interest rate parity) are much more common. One example of arbitrage involves the New York Stock Exchange and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange. When the price of a stock on the NYSE and its corresponding futures contract on the CME are out of sync, one can buy the less expensive one and sell it to the more expensive market. Because the differences between the prices are likely to be small (and not to last very long), this can only be done profitably with computers examining a large number of prices and automatically exercising a trade when the prices are far enough out of balance. The activity of other arbitrageurs can make this risky. Those with the fastest computers and the smartest mathematicians take advantage of series of small differentials that would not be profitable if taken individually. Economists use the term "global labor arbitrage" to refer to the tendency of manufacturing jobs to flow towards whichever country has the lowest wages per unit output at present and has reached the minimum requisite level of political and economic development to support industrialization. At present, many such jobs appear to be flowing towards China, though some which require command of English are going to India and the Philippines. In popular terms, this is referred to as offshoring. (Note that "offshoring" is not synonymous with "outsourcing", which means "to subcontract from an outside supplier or source", such as when a business outsources its bookkeeping to an accounting firm. Unlike offshoring, outsourcing always involves subcontracting jobs to a different company, and that company can be in the same country as the outsourcing company.) Sports arbitrage – numerous internet bookmakers offer odds on the outcome of the same event. Any given bookmaker will weight their odds so that no one customer can cover all outcomes at a profit against their books. However, in order to remain competitive their margins are usually quite low. Different bookmakers may offer different odds on the same outcome of a given event; by taking the best odds offered by each bookmaker, a customer can under some circumstances cover all possible outcomes of the event and lock a small risk-free profit, known as a Dutch book. This profit would typically be between 1% and 5% but can be much higher. One problem with sports arbitrage is that bookmakers sometimes make mistakes and this can lead to an invocation of the 'palpable error' rule, which most bookmakers invoke when they have made a mistake by offering or posting incorrect odds. As bookmakers become more proficient, the odds of making an 'arb' usually last for less than an hour and typically only a few minutes. Furthermore, huge bets on one side of the market also alert the bookies to correct the market. Exchange-traded fund arbitrage – Exchange Traded Funds allow authorized participants to exchange back and forth between shares in underlying securities held by the fund and shares in the fund itself, rather than allowing the buying and selling of shares in the ETF directly with the fund sponsor. ETFs trade in the open market, with prices set by market demand. An ETF may trade at a premium or discount to the value of the underlying assets. When a significant enough premium appears, an arbitrageur will buy the underlying securities, convert them to shares in the ETF, and sell them in the open market. When a discount appears, an arbitrageur will do the reverse. In this way, the arbitrageur makes a low-risk profit, while fulfilling a useful function in the ETF marketplace by keeping ETF prices in line with their underlying value. Some types of hedge funds make use of a modified form of arbitrage to profit. Rather than exploiting price differences between identical assets, they will purchase and sell securities, assets and derivatives with similar characteristics, and hedge any significant differences between the two assets. Any difference between the hedged positions represents any remaining risk (such as basis risk) plus profit; the belief is that there remains some difference which, even after hedging most risk, represents pure profit. For example, a fund may see that there is a substantial difference between U.S. dollar debt and local currency debt of a foreign country, and enter into a series of matching trades (including currency swaps) to arbitrage the difference, while simultaneously entering into credit default swaps to protect against country risk and other types of specific risk. Price convergence Arbitrage has the effect of causing prices in different markets to converge. As a result of arbitrage, the currency exchange rates, the price of commodities, and the price of securities in different markets tend to converge to the same prices, in all markets, in each category. The speed at which prices converge is a measure of market efficiency. Arbitrage tends to reduce price discrimination by encouraging people to buy an item where the price is low and resell it where the price is high, as long as the buyers are not prohibited from reselling and the transaction costs of buying, holding and reselling are small relative to the difference in prices in the different markets. Arbitrage moves different currencies toward purchasing power parity. As an example, assume that a car purchased in the United States is cheaper than the same car in Canada. Canadians would buy their cars across the border to exploit the arbitrage condition. At the same time, Americans would buy US cars, transport them across the border, and sell them in Canada. Canadians would have to buy American Dollars to buy the cars, and Americans would have to sell the Canadian dollars they received in exchange for the exported cars. Both actions would increase demand for US Dollars, and supply of Canadian Dollars, and as a result, there would be an appreciation of the US Dollar. Eventually, if unchecked, this would make US cars more expensive for all buyers, and Canadian cars cheaper, until there is no longer an incentive to buy cars in the US and sell them in Canada. More generally, international arbitrage opportunities in commodities, goods, securities and currencies, on a grand scale, tend to change exchange rates until the purchasing power is equal. In reality, of course, one must consider taxes and the costs of travelling back and forth between the US and Canada. Also, the features built into the cars sold in the US are not exactly the same as the features built into the cars for sale in Canada, due, among other things, to the different emissions and other auto regulations in the two countries. In addition, our example assumes that no duties have to be paid on importing or exporting cars from the USA to Canada. Similarly, most assets exhibit (small) differences between countries, transaction costs, taxes, and other costs provide an impediment to this kind of arbitrage. Similarly, arbitrage affects the difference in interest rates paid on government bonds, issued by the various countries, given the expected depreciations in the currencies, relative to each other (see interest rate parity). Risks Arbitrage transactions in modern securities markets involve fairly low risks. Generally it is impossible to close two or three transactions at the same instant; therefore, there is the possibility that when one part of the deal is closed, a quick shift in prices makes it impossible to close the other at a profitable price. There is also counter-party risk, that the other party to one of the deals fails to deliver as agreed; though unlikely, this hazard is serious because of the large quantities one must trade in order to make a profit on small price differences. These risks become magnified when leverage or borrowed money is used. Another risk occurs if the items being bought and sold are not identical and the arbitrage is conducted under the assumption that the prices of the items are correlated or predictable. In the extreme case this is risk arbitrage, described below. In comparison to the classical quick arbitrage transaction, such an operation can produce disastrous losses. Competition in the marketplace can also create risks during arbitrage transactions. As an example, if one was trying to profit from a price discrepancy between IBM on the NYSE and IBM on the London Stock Exchange, they may purchase a large number of shares on the NYSE and find that they cannot simultaneously sell on the LSE. This leaves the arbitrageur in an unhedged risk position. In the 1980s, risk arbitrage was common. In this form of speculation, one trades a security that is clearly undervalued or overvalued, when it is seen that the wrong valuation is about to be corrected by events. The standard example is the stock of a company, undervalued in the stock market, which is about to be the object of a takeover bid; the price of the takeover will more truly reflect the value of the company, giving a large profit to those who bought at the current price—if the merger goes through as predicted. Traditionally, arbitrage transactions in the securities markets involve high speed and low risk. At some moment a price difference exists, and the problem is to execute two or three balancing transactions while the difference persists (that is, before the other arbitrageurs act). When the transaction involves a delay of weeks or months, as above, it may entail considerable risk if borrowed money is used to magnify the reward through leverage. One way of reducing the risk is through the illegal use of inside information, and in fact risk arbitrage with regard to leveraged buyouts was associated with some of the famous financial scandals of the 1980s such as those involving Michael Milken and Ivan Boesky. Types of arbitrage Merger arbitrage Also called risk arbitrage, merger arbitrage generally consists of buying the stock of a company that is the target of a takeover while shorting the stock of the acquiring company. Usually the market price of the target company is less than the price offered by the acquiring company. The spread between these two prices depends mainly on the probability and the timing of the takeover being completed as well as the prevailing level of interest rates. The bet in a merger arbitrage is that such a spread will eventually be zero, if and when the takeover is completed. The risk is that the deal "breaks" and the spread massively widens. Municipal bond arbitrage Also called municipal bond relative value arbitrage, municipal arbitrage, or just muni arb, this hedge fund strategy involves one of two approaches. Generally, managers seek relative value opportunities by being both long and short municipal bonds with a duration-neutral book. The relative value trades may be between different issuers, different bonds issued by the same entity, or capital structure trades referencing the same asset (in the case of revenue bonds). Managers aim to capture the inefficiencies arising from the heavy participation of non-economic investors (i.e., high income "buy and hold" investors seeking tax-exempt income) as well as the "crossover buying" arising from corporations' or individuals' changing income tax situations (i.e., insurers switching their munis for corporates after a large loss as they can capture a higher after-tax yield by offsetting the taxable corporate income with underwriting losses). There are additional inefficiencies arising from the highly fragmented nature of the municipal bond market which has two million outstanding issues and 50,000 issuers in contrast to the Treasury market which has 400 issues and a single issuer. Second, managers construct leveraged portfolios of AAA- or AA-rated tax-exempt municipal bonds with the duration risk hedged by shorting the appropriate ratio of taxable corporate bonds. These corporate equivalents are typically interest rate swaps referencing Libor or SIFMA(Security Industry and Financial Markets Association) (merged with and preceded by BMA (short for Bond Market Association]) ). The arbitrage manifests itself in the form of a relatively cheap longer maturity municipal bond, which is a municipal bond that yields significantly more than 65% of a corresponding taxable corporate bond. The steeper slope of the municipal yield curve allows participants to collect more after-tax income from the municipal bond portfolio than is spent on the interest rate swap; the carry is greater than the hedge expense. Positive, tax-free carry from muni arb can reach into the double digits. The bet in this municipal bond arbitrage is that, over a longer period of time, two similar instruments--municipal bonds and interest rate swaps--will correlate with each other; they are both very high quality credits, have the same maturity and are denominated in U.S. dollars. Credit risk and duration risk are largely eliminated in this strategy. However, basis risk arises from use of an imperfect hedge, which results in significant, but range-bound principal volatility. The end goal is to limit this principal volatility, eliminating its relevance over time as the high, consistent, tax-free cash flow accumulates. Since the inefficiency is related to government tax policy, and hence is structural in nature, it has not been arbitraged away. Convertible bond arbitrage A convertible bond is a bond that an investor can return to the issuing company in exchange for a predetermined number of shares in the company. A convertible bond can be thought of as a corporate bond with a stock call option attached to it. The price of a convertible bond is sensitive to three major factors: interest rate. When rates move higher, the bond part of a convertible bond tends to move lower, but the call option part of a convertible bond moves higher (and the aggregate tends to move lower). stock price. When the price of the stock the bond is convertible into moves higher, the price of the bond tends to rise. credit spread. If the creditworthiness of the issuer deteriorates (e.g. rating downgrade) and its credit spread widens, the bond price tends to move lower, but, in many cases, the call option part of the convertible bond moves higher (since credit spread correlates with volatility). Given the complexity of the calculations involved and the convoluted structure that a convertible bond can have, an arbitrageur often relies on sophisticated quantitative models in order to identify bonds that are trading cheap versus their theoretical value. Convertible arbitrage consists of buying a convertible bond and hedging two of the three factors in order to gain exposure to the third factor at a very attractive price. For instance an arbitrageur would first buy a convertible bond, then sell fixed income securities or interest rate futures (to hedge the interest rate exposure) and buy some credit protection (to hedge the risk of credit deterioration). Eventually what he'd be left with is something similar to a call option on the underlying stock, acquired at a very low price. He could then make money either selling some of the more expensive options that are openly traded in the market or delta hedging his exposure to the underlying shares. Depository receipts A depository receipt is a security that is offered as a "tracking stock" on another foreign market. For instance a Chinese company wishing to raise more money may issue a depository receipt on the New York Stock Exchange, as the amount of capital on the local exchanges is limited. These securities, known as ADRs (American Depositary Receipt) or GDRs (Global Depositary Receipt) depending on where they are issued, are typically considered "foreign" and therefore trade at a lower value when first released. However, they are exchangeable into the original security (known as fungibility) and actually have the same value. In this case there is a spread between the perceived value and real value, which can be extracted. Since the ADR is trading at a value lower than what it is worth, one can purchase the ADR and expect to make money as its value converges on the original. However there is a chance that the original stock will fall in value too, so by shorting it you can hedge that risk. Dual-listed companies A dual-listed company (DLC) structure involves two companies incorporated in different countries contractually agreeing to operate their businesses as if they were a single enterprise, while retaining their separate legal identity and existing stock exchange listings. In integrated and efficient financial markets, stock prices of the twin pair should move in lockstep. In practice, DLC share prices exhibit large deviations from theoretical parity. Arbitrage positions in DLCs can be set-up by obtaining a long position in the relatively underpriced part of the DLC and a short position in the relatively overpriced part. Such arbitrage strategies start paying off as soon as the relative prices of the two DLC stocks converge toward theoretical parity. However, since there is no identifiable date at which DLC prices will converge, arbitrage positions sometimes have to be kept open for considerable periods of time. In the meantime, the price gap might widen. In these situations, arbitrageurs may receive margin calls, after which they would most likely be forced to liquidate part of the position at a highly unfavorable moment and suffer a loss. Arbitrage in DLCs may be profitable, but is also very risky, see de Jong, A., L. Rosenthal and M.A. van Dijk, 2008, The Risk and Return of Arbitrage in Dual-Listed Companies, June 2008. . Background material is available at . A good illustration of the risk of DLC arbitrage is the position in Royal Dutch Shell—which had a DLC structure until 2005—by the hedge fund Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM, see also the discussion below). Lowenstein (2000) Lowenstein, R., 2000, When genius failed: The rise and fall of Long-Term Capital Management, Random House. describes that LTCM established an arbitrage position in Royal Dutch Shell in the summer of 1997, when Royal Dutch traded at an 8 to 10 percent premium. In total $2.3 billion was invested, half of which long in Shell and the other half short in Royal Dutch (Lowenstein, p. 99). In the autumn of 1998 large defaults on Russian debt created significant losses for the hedge fund and LTCM had to unwind several positions. Lowenstein reports that the premium of Royal Dutch had increased to about 22 percent and LTCM had to close the position and incur a loss. According to Lowenstein (p. 234), LTCM lost $286 million in equity pairs trading and more than half of this loss is accounted for by the Royal Dutch Shell trade. Regulatory arbitrage Regulatory arbitrage is where a regulated institution takes advantage of the difference between its real (or economic) risk and the regulatory position. For example, if a bank, operating under the Basel I accord, has to hold 8% capital against default risk, but the real risk of default is lower, it is profitable to securitise the loan, removing the low risk loan from its portfolio. On the other hand, if the real risk is higher than the regulatory risk then it is profitable to make that loan and hold on to it, provided it is priced appropriately. This process can increase the overall riskiness of institutions under a risk insensitive regulatory regime, as described by Alan Greenspan in his October 1998 speech on The Role of Capital in Optimal Banking Supervision and Regulation. Regulatory Arbitrage was used for the first time in 2005 when it was applied by Scott V. Simpson, a partner at law firm Skadden, Arps, to refer to a new defence tactic in hostile mergers and acquisitions where differing takeover regimes in deals involving multi-jurisidctions are exploited to the advantage of a target company under threat. In economics, regulatory arbitrage (sometimes, tax arbitrage) may be used to refer to situations when a company can choose a nominal place of business with a regulatory, legal or tax regime with lower costs. For example, an insurance company may choose to locate in Bermuda due to preferential tax rates and policies for insurance companies. This can occur particularly where the business transaction has no obvious physical location: in the case of many financial products, it may be unclear "where" the transaction occurs. Regulatory arbitrage can include restructuring a bank by outsourcing services such as IT. The outsourcing company takes over the installations, buying out the bank's assets and charges a periodic service fee back to the bank. This frees up cashflow usable for new lending by the bank. The bank will have higher IT costs, but counts on the multiplier effect of money creation and the interest rate spread to make it a profitable exercise. Example Sell the IT installations for 40 million USD. With a reserve ratio of 10%, the bank can create 400 million in additional loans (there is a time lag, and the bank has to expect to recover the loaned money back into its books). The bank can often lend (and securitize the loan) to the IT services company their acquisition cost for the IT installations. This can be at preferential rates, as the sole client using the IT installation is the bank. If the bank can generate 5% interest margin on the 400 million of new loans, the bank will increase interest revenues by 20 million. The IT services company is free to leverage their balance sheet as aggressively as they and their banker agree to. This is the reason behind the trend towards outsourcing in the financial sector. It is actually more expensive to outsource the IT operations as the outsourcing adds a layer of management and increases overhead. Telecom arbitrage Telecom arbitrage companies allow phone users to make international calls for free through certain access numbers. Such services are offered in the United Kingdom; the telecommunication arbitrage companies get paid an interconnect charge by the UK mobile networks and then buy international routes at a lower cost. The calls are seen as free by the UK contract mobile phone customers since they are using up their allocated monthly minutes rather than paying for additional calls. Such services were previously offered in the United States by companies such as FuturePhone.com. These services would operate in rural telephone exchanges, primarily in small towns in the state of Iowa. In these areas, the local telephone carriers are allowed to charge a high "termination fee" to the caller's carrier in order to fund the cost of providing service to the small and sparsely-populated areas that they serve. However, FuturePhone (as well as other similar services) ceased operations upon legal challenges from AT&T and other service providers. The debacle of Long-Term Capital Management Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM) lost 4.6 billion U.S. dollars in fixed income arbitrage in September 1998. LTCM had attempted to make money on the price difference between different bonds. For example, it would sell U.S. Treasury securities and buy Italian bond futures. The concept was that because Italian bond futures had a less liquid market, in the short term Italian bond futures would have a higher return than U.S. bonds, but in the long term, the prices would converge. Because the difference was small, a large amount of money had to be borrowed to make the buying and selling profitable. The downfall in this system began on August 17, 1998, when Russia defaulted on its ruble debt and domestic dollar debt. Because the markets were already nervous due to the Asian financial crisis, investors began selling non-U.S. treasury debt and buying U.S. treasuries, which were considered a safe investment. As a result the price on US treasuries began to increase and the return began decreasing because there were many buyers, and the return on other bonds began to increase because there were many sellers. This caused the difference between the prices of U.S. treasuries and other bonds to increase, rather than to decrease as LTCM was expecting. Eventually this caused LTCM to fold, and their creditors had to arrange a bail-out. More controversially, officials of the Federal Reserve assisted in the negotiations that led to this bail-out, on the grounds that so many companies and deals were intertwined with LTCM that if LTCM actually failed, they would as well, causing a collapse in confidence in the economic system. Thus LTCM failed as a fixed income arbitrage fund, although it is unclear what sort of profit was realized by the banks that bailed LTCM out. Etymology "Arbitrage" is a French word and denotes a decision by an arbitrator or arbitration tribunal. (In modern French, "" usually means referee or umpire). In the sense used here it is first defined in 1704 by Mathieu de la Porte in his treatise "" as a consideration of different exchange rates to recognize the most profitable places of issuance and settlement for a bill of exchange (""). See "Arbitrage" in Trésor de la Langue Française. See also Arbitrage betting Arbitrage pricing theory Covered interest arbitrage Efficient market hypothesis Immunization (finance) Interest rate parity Political arbitrage Statistical arbitrage TANSTAAFL Triangle arbitrage Uncovered interest arbitrage Value investing Volatility arbitrage Fixed income arbitrage Algorithmic Trading Platforms Coherence (philosophical gambling strategy), analogous concept in Bayesian probability References Greider, William (1997). One World, Ready or Not. Penguin Press. ISBN 0-7139-9211-5. Special Situation Investing: Hedging, Arbitrage, and Liquidation, Brian J. Stark, Dow-Jones Publishers. New York, NY 1983. ISBN 0870943847; ISBN 9780870943843 External links What is Arbitrage? 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2,403 | Allocution | Generally, to allocute in law means "to speak out formally." In the field of apologetics, allocution is generally done in defense of a belief. In politics, one may allocute before a legislative body in an effort to influence their position on an issue. In law, it is generally meant to state specifically and in detail what one did and for what reason, often in relation to commission of a crime. In most United States jurisdictions a defendant is allowed the opportunity to allocute—that is, explain himself—before sentence is passed. Some jurisdictions hold this as an absolute right, and in its absence, a sentence may potentially be overturned, with the result that a new sentencing hearing must be held. Allocution is sometimes required of a defendant who pleads guilty to a crime in a plea bargain in exchange for a reduced sentence. In this instance, allocution can serve to provide closure for victims or their families. In principle, it removes any doubt as to the exact nature of the defendant's guilt in the matter. However, there have been many cases in which the defendant allocuted to a crime that he or she did not commit, often because this was a requirement to receiving a lesser sentence. The term "allocution" is generally only in use in jurisdictions in the United States, though there are vaguely similar processes in other common law countries. For example in Australia the term "allocutus" will be used. It will be used by the Clerk of Arraigns or another formal associate of the Court. It will generally be phrased as "Prisoner at the Bar, you have been found Guilty by a jury of your peers of the offense of XYZ. Do you have anything to say as to why the sentence of this Court should not now be passed upon you?". The defense counsel will then make a "plea in mitigation" (also called "submissions on penalty") wherein he or she will attempt to mitigate the relative seriousness of the offense and heavily refer to and rely upon the defendant's previous good character and good works (if any). In Australia, the right to make a plea in mitigation is absolute. If a judge or magistrate were to refuse to hear such a plea, or obviously fail to properly consider it, then the sentence would, without doubt, be overturned on appeal. In many other jurisdictions it is for the defense lawyer to mitigate on his client's behalf, and the defendant himself will rarely have the opportunity to speak. In Media Allocution refers to the one way dissemination of information through a media channel. It assumes that one party has an unlimited amount of information (usually through some kind of expertise) and can act as the ‘information services provider’ (pg 268) while the other party acts as the ‘information services consumer’ (Bordewijk and Kaam, 1986:268) The term allocution differs from distribution as distribution implies that the original party loses some kind of control over the information. One party can tell many others a piece of information without losing it themselves, the original information store never becomes empty. (Bordewijk and Kaam, 1986:268) The original party holds all control over the information. They decide when, how and how much information to give to the information services consumer. The consumer has no control over it in this model. Examples of this type of communication include radio and traditional television programs such as the news. Bordewijk, Jan L. and van Kaam, Ben (2002) [1986] “Towards a New Classification of Tele-Information Services,” in Denis McQuail (ed.) McQuail’s Reader in Mass Communication Theory, Sage, London, pp.113-24 Roman Catholic Magisterium According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, an Allocution is a solemn form of address or speech from the throne employed by the Pope on certain occasions. It is delivered only in a secret consistory at which the cardinals alone are present. The term allocutio was used by the ancient Romans for the speech made by a commander to his troops, either before a battle or during it, to animate and encourage them. The term when adopted into ecclesiastical usage retained much of its original significance. An allocution of the Pope often takes the place of a manifesto when a struggle between the Holy See and the secular powers has reached an acute stage. 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2,404 | Boney_M. | Boney M. was a German pop and disco group created by record producer Frank Farian. Originally based in West Germany, the four original members of the group's official lineup were Liz Mitchell and Marcia Barrett (Jamaica), Maizie Williams (Montserrat), and Bobby Farrell (Aruba). History Frank Farian (Franz Reuther), German schlager singer, wasn't happy with the choice of material his record company wanted him to sing. He went into the studio in December 1974 and recorded the song single "Baby Do You Wanna Bump?", a monotonous dance track, singing the repeated "Do you do you wanna bump?" in a deep voice (entirely studio created) as well as performing the high female chorus vocals in his falsetto voice. The record came out, credited to "Boney M." Frank Farian had been watching an Australian detective show, where the lead character was called Boney, and Farian decided that this would make a good name for a group, and added the M. After a slow start it became a hit in the Netherlands and Belgium. It was then that Farian decided to hire a team to 'front' the group for TV performances. A booking agency (Katja Wolfe) found model-turned-singer Maizie Williams (originally from Montserrat) and her Jamaican friend and singer Sheyla Bonnick for him, and a dancer called Mike for the first gigs. Also during 1975, a girl named Nathalie joined but was soon replaced by Claudja Barry. Then Bonnick and Mike left, and Maizie Williams brought in an exotic dancer from Aruba, Bobby Farrell. Singer Marcia Barrett (Jamaica) reluctantly joined the group, which went through another change in line-up when Claudja Barry – tired of merely lip-synching – left in February 1976 to pursue a solo career as a disco singer. Finally Liz Mitchell, an unemployed singer and former member of the Les Humphries Singers, stepped in – and the final line-up was found at last with Maizie Williams, Marcia Barrett, Liz Mitchell and Bobby Farrell. Farian began recording Boney M.'s first LP, Take the Heat Off Me, for which Marcia Barrett had already recorded some songs with Farian: these were the title track and "Lovin' or Leavin'", both previously recorded in German by another Farian act, Gilla. While Maizie Williams' voice wasn't considered good enough for recording purposes by Farian, and a try-out with Bobby Farrell doing "No Woman No Cry" didn't work, Farian decided to use only Liz Mitchell and Marcia Barrett along with his own studio created deep male voice and high falsetto voice to create the Boney M. sound. The commercial response to the album was initially lukewarm. However, the group rigorously toured discos, clubs and even country fairs, to earn a reputation for themselves. The group's big break came when, at the end of that summer, music-TV-producer Michael 'Mike' Leckebusch of Radio Bremen, requested the group for his show Musikladen. Boney M. appeared on the live music show on September 18, 1976, after 10 pm, in their now trademark daring costumes; by the end of the following week, "Daddy Cool" became Germany's #1 single in the charts. The album was to follow the success of the single. In 1977, Boney M. released their second album Love for Sale, and this contained further hits "Ma Baker" and "Belfast". The group also embarked on their first major concert tours with a live band of musicians called 'The Black Beautiful Circus' (given their name after Maizie Williams' first band, 'Black Beautiful People'). Neither Love for Sale nor Take the Heat Off Me did very well in the UK Albums Chart, most likely due to their rather risqué covers. In 1978, Boney M. had their biggest year: they released a new single, "Rivers of Babylon", which became a massive-selling single all over Europe and #1 in the UK Singles Chart. It also became their most successful single in the United States of their five singles to make the Billboard Hot 100. "Rivers of Babylon" peaked at number 30 on the U.S. pop singles chart. Next came their biggest-selling album, Nightflight to Venus, which spawned a further single "Rasputin". Continuing with their success, they released "Mary's Boy Child/Oh My Lord", which was the 1978 Christmas number one single in the United Kingdom. Also during 1978, Boney M. made a much publicised promotional visit to the Soviet Union, which in the shadow of the Cold War made them one of the very few Western acts along with Elton John to do so. Although tracks like "Rasputin" were officially unreleased in the Soviet Union because of their lyrics, the band was still welcomed by the Soviet regime and this visit resulted in an enormous popularity in the entire former Eastern Bloc that has lasted for more than three decades. While it had been common knowledge all along that Bobby Farrell only mimed to Farian's vocals, it also emerged during 1978 that Maizie Williams did not sing (on the studio recordings) "since her voice wasn't suited for this kind of music", as Farian put it in an interview with German teen magazine Bravo at the time. Since it was common practice in the disco genre of the late '70s, few people cared – unlike when Farian did the same thing with Milli Vanilli ten years later. All four members of the group, including Maizie Williams and Bobby Farrell, performed all the vocals live at Boney M. concerts. Fantastic Boney M. The year 1979 saw Boney M. release their fourth album, Oceans of Fantasy, containing two hit singles – "El Lute"/"Gotta Go Home" and "I'm Born Again"/"Bahama Mama". The track "No More Chain Gang", one of a number of black freedom songs the group recorded, exemplified Boney M.'s mix of white and black music – the producer Farian is white, and the singers are black. They also released another hit single, "Hooray! Hooray! It's A Holi-Holiday", prior to the release of Oceans of Fantasy though this single was not included on the album. The album also included a Lead- and Backing-Vocals credit for the first time. In 1980, Boney M. released a greatest hits album, The Magic of Boney M. - 20 Golden Hits, which also contained two new songs, "My Friend Jack" and "I See a Boat on the River". It made the #1 spot in the UK, and was their last big UK-seller until "Boney M. Megamix" in 1992. Boney M.'s fifth album had been scheduled for release in November 1980 but the recording sessions dragged on all through 1981, and when Boonoonoonoos was finally released by the end of the year, Bobby Farrell was fired from the group due to his unreliable working discipline. While still a healthy seller on the continent, "Boonoonoonoos" failed to crack the UK Top 75 after three consecutive #1 albums, and Farrell's departure leaving the group unable to promote it. Still, the group's Christmas Album, issued concurrently, became a holiday favourite. Reggie Tsiboe was presented as the new male member of Boney M. in 1982 but the singles "The Carnival Is Over" and "Jambo" fared alarmingly poorly, and the group's seventh album Ten Thousand Lightyears, issued in 1984, marked another commercial low point. The group, however, returned to the German Top 20 in the fall of 1984 with "Kalimba de Luna" and "Happy Song", the latter seeing Bobby Farrell return to the group, both songs being carbon-copies of the original Italian hits by Tony Esposito and Baby's Gang respectively. In 1985, Farian clearly began losing interest in the group, and their final studio album Eye Dance was widely regarded as uninspired and disappointing, with its anonymous cover. After celebrating 10 years of Boney M. in early 1986, the group officially disbanded. In late 1987, Bobby Farrell persuaded Maizie Williams and Liz Mitchell to do another tour. For reasons unknown, Marcia Barrett was not part of this. Furthermore, Bobby Farrell had set up a deal for a new Boney M. album to be recorded without Farian in Belgium – he never showed up for either recording or tour, so the album ended being released as Liz Mitchell's first solo album No One Will Force You. Liz Mitchell and Maizie Williams completed a tour during 1987-88, adding singer Celena Duncan and a male dancer as substitutes. In October 1988, Boney M. reunited for the album Greatest Hits of All Times - Remix '88 but tensions ran high between the members, and Liz Mitchell left in the spring of 1989 to be replaced by Madeleine Davis. While Mitchell promoted her solo album, the group recorded the single "Everybody Wants to Dance Like Josephine Baker", without Farian's knowledge or approval. Threatened with legal action over the use of the Boney M. name, the single was subsequently withdrawn and Farian issued "Stories" with a competitive Boney M. line-up featuring Liz Mitchell, Reggie Tsiboe and two new members, Sharon Stevens and Patty Onoyewenjo, while a second remix album Greatest Hits of All Times - Remix '89 - Volume II passed fairly unnoticed. 1993 saw a rise in Boney M.'s popularity with the album Gold being a huge seller. While Marcia Barrett, now residing in Florida, was hit by several bouts of cancer and unable to work, Liz Mitchell toured the world with Carol Grey, Patricia Lorna Foster and Curt Dee Daran (replaced by Tony Ashcroft in 1994). Maizie Williams assembled her own Boney M. line-up with her friend and short-time Boney M. member in the early days in 1975, Sheila Bonnick, and two others, while Bobby Farrell also toured with three ever-changing ladies. As of 2006, Liz Mitchell is currently touring the world with her line-up of Boney M., which is the only line-up officially supported by Farian (the court ruling of 1990 stated that all four members are entitled to perform their own Boney M. shows). Bobby Farrell and Liz Mitchell have released solo albums containing re-recordings of Boney M.'s classic hits. Maizie Williams released her first solo album Christmas 2006, and released her version of "Sunny" as a single in February 2007. Marcia Barrett has released two solo albums with her third album expected for release early 2009 (on xoah records) Maizie Williams official website A musical based on the music of Boney M., Daddy Cool, opened in London in August 2006 to mixed reactions and slow ticket sales, causing it to close again in February 2007. Since April, 26th till July, 2007 this show was played at huge mobile theatre in Berlin. The theatre has been specially designed for the international tour of musical DADDY COOL. This largest construction in Europe of this kind. In April 2007, pop singer Peter Wilson, who during the mid-90s scored a couple of Top 40 hits in his native Australia, released a brand new song, co-written by Frank Farian entitled "Doin' Fine". It's described as paying tribute to the 'sound' of Boney M. and features the famous string arrangement from their number 1 hit, "Daddy Cool". In a sign of their continued popularity in South Asia, a concert by Boney M. (featuring Marcia Barrett) was a featured attraction at the 37th International Film Festival of India (IFFI), which took place on November 23, 2006 in Panaji, the state capital of Goa, India. The group is also popular in the Vietnamese diaspora, and was recently featured in Thuy Nga music productions. In the UK, a new album of their greatest hits, entitled The Magic of Boney M. was released via BMG on November 27, 2006. Special additions to this release were a Mousse T. remix of "Sunny" and a brand new song from 2006, featuring Liz Mitchell, entitled "A Moment Of Love". On April 10, 2007, Boney M.'s first four albums were reissued to compact disc with bonus tracks, this time also in the United States, which meant that for the first time these were available to the U.S. music market since their original releases in the 1970s. In September 2007, Boney M.'s last four original albums, Boonoonoonoos, Ten Thousand Lightyears, Kalimba de Luna - 16 Happy Songs and Eye Dance were reissued to compact disc in Europe and the United States, all including bonus tracks. In November 2007, a new Christmas compilation is being released as well as the DVD Fantastic Boney M. - On Stage and on the Road featuring live performances and a film from the band's 1981 visit to Jamaica. Bobby Farrell's Boney M. performed a sell-out concert before large crowds at the Amphi in Ra'anana, Israel in May 2007. On June 28, 2007 Boney M. featuring Liz Mitchell performed at the "Oktiabrsky" concert hall in St. Petersburg, Russia. In September 2007, Maizie Williams Boney M. line-up performed live at The Royal Albert Hall, UK, to raise awareness of HIV/AIDS in Africa, performing her own renditions of 'Brown Girl In The Ring' and 'Hooray! Hooray! It's A Holi-Holiday'. On October 13, 2007 Marcia Barrett's Boney M. performed in the Georgian-controlled village of Tamarasheni, in the breakaway South Ossetia, in a concert directed at ousting the de facto President of South Ossetia, Eduard Kokoity. December 28, 2007, Marcia Barrett's Boney M. gave a gala performance in Russia for Premier Putin while playing New Year's Eve concerts in front of 16,000 people in Lithuania. On December 31, 2007, Maizie Williams performed at a live concert to capacity crowds in Krakow, Poland and on 1 December 2008 Maizie Williams and her Boney M. show flew in and gave two concerts in Sofia, Bulgaria, for Aids Awareness and World Aids Day. The legal rights to the name "Boney M." have been a matter of controversy, and even court cases, between the former members of the band and producer Frank Farian ever since the early 1990s. Farian, the man who in effect created the group, has continued to work with Liz Mitchell and her line-up all through the 90s and 2000s, but in a strange twist of fate further Boney M. productions in Germany could be faced with legal proceedings. January 2007 was the date Zanillya Farrell (daughter of Bobby Farrell) and Yasmina Ayad-Saban (ex-wife of Farrell) renewed the copyright to the name Boney M. in Germany for a 10 year period. Also, an upcoming case in the High Court in Berlin, Maizie Williams vs Frank Farian and Sony/BMG. 16/02/09 Maizie has judgement in the case with Frank Farian and he has to account to her for pay for all record sales and future sales. In November 2008, iconic Disco legend and former label mate, Amanda Lear recorded a version of the song, "Doin' Fine" as part of her next studio album, which she announced on French television is scheduled for release in spring 2009. In January 2009 Frank Farian released a brand new single called Felicidad America (Obama Obama) under the name-check Boney M. feat. Sherita O. & Yulee B. featuring two new vocalists. The song is a remake of the 1980 Boney M. classic with new vocals and re-written lyrics now referring to the new US president Barack Obama. Lady Ga Ga has recently sampled the vocal Ma-Ma-Ma from Ma Baker for her hit single "Poker Face" Members Liz Mitchell, Lead and backing vocals (1976–) Marcia Barrett, Lead and backing vocals (1975–) Maizie Williams, Dancer, live vocals (1975–) Bobby Farrell, Dancer, rap, live vocals (1975–81, 1984–) Reggie Tsiboe, Lead and backing vocals (1982–86, 1989-90) UK sales mark In 1978, "Rivers of Babylon", a cover of a track by The Melodians with lyrics partly based on Psalm 137 and partly on Psalm 19, Psalm 137 in the Bible (King James) became (at the time) the second highest-selling single of all time in the UK. After "Rivers of Babylon" slipped back down the chart, the B-side "Brown Girl in the Ring" was given extensive airplay on the radio, and the single climbed back up the chart to #2. It eventually sold 5000 copies short of two million. As recounted in his book Touching the Void, the British climber Joe Simpson was subsequently to find the catchy tune of "Brown Girl in the Ring" haunting him in the final hours of his epic struggle to survive the descent of Siula Grande in the Andes, and the song was later used in the film of Touching the Void made by Kevin Macdonald. Simpson recalls: "I remember thinking, bloody hell, I'm going to die to Boney M". The group also achieved a second UK million-seller with their version of the calypso classic "Mary's Boy Child/Oh My Lord", which was previously a million-seller for Harry Belafonte. On the list of the all-time best selling singles in the United Kingdom, Boney M. appear in fifth place (with "Rivers of Babylon") and tenth place (with "Mary's Boy Child/Oh My Lord"). The single sold almost 1.8 million copies and achieved sales of over 1.6 million in the 4 weeks the song had at number one in December 1978. Paul McCartney is the only other artist to appear twice (once with The Beatles, once with Wings) in the Top 10 of that list. Back catalogue Compared to other best-selling artists of the 1970s like ABBA, Donna Summer, and the Bee Gees the Boney M. discography is quite unusual – while the greater part of the band's back catalogue has been remixed, remade, remodeled and reissued all through the 80s, 90s and 2000s by producer Frank Farian and record company BMG-Ariola (now Sony BMG), most of the original 7" and 12" versions issued on vinyl in the 70s and early 80s remained unavailable on CD until 2008 and the release of the box set The Collection and the single CD compilation Rivers Of Babylon (A Best Of Collection). Popularity outside the West Boney M. became one of the few Western groups at that time to become well-known in places such as Africa, the Arab countries, China, Iran, Southeast Asia, India, Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. To this day, along with Swedish pop group ABBA, they are among the most widely known 1970s Western music acts in these regions . The 2005 Chinese film Shanghai Dreams features a scene depicting a rural Chinese disco in 1983, with teenagers dancing to Rivers of Babylon and Gotta Go Home YouTube - Disco Dance in Chinese Movie "Shanghai Dreams" In the 2008 Kazakh film Tulpan, the tractor driver Boni continually plays a cassette of Rivers of Babylon, an example of his fascination for all things Western. Covers of Boney M. songs Shortly after the worldwide success of the Nightflight to Venus album, disco/soul singer-songwriter, Millie Jackson covered "Never Change Lovers In The Middle of The Night'" (a Marcia Barrett lead vocal) for her 1979 album, A Moment's Pleasure. It was released as a single and became a Top 40 R&B chart hit for Jackson, peaking at #33. "Silent Lover" (a Marcia Barrett lead vocal) was covered in 1980 by disco project El Coco for the album "Revolución". Gilla - also produced by Frank Farian - covered "Sunny", "No Woman No Cry" and "Belfast" on her album Zieh mich aus as well as "Rasputin" as a single in 1978. In 1978, German singer Bruce Low covered "Rivers of Babylon" in German as "Die Legende von Babylon", using Boney M.'s original backing track. His version reached #3 in the German charts. Austrian duo and Eurovision Song Contest participants Waterloo & Robinson covered "Brown Girl in the Ring", using Boney M.'s original backing track (and Marcia Barrett's original "Tra la la la" backing vocals). In 1979, Michael Holm covered "El Lute" in German, also using Boney M.'s original backing track with Farian singing backing vocals. His version peaked at #11 in the German charts. Roland Kaiser also covered "El Lute" in German in 1979 as well as a German version of "I'm Born Again" under the title "Im Dunkel der Nacht". Ricky Martin covered "Hooray! Hooray! It's a Holi-Holiday" in Spanish on his 1993 album "Me Amarás". Frank Farian also produced a German version of "Felicidad (Margherita)" by Anette Anke und Andrea to coincide with Boney M.'s release of the song, 1980. German schlager orchestra Cliff Carpenter's Orchestra made numerous instrumental versions of Boney M.'s hits with a horn section playing the melody line on top of Boney M.'s original backing tracks. In 1982, 12 of these recordings were gathered on the compilation "Cliff Carpenter Plays Boney M. Hits". The Finnish folk metal band Turisas have played a cover of "Rasputin" at several live events. They released this cover as their debut single August 2007. They have also released it on a re-release of their album The Varangian Way. UK punk rock band Belisha have also been covering "Rasputin" for about 2 years, and riotous live performances at festivals across Europe in 2007 have seen the entire crowd joining in with Russian style dancing, both on stage with the band, and in the audience. Placebo covered "Daddy Cool" in 2003 for the bonus disc of their Sleeping with Ghosts album. The band Peaches also covered "Daddy Cool" in 2004. Liz Mitchell and Russian singer Alexander Buynov covered "Rasputin" in 1996 for a Russian compilation album. Marcia Barrett did a solo version of "Rivers of Babylon" in 2001 which was aired on Dutch radio but ultimately never released. Bobby Farrell released his own version of 'Baby Do You Wanna Bump' in 2006 on The Bump EP. The Latvian cello trio Melo-M covered "Daddy Cool" in 2007, featuring Maizie Williams on vocals (hitting the No.1 spot on the Latvian LMK Charts). The Spanish group Fangoria recorded a cover version of "Rasputin" (sung in Spanish) in 1996 which was also included on BMG-Ariola compilation Best in Spain. Also on the same Best in Spain album, Fangoria singer 'Alaska' sings "Ma Baker" (this time in English) with Killer Barbies as backing group. Mexican super star Luis Miguel recorded a Spanish version of "Sunny" on his 1987 mega-platinum album Soy como quiero ser. Their song "Ma Baker" has been widely covered. One of the more unusual covers is Knorkator's version, which changes the disco/pop tunes for heavy guitar riffs. Australian children's entertainers The Wiggles covered "Brown Girl in the Ring" on their 2006 album Here Comes the Big Red Car. The US ska/punk band Sublime covered "Rivers of Babylon" as a Bonus Track on their first album, 40 Oz. to Freedom. US Powerpop/Ska band Attila and the Huns recorded a reggae version of "Mary's Boy Child" based on the Boney M. version for their 2007 Christmas CD "Christmas Socks" Songs that were re-worked into Boney M. titles Frank Farian's right hand Hans-Jörg Mayer (aka Georg Reyam) sought out songs from all over the world, mainly public domain (non-copyrighted) folk tunes, and rewrote them for Boney M. Borrowed themes The first Boney M. recording "Baby Do You Wanna Bump" (1975) is based on Prince Buster's "Al Capone" (1967). "Ma Baker" (1977) features the melody line of a Tunisian folk melody "Sidi Mansur". "Motherless Child" (1977) is a rewrite of "Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child". "Nightflight to Venus" (1978) with its characteristic drums, the rock guitar theme, and the march interludes, was rewritten from Cozy Powell's #1 hit "Dance With the Devil" (1974). "Rasputin" (1978) features elements of both a Serbian ("Ај, русе косе цуро имаш") and a Turkish traditional ("Üsküdar'a Gider İken / Kâtibim"). "He Was a Steppenwolf" (1978) borrows arrangement-wise from The Temptations' lengthy epic "Papa Was a Rollin' Stone" (1972). "Brown Girl in the Ring" (1978) is a traditional Caribbean nursery rhyme and uses an arrangement from Malcolm's Locks "Brown Girl" (1975). "Hooray! Hooray! It's a Holi-Holiday" (1979) is a rewrite of "Polly Wolly Doodle". Farian's falsetto singing 'doo-doop, doo doo doo-doop' in "Gotta Go Home" (1979) was borrowed from The Beatles in Hello Goodbye (1967) as 'hey-la, hey helloa'. "No More Chain Gang" (1979) borrows the bridge 'Then one night he laid in waiting' from folklore "St. James Infirmary Blues" and an arrangement inspired by Johnny Wakelin's "In Zaire" (1976). "I'm Born Again" (1979) is based on an Irish traditional ("Buachaill Ón Éirne"). Both "Boonoonoonoos" and "Ride to Agadir" (1981) contain a theme taken from Pink Floyd's "Another Brick in the Wall (Part 2)", "The Happiest Days of Our Lives" and "Run Like Hell" (1979). "Train to Skaville / That's Boonoonoonoos" (1981) is partly inspired by the #1 hit Pop Muzik (1979) by M (the walking bass, the rap parts, and 'Boo-Boo-Boo-Boonoonoonoos' - 'Pop Pop Pop Muzik'). "Homeland Africa (Ship Ahoy)" (1981) borrows the chorus and lyrics from The O'Jays' "Ship Ahoy" (1973). "Children of Paradise" (1980) is based on Younès Migri's "Lili Twil" (19??). "I'll Be Home for Christmas" (1981) borrows not only the title from the well-known Christmas song but also a theme from Don Williams' "Some Broken Hearts Never Mend" (1977) and also has a strong resemblance to Jona Lewie's "Stop the Cavalry" (1980). "Exodus (Noah's Ark 2001)" (1984) features a guitar theme borrowed from The Temptations' "Papa Was a Rollin' Stone" (1972) while the chorus borrows from Bob Marley's "Exodus" (1977). "Future World" (1984) is based on Hungarian rock band Omega's "Tízezer lépés" (10,000 Steps) (1969). "Somewhere in the World" (1984) borrows the hook line from Paul McCartney's "Tug of War" (1982) (the specific chorus line In another world). "Bel Ami" (1984) features an arrangement and brass intro very similar to Mezzoforte's "Garden Party" (1983). "Living Like a Moviestar" (1984) features a flute theme from Jeff Wayne's "The Eve of the War" (1978). "Todos Buenos" (1985) is rewritten from Titanic's "Sultana" (1971). "Sample City" (1985) features the same chord pattern as "I Can't Stand the Rain" (1973), the Ann Peebles classic and a 1978 hit single for Farian's soul band Eruption. "Bang Bang Lulu" (1985) is a traditional folklore. Cover versions "Take the Heat Off Me" (1976): Marcella Bella - "Nessuno mai" (1974) (Gilla - "Mir ist kein Weg zu weit" (1975)) "Sunny" (1976): Bobby Hebb - "Sunny" (1966) "No Woman No Cry" (1976): Bob Marley & The Wailers - "No Woman, No Cry" (1974) "Fever" (1976): Little Willie John - "Fever" (1956) "Got a Man on My Mind" (1976): Frank Farian - "Am Samstagabend" (1976) "Lovin' or Leavin'" (1976): Gilla - "Lieben und frei sein" (1975) "Love for Sale" (1977): Libby Holman - "Love for Sale" (1945) "Have You Ever Seen the Rain" (1977): Creedence Clearwater Revival - "Have You Ever Seen the Rain?" (1970) "A Woman Can Change a Man" (1977): Frank Farian and also Gilla - "Laß mir Zeit, Dich zu lieben" (1975) "Still I'm Sad" (1977): The Yardbirds - "Still I'm Sad" (1965) "Painter Man" (1978): The Creation - "Painter Man" (1966) "King of the Road" (1978): Roger Miller - "King of the Road" (1965) "Rivers of Babylon" (1978): The Melodians - "Rivers of Babylon" (1970) "Heart of Gold" (1978): Neil Young - "Heart of Gold" (1972) "Mary's Boy Child" (1978): Harry Belafonte - "Mary's Boy Child" (1956) "Gotta Go Home" (1979): Nighttrain - "Hallo Bimmelbahn" (1973) "Hold On I'm Coming" (1979): Sam & Dave - "Hold On, I'm Comin'" (1966) "Two of Us" (1979): The Beatles - "Two of Us" (1969) "My Friend Jack" (1980): The Smoke - "My Friend Jack" (1967) "Gadda-Da-Vida" (1980): Iron Butterfly - "In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida" (1968) "Felicidad (Margherita)" (1980): Massara - "Margherita" (1979) "That's Boonoonoonoos / Train to Skaville" (1981): The Ethiopians - "Train to Skaville" (1967) "I Shall Sing" (1981): Art Garfunkel - "I Shall Sing" (1973) "Ride to Agadir" (1981): Mike Batt - "The Ride to Agadir" (1977) "Malaika" (1981): Miriam Makeba & Harry Belafonte - "Malaika" (1965) "Sad Movies" (1981): Sue Thompson - "Sad Movies (Make Me Cry)" (1961) "Feliz Navidad" (1981): José Feliciano - "Feliz Navidad" (1970) "The Carnival Is Over" (1982): The Seekers - "The Carnival Is Over" (1965) "Going Back West" (1982): Jimmy Cliff - "Going Back West" (1974) "Jambo - Hakuna Matata (No Problems)" (1983): Them Mushrooms - "Jambo Bwana" (1982) "(I Need a) Babysitter" (1983): Mahjun - "Baby-sitter" (1980) "Dizzy" (1984): Tommy Roe - "Dizzy" (1969) "Kalimba de Luna" (1984): Tony Esposito - "Kalimba de Luna" (1984) "Happy Song" (1984): Baby's Gang - "Happy Song" (1983) "My Chérie Amour" (1985): Stevie Wonder - "My Cherie Amour" (1969) "Dreadlock Holiday" (1985): 10cc - "Dreadlock Holiday" (1978) "Stories" (1990): Izit - "Stories" (1989) "Time to Remember" (1993): La Mama - "I'll Be Your Woman" (1982) "Papa Chico" (1993): Tony Esposito - "Papa Chico" (1985) Discography Studio albums Take the Heat Off Me (1976) Love for Sale (1977) Nightflight to Venus (1978) Oceans of Fantasy (1979) Boonoonoonoos (1981) Christmas Album (1981) Ten Thousand Lightyears (1984) Eye Dance (1985) — Boney M. featuring Bobby Farrell Compilations The Magic of Boney M. - 20 Golden Hits (1980) Children of Paradise - The Greatest Hits of Boney M. - Vol. 2 (1981) Fantastic Boney M. (German CD Only) (1984) Kalimba de Luna - 16 Happy Songs (1984) - Boney M. with Bobby Farrell Christmas with Boney M. (1984) The Best of 10 Years - 32 Superhits (1986) Die 20 schönsten Weihnachtslieder der Welt (1986) The 20 Greatest Christmas Songs (1986) Greatest Hits of All Times - Remix '88 (1988) Greatest Hits of All Times - Remix '89 - Volume II (1989) Ma Baker (1989) The Collection (1991) Daddy Cool - Star Collection (1991) Gold - 20 Super Hits (1992) The Most Beautiful Christmas Songs of the World (1992) The Greatest Hits (1993) More Gold - 20 Super Hits Vol. II (1993) Sunny (1995) Happy Songs (1996) Daddy Cool (1996) Painter Man (1996) Hit Collection (1996) Best In Spain (1996) The Best of Boney M. (1997) Norske Hits (1998) A Wonderful Christmas Time (1998) Christmas Party (1998) Ultimate (1999) 20th Century Hits (1999) 25 Jaar Na Daddy Cool (2000) The Ultimate Collection (2000) The Complete Collection (2000) Their Most Beautiful Ballads (2000) L'Essentiel (2001) Greatest Hits (2001) The Best of Boney M. - Original Hits (2001) The Greatest Hits (2001) Christmas Party (2003) The Magic of Boney M. (2006) Hit Collection (2007) Christmas With Boney M. (2007) The Collection (Boney M. Box Set) (2008) Rivers Of Babylon (A Best Of Collection) (2008) Ultimate Boney M. - Long Versions and Rarities (2008) Christmas Time (2008) In The Mix (2008) The Complete Boney M. - box set (2008) The Magic of Boney M. - The Danish Collection (Double CD) (2008) Ultimate Boney M. - Long Versions & Rarities, Volume 2 (2009) Steel Box (2009) Let It All Be Music - The Party Album (2009) Singles "Baby Do You Wanna Bump" (1975) "Daddy Cool" (1976) "Sunny" (1976) "Ma Baker" (1977) "Belfast" (1977) "Rivers of Babylon" / "Brown Girl in the Ring" double A-side single (1978) "Rasputin" (1978) "Mary's Boy Child / Oh My Lord" (1978) "Painter Man" (UK only, 1979) "Hooray! Hooray! It's a Holi-Holiday" (1979) "El Lute" / "Gotta Go Home" double A-side single (1979) "I'm Born Again" / "Bahama Mama" double A-side single (1979) "I See a Boat on the River" / "My Friend Jack" double A-side single (1980) "Children of Paradise" / "Gadda-Da-Vida" double A-side single (1980) "Felicidad (Margherita)" (1980) "Malaika" / "Consuela Biaz" double A-side single (1981) "We Kill the World (Don't Kill the World)" / "Boonoonoonoos" double A-side single (1981) "Little Drummer Boy" / "6 Years of Boney M. Hits (Boney M. on 45)" double A-side single (1981) "The Carnival Is Over" / "Going Back West" double A-side single (1982) "Zion's Daughter" (1982) "Jambo - Hakuna Matata (No Problems)" (1983) "Somewhere in the World" (1984) "Kalimba de Luna" (1984) "Happy Song" - Boney M. and Bobby Farrell with the School Rebels (1984) "My Chérie Amour" (1985) "Young, Free and Single" - Boney M. featuring Bobby Farrell (1985) "Daddy Cool (Anniversary Recording '86)" (1986) "Bang Bang Lulu" (1986) "Rivers of Babylon (Remix '88)" / "Mary's Boy Child / Oh My Lord (Remix '88)" - Boney M. Reunion '88 double A-side single (1988) "Megamix" (1988) "The Summer Mega Mix" (1989) "Malaika (Lambada Remix)" (1989) "Everybody Wants to Dance Like Josephine Baker" (1989, withdrawn) "Stories" (1990) "Christmas Mega Mix" (1992) "Megamix" (1992) "Brown Girl in the Ring (Remix '93)" (1993) "Ma Baker (Remix '93)" (1993) "Papa Chico" - Boney M. feat. Liz Mitchell (1994) "Somebody Scream - Ma Baker" - Boney M. vs. Horny United/Sash! (1999) "Daddy Cool '99" - Boney M. 2000 feat. Mobi T. (1999) "Hooray! Hooray! (Caribbean Night Fever)" - Boney M. 2000 (1999) "Sunny (Remix)" - Boney M. 2000 (2000) "Daddy Cool 2001" (2001) "Sunny (Mousse T. Remix)" (2006) "Felicidad America (Obama-Obama)" - Boney M. feat. Sherita O. & Yulee B. (2009) Video / DVD / VCD releases Gold - Video / VCD (in Hong Kong) (1993) Gold - DVD (2001 Europe) Greatest Hits (2001 UK) Special Edition (2002 South Korea) Special Edition EP (2003 UK) The Magic of Boney M. (2006) Fantastic Boney M. - On Stage and on the Road (2007) Chart positions Albums Year TitleChart positions GER UK AUT SWE CH NL US NO 1976 Take the Heat Off Me 14 40 6 1- 8-2 1977 Love for Sale 113 1 1- 2-2 1978 Nightflight to Venus 1 1 1 1- 1 134 1 1979 Oceans of Fantasy 1 1 1 5- 3- 1 1980 The Magic of Boney M. - 20 Golden Hits 1 1 5 30- 4- 1 1981 Boonoonoonoos 15- 14 31- 28- 21 Christmas Album 14---- 33-- 1984 Ten Thousand Lightyears23------- 1984 Kalimba de Luna - 16 Happy Songs-------- 1985 Eye Dance-------- 1986 The Best of 10 Years - 32 Superhits 3 35------ 1988 Greatest Hits Remix '88 1989 Greatest Hits Vol II - The Lambada Remixes 1993 Gold - 20 Super Hits 5 14 6 14 5 2-6 More Gold - 20 Super Hits Vol. II-- 36-- 85-- 1999 20th Century Hits30--837--- 2000 25 Jaar Na Daddy Cool-----27-- 2006 The Magic of Boney M. 19 45 13-39--2 Singles Singles chart peaking in various countries. Includes U.S. Hot Dance Club Play chart entries. Year TitleChart positions GER UK AUT SWE CH NL US US Hot Dance Club Play IRE FR ES NO South Africa 1975 "Baby Do You Wanna Bump" - - - - - 14 - - - - - - - 1976 "Daddy Cool" 1 6 1 1 1 3 65 11 - - - 1 2 "Sunny" 1 3 1 11 2 1 - - 4 - - 4 2 1977 "Ma Baker" 1 2 1 1 1 1 96 31 4 - - 1 1 "Still I'm Sad" - - - 17 - - - - - - - - - "Belfast" 1 8 2 - 1 3 - - 1 - - - - 1978 "Rivers of Babylon" 1 1 1 1 1 1 30 - 1 - - 1 1 "Brown Girl in the Ring" - 3 - - - - - - - - - - - "Rasputin" 1 2 1 - 2 8 - - 3 - - 10 9 "Mary's Boy Child / Oh My Lord" 1 1 3 1 1 3 85 - 1 - - 2 1 1979 "Painter Man" (UK + Ireland only) - 10 - - - 8 - - 5 - - - - "Hooray! Hooray! It's a Holi-Holiday" 4 3 3 11 4 1 - - 5 - - 2 12 "El Lute" / "Gotta Go Home" 1 12 1 10 2 2 - - 11 - - 4 2 "I'm Born Again" / "Bahama Mama" 7 35 9 17 6 11 - - 12 - - - - 1980 "I See a Boat on the River" 5 - 3 - 9 7 - - - - - 6 4 "My Friend Jack" - 57 - - - - - - - - - - - "Children of Paradise" 11 66 - - 13 28 - - - - - - - "Felicidad (Margherita)" 6 - 6 - 3 - - - - - - - - 1981 "Malaika" / "Consuela Biaz" 13 - 7 - 4 20 - - - - - - 1 "We Kill the World (Don't Kill the World)" 12 39 - - 3 25 - - - - 1 - 1 "Little Drummer Boy" 20 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1982 "6 Years of Boney M. Hits" - - - - - - - - - - 6 - - "The Carnival Is Over" / "Going Back West" 41 - - - 11 - - - - - - - - "Zion's Daughter" - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1983 "Jambo - Hakuna Matata (No Problems)" 48 - - - 11 - - - - - - - - 1984 "Somewhere in the World" 49 - - - - - - - - - - - - "Kalimba de Luna" 17 - 11 - 23 27 - 49 - - - - - "Happy Song" 7 - 15 - 21 - - - - - - - - 1985 "My Chérie Amour" 55 - - - - - - - - - - - - "Young, Free and Single" 49 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1986 "Daddy Cool (Anniversary Recording '86)" - - - - - - - - - - - - - "Bang Bang Lulu" - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1988 "Rivers of Babylon (Remix '88)" - - - - - - - - - - - - - "Megamix" - 52 - - - - - - - 1 - - - 1989 "The Summer Mega Mix" - 92 - - - - - - - 11 - 3 - "Malaika (Lambada Remix)" - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1990 "Stories" - 94 - - - 26 - - - - - - - 1992 "Megamix" 26 7 11 - - 13 - - 3 - - - - 1993 "Brown Girl in the Ring (Remix)" - 38 - - - - - - 25 - - - - "Ma Baker (Remix '93)" - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1994 "Papa Chico" Boney M. feat. Liz Mitchell - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1999 "Ma Baker (Somebody Scream)" vs. Horny United/Sash! 28 22 19 10 21 26 - - - - - - - "Daddy Cool '99" Boney M. 2000 feat. Mobi T. 47 - - - 49 - - - - - - - - "Hooray! Hooray! (Caribbean Night Fever)" Boney M. 2000 79 - - - 80 - - - - - - - - 2000 "Sunny (Remix)" Boney M. 2000 - - - - 80 - - - - - - - - 2001 "Daddy Cool 2001" - 47 - - - - - - - - - - - 2006 "Sunny (Mousse T. Remix)" - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2007 "Mary's Boy Child / Oh My Lord" - 47 - - - - - - - - - - - "-" means chart peak is unknown or the single did not chart on a particular chart. See also Best selling music artists - World's top-selling music artists chart References Marcia Barrett's official website Marcia Barrett's official fansite Maizie Williams' official website Liz Mitchell's official website Bobby Farrell's official website Fantastic Boney M. 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2,405 | Athlon | Athlon is the brand name applied to a series of different x86 processors designed and manufactured by AMD. The original Athlon (now called Athlon Classic) was the first seventh-generation x86 processor and, in a first, retained the initial performance lead it had over Intel's competing processors for a significant period of time, being the first desktop processor to reach speeds of 1 GHz. AMD has continued the Athlon name with the Athlon 64, an eighth-generation processor featuring x86-64 (later renamed AMD64) technology. The Athlon made its debut on June 23, 1999. Athlon is the ancient Greek word for "Champion/trophy of the games". Background AMD ex-CEO and founder Jerry Sanders developed strategic partnerships during the late 1990s to improve AMD's presence in the PC market based on the success of the K6 architecture. One major partnership announced in 1998 paired AMD with semiconductor giant Motorola. In the announcement, Sanders referred to the partnership as creating a "virtual gorilla" that would enable AMD to compete with Intel on fabrication capacity while limiting AMD's financial outlay for new facilities. This partnership also helped to co-develop copper-based semiconductor technology, which would become a cornerstone of the K7 production process. In August 1999, AMD released the Athlon (K7) processor. Notably, the design team was led by Dirk Meyer, one of the lead engineers on the DEC Alpha project. Jerry Sanders had approached many of the engineering staff to work for AMD as DEC wound the project down, and brought in a near-complete team of engineering experts. The balance of the Athlon design team comprised AMD K5 and K6 veterans. By working with Motorola, AMD was able to refine copper interconnect manufacturing to the production stage about one year before Intel. The revised process permitted 180-nanometer processor production. The accompanying die-shrink resulted in lower power consumption, permitting AMD to increase Athlon clockspeeds to the 1 GHz range. AMD Announces First Revenue Shipments From Dresden "MEGAFAB", AMD Press Release, June 5, 2000. AMD found processor yields on the new process exceeded expectations, and delivered high speed chips in volume in March 2000. General architecture Athlon architecture Internally, the Athlon is a fully seventh generation x86 processor, the first of its kind. Like the AMD K5 and K6, the Athlon is a RISC microprocessor which decodes x86 instructions into its own internal instructions at runtime. The CPU is an out-of-order design, again like previous post-5x86 AMD CPUs. The Athlon utilizes the Alpha 21264's EV6 bus architecture with double data rate (DDR) technology. This means that at 100 MHz the Athlon front side bus actually transfers at a rate similar to a 200 MHz single data rate bus (referred to as 200 MT/s), which was superior to the method used on Intel's Pentium III (with SDR bus speeds of 100 MHz and 133 MHz). AMD designed the CPU with more robust x86 instruction decoding capabilities than that of K6, to enhance its ability to keep more data in-flight at once. The Athlon's three decoders could potentially decode six x86 instructions per clock, although this was somewhat unlikely in real-world use. Hsieh, Paul. 7th Generation CPU Comparisons. The critical branch predictor unit, essential to keeping the pipeline busy, was enhanced compared to what was onboard the K6. Deeper pipelining with more stages allowed higher clock speeds to be attained. De Gelas, Johan. The Secrets of High Performance CPUs, Part 1, Ace's Hardware, September 29, 1999. Whereas the AMD K6-III+ topped out at 570 MHz due to its short pipeline, even when built on the 180 nm process, the Athlon was capable of going much higher. AMD ended its long-time handicap with floating point x87 performance by designing a super-pipelined, out-of-order, triple-issue floating point unit. Each of its 3 units was tailored to be able to calculate an optimal type of instructions with some redundancy. By having separate units, it was possible to operate on more than one floating point instruction at once. This FPU was a huge step forward for AMD. While the K6 FPU had looked anemic compared to the Intel P6 FPU, with Athlon this was no longer the case. Pabst, Thomas. Performance-Showdown between Athlon and Pentium III, Tom's Hardware, August 23, 1999. The 3DNow! floating point SIMD technology, again present, received some revisions and a name change to "Enhanced 3DNow!". Additions included DSP instructions and an implementation of the extended MMX subset of Intel SSE. Womack, Tom. Extensions to the x86 architecture. The Athlon's CPU cache consisted of the typical two levels. Athlon was the first x86 processor with a 128 KB split level 1 cache; a 2-way associative, later 16-way, cache separated into 2×64 KB for data and instructions (Harvard architecture). This cache was double the size of K6's already large 2×32 KB cache, and quadruple the size of Pentium II and III's 2×16 KB L1 cache. The initial Athlon (Slot A, later renamed Athlon Classic) used 512 KB of level 2 cache separate from the CPU, on the processor cartridge board, running at 50% to 33% of core speed. This was done because the 250 nm manufacturing process was too large to allow for on-die cache while maintaining cost-effective die size. Later Athlon CPUs, afforded greater transistor budgets by smaller 180 nm and 130 nm process nodes, moved to on-die L2 cache at full CPU clock speed. Athlon Athlon Classic Slot-A Athlon logo on cartridge An open Slot-A cartridge An Argon core "7th Generation Processor" Slot-A cartridge Athlon Classic launched on June 23, 1999. It showed superior performance compared to the reigning champion, Pentium III, in every benchmark. Lal Shimpi, Anand. AMD Athlon, August 9, 1999. Athlon Classic is a cartridge-based processor. The design, called Slot A, was quite similar to Intel's Slot 1 cartridge used for Pentium II and Pentium III; actually it used mechanically the same slot part as competing Intel CPUs (allowing motherboard manufacturers to save on costs) but reversed "upside-down" to prevent users putting in wrong CPUs (as they were completely signal incompatible). The cartridge allowed the use of higher speed cache memory than can be put on the motherboard. Like Pentium II and the "Katmai"-core Pentium III, Athlon Classic used a 512 KB secondary cache. This cache, again like its competitors, ran at a fraction of the core clock rate and had its own 64-bit bus, called a "backside bus" that allowed concurrent system front side bus and cache accesses. De Gelas, Johan. Clash of Silicon, The Athlon 650, Ace's Hardware, September 29, 1999. Initially the L2 cache was set for half of the CPU clock speed, on up to 700 MHz Athlon CPUs. Faster Slot-A processors were forced to compromise with cache clock speed and ran at 2/5 (up to 850 MHz) or 1/3 (up to 1 GHz). Lal Shimpi, Anand. AMD Athlon 1 GHz, 950 MHz, 900 MHz, Anandtech, March 6, 2000, p.2. The SRAM available at the time was incapable of matching the Athlon's clock scalability, due both to cache chip technology limitations and electrical/cache latency complications of running an external cache at such a high speed. The Slot-A Athlons were the first multiplier-locked CPUs from AMD. This was partly done to hinder CPU remarking being done by questionable resellers around the globe. AMD's older CPUs could simply be set to run at whatever clock speed the user chose on the motherboard, making it trivial to relabel a CPU and sell it as a faster grade than it was originally intended. These relabeled CPUs were not always stable, being overclocked and not tested properly, and this was damaging to AMD's reputation. Although the Athlon was multiplier locked, crafty enthusiasts eventually discovered that a connector on the PCB of the cartridge could control the multiplier. Eventually a product called the "Goldfingers device" was created that could unlock the CPU, named after the gold connector pads on the processor board that it attached to. Noonan, Jim and Rolfe, James. Athlon Gold-Finger Devices, Overclockers.com.au, accessed August 24, 2006. In commercial terms, the Athlon Classic was an enormous success — not just because of its own merits, but also because the normally dependable Intel endured a series of major production, design, and quality control issues at this time. In particular, Intel's transition to the 180 nm production process, starting in late 1999 and running through to mid-2000, suffered delays. There was a shortage of Pentium III parts. In contrast, AMD enjoyed a remarkably smooth process transition and had ample supplies available, causing Athlon sales to become quite strong. The "Argon" Athlon contained 22 million transistors and measured 184 mm2. It was fabricated by AMD in a slightly modified version of thier CS44E process, a 0.25 µm complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS0 process with six levels of aluminium interconnect. Golden, Michael et al. (1999). "A Seventh-Generation x86 Microprocessor". IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, Volume 34, Number 11. pp. 1466–1477. Diefendorff, Keith (26 October 1998). "K7 Challenges Intel". Microprocessor Report, Volume 12, Number 14. "Pluto" and "Orion" Athlons were fabricated in a 0.18 µm process. Specifications L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions) L2-Cache: 512 KB, external chips on CPU module with 50%, 40% or 33% of CPU speed MMX, 3DNow! Slot A (EV6) Front side bus: 200 MT/s (100 MHz double-pumped) VCore: 1.6 V (K7), 1.6–1.8 V (K75) First release: June 23 1999 (K7), November 29 1999 (K75) Clockrate: 500–700 MHz (K7), 550–1000 MHz (K75) Thunderbird (T-Bird) Athlon "Thunderbird" Open Athlon Thunderbird slot A cartridge The second generation Athlon, the Thunderbird, debuted on June 5, 2000. This version of the Athlon shipped in a more traditional pin-grid array (PGA) format that plugged into a socket ("Socket A") on the motherboard (it also shipped in the slot A package). It was sold at speeds ranging from 600 MHz to 1400 MHz (slot A package maximum speed was 1000 MHz). The major difference, however, was cache design. Just as Intel had done when they replaced the old Katmai Pentium III with the much faster Coppermine P-III, AMD replaced the 512 KB external reduced-speed cache of the Athlon Classic with 256 KB of on-chip, full-speed exclusive cache. As a general rule, more cache improves performance, but faster cache improves it further still. K7 microarchitecture information, Sandpile.org, accessed September 26, 2006. AMD changed cache design significantly with Thunderbird. With the older Athlon CPUs, the CPU caching was of an inclusive design where data from the L1 is duplicated in the L2 cache. Thunderbird moved to an exclusive design where the L1 cache's contents are not duplicated in the L2. This increases total cache size of the processor and effectively makes caching behave as if there is a very large L1 cache with a slower region (the L2) and a very fast region (the L1). Stokes, John. Inside AMD's Hammer: the 64-bit architecture behind the Opteron and Athlon 64, Ars Technica, February 1, 2005:p.9. Because of Athlon's very large L1 cache and the exclusive design which turns the L2 cache into basically a "victim cache", the need for high L2 performance and size was lessened. AMD kept the 64-bit L2 cache data bus from the older Athlons, as a result, and allowed it to have a relatively high latency. A simpler L2 cache reduced the possibility of the L2 cache causing clock scaling and yield issues. Still, instead of the 2-way associative scheme used in older Athlons, Thunderbird did move to a more efficient 16-way associative layout. The Thunderbird was AMD's most successful product since the Am386DX-40 ten years earlier. Mainboard designs had improved considerably by this time, and the initial trickle of Athlon mainboard makers had swollen to include every major manufacturer. AMD's new fab in Dresden came online, allowing further production increases, and the process technology was improved by a switch to copper interconnects. In October 2000 the Athlon "C" was introduced, raising the mainboard front side bus speed to 133 MHz (266 MT/s) and providing roughly 10% extra performance per clock over the "B" model Thunderbird. Specifications L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions) L2-Cache: 256 KB, fullspeed MMX, 3DNow! Slot A & Socket A (EV6) Front side bus: 100 MHz (Slot-A, B-models), 133 MHz (C-models) (200 MT/s, 266 MT/s) VCore: 1.70–1.75 V First release: June 5 2000 Clockrate: Slot A: 650–1000 MHz Socket A, 100 MHz FSB (B-models): 600–1400 MHz Socket A, 133 MHz FSB (C-models): 1000–1400 MHz Athlon XP/MP In performance terms, the Thunderbird had easily eclipsed the rival Pentium III, and the early Pentium 4 were a long way off the pace, but gradually clawed their way closer. The 1.7 GHz P4 (April 2001) served notice that the Thunderbird could not count on retaining performance leadership forever, and thermal and electricity-consumption issues with the Thunderbird design meant that it was not practical to take it past 1400 MHz (and even at that speed it was rather hot). Palomino Athlon XP "Palomino" 1600+ AMD released the third major Athlon version on October 9, 2001, code-named "Palomino", and named it Athlon XP. The Athlon XP was marketed using a PR system, which compared its performance to an Athlon with the "Thunderbird" core. Athlon XP was introduced at speeds between 1333 MHz and 1533 MHz, with ratings from 1500+ to 1800+. At launch, the new core allowed AMD to take the x86 performance lead with the 1800+ model, and enhance that lead with the release of the 1600 MHz 1900+ less than a month later. Wasson, Scott. AMD's Athlon XP 1900+ processor: Pouring it on, The Tech Report, November 5, 2001. The "XP" suffix is interpreted to mean eXtreme Performance and also as an unofficial reference to Windows XP. Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. Introducing the AMD Athlon XP Processor. Palomino was the first K7 core to include the full SSE instruction set from the Intel Pentium III as well as AMD's 3DNow! Professional. It is roughly 10% faster than Thunderbird at the same clock speed, thanks in part to the new SIMD functionality and to several additional improvements. The core has enhancements to the K7's TLB architecture and the addition of a hardware data prefetch mechanism to better take advantage of available memory bandwidth. Lal Shimpi, Anand. AMD Athlon 4 - The Palomino is Here, Anandtech, May 14, 2001, p:4–5. Changes in core layout result in Palomino being more frugal with its electrical demands, consuming approximately 20% less power than its predecessor, and thus reducing heat output comparatively as well. Wasson, Scott. AMD's Athlon XP 1800+ processor: 1533 > 1800, The Tech Report, October 9, 2001. While Athlon "Thunderbird" was near its clock ceiling at 1400 MHz, changes to Palomino's transistor layout and the reduction in power demands allowed it to continue increasing clock speed even at the same 180 nm manufacturing process node and core voltage. The "Palomino" was actually first released as a mobile version, called the Mobile Athlon 4 (codenamed "Corvette"). Palomino was also available in a form that officially supports dual processing, known as Athlon MP. Lal Shimpi, Anand. AMD 760MP & Athlon MP – Dual Processor Heaven, Anandtech, June 5, 2001. Specifications L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions) L2-Cache: 256 KB, fullspeed MMX, 3DNow!, SSE Socket A (EV6) Front side bus: 133 MHz (266 MT/s) VCore: 1.50 to 1.75 V Power consumption: 68 W First release: October 9 2001 Clockrate: A4: 850–1400 MHz XP: 1333–1733 MHz (1500+ to 2100+) MP: 1000–1733 MHz Thoroughbred (T-Bred) Athlon XP "Thoroughbred A" 1700+ The fourth-generation Athlon, the Thoroughbred, was released 10 June 2002 at 1.8 GHz, or 2200+ on the PR system. The "Thoroughbred" core marked AMD's first production 130 nm silicon, resulting in a significant reduction in die size compared to its 180 nm predecessor. There are two versions of this core, commonly called A and B. The A version was introduced at 1800 MHz, and had some heat and design issues that held its clock scalability back. In fact, AMD wasn't able to increase its clock above Palomino's top grades. Because of this, it was only sold in versions from 1333 MHz to 1800 MHz, replacing the larger Palomino core. The B version of Thoroughbred has an additional metal layer to improve its ability to reach higher clock speeds. It launched at higher clock speeds. Other than the new manufacturing process, the Thoroughbred design was largely the same as the "Palomino". The Thoroughbred line received an increased front side bus clock during its lifetime, up to 333 MT/s from 266 MT/s. This improved the processor's memory and I/O access efficiency, and improved per-clock performance as a result. AMD shifted their PR rating scheme accordingly, making lower clock speeds equate to higher PR ratings. Specifications L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions) L2-Cache: 256 KB, fullspeed MMX, 3DNow!, SSE Socket A (EV6) Front side bus: 133/166 MHz (266/333 MT/s) VCore: 1.50–1.65 V First release: June 10 2002 (A), August 21 2002 (B) Clockrate: T-Bred "A": 1400–1800 MHz (1600+ to 2200+) T-Bred "B": 1400–2250 MHz (1600+ to 2800+) 133 MHz FSB: 1400–2133 MHz (1600+ to 2600+) 166 MHz FSB: 2083–2250 MHz (2600+ to 2800+) Barton and Thorton Athlon XP "Barton" 2800+ Fifth-generation Athlon Barton-core processors released in early 2003 featured PR ratings of 2500+, 2600+, 2800+, 3000+, and 3200+. While not operating at higher clock rates than Thoroughbred-core processors, they earned their higher PR-rating by featuring a total of 512 KB L2 cache and, in some models, a faster 400 MT/s front side bus. De Gelas, Johan. Barton: 512 KB Athlon XP Reviewed, Ace's Hardware, February 10, 2003. The Thorton core was a variant of the Barton with half of the L2 cache disabled and thus functionally identical to the Thoroughbred core. By the time of Barton's release, the "Northwood" Pentium 4 had become more than competitive with AMD's processors. Lal Shimpi, Anand. AMD's Athlon XP 3000+: Barton cuts it close, AnandTech, February 10, 2003. Unfortunately, due to the architecture of AMD's processor caches, an L2 cache increase to 512 KB did not have nearly the same impact as it did to Intel's line. Only an increase of several percent was gained in per-clock performance. The PR rating became somewhat inaccurate because some Barton models with lower clock rate weren't consistently outperforming their higher-clocked Thoroughbred predecessors with lower ratings. The other improvement, a higher 400 MT/s bus clock, helped Barton gain some more efficiency. However, it was clear by this time that Intel's quad-pumped bus was scaling well above AMD's double-pumped EV6 bus. The 800 MT/s Pentium 4 bus was well out of Athlon's reach. In order to reach the same bandwidth levels, the Athlon bus would have to be clocked at levels simply unreachable. The K7 architecture had scaled to its limit. Maintaining performance equivalence with Intel's improving processors would require a significant redesign. AMD would soon launch Athlon 64. Specifications: Barton (130 nm) L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions) L2-Cache: 512 KB, fullspeed MMX, 3DNow!, SSE Socket A (EV6) Front side bus: 166/200 MHz (333/400 MT/s) VCore: 1.65 V First release: February 102003 Clockrate: 1833–2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+) 166 MHz FSB: 1833–2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+) 200 MHz FSB: 2100, 2200 MHz (3000+, 3200+) Thorton (130 nm) L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions) L2-Cache: 256 KB, fullspeed MMX, 3DNow!, SSE Socket A (EV6) Front side bus: 133/166/200 MHz (266/333/400 MT/s) VCore: 1.50–1.65 V First release: September 2003 Clockrate: 1667–2200 MHz (2000+ to 3100+) 133 MHz FSB: 1600–2133 MHz (2000+ to 2600+) 166 MHz FSB: 2083 MHz (2600+) 200 MHz FSB: 2200 MHz (3100+) Mobile Athlon XP Athlon XP Mobile "Barton" 2400+ Mobile Athlon XPs (Athlon XP-M) are identical to normal Athlon XPs, apart from running at lower voltages, often lower bus speeds, and not being multiplier-locked. The lower Vcore rating caused the CPU to have lower power consumption (ideal for battery-powered laptops) and lower heat production. Athlon XP-M CPUs also have a higher-rated heat tolerance, a requirement of the tight conditions within a notebook PC. The Athlon XP-M replaced the older Mobile Athlon 4. The Mobile Athlon 4 used the older Palomino core, while the Athlon XP-M used the newer Thoroughbred and Barton cores. Some specialized low-power Athlon XP-Ms utilize the microPGA socket 563 rather than the standard Socket A. The CPUs, like their mobile K6+ predecessors, were also capable of dynamic clock adjustment for power optimization. When the system is idle, the CPU clocks itself down through a lower bus multiplier and also reduces its voltage. Then, when a program demands more computational resources, the CPU very quickly (there is some latency) returns to intermediate or maximum speed to meet the demand. This technology was marketed as "PowerNow!". It was similar to Intel's SpeedStep power saving technique. The feature was controlled by the CPU, motherboard BIOS, and operating system. AMD later renamed the technology to Cool'n'Quiet, on their K8-based CPUs (Athlon 64, etc), and re-imagined it for use on desktop PCs as well. Athlon XP-Ms were popular with desktop overclockers, as well as underclockers. The lower voltage requirement and higher heat rating resulted in CPUs that were basically "cherry picked" from the manufacturing line. Being the best of the cores off the line, the CPUs typically were more reliably overclocked than their desktop-headed counterparts. Also, the fact that they weren't locked to a single multiplier was a significant simplification for the overclocking process. Some Barton core Athlon XP-Ms have been successfully overclocked to as high as 3.1 GHz. As stated, the chips were also liked for their underclocking ability. Underclocking is a process of determining the lowest Vcore at which a CPU can remain stable at for a given clock speed. The Athlon XP-M CPUs were capable of running lower voltages per clock rate compared to their desktop siblings. As such, the chips were used in home theater PC systems due to their high performance and low heat output at low Vcore settings. Besides not being locked to multiplier, they were also not disabled from SMP operation as were other AthlonsXP. Thus one could use them instead of the more expensive Athlon MP in dual socket A motherboards. Since those boards lacked multiplier and voltage adjustments, and could run only 133MHz FSB the adjustment could have been made by wire-modding the CPU socket by connecting adjacent CPU pins. It was normal to overclock mobile 2500+ CPU to 2.26GHz with 17x multiplier thus being faster than fastest official 2800+ MP CPU running at 2133MHz. Athlon competitors Intel Pentium III, Pentium 4, and Celeron VIA C3 and C7 Transmeta Efficeon Supercomputers The fastest supercomputers based on AthlonMP: Rutgers University, Department of Physics & Astronomy. Machine: NOW Cluster - AMD Athlon. CPU: 512 AthlonMP (1.65 GHz). Rmax: 794 GFLOPS. See also List of AMD Athlon 64 microprocessors List of AMD Athlon microprocessors List of AMD Athlon XP microprocessors List of AMD Sempron microprocessors References External links cpu-collection.de AMD Athlon processor images and descriptions amdboard.com AMD Athlon/Duron/Sempron CPU identification and OPN breakdown AMD's Technical Specifications for 7th generation CPUs (.pdf) Easy identification with Interactive AMD product ID AMD Athlon technical specifications Xbit Labs EV6 vs GTL+ System Bus | Athlon |@lemmatized athlon:98 brand:1 name:6 apply:1 series:2 different:1 processor:27 design:17 manufacture:3 amd:61 original:1 call:6 classic:8 first:16 seventh:3 generation:10 retain:2 initial:3 performance:17 lead:5 intel:18 compete:3 significant:4 period:1 time:7 desktop:5 reach:4 speed:27 ghz:8 continue:2 eighth:1 feature:4 later:6 rename:3 technology:8 make:5 debut:2 june:9 ancient:1 greek:1 word:1 champion:2 trophy:1 game:1 background:1 ex:1 ceo:1 founder:1 jerry:2 sander:3 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2,406 | Kennedy_Space_Center | Merritt Island and Kennedy Space Center (shown in white). The John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC) is the NASA space vehicle launch facility and Launch Control Center (spaceport) on Merritt Island, Brevard County, Florida, United States. The site is near Cape Canaveral, midway between Miami and Jacksonville, Florida. It is long and around wide, covering . A total of 13,500 people work at the site as of early 2008. "Our view: Still spaced out", Florida Today, January 23, 2008. There is a visitor center and public tours; KSC is a major tourist destination for visitors to Florida. Because much of KSC is a restricted area and only nine percent of the land is developed, the site also serves as an important wildlife sanctuary; Mosquito Lagoon, Indian River, Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge and Canaveral National Seashore are also features of this area. The American Flag painted on the Vehicle Assembly Building was the largest in the world at the time of the VAB's constriction, and has stars that measure 6 feet in diameter. The stripes would be wide enough to drive a bus down if it were laid out horizontally. Operations are currently controlled from Launch Complex 39, the location of the Vehicle Assembly Building. The two launch pads are to the east of the assembly building. The KSC Industrial Area, where many of the Center's support facilities and the administrative Headquarters Building are located, are found south. Kennedy Space Center's only launch operations are at Launch Complex 39, Pads A and B. All other launch operations take place at the adjacent Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS), which is operated by the 45th Space Wing (45 SW) of the US Air Force. History Originally called the Launch Operations Center, KSC was authorized in 1958 during the administration of Dwight D. Eisenhower and completed in 1962 during the administration of John F. Kennedy. In 1963, the facility received its current name following the latter President's assassination. The adjacent Cape Canaveral was also renamed Cape Kennedy, but this change was unpopular with local residents and the cape reverted to its original name by a legislative act of the State of Florida in 1973. 1960s Mercury The announcement of the lunar program led to an expansion of operations from the Cape to the adjacent Merritt Island. NASA began acquisition in 1962, taking title to by outright purchase and negotiating with the state of Florida for an additional . In July 1962, the site was named the Launch Operations Center. The buildings were initially designed by Charles Luckman. http://www.cnn.com/interactive/specials/9912/yearinreview.passages/content/business/luckman.html The lunar project had three stages—Mercury, Gemini and Apollo. The objective of the Mercury program was: Place a manned spacecraft in orbital flight around the earth. Investigate man's performance capabilities and his ability to function in the environment of space. Recover the man and the spacecraft safely. The project started in October 1957 using the Atlas ICBM as the base to carry the Mercury payload, but early testing used the Redstone rocket for a series of suborbital flights including the 15-minute flights of Alan Shepard on May 5 and Virgil Grissom on July 21, 1961. The first human carried by an Atlas was John Glenn on February 20, 1962. While Mercury was launched by NASA, launches occurred from the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station as KSC was not yet developed. Gemini From the knowledge gained through Mercury the more complex two-man capsules of Gemini were prepared as was a new launcher based on the Titan II ICBM. The first manned flight took place on March 23, 1965, with Gus Grissom and John Young. The following mission, Gemini 4, featured the first American extravehicular activity, a "spacewalk" by Ed White. A total of twelve Gemini missions were launched from KSC, the last ten of which were manned. The final flight, Gemini 12, was launched on November 11, 1966, and concluded four days later. Apollo The Apollo program had another new launcher—the three-stage Saturn V (111 m high and 10 m in diameter), built by Boeing (first stage), North American Aviation (engines and second stage) and Douglas Aircraft (third stage). North American Aviation also made the command and service modules while Grumman constructed the lunar lander. IBM, MIT and GE provided instrumentation. An aerial view of the Launch Complex 39 area shows the Vehicle Assembly Building (center), with the Launch Control Center on its right. At KSC, an $800 million center was built to accommodate this new rocket—Launch Complex 39. It included a hangar to hold four Saturn V rockets, the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB, 130 million ft³); a transportation system from the hangar to the launch pad, capable of carrying 5440 tons; a movable service structure and a control center. Construction began in November 1962, the launch pads were completed by October 1965, the VAB was completed in June 1965, and the infrastructure by late 1966. From 1967 through 1973, there were 13 Saturn V launches from Complex 39. Before the Saturn V launches there was a series of smaller Saturn I and IB launches, to test the men and equipment, from the Complex 34 on the Cape Canaveral site. The deaths of astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White and Roger B. Chaffee by fire on Apollo-Saturn 204 (later designated Apollo 1) on January 27, 1967 occurred at Complex 34. The first Saturn V test launch, Apollo 4 (Apollo-Saturn 501) began its 104 hour countdown on October 30, 1967 and, after delays, was launched on November 9. Apollo 7 was the first manned test on October 11, 1968 (on a Saturn IB). Apollo 8, the first manned Saturn V launch, made 10 lunar orbits on December 24-25, 1968. Apollo 9 and Apollo 10 tested the lunar lander. Apollo 11 was launched on July 16, 1969 and the Moon was walked on at 10:56 pm EDT, July 20. 1970s The Apollo program continued at KSC, with Apollo 13 in 1970 which was crippled in a explosion which thus it was called a "Successful Failure", Apollo 14 in 1971, the 24th US manned space flight (40th in the world), and ended with Apollo 17 in December 1972. The Air Force chose to expand the capabilities of the Titan launch vehicles for its heavy lift capabilities. It constructed Launch Complexes 40 and 41 to launch Titan III and Titan IV rockets at CCAFS, just south of Kennedy Space Center. A Titan III has about the same payload capacity as a Saturn IB with a considerable cost saving. Launch Complexes 40 and 41 were used to launch defense reconnaissance, communications and weather satellites and NASA planetary missions. The Air Force also planned to launch two manned space projects from LC 40 and 41. They were the Dyna-Soar, a manned orbital rocket plane (cancelled in 1963), and the Manned Orbital Laboratory, a manned reconnaissance space station (cancelled in 1969). ELV rocket development also continued at KSC—before Apollo, an Atlas-Centaur launched from Launch Complex 36 placed the first American Surveyor lander softly on the Moon on May 30, 1966. A further five out of seven Surveyor craft were also successfully transferred to the Moon. From 1974-1977 the powerful Titan-Centaur became the new heavy lift vehicle for NASA, launching the Viking and Voyager series of spacecraft from Launch Complex 41, an Air Force site lent to NASA. Complex 41 later became the launch site for the most powerful unmanned U.S. rocket, the Titan IV, developed for the Air Force. The Saturn V was also used to put the Skylab space station in orbit in 1973. Launchpad 39B was slightly modified for Saturn IB use, and launched three manned missions to Skylab in 1973, as well as the Apollo component of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in 1975. 1980s [[Image:STS-36 rollout.jpg|thumb|right|Space Shuttle Atlantis is prepared for launch on Mission STS-36.]] KSC is now the launch site for the Space Shuttle, reusing the Complex 39 Apollo infrastructure. The first launch was of Columbia on April 12, 1981. KSC also has a landing site for the orbiter, the 2.9 mile (4.6 km) Shuttle Landing Facility. However, the first end-of-mission Shuttle landing at KSC did not take place until February 11, 1984, when Challenger completed STS-41-B; the primary landing site had until that time been Edwards Air Force Base in California. Twenty-five flights had been completed by September 1988, with a long hiatus from January 28, 1986, to September 29, 1988, following the Challenger disaster (which was the first shuttle launch from Pad 39B). The designations for flights at Kennedy Space Center after Challenger were STS-26R through STS-33R Post Challenger STS missions NASA Retrieved May 27, 2009 . Mission numbers at Kennedy Space Center were sometimes different than at Johnson Space Center. Challenger, known as 51-L at JSC was known as STS-33 at KSC, hence STS-26R through STS-33R. 2000s In September 2004, parts of Kennedy Space Center were damaged by Hurricane Frances. The Vehicle Assembly Building lost 1,000 exterior panels, each 3.9 x 9.8 ft (approx. 1.2 x 3.0 m) in size. This exposed of the building to the elements. Damage occurred to the south and east sides of the VAB. The Space Shuttle tile manufacturing facility suffered extensive damage. The roof was partially torn off and the interior suffered extensive water damage. Further damage to KSC was caused by Hurricane Wilma in October 2005. The Central Florida area receives more lightning strikes than any other place in the U.S., Weather.com causing NASA to spend millions of dollars to avoid strikes during launch. KSC - Lightning and the Space Programretrieved May 28, 2008 The first lightning strike on the launchpad happened in 2006, during Hurricane Ernesto. This happened while NASA had to reprieve the Space Shuttle mission STS-115. In the future, Kennedy Space Center will be the launch site for the Ares I and Ares V rockets, which carry the Orion spacecraft. KSC Directors Since Kennedy Space Center's formation, ten NASA officials have served as directors: Name Start End Reference Dr. Kurt H. Debus July 1962 November 1974 NASA - Biography of Dr. Kurt H. Debus Lee R. Scherer January 19, 1975 September 2, 1979 NASA - Biography of Lee R. Scherer Richard G. Smith September 26, 1979 August 2, 1986 NASA - Biography of Richard G. Smith Forrest S. McCartney August 31, 1987 December 31, 1991 NASA - Biography of Forrest S. McCartney Robert L. Crippen January 1992 January 1995 NASA - Biography of Robert L. Crippen Jay F. Honeycutt January 1995 March 2, 1997 NASA - Biography of Jay F. Honeycutt Roy D. Bridges, Jr. March 2, 1997 August 9, 2003 NASA - Biography of Roy Bridges James W. Kennedy August 9, 2003 January 2007 NASA - NASA KSC Director Announces Retirement William W. Parsons January 2007 October 2008 NASA - Biography of William W. (Bill) Parsons Robert D. Cabana October 2008 Present Visitor complex The gate to the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, July 2006. Explorer, a mock-up of the Space Shuttle, is in the background. The Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, operated by Delaware North Companies, is home to a number of museums, a simulation ride into space, two IMAX theatres, and a range of bus tours allowing visitors a closer look at various restricted areas that would otherwise not be possible. Base admission for people over age 12 is $38. Included in the base admission is tour-bus transportation into the restricted area to an observation gantry on the grounds of Launch Complex 39, and to the Apollo-Saturn V Center. The observation gantry provides unobstructed views of both launch pads and all of Kennedy Space Center property. The Apollo-Saturn V Center is a large museum built around its centerpiece exhibit, a restored Saturn V launch vehicle, and features other space related exhibits, including an Apollo capsule. Two theaters allow the visitor to relive parts of the Apollo program. One simulates the environment inside an Apollo-era firing room during an Apollo launch, and another simulates the Apollo 11 landing. The tour also includes a visit to a building where modules for the International Space Station are tested. The Rocket Garden (open to visitors) at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, December 2004. The Visitor Complex also includes two facilities run by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation. The most visible of these is the Space Mirror Memorial, also known as the Astronaut Memorial, a huge black granite mirror through-engraved with the names of all astronauts who died in the line of duty. These names are constantly illuminated from behind, with natural light when possible, and artificial light when necessary. The glowing names seem to float in a reflection of the sky. Supplemental displays nearby give the details of the lives and deaths of the astronauts memorialized. Elsewhere on the Visitor Complex grounds is the Foundation's Center for Space Education, which includes a resource center for teachers, among other facilities. The Space Mirror in March 2006 Several articles of flight-used and flight-ready spacecraft are on display at KSC: Gemini 9A capsule, at the Visitor Complex Apollo/Skylab Rescue mission Command Module, at the Visitor Complex LM-9, an Apollo Lunar Module originally meant for Apollo 15, Saturn V Center In addition, Mercury-Atlas 8 capsule Sigma 7 and Apollo 14 Command Module Kitty Hawk'' are located at the nearby Astronaut Hall of Fame. References See also Kennedy Space Center with a fly-over by the USAF Thunderbirds Demonstration Team. Central Instrumentation Facility Crawler-transporter Crawlerway Launch Control Center List of Merritt Island launch sites List of space shuttle missions Missile Crawler Transporter Facilities NASA Causeway Operations and Checkout Building Orbiter Processing Facility Press Site-Clock and Flag Pole External links Kennedy Space Center Home Page CCAFS Space and Missile Museum Titusville Area Chamber of Commerce Home Page Visitor Complex Home Page Astronauts Memorial Foundation Home Page John F. Kennedy Space Center from Encyclopedia Astronautica "America's Space Program: Exploring a New Frontier", a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan Aviation: From Sand Dunes to Sonic Booms, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary | Kennedy_Space_Center |@lemmatized merritt:5 island:5 kennedy:19 space:40 center:32 show:2 white:3 john:5 f:5 ksc:19 nasa:21 vehicle:9 launch:49 facility:10 control:5 spaceport:1 brevard:1 county:1 florida:7 united:1 state:3 site:12 near:1 cape:8 canaveral:6 midway:1 miami:1 jacksonville:1 long:2 around:3 wide:2 cover:1 total:2 people:2 work:1 early:2 view:3 still:1 today:1 january:9 visitor:14 public:1 tour:4 major:1 tourist:1 destination:1 much:1 restricted:2 area:8 nine:1 percent:1 land:2 develop:3 also:13 serve:2 important:1 wildlife:2 sanctuary:1 mosquito:1 lagoon:1 indian:1 river:1 national:4 refuge:1 seashore:1 feature:3 american:5 flag:2 paint:1 assembly:6 building:11 large:2 world:2 time:2 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2,407 | Henry_Mayhew | Henry Mayhew, from London Labour and the London Poor (1861) Henry Mayhew (25 November 1812 - 25 July 1887) was an English social researcher, journalist, playwright and advocate of reform. He was one of the two founders of the satirical and humorous magazine Punch, and the magazine's joint-editor, with Mark Lemon, in its early days. He is better known, however, for his work as a social researcher, publishing an extensive series of newspaper articles in the Morning Chronicle, later compiled into the book series London Labour and the London Poor, a groundbreaking and influential survey of the poor of London. Early life He was born in London, one of seventeen children of Joshua Mayhew. He was educated at Westminster school before running away from his studies to sea. Taithe (1996), p.3 He then served with the East India Company as a midshipman on a ship bound for Calcutta. He returned after several years, in 1829 to Britain where he became a trainee lawyer in Wales. Taithe (1996), p.9 After a time he decided to enter the career of journalism and became a freelance journalist. He contributed to the The Thief, a readers digest, followed quickly by writing a play - Figaro in London''' in 1829. Along with continuing to develop his writing, Mayhew briefly managed the Queen's Theatre for a short while. Yates (1884), p.204 Mayhew reputedly fled to The Erwood Inn, a small public house in the village of Erwood which is South of Builth Wells, where he 'holed up', as he fled from his creditors. Visitors can visit the public house as it still trades, and may even have the opportunity to try Wandering Minstrel, which is a real ale brewed solely for the inn. Paris and writing In 1835 Mayhew found himself in a state of debt and along with a fellow writer, they escaped to Paris to avoid their creditors. He spent his time writing and in the company of other writers including William Thackeray and Douglas Jerrold. Mayhew spent over ten years in Paris returning to England in the 1850s whereby he was involved in several literary adventures, mostly the writing of plays. Two of his plays - But, However and the Wandering Minstrel were successful, whilst his early work Figaro in London was less successful. Taithe (1996), p.10 Punch magazine Punch magazine was co founded by Mayhew in 1841. On 17 July 1841 Mayhew cofounded Punch magazine. At its founding the magazine was jointly edited by Mayhew and Mark Lemon. Initially it was subtitled The London Charivari, this being a reference to a satirical humour magazine published in France under the title Le Charivari (a work read often whilst Mayhew was in Paris). Reflecting their satiric and humorous intent, the two editors took for their name and masthead the anarchic glove puppet, Mr. Punch. Punch was an unexpected success, yet, a year later, Mayhew resigned as joint editor in 1842. He however continued as 'suggestor in chief' until he severed his connection in 1845. His brother, Horace stayed on the board of Punch until his death. The Punch years gave Mayhew the opportunity to meet talented illustrators who he later employed to work from daguerreotypes on London Labour and the London Poor. Formative work In 1842 Mayhew contributed to the pioneering Illustrated London News. By this time Mayhew had become reasonably secure financially, had settled his debts and married Jane Jerrold, the daughter of his friend Douglas Jerrold. Taithe (1996), p.11 She lived until 1880. London Labour and the London Poor The articles comprising London Labour and the London Poor were initially collected into three volumes in 1851; the 1861 edition included a fourth volume, co-written with Bracebridge Hemyng, John Binny and Andrew Halliday, on the lives of prostitutes, thieves and beggars. This Extra Volume took a more general and statistical approach to its subject than Volumes 1 to 3. He wrote in volume one: "I shall consider the whole of the metropolitan poor under three separate phases, according as they will work, they can't work, and they won't work''." http://nils.lib.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A4000.01.0140 He interviewed everyone—beggars, street-entertainers (such as Punch and Judy men), market traders, prostitutes, labourers, sweatshop workers, even down to the "mudlarks" who searched the stinking mud on the banks of the River Thames for wood, metal, rope and coal from passing ships, and the "pure-finders" who gathered dog faeces to sell to tanners. He described their clothes, how and where they lived, their entertainments and customs, and made detailed estimates of the numbers and incomes of those practicing each trade. The books make fascinating reading, showing how marginal and precarious many people's lives were, in what, at that time, must have been the richest city in the world. Mayhew's perception as an observer is unsurpassed in early descriptions of London's street scenes. His richly detailed descriptions are able to give an impression of what the street markets of his day were like. Here is a typical description by Mayhew: "The pavement and the road are crowded with purchasers and street-sellers. The housewife in her thick shawl, with the market-basket on her arm, walks slowly on, stopping now to look at the stall of caps, and now to cheapen a bunch of greens. Little boys, holding three or four onions in their hand, creep between the people, wriggling their way through every interstice, and asking for custom in whining tones, as if seeking charity. Then the tumult of the thousand different cries of the eager dealers, all shouting at the top of their voices, at one and the same time, is almost bewildering. “So-old again,” roars one. “Chestnuts all‘ot, a penny a score,” bawls another. “An ‘aypenny a skin, blacking,” squeaks a boy. “Buy, buy, buy, buy, buy-- bu-u-uy!” cries the butcher. “Half-quire of paper for a penny,” bellows the street stationer. “An ‘aypenny a lot ing-uns.” “Twopence a pound grapes.” “Three a penny Yarmouth bloaters.” “Who‘ll buy a bonnet for fourpence?” “Pick ‘em out cheap here! three pair for a halfpenny, bootlaces.” “Now‘s your time! beautiful whelks, a penny a lot.” “Here‘s ha‘p‘orths,” shouts the perambulating confectioner. “Come and look at ‘em! here‘s toasters!” bellows one with a Yarmouth bloater stuck on a toasting-fork. “Penny a lot, fine russets,” calls the apple woman: and so the Babel goes on." London Labour and the London Poor: Volume 1 Influence Mayhew's work was embraced by and was an influence on the Christian Socialists, such as Thomas Hughes, Charles Kingsley, and F. D. Maurice. Radicals also published sizeable excerpts from the reports in the Northern Star, the Red Republican and other newspapers. The often sympathetic investigations, with their immediacy and unswerving eye for detail, offered unprecedented insights into the condition of the Victorian poor. Alongside the earlier work of Edwin Chadwick, they are also regarded as a decisive influence on the thinking of Charles Dickens. 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2,408 | Napalm | An Ecuadorian air force IAI Kfir aircraft drops napalm on a target range during the joint US and Ecuadorian Exercise "Blue Horizon". Napalm is the name given to any of a number of flammable liquids used in fare, often jellied gasoline. Napalm is actually the thickener in such liquids, which when mixed with gasoline makes a sticky incendiary gel. Developed by the U.S. in World War II by a team of Harvard chemists led by Louis Fieser, its name is a portmanteau of the names of its original ingredients, coprecipitated aluminium salts of naphthenic and palmitic acids. These were added to the flammable substance to cause it to gel. Napalm One of the major problems of early incendiary fluids was that they splashed and drained too easily. The U.S. found that a gasoline gel increased both the range and effectiveness of flamethrowers, but was difficult to manufacture because it used natural rubber, which was in high demand for other purposes (e.g. truck tires) and was expensive. Napalm provided a far cheaper alternative, solving the issues involved with rubber-based incendiaries. Modern napalm Modern napalm is composed primarily of benzene and polystyrene, and is known as napalm-B. Napalm 877 was used in flamethrowers and bombs by the U.S. and Allied forces, to increase effectiveness of flammable liquids. The substance is formulated to burn at a specific rate and adhere to materials. Napalm is mixed with gasoline in various proportions to achieve this. Another useful (and dangerous) effect, primarily involving its use in bombs, was that napalm "rapidly deoxygenates the available air" as well as creating large amounts of carbon monoxide causing suffocation. Napalm bombs were notably used in the Vietnam War. Lesser known is the first defensive use of napalm during the Korean War at Outpost Harry on the night of June 10/11, 1953. Though napalm was a 20th century invention, it is part of a long history of incendiary materials in warfare. Historically however, liquids were primarily used (see Greek fire). An infantry-based flammable liquid fuel weapon, the flamethrower, was introduced in World War I by the Germans, variations of which were soon developed by other nations in the conflict. Usage in warfare The French Aviation navale drops napalm over Viet Minh guerrilla positions during an ambush (December 1953). Riverboat of the U.S. Brown-water navy deploying an ignited napalm mixture from a riverboat mounted flamethrower in Vietnam. On July 17, 1944, napalm incendiary bombs were dropped for the first time by American P-38 pilots on a fuel depot at Coutances, near St. Lô, France. Howard Zinn relates how he participated in a napalm bombing of German soldiers (and French civilians) who were awaiting the end of World War II in France about two weeks before the end of the war. Howard Zinn: You Can't Be Neutral on a Moving Train. 2004 Documentary. Napalm bombs were first used in the Pacific Theatre during the Battle of Tinian by Marine aviators; however, its use was complicated by problems with mixing, fuzing and aircraft release mechanisms. In World War II, The USAAF bombed cities in Japan with napalm, killing 80,000 civilians and making 1,000,000 homeless. The substance was used in bombs and flamethrowers in Germany and the Japanese-held islands. It was used by the Greek National army against the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE) during the Greek Civil War, by United Nations forces in Korea, by France against the Viet Minh in the First Indochina War, by Mexico in the late 1960s against guerrilla fighters in Guerrero and by the United States during the Vietnam War. During the Vietnam War, Dow became the sole supplier of napalm to the United States military who used the Napalm in their efforts during the war. The most well-known method of delivering napalm is from air-dropped incendiary bombs. A lesser-known method is the flame throwers used by combat infantry. Flame throwers use a thinner version of the same jellied gasoline to destroy gun emplacements, bunkers and cave hideouts. U.S. Marines fighting on Guadalcanal found them very effective against Japanese positions. The Marines used fire as both a casualty weapon as well as a psychological weapon. They found that Japanese soldiers would abandon positions in which they fought to the death against other weapons. Prisoners of war confirmed that they feared napalm more than any other weapon utilised against them. Pilots returning from the war zone often remarked they would rather have a couple of droppable gasoline tanks full of napalm than any other weapon, bombs, rockets or guns. The U.S. Air Force and Navy used napalm with great effect against all manner of targets to include troops, tanks, buildings and even railroad tunnels. The demoralizing effect napalm had on the enemy became apparent when scores of North Korean troops began to surrender to aircraft flying overhead. Pilots noted that they saw surviving enemy troops waving white flags on subsequent passes after dropping napalm. The pilots radioed to ground troops and the North Koreans were captured. Napalm has been used more recently in wartime by or against: Morocco (1976), Iran (1980–88), Israel (1967, 1982), Nigeria (1969), India & Pakistan (1965 & 1971), Brazil (1972), Egypt (1973), Cyprus (1964, 1974), Iraq (1980–88, 1991, 2003 - present), Serbia (1994),1993 Angola, by Argentina during The Falklands War http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/napalm.htm , France during the First Indochina War (1946-1954) and the Algerian War (1954-1962), Benjamin Stora, "Avoir 20 ans en Kabylie", in L'Histoire n°324, October 2007, pp.28-29 . Napalm can kill or wound by immolation and by asphyxiation. Immolation produces rapid loss of blood pressure, unconsciousness and death in a short time. Third-degree burns are typically not painful at the time, because only the skin nerves respond to heat and third-degree burns kill the nerves. Burn victims do not experience first-degree burns due to the adhesive properties of napalm that stick to the skin. Severe second-degree burns, likely to be suffered by someone hit with a small splash of napalm are severely painful and produce hideous scars called keloids, which can also bring about motor disturbances. "Napalm is the most terrible pain you can imagine," said Kim Phúc, a napalm bombing survivor known from a famous Vietnam War photograph. "Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius. Napalm generates temperatures of 800 to 1,200 degrees Celsius." Elizabeth Omara-Otunnu. University of Connecticut Advance. Napalm Survivor Tells of Healing After Vietnam War. November 8, 2004. Phúc sustained third-degree burns to half her body and was not expected to live after the attack by South Vietnamese aircraft. But thanks to assistance from South Vietnamese photographer Nick Ut and American doctors, and after surviving a 14-month hospital stay and 17 operations, she became an outspoken peace activist. International law does not necessarily prohibit the use of napalm or other incendiaries against military targets, but use against civilian populations was banned by the United Nations Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, (often referred to as the CCW) in 1980. Protocol III of the CCW restricts the use of incendiary weapons (not only napalm), but a number of states have not acceded to all of the protocols of the CCW. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), states are considered a party to the convention, which entered into force as international law in December 1983, if they ratify at least two of the five protocols. The United States, for example, is a party to the CCW but did not sign protocol III. Microsoft Word - YB05 771 A.rtf Reports by the Sydney Morning Herald suggested the usage of napalm in the Iraq War by US forces. http://fletcher.tufts.edu/multi/texts/BH790.txt This was denied by the U.S. Department of Defense. In August 2003, the San Diego Union Tribune alleged that U.S. Marine pilots and their commanders confirmed the use of Mark 77 firebombs on Iraqi Republican Guards during the initial stages of combat. Official denials of the use of 'napalm' were, however, disingenuous, as the Mk 77 bomb that is currently in service at this time, the Mk 77 Mod 5, does not use actual napalm (for example, napalm-B). The last U.S. bomb to use actual napalm was the Mark 77 Mod 4, the last of which were destroyed in March 2001. MK-77 - Dumb Bombs The substance used now is a different incendiary mixture, but sufficiently analogous in its effects that it is still a controversial incendiary, and can still be referred to colloquially as 'napalm.' "We napalmed both those (bridge) approaches," said Col. Randolph Alles in a recent interview. "Unfortunately, there were people there because you could see them in the (cockpit) video." (...) "They were Iraqi soldiers there. It's no great way to die," he added.... "The generals love napalm.... It has a big psychological effect." - San Diego Union-Tribune, August 2003 SignOnSanDiego.com > News > Military - Officials confirm dropping firebombs on Iraqi troops These bombs did not actually contain napalm. The napalm-B (super napalm) used in Vietnam was gasoline based. The Mk-77 firebombs used in the Gulf were kerosene based. It is, however, a napalm-like liquid in its effect. Composition Napalm bombs explode after being dropped from a Republic of Korea Air Force F-4E Phantom II aircraft during a live-fire exercise. Napalm is usually a mixture of gasoline with suitable thickening agents. The earliest thickeners were soaps, aluminium or magnesium palmitates and stearates. There have been unconfirmed reports of using blood from livestock as a field-expedient thickening agent combined with gasoline to make napalm, as was mentioned in the mystery novel called 'Gorky Park.' Depending on the amount of added thickener, the resulting viscosity may range between syrupy liquid and thick rubbery gel. The content of long hydrocarbon chains makes the material highly hydrophobic (resistant to wetting with water), making it more difficult to extinguish. Thickened fuel also rebounds better from surfaces, making it more useful for operations in urban terrain. There are two types of napalm: oil-based with aluminium soap thickener, and oil-based with polymeric thickener ("napalm-B"). The United States military uses three kinds of thickeners: M1, M2, and M4. The M1 Thickener (MIL-T-589A), chemically a mixture of 25% wt. aluminium naphthenate, 25% aluminium oleate, and 50% aluminium laurate, (or, according to other sources, aluminium stearate soap) is a highly hygroscopic coarse tan-colored powder. As the water content impairs the quality of napalm, thickener from partially used open containers should not be used later. It is not maintained in the US Army inventory any more as it was used concurrently with M4. MIL-T-589A was cancelled 30 October 1987. The M2 Thickener (MIL-T-0903025B) is a whitish powder similar to M1, with added devolatilized silica and anticaking agent. The M4 flame fuel thickening compound (MIL-T-50009A), hydroxyl aluminium bis(2-ethylhexanoate) with anti-caking agent, is a fine white powder. It is less hygroscopic than M1 and opened containers can be resealed and used within one day. About half the amount of M4 is needed for the same effect as of M1. MIL-T-50009A was in use from 22 May 1959 and was listed INACTIVE 5 June 1996 for new design. A later variant, napalm-B, also called "super napalm", is a mixture of low-octane gasoline with benzene and polystyrene. It was used in the Vietnam War. Unlike conventional napalm, which burns for only 15–30 seconds, napalm B burns for up to 10 minutes with fewer fireballs, sticks better to surfaces, and offers improved destruction effects. It is not as easy to ignite, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/napalm.htm which reduces the number of accidents caused by soldiers smoking. When it burns, it develops a characteristic smell. Starting in the early 1990s, various websites including The Anarchist Cookbook advertised recipes for homemade napalm. These recipes were predominantly equal parts gasoline and styrofoam. This mixture closely resembles that of napalm-B, but lacks a percentage of benzene. Napalm reaches burning temperatures of approximately 1,200 °C (2,200 °F). Other additives can be added, eg. powdered aluminium or magnesium, or white phosphorus. In the early 1950s, Norway developed its own napalm, based on fatty acids in whale oil. The reason for this development was that the American-produced thickening agent performed rather poorly in the cold Norwegian climate. The product was known as Northick II. Norwaves Volume 5, Number 43, 1997 Some weapons utilize a pyrophoric variant, known as TPA (thickened pyrophoric agent). Chemically it is a triethylaluminium thickened with polyisobutylene. See also Flame Fougasse Mark 77 bomb Phan Thị Kim Phúc Notes External links Tracking Wildfire Hawker Tempest WW II testing including Napalm dropping Outpost Harry Survivors Organisation | Napalm |@lemmatized ecuadorian:2 air:5 force:7 iai:1 kfir:1 aircraft:5 drop:8 napalm:66 target:3 range:3 joint:1 u:12 exercise:2 blue:1 horizon:1 name:3 give:1 number:4 flammable:4 liquid:7 use:34 fare:1 often:3 jellied:2 gasoline:11 actually:2 thickener:9 mixed:2 make:6 sticky:1 incendiary:10 gel:4 develop:4 world:4 war:21 ii:6 team:1 harvard:1 chemist:1 lead:1 louis:1 fieser:1 portmanteau:1 original:1 ingredient:1 coprecipitated:1 aluminium:9 salt:1 naphthenic:1 palmitic:1 acid:2 add:3 substance:4 cause:3 one:2 major:1 problem:2 early:4 fluid:1 splash:2 drain:1 easily:1 find:3 increase:2 effectiveness:2 flamethrower:5 difficult:2 manufacture:1 natural:1 rubber:2 high:1 demand:1 purpose:1 e:1 g:1 truck:1 tire:1 expensive:1 provide:1 far:1 cheap:1 alternative:1 solve:1 issue:1 involve:2 base:7 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2,409 | AZ_Alkmaar | AZ, an acronym for Alkmaar Zaanstreek, is a football club from Alkmaar, the Netherlands. They are the current Dutch Eredivisie champions. History It was founded on 10 May 1967 as AZ '67, the result of a merger of Alkmaar '54 and FC Zaanstreek. The name was changed into AZ in July 1986; internationally, Alkmaar is often added. Owing to the commitment of businessmen Cees and Klaas Molenaar, AZ '67 were successful in the late seventies and early eighties. In 1981 they became Dutch champions and UEFA Cup finalists. Things went downhill after the Molenaar brothers left the club. In 1988 AZ were relegated from the Eredivisie. The involvement of businessman Dirk Scheringa in the mid-nineties marked the revival of the club. AZ returned to the Eredivisie in 1998. In 2004-05 they reappeared in the UEFA Cup tournament, advancing to the semi-finals. They also finished third in the Eredivisie that season, again qualifying for the UEFA Cup, after spending most of the season in the top two spots. A remarkable achievement, since AZ is financially not a big club and it does not have a similar fanbase like their Eredivisie rivals: AZ's home ground in the 2005-06 season, the Alkmaarderhout, had a spectator capacity of 8,390. AZ were undefeated in all 32 of their home matches in European competitions, a sequence which ran from 1977 until 20 December 2007, when they finally lost to Everton of England, by a score of 2-3. In the summer of 2006, the club moved to a new 17,000 capacity stadium, the DSB Stadion. The club's chairman, Dirk Scheringa, is on record as stating that he wishes to expand the stadium to 40,000 by 2010. AZ had a very good 2006-2007 season, which ended however in disappointment. Going into the last game of the 2006-2007 season AZ lead PSV Eindhoven and AFC Ajax by goal-differential for the Eredivisie championship, but ended up third after losing this last match against bottom-dweller Excelsior, playing with 10 men for 80 minutes. Further setbacks followed when AZ lost the KNVB Cup finals to Ajax, 8-7 in penalty kicks after a drawn game, and also lost to Ajax over two playoff games for the Champions League. After this season key players like Tim de Cler, Danny Koevermans en Shota Arveladze left the team. In the 2007-2008 season, AZ performed so badly (first round loss in the KNVB Cup, elimination from the UEFA Cup before winter break and a final 11th position in the Eredivisie), that Van Gaal felt obliged to hand in his resignation in March 2008. However, after protests from the players and direction, Van Gaal withdrew his resignation to finish his contractual obligations. The 2008-2009 season had an unpromising start with two defeats against NAC Breda and ADO Den Haag. However, starting with a 1:0 victory over the league champions of last season, PSV Eindhoven, the team didn't lose in the next 28 matches, including a stretch of 11 matches in which the opposing teams did not score a single goal. Three weeks before the end of the season, despite their second home defeat of the season (against Vitesse Arnhem), AZ became Eredivisie champions when nearest rivals FC Twente and AFC Ajax both lost their matches. . AZ's second championship was the first Eredivisie title since their own 28 years earlier that was won by a team other than the "big three" (Ajax, PSV and Feyenoord). AZ will also be playing Champions League football for the first time in their history next season. The current club manager is Ronald Koeman, who succeeded Louis van Gaal after the 2008-09 season. Louis van Gaal had already left for Bayern Munich, after becoming league champions with AZ Alkmaar. Ronald Koeman became head-coach for AZ, May 17th, 2009. Satellite clubs On 22 May 2009 Dirk Scheringa has announced an cooperation with Bayern Munich Bayern mit Vorkaufsrecht auf Alkmaar-Spieler , the club has pre-emption right for the AZ contracted players FC Bayern hat „Vorkaufsrecht“ bei Alkmaar . FC Bayern München Dutch First Division club Telstar is an official satellite club of AZ. Youth players are stalled at Telstar to gain experience. Since 10 Mai 2009, former youth coach of AZ Marcel Bout will be responsible for the technical coordination . Current squad As of April 19, 2009 (Joins in Summer 2009 from IFK Göteborg) Out on loan Reserve squad Stadium DSB Stadion, AZ's home venue in Alkmaar AZ play their home games at DSB Stadion, located in the southern part of the city of Alkmaar. The stadium, which is owned directly by the club, was inaugurated in 2006 and replaced the old Alkmaarderhout venue. The stadium has currently a capacity of 17,023. Honours Standings of AZ from 1976 to 2005 Eredivisie Winners (2): 1981, 2009 Runners-up (2): 1980, 2006 Eerste Divisie Winners (2): 1996, 1998 KNVB Cup Winners (3): 1978, 1981, 1982 Runners-up (1): 2007 UEFA Cup Runners-up (1): 1981 Semifinalists (1): 2005 Notable players See also . Netherlands Kees Kist (1972-1981) Jan Peters (1977-1982) Hans de Koning (1978-1988) Eddy Treijtel (1979-1985) Hugo Hovenkamp Bert van Marwijk (1975-1979) Willem van Hanegem (1976-1979) Martin Haar (1983-1986) Sigi Lens, (1985-1986) Louis van Gaal (1986-1987) Fred Patrick, (19**-1987) Phillip Cocu (1988-1990) Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink (1990-1993) Michael Buskermolen (1990-2006) Barry Opdam (1996-2008) Barry van Galen (1997-2006) John Bosman (1999-2002) Jan Kromkamp (2000-2005) Henk Timmer (2000-2006) Ron Vlaar (2002-2006) Tim de Cler (2002-2007) Denny Landzaat (2003-2006) Kiki Musampa (2007–2008) Kew Jaliens (2004-present) Joris Mathijsen (2004-2006) Argentina Sergio Romero (2007-) Australia Brett Holman (2008-) Mexico Hector Moreno (2008–) Denmark Kristen Nygaard (1972-1982) Kenneth Perez (2000-2006) Georgia Shota Arveladze (2005–2007) Managers Alkmaar '54 Gerrit van Wijhe, (1954-1956) Kick Smit, (1956-1958) Ludwig Veg, (1958-1960) Piet de Wolff, (1960-1961) Bonnie Bult, (1961-1962) Arie Rentenaar, (1962-1963) Ludwig Veg, (1963-1965) Barry Hughes, (1965-1967) AZ '67 Lesley Talbot, (1967-1968) Wim Blokland, (1968-1969) Robert Heinz, (1969-1971) Cor van der Hart, (1971-1973) Joop Brand, (1973-1976) Hans Kraay sr., (1976-1977) Jan Notermans, (1977) Cor van der Hart, (1977-1978) Georg Kessler, (1978-1982) Hans Eijkenbroek, (1982-1983) Piet de Visser, (1983-1985) Han Berger, (1985-1986) AZ Hans Eijkenbroek, (1986-1989) Hans van Doorneveld, (1989-1990) Henk Wullems, (1990-1993) Piet Schrijvers, (1993-1995) Theo Vonk, (1995-1997) Hans de Koning, (1997) Willem van Hanegem, (1997-1999) Gerard van der Lem, (1999-2000) Henk van Stee, (2000-2002) Co Adriaanse, (2002-2005) Louis van Gaal, (2005-2009) Ronald Koeman, (2009-) See also Dutch football league teams Notes and references External links AZ.nl - Official website / AZ TV Forza-AZ AZ Fanpage AZ news & fanpage AZ news at ePitch AZ formations at football-lineups.com Soccerway profile | AZ_Alkmaar |@lemmatized az:33 acronym:1 alkmaar:10 zaanstreek:2 football:4 club:12 netherlands:2 current:3 dutch:4 eredivisie:10 champion:7 history:2 found:1 may:3 result:1 merger:1 fc:4 name:1 change:1 july:1 internationally:1 often:1 add:1 owe:1 commitment:1 businessmen:1 cees:1 klaas:1 molenaar:2 successful:1 late:1 seventy:1 early:1 eighty:1 become:4 uefa:5 cup:8 finalist:1 thing:1 go:2 downhill:1 brother:1 leave:3 relegate:1 involvement:1 businessman:1 dirk:3 scheringa:3 mid:1 ninety:1 mark:1 revival:1 return:1 reappear:1 tournament:1 advance:1 semi:1 final:3 also:5 finish:2 third:2 season:13 qualify:1 spend:1 top:1 two:3 spot:1 remarkable:1 achievement:1 since:3 financially:1 big:2 similar:1 fanbase:1 like:2 rival:2 home:5 ground:1 alkmaarderhout:2 spectator:1 capacity:3 undefeated:1 match:5 european:1 competition:1 sequence:1 run:1 december:1 finally:1 lose:6 everton:1 england:1 score:2 summer:2 move:1 new:1 stadium:5 dsb:3 stadion:3 chairman:1 record:1 state:1 wish:1 expand:1 good:1 end:3 however:3 disappointment:1 last:3 game:4 lead:1 psv:3 eindhoven:2 afc:2 ajax:5 goal:2 differential:1 championship:2 bottom:1 dweller:1 excelsior:1 play:3 men:1 minute:1 setback:1 follow:1 knvb:3 penalty:1 kick:2 drawn:1 playoff:1 league:5 key:1 player:5 tim:2 de:6 cler:2 danny:1 koevermans:1 en:1 shota:2 arveladze:2 team:5 perform:1 badly:1 first:4 round:1 loss:1 elimination:1 winter:1 break:1 position:1 van:16 gaal:6 felt:1 oblige:1 hand:1 resignation:2 march:1 protest:1 direction:1 withdraw:1 contractual:1 obligation:1 unpromising:1 start:2 defeat:2 nac:1 breda:1 ado:1 den:1 haag:1 victory:1 next:2 include:1 stretch:1 oppose:1 single:1 three:2 week:1 despite:1 second:2 vitesse:1 arnhem:1 near:1 twente:1 title:1 year:1 earlier:1 win:1 feyenoord:1 time:1 manager:2 ronald:3 koeman:3 succeed:1 louis:4 already:1 bayern:5 munich:2 head:1 coach:2 satellite:2 announce:1 cooperation:1 mit:1 vorkaufsrecht:2 auf:1 spieler:1 pre:1 emption:1 right:1 contract:1 hat:1 bei:1 münchen:1 division:1 telstar:2 official:2 youth:2 stall:1 gain:1 experience:1 mai:1 former:1 marcel:1 bout:1 responsible:1 technical:1 coordination:1 squad:2 april:1 join:1 ifk:1 göteborg:1 loan:1 reserve:1 venue:2 locate:1 southern:1 part:1 city:1 directly:1 inaugurate:1 replace:1 old:1 currently:1 honours:1 standing:1 winner:3 runner:3 eerste:1 divisie:1 semifinalist:1 notable:1 see:2 kees:1 kist:1 jan:3 peter:1 hans:5 koning:2 eddy:1 treijtel:1 hugo:1 hovenkamp:1 bert:1 marwijk:1 willem:2 hanegem:2 martin:1 haar:1 sigi:1 lens:1 fred:1 patrick:1 phillip:1 cocu:1 jimmy:1 floyd:1 hasselbaink:1 michael:1 buskermolen:1 barry:3 opdam:1 galen:1 john:1 bosman:1 kromkamp:1 henk:3 timmer:1 ron:1 vlaar:1 denny:1 landzaat:1 kiki:1 musampa:1 kew:1 jaliens:1 present:1 joris:1 mathijsen:1 argentina:1 sergio:1 romero:1 australia:1 brett:1 holman:1 mexico:1 hector:1 moreno:1 denmark:1 kristen:1 nygaard:1 kenneth:1 perez:1 georgia:1 gerrit:1 wijhe:1 smit:1 ludwig:2 veg:2 piet:3 wolff:1 bonnie:1 bult:1 arie:1 rentenaar:1 hughes:1 lesley:1 talbot:1 wim:1 blokland:1 robert:1 heinz:1 cor:2 der:3 hart:2 joop:1 brand:1 kraay:1 sr:1 notermans:1 georg:1 kessler:1 eijkenbroek:2 visser:1 han:2 berger:1 doorneveld:1 wullems:1 schrijvers:1 theo:1 vonk:1 gerard:1 lem:1 stee:1 co:1 adriaanse:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 nl:1 website:1 tv:1 forza:1 fanpage:2 news:2 epitch:1 formation:1 lineup:1 com:1 soccerway:1 profile:1 |@bigram uefa_cup:5 qualify_uefa:1 psv_eindhoven:2 afc_ajax:2 knvb_cup:3 van_gaal:6 contractual_obligation:1 den_haag:1 ronald_koeman:3 bayern_munich:2 van_der:3 external_link:1 |
2,410 | Elie_Wiesel | Elie Wiesel (; born Eliezer Wiesel on September 30, 1928) Elie Wiesel from Encyclopædia Britannica is a Jewish writer, professor, political activist, Nobel Laureate and Holocaust survivor. He is the author of 57 books, the best known of which is Night, a memoir that describes his experiences during the Holocaust and his imprisonment in several concentration camps. His diverse range of other writings offer powerful and poetic contributions to literature, theology, and his own articulation of Jewish spirituality today. When Wiesel was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1986, the Norwegian Nobel Committee called him a "messenger to mankind," noting that through his struggle to come to terms with "his own personal experience of total humiliation and of the utter contempt for humanity shown in Hitler's death camps," as well as his "practical work in the cause of peace," Wiesel had delivered a powerful message "of peace, atonement and human dignity" to humanity. 1986 Nobel Peace Prize Press Release Biography Early life Elie Wiesel was born in Sighet, a little town in Transylvania, (now Sighetu Marmaţiei), Maramureş, Kingdom of Romania, in the Carpathian Mountains. His mother, Sarah Frig, was the daughter of Dodyehhhhhh Feig, a celebrated Vishnitz Hasid and farmer from a nearby village. His father, Sholomo Wiesel, was an Orthodox Jew of Hungarian descent, and a shopkeeper who ran his own grocery store. He was active and trusted within the community, and in the early years of his life had spent a few months in jail for having helped Polish Jews who escaped and were hungry. It was Sholomo who instilled a strong sense of humanism in his son, encouraging him to learn modern Hebrew and to read literature, whereas his mother encouraged him to study the Torah and Kabbalah. Wiesel has said his father represented reason, and his mother faith (Fine 1982:4). Elie Wiesel had three sisters – older sisters Hilda and Beatrice, and younger sister Tzipora. Beatrice and Hilda survived the war and were reunited with Elie at a French orphanage. They eventually emigrated to North America, Bea to Montréal, Canada. Tzipora, Sholomo and Sarah did not survive the war. World War II Buchenwald, 1945. Wiesel is on the second row from the bottom, seventh from the left. In 1940 Romania lost the town of Sighet following the Second Vienna Award. In 1944 Elie, his family and the rest of the town were placed in one of the two ghettos in Sighet. Elie and his family lived in the larger of the two, on Serpent Street. On May 16, 1944, the Hungarian authorities allowed the German army to deport the Jewish community in Sighet to Auschwitz Birkenau. While at Auschwitz, his inmate number, "A-7713", was tattooed onto his left arm. Wiesel was separated from his mother and sister Tzipora, who are presumed to have died at Auschwitz. Wiesel and his father were sent to the attached work camp Buna-Werke, a subcamp of Auschwitz III Monowitz. He managed to remain with his father for a year as they were forced to work under appalling conditions and shuffled between three concentration camps in the closing days of the war. On January 29, 1945, just a few weeks after the two were marched to Buchenwald, Wiesel's father died from dysentery, starvation, and exhaustion, and was later sent to the crematorium, only months before the camp was liberated by the American Third Army on April 11. see the film "Elie Wiesel Goes Home" by Judit Elek, narrated by William Hurt ISBN #1-930545-63-0 After the war He taught Hebrew and worked as a choirmaster before becoming a professional journalist. He wrote for Israeli and French newspapers, including Tsien in Kamf (in Yiddish) L'arche. However, for ten years after the war, Wiesel refused to write about or discuss his experiences during the Holocaust. Like many survivors, Wiesel could not find the words to describe his experiences. However, a meeting with François Mauriac, the 1952 Nobel Laureate in Literature, who eventually became Wiesel's close friend, persuaded him to write about his experiences. Wiesel first wrote the 245-page memoir Un di velt hot geshvign (And the World Remained Silent), in Yiddish, which was published in abridged form in Buenos Aires. Naomi Seidman, "Elie Wiesel and the Scandal of Jewish Rage," Jewish Social Studies 3:1 (Fall 1996), p. 5. Wiesel rewrote a shortened version of the manuscript in French, and it was published as the 127-page autobiography La Nuit, and later translated into English as Night. Even with Mauriac's support, Wiesel had trouble finding a publisher for his book, and initially it sold few copies. In 1960, Arthur Wang of Hill & Wang agreed to pay a $100 pro-forma advance, and published it in the U.S. in September that year as Night. It sold just 1,046 copies over the next 18 months, but attracted interest from reviewers, leading to television interviews with Wiesel and meetings with literary figures like Saul Bellow. "The English translation came out in 1960, and the first printing was 3,000 copies," Wiesel said in an interview. "And it took three years to sell them. Now, I get 100 letters a month from children about the book. And there are many, many million copies in print." The 1979 book and play The Trial of God is said to have been based on Wiesel's real life Auschwitz experience of witnessing three Jews who, close to death, conduct a trial against God, under the accusation that He has been oppressive of the Jewish people. "Night" has been translated into 30 languages. By 1997, the book was selling 300,000 copies annually in the United States alone. By March 2006, about six million copies were sold in the United States. On January 16, 2006, Oprah Winfrey chose the novel for her book club. One million extra paperback and 150,000 hardcover copies were printed carrying the "Oprah's Book Club" logo, with a new translation by Wiesel's wife, Marion, and a new preface by Wiesel. On February 13, 2006, Night was no. 1 on The New York Times bestseller list for paperback non-fiction. Life in the United States The house where Elie Wiesel was born In 1955, Wiesel moved to New York City, having become a U.S. citizen: due to injuries suffered in a traffic accident, he was forced to stay in New York past his visa's expiration and was offered citizenship to resolve his status. In the U.S., Wiesel wrote over forty books, both fiction and non-fiction, and won many literary prizes. Wiesel's writing is considered among the most important in Holocaust literature. Some historians credit Wiesel with giving the term 'Holocaust' its present meaning, but he does not feel that the word adequately describes the event and wishes it were used less frequently to describe significant occurrences as everyday tragedies (Wiesel:1999, 18). He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1986 for speaking out against violence, repression, and racism. He has received many other prizes and honors for his work, including the Congressional Gold Medal in 1985, and was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1996. Wiesel also played a role in the initial success of The Painted Bird by Jerzy Kosinski by endorsing it prior to revelations that the book was fiction and, in the sense that it was presented as all Kosinski's true experience, a hoax. He is also the recipient of The International Center in New York's Award of Excellence. Wiesel has published two volumes of his memoirs. The first, All Rivers Run to the Sea, was published in 1994 and covered his life up to the year 1969 while the second, titled And the Sea is Never Full and published in 1999, covered 1969 to 1999. Wiesel and his wife, Marion, started the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity. He served as chairman for the Presidential Commission on the Holocaust (later renamed U.S. Holocaust Memorial Council) from 1978 to 1986, spearheading the building of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, DC. Wiesel addressing the United States Congress. Wiesel is particularly fond of teaching and holds the position of Andrew Mellon Professor of the Humanities at Boston University. From 1972 to 1976, Wiesel was a Distinguished Professor at the City University of New York and member of the American Federation of Teachers. In 1982 he served as the first Henry Luce Visiting Scholar in Humanities and Social Thought at Yale University. He also co-instructs Winter Term (January) courses at Eckerd College, St. Petersburg, Florida. From 1997 to 1999 he was Ingeborg Rennert Visiting Professor of Judaic Studies at Barnard College. Wiesel has become a popular speaker on the subject of the Holocaust. As a political activist, he has advocated for many causes, including Israel, the plight of Soviet and Ethiopian Jews, the victims of apartheid in South Africa, Argentina's Desaparecidos, Bosnian victims of genocide in the former Yugoslavia, Nicaragua's Miskito Indians, and the Kurds. Conversely, he withdrew from his role as chair of the International Conference on the Holocaust and Genocide, and made efforts to abort the conference, in deference to Israeli objection to the inclusion of sessions on the Armenian genocide. Finkelstein, N.(2003) The Holocaust Industry, 2nd edition, p.69. Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999. 373 pp. He recently voiced support for intervention in Darfur, Sudan. Elie Wiesel: On the Atrocities in Sudan He also led a commission organized by the Romanian government to research and write a report, released in 2004, on the true history of the Holocaust in Romania and the involvement of the Romanian wartime regime in atrocities against Jews and other groups, including the Roma. The Romanian government accepted the findings in the report and committed to implementing the commission's recommendations for educating the public on the history of the Holocaust in Romania. The commission, formally called the International Commission for the Study of the Holocaust in Romania, came to be called the Wiesel Commission in honor of his leadership. Wiesel is the honorary chair of the Habonim Dror Camp Miriam Campership and Building Fund, and a member of the International Council of the New York-based Human Rights Foundation. On March 27, 2001, Wiesel appeared at the University of Florida for Jewish Awareness Month and was presented with an honorary doctor of humane letters degree from the University of Florida by Dr. Charles Young. Independent Florida Alligator article March 23, 2001 In 2002, he inaugurated the Elie Wiesel Memorial House in Sighet in his childhood home. Elie Wiesel Returns to his Home in Sighet, Romania, Embassy of Romania in the United States, 23 July 2002. Recent years In early 2006, Wiesel traveled to Auschwitz with Oprah Winfrey, a visit which was broadcast as part of The Oprah Winfrey Show on May 24, 2006. Press Release ~ Oprah.com Wiesel said that this would most likely be his last trip there. In September 2006, he appeared before the UN Security Council with actor George Clooney to call attention to the humanitarian crisis in Darfur. On November 30, 2006 Wiesel received an honorary knighthood in London in recognition of his work toward raising Holocaust education in the United Kingdom. "Wiesel Receives Honorary Knighthood" ~ TotallyJewish.com On April 25, 2007, Wiesel was awarded an honorary doctorate of humane letters degree from the University of Vermont. During the early 2007 selection process for the Kadima candidate for President of Israel, Prime Minister Ehud Olmert reportedly offered Wiesel the nomination (and, as the ruling-party candidate and an apolitical figure, likely the Presidency), but Wiesel "was not very interested." Olmert backs Peres as next president Jerusalem Post, 18 October 2006 Shimon Peres was chosen as the Kadima candidate (and later President) instead. In 2007, Elie Wiesel was awarded the Dayton Literary Peace Prize's Lifetime Achievement Award. Dayton awards 2007 peace prizes On April 9, 2008, Wiesel was presented with an Honorary Degree, Doctor of Letters at the City College of New York. In 2007 the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity issued a letter condemning Armenian genocide denial that was signed by 53 Nobel laureates including Wiesel. Wiesel has repeatedly called Turkey's 90-year-old campaign to cover up the Armenian genocide a double killing, since it strives to kill the memory of the original atrocities. State of Denial: Turkey Spends Millions to Cover Up Armenian Genocide, By David Holthouse // Intelligence Report, Summer 2008 On September 29, 2008, the Rochester College President Rubel Shelly, on its 50th anniversary, bestowed Wiesel with a plaque conferring on him as an honorary visiting professor of humanities. christianchronicle.org/, Holocaust survivor honored On November 17, 2008, he received an honorary doctorate from the Weizmann Institute in Rehovot, Israel. Elie Wiesel will receive an honorary doctorate from the Weizmann Institute In 2009, Wiesel criticized the Vatican over its lifting of the excommunication of controversial bishop Richard Williamson, a member of the Society of Saint Pius X. Elie Wiesel attacks pope over Holocaust bishop 2007 Attack on Wiesel On February 1, 2007, Wiesel was attacked in a San Francisco hotel by a twenty-two year old Holocaust denier named Eric Hunt who tried to drag Wiesel into a hotel room. Wiesel was not injured and Hunt fled the scene. Later, Hunt bragged about the incident on a Holocaust denial website. Approximately one month later, he was arrested and charged with multiple offenses. "Suspect named in Wiesel attack", MSNBC, February 16, 2007 Hunt was convicted on July 21, 2008, and he was sentenced to two years but was given credit for time served and good behavior and was released on probation and ordered to undergo psychological treatment. The jury convicted Hunt of three charges but dismissed the remaining charges of attempted kidnapping, stalking, and an additional count of false imprisonment, amid Hunt's withdrawal of his not guilty by reason of insanity plea. news.yahoo.com, Man convicted of hate crime for accosting Wiesel nbc11.com, Court Reaches Verdict In Elie Wiesel Accosting Trial District Attorney Kamala Harris said: "Crimes motivated by hate are among the most reprehensible of offenses ... This defendant has been made to answer for an unwarranted and biased attack on a man who has dedicated his life to peace." sfgate.com, SF jury convicts man of 1 felony in Wiesel case At his sentencing hearing, Hunt apologized and insisted that he no longer denies the Holocaust. Bernard Madoff scandal losses In December 2008, the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity issued a press release Statement on Elie Wiesel Foundation Website on their website stating that nearly all of the foundation's assets (approximately $15.2 million USD) had been lost through Bernard Madoff's investment firm. Works Un di velt hot geshvign (Tsentral-Farband fun Poylishe Yidn in Argentine, 1956) ISBN 0-374-52140-9; includes the following 3 books: Night (Hill and Wang 1958; 2006) ISBN 0-553-27253-5 (Personal account of the Holocaust) Dawn (Hill and Wang 1961; 2006) ISBN 0-553-22536-7 Day, previously titled "The Accident" (Hill and Wang 1962; 2006) ISBN 0-553-58170-8 The Town Beyond the Wall (Atheneum 1964) The Gates of the Forest (Holt, Rinehart and Winston 1966) The Jews of Silence (Holt, Rinehart and Winston 1966) ISBN 0-935613-01-3 Legends of our Time (Holt, Rinehart and Winston 1968)(Artistically depicted memories) A Beggar in Jerusalem (Random House 1970)(Novel) One Generation After (Random House 1970) Souls on Fire (Random House 1972) ISBN 0-671-44171-X (First book of portraits and legends of Hasidic Masters: many of the most famous) Night Trilogy (Hill and Wang 1972) The Oath (Random House 1973) ISBN 0-935613-11-0 Ani Maamin (Random House 1973) Zalmen, or the Madness of God (Random House 1974) Messengers of God (Random House 1976) ISBN 0-671-54134-X (Biblical portraits) A Jew Today (Random House 1978) ISBN 0-935613-15-3 (Essays and imaginative works on Jewish identity) Four Hasidic Masters-and their struggle against melancholy (University of Notre Dame Press 1978)(Portraits of Hasidic Masters) Images from the Bible (The Overlook Press 1980) The Trial of God (Random House 1979)(Play) The Testament (Summit 1981) Five Biblical Portraits (University of Notre Dame Press 1981)(Biblical figures reinterpreted) Somewhere a Master (Further Hasidic portraits, after "Souls on Fire") (Summit 1982) The Golem (illustrated by Mark Podwal) (Summit 1983) ISBN 0-671-49624-7 (Children's book on the Jewish legend) The Fifth Son (Summit 1985) Against Silence (Holocaust Library 1985) Twilight (Summit 1988) The Six Days of Destruction (co-author Albert Friedlander, illustrated by Mark Podwal) (Paulist Press 1988) A Journey of Faith (Donald I. Fine 1990) From the Kingdom of Memory (Summit 1990)(essays and depictions after "A Jew Today") Evil and Exile (University of Notre Dame Press 1990) Sages and Dreamers (Summit 1991)(Portraits of Biblical, Talmudic and Hasidic figures) The Forgotten (Summit 1992) ISBN 0-8052-1019-9 A Passover Haggadah (illustrated by Mark Podwal) (Simon and Schuster 1993) ISBN 0-671-73541-1 (Jewish liturgy) All Rivers Run to the Sea: Memoirs, Vol. I, 1928-1969 (Knopf 1995) ISBN 0-8052-1028-8 Memoir in Two Voices, with François Mitterrand (Arcade 1996) And the Sea is Never Full: Memoirs Vol. II, 1969 (Knopf 1999) ISBN 0-8052-1029-6 King Solomon and his Magic Ring (illustrated by Mark Podwal) (Greenwillow 1999) Conversations with Elie Wiesel (Schocken 2001) The Judges (Knopf 2002) Wise Men and Their Tales (Portraits of Biblical, Talmudic and Hasidic figures) (Schocken 2003) ISBN 0-8052-4173-6 The Time of the Uprooted (Knopf 2005) A Mad Desire to Dance (2009) Additionally, as Elie Wiesel has offered a unique and poetic articulation of traditional Jewish thought and identity today, other books sometimes carry introductions or reviews from him: A Vanished World by Roman Vishniac, forward by Elie Wiesel (published by Farrar, Straus and Giroux 1986) ISBN 0374520232, ISBN 978-0374520236; classic photographs of Eastern European Jewish life from the 1930s Critical analysis and appreciation of Wiesel's position in the history of literature: Student Companion to Elie Wiesel (Student Companions to Classic Writers) Sanford Sternlicht (Greenwood Press, 2003) ISBN 0313325308, ISBN 978-0313325304 (Covers his personal and literary background, "Night", main novels, and one chapter on his most important non-fiction) See also The Boys of Buchenwald – A documentary about the orphanage in which he stayed after the Holocaust God on Trial – A 2008 joint BBC / WGBH Boston dramatisation of his book The Trial of God, about a group of Auschwitz prisoners who place God on trial for breaching his contract with the Jewish people. Notes References Berenbaum, Michael: The Vision of the Void. Theological Reflections on the Works of Elie Wiesel, Middletown, Connecticut, Wesleyan University Press, 1979 ISBN 0-8195-6189-4 PA Fonseca, Isabel: Bury Me Standing: The Gypsies and Their Journey, London, Vintage, 1996 Fine, Ellen S. Legacy of Night: The Literary Universe of Elie Wiesel. State University of New York Press, 1982. ISBN 0-87395-590-0 (paperback) Rota, Olivier. Choisir le français pour exprimer l’indicible. Elie Wiesel, in Mythe et mondialisation. L’exil dans les littératures francophones, Actes du colloque organisé dans le cadre du projet bilatéral franco-roumain « Mythes et stratégies de la francophonie en Europe, en Roumanie et dans les Balkans », programme Brâcuşi des 8-9 septembre 2005, Editura Universităţii Suceava, Suceava, 2006, pp.47-55. Re-published in Sens, dec. 2007, pp.659-668. Wiesel, Elie. All Rivers Run to the Sea: Memoirs. New York: Knopf, 1995. Wiesel, Elie. And the Sea is Never Full: Memoirs 1969-. New York: Schocken, 1999. External links The Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity Elie Wiesel: First Person Singular PBS special on Elie Wiesel New York Times - The Conversation with Elie Wiesel Voices on Antisemitism Interview with Elie Wiesel from the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum Text and Audio of Wiesel's "Perils of Indifference" Speech Text and audio of Elie Wiesel's famous speech on "The Perils of Indifference" Ubben Lecture at DePauw University Video of Ethics After the Holocaust speech Elie Wiesel Video Gallery Christopher Hitchens criticizes Elie Wiesel in the Nation Magazine Author attacked in S.F. hotel "Elie Wiesel on his Beliefs" ~ Toronto Star Elie Wiesel's name pronunciation on TeachingBooks.net | Elie_Wiesel |@lemmatized elie:40 wiesel:93 bear:3 eliezer:1 september:4 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 jewish:13 writer:2 professor:5 political:2 activist:2 nobel:7 laureate:3 holocaust:26 survivor:3 author:3 book:14 best:1 known:1 night:9 memoir:8 describe:4 experience:7 imprisonment:2 several:1 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2,411 | Demographics_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo | This article is about the demographic features of the population of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Demographics of Democratic Republic of the Congo, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. Young women preparing fufu The population of the Democratic Republic of the Congo was estimated at 65.8 million in 2007. As many as 250 ethnic groups have been distinguished and named. The most numerous people are the Bakongo, Luba, and Mongo. Although 700 local languages and dialects are spoken, the linguistic variety is bridged both by the use of French and the intermediary languages Kikongo, Tshiluba, Swahili, and Lingala. About 80% of the Congolese population are Christian, predominantly Roman Catholic. This gives the DR Congo the largest population of Catholics in Africa. Most of the non-Christians adhere to either traditional religions or syncretic sects. Traditional religions embody such concepts as monotheism, animism, vitalism, spirit and ancestor worship, witchcraft, and sorcery and vary widely among ethnic groups; none is formalized. The syncretic sects often merge Christianity with traditional beliefs and rituals. The most popular of these sects, Kimbanguism, was seen as a threat to the colonial regime and was banned by the Belgians. Kimbanguism, officially "the church of Christ on Earth by the prophet Simon Kimbangu," now has about 3 million members, primarily among the Bakongo of Bas-Congo and Kinshasa. In 1969, it was the first independent African church admitted to the World Council of Churches. Before independence, education was largely in the hands of religious groups. The primary school system was well-developed at independence; however, the secondary school system was limited, and higher education was almost nonexistent in most regions of the country. The principal objective of this system was to train low-level administrators and clerks. Since independence, efforts have been made to increase access to education, and secondary and higher education have been made available to many more Congolese. Despite the deterioration of the state-run educational system in recent years, about 80% of the males and 65% of females, ages 6-11, were enrolled in a mixture of state- and church-run primary schools in 1996. At higher levels of education, males greatly outnumber females. The elite continues to send their children abroad to be educated, primarily in Western Europe. Congolese diaspora The table below shows DRC born people who have emigrated abroad (although it excludes their descendants). Rank Country Region DRC born population 1 Western Europe 19,080 2 Western Europe 9,911 3 Western Europe 8,569 4 North America 6,210 5 North America 3,455 6 Central Europe 2,570 7 Southern Europe 1,453 8 Western Europe 1,314 9 Southern Europe 1,302 10 Southern Europe 1,027 CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 65,890,551 Note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2007 est.) Median age Total: 16.1 years Male: 15,8 years Female: 16.4 years (2007 est.) Population growth rate 13.24% (2008 est.) Birth rate 42.96 births/1,000 population (2007 est.) Death rate 10.34 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.) Net migration rate 1.28 migrant(s)/1,000 population note: fighting between the Congolese Government and Uganda- and Rwanda-backed Congolese rebels spawned a regional war in DRC in August 1998, which left 2.33 million Congolese internally displaced and caused 412,000 Congolese refugees to flee to surrounding countries (2007 est.) Sex ratio At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.68 male(s)/female Total population: 3.00 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate Total: 88.62 deaths/1,000 live births Male: 96.9 deaths/1,000 live births Female: 80.1 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth Total population: 53.74 years Male: 52.52 years Female: 55 years (2008 est.) Total fertility rate 6.37 children born/woman (2007 est.) HIV/AIDS Adult prevalence rate: 4.2% (2003 est.) People living with HIV/AIDS: 1.1 million (2003 est.) Deaths: 100,000 (2003 est.) Major infectious diseases Degree of risk: very high Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever Vectorborne diseases: malaria, plague, and African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) are high risks in some locations Water contact disease: schistosomiasis (2005) Nationality Noun: Congolese (singular and plural) Adjective: Congolese or Congo Ethnic groups Over 200 African ethnic groups of which the majority are Bantu; the four largest tribes - Mongo, Luba, Kongo (all Bantu), and the Mangbetu-Azande make up about 45% of the population. The country has also 60,000 Belgians, whose ancestors stepped out after it won independence. Religions Roman Catholic 50%, Protestant 20%, Kimbanguist 10%, Muslim 10%, other syncretic sects and indigenous beliefs 10% Languages French (official), Lingala (a lingua franca trade language), Kingwana (a dialect of Kiswahili or Swahili), Kikongo, Tshiluba Literacy Definition: age 15 and over can read and write French, Lingala, Kingwana, or Tshiluba Total population: 65.5% Male: 76.2% Female: 55.1% (2003 est.) See also Alur Azande Banyamulenge Chokwe Hema Kakwa Lendu Luba Mangbetu Twa Yaka References See also Health in the Democratic Republic of the Congo External links , International Rescue Committee, January 2008 (estimates 5.4 million excess deaths above sub-Saharan average from 1998 - 2007) | Demographics_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:4 feature:1 population:18 democratic:4 republic:4 congo:7 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:6 level:3 health:2 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:2 affiliation:1 aspect:1 data:1 fao:1 year:11 number:1 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 young:1 woman:2 prepare:1 fufu:1 estimate:3 million:5 many:2 ethnic:4 group:5 distinguish:1 name:1 numerous:1 people:3 bakongo:2 luba:3 mongo:2 although:2 local:1 language:4 dialect:2 speak:1 linguistic:1 variety:1 bridge:1 use:1 french:3 intermediary:1 kikongo:2 tshiluba:3 swahili:2 lingala:3 congolese:9 christian:2 predominantly:1 roman:2 catholic:3 give:1 dr:1 large:2 africa:1 non:1 adhere:1 either:1 traditional:3 religion:3 syncretic:3 sect:4 embody:1 concept:1 monotheism:1 animism:1 vitalism:1 spirit:1 ancestor:2 worship:1 witchcraft:1 sorcery:1 vary:1 widely:1 among:2 none:1 formalize:1 often:1 merge:1 christianity:1 belief:2 ritual:1 popular:1 kimbanguism:2 see:3 threat:1 colonial:1 regime:1 ban:1 belgian:2 officially:1 church:4 christ:1 earth:1 prophet:1 simon:1 kimbangu:1 member:1 primarily:2 ba:1 kinshasa:1 first:1 independent:1 african:3 admit:1 world:3 council:1 independence:4 largely:1 hand:1 primary:2 school:3 system:4 well:1 develop:1 however:1 secondary:2 limit:1 high:6 almost:1 nonexistent:1 region:2 country:5 principal:1 objective:1 train:1 low:3 administrator:1 clerk:1 since:1 effort:1 make:3 increase:1 access:1 available:1 despite:1 deterioration:1 state:2 run:2 educational:1 recent:1 male:11 female:11 age:4 enrol:1 mixture:1 greatly:1 outnumber:1 elite:1 continue:1 send:1 child:2 abroad:2 educate:1 western:5 europe:9 diaspora:1 table:1 show:1 drc:3 born:1 emigrate:1 exclude:1 descendant:1 rank:1 bear:2 north:2 america:2 central:1 southern:3 cia:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:2 indicate:1 note:2 explicitly:1 take:1 account:1 effect:1 excess:2 mortality:3 due:1 aid:3 result:1 life:2 expectancy:2 infant:2 death:8 rate:9 growth:2 change:1 distribution:1 sex:2 would:1 expect:1 july:1 est:14 median:1 total:6 birth:7 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 fighting:1 government:1 uganda:1 rwanda:1 back:1 rebel:1 spawn:1 regional:1 war:1 august:1 leave:1 internally:1 displace:1 cause:1 refugee:1 flee:1 surround:1 ratio:1 live:4 fertility:1 hiv:2 adult:1 prevalence:1 major:1 infectious:1 disease:4 degree:1 risk:2 food:1 waterborne:1 bacterial:1 protozoal:1 diarrhea:1 hepatitis:1 typhoid:1 fever:1 vectorborne:1 malaria:1 plague:1 trypanosomiasis:1 sleep:1 sickness:1 location:1 water:1 contact:1 schistosomiasis:1 nationality:1 noun:1 singular:1 plural:1 adjective:1 majority:1 bantu:2 four:1 tribe:1 kongo:1 mangbetu:2 azande:2 also:3 whose:1 step:1 win:1 protestant:1 kimbanguist:1 muslim:1 indigenous:1 official:1 lingua:1 franca:1 trade:1 kingwana:2 kiswahili:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 alur:1 banyamulenge:1 chokwe:1 hema:1 kakwa:1 lendu:1 twa:1 yaka:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 international:1 rescue:1 committee:1 january:1 sub:1 saharan:1 average:1 |@bigram republic_congo:4 density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 congo_kinshasa:1 male_female:7 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 excess_mortality:1 life_expectancy:2 infant_mortality:2 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 uganda_rwanda:1 internally_displace:1 est_infant:1 mortality_rate:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:2 adult_prevalence:1 infectious_disease:1 food_waterborne:1 waterborne_disease:1 bacterial_protozoal:1 protozoal_diarrhea:1 diarrhea_hepatitis:1 hepatitis_typhoid:1 typhoid_fever:1 fever_vectorborne:1 vectorborne_disease:1 sleep_sickness:1 nationality_noun:1 singular_plural:1 lingua_franca:1 literacy_definition:1 external_link:1 sub_saharan:1 |
2,412 | Louise_Erdrich | Karen Louise Erdrich, known as Louise Erdrich, (born June 7, 1954) is a Native American author of novels, poetry, and children's books. She is an enrolled member of the Anishinaabe nation (also known as Ojibwa and Chippewa) and also has German, French and American ancestry. She is widely acclaimed as one of the most significant Native writers of the second wave of what critic Kenneth Lincoln has called the Native American Renaissance. In April 2009, her novel "The Plague of Doves" was named a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize in Fiction. Background and early life The eldest of seven children, Erdrich was born to Ralph and Rita Erdrich in Little Falls, Minnesota. Her father was German-American while her mother was French and Anishinaabe (Ojibwa). Her grandfather Patrick Gourneau served as a tribal chairman for the Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians. Erdrich grew up in Wahpeton, North Dakota where her parents taught at the Bureau of Indian Affairs school. She attended Dartmouth College in 1972-1976, earning an AB degree and meeting her future husband, the Modoc anthropologist and writer Michael Dorris. He was then director of the college’s Native American Studies program. Subsequently, Erdrich worked in a wide variety of jobs, including as a lifeguard, waitress, poetry teacher at prisons, and construction flag signaler. She also became an editor for The Circle, a newspaper produced by and for the urban Native population in Boston. Erdrich graduated with a Master of Arts degree in creative writing from Johns Hopkins University in 1979. Early literary work In the period 1978-1982, Erdrich published many poems and short stories. It was also during this period that she began collaborating with Dorris, initially working through the mail while Dorris was working in New Zealand. The relationship progressed, and the two were married in 1981. During this time, Erdrich assembled the material that would eventually be published as the poetry collection Jacklight. In 1982, Erdrich's story "The World’s Greatest Fisherman" was awarded the $5,000 Nelson Algren Prize for short fiction. This convinced Erdrich and Dorris, who continued to work collaboratively, that they should embark on writing a novel. Love Medicine In 1984, Erdrich published the novel Love Medicine. Made up of a disjointed but interconnected series of short narratives, each told from the perspective of a different character, and moving backwards and forward in time through every decade between the 1930’s and the present day, the book told the stories of several families living near each other on a North Dakota Ojibwe reservation. The innovative techniques of the book, which owed a great deal to the works of William Faulkner but have little precedent in Native-authored fiction, allowed Erdrich to build up a picture of a community in a way entirely suited to the reservation setting. She received immediate praise from author/critics such as N. Scott Momaday and Gerald Vizenor, and the book was awarded the 1984 National Book Critics Circle Award. It has never subsequently been out of print. The Beet Queen Erdrich followed Love Medicine with The Beet Queen, which continued her technique of using multiple narrators, but surprised many critics by expanding the fictional reservation universe of Love Medicine to include the nearby town of Argus, North Dakota. Native characters are very much kept in the background in this novel, while Erdrich concentrates on the German-American community. The action of the novel takes place mostly before World War II. The Beet Queen was subject to a bitter attack from Native novelist Leslie Marmon Silko, who accused Erdrich of being more concerned with postmodern technique than with the political struggles of Native peoples. The controversy and fall-out from this review, and some of its underlying themes, are reviewed in Susan Castillo, "Postmodernism, Native American Literature and the Real: the Silko-Erdrich Controversy" in Notes from the Periphery: Marginality in North American Literature and Culture New York: Peter Lang, 1995. 179-190). Other novels written with Michael Dorris Erdrich and Dorris’ collaborations continued through the 1980s and into the 1990s, always occupying the same fictional universe. Tracks goes back to the early 20th century at the formation of the reservation and introduces the trickster figure of Nanapush, who owes a clear debt to Nanabozho. There are many studies of the trickster figure in Erdrich's novels: a recent study that makes the connection between Nanabozho and Nanpush is "The Trickster and World Maintenance: An Anishinaabe Reading of Louise Erdrich's Tracks" by Lawrence W. Gross Erdrich’s novel most rooted in Anishinaabe culture (at least until Four Souls), it shows early clashes between traditional ways and the Roman Catholic church. The Bingo Palace updates but does not resolve various conflicts from Love Medicine: set in the 1980s, it shows the effects both good and bad of a casino and a factory being set up among the reservation community. Finally, Tales of Burning Love finishes the story of Sister Leopolda, a recurring character from all the former books, and introduces a new set of white people to the reservation universe. Erdrich and Dorris wrote The Crown of Columbus, the only novel to which both writers put their names, and A Yellow Raft in Blue Water, credited to Dorris. Both of these were set away from the Argus reservation. Difficulties and divorce proceedings The couple had six children, three of them adopted. Dorris had adopted the children when he was single. After their marriage, Erdrich also adopted them, and the couple had three daughters together. Some of the children had difficulties. In 1989 Dorris published The Broken Cord, a book about fetal alcohol syndrome, which their adopted son Reynold Abel suffered. Dorris had found it was a widespread and until then relatively undiagnosed problem among Native American children because of mothers' alcohol issues. In 1991, Reynold Abel was hit by a car and killed at age 23. In 1995 their son Jeffrey Sava accused them both of child abuse. Dorris and Erdrich unsuccessfully pursued an extortion case against him. Shortly afterward, Dorris and Erdrich separated and began divorce proceedings. Erdrich claimed that Dorris had been depressed since the second year of their marriage. "Michael Dorris", obituary in Salon.com On April 11, 1997, Michael Dorris committed suicide in Concord, New Hampshire. "Michael Dorris", New York Times obituary Later Writings Erdrich’s first novel after divorce, The Antelope Wife, was the first to be set outside the continuity of the previous books. Lorena Laura Stookey, Louise Erdrich: A Critical Companion, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999 ISBN 0313306125, 9780313306129 She has subsequently returned to the reservation and nearby towns, and has produced five novels since 1998 dealing with events in that fictional area. Among these are The Master Butchers Singing Club, a macabre mystery which again draws on Erdrich's Native American and German-American heritage, and The Last Report on the Miracles at Little No Horse. Both have geographic and character connections with The Beet Queen. Together with several of her previous works, these have drawn comparisons with William Faulkner’s Yoknapatawpha novels. The successive novels have created multiple narratives in the same fictional area and combined the tapestry of local history with current themes and modern consciousness. See, e.g., Powell's Books (book review), Christian Science Monitor, Monday, August 2nd, 2004 In her most recent novel, A Plague of Doves, Erdrich has continued the multi-ethnic dimension of her writing, successfully weaving together the layered relationships among residents of farms, towns and reservations; their shared histories, secrets, relationships and antipathies; and the complexities for later generations of re-imagining their ancestors' overlapping pasts. The novel was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize in 2009. She owns Birchbark Books, a bookstore in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and continues to write. Birchbark Books website Awards O. Henry Award, for the short story "Fleur" (published in Esquire, August 1986) (1987) Pushcart Prize in Poetry Western Literacy Association Award Guggenheim Fellowship National Book Critics Circle Award for Fiction, for Love Medicine (1984) World Fantasy Award, for The Antelope Wife (1999) Associate Poet Laureate of North Dakota, 2005 Scott O'Dell Award for Historical Fiction, for the children's book "The Game of Silence" (2006) In April 2007 the University of North Dakota awarded Erdrich an honorary doctorate, but she refused it because of her opposition to that university's North Dakota Fighting Sioux mascot. Relations One sister Heidi publishes under the name Heid E. Erdrich; she is a poet who also resides in Minnesota. Another sister, Lise Erdrich, has written children's books and collections of fiction and essays. For the past few years, the three Erdrich sisters have hosted annual writers workshops on the Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation in North Dakota. {Minneapolis Star Tribune, February 3, 2008} The award-winning photographer Ronald W. Erdrich is one of their cousins. He lives and works in Abilene, Texas. He was named "Star Photojournalist of the Year" in 2004 by the Texas Associated Press Managing Editors association. Works Fiction Novels Love Medicine (1984) The Beet Queen (1986) Tracks (1988) The Crown of Columbus [with Michael Dorris] (1991) The Bingo Palace (1994) Tales of Burning Love (1997) The Antelope Wife (1998) The Last Report on the Miracles at Little No Horse (2001) The Master Butchers Singing Club (2003) Four Souls (2004) The Painted Drum (2005) The Plague of Doves (Harper, 2008) Story collections The Red Convertible: Collected and New Stories 1978-2008 (2009) Children's literature Grandmother's Pigeon (1996) The Birchbark House (1999) The Range Eternal (2002) The Game of Silence (2005) The Porcupine Year (2008) Poetry Jacklight (1984) Baptism of Desire (1989) Original Fire: Selected and New Poems (2003) Non-fiction Route Two [with Michael Dorris] (1990) The Blue Jay’s Dance: A Birthyear (1995) Books and Islands in Ojibwe Country (2003) As editor or contributor The Broken Cord by Michael Dorris (Foreword) (1989) The Best American Short Stories 1993 (Editor, with Katrina Kenison) (1993) See also List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas Native American Renaissance Native American Studies References External links Official website Birchbark Books website Louise Erdrich from Voices in the Gaps ON WRITING; Two Languages in Mind, But Just One in the Heart - Louise Erdrich Multiple Erdrich Biographies Infography about Louise Erdrich Stories "The Reptile Garden", a short story in The New Yorker (28 January 2008) "The Fat Man's Race", a short story in The New Yorker (3 November 2008) Interviews Interview with Louise Erdrich on BookSense A conversation with Louise Erdrich from The Atlantic Lannan Readings and Conversations - Louise Erdrich with Gail Caldwell Interview on Democracy Now - YouTube Reviews Bookreporter.com review of "The Painted Drum" Blood Relations Claire Messud essay on Erdrich from The New York Review of Books'' Bookbrowse.com - The Painted Drum NPR - Louise Erdrich and 'The Painted Drum' by Martha Woodroof Harper Collins reading guide for "The 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2,413 | Apollo_11 | The Apollo 11 mission was the first manned mission to land on the Moon. It was the fifth human spaceflight of Project Apollo and the third human voyage to the Moon. It was also the second all-veteran crew in manned spaceflight history. Launched on July 16, 1969, it carried Mission Commander Neil Alden Armstrong, Command Module Pilot Michael Collins and Lunar Module Pilot Edwin Eugene 'Buzz' Aldrin, Jr. On July 20, Armstrong and Aldrin became the first humans to land on the Moon, while Collins orbited above. The mission fulfilled President John F. Kennedy's goal of reaching the moon by the end of the 1960s, which he expressed during a speech given before a joint session of Congress on May 25, 1961: "Man on the moon: Kennedy speech ignited the dream" CNN.com "I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth." Crew Crew: Neil Armstrong - Commander Michael Collins - Command Module Pilot Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. - Lunar Module Pilot Each crewmember had made a spaceflight before this mission. Collins was originally slated to be the Command Module Pilot (CMP) on Apollo 8 but was removed when he required surgery on his back and was replaced by Jim Lovell, his backup for that flight. After Collins was medically cleared he took what would have been Lovell's spot on Apollo 11. Backup crew James A. Lovell, Jr - Commander William A. Anders/Ken Mattingly - Command Module Pilot Fred W. Haise, Jr - Lunar Module Pilot In the spring of 1969 Bill Anders accepted a job with the National Space Council effective in August 1969 and had announced his retirement as an astronaut. At that point Ken Mattingly was moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup Command Module Pilot in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch (at which point Anders would be unavailable if needed) and would later join Lovell's crew and ultimately be assigned as the original Apollo 13 CMP. Donald K. Slayton, "Deke!" (New York: Forge, 1994), 237 Support crew Charles Moss Duke, Jr., Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM) Ronald Evans, CAPCOM Owen K. Garriott, CAPCOM Don L. Lind, CAPCOM Ken Mattingly, CAPCOM Bruce McCandless II, CAPCOM Harrison Schmitt, CAPCOM Bill Pogue Jack Swigert Flight directors Cliff Charlesworth, launch and EVA Gene Kranz, lunar landing Glynn Lunney, lunar ascent Nomenclature The lunar module was named Eagle after the bald eagle depicted on the insignia; the bald eagle is the national bird of the United States. The command module was named Columbia, from the traditional feminine name Columbia used for the United States in song and poetry. The name may also have been chosen in reference to the columbiad cannon used to launch the moonships in Jules Verne's novel From the Earth to the Moon. Some internal NASA planning documents referred to the call signs as Snowcone and Haystack, See, e.g., , p. 8 but these were quietly changed before being announced to the press. Mission highlights Launch and lunar landing The Saturn V carrying Apollo 11 took several seconds to clear the tower on July 16, 1969 A condensation cloud forms around an interstage as the Saturn V approached Mach 1, one minute into the flight Engineers working in the launch control center In addition to throngs of people crowding highways and beaches near the launch site, millions watched the event on television, with NASA Chief of Public Information Jack King providing commentary. President Richard Nixon viewed the proceedings from the Oval Office of the White House. A Saturn V launched Apollo 11 from the Kennedy Space Center on July 16, 1969 at 13:32 UTC (9:32 a.m. local time). It entered orbit 12 minutes later. After one and a half orbits, the S-IVB third-stage engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with the Trans Lunar Injection burn. About 30 minutes later the command/service module pair separated from this last remaining Saturn V stage and docked with the lunar module still nestled in the Lunar Module Adaptor. On July 19 Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enter lunar orbit. In the thirty orbits Apollo-11 NASA that followed, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquillitatis) about 20 kilometers (12 mi) southwest of the crater Sabine D (0.67408N, 23.47297E). The landing site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated Ranger 8 and Surveyor 5 landers along with the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft and unlikely to present major landing or extra-vehicular activity (EVA) challenges. The Eagle in lunar orbit immediately after separating from Columbia On July 20, 1969 the lunar module (LM) Eagle separated from the command module Columbia. Collins, alone aboard Columbia, inspected Eagle as it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged. As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin found that they were passing landmarks on the surface 4 seconds early and reported they were "long". They would land miles west of their target point. The LM navigation and guidance computer distracted the crew with several unusual program alarms. Inside Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, computer engineer Jack Garman told guidance officer Steve Bales it was safe to continue the descent and this was relayed to the crew. When Armstrong again looked outside, he saw that the computer's landing target was in a boulder strewn area just north and east of a 400 meter diameter crater (later determined to be "West crater", named for its location in the western part of the originally planned landing ellipse). Armstrong took semi-automatic control and with Aldrin calling out altitude and velocity data, landed at 20:17 UTC on July 20 with about 25 seconds of fuel left. The program alarms were called executive overflows, during which the computer could not process all of its tasks in real time and had to postpone some of them. Michael Collins, in Apollo Expeditions to the Moon, NASA pub. no. SP-350 (1975), chapter 11.4 This was neither a computer error nor an astronaut error, but stemmed from a mistake in how the astronauts had been trained. Although unneeded for the landing, the rendezvous radar was intentionally turned on to make ready for a fast abort. Ground simulation setups had not foreseen that a fast stream of spurious interrupts from this radar could happen, depending upon how the hardware randomly powered up before the LM then began nearing the lunar surface: Hence the computer had to deal with data from two radars, not the landing radar alone, which led to the overload. Although Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than other missions, they also encountered a premature low fuel warning. It was later found to be caused by the lunar gravity permitting greater propellant 'slosh' which had uncovered a fuel sensor. On future missions extra baffles were added to the tanks. Buzz Aldrin spoke the first words (albeit technical jargon) from the LM on the lunar surface. Throughout the descent Aldrin had called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy piloting the LM. As Eagle landed Aldrin said, "Contact light! Okay, engine stop. ACA - out of detent." Armstrong acknowledged "Out of detent" and Aldrin continued, "Mode control - both auto. Descent engine command override off. Engine arm - off. 413 is in." Then Armstrong said the famous words, "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed." Armstrong's abrupt change of call sign from "Eagle" to "Tranquility Base" caused momentary confusion at Mission Control. Charles Duke, acting as CAPCOM during the landing phase, acknowledged their landing, expressing the relief of Mission Control after the unexpectedly drawn-out descent. Shortly after landing, before preparations began for the EVA, Aldrin broadcast that: He then took Communion privately. At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheist Madalyn Murray O'Hair (who had objected to the Apollo 8 crew reading from the Book of Genesis) which demanded that their astronauts refrain from religious activities while in space. As such, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning this. He had kept the plan quiet (not even mentioning it to his wife) and did not reveal it publicly for several years. Buzz Aldrin was an elder at Webster Presbyterian Church in Webster, TX. His communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church, the Rev. Dean Woodruff. Aldrin described communion on the moon and the involvement of his church and pastor in the October, 1970 edition of Guideposts magazine and in his book "Return to Earth." Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the moon, and commemorates the Lunar Communion each year on the Sunday closest to July 20. Lunar surface operations Neil Armstrong describes the Moon's surface before setting foot on it. At 02:56 UTC on July 21 (10:56pm EDT, July 20), 1969, Armstrong made his descent to the Moon's surface and spoke his famous line "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind" NASA transcript explains the "a" article was intended, whether or not it was said; without it contrast is drawn between man (the race of humans) and mankind (the race of humans) whereas the intention was to contrast a man (an individual's action) and mankind (as a race). NASA Moon landing 35th anniversary includes the "a" article as intended. BBC news story on reanalysis which suggests the line was said correctly (with the "a" article) Houston Chronicle coverage of the same story. exactly six and a half hours after landing. Aldrin joined him, describing the view as "Magnificent desolation." NASA transcript Buzz Aldrin steps onto the Moon They planned placement of the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package (EASEP) and the U.S. flag by studying their landing site through Eagles twin triangular windows, which gave them a 60° field of view. Preparation required longer than the two hours scheduled. Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his Portable Life Support System (PLSS). According to veteran moonwalker John Young, a redesign of the LM to incorporate a smaller hatch was not followed by a redesign of the PLSS backpack, so some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress. A mounted slowscan TV camera shows Neil Armstrong as he climbs down the ladder to surface The Remote Control Unit controls on Armstrong's chest kept him from seeing his feet. Climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA) folded against Eagle'''s side and activate the TV camera. The first landing used Slow-scan television incompatible with commercial TV, so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this monitor, significantly losing quality in the process. * The signal was received at Goldstone in the USA but with better fidelity by Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station in Australia. Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitive Parkes radio telescope in Australia. Despite some technical and weather difficulties, ghostly black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth. These original recordings are now missing. Buzz Aldrin poses on the Moon allowing Neil Armstrong to photograph both of them using the visor's reflection After describing the surface dust ("fine and almost like a powder"), Armstrong stepped off Eagles footpad and into history as the first human to set foot on another world, famously describing it as "one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." Chaikin, "A Man on the Moon", p. 209 Armstrong forgot to say the word "a" but intended to; according to Chaikin, he wants the phrase to appear in print form with the parenthesized "a".) He said that moving in the Moon's gravity, one-sixth of Earth's, was "even perhaps easier than the simulations... It's absolutely no trouble to walk around". In addition to fulfilling President John F. Kennedy's mandate to land a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s, http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1969/Apollo-11/12303189849225-2/ "Apollo 11: 1969 Year in Review, UPI.com" Apollo 11 was an engineering test of the Apollo system; therefore, Armstrong snapped photos of the LM so engineers would be able to judge its post-landing condition. He then collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. He removed the TV camera from the MESA, made a panoramic sweep, and mounted it on a tripod 12 m (40 ft) from the LM. The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA. Neil Armstrong works at the LM in one of the few photos taken of him from the lunar surface. NASA photo as 11-40-5886. Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backwards, but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into Eagle's shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, though the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow. Buzz Aldrin bootprint. It was part of an experiment to test the properties of the lunar regolith. After the astronauts planted a U.S. flag on the lunar surface, they spoke with President Richard Nixon through a telephone-radio transmission which Nixon called "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House." National Archives and Records Administration, Apollo 11 and Nixon, March 1996, retrieved April 13, 2008 Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call, but Frank Borman, who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11, convinced Nixon to keep his words brief, out of respect of the lunar landing being Kennedy's legacy. This was related by Frank Borman during the 2008 documentary When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions, part 2. The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits, the integrated thermal meteoroid garment. They deployed the EASEP, which included a passive seismograph and a laser ranging retroreflector. Then Armstrong loped about 120 m (400 ft) from the LM to snap photos at the rim of East Crater while Aldrin collected two core tubes. He used the geological hammer to pound in the tubes - the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documented sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 min. During this period Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong that his metabolic rates were high and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. Rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, however, so Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension. Lunar ascent and return The Washington Post on Monday, July 21, 1969 stating "'The Eagle Has Landed'—Two Men Walk on the Moon" Aldrin entered Eagle first. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing more than 22 kg (48 lb) of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor. Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his suit pocket sleeve, and Aldrin tossed the bag down; Armstrong then jumped to the ladder's third rung and climbed into the LM. After transferring to LM life support, the explorers lightened the ascent stage for return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, one Hasselblad camera, and other equipment. They then repressurised the LM, and settled down to sleep. While moving in the cabin Aldrin accidentally broke the circuit breaker that armed the main engine for lift off from the moon. There was initial concern this would prevent firing the engine, which would strand them on the moon. Fortunately a felt-tip pen was sufficient to activate the switch. Had this not worked, the Lunar Module circuitry could have been reconfigured to allow firing the ascent engine. After about seven hours of rest, they were awakened by Houston to prepare for the return flight. Two and a half hours later, at 17:54 UTC, they lifted off in Eagles ascent stage, carrying 21.5 kilograms of lunar samples with them, to rejoin CMP Michael Collins aboard Columbia in lunar orbit.The historical plaque on the ladder of Apollo 11's lunar module "Eagle", still remaining on the Moon After more than 2½ hours on the lunar surface, they had left behind scientific instruments which included a retroreflector array used for the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment and a Passive Seismic Experiment used to measure moonquakes. They also left an American flag, an Apollo 1 mission patch, and a plaque (mounted on the LM Descent Stage ladder) bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and Richard Nixon. The inscription read Here Men From The Planet Earth First Set Foot Upon the Moon, July 1969 A.D. We Came in Peace For All Mankind.They also left behind a memorial bag containing a gold replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace, the Apollo 1 patch, and a silicon message disk. The disk carries the goodwill statements by Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon and messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world. The disc also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress, a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation, and the names of NASA's past and present top management. NASA News Release No. 69-83F (July 13, 1969). (In his 1989 book, Men from Earth, Aldrin says that the items included Soviet medals commemorating Cosmonauts Vladimir Komarov and Yuri Gagarin.) Also, according to Deke Slayton's book 'Moonshot', Armstrong carried with him a special diamond-studded Astronaut pin from Deke. Film taken from the LM Ascent Stage upon liftoff from the moon reveals the American flag, planted some from the descent stage, whipping violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine. Buzz Aldrin witnessed it topple: "The ascent stage of the LM separated ...I was concentrating on the computers, and Neil was studying the attitude indicator, but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over." Subsequent Apollo missions usually planted the American flags at least from the LM to avoid being blown over by the ascent engine exhaust. After rendezvous with Columbia, Eagle's ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit at July 21, 1969 at 23:41 UT (7:41 PM EDT). Just before the Apollo 12 flight, it was noted that Eagle was still likely to be orbiting the moon. Later NASA reports mentioned that Eagles orbit had decayed resulting in it impacting in an "uncertain location" on the lunar surface. The location is uncertain because the Eagle ascent stage was not tracked after it was jettisoned and the lunar gravity field is sufficiently uncertain to make the orbit of the spacecraft virtually unpredictable after a short time. NASA estimated that the orbit had decayed within months and would have impacted on the Moon. On July 23, the three astronauts made a television broadcast on the last night before splashdown. Collins commented, "... The Saturn V rocket which put us in orbit is an incredibly complicated piece of machinery, every piece of which worked flawlessly ... We have always had confidence that this equipment will work properly. All this is possible only through the blood, sweat, and tears of a number of a people ...All you see is the three of us, but beneath the surface are thousands and thousands of others, and to all of those, I would like to say, 'Thank you very much.'" Aldrin said, "... This has been far more than three men on a mission to the Moon; more, still, than the efforts of a government and industry team; more, even, than the efforts of one nation. We feel that this stands as a symbol of the insatiable curiosity of all mankind to explore the unknown ... Personally, in reflecting on the events of the past several days, a verse from Psalms comes to mind. 'When I consider the heavens, the work of Thy fingers, the Moon and the stars, which Thou hast ordained; What is man that Thou art mindful of him?'" Armstrong concluded, "The responsibility for this flight lies first with history and with the giants of science who have preceded this effort; next with the American people, who have, through their will, indicated their desire; next with four administrations and their Congresses, for implementing that will; and then, with the agency and industry teams that built our spacecraft, the Saturn, the Columbia, the Eagle, and the little EMU, the spacesuit and backpack that was our small spacecraft out on the lunar surface. We would like to give special thanks to all those Americans who built the spacecraft; who did the construction, design, the tests, and put their hearts and all their abilities into those craft. To those people tonight, we give a special thank you, and to all the other people that are listening and watching tonight, God bless you. Good night from Apollo 11." On July 24, the astronauts returned home and were immediately put in quarantine. The splashdown point was , in the Pacific Ocean 2,660 km (1,440 nm) east of Wake Island, or 380 km (210 nm) south of Johnston Atoll, and 24 km (15 mi) from the recovery ship, USS Hornet. After recovery by helicopter approximately one hour after splashdown, the astronauts were placed in an Airstream trailer that had been designed as a temporary quarantine facility for their transport back to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory. President Richard Nixon was aboard the recovery vessel to personally welcome the astronauts back to Earth. The crew of Apollo 11 in quarantine after returning to Earth, visited by Richard Nixon. The astronauts were placed in quarantine after their landing on the moon due to fears that the moon might contain undiscovered pathogens, and that the astronauts may have been exposed to them during their moon walks (this was in accordance with the recently passed Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law). However, after almost three weeks in confinement (first in their trailer and later in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at the Manned Spacecraft Center), the astronauts were given a clean bill of health. On August 13, 1969, the astronauts exited quarantine to the cheers of the American public. Parades were held in their honor in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles on the same day. A few weeks later, they were invited by Mexico for a parade honoring them in Mexico City. That evening in Los Angeles there was an official State Dinner to celebrate Apollo 11, attended by Members of Congress, 44 Governors, the Chief Justice, and ambassadors from 83 nations at the Century Plaza Hotel. President Richard Nixon and Vice President Spiro T. Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of the Presidential Medal of Freedom. This celebration was the beginning of a 45-day "Giant Leap" tour that brought the astronauts to 25 foreign countries and included visits with prominent leaders such as Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. Many nations would honor the first manned moon landing by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins. Also, a few POWs held in Vietnam received letters from home a few months after the landings with those stamps to covertly let the POWs know that the United States had landed men on the moon. At the 27th World Science Fiction Convention in St. Louis, Missouri, the three astronauts received a special Hugo award for "the Best Moon Landing Ever." On September 16, 1969, the three astronauts spoke before a joint session of Congress on Capitol Hill. They presented two U.S. flags, one to the House of Representatives and the other to the Senate, that had been carried to the surface of the moon with them. Spacecraft location The command module is displayed at the National Air and Space Museum, Washington, D.C.. It is placed in the central exhibition hall in front of the Jefferson Drive entrance, and shares the main hall with other pioneering flight vehicles such as the Spirit of St. Louis, the Bell X-1, the North American X-15, Mercury spacecraft Friendship 7, and Gemini 4. The quarantine trailer, the flotation collar, and the righting spheres are displayed at the Smithsonian's Udvar-Hazy Center annex near Washington Dulles International Airport in Virginia. Mission insignia The patch of Apollo 11 was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for "peaceful lunar landing by the United States". He picked an eagle as the symbol, put an olive branch in its beak, and drew a moon background with the earth in the distance. NASA officials said the talons of the eagle looked too "warlike" and after some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the claws. The crew decided the Roman numeral XI would not be understood in some nations and went with Apollo 11; they decided not to put their names on the patch, so it would "be representative of everyone who had worked toward a lunar landing." All colors are natural, with blue and gold borders around the patch. The LM was named Eagle to match the insignia. When the Eisenhower dollar coin was revived a few years later, the patch design provided the eagle for the back of the coin. The design was kept for the smaller Susan B. Anthony dollar, which was unveiled in 1979, the 10th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission. See also Apollo 11 in popular culture Apollo Guidance Computer Apollo Moon Landing hoax conspiracy theories Extra-vehicular activity Google Moon List of artificial objects on the Moon List of spacewalks and moonwalks Splashdown Photo gallery References Further reading and external links Men on the Moon Original reports from The Times - NASA Website honoring the mission Silicon disc about the size of a half dollar coin etched with 73 messages, left on the moon by Buzz Aldrin. Apollo Anniversary: Moon Landing "Inspired World" - National Geographic News, 2004-07-16 - 35th anniversary; Steven Dick, NASA's chief historian: '...a thousand years from now, that step may be considered the crowning achievement of the 20th century.' First moon landing in 1969 marked an entire generation - Matt Wallace - Opinion column reminiscing about the Apollo 11 Moon landing and its cultural impact on the 30th anniversary published July 18, 1999 in the (Greensboro, NC) News & Record; "And there was the moon, which was why this was no typical child's summer." For young readers Aldrin, Buzz. Reaching for the Moon. HarperCollins, 2005, 40 pages, ISBN 978-0-060-55445-3 Thimmesh, Catherine. Team Moon: How 400,000 People Landed Apollo 11 on the Moon.'' Houghton Mifflin, 2006, 80 pages, ISBN 978-0-618-50757-3 NASA reports - 200+ pages - 200+ pages - Timeline of the mission Multimedia - Transcripts and audio clips of important parts of the mission - Hundreds of high-resolution images of the mission, including assembled panoramas. Captions written by Eric M. Jones - Several maps showing routes of moonwalks - with lunar landing sites tagged Neil Armstrong's First Words on the Moon Video Neil Armstrong's First Words on the Moon Audio Cockpit Voice Recordings of the actual moon landing Audio Apollo Lunar Surface VR Panoramas QTVR panoramas Apollo Image Archive Apollo Video Footage Footage of the complete journey from takeoff to splashdown - Video Apollo/Saturn V Development Apollo 11 Launch ApolloTV.net Video | Apollo_11 |@lemmatized apollo:45 mission:23 first:14 man:11 land:24 moon:53 fifth:1 human:6 spaceflight:3 project:1 third:3 voyage:1 also:9 second:4 veteran:2 crew:13 manned:2 history:3 launch:9 july:18 carry:7 commander:3 neil:9 alden:1 armstrong:29 command:10 module:18 pilot:9 michael:4 collins:10 lunar:45 edwin:2 eugene:1 buzz:9 aldrin:29 jr:5 become:2 orbit:14 fulfil:2 president:8 john:3 f:2 kennedy:6 goal:2 reach:2 end:2 express:2 speech:3 give:5 joint:2 session:2 congress:5 may:4 ignite:1 dream:1 cnn:1 com:3 believe:1 nation:5 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2,414 | Jacksonville_Jaguars | The Jacksonville Jaguars are a professional American football team located in Jacksonville, Florida. They are currently members of the South Division of the American Football Conference (AFC) in the National Football League (NFL). The Jaguars, along with the Carolina Panthers, joined the NFL as an expansion team in 1995. The club has played all of its home games at Jacksonville Municipal Stadium. The stadium is located near the St. Johns River. The team headquarters is also located in the stadium. The Jaguars practice during the season and training camp in the stadium and on adjoining fields. History Pre-franchise history of football in Jacksonville Every year the city hosts the Gator Bowl, an annual civic highlight traditionally accompanied by parties, ceremonies, parades and other events leading up to the game. The annual Florida-Georgia game is also played in Jacksonville. The Gator Bowl stadium was built out of steel trusses during the Great Depression and was frequently built onto, with the final addition of the reinforced-concrete west upper deck coming in 1982. The stadium hosted short-lived teams in both the World Football League (Jacksonville Sharks/Express) and the United States Football League (Jacksonville Bulls) and the occasional NFL exhibition game. The city also hosted the American Football League All Star Game in 1967 and 1968. The city briefly attempted to lure the Baltimore Colts, whose owner Robert Irsay famously landed a helicopter in the stadium as thousands of Jacksonville citizens urged him to move the team there. City leaders also attempted to get the Houston Oilers to move to Jacksonville at one point in the late 1980s. Great efforts were made to lure the Oilers, including the creation of a "Jacksonville Oilers" banner and designation of a specific section of the Gator Bowl as a non-alcohol, family section for proposed home games. Franchise History 1989–1994 In 1992, the NFL announced that it would add two new teams, originally in time for the 1993 season. The league had not expanded since the 1976 season with the addition of Seattle Seahawks and Tampa Bay Buccaneers; with the sport growing the NFL felt the time was right to add additional franchises. Five cities were ultimately chosen as finalists for the two new teams: Charlotte, North Carolina; St. Louis, Missouri; Baltimore, Maryland; Memphis, Tennessee; and Jacksonville. From the beginning, Charlotte and St. Louis were considered the heavy favorites, with Baltimore also a strong possibility. Though not as strong a bid, Memphis was still considered an outside possibility, as the NFL did not have a presence in the area. For many reasons, Jacksonville was considered the darkest horse in the field. Florida already had two NFL teams: the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, who played about a four-hour ride away, and the Miami Dolphins. Any expansion team would also have to compete with Florida's three major college football teams — Florida State, Florida and Miami - and the Georgia Bulldogs. Jacksonville was also the smallest television market in the running and the only city not ranked in the top 50 Nielsen markets. However, the biggest potential obstacle for the Jacksonville bid was nonstop turmoil and conflict surrounding the potential ownership group. It had formed even before the NFL announced its intentions to expand, in 1989. The group called itself Touchdown Jacksonville! and placed its formal application with the NFL in 1991. The original ownership group included future Governor Jeb Bush and Jacksonville developer and political kingmaker Tom Petway. In 1991 this group confidently announced that it would call its team the Jacksonville Jaguars. After some defections and mutinies, the group came to be led by J. Wayne Weaver, shoe magnate and founder of Nine West. From the time Touchdown Jacksonville! came to being, it faced several challenges. In April 1993, the NFL indicated to Jacksonville officials that additional renovations to the Gator Bowl would be needed. After several weeks of negotiations, and at least one breakdown, an agreement was reached that capped the city's liability for construction and was sent to the City Council for approval. However, on July 21 1993, the Council failed to approve the financing package, dooming the bid. Deposits on season tickets were refunded, and Touchdown Jacksonville!'s offices were shuttered. Largely due to being underwhelmed by the remaining suitors, the NFL and others encouraged Jacksonville interests to revisit the issue and resurrect their bid. About a month later negotiations between the city and Touchdown Jacksonville! resumed, and a slightly revised aid package was approved by a solid majority of the City Council. Officially back in the race, Jacksonville officials were energized, indicated by a drive to sell club seats that resulted in over 10,000 seats being sold in 10 days. The Jaguars also gained a high-profile investor when former NFL star player Deron Cherry signed on as a limited partner. After Charlotte was unanimously granted the 29th franchise on November 1, the NFL announced they would name the 30th franchise on or before November 30, 1993. By this time, conventional wisdom was that St. Louis would get the 30th franchise. In fact, T-shirts of the "St. Louis Stallions" (the proposed new team name) briefly went on sale at some St. Louis area sporting goods shops. However, it was not meant to be. At 4:12 p.m. (EST) on the afternoon of November 30, Jacksonville was announced as the winning franchise. The next evening, 25,000 fans celebrated at the Gator Bowl as season ticket sales were kicked off. Within ten days, the Florida Times-Union (Jacksonville's daily newspaper) announced sales had passed the 55,000 seat mark (Incidentally, the three other finalists all eventually became the home of a relocated franchise: the Los Angeles Rams moved to St. Louis in 1995, the Cleveland Browns moved to Baltimore and were renamed the Baltimore Ravens and Memphis would briefly serve as the home of the former Houston Oilers in 1996 before the team moved into its new stadium in Nashville and was renamed the Tennessee Titans). After the Gator Bowl game on December 31, 1993, the old stadium was essentially demolished and replaced with a reinforced concrete superstructure; all that remained of the old stadium was the west upper concourse and a portion of the ramping system. The new Jacksonville Municipal Stadium (known as Alltel Stadium from 1997–2006) opened on August 18 1995 with a preseason game against the St. Louis Rams (In 1994 and 1995, the Florida Georgia game rotated between the schools' campuses; the game returned to itsneutral-site in Jacksonville in 1996; the 1994 Gator Bowl was played at Florida Field in Gainesville, FL). Tom Coughlin Era (1995–2002) 1995: Inaugural Season In 1995, along with the Carolina Panthers, the Jacksonville Jaguars entered the NFL as the first expansion teams in almost 20 years. Both teams participated in the 1995 NFL Expansion Draft, with the Jaguars taking Steve Beuerlein, who quickly lost his starting job to Mark Brunell, with the first pick. The Jaguars finished their inaugural season with a record of 4–12. Both the Jaguars and the Panthers (7–9) broke the previous record for most wins by an expansion team (3) set by the Cincinnati Bengals in 1968. The inaugural season featured many of the players who would lead Jacksonville into the playoffs in the team's next four seasons, including quarterback Mark Brunell (acquired in a draft day trade from Green Bay), offensive lineman Tony Boselli (drafted with the 2nd pick overall in the 1995 NFL Draft) running back James Stewart (also drafted in 1995), and wide receiver Jimmy Smith (signed as a free agent). The team played its first regular season game at home before a crowd of 72,363 [http://www.jaguars.com/news/article.aspx?id=26 on September 3, 1995, a 10-3 loss against the Houston Oilers. The team picked up its first win in Week 4 as the Jaguars defeated the Oilers 17–16 on October 1 in Houston. The next week against the Pittsburgh Steelers, the Jaguars earned their first home win by defeating the eventual AFC Champions 20-16. The team's other two wins came in a season sweep of the Cleveland Browns including a Week 17 24–21 victory sealed by a Mike Hollis 34-yard field goal in the Browns' final game before the team relocated to Baltimore and was renamed the Ravens. 1996: "Jacksonville, do you believe in miracles?" Jacksonville's 1996 season was a marked success. They won six of their last seven games of the season and finished with a record of 9–7. In the team's final game of the regular season against the Atlanta Falcons, needing a win to earn a playoff berth, the Jaguars caught a bit of luck when Morten Andersen missed a 30 yard field goal with less than a minute remaining that would have given the Falcons the lead. By holding on for the win, the team clinched the 5th seed in the AFC playoffs. Their first playoff game would be against the Buffalo Bills at Buffalo, a game that the Jaguars would win 30-27. Their next game would be against the Denver Broncos, top seed in the AFC, and a team that, with a 13–3 record, had dominated the AFC. Yet the Jaguars, not intimidated by the Broncos or their fans, largely dominated from the second quarter on, with a late Mark Brunell to Jimmy Smith touchdown giving the Jags a 30–20 lead late on. They would hold on to win in a huge upset, 30–27, in a game that many people still consider the franchise's finest hour. Upon their return home, the Jags were greeted by an estimated 40,000 fans at the stadium. Many of these fans had watched the game on the stadium JumboTron displays and had stayed into the early hours of the morning when the team arrived. In the AFC Championship Game, the Jaguars would acquit themselves very well, playing a tight and close defensive game in a hostile environment for over three quarters before finally losing, 20-6 to the New England Patriots on the road. On an interesting sidenote, their fellow second-year NFC expansion team, the Carolina Panthers, also got to their conference championship, where they lost 30-13 to the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers. 1997–1999: Playoffs, Division Champions and the end of a run In 1997, the franchise's third season, the Jaguars and the Steelers both finished the season with an 11-5 record, tops in the AFC Central Division. Pittsburgh won the division in a tiebreaker as a result of having higher net in division games than Jacksonville. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997_NFL_season As a result, the Jaguars settled for 2nd place in the division, a Wild Card berth and the 5th seed in the AFC playoffs. The Jags postseason would end quickly as they fell in their first game, a 42–17 defeat against the Denver Broncos at Mile High Stadium. The Broncos, led by Terrell Davis, ran at will against the Jaguars, rushing for 5 touchdowns and over 300 yards. In 1998, the Jaguars again finished 11-5 and won their first AFC Central Division title. The team became the first NFL expansion team to make the playoffs three times in its first four seasons of play. In the wild card round, the Jaguars hosted their first home playoff game, a 25–10 win over the New England Patriots. The team's season ended the next week in the Divisional Round as the New York Jets defeated the Jaguars 34–24. In 1999, the Jaguars compiled a league best 14-2 regular season record; it remains the best season record in franchise history. The team's only two losses were to the Tennessee Titans. The Jaguars won the AFC Central Division for the second straight year and clinched the #1 seed in the AFC. The Jaguars hosted the Miami Dolphins in the AFC Divisional playoffs, a 62–7 victory in what would be Dan Marino and Jimmy Johnson's last NFL game. Jacksonville's 62 points and 55-point margin are the second most ever in NFL playoff history, and Fred Taylor's 90-yard run in the first quarter is the longest ever in an NFL playoff game. However, the Jaguars' bid for a Super Bowl title would come to an end the next week in the AFC championship game. The Jags fell at home to the Titans 33–14 in a game that the Jaguars led 14–10 at halftime, before allowing 23 unanswered points in the 2nd half. The Jaguars would thus finish the 1999 season 15–3, with all three of their losses coming against the Titans (the only time in NFL history that a 3-loss team met all of its losses at the hands of only one team). The loss marked the end of an era that saw the Jaguars make the playoffs in four of the team's first five years and would be the team's last playoff appearance until the 2005 season. 2000–2002 These were the most disappointing years for the new franchise, due primarily to salary cap problems. In the 2000 season, veteran quarterback Mark Brunell and young running back Fred Taylor led the squad through a painful 7–9 season. The only highlights of the 2000 season were two wins over their division rival, the Cleveland Browns. The next two seasons in Jacksonville had worse records of 6–10 through the 2001 and 2002 seasons. This was mainly due to salary cap problems, meaning the team could not afford to keep a lot of talent. Coach Coughlin admitted that the team actually had more talent in its first year (1995) when it only won 4 games. This would be the last season he would coach the team. In a very classy act, he took out a full page ad in the Florida Times Union thanking the city of Jacksonville for "eight great seasons". Though despised by some of the fans, he drafted great talent such as Tony Boselli, Tony Brackens, Fred Taylor, Donovan Darius, John Henderson, Marcus Stroud, and David Garrard. In 2002, the NFL split up the two leagues into 4 divisions, sending the Jacksonville Jaguars to the AFC South. This would put them in the same division as Indianapolis, Tennessee, and Houston. Jack Del Rio era (2003–Present) 2003–2005 In 2003, the Jaguars hired Jack Del Rio as a rookie head coach. Del Rio had played as a linebacker during the late 80s and early 90s before retiring. He was formerly the Carolina Panthers' defensive coordinator, where he brought the team's defense from 30th place to 2nd place. That same year, the Jaguars selected quarterback Byron Leftwich with the 7th pick of the 2003 NFL draft. The Jaguars had high hopes for their new quarterback in 2003. The team had many failures and heatbreaking moments, ending the 2003 season at 5–11 and missing the playoffs for the 4th season in a row. Despite no longer having serious salary cap problems, the rebuilding of the team was clearly going to take longer than expected. The 2004 season, celebrated as the 10th season of the Jaguars franchise, resulted in a winning record of 9–7 with road victories against the Green Bay Packers at Lambeau Field as well as the Indianapolis Colts at the RCA Dome. The Jaguars' defense was a strong suit, as it included two Pro Bowl players, defensive tackles Marcus Stroud and John Henderson. Byron Leftwich enjoyed a solid year in 2004, helped by strong performances from holdovers Fred Taylor and Jimmy Smith. Unfortunately, Taylor sustained a season-ending injury at the Packers game. The very next week saw the Jaguars fall to the Houston Texans, which would ultimately eliminate the Jaguars from the playoffs. This denied them an opportunity to play the Super Bowl at their home stadium. The 2005 Jaguars hoped to challenge the Colts for the division title. However, due to their scintillating 13-0 start, including two victories against the Jaguars, the Colts were able to easily clinch the AFC South title. With a 12–4 record, the Jaguars earned a wildcard and their first playoff appearance since 1999. Among these 12 wins were a 23–20 victory over the Cincinnati Bengals on October 9, 2005 and a 23-17 overtime victory over the Pittsburgh Steelers on October 16, 2005. While the Jaguars managed to win key games in 2005, 9 of their final 10 games were played against opponents with losing records. Though these games were wins, key players Byron Leftwich, Mike Peterson, Akin Ayodele, Paul Spicer, and Rashean Mathis were hurt during this stretch. The Jaguars ended the season losing 28-3 to the two-time defending champion New England Patriots on January 7, 2006 in the AFC wild card playoff round. 2006 Jacksonville looked like a team on the rise coming off of their 12–4 season, and was considered a playoff contender entering the season. But injuries plagued the team. Reggie Hayward, Greg Jones, Donovin Darius, Byron Leftwich, and Mike Peterson all suffered season-ending injuries. Marcus Stroud, Matt Jones, Paul Spicer, and Fred Taylor also faced injuries during the season. The team started off 2–0, defeating the Dallas Cowboys earning the NFL's highest winning percentage on opening days at .750 with a record of 9–3), and shutting out the defending champs Pittsburgh Steelers. But the team lost its next two games, and suffered embarrassing losses to the Houston Texans over the course of the season (Surprisingly, Jacksonville has struggled against the Texans since Houston entered the league in 2002). They missed the playoffs with an 8–8 record, but there were some positives. Maurice Jones-Drew, the Jaguars' second round draft pick, was one of the most surprising rookie sensations. He averaged 5.7 yards a carry, the highest in the league, and tied for 3rd in the NFL with 16 touchdowns. This season was also the first year the team played without their standout wide receiver Jimmy Smith as he decided to retire. His production was missed for the next few years as the Jaguars struggled to find an adequate replacement. 2007 On April 28, 2007, the Jaguars used their first-round pick (21st overall) to select Florida safety Reggie Nelson, after passing on Notre Dame Quarterback Brady Quinn twice. The pick of Reggie Nelson filled a void as veteran free safety Deon Grant went to Seattle to play for the Seattle Seahawks, since Jacksonville was unwilling to match Seattle's contract offer. On June 15, 2007, the Jaguars released longtime strong safety Donovin Darius, who had seen diminished playing time in recent years due to mounting injuries. This was seen by many as a cost-cutting measure. On August 31, 2007, the Jaguars announced that long time back-up quarterback David Garrard would start for the team, ahead of former 1st round draft pick, Byron Leftwich who was released in the team's final roster cuts. Garrard led the Jaguars to an 11–5 record and the playoffs. On January 5, 2008, the Jaguars defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 31-29 to win their first playoff game in almost 8 years and their first road playoff win since 1997. It was also the first time in the 50+ year history of the Steelers that they had been beaten twice at home by the same team in the same season. However, in the Divisional round, the Jaguars fell to the as of then undefeated New England Patriots; the teams were tied at halftime, but the Patriots pulled ahead and won 31–20. Tom Brady completed 22 of 24 passes in this game, being pressured by the Jaguars' defense only once, on the first play. This game more than any other gave the Jaguars' front office a strong desire to upgrade the pass rush. The team's offense in 2007 was definitely a run-first offense, with Maurice Jones-Drew and Fred Taylor putting up a lot of yards. The Jaguars had a lot of success passing the ball early on, but later in the season it was shown that if a talented defense sold out to stop the run, the Jaguars were not enough of a threat passing the ball to do that alone. Garrard, however, was shown to be an accurate passer in 2007, throwing only 3 interceptions and a few nice long passes. The Jaguars concluded that they needed to work on improving their receiving corps to add balance to the offense. 2008 The 2008 season began with high expectations for the Jaguars. The team acquired free agent wide receiver Jerry Porter and rookie defensive ends Quentin Groves of Auburn and Derrick Harvey of Florida to address the team's most glaring holes. Journalists including espn.com's Kevin Seifert predicted the Jaguars were poised to make a Super Bowl run. However, the Jaguars failed to live up to those expectations, struggling to a 5-11 finish, the franchise's worst record since 2003. The team's struggles were in part, the result of a rash of injuries to the team's offensive line. The Jaguars lost starting guards Vince Manuwai and Maurice Williams for the season within the first quarter of the opening game. Tackle Richard Collier's career ended in early September when he was brutally attacked and shot 14 times. Center Brad Meester missed the first two months of the season and guard Chris Naeole, signed to the roster mid-season in response to these injuries, was injured in pregame warmups before playing a single snap. Against teams with smaller defensive linemen, the 2008 Jaguars offense resembled the 2007 offense, because the line was able to dominate. An example is the 21–20 victory in Indianapolis against the Colts that saw David Garrard drive the Jaguars into field goal range in the final minute and Josh Scobee boot the game winning 51-yard field goal with 4 seconds remaining. Another example would be the Jaguars' performance against the Broncos. However, the Jaguars struggled mostly, especially in the second half of the season as evidenced by a 19–21 loss to the Cincinnati Bengals who entered the game with an 0-8 record. Team colors and mascots Logos and uniforms Logo Jaguars unused logo on helmet The day after the NFL awarded the expansion team to Jacksonville, a triumphant and surprised Wayne Weaver held up the Jaguars' proposed silver helmet and teal jersey at the NFL owners' meeting in Chicago. The team's colors were revealed to be teal, gold, and silver with black accents. However, this jersey and helmet design stirred controversy. Both included the team's logo with a gold leaping jaguar. This caught the attention of Ford Motor Company, parent of the automaker Jaguar, in that the Jaguars' logo bore what they considered to be too much resemblance to the automaker's logo, which was also used as a hood ornament. Though no lawsuit was brought to trial, an amicable agreement was ultimately reached where Jaguar would be named the official car of the Jaguars, and the Jaguars would redesign their uniforms. The new logo became a prominent snarling Jaguars head with a teal tongue, which Weaver said was his wife's touch. He also claimed that the teal tongue came from "feeding Panthers to our Jaguars"—an obvious jab at their expansion brethren. During the Jaguars' first ever preseason game, teal-colored candies were handed out to all the fans who attended, turning their tongues a teal color just like on the logo. In 2009, Weaver announced that he wanted to 'clean up' the teams image, and this ended up meaning the elimination of the full-body crawling Jaguar logo, the clawing Jaguar, and the two previous wordmarks which bent the text around these logos. Uniform 1995-2008 Jacksonville Jaguars uniform combination, 2004-2008. The redesigned uniforms (following the logo change) feature an all-black helmet, white pants, gold numbers and black trim on the numbers, over either teal or white jerseys. A prowling jaguar on each sleeve replaced the leaping jaguar which went all the way across both shoulders. The Jaguars in 1995 were the first NFL team to have 2-tone borders on their numbers and lettering, and the first NFL team to show a complex logo (the crawling Jaguar) on the sleeve. Teams such as the Ravens, Bucs, and Eagles copied these innovations in the late 90s, driving up the cost of their jerseys. An authentic Jaguars jersey had been among the most expensive in the league for fans to buy. Minor modifications had been introduced to the Jaguars uniform since then, such as changing the font of the jersey numbers. Before 2004, the white jerseys had teal numbers, and from 2004-2008, the white jerseys had black numbers with teal and gold trim. For most of their short history, the Jaguars did what many other NFL teams located in subtropical climates traditionally practice: wear their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season — forcing opponents to wear their dark ones under the sweltering autumns in Jacksonville. However in 2004, the Jaguars wore their colored uniforms at home for all home games. The Jaguars again wore their colored uniforms (all in teal) for all home games in 2008. In the preseason, the Jaguars wear teal at home since these games are played at night when there is very little advantage with the heat. The team introduced an alternate black jersey in 2002. During that same year, the team also started to wear black pants, mostly with their white jerseys. With the introduction of the black pants, the team stopped wearing the white jersey/white pants combination on a full-time basis. The black pants originally included two teal stripes down each side, but were replaced in 2004 with solid black pants featuring the Jaguar logo on each hip. The stripes on the white pants were altered in 2008 so that the center, thickest stripe was black, and its accents were teal. The black jersey was not used in 2008. In the 2008 year, the gold in the uniforms noticeably shifted from a bright yellow metallic appearance to more beige. 2009 The Jaguars will be wearing new uniforms for the 2009 season. http://bleacherreport.com/afc-south http://www.jaguars.com/news/article.aspx?id=7730 Team owner Wayne Weaver reportedly wanted to "clean up" the look, feeling that the team had too many uniform styles. The new uniforms were introduced in a press conference on April 22. At this press conference, Weaver elaborated that different people had taken different liberties with the Jaguars' image over the years, singling out the 'All Black' look which the team wore for every prime-time home game from 2003 to 2007 as a point of regret. He also said that the team will continue to wear teal blue jerseys at home even on hot days, saying that the practice of choosing to wear white on hot days which ended in 2008 had also diluted the team's image. Overall, the new jerseys have fewer features competing for attention than the old ones. The collar and sleeve ends are now the same color as the rest of the jersey. The crawling jaguar is gone. The only feature on the sleeves that will remain is two standard Reebok logos. The numbers on the jerseys now have a single color border, and together these effects add up to a cleaner look. After all of these subtractions, the only addition was two thin 'stripes' of off-color fabric which were added to each midseam of the jersey, curling up to the neckline on the front and below the number on the back. The stripe on the home jersey is a white line next to a black line, matching the color of the numbers, and the stripe on the away jersey is a black line next to a teal line, again matching the numbers. The pants have similar stripes, both for the home and away uniform. The away uniforms now feature teal as the only accent color. Before, the teal on the away uniform was barely visible and gold was more prominent. There are no gold borders, stripes, or panels anywhere on the new uniforms, home or away. The Jaguars' identity, in terms of colors, as of 2009 is exclusively teal and black, with gold only being used in the logo; just as the Steelers identity is gold and black, with red and blue only being used in the logo. The final change made to the Jaguars' uniforms in 2009 was to the helmet. The new helmet and facemask are black just like the old ones, but when light hits the new ones a certain way, both the helmet and face mask will sparkle with a shiny teal appearance. These are the first helmets in professional football which change color with different angles of light. The logo and number decals also incorporate this effect. Mascots Jaxson de Ville with American Idol finalist Phil Stacey. Since his introduction in 1996, Jaxon de Ville has served as the Jaguars' mascot. Jaxon entertains the crowd before and during games with his antics. The mascot has established a reputation for making dramatic entrances including bungee jumping off the stadium lights, sliding down a rope from the scoreboard and parachuting into the stadium. Jackson's antics got him into trouble in 1998 and stemmed the changing of the NFL's mascot rules, and also caused him to calm down. However, Jaxson was still seen, by some, as a mascot that gets in the way during the game. After the October 22, 2007 game against Indianapolis, Colts President Bill Polian complained to the NFL, and Jaxson was reprimanded again. Jaxson's first appearance was on August 18, 1996 and has been played by Curtis Dvorak since his inception. Stadium 300px]|Jacksonville Municipal Stadium Jacksonville Municipal Stadium, located near the banks of the St. Johns River, is the current home of the Jaguars and has been since the team's first season in 1995. The stadium has a capacity of over 76,000 but approximately 10,000 seats are covered during Jaguars' home games reducing the stadium's capacity to 67,164. The seats were covered before the 2004 season in response to declining ticket sales and the large capacity of the stadium relative to Jacksonville's population. The stadium served as the site of Super Bowl XXXIX in addition to three Jaguar playoff games including the 1999 AFC Championship Game. In addition, the stadium hosts the annual Florida-Georgia Game ("The World's Largest Outdoor Cocktail Party") and the Minolta Gator Bowl. From 1997 until 2006, the stadium was named Alltel Stadium. Statistics and Records Season-by-season results This is a partial list of the last four seasons completed or in progress by the Jaguars. For the full season-by-season franchise results, see Jacksonville Jaguars seasons. Note: The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play. Record as of January 12, 2009Super Bowl Champions Conference ChampionsDivision ChampionsWild Card Berth SeasonTeamLeagueConferenceDivisionRegular seasonPostseason ResultsAwardsFinishWinsLossesTies2005NFLAFCSouth2nd1240Lost Wild Card Playoffs (Patriots) 28-32006NFLAFCSouth3rd88020072007NFLAFCSouth2nd1150Won Wild Card Playoffs (Steelers) 31-29 Lost Divisional Playoffs (Patriots) 31-202008NFLAFCSouth4th5110 Players of note Current roster Retired numbers Although not officially retired, the number 71, as worn by Tony Boselli has not been worn since 2002. According to team officials the number has been "taken out of service." Pride of the Jaguars The Jaguars unveiled their own "Ring of Honor" during the 2006 season at the New York Jets game on October 8, 2006. A contest was held in July 2006 to name their club's hall of fame and "Pride of the Jaguars" was chosen with 36% of the vote. jaguars.com > News > Press Release > 'Honor ring' named Former left tackle Tony Boselli was inducted. Team owner Wayne Weaver said that Boselli will be the only one enshrined in 2006 but "others will follow later." jaguars.com > News > Jaguars News > Boselli first in ‘Ring’ Weaver also said that recently retired wide receiver Jimmy Smith would probably be the second player to be inducted. jaguars.com > News > Jaguars News > Last link says goodbye All-time first-round draft picks Coaches of note Head coaches Note: Statistics are correct through the end of the 2008 NFL season. Name Term Regular Season Playoffs Awards Reference W L T Win% W LTom Coughlin–68600.53144 Jack Del Rio–present50460.521 12 Offensive Coordinators Kevin Gilbride (1995–1996) Chris Palmer (1997–1998) Bobby Petrino (2000–2001) Bill Musgrave (2003–2004) Carl Smith (2005–2006) Dirk Koetter (2007–present) Defensive Coordinators Dick Jauron (1995–1998) Dom Capers (1999–2000) Gary Moeller (2001) John Pease (2002) Mike Smith (2003–2007) Gregg Williams (2008) Mel Tucker (2009-present) Current staff Work in the community The Jacksonville Jaguars Foundation was established in 1995, when the franchise deal was first announced. Since then, the Foundation has given over $20 million to area efforts in community improvement. In recent years, there has been increasing emphasis on youth programs, such as Honor Rows and Fresh Futures. The Jaguars also have a program called Playbooks, which is designed to help stop illiteracy. Delores Barr Weaver, wife of majority owner Wayne Weaver, is Chairperson and CEO of the foundation, which grants over $1 million annually to organizations that assist "economically and socially disadvantaged youth and families", according to their mission statement. Jacksonville Jaguars website, Foundation The Jaguar's first head coach, Tom Coughlin, established the Tom Coughlin Jay Fund Foundation in 1996 to help young cancer victims and their families with emotional and financial assistance. The charity remained in Jacksonville after Coughlin left to coach the New York Giants. Jay Fund Foundation website, History Radio and television Since the first 1995 season, the Jaguars' flagship radio station has been WOKV. Since 2007, WOKV simulcasts on both AM 690 and on 106.5 FM. Brian Sexton, Sports Director for WAWS-TV & WTEV-TV, and a past contestant on Who Wants to Be a Millionaire, is the play-by-play announcer, Jeff Lageman is the color analyst, and WOKV's Sports Director Cole Pepper serves as the pre-game and post-game show host with former Oakland Raider Pete Banaszak serving as post-game analyst. During preseason games, telecasts not seen nationwide are on WTEV channel 47, the CBS affiliate. Since 2007, the announcers were Paul Burmeister and former Jaguars Left Tackle Tony Boselli. Notes and references External links Official website Ultimate Jaguars Jacksonville Jaguars Foundation Official Jacksonville Jaguars store | Jacksonville_Jaguars |@lemmatized jacksonville:51 jaguar:116 professional:2 american:4 football:9 team:75 locate:5 florida:13 currently:1 member:1 south:4 division:12 conference:5 afc:18 national:1 league:10 nfl:33 along:2 carolina:5 panther:6 join:1 expansion:9 club:3 play:20 home:23 game:57 municipal:4 stadium:28 near:2 st:9 john:5 river:2 headquarters:1 also:22 jaguars:1 practice:3 season:63 training:1 camp:1 adjoin:1 field:8 history:9 pre:2 franchise:16 every:2 year:18 city:11 host:7 gator:8 bowl:15 annual:3 civic:1 highlight:2 traditionally:2 accompany:1 party:2 ceremony:1 parade:1 event:1 lead:9 georgia:4 build:2 steel:1 truss:1 great:4 depression:1 frequently:1 onto:1 final:7 addition:5 reinforced:2 concrete:2 west:3 upper:2 deck:1 come:8 short:2 lived:1 world:2 shark:1 express:1 united:1 state:2 bull:1 occasional:1 exhibition:1 star:2 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2,415 | Edward_Lear | Edward Lear (12 May 1812 – 29 January 1888) was an English artist, illustrator, author, and poet, renowned for his literary nonsense, in poetry and prose, and especially his limericks, a form that he popularised. Biography Lear was born into a middle-class family in Highgate, the 20th child of Ann and Jeremiah Lear. He was raised by his eldest sister, also named Ann, 21 years his senior. Due to the family's failing financial fortune, at age four he and his sister had to leave the family home and set up house together. He started work as a serious illustrator and his first publication, published when he was 19, was Illustrations of the Family of Psittacidae, or Parrots in 1830. His paintings were well received and he was favourably compared with Audubon. Throughout his life he continued to paint seriously. He had a lifelong ambition to illustrate Tennyson's poems; near the end of his life a volume with a small number of illustrations was published, but his vision for the work was never realized. Lear briefly gave drawing lessons to Queen Victoria, leading to some awkward incidents when he failed to observe proper court protocol. Largely educated by himself, Lear has been described as idiosyncratic yet brilliantly talented. Lear also suffered from health issues. From the age of six he suffered frequent grand mal epileptic seizures, and bronchitis, asthma, and in later life, partial blindness. Lear experienced his first seizure at a fair near Highgate with his father. The event scared and embarrassed him. Lear felt lifelong guilt and shame for his epileptic condition. His adult diaries indicate that he always sensed the onset of a seizure in time to remove himself from public view. How Lear was able to anticipate them is not known, but many people with epilepsy report a ringing in their ears or an "aura" before the onset of a seizure. In Lear's time epilepsy was believed to be associated with demonic possession, which contributed to his feelings of guilt and loneliness. When Lear was about seven he began to show signs of depression, possibly due to the constant instability of his childhood. He suffered from periods of severe depression which he referred to as "the Morbids." In 1846 Lear published A Book of Nonsense, a volume of limericks that went through three editions and helped popularize the form. In 1865 The History of the Seven Families of the Lake Pipple-Popple was published, and in 1867 his most famous piece of nonsense, The Owl and the Pussycat, which he wrote for the children of his patron Edward Stanley, 13th Earl of Derby. Many other works followed. Lear's nonsense books were quite popular during his lifetime, but a rumour circulated that "Edward Lear" was merely a pseudonym, and the books' true author was the man to whom Lear had dedicated the works, his patron the Earl of Derby. Supporters of this rumour offered as evidence the facts that both men were named Edward, and that "Lear" is an anagram of "Earl". Lear's limericks A Book of Nonsense (ca. 1875 James Miller edition) by Edward Lear Lear's nonsense works are distinguished by a facility of verbal invention and a poet's delight in the sounds of words, both real and imaginary. A stuffed rhinoceros becomes a "diaphanous doorscraper". A "blue Boss-Woss" plunges into "a perpendicular, spicular, orbicular, quadrangular, circular depth of soft mud". His heroes are Quangle-Wangles, Pobbles, and Jumblies. His most famous piece of verbal invention, a "runcible spoon" occurs in the closing lines of The Owl and the Pussycat, and is now found in many English dictionaries: They dined on mince, and slices of quince Which they ate with a runcible spoon; And hand in hand, on the edge of the sand, They danced by the light of the moon, The moon, The moon, They danced by the light of the moon. Though famous for his neologisms, Lear employed a number of other devices in his works in order to defy reader expectations. For example, "Cold Are The Crabs", Cold Are The Crabs adhers to the sonnet tradition until the dramatically foreshortened last line. Limericks are invariably typeset as four plus one lines today, but Lear's limericks were published in a variety of formats. It appears that Lear wrote them in manuscript in as many lines as there was room for beneath the picture. In the first three editions most are typeset as, respectively, two, five, and three lines. The cover of one edition Edward Lear, A Book of Nonsense bears an entire limerick typeset in two lines: There was an Old Derry down Derry, who loved to see little folks merry; So he made them a book, and with laughter they shook at the fun of that Derry down Derry. In Lear's limericks the first and last lines usually end with the same word rather than rhyming. For the most part they are truly nonsensical and devoid of any punch line or point. They are completely free of the off-colour humour with which the verse form is now associated. A typical thematic element is the presence of a callous and critical "they". An example of a typical Lear limerick: There was an Old Man of Aôsta, Who possessed a large Cow, but he lost her; But they said, 'Don't you see, she has rushed up a tree? You invidious Old Man of Aôsta!' Lear's self-portrait in verse, How Pleasant to know Mr. Lear, closes with this stanza, a reference to his own mortality: He reads but he cannot speak Spanish, He cannot abide ginger-beer; Ere the days of his pilgrimage vanish, How pleasant to know Mr. Lear! Five of Lear's limericks from the Book of Nonsense, in the 1946 Italian translation by Carlo Izzo, were set to music for choir a cappella by Goffredo Petrassi, in 1952. Works Illustrations of the Family of the Psittacidæ (1832) Tortoises, Terrapins, and Turtles by J.E. Gray Views in Rome and its Environs (1841) Gleanings from the Menagerie at Knowsley Hall (1846) Illustrated Excursions in Italy (1846) Book of Nonsense (1846) Journal of a Landscape Painter in Greece and Albania (1851) Journal of a Landscape Painter in Southern Calabria (1852) Book of Nonsense and More Nonsense (1862) Views in the Seven Ionian Isles (1863) Journal of a Landscape Painter in Corsica (1870) Nonsense Songs and Stories (1871) More Nonsense Songs, Pictures, etc. (1872) Laughable Lyrics (1877) Nonsense Alphabets Nonsense Botany (1888) Tennyson's Poems, illustrated by Lear (1889) Facsimile of a Nonsense Alphabet (1849, but not published until 1926) The Scroobious Pip, unfinished at his death, but completed by Ogden Nash and illustrated by Nancy Ekholm Burkert (1968) The Quangle-Wangle's Hat (unknown) Others Edward Lear's Parrots by Brian Reade, Duckworth (1949), including 12 coloured plates from Lear's Psittacidae The 1970 Saturday morning cartoon Tomfoolery, based on the works of Lear and Lewis Carroll Illustrations References External links Full text, images, and covers of several of Edward Lear's books available as Open Access from the Baldwin Library of Historical Children's Literature Edward Lear's Books of Nonsense Scans of illustrations from the Nonsense series of books Edward Lear Home Page at nonsenselit.org Reelyredd's Poetry Pages The Daddylonglegs and The Fly (audio file) Parrot Gallery at The Academy of Natural Sciences The Owl and the Pussy-cat translation project Available in more than 60 languages "Edward Lear: The Corfu Years" ed. Philip Sherrard See also Lear's Macaw List of wildlife artists | Edward_Lear |@lemmatized edward:11 lear:38 may:1 january:1 english:2 artist:2 illustrator:2 author:2 poet:2 renowned:1 literary:1 nonsense:18 poetry:2 prose:1 especially:1 limerick:7 form:3 popularise:1 biography:1 bear:2 middle:1 class:1 family:6 highgate:2 child:3 ann:2 jeremiah:1 raise:1 eldest:1 sister:2 also:3 name:2 year:2 senior:1 due:2 fail:2 financial:1 fortune:1 age:2 four:2 leave:1 home:2 set:2 house:1 together:1 start:1 work:7 serious:1 first:4 publication:1 publish:6 illustration:5 psittacidae:2 parrot:3 painting:1 well:1 receive:1 favourably:1 compare:1 audubon:1 throughout:1 life:3 continue:1 paint:1 seriously:1 lifelong:2 ambition:1 illustrate:4 tennyson:2 poem:2 near:2 end:2 volume:2 small:1 number:2 vision:1 never:1 realize:1 briefly:1 give:1 draw:1 lesson:1 queen:1 victoria:1 lead:1 awkward:1 incident:1 observe:1 proper:1 court:1 protocol:1 largely:1 educate:1 describe:1 idiosyncratic:1 yet:1 brilliantly:1 talented:1 suffer:3 health:1 issue:1 six:1 frequent:1 grand:1 mal:1 epileptic:2 seizure:4 bronchitis:1 asthma:1 late:1 partial:1 blindness:1 experience:1 fair:1 father:1 event:1 scar:1 embarrass:1 felt:1 guilt:2 shame:1 condition:1 adult:1 diary:1 indicate:1 always:1 sense:1 onset:2 time:2 remove:1 public:1 view:3 able:1 anticipate:1 know:3 many:4 people:1 epilepsy:2 report:1 ring:1 ear:1 aura:1 believe:1 associate:2 demonic:1 possession:1 contribute:1 feeling:1 loneliness:1 seven:3 begin:1 show:1 sign:1 depression:2 possibly:1 constant:1 instability:1 childhood:1 period:1 severe:1 refer:1 morbids:1 book:12 go:1 three:3 edition:4 help:1 popularize:1 history:1 lake:1 pipple:1 popple:1 famous:3 piece:2 owl:3 pussycat:2 write:2 patron:2 stanley:1 earl:3 derby:2 follow:1 quite:1 popular:1 lifetime:1 rumour:2 circulate:1 merely:1 pseudonym:1 true:1 man:3 dedicate:1 supporter:1 offer:1 evidence:1 fact:1 men:1 anagram:1 limericks:2 ca:1 james:1 miller:1 distinguish:1 facility:1 verbal:2 invention:2 delight:1 sound:1 word:2 real:1 imaginary:1 stuffed:1 rhinoceros:1 become:1 diaphanous:1 doorscraper:1 blue:1 bos:1 woss:1 plunge:1 perpendicular:1 spicular:1 orbicular:1 quadrangular:1 circular:1 depth:1 soft:1 mud:1 hero:1 quangle:2 wangle:2 pobbles:1 jumblies:1 runcible:2 spoon:2 occur:1 closing:1 line:8 find:1 dictionary:1 din:1 mince:1 slice:1 quince:1 eat:1 hand:2 edge:1 sand:1 dance:2 light:2 moon:4 though:1 neologism:1 employ:1 device:1 order:1 defy:1 reader:1 expectation:1 example:2 cold:2 crabs:1 crab:1 adhers:1 sonnet:1 tradition:1 dramatically:1 foreshorten:1 last:2 invariably:1 typeset:3 plus:1 one:2 today:1 variety:1 format:1 appear:1 manuscript:1 room:1 beneath:1 picture:2 respectively:1 two:2 five:2 cover:2 entire:1 old:3 derry:4 love:1 see:3 little:1 folk:1 merry:1 make:1 laughter:1 shake:1 fun:1 usually:1 rather:1 rhyme:1 part:1 truly:1 nonsensical:1 devoid:1 punch:1 point:1 completely:1 free:1 colour:1 humour:1 verse:2 typical:2 thematic:1 element:1 presence:1 callous:1 critical:1 aôsta:2 possess:1 large:1 cow:1 lose:1 say:1 rush:1 tree:1 invidious:1 self:1 portrait:1 pleasant:2 mr:2 close:1 stanza:1 reference:2 mortality:1 read:1 cannot:2 speak:1 spanish:1 abide:1 ginger:1 beer:1 ere:1 day:1 pilgrimage:1 vanish:1 italian:1 translation:2 carlo:1 izzo:1 music:1 choir:1 cappella:1 goffredo:1 petrassi:1 works:1 psittacidæ:1 tortoise:1 terrapin:1 turtle:1 j:1 e:1 gray:1 rome:1 environs:1 gleanings:1 menagerie:1 knowsley:1 hall:1 excursion:1 italy:1 journal:3 landscape:3 painter:3 greece:1 albania:1 southern:1 calabria:1 ionian:1 isle:1 corsica:1 song:2 story:1 etc:1 laughable:1 lyric:1 alphabet:2 botany:1 facsimile:1 scroobious:1 pip:1 unfinished:1 death:1 complete:1 ogden:1 nash:1 nancy:1 ekholm:1 burkert:1 hat:1 unknown:1 others:1 brian:1 reade:1 duckworth:1 include:1 coloured:1 plate:1 saturday:1 morning:1 cartoon:1 tomfoolery:1 base:1 lewis:1 carroll:1 external:1 link:1 full:1 text:1 image:1 several:1 available:2 open:1 access:1 baldwin:1 library:1 historical:1 literature:1 scan:1 series:1 page:2 nonsenselit:1 org:1 reelyredd:1 daddylonglegs:1 fly:1 audio:1 file:1 gallery:1 academy:1 natural:1 science:1 pussy:1 cat:1 project:1 language:1 corfu:1 ed:1 philip:1 sherrard:1 macaw:1 list:1 wildlife:1 |@bigram edward_lear:10 queen_victoria:1 epileptic_seizure:1 guilt_shame:1 feeling_guilt:1 earl_derby:2 rumour_circulate:1 ogden_nash:1 saturday_morning:1 lewis_carroll:1 external_link:1 |
2,416 | Cash_register | Antique crank-operated cash register A cash register is a mechanical or electronic device for calculating and recording sales transactions, and an attached cash drawer for storing currency. The cash register also usually prints a receipt for the customer. Details In most cases the drawer can be opened only after a sale, except when using a special key, which only senior personnel or the owner has. This reduces the risk of personnel stealing from the shop owner by not recording a sale and pocketing the money, in the case that the customer does not require a receipt and has to be given change (cash is more easily checked against recorded sales than inventory). In fact, cash registers were first invented for the purpose of eliminating employee theft or embezzlement. The first registers were entirely mechanical, without receipts. The employee was required to ring up every transaction on the register, and when the total key was pushed, the drawer opened and a bell would ring, alerting the manager to a sale taking place. Those original machines were nothing but simple adding machines. Some cash registers include a key labeled "NS", which is abbreviated for "No Sale", and opens the drawer, printing out a receipt stating "No Sale" and recording it in the register log that the register was opened. Some other cash registers require a numeric password to be entered when attempting to open the register. In the event of a power shortage, some models have latches that can be pulled to open the drawer. A cash register receipt may be compulsory for tax purposes. The law sometimes also requires customers to collect the receipt and keep it at least for a short while after leaving the shop, again for checking that the shop records sales, so that it cannot evade taxes. Often cash registers are attached to scales, barcode scanners, checkstands, and debit card or credit card terminals. Increasingly, dedicated cash registers are being replaced with general purpose computers with POS software. Today, these machines scan the barcode (usually EAN or Universal Product Code (UPC)) for each item, retrieve the price from a database, calculate deductions for items on sale, calculate the tax, calculate differential rates for preferred customers, time and date stamp the transaction, record the transaction in detail including each item purchased, record the method of payment, keep totals for each product or type of product sold as well as total sales for specified periods, and do other tasks as well. Currently, many cash registers are individual computers. They may be DOS, Windows or Unix based. Many of them have touch screens. They may be connected to computerized Point of sale networks using any type of protocol. Such systems may be accessed remotely for the purpose of obtaining records or troubleshooting. Cash register manufacturers include Casio, NCR, IBM, Panasonic, Wincor-Nixdorf, Uniwell, Sharp, TOWA MECCS, SAM4S, Datasym, Omron, JCM, Crisalid and Toshiba TEC Corporation. Self checkout Some supermarkets have introduced self-checkout machines, where the customer is trusted to scan the barcodes (or manually identify uncoded items like fruit), and place the items into a bagging area. The bag is weighed, and the machine halts the checkout when the weight of something in the bag doesn't match the weight in the inventory database. Normally, an employee is watching over several such checkouts to prevent theft or exploitation of the machines' weaknesses (e.g., intentional misidentification of expensive produce or dry goods). Payment on these machines is accepted by debit card/credit card, or cash via coinslot and bank note scanner. Origin National Cash Register The first cash register was invented by James Ritty following the American Civil War. He was the owner of a saloon in Dayton, Ohio, USA, and wanted to stop employees from pilfering his profits. He invented the Ritty Model I in 1879 after seeing a tool that counted the revolutions of the propeller on a steamship. With the help of John Ritty, his brother, he patented it in 1883. Shortly thereafter, Ritty became overwhelmed with the responsibilities of running two businesses, so he sold all of his interests in the cash register business to Jacob H. Eckert of Cincinnati, a china and glassware salesman, who formed the National Manufacturing Company. In 1884 Eckert sold the company to John H. Patterson, who renamed the company the National Cash Register Company and improved the cash register by adding a paper roll to record sales transactions, thereby creating the receipt. In 1906, while working at the National Cash Register company, inventor Charles F. Kettering designed a cash register with an electric motor. In the UK the term "till" is used which describes a small compartment or shelf inside a larger blanket or other form of chest, used to segregate small items. See also Ohmer fare register References | Cash_register |@lemmatized antique:1 crank:1 operated:1 cash:21 register:24 mechanical:2 electronic:1 device:1 calculate:4 record:9 sale:12 transaction:5 attached:1 drawer:5 store:1 currency:1 also:3 usually:2 print:2 receipt:7 customer:5 detail:2 case:2 open:6 except:1 use:4 special:1 key:3 senior:1 personnel:2 owner:3 reduce:1 risk:1 steal:1 shop:3 pocket:1 money:1 require:4 give:1 change:1 easily:1 check:2 inventory:2 fact:1 first:3 invent:3 purpose:4 eliminate:1 employee:4 theft:2 embezzlement:1 entirely:1 without:1 ring:2 every:1 total:3 push:1 bell:1 would:1 alert:1 manager:1 take:1 place:2 original:1 machine:7 nothing:1 simple:1 add:2 include:3 label:1 n:1 abbreviate:1 state:1 log:1 numeric:1 password:1 enter:1 attempt:1 event:1 power:1 shortage:1 model:2 latch:1 pull:1 may:4 compulsory:1 tax:3 law:1 sometimes:1 collect:1 keep:2 least:1 short:1 leave:1 cannot:1 evade:1 often:1 attach:1 scale:1 barcode:2 scanner:2 checkstands:1 debit:2 card:4 credit:2 terminal:1 increasingly:1 dedicated:1 replace:1 general:1 computer:2 pos:1 software:1 today:1 scan:2 ean:1 universal:1 product:3 code:1 upc:1 item:6 retrieve:1 price:1 database:2 deduction:1 differential:1 rate:1 preferred:1 time:1 date:1 stamp:1 purchase:1 method:1 payment:2 type:2 sell:3 well:2 specified:1 period:1 task:1 currently:1 many:2 individual:1 windows:1 unix:1 base:1 touch:1 screen:1 connect:1 computerize:1 point:1 network:1 protocol:1 system:1 access:1 remotely:1 obtain:1 troubleshoot:1 manufacturer:1 casio:1 ncr:1 ibm:1 panasonic:1 wincor:1 nixdorf:1 uniwell:1 sharp:1 towa:1 meccs:1 datasym:1 omron:1 jcm:1 crisalid:1 toshiba:1 tec:1 corporation:1 self:2 checkout:4 supermarket:1 introduce:1 trust:1 barcodes:1 manually:1 identify:1 uncoded:1 like:1 fruit:1 bagging:1 area:1 bag:2 weigh:1 halt:1 weight:2 something:1 match:1 normally:1 watch:1 several:1 prevent:1 exploitation:1 weakness:1 e:1 g:1 intentional:1 misidentification:1 expensive:1 produce:1 dry:1 good:1 accept:1 via:1 coinslot:1 bank:1 note:1 origin:1 national:4 james:1 ritty:4 follow:1 american:1 civil:1 war:1 saloon:1 dayton:1 ohio:1 usa:1 want:1 stop:1 pilfer:1 profit:1 see:2 tool:1 count:1 revolution:1 propeller:1 steamship:1 help:1 john:2 brother:1 patent:1 shortly:1 thereafter:1 become:1 overwhelmed:1 responsibility:1 run:1 two:1 business:2 interest:1 jacob:1 h:2 eckert:2 cincinnati:1 china:1 glassware:1 salesman:1 form:2 manufacturing:1 company:5 patterson:1 rename:1 improve:1 paper:1 roll:1 thereby:1 create:1 work:1 inventor:1 charles:1 f:1 kettering:1 design:1 electric:1 motor:1 uk:1 term:1 till:1 describe:1 small:2 compartment:1 shelf:1 inside:1 large:1 blanket:1 chest:1 segregate:1 ohmer:1 fare:1 reference:1 |@bigram barcode_scanner:1 debit_card:2 dayton_ohio:1 shortly_thereafter:1 |
2,417 | Marine_biology | Marine biology is the scientific study of living organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water. World Marine Environment. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy. Marine biology differs from marine ecology as marine ecology is focused on how organisms interact with each other and environment and biology is the study of the animal itself. Marine life is a vast resource, providing food, medicine, and raw materials, in addition to helping to support recreation and tourism all over the world. At a fundamental level, marine life helps determine the very nature of our planet. Marine organisms contribute significantly to the oxygen cycle, and are involved in the regulation of the earth's climate. Shorelines are in part shaped and protected by marine life, and some marine organisms even help create new land. Marine biology covers a great deal, from the microscopic, including most zooplankton and phytoplankton to the huge cetaceans (whales) which reach up to a reported 48 meters (125 feet) in length. The habitats studied by marine biology include everything from the tiny layers of surface water in which organisms and abiotic items may be trapped in surface tension between the ocean and atmosphere, to the depths of the abyssal trenches, sometimes 10,000 meters or more beneath the surface of the ocean. It studies habitats such as coral reefs, kelp forests, tidepools, muddy, sandy and rocky bottoms, and the open ocean (pelagic) zone, where solid objects are rare and the surface of the water is the only visible boundary. A large amount of all life on Earth exists in the oceans. Exactly how large the proportion is still unknown. A lot of species living in oceans are still to be discovered. While the oceans comprise about 71% of the Earth's surface, due to their depth they encompass about 300 times the habitable volume of the terrestrial habitats on Earth. Many species are economically important to humans, including food fish. It is also becoming understood that the well-being of marine organisms and other organisms are linked in very fundamental ways. The human body of knowledge regarding the relationship between life in the sea and important cycles is rapidly growing, with new discoveries being made nearly every day. These cycles include those of matter (such as the carbon cycle) and of air (such as Earth's respiration, and movement of energy through ecosystems including the ocean). Large areas beneath the ocean surface still remain effectively unexplored. Subfields The marine ecosystem is large, and thus there are many subfields of marine biology. Most involve studying specializations of particular animal groups. (i.e. phycology, invertebrate zoology and ichthyology). Other subfields study the physical effects of continual immersion in sea water and the ocean in general, adaptation to a salty environment, and the effects of changing various oceanic properties on marine life. A subfield of marine biology studies the relationships between oceans and ocean life, and global warming and environmental issues (such as carbon dioxide displacement). Recent marine biotechnology has focused largely on marine biomolecules, especially proteins, that may have uses in medicine or engineering. Marine environments are the home to many exotic biological materials that may inspire biomimetic materials. Related fields Marine biology is a branch of oceanography and is closely linked to biology. It also encompasses many ideas from ecology. Fisheries science and marine conservation can be considered partial offshoots of marine biology. Lifeforms Microscopic life A copepod. Microscopic life undersea is incredibly diverse and still poorly understood. For example, the role of viruses in marine ecosystems is barely being explored even in the beginning of the 21st century. The role of phytoplankton is better understood due to their critical position as the most numerous primary producers on Earth. Phytoplankton are categorized into cyanobacteria (also called blue-green algae/bacteria), various types of algae (red, green, brown, and yellow-green), diatoms, dinoflagellates, euglenoids, coccolithophorids, cryptomonads, chrysophytes, chlorophytes, prasinophytes, and silicoflagellates. Zooplankton tend to be somewhat larger, and not all are microscopic. Many Protozoa are zooplankton, including dinoflagellates, zooflagellates, foraminiferans, and radiolarians. Some of these (such as dinoflaggelates) are also phytoplankton; the plant/animal distinction often breaks down in very small organisms. Other zooplankton include cnidarians, ctenophores, chaetognaths, molluscs, arthropods, urochordates, and annelids such as polychaetes. Many larger animals begin their life as zooplankton before they become large enough to take their familiar forms. Two examples are fish larvae and sea stars (also called starfish). Plants and algae Plant life is widespread and very diverse under the sea. Microscopic photosynthetic algae contribute a larger proportion of the worlds photosynthetic output than all the terrestrial forests combined. Most of the niche occupied by sub plants on land is actually occupied by macroscopic algae in the ocean, such as Sargassum and kelp, which are commonly known as seaweeds that create kelp forests. The non algae plants that survive in the sea are often found in shallow waters, such as the seagrasses (examples of which are eelgrass, Zostera, and turtle grass, Thalassia). These plants have adapted to the high salinity of the ocean environment. The intertidal zone is also a good place to find plant life in the sea, where mangroves or cordgrass or beach grass might grow. Macroscopic algae and plants provide important habitats for life, sometimes acting as hiding and foraging places for larval forms of larger fish and invertebrates. [[Image:Crown of Thorns-jonhanson.jpg|thumb|right|A crown-of-thorns starfish.]] Marine invertebrates As on land, invertebrates make up a huge portion of all life in the sea. Invertebrate sea life includes Cnidaria such as jellyfish and sea anemones; Ctenophora; sea worms including the phyla Platyhelminthes, Nemertea, Annelida, Sipuncula, Echiura, Chaetognatha, and Phoronida; Mollusca including shellfish, squid, octopus; Arthropoda including Chelicerata and Crustacea; Porifera; Bryozoa; Echinodermata including starfish; and Urochordata including sea squirts or tunicates. Fish Fish have evolved very different biological functions from other large organisms. Fish anatomy includes a two-chambered heart, operculum, secretory cells that produce mucous, swim bladder, scales, fins, lips and eyes. Fish breathe by extracting oxygen from water through their gills. Fins propel and stabilize the fish in the water. Well known fish include: sardines, anchovy, ling cod, clownfish (also known as anemonefish), and bottom fish which include halibut or ling cod. Predators include sharks and barracuda. Green turtle. Reptiles Reptiles which inhabit or frequent the sea include sea turtles, sea snakes, the marine iguana, and the saltwater crocodile. Most extant marine reptiles, except for some sea snakes are oviparous and need to return to land to lay their eggs. Thus most species, excepting sea turtles, spend most of their lives on or near land rather than in the ocean. Some extinct marine reptiles, such as ichthyosaurs, evolved to be viviparous and had no requirement to return to land. Seabirds Seabirds are species of birds adapted to living in the marine environment, examples including albatross, penguins, gannets, and auks. Although they spend most of their lives in the ocean, species such as gulls can often be found thousands of miles inland. Sea otters. Marine mammals There are five main types of marine mammals. Cetaceans include toothed whales (Suborder Odontoceti), such as the Sperm Whale, dolphins, and porpoises such as the Dall's porpoise. Cetaceans also include baleen whales (Suborder Mysticeti), such as the Gray Whale, Humpback Whale, and Blue Whale. Sirenians include manatees, the Dugong, and the extinct Steller's Sea Cow. Seals (Family Phocidae), sea lions (Family Otariidae - which also include the fur seals), and the Walrus (Family Odobenidae) are all considered pinnipeds. The Sea Otter is a member of the Family Mustelidae, which includes weasels and badgers. The Polar Bear (Family Ursidae) is sometimes considered a marine mammal because of its dependence on the sea. Oceanic habitats Reefs Corals and reef fish in Papua New Guinea. Reefs comprise some of the densest and most diverse habitats in the world. The best-known types of reefs are tropical coral reefs which exist in most tropical waters; however, reefs can also exist in cold water. Reefs are built up by corals and other calcium-depositing animals, usually on top of a rocky outcrop on the ocean floor. Reefs can also grow on other surfaces, which has made it possible to create artificial reefs. Coral reefs also support a huge community of life, including the corals themselves, their symbiotic zooxanthellae, tropical fish and many other organisms. Much attention in marine biology is focused on coral reefs and the El Niño weather phenomenon. In 1998, coral reefs experienced a "once in a thousand years" bleaching event, in which vast expanses of reefs across the Earth died because sea surface temperatures rose well above normal. Some reefs are recovering, but scientists say that 58% of the world's coral reefs are now endangered and predict that global warming could exacerbate this trend. Deep sea and trenches The deepest recorded oceanic trenches measure to date is the Mariana Trench, near the Philippines, in the Pacific Ocean at 10924 m (35838 ft). At such depths, water pressure is extreme and there is no sunlight, but some life still exists. Small flounder (family Soleidae) fish and shrimp were seen by the American crew of the bathyscaphe Trieste'' when it dove to the bottom in 1960. Other notable oceanic trenches include Monterey Canyon, in the eastern Pacific, the Tonga Trench in the southwest at 10,882 m (35,702 ft), the Philippine Trench, the Puerto Rico Trench at 8605 m (28232 ft), the Romanche Trench at 7760 m (24450 ft), Fram Basin in the Arctic Ocean at 4665 m (15305 ft), the Java Trench at 7450 m (24442 ft), and the South Sandwich Trench at 7235 m (23737 ft). In general, the deep sea is considered to start at the aphotic zone, the point where sunlight loses its power of transference through the water. Many life forms that live at these depths have the ability to create their own light. Much life centers on seamounts that rise from the depths, where fish and other sea life congregate to spawn and feed. Hydrothermal vents along the mid-ocean ridge spreading centers act as oases, as do their opposites, cold seeps. Such places support unique biomes and many new microbes and other lifeforms have been discovered at these locations. Open ocean The open ocean is relatively unproductive because of a lack of nutrients, yet because it is so vast, in total it produces the most primary productivity. Much of the aphotic zone's energy is supplied by the open ocean in the form of detritus. The open ocean consists mostly of Jellyfish and its predators such as the Mola mola. Intertidal and shore Tide pools with sea stars and sea anemone in Santa Cruz,CaliforniaIntertidal zones, those areas close to shore, are constantly being exposed and covered by the ocean's tides. A huge array of life lives within this zone. Shore habitats span from the upper intertidal zones to the area where land vegetation takes prominence. It can be underwater anywhere from daily to very infrequently. Many species here are scavengers, living off of sea life that is washed up on the shore. Many land animals also make much use of the shore and intertidal habitats. A subgroup of organisms in this habitat bores and grinds exposed rock through the process of bioerosion. Distribution factors An active research topic in marine biology is to discover and map the life cycles of various species and where they spend their time. Marine biologists study how the ocean currents, tides and many other oceanic factors affect ocean lifeforms, including their growth, distribution and well-being. This has only recently become technically feasible with advances in GPS and newer underwater visual devices. Most ocean life breeds in specific places, nests or not in others, spends time as juveniles in still others, and in maturity in yet others. Scientists know little about where many species spend different parts of their life cycles. For example, it is still largely unknown where sea turtles and some sharks travel. Tracking devices do not work for some life forms, and the ocean is not friendly to technology. This is important to scientists and fishermen because they are discovering that by restricting commercial fishing in one small area they can have a large impact in maintaining a healthy fish population in a much larger area far away. See also World Ocean Atlas Oceanic climate Important publications in marine biology Aquaculture Freshwater biology Phycology Oceanic Basin Modular Ocean Model Bathymetry Acoustic ecology A Chain of themed Sea Life Centres Lists Index of biology articles List of marine biologists Large marine ecosystem Glossary of ecology List of ecologists List of important publications in biology#Ecology Outline of biology Outline of ecology References External links | Marine_biology |@lemmatized marine:40 biology:19 scientific:1 study:8 live:7 organism:10 ocean:31 brackish:1 body:2 water:11 world:6 environment:7 give:1 many:14 phylum:2 family:7 genus:1 specie:10 sea:31 others:4 land:9 classifies:1 base:1 rather:2 taxonomy:1 differs:1 ecology:7 focus:3 organisms:1 interact:1 animal:6 life:30 vast:3 resource:1 provide:2 food:2 medicine:2 raw:1 material:3 addition:1 help:3 support:3 recreation:1 tourism:1 fundamental:2 level:1 determine:1 nature:1 planet:1 contribute:2 significantly:1 oxygen:2 cycle:6 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2,418 | Government_Communications_Headquarters | A model of GCHQ headquarters in Cheltenham, commonly nicknamed "the doughnut" Gloucestershire Echo, 23 July 1998, p. 3 The Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) is a British intelligence agency responsible for providing signals intelligence (SIGINT) and information assurance to the UK government and armed forces as required, under the guidance of the Joint Intelligence Committee. CESG (originally Communications-Electronics Security Group) is the branch of GCHQ which works to secure the communications and information systems of the government and critical parts of UK national infrastructure. GCHQ was originally established after the First World War as the Government Code and Cypher School (GCCS or GC&CS), by which name it was known until 1946. GCHQ is the responsibility of the UK Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, but it is not a part of the Foreign Office, and its Director ranks as a Permanent Secretary. Structure According to James Bamford , circa 1983 GCHQ consisted of a number of divisions identified by letters organised into six directorates: Composite Signals Organisation, or "Y" service, responsible for running the stations that intercept signals Directorate of Communications Security, or "L Division", responsible for producing all the codes and ciphers for the government Directorate of Organisation and Establishment, responsible for administration "E": Establishment and Personnel "F": Finance and Supply "G": General and Managerial "M": Mechanical Engineering "Q": Technical "R": Security Directorate of SIGINT Plans "P": Plans and Policy Staff, responsible for planning intercept stations and other long-term signals intelligence issues Directorate of SIGINT Operations and Requirements "Z": Requirements, Liaison and Foreign, which receives target requests from military and government agencies and organises liaison with allied foreign intelligence services "U" and "V": Search Technology, specialising in advanced signal detection technologies "S" and "T": Statistical Operations, responsible for studying message "externals", such as traffic analysis "W": Communications, responsible for delivering intelligence to the agency that requested it "K": General SIGINT: responsible for analysing signals intelligence from everywhere except the Soviet bloc "J": Special SIGINT: responsible for analysing signals intelligence from the Soviet bloc "H": Cryptanalysis: responsible for breaking complex ciphers, usually with help from X division "X": Computer Science Joint Technical Language Service, responsible for translating intercepted communications History Government Code and Cypher School (GCCS) During World War I, Britain's Army and Navy had separate signals intelligence agencies, MI1b and NID25 (also known as Room 40) respectively. Johnson, p. 27 In 1919, the Cabinet's Secret Service Committee, chaired by Lord Curzon, recommended that a peace-time codebreaking agency should be created, a task given to the then-Director of Naval Intelligence, Hugh Sinclair. Johnson, 1997, p. 44 Sinclair merged staff from NID25 and MI1b into the new organisation, which initially consisted of around 25-30 officers and a similar number of clerical staff. Johnson, 1997, p. 45 and Kahn, 1991, p. 82; these sources give different numbers for the initial size of the GCCS staff It was titled the "Government Code and Cypher School", a cover-name chosen by Victor Forbes of the Foreign Office. Alastair Denniston, who had been a member of NID25, was appointed as its operational head. It was initially under the control of the Admiralty, and located in Watergate House, Adelphi, London. Its public function was "to advise as to the security of codes and cyphers used by all Government departments and to assist in their provision," but also had a secret directive to "study the methods of cypher communications used by foreign powers." Michael Smith, "GC&CS and the First Cold War," p. 16-17 in Action this Day edited by Ralph Erskine and Michael Smith, 2001 GCCS officially formed on 1 November 1919, Kahn, 1991, p. 82 and produced its first decrypt on 19 October. Allidina Visram school in Mombasa, pictured above in 2006, was the location of the British "Kilindini" codebreaking outpost during World War II Before World War II, GCCS was a relatively small department, By 1922, the main focus of GCCS was on diplomatic traffic, with "no service traffic ever worth circulating" Alastair G. Denniston, "The Government Code and Cypher School Between the Wars", Intelligence and National Security 1(1), January 1986, pp 48-70 and so, at the initiative of Lord Curzon, it was transferred from the Admiralty to the Foreign Office. Smith, 2001, pp. 20-21 GCCS came under the supervision of Hugh Sinclair, who by 1923 was both the Chief of SIS and Director of GCCS. In 1925, both organisations were co-located on different floors of Broadway Buildings, opposite St James' Park. Messages decrypted by GCCS were distributed in blue jacketed files that became known as "BJs". Smith, 2001, pp. 18-19 In the 1920s, GCCS was successfully reading Soviet Union diplomatic ciphers. However, in May 1927, during a row over clandestine Soviet support for the General Strike and the distribution of subversive propaganda, Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin made details from the decrypts public, prompting the Soviet to change their systems to more secure schemes, including the one-time pad. Staff included Alastair Denniston, Oliver Strachey, Dilly Knox, John Tiltman, Edward Travis, Ernst Fetterlein, Josh Cooper and Hugh Foss. During the Second World War, GCCS was based largely at Bletchley Park, reading, most famously, the German Enigma machine ciphers, but also a large number of other systems. In 1940, GCCS was working on the diplomatic codes and ciphers of 26 countries, tackling over 150 diplomatic cryptosystems. David Alvarez, GC&CS and American Diplomatic Cryptanalysis . They had an outstation at Kilindini, near Mombasa, Kenya, which worked for Admiral Sir James Somerville, commander-in-chief of the Royal Navy's Eastern Fleet. GCCS was renamed the "Government Communications Headquarters" in June 1946. After World War II GCHQ was at first based in Eastcote, but in 1953 moved to the outskirts of Cheltenham, setting up two sites there - Oakley and Benhall. Its existence was not officially acknowledged until 1983, when the trial of Geoffrey Prime made its existence undeniable. Public key encryption Early in the 1970s the asymmetric key algorithm was invented by staff member Clifford Cocks, a mathematics graduate. This fact was kept secret until 1997. Trade union disputes In 1984 GCHQ was the centre of a political row when the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher prohibited its employees from belonging to a Trade Union. It was claimed that joining such a union would be in conflict with national security. The ban was eventually lifted by the incoming Labour government in 1997, with the Government Communications Group of the Public and Commercial Services (PCS) Union being formed to represent interested employees at all grades. In 2000, a group of fourteen former GCHQ employees, who had been dismissed after refusing to give up their union membership, were offered re-employment, which three of them accepted. Post Cold War Since 1994, GCHQ activities have been subject to scrutiny by Parliament's Intelligence and Security Committee. Post-Cold War, the aims of GCHQ were set out by the Intelligence Services Act 1994. At the end of 2003, GCHQ moved to a new circular HQ (popularly known as 'the Doughnut'): at the time, it was the second-largest public-sector building project in Europe, with an estimated cost of £337 million. The new building, which was designed by Gensler and constructed by Carillion, Carillion is redeveloping Cheltenham intelligence centre is the base for all of GCHQ's Cheltenham operations. The public spotlight fell on GCHQ in late 2003 and early 2004 following the sacking of Katharine Gun after she leaked a confidential email from agents at the American National Security Agency to GCHQ agents about the wire-tapping of UN delegates in the run-up to the 2003 Iraq war. GCHQ gains its intelligence by monitoring a wide variety of communications and other electronic signals. For this a number of stations have been established in the UK and overseas which are run by the Composite Signals Organisation for GCHQ. The Composite Signals Organisation Station, at Morwenstow near Bude, Cornwall is directly subordinate to GCHQ. The listening stations are at Cheltenham itself, GCHQ CSO Morwenstow, GCHQ CSO Ascension Island, with the U.S.A. at Menwith Hill, and the Columbia Annex (CANX). Ayios Nikolaos Station on Cyprus is run by the British Armed Forces for GCHQ. In addition to SIGINT, GCHQ provides assistance to Government Departments on their own communications security. This task is given to the Communications-Electronics Security Group (CESG) of GCHQ. CESG is the UK national technical authority for information assurance, including cryptography. CESG does not manufacture security equipment, but works with industry to ensure the availability of suitable products and services, while GCHQ itself can fund research into such areas, for example to the Centre for Quantum Computing at Oxford University and the Heilbronn Institute at Bristol University . International relationships GCHQ operates in partnership with equivalent agencies worldwide in a number of bi-lateral and multi-lateral relationships. The principal of these is with the United States (National Security Agency), Canada (Communications Security Establishment), Australia (Defence Signals Directorate) and New Zealand (Government Communications Security Bureau), through the mechanism of the UK-USA Security Agreement, a broad intelligence sharing agreement encompassing a range of intelligence collection methods. Relationships are alleged to include shared collection methods, such as the system described in the popular media as ECHELON, as well as analysed product. GCHQ and the constitution A controversial GCHQ case determined the scope of judicial review of prerogative powers (the Crown's residual powers under common law). This was Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service [1985] AC 374 (often known simply as the "GCHQ case"). In this case, a prerogative Order in Council had been used by the prime minister (who is the Minister for the Civil Service) to ban trade union activities by civil servants working at GCHQ. This order was issued without consultation. The House of Lords had to decide whether this was reviewable by judicial review. It was held that executive action is not immune from judicial review simply because it uses powers derived from common law rather than statute (thus the prerogative is reviewable). Controversially, they also held that although the failure to consult was unfair, this was overridden by concerns of national security. Leadership The following is a list of the heads of the operational heads of GCHQ and GC&CS: http://archives.his.com/intelforum/2003-June/msg00019.html http://archives.his.com/intelforum/2003-June/msg00028.html Alastair Denniston CMG CBE (1921–February 1942) (continued as Deputy Director (Diplomatic and Commercial) until 1945). Sir Edward Travis KCMG CBE (February 1942–1952) Sir Eric Jones KCMG CB CBE (April 1952–1960) Sir Clive Loehnis KCMG (1960–1964) Sir Leonard Hooper KCMG CBE (1965–1973) Sir Arthur Bonsall KCMG CBE (1973–1978) Sir Brian John Maynard Tovey KCMG (1978–1983) Sir Peter Marychurch KCMG (1983–1989) Sir John Anthony Adye KCMG (1989–1996) Sir David Omand GCB (July 1996–December 1997) Sir Kevin Tebbit KCB CMG (January 1998–July 1998) Sir Francis Richards KCMG CVO DL (July 1998–April 2003) Sir David Pepper KCMG (April 2003–July 2008) Iain Lobban CB (July 2008 to present) See also Zircon, the cancelled GCHQ satellite project Hugh Alexander head of the cryptanalysis division at GCHQ from 1949–1971 Geoffrey Prime, a former employee of GCHQ, convicted both of spying for the Soviet Union and of sexual offences involving children. Capenhurst National Security Agency John Johnson, The Evolution of British Sigint: 1653–1939, 1997 References External links Government Communications Headquarters Her Majesty's Government Communications Centre Communications-Electronics Security Group (CESG) GovCertUK | Government_Communications_Headquarters |@lemmatized model:1 gchq:33 headquarters:3 cheltenham:5 commonly:1 nickname:1 doughnut:2 gloucestershire:1 echo:1 july:6 p:8 government:18 communication:16 british:4 intelligence:17 agency:9 responsible:11 provide:2 signal:12 sigint:7 information:3 assurance:2 uk:6 arm:2 force:2 require:1 guidance:1 joint:2 committee:3 cesg:5 originally:2 communications:1 electronics:3 security:18 group:5 branch:1 work:5 secure:2 system:4 critical:1 part:2 national:8 infrastructure:1 establish:2 first:4 world:6 war:11 code:7 cypher:6 school:5 gccs:13 gc:4 c:4 name:2 know:5 responsibility:1 secretary:2 state:2 foreign:7 commonwealth:1 affair:1 office:3 director:4 rank:1 permanent:1 structure:1 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2,419 | Keith_Moon | Keith John Moon (23 August 1946 – 7 September 1978) was the drummer of the rock group The Who. He gained notoriety for exuberant drumming and his destructive lifestyle that earned him the nickname, "Moon the Loon." Moon joined The Who in 1964, replacing Doug Sandom. He played on all albums and singles from their debut, 1965's My Generation, to 1978's Who Are You, which was released two weeks before his death. Moon was known for innovative, dramatic drumming, often eschewing basic back beats for a fluid, busy technique focused on fast, cascading rolls across the toms and cymbal crashes. Biography Keith John Moon lived in Wembley as a boy, was hyperactive, and had a restless imagination. As a youth, the one thing that could hold his attention was music. A report from his secondary modern school was not encouraging – his art teacher commented: 'Retarded artistically. Idiotic in other respects.' Teacher Aaron Sofocleous praised his music skills and encouraged his chaotic style, even if one school report noted "He has great ability, but must guard against a tendency to show off." Moon failed his eleven plus exam and left school in 1961. On 17 March 1966, Moon married his pregnant girlfriend Kim Kerrigan in secrecy. Their daughter Amanda was born on 12 July, 1966. Kerrigan left Moon in 1973 and moved in with Faces keyboard player Ian McLagan. In 1974 he began dating Swedish model Annette Walter-Lax. The next year he and Kerrigan divorced. Kim and Ian married in October 1978, one month after Keith's death. Early musical career At 12, Moon joined his local Sea Cadet Corps band as a bugle player but traded his position to be a drummer. WhoCollection.com Moon started drums at 14 after his father bought him a kit. He received lessons from one of the loudest drummers at the time, Carlo Little, paying him 10 shillings a lesson. During this time he joined his first serious band "The Escorts". He later spent 18 months as the drummer for "The Beachcombers", a London cover band notable for renditions of songs by Cliff Richard. Fletcher, Tony: "Moon: The Life and Death of a Rock Legend Moon initially played in the style of American surf rock, jazz, with a mix of reggae and R&B drummers, utilising grooves and fills of those genres, particularly Hal Blaine of Wrecking Crew. However, he played faster and louder, with more persistence and authority. Moon's favourite musicians were jazz greats Gene Krupa, who inspired him to be the showman he was, and Sonny Rollins. The Who At 17, Moon joined The Who (in April 1964), a replacement for Doug Sandom. Without a drummer the remaining members hired a session drummer to fulfill shows they had agreed to play. Moon attended one of these shows. Pete Townshend described him as looking like a "ginger vision" with his hair dyed ginger and wearing ginger-coloured clothes. As stated in Amazing Journey: The Story of The Who, Moon looked up to Roger Daltrey during the show and said "I hear you're looking for a drummer. Well, I'm much better than the one you've got." The Kids Are Alright The band knew they needed Moon after seeing him practically smash the drum kit to pieces. Early in The Who's career, live sets culminated in "auto destruction", members destroying their equipment in elaborate fashion, an act that was imitated by other bands and artists including Jimi Hendrix in his breakout performance at the 1967 Monterey Pop Festival. Moon showed a zeal for this, kicking and smashing his drums. For a performance on the Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour television show, he had explosives loaded into one of his kit's two bass drums. During the finale of "My Generation," he kicked the other drum off the riser and then set off the charge, singeing Townsend's hair and embedding a piece of cymbal in Moon's arm (the blast has been speculated as starting Townshend's tinnitus). Another time, he filled clear acrylic drums with water and goldfish, playing them for a television appearance. When an audience member asked "What happens with your goldfish?" he replied with a grin, "Well I mean, you know...even the best drummers get hungry." "Keith Moon and goldfish." 00:50. Antics like these earned him the nicknames "Moon the Loon", and "Mad Moon". His determination to add his voice to Who songs led other members to banish him from the studio when vocals were recorded. This led to a game, Moon sneaking in to join the singing. Moon can be heard singing on several tracks, including "Bell Boy" (Quadrophenia, 1973), "Bucket T" and "Barbara Ann" (Ready Steady Who EP, 1966). He was credited as composer of "I Need You," which he also sang, and the instrumental "Cobwebs and Strange" (from A Quick One, 1966), the single B-sides "In The City" (co-written by Moon and Entwistle), "Dogs Part Two" (1969) (sharing credits with Townshend's and Entwistle's dogs, Towser and Jason) and "Wasp Man" (1972), and "Girl's Eyes" (from The Who Sell Out sessions; featured on Thirty Years of Maximum R&B and a 1995 re-release of The Who Sell Out). He also co-composed the instrumental "The Ox" (from the debut album "My Generation") with Townshend, Entwistle and pianist Nicky Hopkins. "Tommy's Holiday Camp" (from Tommy) was credited to Moon, who suggested the action should take place in a holiday camp. The song was written by Townshend, and although many think Moon sings on the track, the version on the album is Townshend's demo. However Moon did sing it live and on the Tommy film. He also produced "Baba O'Riley"'s violin solo (which he had suggested), performed by Dave Arbus, a friend. Daltrey said Moon's drumming style held the band together; that Entwistle and Townshend "were like needles... and Keith was the wool." Drum kits The first kit Moon owned was a blue Premier kit bought on hire purchase (credit) and co-signed by his father, Alf. It was purchased at the suggestion of his friend and fellow drummer Gerry Evans. Throughout 1964 and 1965 he played typically four, then five-piece kits, but moved to a Premier double bass kit in June 1966. This new set widened his playing; he abandoned his hi-hat cymbals almost entirely and started basing his grooves on a double bass ostinato with eighth note flams, and a wall of white noise created by riding a crash or ride cymbal. On top of this he played fills and cymbal accents. This became his trademark. Moon's Classic Red Sparkle Premier setup comprised two 14x22-inch bass drums, three 8x14 mounted toms, one 16x16 floor tom, a 5x14 Ludwig Supraphonic 400 snare and one extra floor tom of different sizes but mainly 16x18 or 16x16. Moon's classic cymbal setup consisted of two Paiste Giant Beat 18" crashes and one 20" ride. In 1973, Moon added a second row of tom-toms (first four, then six) and, in 1975, two more timbales. These huge kits became well known, notably the amber set in the films, Tommy and Stardust, and in footage shot by the BBC at Charlton in 1974. The 1975/76 white kit with gold fittings, in which the gold was actually copper due to the weakness of gold, was given by Moon to a young Zak Starkey, son of Ringo Starr. His final kit, a dark metallic one, is seen in the footage from The Kids Are Alright at Shepperton in 1978. Moon had so many drums at one point that he joked he devoted one single floor tom just to hold drinks. Reputation for destruction Moon led a very destructive lifestyle. He laid waste to hotel rooms, the homes of friends, and even his own home, throwing furniture out of high windows. Along with his drum sets, Moon's infamous (and favourite) calling card was to flush powerful explosives and/or fireworks (usually Cherry bombs, Roman candles, M-80s and in some extreme cases, even dynamite) down the toilet, detonating and ultimately destroying scores of toilets in this manner for his personal amusement. Fletcher, Tony: "Moon: The Life and Death of a Rock Legend http://www.journallive.co.uk/culture-newcastle/music-in-newcastle/2003/09/06/extraordinary-keith-moon-61634-13376917/ It has been estimated that his destruction of toilets and plumbing ran as high as US$500,000, http://www.celsias.com/article/fear-keith-moon-planet/ and his repeated practice of blowing up toilets with explosives led him to be banned from lodging at several hotel chains around the world for life, including all Holiday Inn, Sheraton, and Hilton hotels. http://www.pigazette.com/porkchops_comedy1.html Unknown to many people at the time, Moon was often able to cajole John Entwistle into helping him blow up toilets. In a 1981 interview with the Los Angeles Times, Entwistle confessed, "A lot of times when Keith was blowing up toilets I was standing behind him with the matches.” http://articles.latimes.com/2002/jun/28/local/me-john28 During one incident between Moon and hotel management, Moon was asked to turn down his cassette player because The Who were making "too much noise." In response, Moon asked the manager up to his room, lit a stick of dynamite in the toilet, and shut the bathroom door. Following the explosion, Moon informed the startled manager, "That, dear boy, was noise." Moon then turned the cassette player back on and proclaimed, "This is The Who." http://www.concierge.com/ideas/hotels/tours/2715?page=15 http://www.earcandymag.com/rrcase-4.htm On a different occasion in Alabama, Moon and Entwistle loaded a toilet with cherry bombs because they could not receive room service. According to Entwistle, 'That toilet was just dust all over the walls by the time we checked out. The management brought our suitcases down to the gig and said: "Don't come back..." ' http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-467847/My-friend-John-rock-star-DID-die-got-old.html The acts, though often fueled by drugs and alcohol, were his way of expressing his eccentricity, as well as the joy he got from shocking the public. Fletcher, Tony: "Moon: The Life and Death of a Rock Legend In Moon's biography, Full Moon, Dougal Butler observed: "He would do anything if he knew that there were enough people around who didn't want him to do it." A darker side to Moon's behaviour, tentatively diagnosed as caused by a Borderline Personality Disorder in Fletcher's biography, was physical violence towards three women in his life: his wife Kim, girlfriend Annette, and only daughter Mandy. He was also prepared to pay someone to break the fingers of Faces/Rolling Stones keyboardist Ian "Mac" McLagan (who became Kim's boyfriend after the marital breakup and, after Moon's death, her second husband) out of jealousy. Annette Walter-Lax described his Mr Hyde-like change into a growling, uncontrollable beast as something out of a horror movie. She begged Malibu neighbor Larry Hagman to check Moon into a clinic to dry out, but when doctors recorded Moon's intake at breakfast (a full bottle of champagne along with Courvoisier ), they concluded there was no hope. Alice Cooper remembers his drinking club, The Hollywood Vampires, commenting that Moon ("the Puck of Rock 'n' Roll") used to enter dressed up as the Pope. Joe Walsh has recorded chats with Moon, finding it remarkable how witty and alert the inebriated drummer managed to stay, ad-libbing his way through surrealistic fantasy stories à la Peter Cook. Although his behavior was outrageous, it was in the humorous vein Fletcher, Tony: "Moon: The Life and Death of a Rock Legend as his friend Vivian Stanshall, of the Bonzo Dog Band claimed. Moon produced Stanshall's version of Elvis Presley's Suspicion. According to Townshend, Moon's reputation for erratic behaviour was something he cultivated. Once, on the way to an airport, Moon insisted they return to their hotel, saying , "I forgot something. We've got to go back!" When the limo returned, Moon ran to his room, grabbed the TV while it was plugged in, threw it out the window and into the pool. He then jumped back into the limousine, sighing "I nearly forgot." In 1967, Moon set in motion events which later become one of rock's most famous legends. According to the book Local DJ, a Rock & Roll History, Moon, drunk at his 21st birthday party (Moon had claimed to be a year older than he actually was; he was believed to be 20 at the time and was proclaiming this to be his 21st so that he could drink in every state; it actually was his 21st birthday) in Flint, Michigan, allegedly drove a Cadillac (according to Moon's own account, it was a Lincoln Continental) into the Holiday Inn pool, and blew the toilet in his room to pieces, leaping out of the bathroom at the last possible moment to avoid porcelain toilet shards. http://www.geocities.com/viciousinterlude/keithbiopage.html While Moon had established a notorious history of blowing up toilets at other Holiday Inns, the car incident led to them being banned from Flint and The Holiday Inn for life. The Who had just opened for Herman's Hermits. Author "Peter C" Cavanaugh, who was there and witnessed the event firsthand, recalled the events for a documentary on the 60's rock scene. interview with Peter Cavanaugh, first DJ to play The Who in America According to the book, The Who In Their Own Words, Moon said the incident was at the Holiday Inn in Flint, Michigan. He said this was how he broke his front tooth. Other people who attended the event, including Who bandmate John Entwistle, cast doubt on the veracity of the car-in-the-swimming-pool story, but confirm some other parts of the fable. Another version of the night was recounted by Moon biographer Tony Fletcher in the book Moon: The Life and Death of a Rock Legend: "It was [after a cake fight] that the cry came to 'debag' the birthday boy... Various members of [Herman's Hermits and the Who] launched themselves on Keith, pinned him to the floor and successfully pulled his trousers down...As the teenage girls began gasping and giggling and the cops started grunting their disapproval, Keith, naked from the waist down, made a good-natured dash for it out of the room...and smashed one of his front teeth out. " (p.p. 210) It was after Moon went to the dentist and the party was disbanded that the 30-40 guests filed out, a few taking fire extinguishers to cars and dirtying the swimming pool. On 4 January 1970, Moon was involved in a car-pedestrian death outside the Red Lion pub in Hatfield, Hertfordshire. Trying to escape hostile skinheads from the pub who had begun to attack his Bentley, Moon ran over and killed his friend and bodyguard, Neil Boland. Although the coroner said Boland's death was an accident, and Moon was given an absolute discharge having been charged with driving offences, those close to him said Moon was haunted by the accident for the rest of his life. Boland's daughter investigated and suggested that Moon may not have been driving. An interview with Jean Battye about the death of Neil Boland During an encore of a Led Zeppelin concert in June, 1977, Moon took the stage, grabbed the microphone, and began yelling barely-intelligible gibberish and profanities, before Robert Plant took the microphone from him and yelled, "Keith Moon!" Q104.3 Podcast, Get the Led Out, Volume 1 Led Zeppelin bootleg recording, "For Badgeholders Only", June 23, 1977. Moon's penchant for the wild life was detrimental to his drumming and his reliability as a band member. On the 1973 Quadrophenia tour, at the Cow Palace in Daly City, California, Moon took a large mixture of tranquilizers and brandy. He passed out during "Won't Get Fooled Again" and again in "Magic Bus." Townshend asked the audience, "Can anyone play the drums? - I mean somebody good." An audience member, Scot Halpin, filled in for the rest of the show. Guitarist Pete Townshend later said in an interview that Moon had consumed large tranquilizer pills, meant to be shot at animals, with the brandy. Rolling Stone, 14 July 1979 During the band's recording sabbatical between 1975 and 1978, Moon put on a great deal of weight. Moon's close friend Ringo Starr was seriously concerned about his 'Rock Star' lifestyle and told Moon that if he kept going the way he was he would eventually kill himself. Moon simply replied 'Yeah, I know.' http://www.rusticgirls.com/rock-history-deaths.html Moon owned a lilac-coloured Rolls-Royce, painted with house paint. On Top Gear, (aired 2004/12/12) Daltrey commented that Moon liked to take upper-class icons and make them working class. The car is now owned by Middlebrook Garages (based in Nottinghamshire, England). Also on Top Gear in 2005, Jeremy Clarkson recreated the stunt where Moon allegedly drove his Cadillac into a swimming pool. Clarkson drove a Rolls Royce into the Chipping Norton Lido, a public outdoor heated swimming pool. Work outside The Who Although Moon's work with The Who dominated his career, he participated in minor side projects. In 1966, he teamed with Yardbirds guitarist Jeff Beck, session man Nicky Hopkins, and future Led Zeppelin members Jimmy Page and John Paul Jones to record an instrumental, "Beck's Bolero," released as a single-double later that year. He also played timpani on another track, "Ol' Man River" (credited on the back of the album as "You Know Who"). On 15 December 1969, Moon joined John Lennon's Plastic Ono Band for a live performance at the Lyceum Ballroom in London, England for a UNICEF charity concert. The supergroup also consisted of Eric Clapton, George Harrison, Nicky Hopkins, Yoko Ono, Billy Preston and, Klaus Voormann. The band played Lennon's Cold Turkey and Ono's Don't Worry Kyoko. The performance was eventually released in 1972 as a companion disc to Lennon & Ono's Some Time In New York City LP. He joined Led Zeppelin on stage and drummed with John Bonham for encores in a show on 23 June 1977 at the L.A. Forum (recorded on Led Zeppelin bootlegs, For Badgeholders Only/SGT Pages Badgeholders Club). In 1974 Track Records/MCA released a solo single: "Don't Worry, Baby" b/w "Teenage Idol", the former a reflection of his love of The Beach Boys. Valentine's Day, 1974, Moon performed on drums with Jimmy Page, Ronnie Lane, Max Middleton, and fellow drummer John Bonham on Acoustic guitar for the gig premiering Roy Harper's album Valentine. In 1975 he released his only solo album, pop covers entitled Two Sides of the Moon. Although this featured Moon's singing, much drumming was left to other artists including Ringo Starr, session musicians Curly Smith and Jim Keltner and actor/musician Miguel Ferrer (Twin Peaks and Crossing Jordan). Moon played drums on only three tracks. In late 1975, he played drums on the track "Bo Diddley Jam" on Bo Diddley's The 20th Anniversary of Rock 'n' Roll all-star album. In 1971 he had a cameo role in Frank Zappa's film 200 Motels. He acted in drag as a nun fearful of death from overdosing on pills. In 1973 he appeared in That'll Be the Day, playing J.D. Clover, the drummer at a holiday camp during the early days of British rock 'n' roll. Moon reprised the role for the sequel Stardust in 1974. The film co-starred Moon's friend Ringo Starr of the Beatles. He appeared as "Uncle Ernie" in Ken Russell's 1975 film adaptation of Tommy. In a bar about 1975, he asked Graham Chapman and Bernard McKenna to do a "treatment" for a "mad movie". They asked a thousand pounds, Moon pulled the cash from his pocket and gave it to them. This was the start of the project that would become the movie Yellowbeard. Moon wanted to play the lead but the movie took many years to develop, and by that time he was in physically poor shape, and unsuitable. Chapman, Graham: Yellowbeard: high jinks on the high seas In 1976, he covered the Beatles' "When I'm Sixty-Four" for the soundtrack of the documentary All This and World War II. He impersonated a camp fashion designer in Sextette (1978), starring Mae West. Moon once owned a hotel, The Crown and Cushion in Chipping Norton. Death Moon was Paul McCartney's guest at a film preview of The Buddy Holly Story on the evening of 6 September 1978. After dining with Paul and Linda McCartney, Moon and his girlfriend, Annette Walter-Lax, returned to a flat on loan from Harry Nilsson in Curzon Place, London (near Shepherd Market), where Moon died of an overdose of Clomethiazole (Heminevrin). The medication was a sedative he had been prescribed to alleviate his alcohol withdrawal symptoms as he tried to go dry on his own at home; he was desperate to get clean, but was terrified of another stay in the psychiatric hospital for in-patient detoxification. However, Clomethiazole is specifically contraindicated for unsupervised home detox due to its addictiveness, tendency to rapidly induce drug tolerance, and dangerously high risk of death when mixed with alcohol. Heather, Nicholas. Treatment Approaches to Alcohol Problems. Center for Alcohol and Drug Studies, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK The pills were also prescribed by a new doctor, Dr. Geoffrey Dymond, who was unaware of Moon's recklessly impulsive nature and long history of prescription sedative abuse. He had given Moon a full bottle of 100 pills, and instructed him to take one whenever he felt a craving for alcohol (but not more than 3 per day). The police determined there were 32 pills in his system, with the digestion of 6 being sufficient to cause his death, and the other 26 of which were still undissolved when he died. Fletcher, Tony: "Moon: The Life and Death of a Rock Legend Moon died in the room in which Cass Elliot of The Mamas & the Papas had died four years earlier. Moon was found by Annette in the hotel bed with one hand on the floor and one leg as well. Moon may have known he was dying and tried to get help himself. Moon died a couple of weeks after the release of Who Are You. On the album cover, Moon is seated on a chair back-to-front to hide the weight gained over three years (as discussed in Tony Fletcher's book "Dear Boy"). The chair is labeled "NOT TO BE TAKEN AWAY." Moon was cremated. His ashes were scattered in the Gardens of Remembrance at Golders Green Crematorium in London 1978. Events after his death While Moon was alive, The Who performed with four members. Afterwards, he was filled in for by Small Faces/Faces drummer Kenney Jones and later Simon Phillips. The Who also added keyboardist John "Rabbit" Bundrick to the live band. The Who's drum position is currently occupied by Zak Starkey, son of Ringo Starr. Starkey was taught by Moon and referred to him as Uncle Keith. Daltrey recorded a song, "Under a Raging Moon", as a tribute to Moon and the "middle bar" in the London Astoria was named after him. A biography was written about Moon by Tony Fletcher, entitled Dear Boy: The Life of Keith Moon. "Dear Boy" became a catchphrase of Moon's when he started affecting a pompous English accent around 1969, particularly when ordering drinks. Fletcher, Tony: "Moon: The Life and Death of a Rock Legend In early 2006, Moon's signature Pictures of Lily drum kit was reissued by Premier Percussion under the name Spirit of Lily. Moon's ex-wife, Kim, was married to Ian McLagan of the Faces in 1978, the year that Moon died. She was killed in a traffic collision near Austin, Texas on 2 August 2006. Moon's daughter, Mandy, is married to a graphic artist. She has two daughters and lives in Southern California. Daltrey is producing a biopic about Moon called See Me Feel Me: Keith Moon Naked for Your Pleasure, which will be released in 2009. Comedian Mike Myers will play the main role and may have to take drumming lessons to suit the character. The Joe Eszterhas movie Burn Hollywood Burn portrays a mental institution called the "Keith Moon Insane Asylum", alluding to Moon's destructive behavior. Animal from The Muppets was based on Keith Moon. A plaque dedicated to Moon was unveiled at the site of the old Marquee club in Soho, London, where the band played their first gig on November 24, 1964. Bandmate Daltrey, 65 at the time, was among those who attended the ceremony. References 08/03/09 Further reading Moon: The Life and Death of a Rock Legend by Tony Fletcher Anyway Anyhow Anywhere (Revised Edition): The Complete Chronicle of The Who 1958-1978 by Andrew Neill and Mathew Kent External links Untitled Keith Moon Project on imdb.com thewho.net: Album Liner Notes and Song Information Keith Moon videos, pictures, quotes, and set-up at Total-Drums.com The Who Location Guide Punk in the Gutter: Discussion/News Repository Website about The Who, including a Keith Moon Appreciation Archive (registration required) The Who ("Towser") TV: Online Webcasts, including Moon footage Keith Moon's Place of death | Keith_Moon |@lemmatized keith:20 john:10 moon:134 august:2 september:2 drummer:14 rock:19 group:1 gain:2 notoriety:1 exuberant:1 drumming:4 destructive:3 lifestyle:3 earn:2 nickname:2 loon:2 join:7 replace:1 doug:2 sandom:2 play:17 album:9 single:5 debut:2 generation:3 release:8 two:8 week:2 death:21 know:8 innovative:1 dramatic:1 often:3 eschew:1 basic:1 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2,420 | Compact_space | In mathematics, a topological space is called compact if each of its open covers has a finite subcover. Otherwise it is called non-compact. Note: Some authors such as Bourbaki use the term "quasi-compact" for this instead, and reserve the term "compact" for topological spaces that are both Hausdorff and "quasi-compact". The Heine–Borel theorem shows that this definition is equivalent to "closed and bounded" for subsets of Euclidean space. So a subset of Euclidean space Rn is called compact if it is closed and bounded. For example, in R, the closed unit interval [0, 1] is compact, but the set of integers Z is not (it is not bounded) and neither is the half-open interval [0, 1) (it is not closed). The concept of a compact subset of the real numbers can be extended to compact subsets of any topological space and indeed to the concept of a compact space. A subset is compact if when endowed with the subspace topology it becomes a compact space. A single compact set is sometimes referred to as a compactum; following the Latin second declension (neuter), the corresponding plural form is compacta. History and motivation The identity of bounded closed subsets of real numbers and sets whose open covers have finite subcovers was discovered and proved in the late 19th century. See Heine–Borel theorem. The term compact was introduced by Fréchet in 1906. It has long been recognized that a property like compactness is necessary to prove many useful theorems. It used to be that "compact" meant "sequentially compact" (every sequence has a convergent subsequence). This was when primarily metric spaces were studied. The "covering compact" definition has become more prominent because it allows us to consider general topological spaces, and many of the old results about metric spaces can be generalized to this setting. This generalization is particularly useful in the study of function spaces, many of which are not metric spaces. One of the main reasons for studying compact spaces is because they are in some ways very similar to finite sets: there are many results which are easy to show for finite sets, whose proofs carry over with minimal change to compact spaces. It is often said that "compactness is the next best thing to finiteness". Here is an example: Suppose X is a Hausdorff space, and we have a point x in X and a finite subset A of X not containing x. Then we can separate x and A by neighbourhoods: for each a in A, let U(x) and V(a) be disjoint neighbourhoods containing x and a, respectively. Then the intersection of all the U(x) and the union of all the V(a) are the required neighbourhoods of x and A. Note that if A is infinite, the proof fails, because the intersection of arbitrarily many neighbourhoods of x might not be a neighbourhood of x. The proof can be "rescued", however, if A is compact: we simply take a finite subcover of the cover {V(a) : a in A} of A, then intersect the corresponding finitely many U(x). In this way, we see that in a Hausdorff space, any point can be separated by neighbourhoods from any compact set not containing it. In fact, repeating the argument shows that any two disjoint compact sets in a Hausdorff space can be separated by neighbourhoods – note that this is precisely what we get if we replace "point" (i.e. singleton set) with "compact set" in the Hausdorff separation axiom. Many of the arguments and results involving compact spaces follow such a pattern. Definitions Compactness of topological spaces A topological space X is defined as compact if all its open covers have a finite subcover. Formally, this means that for every arbitrary collection of open subsets of such that , there is a finite subset such that . An often used equivalent definition is given in terms of the finite intersection property: if any collection of closed sets satisfying the finite intersection property has nonempty intersection, then the space is compact . This definition is dual to the usual one stated in terms of open sets. Some authors require that a compact space also be Hausdorff, and the non-Hausdorff version is then called quasicompact. Compactness of subsets of Rn For any subset of Euclidean space Rn, the following four conditions are equivalent: Every open cover has a finite subcover. This is the topological definition. Every sequence in the set has a convergent subsequence, the limit point of which belongs to the set. Every infinite subset of the set has at least one accumulation point in the set. The set is closed and bounded. This is the condition that is easiest to verify, for example a closed interval or closed n-ball. In other spaces, these conditions may or may not be equivalent, depending on the properties of the space. Note that while compactness is a property of the set itself (with its topology), closedness is relative to a space it is in; above "closed" is used in the sense of closed in Rn. A set which is closed in e.g. Qn is typically not closed in Rn, hence not compact. Examples of compact spaces Any finite topological space, including the empty set, is compact. Slightly more generally, any space with a finite topology (only finitely many open sets) is compact; this includes in particular the trivial topology. The closed unit interval [0, 1] is compact. This follows from the Heine–Borel theorem; the proof of which is about as hard as proving directly that [0, 1] is compact. The open interval (0, 1) is not compact: the open cover ( 1/n, 1−1/n ) for n = 3, 4, … does not have a finite subcover. Similarly, the set of rational numbers in the closed interval [0, 1] is not compact: the sets of rational numbers in the intervals and cover all the rationals in [0, 1] for n = 4, 5, … but this cover does not have a finite subcover. (Note that the sets are open in the subspace topology even though they are not open as subsets of R.) The set R of all real numbers is not compact as there is a cover of open intervals that does not have a finite subcover. For example, intervals , where n takes all integer values in Z, cover R but there is no finite subcover. For every natural number n, the n-sphere is compact. Again from the Heine–Borel theorem, the closed unit ball of any finite-dimensional normed vector space is compact. This is not true for infinite dimensions; in fact, a normed vector space is finite-dimensional if and only if its closed unit ball is compact. The Cantor set is compact. Since the p-adic integers are homeomorphic to the Cantor set, they also form a compact set. Since a finite set containing p elements is compact, this shows that the countable product of finite sets is compact, and is thus a special case of Tychonoff's theorem. Consider the set of all functions from the real number line to the closed unit interval, and define a topology on so that a sequence in converges towards if and only if converges towards for all . There is only one such topology; it is called the topology of pointwise convergence. Then is a compact topological space, again a consequence of Tychonoff's theorem. Consider the set K of all functions ƒ : [0, 1] → [0, 1] satisfying the Lipschitz condition |ƒ(x) − ƒ(y)| ≤ |x − y| for all x, y ∈ [0, 1]. Consider on K the metric induced by the uniform distance . Then by Arzelà–Ascoli theorem the space K is compact. Any space carrying the cofinite topology is compact. Any locally compact Hausdorff space can be turned into a compact space by adding a single point to it, by means of Alexandroff one-point compactification. The one-point compactification of R is homeomorphic to the circle ; the one-point compactification of R2 is homeomorphic to the sphere . Using the one-point compactification, one can also easily construct compact spaces which are not Hausdorff, by starting with a non-Hausdorff space. The spectrum of any continuous linear operator on a Hilbert space is a compact subset of the complex numbers C. If the Hilbert space is infinite-dimensional, then any compact subset of C arises in this manner, as the spectrum of some continuous linear operator on the Hilbert space. The spectrum of any commutative ring or Boolean algebra is compact. The Hilbert cube is compact; this follows from the Tychonoff theorem. The right order topology or left order topology on any bounded totally ordered set is compact. In particular, Sierpinski space is compact. The prime spectrum of any commutative ring with the Zariski topology is a compact space, important in algebraic geometry. These prime spectra are almost never Hausdorff spaces. R carrying the lower limit topology satisfies the property that no uncountable set is compact. In the cocountable topology on R (or any uncountable set for that matter), no infinite set is compact. Neither of the spaces in the previous two examples are locally compact but both are still Lindelöf Theorems Some theorems related to compactness (see the Topology Glossary for the definitions): A continuous image of a compact space is compact. The extreme value theorem: a continuous real-valued function on a nonempty compact space is bounded and attains its supremum. A closed subset of a compact space is compact. ; A compact subset of a Hausdorff space is closed. A nonempty compact subset of the real numbers has a greatest element and a least element. A subset of Euclidean n-space is compact if and only if it is closed and bounded. (Heine–Borel theorem) A metric space (or uniform space) is compact if and only if it is complete and totally bounded. The product of any collection of compact spaces is compact. (Tychonoff's theorem, which is equivalent to the axiom of choice) A compact Hausdorff space is normal. Every continuous map from a compact space to a Hausdorff space is closed and proper. It follows that every continuous bijective map from a compact space to a Hausdorff space is a homeomorphism. A metric space (or more generally any first-countable uniform space) is compact if and only if every sequence in the space has a convergent subsequence. A topological space is compact if and only if every net on the space has a convergent subnet. A topological space is compact if and only if every filter on the space has a convergent refinement. A topological space is compact if and only if every ultrafilter on the space is convergent. A topological space is compact if and only if every infinite subset of the space has a complete accumulation point. A topological space can be embedded in a compact Hausdorff space if and only if it is a Tychonoff space. Every non-compact topological space X is a dense subspace of a compact space which has at most one point more than X. (Alexandroff one-point compactification) If the metric space X is compact and an open cover of X is given, then there exists a number δ > 0 such that every subset of X of diameter < δ is contained in some member of the cover. (Lebesgue's number lemma) If a topological space has a sub-base such that every cover of the space by members of the sub-base has a finite subcover, then the space is compact. (Alexander's sub-base theorem) Two compact Hausdorff spaces X1 and X2 are homeomorphic if and only if their rings of continuous real-valued functions C(X1) and C(X2) are isomorphic. (Gelfand–Naimark theorem) Let X be a simply ordered set endowed with the order topology. Then X is compact if and only if X is a complete lattice (i.e. all subsets have suprema and infima). Every compact metric space is separable. Other forms of compactness There are a number of topological properties which are equivalent to compactness in metric spaces, but are inequivalent in general topological spaces. These include the following. Sequentially compact: Every sequence has a convergent subsequence. Countably compact: Every countable open cover has a finite subcover. (Or, equivalently, every infinite subset has an ω-accumulation point.) Pseudocompact : Every real-valued continuous function on the space is bounded. Weakly countably compact (or limit point compact): Every infinite subset has an accumulation point. While all these conditions are equivalent for metric spaces, in general we have the following implications: Compact spaces are countably compact. Sequentially compact spaces are countably compact. Countably compact spaces are pseudocompact and weakly countably compact. Not every countably compact space is compact; an example is given by the first uncountable ordinal with the order topology. Not every compact space is sequentially compact; an example is given by 2[0,1], with the product topology (Example 5.3, Scarborough and Stone 1966). A metric space is called pre-compact or totally bounded if any sequence has a Cauchy subsequence; this can be generalised to uniform spaces. For complete metric spaces this is equivalent to compactness. See relatively compact for the topological version. Another related notion which (by most definitions) is strictly weaker than compactness is local compactness. Generalizations of compactness include H-closed and the property of being an H-set in a parent space. A space is H-closed if every open cover has a finite subfamily whose union is dense. Whereas we say X is an H-set of Z if every cover of X with open sets of Z has a finite subfamily whose Z closure contains X. See also Exhaustion by compact sets Lindelöf space Metacompact space Paracompact space Notes References | Compact_space |@lemmatized mathematics:1 topological:19 space:97 call:6 compact:103 open:17 cover:17 finite:25 subcover:10 otherwise:1 non:4 note:6 author:2 bourbaki:1 use:4 term:5 quasi:2 instead:1 reserve:1 hausdorff:17 heine:5 borel:5 theorem:15 show:4 definition:8 equivalent:8 closed:13 bound:10 subset:24 euclidean:4 rn:5 close:11 example:9 r:7 unit:5 interval:10 set:40 integer:3 z:5 neither:2 half:1 concept:2 real:8 number:12 extend:1 indeed:1 endow:2 subspace:3 topology:18 become:2 single:2 sometimes:1 refer:1 compactum:1 follow:6 latin:1 second:1 declension:1 neuter:1 corresponding:1 plural:1 form:3 compacta:1 history:1 motivation:1 identity:1 whose:4 subcovers:1 discover:1 prove:3 late:1 century:1 see:5 introduce:1 fréchet:1 long:1 recognize:1 property:8 like:1 compactness:12 necessary:1 many:8 useful:2 mean:3 sequentially:4 every:26 sequence:6 convergent:7 subsequence:5 primarily:1 metric:12 study:3 prominent:1 allow:1 u:4 consider:4 general:3 old:1 result:3 generalize:1 setting:1 generalization:2 particularly:1 function:6 one:11 main:1 reason:1 way:2 similar:1 easy:2 proof:4 carry:3 minimal:1 change:1 often:2 say:2 next:1 best:1 thing:1 finiteness:1 suppose:1 x:28 point:16 contain:6 separate:3 neighbourhood:7 let:2 v:3 disjoint:2 respectively:1 intersection:5 union:2 required:1 infinite:8 fail:1 arbitrarily:1 might:1 rescue:1 however:1 simply:2 take:2 intersect:1 correspond:1 finitely:2 fact:2 repeat:1 argument:2 two:3 precisely:1 get:1 replace:1 e:3 singleton:1 separation:1 axiom:2 involve:1 pattern:1 define:2 formally:1 arbitrary:1 collection:3 used:1 give:4 satisfy:3 nonempty:3 dual:1 usual:1 state:1 require:1 also:4 version:2 quasicompact:1 four:1 condition:5 limit:3 belong:1 least:2 accumulation:4 verify:1 n:9 ball:3 may:2 depend:1 closedness:1 relative:1 sense:1 g:1 qn:1 typically:1 hence:1 include:4 empty:1 slightly:1 generally:2 particular:2 trivial:1 hard:1 directly:1 similarly:1 rational:3 even:1 though:1 value:5 natural:1 sphere:2 dimensional:3 normed:2 vector:2 true:1 dimension:1 cantor:2 since:2 p:2 adic:1 homeomorphic:4 element:3 countable:3 product:3 thus:1 special:1 case:1 tychonoff:5 line:1 converges:2 towards:2 pointwise:1 convergence:1 consequence:1 k:3 ƒ:3 lipschitz:1 induce:1 uniform:4 distance:1 arzelà:1 ascoli:1 cofinite:1 locally:2 turn:1 add:1 alexandroff:2 compactification:5 circle:1 easily:1 construct:1 start:1 spectrum:5 continuous:8 linear:2 operator:2 hilbert:4 complex:1 c:4 arises:1 manner:1 commutative:2 ring:3 boolean:1 algebra:1 cube:1 right:1 order:4 leave:1 totally:3 ordered:2 sierpinski:1 prime:2 zariski:1 important:1 algebraic:1 geometry:1 almost:1 never:1 low:1 uncountable:3 cocountable:1 matter:1 previous:1 still:1 lindelöf:2 theorems:1 relate:1 glossary:1 image:1 extreme:1 attain:1 supremum:1 great:1 complete:4 choice:1 normal:1 map:2 proper:1 bijective:1 homeomorphism:1 first:2 net:1 subnet:1 filter:1 refinement:1 ultrafilter:1 embed:1 dense:2 exist:1 δ:2 diameter:1 member:2 lebesgue:1 lemma:1 sub:3 base:3 alexander:1 isomorphic:1 gelfand:1 naimark:1 lattice:1 suprema:1 infima:1 separable:1 inequivalent:1 following:2 countably:7 equivalently:1 ω:1 pseudocompact:2 weakly:2 implication:1 ordinal:1 scarborough:1 stone:1 pre:1 bounded:1 cauchy:1 generalise:1 relatively:1 another:1 related:1 notion:1 strictly:1 weak:1 local:1 h:4 parent:1 subfamily:2 whereas:1 closure:1 exhaustion:1 metacompact:1 paracompact:1 reference:1 |@bigram topological_space:16 finite_subcover:10 heine_borel:5 borel_theorem:5 subspace_topology:2 convergent_subsequence:4 subset_rn:1 closed_interval:2 finite_dimensional:2 normed_vector:2 adic_integer:1 homeomorphic_cantor:1 tychonoff_theorem:4 pointwise_convergence:1 locally_compact:2 compact_hausdorff:4 infinite_dimensional:1 commutative_ring:2 boolean_algebra:1 totally_ordered:1 zariski_topology:1 algebraic_geometry:1 axiom_choice:1 tychonoff_space:1 dense_subspace:1 countably_compact:7 uncountable_ordinal:1 |
2,421 | Boltzmann_distribution | In physics and mathematics, the Boltzmann distribution is a certain distribution function or probability measure for the distribution of the states of a system. It underpins the concept of the canonical ensemble, providing its underlying distribution. A special case of the Boltzmann distribution, used for describing the velocities of particles of a gas, is the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. In more general mathematical settings, the Boltzmann distribution is also known as the Gibbs measure. The Boltzmann distribution for the fractional number of particles Ni / N occupying a set of states i possessing energy Ei is: where is the Boltzmann constant, T is temperature (assumed to be a well-defined quantity), is the degeneracy (meaning, the number of states having energy ), N is the total number of particles and Z(T) is the partition function. , Alternatively, for a single system at a well-defined temperature, it gives the probability that the system is in the specified state. The Boltzmann distribution applies only to particles at a high enough temperature and low enough density that quantum effects can be ignored, and the particles are obeying Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics. (See that article for a derivation of the Boltzmann distribution.) The Boltzmann distribution is often expressed in terms of β = 1/kT where β is referred to as thermodynamic beta. The term or , which gives the (unnormalised) relative probability of a state, is called the Boltzmann factor and appears often in the study of physics and chemistry. When the energy is simply the kinetic energy of the particle then the distribution correctly gives the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of gas molecule speeds, previously predicted by Maxwell in 1859. The Boltzmann distribution is, however, much more general. For example, it also predicts the variation of the particle density in a gravitational field with height, if . In fact the distribution applies whenever quantum considerations can be ignored. In some cases, a continuum approximation can be used. If there are g(E) dE states with energy E to E + dE, then the Boltzmann distribution predicts a probability distribution for the energy: Then g(E) is called the density of states if the energy spectrum is continuous. Classical particles with this energy distribution are said to obey Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics. In the classical limit, i.e. at large values of or at small density of states — when wave functions of particles practically do not overlap — both the Bose–Einstein or Fermi–Dirac distribution become the Boltzmann distribution. Derivation See Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics. External links Derivation of the distribution for microstates of a system See also Partition function (mathematics) | Boltzmann_distribution |@lemmatized physic:2 mathematics:2 boltzmann:17 distribution:21 certain:1 function:4 probability:4 measure:2 state:8 system:4 underpin:1 concept:1 canonical:1 ensemble:1 provide:1 underlying:1 special:1 case:2 use:2 describe:1 velocity:1 particle:9 gas:2 maxwell:6 general:2 mathematical:1 setting:1 also:3 know:1 gibbs:1 fractional:1 number:3 ni:1 n:2 occupy:1 set:1 possess:1 energy:8 ei:1 constant:1 temperature:3 assume:1 well:2 define:2 quantity:1 degeneracy:1 meaning:1 total:1 z:1 partition:2 alternatively:1 single:1 give:3 specified:1 apply:2 high:1 enough:2 low:1 density:4 quantum:2 effect:1 ignore:2 obey:2 statistic:3 see:3 article:1 derivation:3 often:2 express:1 term:2 β:2 kt:1 refer:1 thermodynamic:1 beta:1 unnormalised:1 relative:1 call:2 factor:1 appear:1 study:1 chemistry:1 simply:1 kinetic:1 correctly:1 molecule:1 speed:1 previously:1 predict:3 however:1 much:1 example:1 variation:1 gravitational:1 field:1 height:1 fact:1 whenever:1 consideration:1 continuum:1 approximation:1 g:2 e:5 de:2 spectrum:1 continuous:1 classical:2 say:1 limit:1 large:1 value:1 small:1 wave:1 practically:1 overlap:1 bose:1 einstein:1 fermi:1 dirac:1 become:1 external:1 link:1 microstates:1 |@bigram boltzmann_distribution:12 maxwell_boltzmann:6 boltzmann_constant:1 kinetic_energy:1 probability_distribution:1 bose_einstein:1 fermi_dirac:1 external_link:1 |
2,422 | Horace_Walpole | Horatio Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford (24 September 1717 – 2 March 1797), more commonly known as Horace Walpole, was an art historian, man of letters, antiquarian and politician. He is now largely remembered for Strawberry Hill, the home he built in Twickenham, south-west London where he revived the Gothic style some decades before his Victorian successors, and for his Gothic novel, The Castle of Otranto. As well as the book, his literary reputation rests on his Letters, which are of significant social and political interest. He was the son of Sir Robert Walpole, and cousin of Lord Nelson. Life Walpole was born in London, the youngest son of British Prime Minister Robert Walpole. Like his father, he was educated at Eton College and King's College, Cambridge. After university, Walpole went on the Grand Tour with the poet Thomas Gray, but they did not get on well. During his time in France, he bonded with Madame du Deffand, but there is no evidence that there was a sexual relationship between the two. Walpole returned to England in 1741, entering Parliament, becoming Member of Parliament for Callington, Cornwall. He remained an MP after the death of his father in 1745 and this would last until 1768. He was never politically ambitious, although he was involved in the John Byng case of 1757. Legouis 1957 p. 906 His lasting architectural creation is Strawberry Hill, the home he built in Twickenham, south-west London in which he revived the Gothic style many decades before his Victorian successors. This fanciful concoction of neo-Gothic began a new architectural trend. Verberckmoes 2007 p. 77 His father was created Earl of Orford in 1742. Horace's elder brother, the 2nd Earl of Orford (c.1701–1751), passed the title on to his son, the 3rd Earl of Orford (1730–1791). When the 3rd Earl died unmarried, Horace Walpole became the 4th Earl of Orford. In 1769, the forger Thomas Chatterton sent Rowley's History of England, allegedly by Rowley, to Walpole, who was briefly taken in. In 1770, Chatterton having killed himself, Walpole was unjustly accused of having caused the suicide. Frank p. 39 Walpole died in 1797, after which his title became extinct. He left behind a massive amount of his correspondence, and these were published in many volumes starting in 1798. Likewise, a large collection of his works, including historical writings, was published immediately after his death. When Walpole's cat Selima died, Thomas Gray wrote a poem Ode on the Death of a Favourite Cat, Drowned in a Tub of Gold Fishes. Walpole lends his name to a boarding house (Also known as MNF) at his alma mater, Eton College Politics Following his father's politics, he was a devotee of King George II and Queen Caroline, siding with them against their son, Frederick, Prince of Wales, about whom Walpole wrote spitefully in his memoirs. Walpole was a frequent visitor to Boyle Farm, Thames Ditton, to meet both the Boyle-Walsinghams and Lord Hertford. His father was created Earl of Orford in 1742. Horace's elder brother, the 2nd Earl of Orford (c.1701–1751), passed the title on to his son, the 3rd Earl of Orford (1730–1791). When the 3rd Earl died unmarried, Horace Walpole became the 4th Earl of Orford, and the title died with him in 1797. Personal life Walpole's sexual orientation has been the subject of speculation. He never married, engaging in a succession of unconsummated flirtations with unmarriageable women, and counted among his close friends a number of women such as Anne Seymour Damer and Mary Berry named by a number of sources as lesbian. Norton 2003 Many contemporaries described him as effeminate (one political opponent called him "a hermaphrodite horse"). Langford 2004 Some previous biographers such as Lewis, Fothergill, and Robert Wyndham Ketton-Cremer, however, have interpreted Walpole as asexual. Haggert 2006 Writings Strawberry Hill had its own printing press which supported Horace Walpole's intensive literary activity. Verberckmoes, p.77 In 1764, he anonymously published his Gothic novel, The Castle of Otranto, and claimed that it was a translation "from the Original Italian of Onuphirio Muralto" on its title page. The second edition's preface, according to James Watt, "has often been regarded as a manifesto for the modern Gothic romance, stating that his work, now subtitled 'A Gothic Story', sought to restore the qualities of imagination and invention to contemporary fiction". Watt 2004 p. 120 However, there is a playfulness in the prefaces to both editions and in the narration within the text itself. The novel opens with the son of Manfred (the Prince of Otranto) being crushed under a massive helmet that appears via supernatural causes. However, that moment, along with the rest of the unfolding plot, includes a mixture of both ridiculous and sublime supernatural elements. The plot finally reveals how Manfred's family is tainted in a way that served as a model for successive Gothic plots. Watt 2004 p. 120–121 From 1762 on, he published his Anecdotes of Painting in England, based on George Vertue's manuscript notes. His memoirs of the Georgian social and political scene, though heavily biased, are a useful primary source for historians. In one of the numerous letters, from 28 January 1754, he coined the word serendipity which he said was derived from a "silly fairy tale" he had read, The Three Princes of Serendip. The oft-quoted epigram, "This world is a comedy to those that think, a tragedy to those that feel," is from a letter of Walpole's to Anne, Countess of Ossory, on 16 August, 1776. The original, fuller version was in what he wrote to Sir Horace Mann on 31 December, 1769: "I have often said, and oftener think, that this world is a comedy to those that think, a tragedy to those that feel – a solution of why Democritus laughed and Heraclitus wept." In Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard III (1768), Walpole defended Richard III against the common belief that he murdered the Princes in the Tower. In this he has been followed by other writers, such as Josephine Tey and Valerie Anand. This work, according to Emile Legouis, shows that Walpole was "capable of critical initiative". The Orford Walpoles were no relation to the popular 20th century novelist, Hugh Walpole (1884–1941). Major Works Some Anecdotes of Painting in England (1762) The Castle of Otranto (1764) The Mysterious Mother (1768) Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of Richard III (1768) On Modern Gardening (1780) A Description of the Villa of Mr. Horace Walpole (1784) Hieroglyphic Tales (1785) Formal styles from birth to death Mr. Horace Walpole (1717-1741) Mr. Horace Walpole, MP (1741-1742) The Hon. Horace Walpole, MP (1742-1768) The Hon. Horace Walpole (1768-1791) The Rt. Hon. The Earl of Orford (1791-1797) Notes References Frank, Frederick, "Introduction" in The Castle of Otranto. Haggerty, George. "Queering Horace Walpole". SEL 1500-1900 46.3 (2006): 543-562 Hiller, Bevis. Who's Horry now?. The Spectator, September 14, 1996 Langford, Paul. "Walpole, Horatio , fourth earl of Orford (1717–1797)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, May 2005 accessed 19 Aug 2007 Legouis, Emile. A History of English Literature. Trans. Louis Cazamian. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1957. Mowl, Timothy. Horace Walpole: The Great Outsider. London: Murray, 1998. ISBN 0719556198 Norton, Rictor (Ed.), "A Sapphick Epistle, 1778", Homosexuality in Eighteenth-Century England: A Sourcebook. 1 December 1999, updated 23 February 2003 <http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/sapphick.htm> Retrieved on 2007-08-16 Watt, James. "Gothic" in The Cambridge Companion to English Literature 1740–1830 ed. Thomas Keymer and Jon Mee, 119–138. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. See also Romanticism External links The Literary Encyclopedia. The Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume 1 The Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume 2 The Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume 3 The Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume 4 Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume I Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume II The Castle of Otranto The Friends of Strawberry Hill The Twickenham Museum - Horace Walpole | Horace_Walpole |@lemmatized horatio:2 walpole:39 earl:13 orford:12 september:2 march:1 commonly:1 know:2 horace:21 art:1 historian:2 man:1 letter:10 antiquarian:1 politician:1 largely:1 remember:1 strawberry:4 hill:4 home:2 build:2 twickenham:3 south:2 west:2 london:4 revive:2 gothic:9 style:3 decade:2 victorian:2 successor:2 novel:3 castle:5 otranto:6 well:2 book:1 literary:3 reputation:1 rest:2 significant:1 social:2 political:3 interest:1 son:6 sir:2 robert:3 cousin:1 lord:2 nelson:1 life:4 bear:1 young:1 british:1 prime:1 minister:1 like:1 father:5 educate:1 eton:2 college:3 king:3 cambridge:4 university:3 go:1 grand:1 tour:1 poet:1 thomas:4 gray:2 get:1 time:1 france:1 bond:1 madame:1 du:1 deffand:1 evidence:1 sexual:2 relationship:1 two:1 return:1 england:5 enter:1 parliament:2 become:4 member:1 callington:1 cornwall:1 remain:1 mp:3 death:4 would:1 last:1 never:2 politically:1 ambitious:1 although:1 involve:1 john:1 byng:1 case:1 legouis:3 p:6 lasting:1 architectural:2 creation:1 many:3 fanciful:1 concoction:1 neo:1 begin:1 new:2 trend:1 verberckmoes:2 create:2 elder:2 brother:2 c:2 pass:2 title:5 die:5 unmarried:2 forger:1 chatterton:2 send:1 rowley:2 history:2 allegedly:1 briefly:1 take:1 kill:1 unjustly:1 accuse:1 cause:2 suicide:1 frank:2 extinct:1 leave:1 behind:1 massive:2 amount:1 correspondence:1 publish:4 volume:7 start:1 likewise:1 large:1 collection:1 work:4 include:2 historical:1 writing:2 immediately:1 cat:2 selima:1 write:3 poem:1 ode:1 favourite:1 drown:1 tub:1 gold:1 fish:1 lend:1 name:2 boarding:1 house:1 also:2 mnf:1 alma:1 mater:1 politics:2 follow:2 devotee:1 george:3 ii:2 queen:1 caroline:1 side:1 frederick:2 prince:4 wale:1 spitefully:1 memoir:2 frequent:1 visitor:1 boyle:2 farm:1 thames:1 ditton:1 meet:1 walsinghams:1 hertford:1 personal:1 orientation:1 subject:1 speculation:1 marry:1 engage:1 succession:1 unconsummated:1 flirtation:1 unmarriageable:1 woman:2 count:1 among:1 close:1 friend:2 number:2 anne:2 seymour:1 damer:1 mary:1 berry:1 source:2 lesbian:1 norton:2 contemporary:2 describe:1 effeminate:1 one:2 opponent:1 call:1 hermaphrodite:1 horse:1 langford:2 previous:1 biographer:1 lewis:1 fothergill:1 wyndham:1 ketton:1 cremer:1 however:3 interpret:1 asexual:1 haggert:1 printing:1 press:3 support:1 intensive:1 activity:1 anonymously:1 claim:1 translation:1 original:2 italian:1 onuphirio:1 muralto:1 page:1 second:1 edition:2 preface:2 accord:2 james:2 watt:4 often:2 regard:1 manifesto:1 modern:2 romance:1 state:1 subtitle:1 story:1 sought:1 restore:1 quality:1 imagination:1 invention:1 fiction:1 playfulness:1 narration:1 within:1 text:1 open:1 manfred:2 crush:1 helmet:1 appear:1 via:1 supernatural:2 moment:1 along:1 unfolding:1 plot:3 mixture:1 ridiculous:1 sublime:1 element:1 finally:1 reveal:1 family:1 taint:1 way:1 serve:1 model:1 successive:1 anecdote:2 paint:2 base:1 vertue:1 manuscript:1 note:2 georgian:1 scene:1 though:1 heavily:1 bias:1 useful:1 primary:1 numerous:1 january:1 coin:1 word:1 serendipity:1 say:2 derive:1 silly:1 fairy:1 tale:2 read:1 three:1 serendip:1 oft:1 quote:1 epigram:1 world:2 comedy:2 think:3 tragedy:2 feel:2 countess:1 ossory:1 august:1 full:1 version:1 mann:1 december:2 oftener:1 solution:1 democritus:1 laugh:1 heraclitus:1 wept:1 historic:2 doubt:2 reign:2 richard:3 iii:3 defend:1 common:1 belief:1 murder:1 tower:1 writer:1 josephine:1 tey:1 valerie:1 anand:1 emile:2 show:1 capable:1 critical:1 initiative:1 relation:1 popular:1 century:2 novelist:1 hugh:1 major:1 mysterious:1 mother:1 gardening:1 description:1 villa:1 mr:3 hieroglyphic:1 formal:1 birth:1 hon:3 rt:1 reference:1 introduction:1 haggerty:1 queer:1 sel:1 hiller:1 bevis:1 horry:1 spectator:1 paul:1 fourth:1 oxford:2 dictionary:1 national:1 biography:1 online:1 edn:1 may:1 access:1 aug:1 english:2 literature:2 trans:1 louis:1 cazamian:1 york:1 macmillan:1 company:1 mowl:1 timothy:1 great:1 outsider:1 murray:1 isbn:1 rictor:1 ed:2 sapphick:2 epistle:1 homosexuality:1 eighteenth:1 sourcebook:1 update:1 february:1 http:1 www:1 infopt:1 demon:1 co:1 uk:1 htm:1 retrieve:1 companion:1 keymer:1 jon:1 mee:1 see:1 romanticism:1 external:1 link:1 encyclopedia:1 museum:1 |@bigram earl_orford:11 horace_walpole:18 castle_otranto:5 prime_minister:1 eton_college:2 alma_mater:1 sexual_orientation:1 fairy_tale:1 oft_quote:1 horace_mann:1 rt_hon:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
2,423 | Amoeboid | Foraminiferan (Ammonia tepida) Amoeboids are unicellular life-forms characterized by their irregularity of shape. "Amoeboid" and "amoeba" are sometimes used interchangeably in less formal contexts, especially in the context of characterizing an organism by the method of locomotion. Amoeboids are unicellular life-forms characterized by their similarity to amoebae. Structure Amoeboids mainly consist of contractile vacuoles, a nucleus, and cytoplasm as their basic structure. They move and feed by means of temporary cytoplasmic projections, called pseudopods (false feet). Diversity They have appeared in a number of different groups. Some cells in multicellular animals may be amoeboid, for instance human white blood cells, which consume pathogens. Many protists also exist as individual amoeboid cells, or take such a form at some point in their life-cycle. The most famous such organism is Amoeba proteus; the name amoeba is variously used to describe its close relatives, other organisms similar to it, or the amoeboids in general. As amoebas themselves are polyphyletic and subject to some imprecision in definition, the term "Amoeboid" does not provide identification of an organism, and is better understood as description of locomotion. When used in the broader sense, the term can include the following groups: Acanthamoeba, Acrasis, Adelphamoeba, Amoeba, Astramoeba, Balamuthia, Cashia, Chaos, Clydonella, Dactylamoeba, Dientamoeba, Dinamoeba, Discamoeba, Echinamoeba, Endamoeba, Entamoeba, Filamoeba, Flabelulla, Flagellipodium, Flamella, Gephyramoeba, Gibbodiscus, Glaeseria, Gocevia, Gruberella, Gyromitus, Hartmannella, Heteramoeba, Hollandella, Histomonas, Hyalodiscus, Hydramoeba, Hyperamoeba, Iodamoeba, Korotnevella, Labyrinthula, Learamoeba, Leptomyxa, Lingulamoeba, Macropharyngomonas, Malamoeba, Mastigamoeba, Mastigella, Mastigina, Mayorella, Metachaos, Micronuclearia, Monopylocystis, Naegleria, Neoparamoeba, Neovahlkampfia, Nollandia, Nuclearia, Oscillosignum, Paragocevia, Paramoeba, Paratetramitus, Paravahlkampfia, Parvamoeba, Pelomyxa, Pernina, Pfiesteria, Polychaos, Pontifex, Phreatamoeba, Platyamoeba, Protoacanthamoeba, Protonaegleria, Psalteriomonas, Pseudomastigamoeba, Plaesiobystra, Rhizamoeba, Rosculus, Rugipes, Saccamoeba, Sappinia, Sawyeria, Stachyamoeba, Stereomyxa, Striamoeba, Striolatus, Stygamoeba, Subulamoeba, Tetramitus, Thecamoeba, Theratromyxa, Trichamoeba, Trichosphaerium, Trienamoeba, Trimastigamoeba, Unda, Vahlkampfia, Vampyrella, Vampyrellium, Vannella, Vexillifera, and Willaertia. Classification Amoeboids may be divided into several morphological categories based on the form and structure of the pseudopods. Those where the pseudopods are supported by regular arrays of microtubules are called actinopods, and forms where they are not are called rhizopods, further divided into lobose, filose, and reticulose amoebae. There is also a strange group of giant marine amoeboids, the xenophyophores, that do not fall into any of these categories. Most amoeboid are now grouped in Amoebozoa or Rhizaria. Amoebozoa Lobose pseudopods (Lobosea): Lobose pseudopods are blunt, and there may be one or several on a cell, which is usually divided into a layer of clear ectoplasm surrounding more granular endoplasm. Rhizaria Filose pseudopods (Filosa): Filose pseudopods are narrow and tapering. The vast majority of filose amoebae, including all those that produce shells, are placed within the Cercozoa together with various flagellates that tend to have amoeboid forms. The naked filose amoebae also includes vampyrellids. Reticulose pseudopods (Endomyxa): Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplasmic strands that branch and merge to form a net. They are found most notably among the Foraminifera, a large group of marine protists that generally produce multi-chambered shells. There are only a few sorts of naked reticulose amoeboids, notably the gymnophryids, and their relationships are not certain. Actinopods: Actinopods are divided into the radiolaria and heliozoa. The radiolaria are mostly marine protists with complex internal skeletons, including central capsules that divide the cells into granular endoplasm and frothy ectoplasm that keeps them buoyant. The heliozoa include both freshwater and marine forms that use their axopods to capture small prey, and only have simple scales or spines for skeletal elements. Both groups appear to be polyphyletic. Other The term "amoeboid" has in the past has sometimes been used in a more broad sense, including certain groups not currently included in Amoebozoa or Rhizaria: The Percolozoa, includes protists that can transform between amoeboid and flagellate forms. Nucleariids appear to be close relatives of animals and fungi. Pathogenic interactions with other organisms Some amoeboids can infect other organisms pathogenically (causing disease): Entamoeba histolytica is the cause of amoebiasis, or ''amoebic dysentery" Naegleria fowleri (the "brain-eating amoeba") is a fresh-water-native species that can be fatal to humans if introduced through the nose. Acanthamoeba can cause amoebic keratitis and encephalitis in humans. Balamuthia mandrillaris is the cause of (often fatal) primary amoebic meningoencephalitis References External links The Amoebae website brings together information from published sources. Amoebas are more than just blobs sun animacules and amoebas Molecular Expressions Digital Video Gallery: Pond Life - Amoeba (Protozoa) Some good, informative Amoeba videos. Joseph Leidy's Amoeba Plates | Amoeboid |@lemmatized foraminiferan:1 ammonia:1 tepida:1 amoeboids:8 unicellular:2 life:4 form:9 characterize:3 irregularity:1 shape:1 amoeboid:8 amoeba:13 sometimes:2 use:5 interchangeably:1 less:1 formal:1 context:2 especially:1 organism:6 method:1 locomotion:2 similarity:1 amoebae:1 structure:3 mainly:1 consist:1 contractile:1 vacuole:1 nucleus:1 cytoplasm:1 basic:1 move:1 fee:1 mean:1 temporary:1 cytoplasmic:2 projection:1 call:3 pseudopod:9 false:1 foot:1 diversity:1 appear:3 number:1 different:1 group:7 cell:5 multicellular:1 animal:2 may:3 instance:1 human:3 white:1 blood:1 consume:1 pathogen:1 many:1 protist:4 also:3 exist:1 individual:1 take:1 point:1 cycle:1 famous:1 proteus:1 name:1 variously:1 describe:1 close:2 relative:2 similar:1 general:1 amoebas:2 polyphyletic:2 subject:1 imprecision:1 definition:1 term:3 provide:1 identification:1 well:1 understood:1 description:1 broad:2 sense:2 include:8 following:1 acanthamoeba:2 acrasis:1 adelphamoeba:1 astramoeba:1 balamuthia:2 cashia:1 chaos:1 clydonella:1 dactylamoeba:1 dientamoeba:1 dinamoeba:1 discamoeba:1 echinamoeba:1 endamoeba:1 entamoeba:2 filamoeba:1 flabelulla:1 flagellipodium:1 flamella:1 gephyramoeba:1 gibbodiscus:1 glaeseria:1 gocevia:1 gruberella:1 gyromitus:1 hartmannella:1 heteramoeba:1 hollandella:1 histomonas:1 hyalodiscus:1 hydramoeba:1 hyperamoeba:1 iodamoeba:1 korotnevella:1 labyrinthula:1 learamoeba:1 leptomyxa:1 lingulamoeba:1 macropharyngomonas:1 malamoeba:1 mastigamoeba:1 mastigella:1 mastigina:1 mayorella:1 metachaos:1 micronuclearia:1 monopylocystis:1 naegleria:2 neoparamoeba:1 neovahlkampfia:1 nollandia:1 nuclearia:1 oscillosignum:1 paragocevia:1 paramoeba:1 paratetramitus:1 paravahlkampfia:1 parvamoeba:1 pelomyxa:1 pernina:1 pfiesteria:1 polychaos:1 pontifex:1 phreatamoeba:1 platyamoeba:1 protoacanthamoeba:1 protonaegleria:1 psalteriomonas:1 pseudomastigamoeba:1 plaesiobystra:1 rhizamoeba:1 rosculus:1 rugipes:1 saccamoeba:1 sappinia:1 sawyeria:1 stachyamoeba:1 stereomyxa:1 striamoeba:1 striolatus:1 stygamoeba:1 subulamoeba:1 tetramitus:1 thecamoeba:1 theratromyxa:1 trichamoeba:1 trichosphaerium:1 trienamoeba:1 trimastigamoeba:1 unda:1 vahlkampfia:1 vampyrella:1 vampyrellium:1 vannella:1 vexillifera:1 willaertia:1 classification:1 divide:5 several:2 morphological:1 category:2 base:1 support:1 regular:1 array:1 microtubule:1 actinopod:3 rhizopod:1 far:1 lobose:3 filose:5 reticulose:4 strange:1 giant:1 marine:4 xenophyophores:1 fall:1 amoebozoa:3 rhizaria:3 lobosea:1 blunt:1 one:1 usually:1 layer:1 clear:1 ectoplasm:2 surround:1 granular:2 endoplasm:2 filosa:1 narrow:1 taper:1 vast:1 majority:1 produce:2 shell:2 place:1 within:1 cercozoa:1 together:2 various:1 flagellate:2 tend:1 naked:2 vampyrellids:1 endomyxa:1 strand:1 branch:1 merge:1 net:1 find:1 notably:2 among:1 foraminifera:1 large:1 generally:1 multi:1 chambered:1 sort:1 gymnophryids:1 relationship:1 certain:2 radiolaria:2 heliozoa:2 mostly:1 complex:1 internal:1 skeleton:1 central:1 capsule:1 frothy:1 keep:1 buoyant:1 freshwater:1 axopods:1 capture:1 small:1 prey:1 simple:1 scale:1 spine:1 skeletal:1 element:1 past:1 currently:1 percolozoa:1 transform:1 nucleariids:1 fungi:1 pathogenic:1 interaction:1 infect:1 pathogenically:1 cause:4 disease:1 histolytica:1 amoebiasis:1 amoebic:3 dysentery:1 fowleri:1 brain:1 eating:1 fresh:1 water:1 native:1 specie:1 fatal:2 introduce:1 nose:1 keratitis:1 encephalitis:1 mandrillaris:1 often:1 primary:1 meningoencephalitis:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 bring:1 information:1 publish:1 source:1 blob:1 sun:1 animacules:1 molecular:1 expression:1 digital:1 video:2 gallery:1 pond:1 protozoa:1 good:1 informative:1 joseph:1 leidy:1 plate:1 |@bigram contractile_vacuole:1 nucleus_cytoplasm:1 vast_majority:1 external_link:1 |
2,424 | Poales | Poales is a large order of flowering plants in the monocotyledons, and includes families of plants such as the grasses, bromeliads, and sedges. Sixteen plant families are currently recognized by botanists to be part of Poales. Recent studies (e.g., Bremer, 2000) place the origin of the Poales in South America nearly 115 million years ago. The earliest known fossils include pollen and fruits that have been dated to the late Cretaceous. The flowers are typically small, enclosed by bracts, and arranged in an inflorescence (except in the genus Mayaca, with solitary terminal flowers). The flowers of many species are wind pollinated; the seeds usually contain starch. The APG II system (2003) accepts the order and places it in a clade called commelinids, in the monocots. It uses this circumscription: order Poales family Anarthriaceae family Bromeliaceae family Centrolepidaceae family Cyperaceae family Ecdeiocoleaceae family Eriocaulaceae family Flagellariaceae family Hydatellaceae (now transferred out of the monocots; recently discovered to be an 'early-diverging' lineage of flowering plants.) family Joinvilleaceae family Juncaceae family Mayacaceae family Poaceae family Rapateaceae family Restionaceae family Sparganiaceae family Thurniaceae family Typhaceae family Xyridaceae The earlier APG system (1998) adopted the same placement, although it used the spelling "commelinoids", and used the following circumscription (i.e., it did not include the plants in families Abolbodaceae, Bromeliaceae and Mayacaceae in the order): order Poales family Anarthriaceae family Centrolepidaceae family Cyperaceae family Ecdeiocoleaceae family Eriocaulaceae family Flagellariaceae family Hydatellaceae family Joinvilleaceae family Juncaceae family Poaceae family Prioniaceae family Restionaceae family Sparganiaceae family Thurniaceae family Typhaceae family Xyridaceae The morphology-based Cronquist system did not include an order named Poales, assigning these families to the orders Bromeliales, Cyperales, Hydatellales, Juncales, Restionales and Typhales. In early systems an order including the grass family did not go by the name Poales but by a descriptive botanical name such as Graminales in the Engler system (update of 1964) and in the Hutchinson system (first edition, first volume, 1926), Glumiflorae in the Wettstein system (last revised 1935) or Glumaceae in the Bentham & Hooker system (third volume, 1883). Uses By far the most important family economically is the family of grasses (Poaceae, syn. Gramineae), which includes barley, maize, millet, rice, and wheat. It is also the largest family in the order, far outnumbering its competitors: Poaceae: 12,070 species Cyperaceae: 5,000 species Bromeliaceae: 1,400 species Eriocaulaceae: 1,150 species References Bremer, K. (2000). Gondwanan Evolution of the Grass Alliance of Families (Poales). Evolution 56: 1374-1387. [Available online: Abstract ] Judd, W. S., C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002). Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition. pp. 276-292 (Poales). Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts. ISBN 0-87893-403-0 . Linder, H. Peter and Paula J. Rudall. 2005. Evolutionary History of the Poales. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 36: 107-124. Small, J. K. (1903). Flora of the Southeastern United States, 48. New York, U.S.A. External links NCBI Taxonomy Browser APWeb | Poales |@lemmatized poales:10 large:2 order:9 flower:5 plant:6 monocotyledon:1 include:6 family:43 grass:4 bromeliads:1 sedge:1 sixteen:1 currently:1 recognize:1 botanist:1 part:1 recent:1 study:1 e:3 g:1 bremer:2 place:2 origin:1 south:1 america:1 nearly:1 million:1 year:1 ago:1 early:4 know:1 fossil:1 pollen:1 fruit:1 date:1 late:1 cretaceous:1 typically:1 small:2 enclose:1 bract:1 arrange:1 inflorescence:1 except:1 genus:1 mayaca:1 solitary:1 terminal:1 many:1 specie:5 wind:1 pollinate:1 seed:1 usually:1 contain:1 starch:1 apg:2 ii:1 system:8 accept:1 clade:1 call:1 commelinids:1 monocot:2 use:3 circumscription:2 anarthriaceae:2 bromeliaceae:3 centrolepidaceae:2 cyperaceae:3 ecdeiocoleaceae:2 eriocaulaceae:3 flagellariaceae:2 hydatellaceae:2 transfer:1 recently:1 discover:1 diverge:1 lineage:1 joinvilleaceae:2 juncaceae:2 mayacaceae:2 poaceae:4 rapateaceae:1 restionaceae:2 sparganiaceae:2 thurniaceae:2 typhaceae:2 xyridaceae:2 adopt:1 placement:1 although:1 spell:1 commelinoids:1 following:1 abolbodaceae:1 prioniaceae:1 morphology:1 base:1 cronquist:1 name:3 assign:1 bromeliales:1 cyperales:1 hydatellales:1 juncales:1 restionales:1 typhales:1 go:1 descriptive:1 botanical:1 graminales:1 engler:1 update:1 hutchinson:1 first:2 edition:2 volume:2 glumiflorae:1 wettstein:1 last:1 revised:1 glumaceae:1 bentham:1 hooker:1 third:1 us:1 far:2 important:1 economically:1 syn:1 gramineae:1 barley:1 maize:1 millet:1 rice:1 wheat:1 also:1 outnumber:1 competitor:1 reference:1 k:2 gondwanan:1 evolution:3 alliance:1 available:1 online:1 abstract:1 judd:1 w:1 c:1 campbell:1 kellogg:1 p:1 f:1 stevens:1 j:3 donoghue:1 systematics:2 phylogenetic:1 approach:1 pp:1 sinauer:1 associate:1 sunderland:1 massachusetts:1 isbn:1 linder:1 h:1 peter:1 paula:1 rudall:1 evolutionary:1 history:1 annual:1 review:1 ecology:1 flora:1 southeastern:1 united:1 state:1 new:1 york:1 u:1 external:1 link:1 ncbi:1 taxonomy:1 browser:1 apweb:1 |@bigram donoghue_plant:1 systematics_phylogenetic:1 sinauer_associate:1 sunderland_massachusetts:1 external_link:1 ncbi_taxonomy:1 |
2,425 | Gunpowder_Plot | The Gunpowder Conspiracy of 1605 (also known as Powder Treason or The Gunpowder Plot), as it was then known, Antonia Fraser, The Gunpowder Plot: Terror and Faith in 1605, London, 2002, Author's Note, pg. xv. ISBN 0-75381-401-3 was a failed assassination attempt by a group of provincial English Catholics against King James I of England and VI of Scotland. The plot intended to kill the king, his family and most of the Protestant aristocracy quite literally in a single blow, by blowing up the Houses of Parliament during the State Opening on 5 November 1605. The conspirators had also planned to abduct the royal children (not present in Parliament) and lead a popular revolt in the Midlands. Origins Catholic conspirators plotted to kill King James I of England and VI of Scotland. The plot was overseen from May 1604 by Robert Catesby, with the conspirators coming from either wealthy Catholic or highly influential gentry families. Catesby may have decided on the plot when hopes of greater tolerance of Roman Catholicism under King James I faded, leaving many Catholics disappointed. However, it is likely that Catesby simply sought a future for Catholicism in England enabled by his drastic scheme: the plot was intended to begin a rebellion, during which James' nine-year-old daughter (Princess Elizabeth) could be installed as a Catholic head of state. Other plotters included Thomas Winter (also spelled Wintour), Robert Winter, John Wright, Christopher Wright, Robert Keyes, Sir Thomas Percy (also spelled Percye), Lord John Grant, Sir Ambrose Rokewood, Sir Edmund Baynham, Sir Everard Digby, Sir Francis Tresham and Thomas Bates (Catesby's servant). The explosives were prepared by Guy "Guido" Fawkes, an explosives expert with considerable military experience, who had been introduced to Catesby by a man named Hugh Owen. The well-known image (top right) of the plotters was created by the Dutch artist Crispijn van de Passe, who may have had access to first-hand descriptions. The details of the plot were reputedly well-known to the principal Jesuit of England, Father Henry Garnet, as he had learned of the plot from Oswald Tesimond, a fellow Jesuit who, with the permission of his penitent Robert Catesby, had discussed the plot with him. Although convicted at the time, there is now some debate over how much he really knew. As the details of the plot were known through confession, Garnet was bound against revealing them to the authorities. Despite his admonitions and protestations, the plot went ahead; however, Garnet's opposition to it did not save him from being hanged, drawn and quartered for treason in 1606. Planning The Palace of Westminster in the early 17th Century was a barely-planned warren of buildings clustered around the Medieval chambers, chapels and halls of the former royal palace that housed both Parliament and the various law courts. Unlike the highly security-conscious modern palace, the old palace was accessible to just about anyone with merchants, lawyers and various other people living and working in the lodgings, shops and taverns within its precincts. Because of this readily-accessible and busy nature of the old palace it would have been relatively easy for the plotters to get close to their target without arousing suspicion. In May 1604, Percy, using his newfound status as a member of the King's Bodyguards, was able to lease lodgings adjacent to the House of Lords. The plotters' original idea was to mine their way under the foundations of the Lords chamber to lay the gunpowder there. The main idea was to kill James, but many other important targets were to be present, including the majority of the Protestant nobility and senior bishops of the Church of England. Guy Fawkes, as "John Johnson", was put in charge of this building, where he posed as Percy's servant, while Catesby's house in Lambeth was used to store the gunpowder with the picks and implements for mining. However, when the Black Plague came back to London in the summer of 1604 and proved to be particularly severe, the opening of Parliament was suspended to 1605. By Christmas Eve, the miners had still not reached the buildings of Parliament, and just as they recommenced work early in 1605, they learned that the opening of Parliament had been further postponed to 3 October. The plotters then took the opportunity to row the gunpowder up the Thames from Catesby's house in Lambeth, to conceal it in their new rented house: they had learned (by chance) that a coal merchant named Ellen Bright had vacated a ground-floor undercroft directly beneath the House of Lords chamber. Presented with this golden opportunity, Percy immediately took pains to secure the lease. To deflect any suspicions he created the story that his wife was set to join him in London and thus he would require the extra storage space. Princess Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of King James, was supposed to inherit the crown and rule as a Catholic Queen Elizabeth II Fawkes assisted in filling the room with gunpowder, which was concealed beneath a wood store under the House of Lords building, in a cellar leased from John Whynniard. By March 1605, they had filled the undercroft underneath the House of Lords with 36 barrels of gunpowder, concealed under a store of winter fuel. Houses of Parliament factsheet on event accessed 6 March 2007 Had all 36 barrels been successfully ignited, the explosion could easily have reduced many of the buildings in the Old Palace of Westminster complex to rubble, and would have blown out windows in the surrounding area of about a 1 kilometre radius. The conspirators left London in May, and went to their homes or to different areas of the country, because being seen together would arouse suspicion. They arranged to meet again in September; however, the opening of Parliament was again postponed. The weakest parts of the plot were the arrangements for the subsequent rebellion which would have swept the country and installed a Catholic monarch. Due to the requirements for money and arms, Sir Francis Tresham was eventually admitted to the plot, and it was probably he who betrayed the plot in writing to his brother-in-law Lord Monteagle. An anonymous letter revealed some of the details of the plot; it read: "I advise you to devise some excuse not to attend this parliament, for they shall receive a terrible blow, and yet shall not see who hurts them". According to the confession made by Fawkes on Tuesday 5 November 1605, he had left Dover around Easter 1605, bound for Calais. He then travelled to Saint-Omer and on to Brussels, where he met with Hugh Owen and Sir William Stanley before making a pilgrimage to Brabant. He returned to England at the end of August or early September, again by way of Calais. Guy Fawkes was left in charge of executing the plot, while the other conspirators fled to Dunchurch in Warwickshire to await news. Once the parliament had been destroyed, the other conspirators had planned to incite a revolt in the Midlands. Discovery During the preparation, several of the conspirators had been concerned about fellow Catholics who would be present on the appointed day, and therefore killed. On Friday, 26 October Lord Monteagle received a letter while at his house in Hoxton, thought to be from his brother-in-law, conspirator Francis Tresham: "My lord out of the love i bare to some of youre frends i have a care of your preseruasion therefore i would advise you as you tender your life to devise some excuse to shift of your attendance at this parliament for god and man hath concurred to punish the wickedness of this time and think not slightly of this advertisement but retire youre self into youre control where you may expect the event in saftey for though there be no appearance of any stir yet i say they shall receive a terrible blow this parliament and yet they shall not see who hurts them this councel is not to be condemned because it may do you good and can do you no harm for the danger is passed as soon as you have burnt the letter and i hope god will give you the grace to make good use of it to whose holy protection i commend you." Below is the same message, with modernised spelling and punctuation: "My lord, out of the love I bear to some of your friends, I have a care for your preservation. Therefore I would advise you, as you tender your life, to devise some excuse to shift of your attendance at this Parliament, for God and man has concurred to punish the wickedness of this time. And think not slightly of this advertisement but retire yourself into your country, where you may expect the event in safety, for though there be no appearance of any stir, yet I say they shall receive a terrible blow, the Parliament, and yet they shall not see who hurts them. This counsel is not to be condemned, because it may do you good and can do you no harm, for the danger is past as soon as you have burnt the letter: and I hope God will give you the grace to make good use of it, to whose holy protection I commend you." Monteagle had the note read out loud, possibly to warn the plotters that the secret was out, and promptly handed it over to Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, the Secretary of State. Willson, p 224. The other conspirators learned of the letter the following day, but resolved to go ahead with their plan, especially after Fawkes inspected the undercroft and found that nothing had been touched. The tip-off led Cecil to order a search of the vaults beneath the House of Lords, including the undercroft, during the night of 4 November. The fact that the lease was held by Percy, a known Catholic dissenter, added further to the authorities' suspicions. At midnight on 5 November, Thomas Knyvet (a Justice of the Peace) and a party of armed men discovered Fawkes guarding a pile of wood, not far from about twenty barrels of gunpowder, posing as "Mr. John Johnson". A watch, slow matches and touchpaper were found in his possession, and Fawkes was arrested. Far from denying his intentions during the arrest, Fawkes stated that it had been his purpose to destroy the King and the Parliament. As King James put it, Fawkes intended the destruction "not only...of my person, nor of my wife and posterity also, but of the whole body of the State in general". Stewart, p 219. Nevertheless, Fawkes maintained his false identity and continued to insist that he was acting alone. Later in the morning, before noon, he was again interrogated. He was questioned on the nature of his accomplices, the involvement of Thomas Percy, what letters he had received from overseas and whether or not he had spoken with Hugh Owen. He was taken to the Tower of London and interrogated there under torture. Torture was forbidden, except by the express instruction of the monarch or the Privy Council. In a letter of 6 November, King James I stated: "The gentler tortours [tortures] are to be first used unto him, et sic per gradus ad maiora tenditur [and thus by steps extended to greater ones], and so God speed your good work." The discovery of the Gunpowder Plot aroused a wave of national relief at the delivery of the king and his sons, and inspired in the ensuing parliament a mood of loyalty and goodwill, which Salisbury astutely exploited to extract higher subsidies for the king than any (bar one) granted in Elizabeth's reign. Croft, p 64. In his speech to both Houses on 9 November, James expounded on two emerging preoccupations of his monarchy: the Divine Right of Kings and the Catholic question. He insisted that the plot had been the work of only a few Catholics, not of the English Catholics as a whole, James said it did not follow "that all professing that Romish religion were guilty of the same". Quoted by Stewart, p 225. and he reminded the assembly to rejoice at his survival, since kings were divinely appointed and he owed his escape to a miracle. Willson, p 226. Trial and executions On hearing of the failure of the plot, the conspirators fled towards Huddington Court near Worcester, a family home of Thomas and Robert Wintour. Heavy rain, however, slowed their travels. Many of them were caught by Richard Walsh, the Sheriff of Worcestershire, when they arrived in Stourbridge. The remaining men attempted a revolt in the Midlands. This failed, coming to a dramatic end at Holbeche House in Staffordshire, where there was a shoot-out resulting in the deaths of Catesby and Percy and capture of several other principal conspirators. Jesuits and others were then rounded up in other locations in Britain, with some being killed by torture during interrogation. Robert Wintour managed to remain on the run for two months before he was captured at Hagley Park. Seventeenth century print of the members of the Gunpowder plot being hanged, drawn and quartered. The conspirators were tried on 27 January 1606 in Westminster Hall. All of the plotters pleaded "Not Guilty" except for Sir Everard Digby, who attempted to defend himself on the grounds that the King had reneged on his promises of greater tolerance of Catholicism. Sir Edward Coke, the attorney general, prosecuted, and the Earl of Northampton made a speech refuting the charges laid by Sir Everard Digby. The trial lasted one day (English criminal trials generally did not exceed a single day's duration) and the verdict was never in doubt. The trial ranked highly as a public spectacle, and there are records of up to 10 shillings being paid for entry. It is even reputed that the King and Queen attended in secret. Four of the plotters were executed in St. Paul's Churchyard on 30 January. On 31 January, Fawkes, Winter and a number of others implicated in the conspiracy were taken to Old Palace Yard in Westminster, in front of the scene of the intended crime, where they were to be hanged, drawn and quartered. Fawkes, though weakened by torture, cheated the executioners: when he was to be hanged until almost dead, he jumped from the gallows, so his neck broke and he died, thus avoiding the gruesome latter part of this form of execution. A co-conspirator, Robert Keyes, attempted the same trick, but unfortunately for him the rope broke, so he was disemboweled while fully conscious. Henry Garnet was executed on 3 May 1606 at St Paul's. His crime was of being the confessor of several members of the Gunpowder Plot, and as noted, he had opposed the plot. Many spectators thought that his sentence was too severe. Antonia Fraser writes: "With a loud cry of 'hold, hold' they stopped the hangman cutting down the body while Garnet was still alive. Others pulled the priest's legs ... which was traditionally done to ensure a speedy death". Antonia Fraser, Faith and Treason: The Story of the Gunpowder Plot, Anchor, 1997. ISBN 0-385-47190-4 Due to the Gunpowder Plot many Catholics found themselves persecuted or imprisoned in the Tower of London including : Anthony-Maria Browne, 2nd Viscount Montagu due to Guy Fawkes being one of his servants and Robert Catesby had warned him not to attend Parliament. Lady Agnes Wenman of Thame Park for being a catholic and a relative of Dowager Lady Elizabeth Vaux Dowager Lady Elizabeth Vaux for being a supporter of Fr. Henry Garnet. Edward Vaux, 4th Baron Vaux of Harrowden for being a Catholic, son of the above. Edward Stourton, 10th Baron Stourton for being a cousin of Sir Francis Tresham who was a Gunpowder Plotter, and for getting a letter telling him to be absent from Parliament. Henry Mordaunt, 4th Baron Mordaunt for getting a letter telling him to be absent from Parliament. Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland for being the cousin of Sir Thomas Percy (plotter) Sir Alan Percy brother of the above and Lieutenant of the Gentleman Pensioners under Northumberland's captaincy, who were also the King's Bodyguard. Dudley Carleton, 1st Viscount Dorchester for being the secretary of the Earl of Northumberland. Historical impact Greater freedom for Catholics to worship as they chose seemed unlikely in 1604, but after the plot in 1605, changing the law to afford Catholics leniency became unthinkable; Catholic Emancipation took another 200 years. Nevertheless, many important and loyal Catholics retained high office in the kingdom during King James' reign. Interest in the demonic was heightened by the Gunpowder Plot. The king himself had become engaged in the great debate about other-worldly powers in writing his Daemonology in 1597, before he became King of England as well as Scotland. The apparent devilish nature of the gunpowder plot also partly inspired William Shakespeare's Macbeth. Demonic inversions (such as the line fair is foul and foul is fair) are frequently seen in the play. Another possible reference made in Macbeth was to equivocation, as Henry Garnett’s A Treatise of Equivocation was found on one of the plotters, and a resultant fear was that Jesuits could evade the truth through equivocation: Frank L. Huntley, "Macbeth and the Background of Jesuitical Equivocation", PMLA, Vol. 79, No. 4. (Sep, 1964), pp. 390–400. Faith, here's an equivocator, that could Swear in both the scales against either scale; Who committed treason enough for God's sake, Yet could not equivocate to heaven - Macbeth, Act 2 Scene 3 The Gunpowder Plot was commemorated for years after the plot by special sermons and other public acts, such as the ringing of church bells. It added to an increasingly full calendar of Protestant celebrations which contributed to the national and religious life of seventeenth-century England. David Cressy, Bonfires and bells: national memory and the Protestant calendar in Elizabethan and Stuart England (1989). Through various permutations, this has evolved into the Bonfire Night of today. Professor Ronald Hutton has considered the possible events which could have followed the successful implementation of the Gunpowder Plot, with the resultant destruction of Parliament and death of the king. He concluded that the violence of the act would have instead resulted in a more severe backlash against suspected Catholics. Without the involvement of some form of foreign aid, success would have been unlikely, as most Englishmen were loyal to the institution of the monarchy, despite differing religious convictions. England could very well have become a more "Puritan absolute monarchy", as "existed in Sweden, Denmark, Saxony, and Prussia in the seventeenth century", rather than follow the path of parliamentary and civil reform which it did. However, it is difficult to tell what would have emerged out of the resulting chaos, or to know which of the factions would have ultimately come to the fore. Commemoration Bonfires are lit every 5th of November to commemorate the plot. The fifth of November is variously called Fireworks Night, Bonfire Night or Guy Fawkes Night. An Act of Parliament (3 James I, cap 1) was passed to appoint 5 November in each year as a day of thanksgiving for "the joyful day of deliverance", and it remained in force until 1859. On 5 November 1605, it is said that the populace of London celebrated the defeat of the plot with fires and street festivities. Similar celebrations must have taken place on the anniversary and, over the years, it became a tradition — in many places, a holiday was observed (although it is not celebrated in Northern Ireland). It remains the custom in Britain, on and/or around 5 November, to let off fireworks. Traditionally, in the weeks running up to the 5th, people (especially children) make "guys" — effigies supposedly of Fawkes — usually formed from old clothes stuffed with newspaper, and equipped with a grotesque mask, to be burnt on the 5 November bonfire. These effigies would be exhibited in the street, to collect money for fireworks, although this practice is becoming less common. The word guy came thus in the 19th century to mean an oddly dressed person, and hence in the 20th and 21st centuries to mean any male person. Institutions and towns may hold firework displays and bonfire parties, and the same is done on a smaller scale in back gardens throughout the country. In some areas, particularly in Sussex, there are extensive processions, large bonfires and firework displays organised by local bonfire societies; the most extensive of which takes place in Lewes. The Houses of Parliament are still searched by the Yeomen of the Guard before the State Opening, which, since 1928, has been held in the last three months of the calendar year. Ostensibly to ensure no latter-day Guy Fawkes is concealed in the cellars, this is retained as a picturesque custom rather than a serious anti-terrorist precaution. It is said that for superstitious reasons, no State Opening will be held on 5 November; but this is not always adhered to (for instance, the State Opening was held on 5 November in 1957). 400th anniversary of the plot, commemorated on a 2005 British two pound coin. A commemorative British two pound coin was issued in 2005 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of the plot. United Kingdom £2 Coin, Royal Mint The cellar in which Fawkes watched over his gunpowder was demolished in 1822. The area was further damaged in the 1834 fire and destroyed in the subsequent rebuilding of the Palace of Westminster. The lantern which Guy Fawkes carried in 1605 is in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. A key supposedly taken from him is in Speaker's House, Palace of Westminster. These two artifacts were exhibited in a major exhibition held in Westminster Hall from July to November 2005. According to Esther Forbes (a biographer), the Guy Fawkes Day celebration in the pre-revolutionary American Colonies was a very popular holiday. In Boston, the revelry took on anti-authoritarian overtones, and often became so dangerous that many would not venture out of their homes. In November 1930, taking advantage of the bonfires used on the holiday, Alfred Arthur Rouse murdered an unknown man and planted his body as a substitute for Rouse's in his Morris Minor (1928) automobile (which was then set alight). The scheme did not work out, and Rouse was arrested, tried and executed for the crime. Conspiracy theories Many at the time felt that Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury had been involved in the plot to gain favour with the king and enact more stridently anti-Catholic legislation. Such theories alleged that Cecil had either actually invented the plot or allowed it to continue when his agents had already infiltrated it, for the purposes of propaganda. These rumours were the start of a long-lasting conspiracy theory about the plot. Yet while there was no "golden time" of "toleration" of Catholics which Father Garnet had hoped for at the start of James' reign, the legislative backlash had nothing to do with the plot: it had already happened by 1605, as recusancy fines were re-imposed and some priests expelled. There was no purge of Catholics from power and influence in the kingdom after the Gunpowder Plot, despite Puritan complaints. The reign of James I was, in fact, a time of relative leniency for Catholics, few being subject to prosecution. Peter Marshall, Reformation England 1480–1642, London, 2003, pp. 187–8. This did not dissuade some from continuing to claim Cecil's involvement in the plot. Father John Garrett, namesake of a Jesuit priest who had performed Mass to some of the plotters, wrote an account alleging Cecil's culpability in 1897, prompting a refutation a year later by S.R. Gardiner, who argued that Garrett had gone too far in trying to "wipe away the reproach" which the plot had exacted on generations of English Catholics. S.R. Gardiner, What Gunpowder Plot Was, London, 1887 p. 1–4. Gardiner portrayed Cecil as guilty of nothing more than opportunism. Subsequent attempts to prove Cecil's responsibility, such as Francis Edwards's 1969 work, have similarly foundered on the lack of positive proof of any government involvement in setting up the plot. Francis Edwards, Guy Fawkes: The Real Story of the Gunpowder Plot, London, 1969 There has been little support by historians for the conspiracy theory since this time, other than to acknowledge that Cecil may have known about the plot some days before it was uncovered. However, with many Internet websites suggesting Cecil's full involvement and postulating a profusion of theories, the idea lives on. It is unlikely that either side will ever produce the evidence needed to convince the other of the veracity of their respective arguments. Modern plot analysis According to the historian Lady Antonia Fraser, the gunpowder was taken to the Tower of London magazine. It would have been reissued or sold for recycling if in good condition. Ordnance records for the Tower state that 18 hundredweight (equivalent to about 816 kg) of it was "decayed", which could imply that it was rendered harmless due to having separated into its component chemical parts, as happens with gunpowder when left to sit for too long - if Fawkes had ignited the gunpowder during the opening, it would only have resulted in a weak splutter. Alternatively, "decayed" may refer to the powder being damp and sticking together, making it unfit for use in firearms - in which case the explosive capabilities of the barrels would not have been significantly affected. The Gunpowder Plot: Exploding The Legend, an ITV programme presented by Richard Hammond and broadcast on 1 November 2005, re-enacted the plot by blowing up an exact replica of the 17th-century House of Lords filled with test dummies, using the exact amount of gunpowder in the underground of the building. The dramatic experiment, conducted on the Advantica Spadeadam test site, proved unambiguously that the explosion would have killed all those attending the State Opening of Parliament in the Lords chamber. Gunpowder plotters get their wish, 400 years on Adam Sherwin The Times accessed 18 January 2008 The power of the explosion, which surprised even gunpowder experts, was such that seven-foot deep solid concrete walls (made deliberately to replicate how archives suggest the walls in the old House of Lords were constructed) were reduced to rubble. Measuring devices placed in the chamber to calculate the force of the blast were themselves destroyed by the blast, while the skull of the dummy representing King James, which had been placed on a throne inside the chamber surrounded by courtiers, peers and bishops, was found a large distance away from the site. According to the findings of the programme, no-one within 100 metres of the blast could have survived, while all the stained glass windows in Westminster Abbey would have been shattered, as would all windows within a large distance of the Palace. The power of the explosion would have been seen from miles away, and heard from further still. Even if only half the gunpowder had gone off, everyone in the House of Lords and its environs would have been killed instantly. The programme also disproved claims that some deterioration in the quality of the gunpowder would have prevented the explosion. A portion of deliberately deteriorated gunpowder, at such a low quality as to make it unusable in firearms, when placed in a heap and detonated, still managed to create a large explosion. The impact of even deteriorated gunpowder would have been magnified by the impact of its compression in wooden barrels, with the compression overcoming any deterioration in the quality of the contents. The compression would have created a cannon effect, with the powder first blowing up from the top of the barrel before, a millisecond later, blowing out. In addition, mathematical calculations showed that Fawkes, who was skilled in the use of gunpowder, had used double the amount of gunpowder needed. Guy Fawkes had twice the gunpowder needed Fiona Govan The Telegraph accessed 18 January 2008 A sample of the gunpowder may have survived: in March 2002, workers investigating archives of John Evelyn at the British Library found a box containing various samples of gunpowder and several notes suggesting a relation to the Gunpowder Plot: "Gunpowder 1605 in a paper inscribed by John Evelyn. Powder with which that villain Faux (sic) would have blown up the parliament.", "Gunpowder. Large package is supposed to be Guy Fawkes' gunpowder". "But there was none left! WEH 1952 See also Popish Plot Notes Pop Culture References The comic book series, V for Vendetta (as well as the 2005 film by the same name) is about a modern day rebel in England who re-creates (successfully) the gunpowder plot in an attempt to overthrow an Orwellian Totalitarian regime who had overthrown the government. Cultural portrayal Remember! Remember!, a musical, written by Jasper Kent, Robert Piatt, Robert Starr. Bibliography Croft, Pauline (2003). King James. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-61395-3. Stewart, Alan (2003). The Cradle King: A Life of James VI & 1. London: Chatto and Windus. ISBN 0-7011-6984-2. Alan Sutton The Gunpowder Plot: Faith in Rebellion (Hayes and Sutton 1994) Alan Wharam Treason: Famous English Treason Trials (Alan Sutton Publishing 1995) Willson, David Harris ([1956] 1963 ed). King James VI & I. London: Jonathan Cape Ltd. ISBN 0-224-60572-0. Esther Forbes, Paul Revere and the Times He Lived In pg. 89-94 (Houghton Mifflin,1942) External links The History of the Gunpowder Plot (Produced by The Parliamentary Archives) The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 Catholic Encyclopedia: The Gunpowder Plot The Gunpowder Plot (Website exploring the history of the plot for younger users) The Gunpowder Plot (House of Commons Information Sheet) The Gunpowder Plot Society iTV "Gunpowder Plot" Program What If the Gunpowder Plot Had Succeeded? 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2,426 | Lamborghini | Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A., commonly referred to as Lamborghini, is an Italian manufacturer of sports cars, based in the small Italian village of Sant'Agata Bolognese, near Bologna. The company was founded in 1963 by businessman Ferruccio Lamborghini, who owned a successful tractor factory, Lamborghini Trattori. In 1998, Lamborghini became a subsidiary of the German car manufacturer Audi AG, a subsidiary of Volkswagen Group. VW Group Supply.com Lamborghini brand overview History Origin As a prominent manufacturer of tractors and heating units after World War II, Lamborghini was an enthusiastic owner of sports cars. After owning and driving a Mercedes-Benz 300SL, a Jaguar E-Type, and a Maserati 3500GT, he bought his first Ferrari, a 250GT. He became a Ferrari enthusiast, eventually owning three. However, he had recurring clutch problems with the car, and eventually brought his complaints to Enzo Ferrari. Ferrari insulted Mr. Lamborghini, effectively stating that a tractor manufacturer was not qualified to criticize his Ferraris. Insulted by Ferrari's reaction, Lamborghini began to repair his clutch himself, at which point he noticed that some of the clutch components were the same as the ones he used on his tractors. Encouraged by the discovery, Ferruccio Lamborghini called upon the talents of Giotto Bizzarrini, Gian Paolo Dallara, Franco Scaglione and Bob Wallace, who worked on what Ferruccio envisioned as his grand tourer to rival Ferrari. The result would eventually become the Lamborghini 350GT and the founding of Lamborghini. Bankruptcy, Mimran, and Chrysler The 1970s oil crisis plagued sales of high performance cars. In 1978, Lamborghini declared bankruptcy. An Italian court was appointed to find a buyer, and the Swiss-based Mimran brothers took over the company in 1984, after managing the company for four years while it was in receivership. The company remained solvent under Mimran's control, selling the Countach, the Jalpa, and the LM002 during this time. In a surprise move, the company was bought by the Chrysler Corporation in 1987 with the acquisition being driven by Lee Iacocca, Chrysler's chairman at the time. Lamborghini was then working on the Countach's successor, the Diablo. The basic design of the Diablo was by Marcello Gandini, who designed the Miura and the Countach while at Bertone. The design was further developed by Chrysler, which brought its resources, including design input, pollution controls, and new manufacturing techniques, into this development. Chrysler's experience with the design of mass market vehicles improved areas of practicality and comfort that had been neglected earlier, including noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH), engineering, and ergonomics. Lamborghini Cars, The Enthusiast Site - Lamborgnini Diablo Post-Chrysler: Megatech and Audi In January 1994, poor economic circumstances and the political climate at Chrysler forced them to sell Lamborghini to Megatech, an Indonesian investment group headed by Tommy Suharto, the youngest son of Indonesian President Suharto. A new management team was installed at the company headquarters headed by ex-Lotus Group Chief Executive Mike Kimberley and including ex-McLaren Cars head of sales Nigel Gordon-Stewart, who became International Sales and Marketing Director. Kimberley was, at the time, the only candidate acceptable to Chrysler as the new President of Lamborghini under the Megatech ownership as he was well known to senior Chrysler management from his previous senior roles at Lotus and General Motors. Under the new management, Lamborghini began a renaissance in the world markets, with a complete revision of its international dealer network and the implementation of highly proactive marketing strategies. Sales increased from 101 in 1993 to 301 in 1994 and 414 in 1995. Large stocks of cars held by the dealers were sold through aggressive marketing programs and new models introduced to create a shortage of product in the market reinforcing the exclusive image and premium value of Lamborghini product. The Lamborghini Diablo SV (Sport Veloce) was launched in 1995. Inspired by the Lamborghini Miura SV, the Diablo SV featured a more powerful 525 bhp V12 engine featuring variable cam timing technology (MMEC) developed by Lamborghini. The Diablo SV became the best selling version of the Diablo. The Lamborghini Diablo SVR was also introduced in 1996 and used to compete in the one-make racing series developed by Stephane Rattel and sponsored by Lease Plan. Megatech sold the company in 1997 as a result of changing circumstances in Indonesia and therefore an inability to fund the future business plan produced by Kimberley's team. Lamborghini was bought by Audi AG, who had gained interest in the Italian company after being one of several major manufacturers approached as possible technical suppliers for major components for future Lamborghini models. After a complex series of transactions, Audi AG became the sole owner of Automobili Lamborghini. Lamborghini Showroom display Lamborghini's latest owner once again greatly influenced the design of its cars, including the Murcielago. Audi's vast technical resources helped produce one of Lamborghini's most sophisticated cars to date. +Sales under Audi AG ownership Year Sales 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,5001996 211 Audi Takeover in 19982002424 20031,305 20041,592 2005 1,600 20062,087 2007 2,4062008 2,430 Models VehicleYearEngineDisplacementTop SpeedImagecccu inkm/hmph350GTV 1963 Lamborghini V12350GT 1964–1968 Lamborghini V12400GT 2+2 1966–1968 Lamborghini V12Miura 1966–1974 Lamborghini V12Espada 1968–1978 Lamborghini V12Islero 1968–1970 Lamborghini V12Jarama 1970–1978 Lamborghini V12Urraco 1970–1979 Lamborghini V82,4632,9961,994Countach 1974–1990 Lamborghini V123,9294,7545,167Silhouette 1976–1977 Lamborghini V8Jalpa 1982–1990 Lamborghini V8LM002 1986–1992 Lamborghini V12Diablo 1990–2001 Lamborghini V125,7075,992Murciélago 2001– Lamborghini V126,1926,496Gallardo 2003– Lamborghini V10Reventón 2008 Lamborghini V12 The current (2009) range consists of the Murciélago LP640, the Murciélago LP640 Roadster and the smaller, less expensive Gallardo LP560/4 and Gallardo LP560/4 Spyder, after production of the Gallardo Superleggera ceased earlier this year. All are high-powered, mid-engined two-seaters. The Murciélago LP640, the Murciélago LP640 Roadster and the Gallardo LP560-4 come with Lamborghini's standard four-wheel drive systems. Their styling is largely the work of Belgian designer Luc Donckerwolke. The current head of design for Audi and Lamborghini is Wolfgang Egger. At the 2008 Paris Motor Show, Lamborghini revealed the Estoque Concept, a four-door sedan. There had been much speculation about eventual production of the Estoque, Top Gear - Secret new Lambo revealed Edmunds Inside Line - The Radical Lamborghini Sedan From the Paris Auto Show but the management of Lamborghini has since stated that no decision has been made to manufacture the Estoque. Edmunds Inside Line - IL Exclusive: No Green Light - Yet - for Lamborghini Estoque Racing models Ferruccio Lamborghini had set a rule that Lamborghini would not be involved in motor racing. He saw such a program as too expensive and too demanding in company resources. Consequently, no Lamborghini racing car was fabricated under his management. The closest the company came to building racing cars at that time was when the company's test driver Bob Wallace made a few highly modified prototypes based on existing models. Notable among these are the Miura SV based Jota and the Jarama S based Bob Wallace Special. Under the management of Rosetti, Lamborghini entered into an agreement with BMW to build a production racing car in sufficient quantity for homologation. However, Lamborghini was unable to fulfill its part of the agreement. The car was eventually developed in-house by the BMW Motorsport Division, and was manufactured and sold as the BMW M1. Auto Lemon - Used Car History Check: BMW M1 BMW M1 Car Guide Lamborghini developed the QVX for the 1986 Group C championship season. One car was built, but lack of sponsorship caused it to miss the season. The QVX competed in only one race, the non-championship 1986 Southern Suns 500 km race at Kyalami in South Africa, driven by Tiff Needell. Despite the car finishing better than it started, sponsorship could not be found and the program was cancelled. Lamborghini QVX Car Guide Lamborghini was an engine supplier in Formula One between the 1989 and 1993 Formula One seasons. It supplied engines to Larrousse (1989-1990,1992-1993), Lotus (1990), Ligier (1991), Minardi (1992), and to a 'Lamborghini' team (1991), although this last was not viewed as a works team by the car company. The 1992 Larrousse–Lamborghini was largely uncompetitive but noteworthy in its tendency to spew oil from its exhaust system. Cars following closely behind the Larrousse were commonly colored yellowish-brown by the end of the race. Late in 1991, a Lamborghini Formula One motor was used in the Konrad KM-011 Group C sports car, but the car only lasted a few races before the project was canceled. The same engine, badged as a Chrysler, by Lamborghini's then parent company, was tested by McLaren towards the end of the 1993 season, with a view to its use during the 1994 season. Although driver Ayrton Senna was reportedly impressed with the engine's performance, McLaren pulled out of negotiations, choosing a Peugeot engine instead, and Chrysler ended the project. Two racing versions of the Diablo were built for the Diablo Supertrophy, a single-model racing series held annually from 1996 to 1999. In the first year, the model used in the series was the Diablo SVR, while the Diablo 6.0 GTR was used for the remaining three years. Lamborghini Diablo SVR Lamborghini Diablo 6.0 GTR Car Guide Lamborghini developed the Murciélago R-GT as a production racing car to compete in the FIA GT Championship, the Super GT Championship and the American Le Mans Series in 2004. Their highest placing in any race that year was the opening round of the FIA GT Championship at Valencia, where the car entered by Reiter Engineering finished third from a fifth-place start. Lamborghini Murciélago R-GT Car Guide Lamborghini Murciélago R-GT 2004 Season In 2006 during the opening round of the Super GT championship at Suzuka, a car run by the Japan Lamborghini Owners Club garnered the first victory (in class) by an R-GT. A GT3 version of the Gallardo has been developed by Reiter Engineering. Lamborghini Gallardo GT3 Car Guide A Murciélago R-GT entered by All-Inkl.com racing, driven by Christophe Bouchut and Stefan Mücke, won the opening round of the FIA GT Championship held at Zhuhai International Circuit, achieving the first major international race victory for Lamborghini. FIA GT Championship Results: 2007 Round 1 - Zhuhai Marine engines Lamborghini has for some years produced a larger V12 marine engine block for use in powerboat racing, notably the World Offshore Series Class 1. This engine is produced with a displacement of around with an output of around . Ownership Lamborghini has had a number of owners: Ferruccio Lamborghini 1963–1972 Georges-Henri Rossetti and René Leimer 1972–1977 bankrupt 1977–1984 managed by Patrick Mimran 1980–1984 Patrick Mimran 1984–1987 Chrysler Corporation 1987–1994 Megatech 1994–1995 (Permission granted for the creation of Automóviles Lamborghini Latinoamérica) V'Power, Mycom 1995–1998 Audi AG 1998-present References External links Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. 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2,427 | Norfolk_Island | Norfolk Island (Norfuk: Norfuk Ailen) is a small island in the Pacific Ocean located between Australia, New Zealand and New Caledonia. It and two neighbouring islands form one of Australia's external territories. The Norfolk Island pine, a symbol of the island pictured in its flag, is an evergreen tree native to the island and is quite popular in Australia, where two related species also grow. History Early history Norfolk Island was first settled by East Polynesian seafarers either from the Kermadec Islands north of New Zealand or from the North Island of New Zealand. They arrived in the fourteenth or fifteenth century, and survived for several generations before disappearing. Their main village site has been excavated at Emily Bay, and they also left behind stone tools, the Polynesian Rat, and banana trees as evidence of their sojourn. The harakeke, or New Zealand flax plant (Phormium tenax) was brought to Norfolk Island either from New Zealand directly or from Raoul Island (Sunday Island) by these Polynesian settlers. Atholl Anderson and Peter White, “Prehistoric Settlement on Norfolk Island and its Oceanic Context”, Records of the Australian Museum, Supplement 27, 2001, pp.135-41 .The final fate of these early settlers remains a mystery. The first European known to have sighted the island was Captain James Cook, in 1774, on his second voyage to the South Pacific on HMS Resolution. He named it after the Duchess of Norfolk, wife of Edward Howard, 9th Duke of Norfolk (1685-1777). The Duchess was dead at the time of the island's sighting by Cook, but Cook had set out from England in 1772 and could not have known of her May 1773 death. Cook went ashore on Tuesday 11 October 1774, and is said to have been impressed with the tall straight trees and New Zealand flax plants, which, although not related to the Northern Hemisphere flax plants after which they are named, produce fibres of economic importance. He took samples back to the United Kingdom and reported on their potential uses for the Royal Navy. Andrew Kippis as the biographer of this voyage puts it as follows: At the time, the United Kingdom was heavily dependent on flax (Linum usitatissimum) (for sails) and hemp (Cannabis sp.) (for ropes) from the shores of the Baltic Sea ports. Any threat to their supply endangered the United Kingdom's sea power. The UK also relied on timbers from New England for mainmasts, and these were not supplied after the American War of Independence. The alternative source of Norfolk Island for these, (or in the case of flax and hemp, similar) supplies is argued by some historians, notably Geoffrey Blainey in The Tyranny of Distance, as being a major reason for the founding of the convict settlement of New South Wales by the First Fleet in 1788. James Cook said that, “except for New Zealand, in no other island in the South Sea was wood and mast-timber so ready to hand”. Georg Forster, Reise um die Weld, 1777, Teil 2, reprinted in Georg Forsters Werke: sämmtliche Schriften, Berlin, Akademie-verlag, Bd.3, 1965, p.339. Sir John Call, member of Parliament and the Royal Society, and former chief engineer of the East India Company, stated the advantages of Norfolk Island in a proposal for colonization he put to the Home Office in August 1784: “This Island has an Advantage not common to New Caledonia, New Holland and New Zealand by not being inhabited, so that no Injury can be done by possessing it to the rest of Mankind…there seems to be nothing wanting but Inhabitants and Cultivation to make it a delicious Residence. The Climate, Soil, and Sea provide everything that can be expected from them. The Timber, Shrubs, Vegetables and Fish already found there need no Embellishment to pronounce them excellent samples; but the most invaluable of all is the Flax-plant, which grows more luxuriant than in New Zealand.” "Proposal for a Colonization of the south Pacific", August 1734(?), PRO Home 42/7: 49 57, Historical Records of New South Wales, Vol.II, pp.350 67, App.A (where it is described as an "anonymous proposal"). Call's authorship is identified in Alan Frost, Convicts & Empire: A Naval Question, 1776 1811, Melbourne, Oxford U.P., 1980, pp.l9 26, 203. George Forster, who had been on Cook’s second voyage to the Pacific and had been with him when he landed on Norfolk Island, was at the time professor of natural history at the University of Vilna (or Vilnius) in Polish Lithuania: Forster discussed the proposed Botany Bay colony in an article written in November 1786, “Neuholland, und die brittische Colonie in Botany Bay”. Though unaware of the British intention to settle Norfolk Island, which was not announced until 5 December 1786, Forster referred to “the nearness of New Zealand; the excellent flax plant (Phormium) that grows so abundantly there; its incomparable shipbuilding timber”, as among the advantages of the new colony. Allgemeines historisches Taschenbuch: oder Abriss der merkwürdigsten neuen Welt-Begebenheiten für 1787, enthaltend Zusätze zu des für das Jahr 1786 herausgegeben Geschichte der wichtigsten Staat- und Handelsveranderungen von Ostindien von M.C. Sprengel, Professor der Geschichte auf der Universität zu Halle, Berlin, 1787, S.8, 11, 14; Zusatz 7: Historisch-Genealogischer Calender vom Jahr 1786, “Neuholland, und die brittische Colonie in Botany Bay”, S.xxxiii-liv; re-published in Georg Forster’s Kleine Schriften: Ein Beytrag zur Völker- und Länderkunde, Naturgeschichte und Philosophie des Lebens, gesammlet von Georg Forster, Erster Theil, Leipzig, Kummer, 1789, S.233-74. The proposal written by James Matra under the supervision of Sir Joseph Banks for establishing a settlement in New South Wales, stated that Botany Bay was: “no further than a fortnight from New Zealand, which is covered with timber even to the water’s edge. The trees are so big and tall that a single tree is enough to make a mast of a first rate man of war. New Zealand produces in addition flax, which is an object equally of utility and curiosity. Any quantity of it might be raised in the colony, as this plant grows naturally in New Zealand. It can be made to serve the various purposes of cotton, hemp and linen, and is easier manufactured than any of them. In naval affairs, it could not fail of being of the utmost consequence; a cable of ten inches (250 mm) being supposed to be of equal strength and durability to one of European hemp of eighteen inches. published in The General Advertiser, and The Whitehall Evening Post, 14 October, The Public Advertiser,16 October, and The London Chronicle and The General Evening Post, 17 October 1786. In 1786 the British Government included Norfolk Island as an auxiliary settlement, as proposed by John Call, in its plan for colonization of New South Wales. The flax and ship timber of New Zealand were attractive, but these prospective advantages were balanced by the obvious impossibility of forming a settlement there in the face of undoubted opposition from the native Maori. Frank Clarke, “The Reasons for the Settlement of Norfolk Island, 1788”, Raymond Nobbs (ed.), Norfolk Island and its First Settlement, 1788-1814, Sydney, Library of Australian History, 1988, pp.28-36. There was no native population to oppose a settlement on Norfolk Island, which also possessed those desirable natural resources, but the island was too small of itself to sustain a colony. Hence the ultimate decision for a dual colonization along the lines proposed by Call. The decision to settle Norfolk Island was taken under the impetus of the shock Britain had just received from the Empress Catherine of Russia. Practically all the hemp and flax required by the Royal Navy for cordage and sailcloth was imported from the Russian dominions through the ports of St. Petersburg (Kronstadt) and Riga. Comptroller of the Navy Sir Charles Middleton explained to Prime Minister Pitt in a letter of 5 September 1786: “It is for Hemp only we are dependent on Russia. Masts can be procured from Nova Scotia, and Iron in plenty from the Ores of this Country; but as it is impracticable to carry on a Naval War without Hemp, it is materially necessary to promote the growth of it in this Country and Ireland”. The Letters and Papers of Charles Middleton, Lord Barham, Vol.2, (Navy Records Society, Vol.37), 1907, p.223. In the summer of 1786 the Empress Catherine, in the context of tense negotiations on a renewed treaty of commerce, had emphasized her control over this vital commodity by asking the merchants who supplied it to restrict sales to English buyers: “the Empress has contrary to Custom speculated on this Commodity”, complained the author of a subsequent memorandum to the Home Secretary. “It is unnecessary”, said the memorandum, “to remark the Consequences which might result from a prohibition of supply from that Quarter altogether”. Memorandum to Grenville on the Trade of Canada, 4 November 1789, National Archives, Kew, CO 42/66, ff.403-7; cited in Alan Frost, Convicts and Empire, a Naval Question, Melbourne, Oxford UP, 1980, pp.137, 218. This implicit threat to the viability of the Royal Navy became apparent in mid-September (a month after the decision had been taken to settle Botany Bay) and caused the Pitt Administration to begin an urgent search for new sources of supply, including from Norfolk Island, which was then added to the plan to colonize New South Wales. The need for an alternative non-Russian source of naval stores is indicated by the information from the British Ambassador in Copenhagen, Hugh Elliott, who wrote to Foreign Secretary, Lord Carmarthen on 12 August 1788: “There is no Topick so common in the Mouths of the Russian Ministers, as to insist on the Facility with which the Empress, when Mistress of the Baltic, either by Conquest, Influence, or Alliance with the other two Northern Powers, could keep England in a State of Dependence for its Baltic Commerce and Naval Stores”. Elliott to Carmarthen, 12 August 1788, National Archives, Kew, FO 22/10. On 6 December 1786, an order-in-council was issued designating "the Eastern Coast of New South Wales, or some one or other of the Islands adjacent" as the destination for transported convicts, as required by the Transportation Act of 1784 (24 Geo.III, c.56) that authorized the sending of convicted felons to any place appointed by the King in Council. Norfolk Island was thereby brought officially within the bounds of the projected colony. An article in The Universal Daily Register (the forerunner of The Times) of 23 December 1786 revealed the plan for a dual colonization of Norfolk Island and Botany Bay: “The ships for Botany Bay are not to leave all the convicts there; some of them are to be taken to Norfolk Island, which is about eight hundred miles East of Botany Bay, and about four hundred miles short of New Zealand”. "Norfolk Island: Phantasy and Reality, 1770-1814", The Great Circle (Journal of the Australian Association for Maritime History) vol.25, no.2, 2003, pp.20-41. Also at: http://www.nla.gov.au/pathways/jnls/austjnls/view/324.html The advantage of Britain's new colony in providing a non-Russian source of flax and hemp for naval supplies was referred to in an article in Lloyd’s Evening Post of 5 October 1787 which urged: “It is undoubtedly the interest of Great-Britain to remain neutral in the present contest between the Russians and the Turks” and observed, “Should England cease to render her services to the Empress of Russia, in a war against the Turks, there can be little of nothing to fear from her ill-will. England will speedily be enabled to draw from her colony of New South Wales, the staple of Russia, hemp and flax.” First penal settlement Before the First Fleet sailed to found a convict settlement in New South Wales, Governor Arthur Phillip's final instructions, received less than three weeks before sailing, included the requirement to colonize Norfolk Island to prevent it falling into the hands of France, whose naval leaders were also showing interest in the Pacific. Phillip’s instructions given him in April 1787 included an injunction to send a party to secure Norfolk Island “as soon as Circumstances may admit of it…. to prevent its being occupied by the Subjects of any other European Power”. This could only have been a reference to the expedition then in the Pacific commanded by Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse. The Daily Universal Register of 11 November 1786 had stated: "the Botany Bay scheme is laid aside, as there is a strong presumption that a squadron from Brest are now, or soon will be, in possession of the very spot we meant to occupy in New Holland". This may have been a reference to a report from the British Ambassador in Paris, who had believed that when Lapérouse’s expedition set out from Brest in August 1785 it had as one of its objectives the establishment of a settlement in New Zealand to forestall the British. Lapérouse did attempt to visit Norfolk Island, but only to investigate, not to take possession. He had instructions to investigate any colonies the British may have established and learned of the intention to settle Botany Bay and Norfolk Island from despatches sent to him from Paris through St. Petersburg and by land across Siberia to Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka, where he received them on 26 September 1787, just four days before his departure from that port. Lapérouse to Castries, 28 September 1787, Archives du Dépôt des cartes et plans de la Marine, Vol.105, Journal de Lapérouse, John Dunmore & Maurice de Brossard, Le Voyage de Lapérouse, Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1985, Vol.II, pp.cxxxvii, 276. His ships, the Boussole and Astrolabe, anchored off the northern side of the island on 13 January 1788, but at the time high seas were running that made it too dangerous for the two ships’ boats that were put out to attempt a landing: “It was obvious that I would have had to wait maybe for a very long time for a moment suitable for a landing and a visit to this island was not worth this sacrifice”, he recorded in his journal. John Dunmore (ed.), The Journal of Jean-François de Galaup de la Pérouse, 1785-1789, London, Hakluyt Society, Vol.2, 1995, pp.442-5. Having noted that the island was still uninhabited, he was presumably the less inclined to risk a landing when there was no British settlement there to report on. When the First Fleet arrived at Port Jackson in January 1788, Phillip ordered Lieutenant Philip Gidley King to lead a party of fifteen convicts and seven free men to take control of the island and prepare for its commercial development. They arrived on 6 March 1788. A “Letter from an Officer of Marines at New South Wales, 16 November 1788”, published in the London newspaper, The World, 15 May 1789, reported the glowing description of the island and its prospects by Philip Gidley King, but also drew attention to the fatal defect of the lack of a safe port: “The said Island lies near Port Jackson, and is nearly as large as the Isle of Wight. Lieutenant King, who was sent with a detachment of marines and some convicts, to settle there, gives the most flattering portrayal of it. The island is fully wooded. Its timber is in the opinion of everyone the most beautiful and finest in the world...they are most suitable for masts, yards, spars and such. The New Zealand flax-plant grows there in abundance. European grains and seeds also thrive wonderfully well on Norfolk Island. It only lacks a good port and suitable landing places, without which the island is of no use, but with them it would be of the greatest importance for Great Britain. How far these deficiencies can be improved by art and the hand of man, time must decide.” An idealized vision of the new British settlement was given in the novel by Therese Forster, Abentheuer auf einer Reise nach Neu-Holland [Adventures on a Voyage to New Holland], published in the German women’s magazine, Flora for 1793 and 1794: We went towards the centre of this small island where at the foot of a round hill a crystal-clear river rushes forth, dividing up further on into several arms. Towards North and West the hill is covered with the most beautiful ploughed fields all the way down to the sea. The sight of these great flax fields is one of the loveliest I ever beheld. The slender stalks, of the most beautiful green and reaching far above a man’s head, bent in the gentle breeze that blew from the sea. Their red blossoms, shining like rubies, danced in the green waves. The top of the hill and the whole of the south and east sides are covered with enormous pines whose dark green is enhanced by a pleasant foreground of cabbage palms and banana trees, and I also observed a low bush among them the fruit of which resembles our red currants but is much larger and hangs in purple and red clusters that help to give the whole a gay appearance. The dwellings of the colonists are strewn along the fringes of the forest and from my post I could see several of them. Simple houses surrounded by barns and stalls and the fields all enclosed with hedges give the region a youthful appearance the like of which is rarely found in Europe. And plants here bloom more luxuriantly and more perfectly with a natural vigour that knows no exhaustion and fears no poverty, a vigour that has disappeared from our continent. Therese Forster, née Heyne, also known as Therese Huber, in Flora: Teutschlands Töchtern geweiht von Freunden und Freundinnen des schönen Geschlechts, 4 (1793) 241-74; 1 (1794) 7-43, 209-75; also published in a book in 1801 under the name of her second husband, Ludwig Ferdinand Huber, Erzählungen, Erste Sammlung, Bd.1, Braunschweig, S.84-202; English translation by Rodney Livingstone, Adventures on a Journey to New Holland, edited by Leslie Bodi, Melbourne, Lansdowne Press, 1966. It was soon found that the flax was difficult to prepare for manufacturing and no one had the necessary skills. An attempt was made to bring two Māori men to teach the skills of dressing and weaving flax, but this failed when it was discovered that weaving was considered women's work and the two men had little knowledge of it. The pine timber was found to be not resilient enough for masts and this industry was also abandoned. More convicts were sent, and the island was seen as a farm, supplying Sydney with grain and vegetables during its early years of near-starvation. However, crops often failed due to the salty wind, rats, and caterpillars. The lack of a natural safe harbour hindered communication and the transport of supplies and produce. Manning Clark observed that "at first the convicts behaved well, but as more arrived from Sydney Cove, they renewed their wicked practices". These included an attempted overthrow of King in January 1789 by convicts described by Margaret Hazzard as "incorrigible rogues who took his 'goodwill' for weakness". While some convicts responded well to the opportunities offered to become respectable, most remained "idle and miserable wretches" according to Clark, despite the climate and their isolation from previous haunts of crime. The impending starvation at Sydney led to a great transplantation of convicts and marines to Norfolk Island in March 1790 on HMS Sirius. This attempt to relieve the pressure on Sydney turned to disaster when Sirius was wrecked and, although there was no loss of life, some stores were destroyed, and the ship's crew was marooned for ten months. This news was met in Sydney with "unspeakable consternation". Norfolk Island was now further cut off from Sydney which, with the arrival of the Second Fleet with its cargo of sick and abused convicts, had more pressing problems with which to contend. In spite of this the settlement grew slowly as more convicts were sent from Sydney. Many convicts chose to remain as settlers on the expiry of their sentence, and the population grew to over 1000 by 1792. Lieutenant governors of the first settlement: 6 March 1788–24 March 1790: Lieutenant Philip Gidley King (1758–1808) 24 March 1790–Nov 1791: Major Robert Ross (c.1740–1794) 4 November 1791–Oct 1796: Lieutenant Philip Gidley King October 1796–Nov 1799: Captain John Townson (1760–1835) November 1799–Jul 1800: Captain Thomas Rowley (c.1748–1806) 26 June 1800–9 September 1804: Major Joseph Foveaux (1765–1846) 9 September 1804–January 1810: Lieutenant John Piper (1773–1851) January 1810–15 February 1813: Lieutenant Thomas Crane (caretaker) 15 February 1813–15 February 1814: Superintendent William Hutchinson Norfolk Island was governed by a succession of short-term commandants for the next eleven years, starting with King's replacement, Robert Ross 1789-1790. When Joseph Foveaux arrived as Lieutenant Governor in 1800, he found the settlement quite run down, little maintenance having been carried out in the previous four years, and he set about building it up, particularly through public works and attempts to improve education. As early as 1794 King suggested its closure as a penal settlement as it was too remote and difficult for shipping, and too costly to maintain. By 1803, the Secretary of State, Lord Hobart, called for the removal of part of the Norfolk Island military establishment, settlers and convicts to Van Diemen's Land, due to its great expense and the difficulties of communication between Norfolk Island and Sydney. This was achieved more slowly than anticipated, due to reluctance of settlers to uproot themselves from the land they had struggled to tame, and compensation claims for loss of stock. It was also delayed by King's insistence on its value for providing refreshment to the whalers. The first group of 159 left in February 1805 and comprised mainly convicts and their families and military personnel, only four settlers departing. Between November 1807 and September 1808, five groups of 554 people departed. Only about 200 remained, forming a small settlement until the remnants were removed in 1813. A small party remained to slaughter stock and destroy all buildings so that there would be no inducement for anyone, especially from another European power, to visit that place. From 15 February 1814 to 6 June 1825 the island lay abandoned. Second penal settlement Commandants of the second settlement: 6 June 1825–March 1826: Captain Richard Turton March 1826–August 1827: Captain Vance Young Donaldson (1791–?) August 1827–November 1828: Captain Thomas Edward Wright November 1828–February 1829: Captain Robert Hunt February 1829–29 June 1829: Captain Joseph Wakefield 29 June 1829–1834: Lieutenant-Colonel James Thomas Morisset (1782–1852) 1834: Captain Foster Fyans (1790–1870) (Acting) 1834–April 1839: Major Joseph Anderson (1790–1877) April - July 1839: Major Thomas Bunbury (b. c1791) July 1839 - March 1840: Major Thomas Ryan (b.c1790) (Acting) 17 March 1840–1844: Captain Alexander Maconochie (1787–1860) 8 February 1844–5 August 1846: Major Joseph Childs 6 August 1846–18 January 1853: John Giles Price (1808–1857) January 1853–September 1853: Captain Rupert Deering September 1853–5 May 1855: Captain H. Day 5 May 1855–8 June 1856: T.S. Stewart (Caretaker) In 1824 the British government instructed the Governor of New South Wales Thomas Brisbane to occupy Norfolk Island as a place to send “the worst description of convicts”. Its remoteness, seen previously as a disadvantage, was now viewed as an asset for the detention of the “twice-convicted” men, who had committed further crimes since arriving in New South Wales. Brisbane assured his masters that “the felon who is sent there is forever excluded from all hope of return” He saw Norfolk Island as “the nec plus ultra of Convict degradation”. His successor, Governor Ralph Darling, was even more severe than Brisbane, wishing that “every man should be worked in irons that the example may deter others from the commission of crime” and “to hold out [Norfolk Island] as a place of the extremest punishment short of death”. Governor George Arthur, in Van Diemen's Land, likewise believed that “when prisoners are sent to Norfolk Island, they should on no account be permitted to return. Transportation thither should be considered as the ultimate limit and a punishment short only of death”. Reformation of the convicts was not seen as an objective of the Norfolk Island penal settlement. The evidence that has passed down through the years points to the creation of a "Hell in Paradise". A widespread and popular notion of the harshness of penal settlements, including Norfolk Island, has come from the novel For the Term of His Natural Life by Marcus Clarke, which appears to be based on the writings and recollections of witnesses and from the fictional writings of Price Warung. Following a convict mutiny in 1834, Father William Ullathorne, Vicar general of Sydney, visited Norfolk Island to comfort the mutineers due for execution. He found it “the most heartrending scene that I ever witnessed”. Having the duty of informing the prisoners as to who was reprieved and who was to die, he was shocked to record as “a literal fact that each man who heard his reprieve wept bitterly, and that each man who heard of his condemnation to death went down on his knees with dry eyes, and thanked God.” The 1846 report of magistrate Robert Pringle Stuart exposed the scarcity and poor quality of food, inadequacy of housing, horrors of torture and incessant flogging, insubordination of convicts, and corruption of overseers. Bishop Robert Willson visited Norfolk Island from Van Diemen's Land on three occasions. Following his first visit in 1846 he reported to the House of Lords who, for the first time, came to realise the enormity of atrocities perpetrated under the British flag and attempted to remedy the evils. Willson returned in 1849 and found that many of the reforms had been implemented. However, rumours of resumed atrocities brought him back in 1852, and this visit resulted in a damning report, listing atrocities and blaming the system, which invested one man at this remote place with absolute power over so many people. Only a handful of convicts left any written record and their descriptions (as quoted by Hazzard and Hughes) of living and working conditions, food and housing, and, in particular, the punishments given for seemingly trivial offences, are unremittingly horrifying, describing a settlement devoid of all human decency, under the iron rule of the tyrannical autocratic commandants. The actions of some of the commandants, such as Morisset and particularly Price appear to be excessively harsh. All but one were military officers, brought up in a system where discipline was inhumanely severe throughout the period of transportation. In addition, the commandants relied on a large number of military guards, civil overseers, ex-convict constables, and convict informers to provide them with intelligence and carry out their orders. Of the Commandants, only Alexander Maconochie appeared to reach the conclusion that brutality would breed defiance, as demonstrated by the mutinies of 1826, 1834 and 1846, and he attempted to apply his theories of penal reform, providing incentives as well as punishment. His methods were criticised as being too lenient and he was replaced, a move that returned the settlement to its harsh rule. The second penal settlement began to be wound down by the British Government after 1847 and the last convicts were removed to Tasmania in May 1855. It was abandoned because transportation to Van Diemen's Land had ceased in 1853 and was replaced by penal servitude in the United Kingdom. Settlement by Pitcairn Islanders On 8 June 1856, the next settlement began on Norfolk Island. These were the descendants of Tahitians and the Bounty mutineers, resettled from the Pitcairn Islands, which had become too small for their growing population. The British government had permitted the transfer of the Pitcairners to Norfolk, which was thus established as a colony separate from New South Wales but under the administration of that colony's governor. They left Pitcairn Islands on 3 May 1856 and arrived with 194 persons on 8 June. The Pitcairners occupied many of the buildings remaining from the penal settlements, and gradually established their traditional farming and whaling industries on the island. Although some families decided to return to Pitcairn in 1858 and 1863, the island's population continued to slowly grow as the island accepted settlers, often arriving with whaling fleets. In 1867, the headquarters of the Melanesian Mission of the Church of England were established on the island, and in 1882 the church of St. Barnabas was erected to the memory of the Mission's head Bishop John Coleridge Patteson, with windows designed by Edward Burne-Jones and executed by William Morris. In 1920 the Mission was relocated from the island to the Solomon Islands to be closer to its target population. Twentieth century After the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, Norfolk Island was placed under the authority of the new Commonwealth government to be administered as an external territory. During World War II, the island became a key airbase and refuelling depot between Australia and New Zealand, and New Zealand and the Solomon Islands. Since Norfolk Island fell within New Zealand's area of responsibility it was garrisoned by a New Zealand Army unit known as N Force at a large Army camp which had the capacity to house a 1,500 strong force. N Force relieved a company of the Second Australian Imperial Force. The island proved too remote to come under attack during the war and N Force left the island in February 1944. In the late 1960's a mini-invasion by British ex-pats followed after the island was featured on a BBC television documentary presented by Alan Whicker. Fifty families decided to emigrate from the United Kingdom to Norfolk Island as a result of the programme. Alan Whicker's Journey of a Lifetime, broadcast on BBC Two, 25 April 2009. In 1979, Norfolk was granted limited self-government by Australia, under which the island elects a government that runs most of the island's affairs. As such, residents of Norfolk Island are not represented in the Commonwealth Parliament of Australia, making them the only group of residents of an Australian state or territory not represented there. In 2006, a formal review process took place, in which the Australian Government considered revising this model of government. The review was completed on 20 December 2006, when it was decided that there would be no changes in the governance of Norfolk Island. This stamp was issued in 1981 to commemorate the first landing of an aircraft at the island, Sir Francis Chichester's Gypsy Moth "Mme Elijah", at Cascade Bay on 28 March 1931. Geography Anson Bay on Norfolk Island. Location of Norfolk IslandNorfolk Island is located in the South Pacific Ocean, east of the Australian mainland. Norfolk Island is the main island of the island group the territory encompasses and is located at . It has an area of 34.6 km² (13.3 mi²), with no large-scale internal bodies of water but 32 km of coastline. The island's highest point is Mt Bates (319 m above sea level), located in the northwest quadrant of the island. The majority of the terrain is suitable for farming and other agricultural uses. Phillip Island, the second largest island of the territory, is located at , seven kilometres south of the main island. The coastline of Norfolk Island consists, to varying degrees, of cliff faces. A downward slope exists towards Sydney Bay and Emily Bay, the site of the original colonial settlement of Kingston. There are no safe harbour facilities on Norfolk Island, with loading jetties existing at Kingston and Cascade Bay. All goods not domestically produced are brought in by ship, usually to Cascade Bay. Emily Bay, protected from the Pacific Ocean by a small coral reef, is the only safe area for recreational swimming, although surfing waves can sometimes be found in Ball Bay. The climate is subtropical and mild, with little seasonal differentiation. The island is the eroded remnant of a basaltic volcano active around 2.3 to 3 million years ago, Geological origins, Norfolk Island Tourism. Accessed 2007-04-13. with inland areas now consisting mainly of rolling plains. It forms the highest point on the Norfolk Ridge, part of the submerged continent Zealandia. The area surrounding Mt Bates is preserved as the Norfolk Island National Park. The park, covering around 10% of the land of the island, contains remnants of the forests which originally covered the island, including stands of subtropical rainforest. The park also includes the two smaller islands to the south of Norfolk Island, Nepean Island and Phillip Island. The vegetation of Phillip Island was devastated due to the introduction during the penal era of pest animals such as pigs and rabbits, giving it a red-brown colour as viewed from Norfolk; however, pest control and remediation work by park staff has recently brought some improvement to the Phillip Island environment. The major settlement on the Island is Burnt Pine, located predominantly along Taylor's Road, where the shopping centre, post office, liquor store, telephone exchange and community hall are located. Settlement also exists over much of the island, consisting largely of widely-separated homesteads. Government House, the official residence of the Administrator, is located on Quality Row in what was the penal settlement of Kingston. Other government buildings, including the court, Legislative Assembly and Administration, are also located there. Kingston's role is largely a ceremonial one, however, with most of the economic impetus coming from Burnt Pine. Climate Norfolk Island has a marine subtropic climate. Surrounded by large area of ocean water, it has one of the mildest climate, if not the most, in the world. Temperature almost never falls below 10°C/50°F or rises above 26°C/80°F. The absolute maximum recorded temperature is 28.4°C, while the absolute minimum is 6.2°C . Average annual precipitation is more than 1300mm, with most rain falling from April to August. Other months get stable and significant amount of precipitation as well. Environment Flora Rhopalostylis baueri, a native palm. Norfolk Island has 174 native plants; 51 of them are endemic. At least 18 of the endemic species are rare or threatened. Norfolk Island subtropical forests - Encyclopedia of Earth The Norfolk Island Palm (Rhopalostylis baueri) and the Smooth Tree-fern (Cyathea brownii), the tallest tree-fern in the world, are common in the Norfolk Island National Park but rare elsewhere on the island. Before European colonization, most of Norfolk Island was covered with subtropical rain forest, the canopy of which was made of Araucaria heterophylla (Norfolk Island Pine) in exposed areas, and the palm Rhopalostylis baueri and tree ferns Cyathea brownii and C. australia in moister protected areas. The understory was thick with lianas and ferns covered the forest floor. Only one small tract (5km²) of rainforest remains, which was declared as the Norfolk Island National Park in 1986. This forest has been infested with several introduced plants. The cliffs and steep slopes of Mt Pitt supported a community of shrubs, herbaceous plants, and climbers. A few tracts of clifftop and seashore vegetation have been preserved. The rest of the island has been cleared for pasture and housing. Grazing and introduced weeds currently threaten the native flora, displacing it in some areas. In fact, there are more weed species than native species on Norfolk Island. Fauna As a relatively small and isolated oceanic island, Norfolk has few land birds but a high degree of endemicity among them. Many of the endemic species and subspecies have become extinct as a result of massive clearance of the island’s native vegetation of subtropical rainforest for agriculture, hunting and persecution as agricultural pests. The birds have also suffered from the introduction of mammals such as rats, cats, pigs and goats, as well as from introduced competitors such as Common Blackbirds and Crimson Rosellas. Extinctions include that of the endemic Norfolk Island Kaka and Norfolk Island Ground-dove along with endemic subspecies of pigeon, starling, triller, thrush and boobook owl, though the latter’s genes persist in a hybrid population descended from the last female. Other endemic birds are the White-chested White-eye, which may be extinct, the Norfolk Island Green Parrot, the Norfolk Island Gerygone, the Slender-billed White-eye and endemic subspecies of the Pacific Robin and Golden Whistler. BirdLife International (2003). BirdLife's online World Bird Database: the site for bird conservation. Version 2.0. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International. Available: (accessed 7/4/2009) The Norfolk Island Group is also home to breeding seabirds. The Providence Petrel was hunted to local extinction by the beginning of the 19th century, but has shown signs of returning to breed on Phillip Island. Other seabirds breeding there include the White-necked Petrel, Kermadec Petrel, Wedge-tailed Shearwater, Australasian Gannet, Red-tailed Tropicbird and Grey Ternlet. The Sooty Tern (known locally as the Whale Bird) has traditionally been subject to seasonal egg harvesting by Norfolk Islanders. Anon. (2000). Norfolk Island National Park and Norfolk Island Botanic Garden. Plans of Management. Environment Australia: Canberra. ISBN 0-642-54667-3 Norfolk Island has only one native mammal, Gould's Wattled Bat (Chalinolobus gouldii). It is very rare and may be extinct on the island. Politics Norfolk Island is the only non-mainland Australian territory to have achieved self-governance. The Norfolk Island Act, passed by the Parliament of Australia in 1979, is the Act under which the island is governed. The Australian Government maintains authority on the island through an Administrator (currently Owen Walsh), who is appointed by the Governor-General of Australia. A Legislative Assembly is elected by popular vote for a term of not more than three years, although legislation passed by the Australian Parliament can extend its laws to the territory at will, including the power to override any laws made by the Norfolk Island Legislative Assembly. The Assembly consists of nine seats, with electors casting nine equal votes, of which no more than two can be given to any individual candidate. It is a method of voting called a "weighted first past the post system". Four of the members of the Assembly form the Executive Council, which devises policy and acts as an advisory body to the Administrator. The current Chief Minister of Norfolk Island is Andre Nobbs. All seats are held by independent candidates. Norfolk Island has yet to embrace party politics. In 2007 a branch of the Australian Labor Party was formed on Norfolk Island, with the aim of reforming the system of government. The island's official capital is Kingston; it is, however, more a centre of government than a sizeable settlement. The largest settlement is at Burnt Pine. The most important local holiday is Bounty Day, celebrated on 8 June, in memory of the arrival of the Pitcairn Islanders in 1856. Local ordinances and acts apply on the island, where most laws are based on the Australian legal system. Australian common law applies when not covered by either Australian or Norfolk Island law. Suffrage is universal at age eighteen. As a territory of Australia, Norfolk Island does not have diplomatic representation abroad, or within the territory, and is also not a participant in any international organisations, other than sporting organisations. The flag is three vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and green with a large green Norfolk Island pine tree centered in the slightly wider white band. Constitutional status The exact status of Norfolk Island is controversial. Despite the island's status as a self-governing territory of Australia administered by the Attorney-General's Department, some Islanders claim that it was actually granted independence at the time Queen Victoria granted permission to Pitcairn Islanders to re-settle on the island. These views have been repeatedly rejected by the Australian parliament's joint committee on territories, most recently in 2004, and were also rejected by the High Court of Australia in Berwick Limited v R R Gray Deputy Commissioner of Taxation. Berwick Limited v R R Gray Deputy Commissioner of Taxation Disagreements over the island's relationship with Australia were put in sharper relief by a 2006 review undertaken by the Australian Government. Under the more radical of two models proposed in the review, the island's legislative assembly would have been reduced to the status of a local council. However, in December 2006, citing the "significant disruption" that changes to the governance would impose on the island's economy, the Australian Government ended the review leaving the existing governance arrangements unaltered. Immigration and citizenship The island is subject to separate immigration controls from the remainder of the nation. Australian citizens and residents from other parts of the nation do not have automatic right of residence on the island. Australian citizens must carry either a passport or a Document of Identity to travel to Norfolk Island. Citizens of all other nations must carry a passport to travel to Norfolk Island even if arriving from other parts of Australia. Holders of Australian visas who travel to Norfolk Island have departed the Australian Migration Zone. Unless they hold a multiple-entry visa, the visa will have ceased; in which case they will require another visa to re-enter mainland Australia. Residency on Norfolk Island requires sponsorship by an existing resident of Norfolk Island or a business operating on the island. Temporary residency may also be granted to skilled workers necessary for the island's services (for example, medical, government and teaching staff). Non-Australian citizens who are permanent residents of Norfolk Island may apply for Australian citizenship after meeting normal residence requirements and are eligible to take up residence in mainland Australia at any time through the use of a Permanent Resident of Norfolk Island visa. Children born on Norfolk Island are Australian citizens as specified by Australian nationality law. Non-Australian citizens who are Australian permanent residents should be aware that during their stay on Norfolk Island they are "outside of Australia" for the purposes of the Migration Act. This means that not only will they need a still-valid migrant visa or Resident return visa to return from Norfolk Island to the mainland, but also the time spent in Norfolk Island will not be counted for satisfying the residence requirement for obtaining a Resident return visa in the future. On the other hand, as far as Australian nationality law is concerned, Norfolk Island is a part of Australia, and any time spent by an Australian permanent resident on Norfolk Island apparently would count as time spent in Australia for the purposes of applying for Australian citizenship. Medicare Medicare does not cover Norfolk Island. All visitors to Norfolk Island, including Australians, are recommended to purchase travel insurance. Serious medical conditions are not treated on the island; rather, the patient is flown back to mainland Australia. Air charter transport can cost in the order of $25,000. Crime Though usually peaceful, Norfolk Island has been the site of two murders in the 21st century. In 2002, Janelle Patton, an Australian living on the island, was murdered. It was the first murder on the island since 1893 Norfolk - Island of Secrets. Tim Latham, pp51-55. . Two years later, the Deputy Chief Minister of the island, Ivens Buffett, was found shot dead, becoming the first Australian minister to be murdered in office. Crime incidence is generally low on the island, although recent reports indicate that petty theft and dangerous driving are becoming more prevalent. The Patton murder prompted considerable debate, with some residents arguing that traditional loyalties would prevent a local being charged. In February 2006, however, 28-year-old New Zealand chef Glenn McNeill was arrested and charged with Patton's murder. McNeill had been working on Norfolk at the time, and claimed at hearings in Australia and on Norfolk Island that he accidentally hit Patton with his car, a statement he later retracted. His trial ended on 9 March 2007, when the 11-person jury returned a guilty verdict. On 25 July 2007, McNeill was sentenced to a maximum 24 years in jail. Norfolk Island's Chief Justice Mark Weinberg, in a sentence handed down in a Sydney courthouse and broadcast live to Norfolk Island's court, said McNeill may be eligible for release after a minimum 18 years in prison. McNeill will serve his sentence in Australia. Economy Tourism, the primary economic activity, has steadily increased over the years. As Norfolk Island prohibits the importation of fresh fruit and vegetables, most produce is grown locally. Beef is both produced locally and imported. The Australian Government controls the exclusive economic zone extending around Norfolk Island (370 km) and territorial sea claims to three nautical miles (6 km) from the island. The exclusive economic zone provides the islanders with fish, its only major natural resource. Norfolk Island has no direct control over any marine areas but has an agreement with the Commonwealth through the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) to fish "recreationally" in a small section of the EEZ known locally as "the Box". While there is speculation that the zone may include oil and gas deposits this is not proven. There are no major arable lands or permanent farmlands, though about 25 per cent of the island is a permanent pasture. There is no irrigated land. The island uses the Australian dollar as its currency. Taxes Residents of Norfolk Island do not pay Australian federal taxes, creating a tax haven for locals and visitors alike. Because there is no income tax, the island's legislative assembly raises money through an import duty. Demographics The population of Norfolk Island was estimated in July 2003 to be 1,853, with an annual population growth rate of -0.01%. In July 2003, 20.2% of the population were 14 years and under, 63.9% were 15 to 64 years and 15.9% were 65 years and over. Most Islanders are of either European-only or combined European-Tahitian ancestry, being descendants of the Bounty mutineers as well as more recent arrivals from Australia and New Zealand. About half of the islanders can trace their roots back to Pitcairn Island. This common heritage has led to a limited number of surnames amongst the Islanders — a limit constraining enough that the island's telephone directory lists people by nickname (such as Cane Toad, Dar Bizziebee, Kik Kik, Lettuce Leaf, Mutty, Oot, Paw Paw, Snoop, Tarzan, and Wiggy). The majority of Islanders are Protestant Christians. In 1996, 37.4% identified as Anglican, 14.5% as Uniting Church, 11.5% as Roman Catholic and 3.1% as Seventh-day Adventist. Literacy is not recorded officially, but it can be assumed to be roughly at a par with Australia's literacy rate, as Islanders attend a school which uses a New South Wales curriculum, before traditionally moving to the mainland for further study. Islanders speak both English and a creole language known as Norfuk, a blend of 1700s English and Tahitian. The Norfuk language is decreasing in popularity as more tourists travel to the island and more young people leave for work and study reasons; however, there are efforts to keep it alive via dictionaries and the renaming of some tourist attractions to their Norfuk equivalents. In April 2005, it was declared a co-official language of the island. Emigration is growing as many Islanders take advantage of the close ties between Norfolk and Australia and New Zealand. The sole school on the island provides education to Australian Year 12; therefore, any student seeking to complete tertiary study must travel overseas. Additionally, the small economy of the island causes many skilled workers to emigrate as well. Transport and communications There are no railways, waterways, ports or harbours on the island. Loading jetties are located at Kingston and Cascade, but ships cannot get close to either of them. When a supply ship arrives, it is emptied by whaleboats towed by launches, five tonnes at a time. Which jetty is used depends on the prevailing weather on the day. The jetty on the leeward side of the island is often used. If the wind changes significantly during unloading/loading, the ship will move around to the other side. Visitors often gather to watch the activity when a supply ship arrives. There is one airport, Norfolk Island Airport. There are of roads on the island, "little more than country lanes", but local law gives cows the right of way. As of 2004, 2532 telephone main lines are in use, a mix of analog (2500) and digital (32) circuits. Satellite service is planned. There is one TV station featuring local programming Norfolk TV, plus transmitters for ABC TV and Southern Cross Television. The Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) is .nf. Culture While there was no "indigenous" culture on the Island at the time of settlement, the Tahitian influence of the Pitcairn settlers has resulted in some aspects of Polynesian culture being adapted to that of Norfolk, including the hula dance. Local cuisine also shows influences from the same region. Islanders traditionally spend a lot of time outdoors, with fishing and other aquatic pursuits being common pastimes, an aspect which has become more noticeable as the island becomes more accessible to tourism. Most island families have at least one member involved in primary production in some form. As all the Pitcairn settlers were related to each other, Islanders have historically been informal both to each other and to visitors. The most noticeable aspect of this is the "Norfolk Wave", with drivers waving to each other (ranging from a wave using the entire arm through to a raised index finger from the steering wheel) as they pass. Religious observance remains an important part of life for most Islanders, particularly the older generations. Businesses tend to be closed on Mondays, for example. One of the island's residents is the novelist Colleen McCullough, whose works include The Thorn Birds and the Masters of Rome series as well as Morgan's Run, set, in large part, on Norfolk Island. Helen Reddy also moved to the island for a period but was denied a long term entry permit. See also List of islands of Australia List of volcanoes in Australia References Anderson, Atholl J., The Prehistoric Archaeology of Norfolk Island, Southwest Pacific, Canberra, Australian National Museum, 2001. Andrew Kippis, The Life and Voyages of Captain James Cook, Westminster 1788, Reprint London and New York 1904, pp. 246 ff History of penal settlements: Clark, Manning, A History of Australia, Vols. I–III, Melbourne, Melbourne University Press, 1962, 1968, 1973. Clarke, Marcus, For the Term of his Natural Life (novel) Hazzard, Margaret, Punishment Short of Death: a history of the penal settlement at Norfolk Island, Melbourne, Hyland, 1984. (ISBN 0-908090-64-1) Hughes, Robert, The Fatal Shore, London, Pan, 1988. (ISBN 0-330-29892-5) Wright, R., The Forgotten Generation of Norfolk Island and Van Diemen's Land, Sydney, Library of Australian History, 1986. Notes External links Government Official government website Australian Department of Transport and Regional Services General information Travel The Guides to Norfolk Island Other Quis custodiet ipsos custodes?: Inquiry into Governance on Norfolk Island Inquiry into Governance on Norfolk Island: Part 2 - Financial Sustainability of Current Governance Arrangements Norfolk Island and Its Inhabitants 1879 account by Joseph Campbell Norfolk Island subtropical forests, from the WWF Anglican history on Norfolk Island Primary texts and photographs Panoramic view of Norfolk Island with Nepean and Phillip Island in the distance. be-x-old:Выспа Норфалк | Norfolk_Island |@lemmatized norfolk:128 island:216 norfuk:5 ailen:1 small:12 pacific:10 ocean:4 locate:10 australia:30 new:50 zealand:24 caledonia:2 two:12 neighbour:1 form:7 one:16 external:3 territory:11 pine:8 symbol:1 picture:1 flag:3 evergreen:1 tree:10 native:9 quite:2 popular:3 related:1 specie:5 also:25 grow:11 history:10 early:4 first:17 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2,428 | Cirth | This chart showing the runes shared by the Angerthas Daeron and Angerthas Moria is presented in Appendix E of The Return of the King. Some of the cirth had different values for the Elvish and Dwarvish languages and some were used in only one system or the other. The Cirth ("Runes") are the letters of an artificial script which was invented by J. R. R. Tolkien for the constructed languages he devised and used in his works. The initial C in Cirth is pronounced as a K, never as an S. The runic alphabet used by the Dwarves of Middle-earth was adapted by J.R.R. Tolkien from real-life runes. In The Hobbit, the Anglo-Saxon futhorc was used in the publication with few changes; in The Lord of the Rings a new system of runes, the Cirth, was devised. Since the Cirth is an alphabet, one rune generally stands for one sound (phoneme) and sounds that would be written with a digraph in English (such as "sh" and "th") are written with one rune. Words are separated by a dot rather than a space, and double consonants are grouped together into one rune, the same as if it were a single consonant. Presumably this alphabet was meant to be used in conjunction with a Dwarf language, but mostly it is used for transliterations. In the fictional history of Middle-earth, the original Certhas Daeron was created by the elf Daeron, the minstrel of king Thingol of Doriath and was later expanded into what was known as the Angerthas Daeron. Although the Cirth were later largely replaced by the Tengwar (which were enhanced and brought by Fëanor), they were adopted by Dwarves to write down their Khuzdûl language (Angerthas Moria and Angerthas Erebor) because their straight lines were better suited to carving than the curved strokes of the Tengwar. Some examples of Cirth writings are the inscription on Balin's tomb in Moria and the inscriptions on the top of the title pages for The Lord of the Rings. Cirth was also adapted, in its older and simpler form, by various kinds of Men and even Orcs. For example, it was used by the Men of Dale and the Rohirrim and the Orcs of Moria. Cirth is plural and is written with a capital C when referring to the writing system—the runes themselves can be called cirth. A single rune is a certh. Many letters have shapes also found in the historical Futhark runes (used in The Hobbit), but their sound values are only similar in a few of the vowels. Rather, the system of assignment of sound values is much more systematic in the Cirth than in the historical runes (e.g., voiced variants of a voiceless sound are expressed by an additional stroke). A similar system has been proposed for a few historical runes (e.g. p ᛈ and w ᚹ as variants of b ᛒ), but is in any case much more obscure. There are a few coincidental identities between cirth and runic letters, i with runic ᛁ, k with Younger Futhark ᚴ and ch with Anglo-Saxon ᚳ; p is furthermore reminiscent of Latin P (runic ᚹ w). Cirth is written according to a certain mode specifically adapted for a language, and the values of individual certh may vary greatly according to the mode used. Three modes for Cirth are described in detail in Appendix E of The Lord of the Rings, and others are known to exist or have been developed by enthusiasts. The Cirth are not yet part of the Unicode Standard. However the ConScript Unicode Registry has defined the to U+E0FF range of the Unicode "Private Use Area" for Cirth. The Angerthas Daeron consists of 60 letters: nr. Unicode character value corresponding runic glyph 1. p ᚹ w 2. b ᚱ r 3. f mirror rune of ᚹ w 4. v mirror rune of ᚱ r 5. h "lantern rune" (i͡ŋ bind rune) 6. m ᛒ b 7. (mh) mb mirror rune of ᛒ b 8. t ᛚ l 9. d ᚨ a 10. th mirror rune of ᛚ l 11. dh mirror rune of ᚨ a 12. n-r ᛏ t 13. ch Anglo-Saxon ᚳ c 14. j 15. sh mirror rune of Anglo-Saxon ᚳ c 16. zh 17. nj-z Younger Futhark ᛦ R 18. k Younger Futhark ᚴ k 19. g ᚠ f 20. kh mirror rune of Younger Futhark ᚴ k 21. gh mirror rune of ᚠ f 22. ŋ-n ᛉ z 23. kw like Old Italic 𐌍 n 24. gw Anglo-Saxon ᚩ o 25. khw mirror image of Old Italic 𐌍 n 26. ghw, w mirror rune of Anglo-Saxon ᚩ o 27. ngw Anglo-Saxon ᛠ ear 28. nw ᛈ p 29. r-j ᛕ like Italic 𐌊 (K) 30. rh-zh mirror image of ᛕ / 𐌊 31. l Younger Futhark ᛅ a 32. lh ᚾ n 33. ng-nd g͡i bind rune 34. s-h mirror rune of ᚲ k (>) 35. s-' ᚲ k (<) 36. z-ŋ ᚷ g (X) 37. ng* Anglo-Saxon ᚸ gar (ŋ͡g bindrune) 38. nd ᛞ d, ᛗ m 39. i (y) ᛁ i 40. y* Anglo-Saxon / Younger Futhark ᛋ s 41. hy* mirror rune of ᛋ s 42. u ᛟ o 43. û ᛝ variant of ŋ 44. w 45. ü 46. e single barred ᚺ h 47. ê double barred ᚻ h 48. a ᚢ u 49. â Anglo-Saxon ᚣ y 50. o (𐌡, Λ) 51. ô 52. ö 53. n̂ (𐌖 Y) 54. h-s 55. ps* short-twig ᚿ n 56. ts* short-twig ᛆ a 57. ᚦ 58. mirror rune of ᚦ 59. +h 60. & mirror rune of ᛇ ï Where two values are given connected with a hyphen, the first is that of the older Angerthas, the second that of the dwarvish Angerthas Moria. Letters with asterisk are dwarvish only, values in brackets elvish only. See also Tengwar Sarati Languages of Middle-earth External links Article on Tolkien's Cirthic runes Cirth.de - Explore the appearances of runes in Tolkien's work (in German) Dan Smith's Cirth article Information and font to download History of Elven writing systems Official proposal to encode Cirth in Unicode Cirth proposal for ConScript Unicode Registry Generator for Cirth Runes and Tengwar | Cirth |@lemmatized chart:1 show:1 rune:31 share:1 angerthas:8 daeron:5 moria:5 present:1 appendix:2 e:5 return:1 king:2 cirth:21 different:1 value:7 elvish:2 dwarvish:3 language:6 use:10 one:5 system:6 letter:5 artificial:1 script:1 invent:1 j:4 r:9 tolkien:4 constructed:1 devise:2 work:2 initial:1 c:4 pronounce:1 k:8 never:1 runic:5 alphabet:3 dwarf:3 middle:3 earth:3 adapt:3 real:1 life:1 hobbit:2 anglo:10 saxon:10 futhorc:1 publication:1 change:1 lord:3 ring:3 new:1 since:1 generally:1 stand:1 sound:5 phoneme:1 would:1 write:6 digraph:1 english:1 sh:2 th:2 word:1 separate:1 dot:1 rather:2 space:1 double:2 consonant:2 group:1 together:1 single:3 presumably:1 mean:1 conjunction:1 mostly:1 transliteration:1 fictional:1 history:2 original:1 certhas:1 create:1 elf:1 minstrel:1 thingol:1 doriath:1 later:2 expand:1 know:2 although:1 largely:1 replace:1 tengwar:4 enhance:1 bring:1 fëanor:1 adopt:1 khuzdûl:1 erebor:1 straight:1 line:1 well:1 suit:1 carve:1 curved:1 stroke:2 example:2 writing:2 inscription:2 balin:1 tomb:1 top:1 title:1 page:1 also:3 old:4 simpler:1 form:1 various:1 kind:1 men:2 even:1 orcs:2 dale:1 rohirrim:1 plural:1 capital:1 refer:1 call:1 certh:2 many:1 shape:1 find:1 historical:3 futhark:7 similar:2 vowel:1 assignment:1 much:2 systematic:1 g:6 voice:1 variant:3 voiceless:1 express:1 additional:1 propose:1 p:5 ᛈ:2 w:6 ᚹ:4 b:4 ᛒ:3 case:1 obscure:1 coincidental:1 identity:1 ᛁ:2 young:6 ᚴ:3 ch:2 ᚳ:3 furthermore:1 reminiscent:1 latin:1 accord:2 certain:1 mode:3 specifically:1 individual:1 may:1 vary:1 greatly:1 three:1 describe:1 detail:1 others:1 exist:1 develop:1 enthusiast:1 yet:1 part:1 unicode:6 standard:1 however:1 conscript:2 registry:2 define:1 u:3 range:1 private:1 area:1 consist:1 nr:1 character:1 correspond:1 glyph:1 ᚱ:2 f:3 mirror:15 v:1 h:6 lantern:1 ŋ:5 bind:2 mh:1 mb:1 ᛚ:2 l:3 ᚨ:2 dh:1 n:7 ᛏ:1 zh:2 nj:1 z:3 ᛦ:1 ᚠ:2 kh:1 gh:1 ᛉ:1 kw:1 like:2 italic:3 𐌍:2 gw:1 ᚩ:2 khw:1 image:2 ghw:1 ngw:1 ᛠ:1 ear:1 nw:1 ᛕ:2 𐌊:2 rh:1 ᛅ:1 lh:1 ᚾ:1 ng:2 nd:2 ᚲ:2 ᚷ:1 x:1 ᚸ:1 gar:1 bindrune:1 ᛞ:1 ᛗ:1 ᛋ:2 hy:1 ᛟ:1 û:1 ᛝ:1 ü:1 bar:2 ᚺ:1 ê:1 ᚻ:1 ᚢ:1 â:1 ᚣ:1 λ:1 ô:1 ö:1 𐌖:1 ps:1 short:2 twig:2 ᚿ:1 ts:1 ᛆ:1 ᚦ:2 ᛇ:1 ï:1 two:1 give:1 connect:1 hyphen:1 first:1 second:1 asterisk:1 bracket:1 see:1 sarati:1 external:1 link:1 article:2 cirthic:1 de:1 explore:1 appearance:1 german:1 dan:1 smith:1 information:1 font:1 download:1 elven:1 official:1 proposal:2 encode:1 generator:1 |@bigram runic_alphabet:1 anglo_saxon:10 young_futhark:6 mirror_rune:13 external_link:1 |
2,429 | Hello_world_program | A "Hello World" program is a computer program which prints out "Hello, world!" on a display device. It is used in many introductory tutorials for teaching a programming language. Such a program is typically one of the simplest programs possible in a computer language. Some are surprisingly complex, especially in some graphical user interface (GUI) contexts, but most are very simple, especially those which rely heavily on a particular command line interpreter ("shell") to perform the actual output. In an embedded system, the text may be sent to a liquid crystal display (LCD), or the message may be substituted by some other appropriate signal, such as a LED being turned on. A GUI "Hello World" program, written in Perl Purpose A "hello world" program has become the traditional first program that many people learn. In general, it is simple enough that people who have no previous experience with computer programming can easily understand it, especially with the guidance of a teacher or a written guide. Using this simple program as a basis, computer science principles or elements of a specific programming language can be explained to novice programmers. Experienced programmers learning new languages can also gain a lot of information about a given language's syntax and structure from a hello world program. In addition, hello world can be a useful sanity test to make sure that a language's compiler, development environment, and run-time environment are correctly installed. Configuring a complete programming toolchain from scratch to the point where even trivial programs can be compiled and run can involve substantial amounts of work. For this reason, a simple program is used first when testing a new tool chain. "Hello world" is also used by computer hackers as a proof of concept that arbitrary code can be executed through an exploit where code should not be allowed to be executed, for example, on Sony's Playstation Portable. This is the first step into making home-made content ("homebrew") usable on such a device. History While small test programs existed since the development of programmable computers, the tradition of using the phrase "Hello world!" as a test message was influenced by an example program in the seminal book The C Programming Language. The example program from that book prints "hello, world" (without capital letters or exclamation mark), and was inherited from a 1974 Bell Laboratories internal memorandum by Brian Kernighan, Programming in C: A Tutorial, which contains the first known version: main() { printf("hello, world"); } The first known instance of the usage of the words "hello" and "world" together in computer literature occurred earlier, in Kernighan's 1972 Tutorial Introduction to the Language B , with the following code: main( ) { extrn a, b, c; putchar(a); putchar(b); putchar(c); putchar('!*n'); } a 'hell'; b 'o, w'; c 'orld'; Variations Hackers execute unsigned HelloWorld code on Sony's PlayStation Portable homebrew. A light-programmable biofilm displaying the Hello World message CNC machining test in Perspex There are many variations on the punctuation and casing of the phrase. Variations include the presence or absence of the comma and exclamation mark, and the capitalization of the 'H', both the 'H' and the 'W', or neither. Some languages are forced to implement different forms, such as "HELLO WORLD!", on systems that only support capital letters, while many "hello world" programs in esoteric languages print out a slightly modified string. For example, the first non-trivial Malbolge program printed "HEllO WORld", this having been determined to be good enough. There are variations in spirit, as well. Functional programming languages, like ML and Haskell, tend to substitute a factorial program for Hello World, as the former emphasizes recursive techniques, which are a big part of functional programming, while the latter emphasizes I/O, which violates the spirit of pure functional programming by producing side effects. The Debian and Ubuntu Linux distributions provide the "hello world" program through the apt packaging system; this allows users to simply type "apt-get install hello" for the program to be installed, along with any software dependencies. While of itself useless, it serves as a sanity check and a simple example to newcomers of how to install a package. It is significantly more useful for developers, however, as it provides an example of how to create a .deb package, either traditionally or using debhelper, and the version of hello used, GNU hello, serves as an example of how to write a GNU program. See also Trabb Pardo-Knuth algorithm Just another Perl hacker List of basic computer science topics At Wikibooks: Computer programming/Hello world List of hello world programs Fibonacci number program References External links Programming in C: A Tutorial by Brian Kernighan — internal Bell Labs memo, containing the above C program "Hello World" project The Hello World Collection with 400+ programs, including "Hello World" in 60+ human languages The "Hello World" curve "HelloWorld online on Web, and steps beyond HelloWorld" MSDN – "Hello Data" example database | Hello_world_program |@lemmatized hello:27 world:23 program:28 computer:9 print:4 display:3 device:2 use:7 many:4 introductory:1 tutorial:4 teach:1 programming:7 language:11 typically:1 one:1 simple:6 possible:1 surprisingly:1 complex:1 especially:3 graphical:1 user:2 interface:1 gui:2 context:1 rely:1 heavily:1 particular:1 command:1 line:1 interpreter:1 shell:1 perform:1 actual:1 output:1 embedded:1 system:3 text:1 may:2 send:1 liquid:1 crystal:1 lcd:1 message:3 substitute:2 appropriate:1 signal:1 led:1 turn:1 write:3 perl:2 purpose:1 become:1 traditional:1 first:6 people:2 learn:2 general:1 enough:2 previous:1 experience:1 easily:1 understand:1 guidance:1 teacher:1 guide:1 basis:1 science:2 principle:1 element:1 specific:1 explain:1 novice:1 programmer:2 experienced:1 new:2 also:3 gain:1 lot:1 information:1 give:1 syntax:1 structure:1 addition:1 useful:2 sanity:2 test:5 make:3 sure:1 compiler:1 development:2 environment:2 run:2 time:1 correctly:1 instal:2 configure:1 complete:1 toolchain:1 scratch:1 point:1 even:1 trivial:2 compile:1 involve:1 substantial:1 amount:1 work:1 reason:1 tool:1 chain:1 hacker:3 proof:1 concept:1 arbitrary:1 code:4 execute:3 exploit:1 allow:2 example:8 sony:2 playstation:2 portable:2 step:2 home:1 content:1 homebrew:2 usable:1 history:1 small:1 exist:1 since:1 programmable:2 tradition:1 phrase:2 influence:1 seminal:1 book:2 c:7 without:1 capital:2 letter:2 exclamation:2 mark:2 inherit:1 bell:2 laboratory:1 internal:2 memorandum:1 brian:2 kernighan:3 contain:2 know:2 version:2 main:2 printf:1 instance:1 usage:1 word:1 together:1 literature:1 occur:1 early:1 introduction:1 b:4 following:1 extrn:1 putchar:4 n:1 hell:1 w:2 orld:1 variation:4 unsigned:1 helloworld:3 light:1 biofilm:1 cnc:1 machine:1 perspex:1 punctuation:1 casing:1 include:2 presence:1 absence:1 comma:1 capitalization:1 h:2 neither:1 force:1 implement:1 different:1 form:1 support:1 esoteric:1 slightly:1 modify:1 string:1 non:1 malbolge:1 determine:1 good:1 spirit:2 well:1 functional:3 like:1 ml:1 haskell:1 tend:1 factorial:1 former:1 emphasizes:2 recursive:1 technique:1 big:1 part:1 latter:1 violate:1 pure:1 produce:1 side:1 effect:1 debian:1 ubuntu:1 linux:1 distribution:1 provide:2 apt:2 packaging:1 simply:1 type:1 get:1 install:2 along:1 software:1 dependency:1 useless:1 serve:2 check:1 newcomer:1 package:2 significantly:1 developer:1 however:1 create:1 deb:1 either:1 traditionally:1 debhelper:1 gnu:2 see:1 trabb:1 pardo:1 knuth:1 algorithm:1 another:1 list:2 basic:1 topic:1 wikibooks:1 fibonacci:1 number:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 lab:1 memo:1 project:1 collection:1 human:1 languages:1 curve:1 online:1 web:1 beyond:1 msdn:1 data:1 database:1 |@bigram introductory_tutorial:1 graphical_user:1 user_interface:1 interface_gui:1 rely_heavily:1 sony_playstation:2 playstation_portable:2 exclamation_mark:2 brian_kernighan:2 external_link:1 bell_lab:1 |
2,430 | Economy_of_Mongolia | Economic activity in Mongolia has traditionally been based on agriculture and the breeding of livestock. Mongolia also has extensive mineral deposits: copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and gold account for a large part of industrial production. Soviet assistance, at its height one-third of GDP, disappeared almost overnight in 1990–91, at the time of the dismantlement of the USSR. Mongolia was driven into deep recession, which was prolonged by the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party's (MPRP) reluctance to undertake serious economic reform. The Democratic Union Coalition (DUC) government, 1996–2000, has embraced free-market economics, easing price controls, liberalizing domestic and international trade, and attempting to restructure the banking system and the energy sector. Major domestic privatization programs have been undertaken, as well as fostering of foreign investment through international tender of the oil distribution company, a leading cashmere wool company, and banks. Reform has been held back by the ex-communist MPRP opposition and by the political instability brought about through four successive governments under the DUC. Economic growth picked up in 1997–99 after stalling in 1996 due to a series of natural disasters and declines in world prices of copper and cashmere. Public revenues and exports collapsed in 1998 and 1999 due to the repercussions of the Asian financial crisis. In August and September 1999, the economy suffered from a temporary Russian ban on exports of oil and oil products. Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1997. The international donor community pledged over $300 million per year at the last Consultative Group Meeting, held in Ulaanbaatar in June 1999. Communist era The rapid political changes of 1990–91 marked the beginning of Mongolia's efforts to develop a market economy, but these efforts have been complicated and disrupted by the dissolution and continuing deterioration of the economy of the former Soviet Union. Prior to 1991, 80% of Mongolia's trade was with the former Soviet Union, and 15% was with other Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) countries. Mongolia was heavily dependent upon the former Soviet Union for fuel, medicine, and spare parts for its factories and power plants. The former U.S.S.R. also served as the primary market for Mongolian industry. In the 1980s, Mongolia's industrial sector became increasingly important. By 1989, it accounted for an estimated 34% of material products, compared to 18% from agriculture. However, minerals, animals, and animal-derived products still constitute a large proportion of the country's exports. Principal imports included machinery, petroleum, cloth, and building materials. In the late 1980s, the government began to improve links with non communist Asia and the West, and a tourism sector developed. As of January 1, 1991, Mongolia and the former Soviet Union agreed to conduct bilateral trade in hard currency at world prices. Despite its external trade difficulties, Mongolia has continued to press ahead with reform. Privatization of small shops and enterprises has largely been completed in the 1990s, and most prices have been freed. Privatization of large state enterprises has begun. Tax reforms also have begun, and the barter and official exchange rates were unified in early 1992. Transition to a market economy Between 1990 and 1993, Mongolia suffered triple-digit inflation, rising unemployment, shortages of basic goods, and food rationing. During that period, economic output contracted by one-third. As market reforms and private enterprise took hold, economic growth began again in 1994–95. Unfortunately, since this growth was fueled in part by over-allocation of bank credit, especially to the remaining state-owned enterprises, economic growth was accompanied by a severe weakening of the banking sector. GDP grew by about 6% in 1995, thanks largely to a boom in copper prices. Average real economic growth leveled off to about 3.5% in 1996–99 due to the Asian financial crisis, the collapse of the Russian ruble in mid-1998, and worsening commodity prices, especially copper and gold. Mongolia's GDP growth fell from 3.2% in 1999 to 1.3% in 2000. The disappointing results can be attributed to the loss of 2.4 million livestock in bad weather and natural disasters in 2000. Prospects for development outside the traditional reliance on nomadic, livestock-based agriculture are constrained by Mongolia's landlocked location and lack of basic infrastructure. Mongolia's best hope for accelerated growth is to attract more foreign investment. Since 1990, more than 1,500 foreign companies from 61 countries have invested a total of $338.3 million in Mongolia. Many believe this number could be dramatically increased if the vague 1993 foreign investment law were rewritten to provide investors with more confidence that their investments would be adequately protected. Environment As a result of rapid urbanization and industrial growth policies under the communist regime, Mongolia's deteriorating environment has become a major concern. The burning of soft coal coupled with thousands of factories in Ulaanbaatar and a sharp increase in individual motorization has resulted in severely polluted air. Deforestation, overgrazed pastures, and, less recently, efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land have increased soil erosion from wind and rain. Other statistics Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 2.1% highest 10%: 37% (1995) Distribution of family income - Gini index: 44 (1998) Agriculture - products: wheat, barley, vegetables, forage crops, sheep, goats, cattle, camels, horses Industries: construction and construction materials; mining (coal, copper, molybdenum, fluorspar, and gold); food and beverages; processing of animal products, cashmere and natural fiber manufacturing Industrial production growth rate: 3% (2006 est.) Electricity: production: 3.43 TWh (2006 est.) consumption: 2.94 TWh (2006 est.) exports: 15.95 GWh (2006 est.) imports: 125 GWh (2006 est.) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% other: 0% (2001) nuclear: 0% Oil: production: 822 barrel/day (2006 est.) consumption: 11,220 barrel/day (2006 est.) exports: 822 barrel/day (2006 est.) imports: 12,280 barrel/day (2006 est.) Exports - commodities: copper, apparel, livestock, animal products, cashmere, wool, hides, fluorspar, other nonferrous metals Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, fuel, cars, food products, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building materials, sugar, tea Exchange rates: tögrögs/tugriks per US dollar: 1,179.6 (2006), 1,205 (2005), 1,187.17 (2004), 1,171 (2003), 1,110.31 (2002), 1,097.7 (2001), 1,076.67 (2000) Credit rating: BB (2007) See also Economy of Asia Mongolian Stock Exchange External links CIA - The World Factbook -- Mongolia | Economy_of_Mongolia |@lemmatized economic:8 activity:1 mongolia:17 traditionally:1 base:2 agriculture:4 breeding:1 livestock:4 also:4 extensive:1 mineral:2 deposit:1 copper:6 coal:3 molybdenum:2 tin:1 tungsten:1 gold:3 account:2 large:3 part:3 industrial:5 production:6 soviet:5 assistance:2 height:1 one:2 third:2 gdp:3 disappear:1 almost:1 overnight:1 time:1 dismantlement:1 ussr:1 drive:1 deep:1 recession:1 prolong:1 mongolian:3 people:1 revolutionary:1 party:1 mprp:2 reluctance:1 undertake:1 serious:1 reform:5 democratic:1 union:5 coalition:1 duc:2 government:3 embrace:1 free:2 market:5 economics:1 ease:1 price:6 control:1 liberalize:1 domestic:2 international:3 trade:5 attempt:1 restructure:1 banking:2 system:1 energy:1 sector:4 major:2 privatization:3 program:1 undertaken:1 well:1 fostering:1 foreign:4 investment:4 tender:1 oil:4 distribution:2 company:3 lead:1 cashmere:4 wool:2 bank:2 hold:3 back:1 ex:1 communist:4 opposition:1 political:2 instability:1 bring:1 four:1 successive:1 growth:9 pick:1 stall:1 due:3 series:1 natural:3 disaster:2 decline:1 world:4 public:1 revenue:1 export:6 collapse:2 repercussion:1 asian:2 financial:2 crisis:2 august:1 september:1 economy:5 suffer:2 temporary:1 russian:2 ban:1 product:7 join:1 organization:1 wto:1 donor:1 community:1 pledge:1 million:3 per:2 year:1 last:1 consultative:1 group:1 meeting:1 ulaanbaatar:2 june:1 era:1 rapid:2 change:1 mark:1 beginning:1 effort:3 develop:2 complicate:1 disrupt:1 dissolution:1 continue:2 deterioration:1 former:5 prior:1 council:1 mutual:1 cmea:1 country:3 heavily:1 dependent:1 upon:1 fuel:4 medicine:1 spare:1 factory:2 power:1 plant:1 u:2 r:1 serve:1 primary:1 industry:2 become:2 increasingly:1 important:1 estimated:1 material:4 compare:1 however:1 animal:4 derive:1 still:1 constitute:1 proportion:1 principal:1 import:4 include:1 machinery:2 petroleum:1 cloth:1 building:2 late:1 begin:4 improve:1 link:2 non:1 asia:2 west:1 tourism:1 january:1 agree:1 conduct:1 bilateral:1 hard:1 currency:1 despite:1 external:2 difficulty:1 press:1 ahead:1 small:1 shop:1 enterprise:4 largely:2 complete:1 state:2 tax:1 barter:1 official:1 exchange:3 rate:3 unify:1 early:1 transition:1 triple:1 digit:1 inflation:1 rise:1 unemployment:1 shortage:1 basic:2 good:2 food:3 rationing:1 period:1 output:1 contract:1 private:1 take:1 unfortunately:1 since:2 allocation:1 credit:2 especially:2 remain:1 owned:1 accompany:1 severe:1 weakening:1 grow:1 thanks:1 boom:1 average:1 real:1 level:1 ruble:1 mid:1 worsen:1 commodity:3 fell:1 disappointing:1 result:3 attribute:1 loss:1 bad:1 weather:1 prospect:1 development:1 outside:1 traditional:1 reliance:1 nomadic:1 constrain:1 landlocked:1 location:1 lack:1 infrastructure:1 best:1 hope:1 accelerated:1 attract:1 invest:1 total:1 many:1 believe:1 number:1 could:1 dramatically:1 increase:4 vague:1 law:1 rewrite:1 provide:1 investor:1 confidence:1 would:1 adequately:1 protect:1 environment:2 urbanization:1 policy:1 regime:1 deteriorate:1 concern:1 burning:1 soft:1 couple:1 thousand:1 sharp:1 individual:1 motorization:1 severely:1 polluted:1 air:1 deforestation:1 overgrazed:1 pasture:1 less:1 recently:1 grain:1 hay:1 plow:1 virgin:1 land:1 soil:1 erosion:1 wind:1 rain:1 statistic:1 household:1 income:2 consumption:3 percentage:1 share:1 low:1 high:1 family:1 gini:1 index:1 wheat:1 barley:1 vegetable:1 forage:1 crop:1 sheep:1 goat:1 cattle:1 camel:1 horse:1 construction:2 mining:1 fluorspar:2 beverage:1 processing:1 fiber:1 manufacturing:1 est:9 electricity:2 twh:2 gwh:2 source:1 fossil:1 hydro:1 nuclear:1 barrel:4 day:4 apparel:1 hide:1 nonferrous:1 metal:1 equipment:1 car:1 consumer:1 chemical:1 sugar:1 tea:1 tögrögs:1 tugriks:1 dollar:1 rating:1 bb:1 see:1 stock:1 cia:1 factbook:1 |@bigram soviet_union:4 owned_enterprise:1 russian_ruble:1 rapid_urbanization:1 soil_erosion:1 household_income:1 income_gini:1 gini_index:1 wheat_barley:1 sheep_goat:1 goat_cattle:1 production_twh:1 consumption_twh:1 export_gwh:1 import_gwh:1 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 export_commodity:1 nonferrous_metal:1 commodity_machinery:1 stock_exchange:1 external_link:1 |
2,431 | The_Fast_Show | The Fast Show, known as Brilliant in the US, was a BBC comedy sketch show programme that ran for three series from 1994 to 1997 with a special Last Fast Show Ever in 2000. The show's central performers were Paul Whitehouse, Charlie Higson, Simon Day, Mark Williams, John Thomson, Arabella Weir and Caroline Aherne. Other significant cast members included Paul Shearer, Felix Dexter, Rhys Thomas, Jeff Harding, Colin McFarlane and Donna Ewin. The show produced two national tours, the first in 1998 with the cast of the BBC spoof quiz show Shooting Stars and the second being their 'Farewell Tour' in 2002. The Fast Show was loosely structured and relied on character comedy, long-running gags, and many catchphrases, which influenced shows such as The Catherine Tate Show and Little Britain. It was one of the most popular sketch shows of the 1990s and had a long-lasting impact upon British popular culture. The show has been released on video, DVD and audio CD. Some of its characters, Ron Manager, Ted and Ralph, Swiss Toni and Billy Bleach have had their own spin-off programmes. Style and content The series was the brainchild of Paul Whitehouse and his writing partner and friend, Charlie Higson. They wanted to break away from Harry Enfield and Chums, a show which they had appeared in and written for. After viewing a quick press preview tape of Enfield's show, compiled by producer friend Geoffrey Perkins, the pair began to develop the idea of a rapid-fire 'MTV generation' format based wholly on quick cuts and soundbites/catchphrases. In this they were clearly indebted to Fast Forward, that had appeared five years earlier in Australia. After LWT passed on the early scripts, they returned to the BBC. The Fast Show was a working title disliked by both Whitehouse and Higson that went unchanged through production and eventually remained as the final title. The first series introduced the characters Ted and Ralph, 'Unlucky' Alf, Ron Manager, The Suit You Tailors, Arthur Atkinson, Bob Fleming and many others. Amongst the writers of the show were: the major cast (who appeared as the characters they had written) and contemporary comedy writers such as Graham Linehan and Arthur Mathews (best remembered for the sitcom Father Ted starring Dermot Morgan), Vic Reeves, Bob Mortimer and Craig Cash (of The Royle Family). Some of the characters in the show were often present but never had any 'official' name, their sketches being tightly written to give their catchphrase as the punchline of each sketch. Examples include "Does Anyone Fancy a Pint?" played by Whitehouse, "You Ain't Seen Me, Right!" and "I'll Get My Coat", played by Williams, and "Ha!" an elderly woman played by Weir. Other long-standing running jokes in the programme included: "Cheesy Peas" in various different forms, shapes and flavours, in satirical adverts presented by a twangy, Northern lad (Paul Whitehouse) who claims, "They're good for your teas!" The fascination with Jesus Christ was another popular group of sketches where various characters would end the sketch with the exclamation "He died for all our sins, didn't he?" or something similar, and most controversially, "We're from the Isle of Man", featuring a stereotype of weird, surreal, townfolk in a setting portrayed as an abjectly impoverished and desolate cultural wasteland. Some of the characters resembled parodies of well-known personalities: for example, Louis Balfour (of the Jazz Club) was reminiscent of Bob Harris of The Old Grey Whistle Test and Ron Manager of football pundit Trevor Brooking. However, the parodic intent of the character is broader, and portrays how often football pundits have little to say of any real substance, and will sometimes waffle. Paul Whitehouse said that Ron Manager was based on ex-Luton Town & Fulham manager Alec Stock . Arthur Atkinson is a parody of Arthur Askey, and Lord Ralph Mayhew is said to be based on film director John Boorman. The show ended in 2000, with a three-part "Last Ever" show, after three series and a Christmas special. The theme tune was "Release Me", a song which had been a hit for pop singer Engelbert Humperdinck. In the first series, it performed in the opening credits by Whitehouse in the guise of abnormally transfiguring singer Kenny Valentine. In subsequent series, the tune only appeared in the closing credits, played on saxophone. Major characters The show featured many characters. Many of the smaller and less significant are listed at Fast Show characters. Some of the more prominent are: 'Unlucky' Alf 'Unlucky' Alf, the lonely old pensioner for whom nothing ever goes right. His hook is his resigned "Oh bugger!" as something terrible happens. He often predicts a bad event that is quite obvious, only to find something else occurs as he tries to avoid the first problem. (Paul Whitehouse, all series) Anyone fancy a pint? A man (Whitehouse) who is featured in increasingly boring or bizarre situations, such as a dinner party where a woman is talking about how she was abandoned as a child and crying about everyone letting her down. Whitehouse then interrupts at the most insensitive moment asking "anyone fancy a pint?", before he and most of the men in the room leave. Archie the pub bore. Talks to people in the pub, and when they mention their profession, no matter what it is and however unlikely, he always claims to have had the same profession ("I used to be a single mother myself"), saying that it is the 'hardest game in the world. Thirty years, man and boy!' He has an obsession with Frank Sinatra, almost invariably steering the conversation towards the singer, before mentioning how he and his friend Stan fared on a recent fishing trip. (Whitehouse, series 3) Arthur Atkinson, parody of 1940s music hall entertainers such as Max Miller and Arthur Askey, played by Paul Whitehouse, introduced by Tommy Cockles (Simon Day), himself a parody of presenters of TV history, especially Denis Norden (Whitehouse, all series) Billy Bleach, tousle-mopped, interfering pub know-it-all who gets it all wrong, usually ending up with others losing money (This character starred in his own series, Grass which was shown on BBC Three, later shown on BBC Two.) (Day, all series) Bob Fleming, the ageing incompetent host of Country Matters, who has an extremely bad cough (Higson, all series) Brilliant Kid, a parody of British children's TV presenters who walks through a series of peculiar backgrounds describing various innocuous, everyday things as 'brilliant!' (Whitehouse, all series) Carl Hooper, Australian presenter of That's Amazing, a spoof of pop-science shows. Normally the person on his show was trying to pass-off an everyday animal or object as something magical. The one occasion where a guest had a truly amazing story to tell was unbroadcastable due to the guest's inability to refrain from swearing excitedly while relating the tale (Day, all series) Chanel 9 is a grainy television channel from the island dictatorship known as "Republicca", the idea being originally to parody the sort of programmes that British people end up watching on holiday around the Mediterranean. The stars, usually Paul Whitehouse, Paul Shearer and Caroline Aherne, speak a nonsensical language, which is mostly based on Greek, Spanish and Portuguese. The only programme was originally just the news, read by Poutremos Poutra-Poutros (Whitehouse) and Kolothos Apollonia (Shearer), which always concluded with the weather forecast by meteorologist Poula Fisch (played by Aherne). Sporting news was presented by Antonios Gubba (Simon Day), seated at a much lower desk and talking with a low voice. Different programs, such as a cartoon and a current affairs discussion, were added in later sketches. Chip Cobb, the deaf stuntman, a TV and film stuntman who, because of his hearing problems, always mishears his instructions and proceeds to carry them out wrongly before anyone can stop him, much to the despair of the film crew. (Thomson) Chris the Crafty Cockney, claims to be an incurable kleptomaniac ("I'll nick anything, me"). He is left alone with something valuable and invariably steals it. Because of how up-front he is of his thieving nature, other people tend to believe he's joking. (Whitehouse, series 2–3) Colin Hunt, unfunny and irritating office joker whose name gives an indication of his personality (Higson, series 2–3) Competitive Dad, who is overcritical and demanding of his kids, and always has to get one up on them. (Day, series 2–3) Dave Angel, Eco-Warrior, who is into saving the planet (his somewhat dubious methodology invariably undermined by his wife's behaviour), Mike Oldfield records, and swinging. A parody of a late-night magazine programme presented by Mike Reid. "Moonlight Shadow" by Mike Oldfield is used as the theme tune to sketches featuring the character (Day, series 3) Professor Denzil Dexter of the University of Southern California and his various bizarre scientific experiments, long-haired and highly laid-back (Thomson, series 1–2) The 13th Duke of Wybourne, posh, rumpled dinner-jacketed, lecherous cigar smoker, reminisces about finding himself in wholly unsuitable places considering his 'reputation' (Whitehouse, series 3) Ed Winchester, an American reporter. He beams at the camera and says "Hi! I'm Ed Winchester!" in a very upbeat voice, before the camera cuts to another scene. (Jeff Harding). Gideon Soames, white-haired, posh-talking architecture and history professor, possibly a cross between Simon Schama & Brian Sewell. (Day series 2-3) I'll Get Me Coat, a socially challenged Brummie, who is unable to maintain a conversation with appropriate answers, and therefore disgraces himself with a faux pas before using the punchline and leaving (Williams, all series) Insecure Woman, who appears in a variety of different locations, sometimes bizarrely exclaiming, "Does my bum look big in this?" (Weir, all series) Jesse a verbally challenged country bumpkin who exclaims his strange diets, fashion tastes and experiments, usually in the form of "This week, I 'ave been mostly..." (Williams, series 2–3) John Actor, who plays Inspector Monkfish, the tough uncompromising cop who often exclaims to the nearest woman, "Put your knickers on and get me a cup of tea!" (Day, series 2–3). Loosely based on the BBC series Dangerfield. There were variations on the show's format, two examples being Monkfish as a tough, uncompromising doctor in Monkfish M.D. and Monkfish as a tough, uncompromising vet in All Monkfish Great and Small. One Monkfish sketch even crossed over onto Chanel 9. Sometime between the end of series 3 and the last episode John Actor died. Johnny Nice Painter, who is painting a scene and describing all the colours. Whenever he mentions the colour 'black', however, he becomes more and more depressed eventually going somewhat insane and shouting wildly about the despair of mankind (Higson, series 3) Ken and Kenneth, the camp "Suit you!" tailors who bombard potential customers with sexually explicit innuendo about their private life, (Whitehouse and Williams, all series) Louis Balfour, pretentious and ultra laid-back presenter of Jazz Club (a parody of The Old Grey Whistle Test), based on a blend of Bob Harris and Roger Moore. Seemingly having done his 'research', he introduces his guests by comparing them to avant garde jazz musicians or describing their style/technique by using complex musical phraseology. These guests usually turn out to be utterly talentless 'experimentalists', much to his bemusement. (Thomson, series 2–3). No Offence, a rude, orange-faced South African department store cosmetics saleswoman who has no qualms about informing women of their physical imperfections, seemingly oblivious to the fact that she looks like a dried-out old orange herself. (Weir, series 3) "Our" Janine Carr, teenage mum with a unique world outlook. She refuses to reveal who the father of her baby is because "it's not fair to grass on your headmaster" (Aherne, series 1–2) The Offroaders, Simon and Lindsey, despite their unusually high confidence and esteem, are useless at their profession ("sorted!", "gripped!"). (Higson and Whitehouse, all series) Patrick Nice, a man who recounts various fantastical and special experiences (discovering the original copy of the Bible, finding out he is a direct descendant of Kubla Khan, etc.), followed by his catchphrase, "Which was nice." (Williams, series 2–3) Ron Manager, nonsense-talking football pundit. Doesn't actually know very much about football, based on Ex Luton Town Manager, Alex Stock. (Whitehouse, all series) Rowley Birkin QC, a retired barrister, tells mostly unintelligible stories at the fireside. Occasionally, his speech becomes coherent for a short while, containing strange phrases such as "The whole thing was made completely out of matchsticks" or "Snake! Snake!". Almost always ends his stories with a sly "I'm afraid I was very, very drunk!". In one notable appearance his rambling anecdote appeared to involve a woman for whom he had great affection and ended with a close-up of faint tears on his cheeks, while the usual 'very drunk' line was delivered in an unexpectedly moving, sorrowful voice. (Whitehouse, series 2–3). The character is reprised as a working barrister in the spin-off feature Ted and Ralph. Whitehouse revealed on the UK chatshow Parkinson that the idea for the character came from someone he met in Iceland. Roy & Renée, endless chattering from Renée and her verbally-challenged and submissive husband Roy, who is expected to meekly agree with everything she says. (Thompson and Aherne, series 1–2) Swiss Toni, a car salesman who compares everything to seducing and making love to a beautiful woman, usually in the presence of his bemused trainee. (Higson, series 3) Ted & Ralph - country squire Lord Ralph Mayhew attempts to strike-up an intimate relationship with his introverted Irish estate worker Ted, by way of subtle romantic/erotic subtexts in his conversations with him (Whitehouse and Higson, all series). This was also the title of a one-off, hour-long spin-off feature, reprising the characters, with cameos from a few other characters as well. In popular culture When the programme was shown on BBC America it was renamed 'Brilliant' to avoid confusion with an American programme of the same name. Arabella Weir later turned Insecure Woman into Jackie Payne, heroine of her novel Does My Bum Look Big In This? An American journalist called Ed Winchester was part of NBC's team at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. BBC reporter Jon Inverdale got him to say 'Hi, I'm Ed Winchester' during rowing coverage on 11 August. Filming locations Unusually for a sketch show, a significant proportion of The Fast Show was shot externally. During the early series much of this filming was done around the Tees Valley & Yorkshire Dales in the North East of England. Locations include: Darlington - 'The Running Family' were shown around various locations in the town centre, including The Cornmill Centre. Darlington was the childhood home of Jim Moir (Vic Reeves) whose longterm comedy partner Bob Mortimer was one of the writers. Durham - The market place with scenes involving Brilliant Kid Richmond - The market place in Ted & Ralph's trip to the shops Langley Park - Railway Street is used in Unlucky Alf scenes Keld, North Yorkshire - The campsite used in a Dave Angel scene Aske Hall - Background in early Ted & Ralph scenes Scotch Corner - Garage used in Swiss Toni's early scenes Hartlepool - One Unlucky Alf scene saw him sat in the empty Rink End Stand of Hartlepool United's ground, Victoria Park. Also, one Ed Winchester scene is in front of the Mill House Stand. Some of the Brilliant Kid scenes were also fimed at nearby Seal Sands Middlesbrough - docks used in 'hard of hearing stuntman' scenes, scene on Transporter Bridge as well as the Riverside Stadium Newcastle upon Tyne - including the 'Shore Leave' sketch, the scene where Chris the Crafty Cockney steals the woman's suitcases (shot in Newcastle Central station), and some of the Sir Geoffrey Norman MP sketches, such as the one where he is pulled over by a policeman for speeding and the one where he refuses to pay the taxi driver after getting out of the car (shot outside the main entrance to Newcastle Central station) Ashington, Northumberland - at least one scene involving Unlucky Alf was filmed on Station Road, Ashington. The Spanish City, Whitley Bay, Tyne and Wear - a number of scenes involving Brilliant Kid Also for the third series the production extended abroad: Iceland - Scenes with Brilliant Kid and Billy Bleach were shot with volcanic landscapes, waterfalls and hot springs in the background. Where are the cast now? Paul Whitehouse has appeared in two successful sitcoms since the end of the show, voiced a character in the film Corpse Bride and appeared in the third Harry Potter film (although his role was cut). He also appeared in the BBC sketch show Harry and Paul, starring alongside Harry Enfield once again. Harry Enfield and Paul Whitehouse's page on BBC.co.uk Charlie Higson has continued to work as an award-winning author (having written a series of "Young Bond" spy novels), starred in the Fast Show spin-off sitcom Swiss Toni, and remains enthusiastic about the show's success. Caroline Aherne has been reclusive. She quit the show after the third series, to move on to The Royle Family. She suffered with alcoholism in 2002 but returned to television comedy in October 2006, co-writing and starring in a one-off special episode of The Royle Family, followed by another in 2008. Arabella Weir continues to appear on the show Grumpy Old Women. She has also written two novels. Simon Day appears in Powergen adverts as a decidedly Dave Angel, Eco-Warrior-like character. He has also appeared in Fast Show spin-offs Grass (featuring Billy Bleach) and Swiss Toni. He has recently appeared with Paul Whitehouse in the comedy show Harry and Paul. John Thomson continues to appear on British television, including major roles in Blackpool and Cold Feet. He stated in October 2005 that he longed for a Fast Show movie. Mark Williams is associated with his role of Arthur Weasley in the Harry Potter films. He continues to act and write his own material and has presented a documentary series titled Mark Williams' Big Bangs on the history of explosives, a follow-on to previous series Mark Williams on the Rails, and Industrial Revelations. Down the Line In 2006, Higson and Whitehouse produced and starred in Down the Line, a spoof phone-in show for BBC Radio 4. The show also featured many of the regular Fast Show cast, including Simon Day, Arabella Weir, Rhys Thomas and Felix Dexter. A second and a third series of Down the Line were broadcast in 2007 and 2008, respectively. The future Speaking on the BBC show Something for the Weekend on September 9, 2007, Higson said that a DVD box set collecting all the shows was being prepared and that a reunion of some sort to help promote it was being considered. This took place at The Dominion Theatre in London on Sunday 4 November, and was a collection of some new sketches, videos of cast favourites and performances of classic sketches (including the return of Ed Winchester). An announcement was made on stage by Charlie Higson that the cast had signed with the BBC for a new series of 'The Fast Show', but this was an elaborate set-up for a sketch featuring Unlucky Alf; the claim was withdrawn at the end of the evening by Higson. In addition he and Whitehouse were working on a film script which would feature the Fast Show team, but wouldn't have any of the characters from the show. DVDs Numerous Fast Show DVDs are available including : The Fast Show : Series 1 (includes cast interviews with Paul Whitehouse, Charlie Higson, Arabella Weir and Mark Williams) The Fast Show : Series 2 The Fast Show : Series 3 and 1996 Christmas Special The Fast Show : The Last Fast Show Ever, Part One The Fast Show Live The Fast Show Farewell Tour A 7 DVD box set, The Ultimate Fast Show Collection, was released in the UK on November 5, 2007 which compiled all their material, except the two live DVD releases. You Ain't Seen These, Right! You Ain't Seen These, Right! was a one-off programme, shown during BBC Two's Fast Show Night, featuring various sketches which were filmed but did not make it onto the final show. Some of these were: An ensemble series of sketches made by the whole male team, as members of a golf club, in which Charlie Higson's character was dating a beautiful young woman. The rest of the team are initially dismissive of him as a sad old man, but cannot help gawking over her, until Paul Whitehouse's character blurts out to her similarly young and attractive friend "Can I come over your tits?" A chain-smoking car driver played by Mark Williams who rants about anything and everything through his wound-down window. A study of road rage. "Shoe shop?! Shoe Shop?!". He drives around in Harlesden, London. A mediaeval king played by Simon Day, who 'loves being king' because he gets to boss everyone about. A middle aged man, played by John Thomson, who always finds an excuse to leave the room as soon as the conversation gets round to "women's things." A Paul Whitehouse character who responds to almost every question, accusation and situation with the phrase "Sorry, but i was up all night, shagging." These sketches are included in the UK edition of the boxed VHS videotape set of Series 3, and also on the 7 disc Ultimate Fast Show DVD box set. References External links Comedy Guide Numerous sound extracts from all the main characters in the show Useful site detailing thumb-nail vignettes of all the main characters Writer David Quantick's very own youtube channel. | The_Fast_Show |@lemmatized fast:24 show:60 know:5 brilliant:8 u:1 bbc:14 comedy:7 sketch:19 programme:9 ran:1 three:4 series:53 special:5 last:4 ever:4 central:3 performer:1 paul:17 whitehouse:32 charlie:6 higson:16 simon:8 day:12 mark:6 williams:11 john:6 thomson:6 arabella:5 weir:8 caroline:3 aherne:6 significant:3 cast:8 member:2 include:12 shearer:3 felix:2 dexter:3 rhys:2 thomas:2 jeff:2 harding:2 colin:2 mcfarlane:1 donna:1 ewin:1 produce:2 two:7 national:1 tour:3 first:4 spoof:3 quiz:1 shoot:3 star:7 second:2 farewell:2 loosely:2 structured:1 rely:1 character:25 long:6 running:1 gag:1 many:5 catchphrase:4 influence:1 catherine:1 tate:1 little:2 britain:1 one:15 popular:4 lasting:1 impact:1 upon:2 british:4 culture:2 release:4 video:2 dvd:6 audio:1 cd:1 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2,432 | Energy | Lightning is the electric breakdown of air by strong electric fields and is a flow of energy. The electric potential energy in the atmosphere changes into heat, light and sound which are other forms of energy. In physics, energy (from the Greek - energeia, "activity, operation", from - energos, "active, working" ) is a scalar physical quantity that describes the amount of work that can be performed by a force, an attribute of objects and systems that is subject to a conservation law. Eight different forms of energy exist to explain all known natural phenomena. These forms include (but are not limited to) kinetic, potential, thermal, gravitational, sound, light, elastic, and electromagnetic energy. The forms of energy are often named after a related force. Any form of energy can be transformed into another form, but the total energy always remains the same. This principle, the conservation of energy, was first postulated in the early 19th century, and applies to any isolated system. According to Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not change over time. Although the total energy of a system does not change with time, its value may depend on the frame of reference. For example, a seated passenger in a moving airplane has zero kinetic energy relative to the airplane, but non-zero kinetic energy relative to the Earth. History The word energy derives from Greek ἐνέργεια (energeia), which appears for the first time in the work Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle, "Nicomachean Ethics", 1098b33, at Perseus of Aristotle in the 4th century BC. In 1021 AD, the Arabian physicist, Alhazen, in the Book of Optics, held light rays to be streams of minute energy particles, stating that "the smallest parts of light" retain "only properties that can be treated by geometry and verified by experiment" and that "they lack all sensible qualities except energy." In 1121, Al-Khazini, in The Book of the Balance of Wisdom, proposed that the gravitational potential energy of a body varies depending on its distance from the centre of the Earth. Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", p. 621, in The concept of energy emerged out of the idea of vis viva, which Leibniz defined as the product of the mass of an object and its velocity squared; he believed that total vis viva was conserved. To account for slowing due to friction, Leibniz claimed that heat consisted of the random motion of the constituent parts of matter — a view shared by Isaac Newton, although it would be more than a century until this was generally accepted. In 1807, Thomas Young was the first to use the term "energy" instead of vis viva, in its modern sense. Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis described "kinetic energy" in 1829 in its modern sense, and in 1853, William Rankine coined the term "potential energy." It was argued for some years whether energy was a substance (the caloric) or merely a physical quantity, such as momentum. William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) amalgamated all of these laws into the laws of thermodynamics, which aided in the rapid development of explanations of chemical processes using the concept of energy by Rudolf Clausius, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Walther Nernst. It also led to a mathematical formulation of the concept of entropy by Clausius and to the introduction of laws of radiant energy by Jožef Stefan. During a 1961 lecture for undergraduate students at the California Institute of Technology, Richard Feynman, a celebrated physics teacher and Nobel Laureate, said this about the concept of energy: Since 1918 it has been known that the law of conservation of energy is the direct mathematical consequence of the translational symmetry of the quantity conjugate to energy, namely time. That is, energy is conserved because the laws of physics do not distinguish between different moments of time (see Noether's theorem). Energy in various contexts since the beginning of the universe The concept of energy and its transformations is useful in explaining and predicting most natural phenomena. The direction of transformations in energy (what kind of energy is transformed to what other kind) is often described by entropy (equal energy spread among all available degrees of freedom) considerations, since in practice all energy transformations are permitted on a small scale, but certain larger transformations are not permitted because it is statistically unlikely that energy or matter will randomly move into more concentrated forms or smaller spaces. The concept of energy is widespread in all sciences. In biology, energy is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest living process. In an individual organism it is responsible for growth and development of a biological cell or an organelle of a biological organism. Energy is thus often said to be stored by cells in the structures of molecules of substances such as carbohydrates (including sugars) and lipids, which release energy when reacted with oxygen. In human terms, the human equivalent (H-e) (Human energy conversion) The human equivalent energy indicates, for a given amount of energy expenditure, the relative quantity of energy needed for human metabolism, assuming an average human energy expenditure of 12,500kJ per day and a basal metabolic rate of 80 watts. For example, if our bodies run (on average) at 80 watts, then a light bulb running at 100 watts is running at 1.25 human equivalents (100 ÷ 80) i.e. 1.25 H-e. For a difficult task of only a few seconds' duration, a person can put out thousands of watts--many times the 746 watts in one official horsepower. For tasks lasting a few minutes, a fit human can generate perhaps 1,000 watts. For an activity that must be sustained for an hour, output drops to around 300; for an activity kept up all day, 150 watts is about the maximum. http://www.uic.edu/aa/college/gallery400/notions/human%20energy.htm Retrieved on May-29-09 The human equivalent assists understanding of energy flows in physical and biological systems by expressing energy units in human terms: it provides a “feel” for the use of a given amount of energy Bicycle calculator - speed, weight, wattage etc. . In geology, continental drift, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are phenomena that can be explained in terms of energy transformations in the Earth's interior. Earth's Energy Budget While meteorological phenomena like wind, rain, hail, snow, lightning, tornadoes and hurricanes, are all a result of energy transformations brought about by solar energy on the planet Earth. In cosmology and astronomy the phenomena of stars, nova, supernova, quasars and gamma ray bursts are the universe's highest-output energy transformations of matter. All stellar phenomena (including solar activity) are driven by various kinds of energy transformations. Energy in such transformations is either from gravitational collapse of matter (usually molecular hydrogen) into various classes of astronomical objects (stars, black holes, etc.), or from nuclear fusion (of lighter elements, primarily hydrogen). Energy transformations in the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy which has been available since the Big Bang, later being "released" (transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy), when a triggering mechanism is available. Familiar examples of such processes include nuclear decay, in which energy is released which was originally "stored" in heavy isotopes (such as uranium and thorium), by nucleosynthesis, a process which ultimately uses the gravitational potential energy released from the gravitational collapse of supernovae, to store energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the solar system and the Earth. This energy is triggered and released in nuclear fission bombs. In a slower process, heat from nuclear decay of these atoms in the core of the Earth releases heat, which in turn may lift mountains, via orogenesis. This slow lifting represents a kind of gravitational potential energy storage of the heat energy, which may be released to active kinetic energy in landslides, after a triggering event. Earthquakes also release stored elastic potential energy in rocks, a store which has been produced ultimately from the same radioactive heat sources. Thus, according to present understanding, familiar events such as landslides and earthquakes release energy which has been stored as potential energy in the Earth's gravitational field or elastic strain (mechanical potential energy) in rocks; but prior to this, represents energy that has been stored in heavy atoms since the collapse of long-destroyed stars created these atoms. In another similar chain of transformations beginning at the dawn of the universe, nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang. At that time, according to theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This meant that hydrogen represents a store of potential energy which can be released by fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into sunlight. Such sunlight from our Sun may again be stored as gravitational potential energy after it strikes the Earth, as (for example) water evaporates from oceans and is deposited upon mountains (where, after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can be used to drive turbine/generators to produce electricity). Sunlight also drives many weather phenomena, save those generated by volcanic events. An example of a solar-mediated weather event is a hurricane, which occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, give up some of their thermal energy suddenly to power a few days of violent air movement. Sunlight is also captured by plants as chemical potential energy, when carbon dioxide and water are converted into a combustible combination of carbohydrates, lipids, and oxygen. Release of this energy as heat and light may be triggered suddenly by a spark, in a forest fire; or it may be available more slowly for animal or human metabolism, when these molecules are ingested, and catabolism is triggered by enzyme action. Through all of these transformation chains, potential energy stored at the time of the Big Bang is later released by intermediate events, sometimes being stored in a number of ways over time between releases, as more active energy. In all these events, one kind of energy is converted to other types of energy, including heat. Regarding applications of the concept of energy Energy is subject to a strict global conservation law; that is, whenever one measures (or calculates) the total energy of a system of particles whose interactions do not depend explicitly on time, it is found that the total energy of the system always remains constant. Berkeley Physics Course Volume 1. Charles Kittel, Walter D Knight and Malvin A Ruderman The total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified in various ways. For example, it is sometimes convenient to distinguish potential energy (which is a function of coordinates only) from kinetic energy (which is a function of coordinate time derivatives only). It may also be convenient to distinguish gravitational energy, electric energy, thermal energy, and other forms. These classifications overlap; for instance thermal energy usually consists partly of kinetic and partly of potential energy. The transfer of energy can take various forms; familiar examples include work, heat flow, and advection, as discussed below. The word "energy" is also used outside of physics in many ways, which can lead to ambiguity and inconsistency. The vernacular terminology is not consistent with technical terminology. For example, the important public-service announcement, "Please conserve energy" uses vernacular notions of "conservation" and "energy" which make sense in their own context but are utterly incompatible with the technical notions of "conservation" and "energy" (such as are used in the law of conservation of energy). In classical physics energy is considered a scalar quantity, the canonical conjugate to time. In special relativity energy is also a scalar (although not a Lorentz scalar but a time component of the energy-momentum 4-vector). In other words, energy is invariant with respect to rotations of space, but not invariant with respect to rotations of space-time (= boosts). Energy transfer Because energy is strictly conserved and is also locally conserved (wherever it can be defined), it is important to remember that by definition of energy the transfer of energy between the "system" and adjacent regions is work. A familiar example is mechanical work. In simple cases this is written as: (1) if there are no other energy-transfer processes involved. Here is the amount of energy transferred, and represents the work done on the system. More generally, the energy transfer can be split into two categories: (2) where represents the heat flow into the system. There are other ways in which an open system can gain or lose energy. In chemical systems, energy can be added to a system by means of adding substances with different chemical potentials, which potentials are then extracted (both of these process are illustrated by fueling an auto, a system which gains in energy thereby, without addition of either work or heat). Winding a clock would be adding energy to a mechanical system. These terms may be added to the above equation, or they can generally be subsumed into a quantity called "energy addition term " which refers to any type of energy carried over the surface of a control volume or system volume. Examples may be seen above, and many others can be imagined (for example, the kinetic energy of a stream of particles entering a system, or energy from a laser beam adds to system energy, without either being either work-done or heat-added, in the classic senses). (3) Where E in this general equation represents other additional advected energy terms not covered by work done on a system, or heat added to it. Energy is also transferred from potential energy () to kinetic energy () and then back to potential energy constantly. This is referred to as conservation of energy. In this closed system, energy can not be created or destroyed, so the initial energy and the final energy will be equal to each other. This can be demonstrated by the following: The equation can then be simplified further since (mass times acceleration due to gravity times the height) and (half times mass times velocity squared). Then the total amount of energy can be found by adding . Energy and the laws of motion In classical mechanics, energy is a conceptually and mathematically useful property since it is a conserved quantity. The Hamiltonian The total energy of a system is sometimes called the Hamiltonian, after William Rowan Hamilton. The classical equations of motion can be written in terms of the Hamiltonian, even for highly complex or abstract systems. These classical equations have remarkably direct analogs in nonrelativistic quantum mechanics. The Hamiltonian MIT OpenCourseWare website 18.013A Chapter 16.3 Accessed February 2007 The Lagrangian Another energy-related concept is called the Lagrangian, after Joseph Louis Lagrange. This is even more fundamental than the Hamiltonian, and can be used to derive the equations of motion. It was invented in the context of classical mechanics, but is generally useful in modern physics. The Lagrangian is defined as the kinetic energy minus the potential energy. Usually, the Lagrange formalism is mathematically more convenient than the Hamiltonian for non-conservative systems (like systems with friction). Energy and thermodynamics Internal energyInternal energy – the sum of all microscopic forms of energy of a system. It is related to the molecular structure and the degree of molecular activity and may be viewed as the sum of kinetic and potential energies of the molecules; it comprises the following types of energy: Type Composition of Internal Energy (U) Sensible energy the portion of the internal energy of a system associated with kinetic energies (molecular translation, rotation, and vibration; electron translation and spin; and nuclear spin) of the molecules. Latent energy the internal energy associated with the phase of a system. Chemical energythe internal energy associated with the different kinds of aggregation of atoms in matter. Nuclear energythe tremendous amount of energy associated with the strong bonds within the nucleus of the atom itself. Energy interactionsthose types of energies not stored in the system (e.g. heat transfer, mass transfer, and work), but which are recognized at the system boundary as they cross it, which represent gains or losses by a system during a process. Thermal energythe sum of sensible and latent forms of internal energy. The laws of thermodynamics According to the second law of thermodynamics, work can be totally converted into heat, but not vice versa.This is a mathematical consequence of statistical mechanics. The first law of thermodynamics simply asserts that energy is conserved, and that heat is included as a form of energy transfer. A commonly-used corollary of the first law is that for a "system" subject only to pressure forces and heat transfer (e.g. a cylinder-full of gas), the differential change in energy of the system (with a gain in energy signified by a positive quantity) is given by: , where the first term on the right is the heat transfer into the system, defined in terms of temperature T and entropy S (in which entropy increases and the change dS is positive when the system is heated); and the last term on the right hand side is identified as "work" done on the system, where pressure is P and volume V (the negative sign results since compression of the system requires work to be done on it and so the volume change, dV, is negative when work is done on the system). Although this equation is the standard text-book example of energy conservation in classical thermodynamics, it is highly specific, ignoring all chemical, electric, nuclear, and gravitational forces, effects such as advection of any form of energy other than heat, and because it contains a term that depends on temperature. The most general statement of the first law (i.e., conservation of energy) is valid even in situations in which temperature is undefinable. Energy is sometimes expressed as: , which is unsatisfactory because there cannot exist any thermodynamic state functions W or Q that are meaningful on the right hand side of this equation, except perhaps in trivial cases. Equipartition of energy The energy of a mechanical harmonic oscillator (a mass on a spring) is alternatively kinetic and potential. At two points in the oscillation cycle it is entirely kinetic, and alternatively at two other points it is entirely potential. Over the whole cycle, or over many cycles net energy is thus equally split between kinetic and potential. This is called equipartition principle - total energy of a system with many degrees of freedom is equally split among all available degrees of freedom. This principle is vitally important to understanding the behavior of a quantity closely related to energy, called entropy. Entropy is a measure of evenness of a distribution of energy between parts of a system. When an isolated system is given more degrees of freedom (= is given new available energy states which are the same as existing states), then total energy spreads over all available degrees equally without distinction between "new" and "old" degrees. This mathematical result is called the second law of thermodynamics. Oscillators, phonons, and photons In an ensemble (connected collection) of unsynchronized oscillators, the average energy is spread equally between kinetic and potential types. In a solid, thermal energy (often referred to loosely as heat content) can be accurately described by an ensemble of thermal phonons that act as mechanical oscillators. In this model, thermal energy is equally kinetic and potential. In an ideal gas, the interaction potential between particles is essentially the delta function which stores no energy: thus, all of the thermal energy is kinetic. Because an electric oscillator (LC circuit) is analogous to a mechanical oscillator, its energy must be, on average, equally kinetic and potential. It is entirely arbitrary whether the magnetic energy is considered kinetic and the electric energy considered potential, or vice versa. That is, either the inductor is analogous to the mass while the capacitor is analogous to the spring, or vice versa. By extension of the previous line of thought, in free space the electromagnetic field can be considered an ensemble of oscillators, meaning that radiation energy can be considered equally potential and kinetic. This model is useful, for example, when the electromagnetic Lagrangian is of primary interest and is interpreted in terms of potential and kinetic energy. On the other hand, in the key equation , the contribution is called the rest energy, and all other contributions to the energy are called kinetic energy. For a particle that has mass, this implies that the kinetic energy is at speeds much smaller than c, as can be proved by writing √ and expanding the square root to lowest order. By this line of reasoning, the energy of a photon is entirely kinetic, because the photon is massless and has no rest energy. This expression is useful, for example, when the energy-versus-momentum relationship is of primary interest. The two analyses are entirely consistent. The electric and magnetic degrees of freedom in item 1 are transverse to the direction of motion, while the speed in item 2 is along the direction of motion. For non-relativistic particles these two notions of potential versus kinetic energy are numerically equal, so the ambiguity is harmless, but not so for relativistic particles. Work and virtual work Work is force times distance. This says that the work () is equal to the line integral of the force F along a path C; for details see the mechanical work article. Work and thus energy is frame dependent. For example, consider a ball being hit by a bat. In the center-of-mass reference frame, the bat does no work on the ball. But, in the reference frame of the person swinging the bat, considerable work is done on the ball. Quantum mechanics In quantum mechanics energy is defined in terms of the energy operator as a time derivative of the wave function. The Schrödinger equation equates the energy operator to the full energy of a particle or a system. It thus can be considered as a definition of measurement of energy in quantum mechanics. The Schrödinger equation describes the space- and time-dependence of slow changing (non-relativistic) wave function of quantum systems. The solution of this equation for bound system is discrete (a set of permitted states, each characterized by an energy level) which results in the concept of quanta. In the solution of the Schrödinger equation for any oscillator (vibrator) and for electromagnetic waves in a vacuum, the resulting energy states are related to the frequency by the Planck equation (where is the Planck's constant and the frequency). In the case of electromagnetic wave these energy states are called quanta of light or photons. Relativity When calculating kinetic energy (= work to accelerate a mass from zero speed to some finite speed) relativistically - using Lorentz transformations instead of Newtonian mechanics, Einstein discovered an unexpected by-product of these calculations to be an energy term which does not vanish at zero speed. He called it rest mass energy - energy which every mass must possess even when being at rest. The amount of energy is directly proportional to the mass of body: , where m is the mass, c is the speed of light in vacuum, E is the rest mass energy. For example, consider electron-positron annihilation, in which the rest mass of individual particles is destroyed, but the inertia equivalent of the system of the two particles (its invariant mass) remains (since all energy is associated with mass), and this inertia and invariant mass is carried off by photons which individually are massless, but as a system retain their mass. This is a reversible process - the inverse process is called pair creation - in which the rest mass of particles is created from energy of two (or more) annihilating photons. In general relativity, the stress-energy tensor serves as the source term for the gravitational field, in rough analogy to the way mass serves as the source term in the non-relativistic Newtonian approximation. It is not uncommon to hear that energy is "equivalent" to mass. It would be more accurate to state that every energy has inertia and gravity equivalent, and because mass is a form of energy, then mass too has inertia and gravity associated with it. Measurement A Calorimeter - An instrument used by physicists to measure energy There is no absolute measure of energy, because energy is defined as the work that one system does (or can do) on another. Thus, only of the transition of a system from one state into another can be defined and thus measured. Methods The methods for the measurement of energy often deploy methods for the measurement of still more fundamental concepts of science, namely mass, distance, radiation, temperature, time, electric charge and electric current. Conventionally the technique most often employed is calorimetry, a thermodynamic technique that relies on the measurement of temperature using a thermometer or of intensity of radiation using a bolometer. Units Throughout the history of science, energy has been expressed in several different units such as ergs and calories. At present, the accepted unit of measurement for energy is the unit of energy, the joule. Forms of energy Heat, a form of energy, is partly potential energy and partly kinetic energy. Classical mechanics distinguishes between potential energy, which is a function of the position of an object, and kinetic energy, which is a function of its movement. Both position and movement are relative to a frame of reference, which must be specified: this is often (and originally) an arbitrary fixed point on the surface of the Earth, the terrestrial frame of reference. It has been attempted to categorize all forms of energy as either kinetic or potential: this is not incorrect, but neither is it clear that it is a real simplification, as Feynman points out: + Examples of the interconversion of energy Mechanical energy is converted into by Mechanical energy Lever Thermal energy Brakes Electric energy Dynamo Electromagnetic radiation Synchrotron Chemical energy Matches Nuclear energy Particle accelerator Potential energy Potential energy, symbols Ep, V or Φ, is defined as the work done against a given force (= work of given force with minus sign) in changing the position of an object with respect to a reference position (often taken to be infinite separation). If F is the force and s is the displacement, with the dot representing the scalar product of the two vectors. The name "potential" energy originally signified the idea that the energy could readily be transferred as work—at least in an idealized system (reversible process, see below). This is not completely true for any real system, but is often a reasonable first approximation in classical mechanics. The general equation above can be simplified in a number of common cases, notably when dealing with gravity or with elastic forces. Gravitational potential energy The gravitational force near the Earth's surface varies very little with the height, h, and is equal to the mass, m, multiplied by the gravitational acceleration, g = 9.81 m/s². In these cases, the gravitational potential energy is given by A more general expression for the potential energy due to Newtonian gravitation between two bodies of masses m1 and m2, useful in astronomy, is , where r is the separation between the two bodies and G is the gravitational constant, 6.6742(10)×10−11 m3kg−1s−2. In this case, the reference point is the infinite separation of the two bodies. Elastic potential energy As a ball falls freely under the influence of gravity, it accelerates downward, its initial potential energy converting into kinetic energy. On impact with a hard surface the ball deforms, converting the kinetic energy into elastic potential energy. As the ball springs back, the energy converts back firstly to kinetic energy and then as the ball re-gains height into potential energy. Energy conversion to heat due to inelastic deformation and air resistance cause each successive bounce to be lower than the last. Elastic potential energy is defined as a work needed to compress (or expand) a spring. The force, F, in a spring or any other system which obeys Hooke's law is proportional to the extension or compression, x, where k is the force constant of the particular spring (or system). In this case, the calculated work becomes . Only when k is constant. Hooke's law is a good approximation for behaviour of chemical bonds under normal conditions, i.e. when they are not being broken or formed. Kinetic energy Kinetic energy, symbols Ek, T or K, is the work required to accelerate an object to a given speed. Indeed, calculating this work one easily obtains the following: At speeds approaching the speed of light, c, this work must be calculated using Lorentz transformations, which results in the following: This equation reduces to the one above it, at small (compared to c) speed. A mathematical by-product of this work (which is immediately seen in the last equation) is that even at rest a mass has the amount of energy equal to: This energy is thus called rest mass energy. Thermal energy + Examples of the interconversion of energy Thermal energy is converted into by Mechanical energy Steam turbine Thermal energy Heat exchanger Electric energy Thermocouple Electromagnetic radiation Hot objects Chemical energy Blast furnace Nuclear energy Supernova Thermal energy (of some media - gas, plasma, solid, etc) is the energy associated with the microscopical random motion of particles constituting the media. For example, in case of monoatomic gas it is just a kinetic energy of motion of atoms of gas as measured in the reference frame of the center of mass of gas. In case of many-atomic gas rotational and vibrational energy is involved. In the case of liquids and solids there is also potential energy (of interaction of atoms) involved, and so on. A heat is defined as a transfer (flow) of thermal energy across certain boundary (for example, from a hot body to cold via the area of their contact. A practical definition for small transfers of heat is where Cv is the heat capacity of the system. This definition will fail if the system undergoes a phase transition—e.g. if ice is melting to water—as in these cases the system can absorb heat without increasing its temperature. In more complex systems, it is preferable to use the concept of internal energy rather than that of thermal energy (see Chemical energy below). Despite the theoretical problems, the above definition is useful in the experimental measurement of energy changes. In a wide variety of situations, it is possible to use the energy released by a system to raise the temperature of another object, e.g. a bath of water. It is also possible to measure the amount of electric energy required to raise the temperature of the object by the same amount. The calorie was originally defined as the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1 °C (approximately 4.1855 J, although the definition later changed), and the British thermal unit was defined as the energy required to heat one pound of water by 1 °F (later fixed as 1055.06 J). Electric energy + Examples of the interconversion of energy Electric energy is converted into by Mechanical energy Electric motor Thermal energy Resistor Electric energy Transformer Electromagnetic radiation Light-emitting diode Chemical energy Electrolysis Nuclear energy Synchrotron The electric potential energy of given configuration of charges is defined as the work which must be done against the Coulomb force to rearrange charges from infinite separation to this configuration (or the work done by the Coulomb force separating the charges from this configuration to infinity). For two point-like charges Q1 and Q2 at a distance r this work, and hence electric potential energy is equal to: where ε0 is the electric constant of a vacuum, 107/4πc0² or 8.854188…×10−12 F/m. If the charge is accumulated in a capacitor (of capacitance C), the reference configuration is usually selected not to be infinite separation of charges, but vice versa - charges at an extremely close proximity to each other (so there is zero net charge on each plate of a capacitor). The justification for this choice is purely practical - it is easier to measure both voltage difference and magnitude of charges on a capacitor plates not versus infinite separation of charges but rather versus discharged capacitor where charges return to close proximity to each other (electrons and ions recombine making the plates neutral). In this case the work and thus the electric potential energy becomes If an electric current passes through a resistor, electric energy is converted to heat; if the current passes through an electric appliance, some of the electric energy will be converted into other forms of energy (although some will always be lost as heat). The amount of electric energy due to an electric current can be expressed in a number of different ways: where U is the electric potential difference (in volts), Q is the charge (in coulombs), I is the current (in amperes), t is the time for which the current flows (in seconds), P is the power (in watts) and R is the electric resistance (in ohms). The last of these expressions is important in the practical measurement of energy, as potential difference, resistance and time can all be measured with considerable accuracy. Magnetic energy There is no fundamental difference between magnetic energy and electric energy: the two phenomena are related by Maxwell's equations. The potential energy of a magnet of magnetic moment m in a magnetic field B is defined as the work of magnetic force (actually of magnetic torque) on re-alignment of the vector of the magnetic dipole moment, and is equal: while the energy stored in a inductor (of inductance L) when current I is passing via it is . This second expression forms the basis for superconducting magnetic energy storage. Electromagnetic fields + Examples of the interconversion of energy Electromagnetic radiation is converted into by Mechanical energy Solar sail Thermal energy Solar collector Electric energy Solar cell Electromagnetic radiation Non-linear optics Chemical energy Photosynthesis Nuclear energy Mössbauer spectroscopy Calculating work needed to create an electric or magnetic field in unit volume (say, in a capacitor or an inductor) results in the electric and magnetic fields energy densities: and , in SI units. Electromagnetic radiation, such as microwaves, visible light or gamma rays, represents a flow of electromagnetic energy. Applying the above expressions to magnetic and electric components of electromagnetic field both the volumetric density and the flow of energy in e/m field can be calculated. The resulting Poynting vector, which is expressed as in SI units, gives the density of the flow of energy and its direction. The energy of electromagnetic radiation is quantized (has discrete energy levels). The spacing between these levels is equal to where h is the Planck constant, 6.6260693(11)×10−34 Js, and ν is the frequency of the radiation. This quantity of electromagnetic energy is usually called a photon. The photons which make up visible light have energies of 270–520 yJ, equivalent to 160–310 kJ/mol, the strength of weaker chemical bonds. Chemical energy + Examples of the interconversion of energy Chemical energy is converted into by Mechanical energy Muscle Thermal energy Fire Electric energy Fuel cell Electromagnetic radiation Glowworms Chemical energy Chemical reaction Chemical energy is the energy due to associations of atoms in molecules and various other kinds of aggregates of matter. It may be defined as a work done by electric forces during re-arrangement of mutual positions of electric charges, electrons and protons, in the process of aggregation. So, basically it is electrostatic potential energy of electric charges. If the chemical energy of a system decreases during a chemical reaction, the difference is transferred to the surroundings in some form (often heat or light); on the other hand if the chemical energy of a system increases as a result of a chemical reaction - the difference then is supplied by the surroundings (usually again in form of heat or light). For example, when two hydrogen atoms react to form a dihydrogen molecule, the chemical energy decreases by 724 zJ (the bond energy of the H–H bond); when the electron is completely removed from a hydrogen atom, forming a hydrogen ion (in the gas phase), the chemical energy increases by 2.18 aJ (the ionization energy of hydrogen). It is common to quote the changes in chemical energy for one mole of the substance in question: typical values for the change in molar chemical energy during a chemical reaction range from tens to hundreds of kilojoules per mole. The chemical energy as defined above is also referred to by chemists as the internal energy, U: technically, this is measured by keeping the volume of the system constant. However, most practical chemistry is performed at constant pressure and, if the volume changes during the reaction (e.g. a gas is given off), a correction must be applied to take account of the work done by or on the atmosphere to obtain the enthalpy, H: ΔH = ΔU + pΔV A second correction, for the change in entropy, S, must also be performed to determine whether a chemical reaction will take place or not, giving the Gibbs free energy, G: ΔG = ΔH − TΔS These corrections are sometimes negligible, but often not (especially in reactions involving gases). Since the industrial revolution, the burning of coal, oil, natural gas or products derived from them has been a socially significant transformation of chemical energy into other forms of energy. the energy "consumption" (one should really speak of "energy transformation") of a society or country is often quoted in reference to the average energy released by the combustion of these fossil fuels: 1 tonne of coal equivalent (TCE) = 29 GJ 1 tonne of oil equivalent (TOE) = 41.87 GJ On the same basis, a tank-full of gasoline (45 litres, 12 gallons) is equivalent to about 1.6 GJ of chemical energy. Another chemically-based unit of measurement for energy is the "tonne of TNT", taken as 4.184 GJ. Hence, burning a tonne of oil releases about ten times as much energy as the explosion of one tonne of TNT: fortunately, the energy is usually released in a slower, more controlled manner. Simple examples of storage of chemical energy are batteries and food. When food is digested and metabolized (often with oxygen), chemical energy is released, which can in turn be transformed into heat, or by muscles into kinetic energy. Nuclear energy + Examples of the interconversion of energy Nuclear binding energy is converted into by Mechanical energy Alpha radiation Thermal energy Sun Electrical energy Beta radiation Electromagnetic radiation Gamma radiation Chemical energy Radioactive decay Nuclear energy Nuclear isomerismNuclear potential energy, along with electric potential energy, provides the energy released from nuclear fission and nuclear fusion processes. The result of both these processes are nuclei in which the more-optimal size of the nucleus allows the nuclear force (which is opposed by the electromagnetic force) to bind nuclear particles more tightly together than before the reaction. The Weak nuclear force (different from the strong force) provides the potential energy for certain kinds of radioactive decay, such as beta decay. The energy released in nuclear processes is so large that the relativistic change in mass (after the energy has been removed) can be as much as several parts per thousand. Nuclear particles (nucleons) like protons and neutrons are not destroyed (law of conservation of baryon number) in fission and fusion processes. A few lighter particles may be created or destroyed (example: beta minus and beta plus decay, or electron capture decay), but these minor processes are not important to the immediate energy release in fission and fusion. Rather, fission and fusion release energy when collections of baryons become more tightly bound, and it is the energy associated with a fraction of the mass of the nucleons (but not the whole particles) which appears as the heat and electromagnetic radiation generated by nuclear reactions. This heat and radiation retains the "missing" mass, but the mass is missing only because it escapes in the form of heat and light, which retain the mass and conduct it out of the system where it is not measured. The energy from the Sun, also called solar energy, is an example of this form of energy conversion. In the Sun, the process of hydrogen fusion converts about 4 million metric tons of solar matter per second into light, which is radiated into space, but during this process, the number of total protons and neutrons in the sun does not change. In this system, the light itself retains the inertial equivalent of this mass, and indeed the mass itself (as a system), which represents 4 million tons per second of electromagnetic radiation, moving into space. Each of the helium nuclei which are formed in the process are less massive than the four protons from they were formed, but (to a good approximation), no particles or atoms are destroyed in the process of turning the sun's nuclear potential energy into light. Surface energy If there is any kind of tension in a surface, such as a stretched sheet of rubber or material interfaces, it is possible to define surface energy'. In particular, any meeting of dissimilar materials that don't mix will result in some kind of surface tension, if there is freedom for the surfaces to move then, as seen in capillary surfaces for example, the minimum energy will as usual be sought. A minimal surface, for example, represents the smallest possible energy that a surface can have if its energy is proportional to the area of the surface. For this reason, (open) soap films of small size are minimal surfaces (small size reduces gravity effects, and openness prevents pressure from building up. Note that a bubble is a minimum energy surface but not a minimal surface by definition). Transformations of energy One form of energy can often be readily transformed into another with the help of a device- for instance, a battery, from chemical energy to electric energy; a dam: gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy of moving water (and the blades of a turbine) and ultimately to electric energy through an electric generator. Similarly, in the case of a chemical explosion, chemical potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy and thermal energy in a very short time. Yet another example is that of a pendulum. At its highest points the kinetic energy is zero and the gravitational potential energy is at maximum. At its lowest point the kinetic energy is at maximum and is equal to the decrease of potential energy. If one (unrealistically) assumes that there is no friction, the conversion of energy between these processes is perfect, and the pendulum will continue swinging forever. Energy can be converted into matter and vice versa. The formula E = mc², derived by Albert Einstein (1905) quantifies the relationship between mass and rest energy within the concept of special relativity. In different theoretical frameworks, similar formulas were derived by J. J. Thomson (1881), Henri Poincaré (1900), Friedrich Hasenöhrl (1904) and others (see Mass-energy equivalence#History for further information). Since is extremely large relative to ordinary human scales, the conversion of ordinary amount of mass (say, 1 kg) to other forms of energy can liberate tremendous amounts of energy (~ Joules), as can be seen in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Conversely, the mass equivalent of a unit of energy is minuscule, which is why a loss of energy from most systems is difficult to measure by weight, unless the energy loss is very large. Examples of energy transformation into matter (particles) are found in high energy nuclear physics. In nature, transformations of energy can be fundamentally classed into two kinds: those that are thermodynamically reversible, and those that are thermodynamically irreversible. A reversible process in thermodynamics is one in which no energy is dissipated (spread) into empty energy states available in a volume, from which it cannot be recovered into more concentrated forms (fewer quantum states), without degradation of even more energy. A reversible process is one in which this sort of dissipation does not happen. For example, conversion of energy from one type of potential field to another, is reversible, as in the pendulum system described above. In processes where heat is generated, however, quantum states of lower energy, present as possible exitations in fields between atoms, act as a reservoir for part of the energy, from which it cannot be recovered, in order to be converted with 100% efficiency into other forms of energy. In this case, the energy must partly stay as heat, and cannot be completely recovered as usable energy, except at the price of an increase in some other kind of heat-like increase in disorder in quantum states, in the universe (such as an expansion of matter, or a randomization in a crystal). As the universe evolves in time, more and more of its energy becomes trapped in irreversible states (i.e., as heat or other kinds of increases in disorder). This has been referred to as the inevitable thermodynamic heat death of the universe. In this heat death the energy of the universe does not change, but the fraction of energy which is available to do produce work through a heat engine, or be transformed to other usable forms of energy (through the use of generators attached to heat engines), grows less and less. Law of conservation of energy Energy is subject to the law of conservation of energy. According to this law, energy can neither be created (produced) nor destroyed by itself. It can only be transformed. Most kinds of energy (with gravitational energy being a notable exception) E. Noether's Discovery of the Deep Connection Between Symmetries and Conservation Laws are also subject to strict local conservation laws, as well. In this case, energy can only be exchanged between adjacent regions of space, and all observers agree as to the volumetric density of energy in any given space. There is also a global law of conservation of energy, stating that the total energy of the universe cannot change; this is a corollary of the local law, but not vice versa. The Laws of Thermodynamics including careful definitions of energy, free energy, et cetera. Conservation of energy is the mathematical consequence of translational symmetry of time (that is, the indistinguishability of time intervals taken at different time) Time Invariance - see Noether's theorem. According to energy conservation law the total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system. This law is a fundamental principle of physics. It follows from the translational symmetry of time, a property of most phenomena below the cosmic scale that makes them independent of their locations on the time coordinate. Put differently, yesterday, today, and tomorrow are physically indistinguishable. This is because energy is the quantity which is canonical conjugate to time. This mathematical entanglement of energy and time also results in the uncertainty principle - it is impossible to define the exact amount of energy during any definite time interval. The uncertainty principle should not be confused with energy conservation - rather it provides mathematical limits to which energy can in principle be defined and measured. In quantum mechanics energy is expressed using the Hamiltonian operator. On any time scales, the uncertainty in the energy is by which is similar in form to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle (but not really mathematically equivalent thereto, since H and t'' are not dynamically conjugate variables, neither in classical nor in quantum mechanics). In particle physics, this inequality permits a qualitative understanding of virtual particles which carry momentum, exchange by which and with real particles, is responsible for the creation of all known fundamental forces (more accurately known as fundamental interactions). Virtual photons (which are simply lowest quantum mechanical energy state of photons) are also responsible for electrostatic interaction between electric charges (which results in Coulomb law), for spontaneous radiative decay of exited atomic and nuclear states, for the Casimir force, for van der Waals bond forces and some other observable phenomena. Energy and life Any living organism relies on an external source of energy—radiation from the Sun in the case of green plants; chemical energy in some form in the case of animals—to be able to grow and reproduce. The daily 1500–2000 Calories (6–8 MJ) recommended for a human adult are taken as a combination of oxygen and food molecules, the latter mostly carbohydrates and fats, of which glucose (C6H12O6) and stearin (C57H110O6) are convenient examples. The food molecules are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water in the mitochondria C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O C57H110O6 + 81.5O2 → 57CO2 + 55H2O and some of the energy is used to convert ADP into ATP ADP + HPO42− → ATP + H2O The rest of the chemical energy in the carbohydrate or fat is converted into heat: the ATP is used as a sort of "energy currency", and some of the chemical energy it contains when split and reacted with water, is used for other metabolism (at each stage of a metabolic pathway, some chemical energy is converted into heat). Only a tiny fraction of the original chemical energy is used for work: These examples are solely for illustration, as it is not the energy available for work which limits the performance of the athlete but the power output of the sprinter and the force of the weightlifter. A worker stacking shelves in a supermarket does more work (in the physical sense) than either of the athletes, but does it more slowly. gain in kinetic energy of a sprinter during a 100 m race: 4 kJ gain in gravitational potential energy of a 150 kg weight lifted through 2 metres: 3kJ Daily food intake of a normal adult: 6–8 MJ It would appear that living organisms are remarkably inefficient (in the physical sense) in their use of the energy they receive (chemical energy or radiation), and it is true that most real machines manage higher efficiencies. However, in growing organisms the energy that is converted to heat serves a vital purpose, as it allows the organism tissue to be highly ordered with regard to the molecules it is built from. The second law of thermodynamics states that energy (and matter) tends to become more evenly spread out across the universe: to concentrate energy (or matter) in one specific place, it is necessary to spread out a greater amount of energy (as heat) across the remainder of the universe ("the surroundings"). Crystals are another example of highly ordered systems that exist in nature: in this case too, the order is associated with the transfer of a large amount of heat (known as the lattice energy) to the surroundings. Simpler organisms can achieve higher energy efficiencies than more complex ones, but the complex organisms can occupy ecological niches that are not available to their simpler brethren. The conversion of a portion of the chemical energy to heat at each step in a metabolic pathway is the physical reason behind the pyramid of biomass observed in ecology: to take just the first step in the food chain, of the estimated 124.7 Pg/a of carbon that is fixed by photosynthesis, 64.3 Pg/a (52%) are used for the metabolism of green plants, Ito, Akihito; Oikawa, Takehisa (2004). "Global Mapping of Terrestrial Primary Productivity and Light-Use Efficiency with a Process-Based Model." in Shiyomi, M. et al. (Eds.) Global Environmental Change in the Ocean and on Land. pp. 343–58. i.e. reconverted into carbon dioxide and heat. Energy and Information Society Modern society continues to rely largely on fossil fuels to preserve economic growth and today's standard of living. However, for the first time, physical limits of the Earth are met in our encounter with finite resources of oil and natural gas and its impact of greenhouse gas emissions onto the global climate. Never before has accurate accounting of our energy dependency been more pertinent to developing public policies for a sustainable development of our society, both in the industrial world and the emerging economies. At present, much emphasis is put on the introduction of a world-wide cap-and-trade system, to limit global emissions in greenhouse gases by balancing regional differences on a financial basis. In the near future, society may be permeated at all levels with information systems for direct feedback on energy usage, as fossil fuels continue to be used privately and for manufacturing and transportation services. Information in today's society, focused on knowledge, news and entertainment, is expected to extend to energy usage in real-time. A collective medium for energy information may arise, serving to balance our individual and global energy dependence on fossil fuels. Yet, this development is not without restrictions, notably privacy issues. Recently, the Dutch Senate rejected a proposed law for mandatory national introduction of smart metering, in part, on the basis of privacy concerns Minutes Eerste Kamer Debat "(part a)", "(part b)" . See also Activation energy American Museum of Science and Energy (AMSE) Americans for Balanced Energy Choices (ABEC) Energy accounting Energy carrier and energyware Energy emergency Energy conservation Enthalpy Entropy Free energy Interaction energy Internal energy Kinetic energy List of books about energy issues List of energy topics Orders of magnitude (energy) Power (physics) Renewable energy Rotational energy Solar radiation Thermodynamics Units of energy Negative energy World energy resources and consumption Zero-point energy Notes and references Further reading External links Conservation of Energy Energy and Life What does energy really mean? 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2,433 | Moonfleet | Moonfleet is a tale of smuggling by the English novelist J. Meade Falkner, first published in 1898. The book was extremely popular among children worldwide up until the 1970s, mostly for its themes of adventure and gripping storyline. It remains a popular story widely read and is still sometimes studied in schools. Plot summary The novel is set in a fishing village in Dorset during the mid 18th century. The story concerns a 15 year old orphan boy, John Trenchard, who becomes friends with an older man who turns out to be the leader of a gang of smugglers. One night John chances on the smugglers' store in the crypt beneath the church. He explores but hides behind a coffin when he hears voices. He finds a locket which contains a parchment, in the coffin belonging to Colonel Mohune. Unfortunately after the visitors leave, he finds himself trapped inside, and is only rescued two days later when two of the smugglers, Ratsey, the sexton and Elzevir Block, the innkeeper of the Why Not?, the local pub, investigate his disappearance. His aunt insists he leaves her house and Elzevir Block takes him in to live at the pub. The local magistrate, Maskew, is engaged in the struggle to put a stop to smuggling, and outbids Block for the lease to the pub when it comes up at auction. Maskew discovers the time and landing point of a smuggled consignment, and tips off the militia. Unfortunately for him, the smugglers become aware of the tip-off and change the time. During a struggle with Block, whose son Maskew had previously killed, Maskew is shot by the soldiers by chance. John is also shot in the leg, and is carried up the cliff path by Elzevir to safety in an old quarry on the Isle of Purbeck. John and Block are now outlaws, as they are believed to have murdered Maskew. John, with some inadvertent help from Ratsey, deciphers the coded parchment which allows him to locate a missing diamond of huge value. The diamond was obtained as a bribe from King Charles I during his imprisonment at Carisbrooke Castle and was hidden in a deep well by Colonel Mohune. Block and Trenchard recover the diamond from its hiding place. They flee the country to The Hague in Holland, where they are duped by a diamond merchant while attempting to sell him the diamond. They attempt to recover the diamond by burglary, but set off an alarm, are arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment. They spend over a decade at a prison camp at Ymeguen, where they are branded with a Y which strongly resembles the coat of arms of the Mohune family and a symbol often seen around Moonfleet. They are eventually condemned to be transported to Java. A storm breaks out and by coincidence, their ship is cast ashore in Moonfleet bay. Elzevir drowns in the surf on the beach after going back into the waves to rescue John. John recovers some semblance of his old life, marrying his childhood sweetheart, Maskew's daughter (Grace), and unexpectedly inheriting the diamond merchant's wealth which he spends on charitable causes to appease the spirit of Colonel Mohune. Backgammon A feature of the narrative is a continuing reference to the boardgame of backgammon which is played by the patrons of the Why Not? on an antique board which bears a Latin inscription Ita in vita ut in lusu alae pessima jactura arte corrigenda est (translated in the book as As in life, so in a game of hazard, skill will make something of the worst of throws). This inscription provides a moralistic metaphor to the story of the orphan boy who in the end overcomes his travails. Allusions/references to actual history, geography and current science The village of Moonfleet is based on East Fleet in Dorset by Chesil Beach. The headland in the book called The Snout is Portland Bill. Film, TV or theatrical adaptations The book was filmed by Fritz Lang in 1955 and released under the same name, with a screenplay adapted by Jan Lustig from the novel, and starring Stewart Granger. The movie altered the novel's plot substantially. Among other changes, its young hero was given an newly-invented aristocratic mentor (played by Granger), while the role of the working class Elzevir Block was minimized. Lang's film has enjoyed some cachet among French film critics. In 1984, a TV mini-series was filmed, starring Adam Godley and David Daker. There is also a 90-minute BBC radio version, starring Richard Pearce (BBC Radio's Tin Tin, as well) as John Trenchard. The Colonial Radio Theatre On The Air released a 300 min. production of the book in May, 2009, Starring Jerry Robbins, David Ault, and Rob Cattell. Dramatized by Deniz Cordell, and produced by MJ Cogburn. Notes External links Time Magazine review of Moonfleet dated August 13, 1951 Penguin Readers Factsheets for Moonfleet, Teachers Notes, 2004 | Moonfleet |@lemmatized moonfleet:6 tale:1 smuggle:1 english:1 novelist:1 j:1 meade:1 falkner:1 first:1 publish:1 book:5 extremely:1 popular:2 among:3 child:1 worldwide:1 mostly:1 theme:1 adventure:1 grip:1 storyline:1 remain:1 story:3 widely:1 read:1 still:1 sometimes:1 study:1 school:1 plot:2 summary:1 novel:3 set:2 fishing:1 village:2 dorset:2 mid:1 century:1 concern:1 year:1 old:4 orphan:2 boy:2 john:8 trenchard:3 become:2 friend:1 man:1 turn:1 leader:1 gang:1 smuggler:4 one:1 night:1 chance:2 store:1 crypt:1 beneath:1 church:1 explore:1 hide:3 behind:1 coffin:2 hear:1 voice:1 find:2 locket:1 contain:1 parchment:2 belong:1 colonel:3 mohune:4 unfortunately:2 visitor:1 leave:2 trap:1 inside:1 rescue:2 two:2 day:1 later:1 ratsey:2 sexton:1 elzevir:5 block:7 innkeeper:1 local:2 pub:3 investigate:1 disappearance:1 aunt:1 insist:1 house:1 take:1 live:1 magistrate:1 maskew:6 engage:1 struggle:2 put:1 stop:1 smuggling:1 outbids:1 lease:1 come:1 auction:1 discover:1 time:3 land:1 point:1 smuggled:1 consignment:1 tip:2 militia:1 aware:1 change:2 whose:1 son:1 previously:1 kill:1 shoot:2 soldier:1 also:2 leg:1 carry:1 cliff:1 path:1 safety:1 quarry:1 isle:1 purbeck:1 outlaws:1 believe:1 murder:1 inadvertent:1 help:1 decipher:1 coded:1 allow:1 locate:1 missing:1 diamond:7 huge:1 value:1 obtain:1 bribe:1 king:1 charles:1 imprisonment:2 carisbrooke:1 castle:1 deep:1 well:2 recover:3 place:1 flee:1 country:1 hague:1 holland:1 dupe:1 merchant:2 attempt:2 sell:1 burglary:1 alarm:1 arrest:1 sentence:1 life:3 spend:2 decade:1 prison:1 camp:1 ymeguen:1 brand:1 strongly:1 resemble:1 coat:1 arm:1 family:1 symbol:1 often:1 see:1 around:1 eventually:1 condemn:1 transport:1 java:1 storm:1 break:1 coincidence:1 ship:1 cast:1 ashore:1 bay:1 drowns:1 surf:1 beach:2 go:1 back:1 wave:1 semblance:1 marry:1 childhood:1 sweetheart:1 daughter:1 grace:1 unexpectedly:1 inherit:1 wealth:1 charitable:1 cause:1 appease:1 spirit:1 backgammon:2 feature:1 narrative:1 continue:1 reference:2 boardgame:1 play:2 patron:1 antique:1 board:1 bear:1 latin:1 inscription:2 ita:1 vita:1 ut:1 lusu:1 ala:1 pessima:1 jactura:1 arte:1 corrigenda:1 est:1 translate:1 game:1 hazard:1 skill:1 make:1 something:1 bad:1 throw:1 provide:1 moralistic:1 metaphor:1 end:1 overcome:1 travail:1 allusion:1 actual:1 history:1 geography:1 current:1 science:1 base:1 east:1 fleet:1 chesil:1 headland:1 call:1 snout:1 portland:1 bill:1 film:5 tv:2 theatrical:1 adaptation:1 fritz:1 lang:2 release:2 name:1 screenplay:1 adapt:1 jan:1 lustig:1 star:4 stewart:1 granger:2 movie:1 alter:1 substantially:1 young:1 hero:1 give:1 newly:1 invent:1 aristocratic:1 mentor:1 role:1 work:1 class:1 minimize:1 enjoy:1 cachet:1 french:1 critic:1 mini:1 series:1 adam:1 godley:1 david:2 daker:1 minute:1 bbc:2 radio:3 version:1 richard:1 pearce:1 tin:2 colonial:1 theatre:1 air:1 min:1 production:1 may:1 jerry:1 robbins:1 ault:1 rob:1 cattell:1 dramatize:1 deniz:1 cordell:1 produce:1 mj:1 cogburn:1 note:2 external:1 link:1 magazine:1 review:1 date:1 august:1 penguin:1 reader:1 factsheets:1 teacher:1 |@bigram carisbrooke_castle:1 coat_arm:1 fritz_lang:1 external_link:1 |
2,434 | Messenger_RNA | The "life cycle" of an mRNA in a eukaryotic cell. RNA is transcribed in the nucleus; once completely processed, it is transported to the cytoplasm and translated by the ribosome. At the end of its life, the mRNA is degraded. Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical "blueprint" for a protein product. mRNA is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries coding information to the sites of protein synthesis: the ribosomes. Here, the nucleic acid polymer is translated into a polymer of amino acids: a protein. In mRNA as in DNA, genetic information is encoded in the sequence of nucleotides arranged into codons consisting of three bases each. Each codon encodes for a specific amino acid, except the stop codons that terminate protein synthesis. This process requires two other types of RNA: transfer RNA (tRNA) mediates recognition of the codon and provides the corresponding amino acid, while ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the central component of the ribosome's protein manufacturing machinery. Synthesis, processing, and function The brief existence of an mRNA molecule begins with transcription and ultimately ends in degradation. During its life, an mRNA molecule may also be processed, edited, and transported prior to translation. Eukaryotic mRNA molecules often require extensive processing and transport, while prokaryotic molecules do not. Transcription During transcription, RNA polymerase makes a copy of a gene from the DNA to mRNA as needed. This process is similar in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. One notable difference, however, is that eukaryotic RNA polymerase associates with mRNA processing enzymes during transcription so that processing can proceed quickly after the start of transcription. The short-lived, unprocessed or partially processed, product is termed pre-mRNA; once completely processed, it is termed mature mRNA. Eukaryotic pre-mRNA processing Processing of mRNA differs greatly among eukaryotes, bacteria and archea. Non-eukaryotic mRNA is essentially mature upon transcription and requires no processing, except in rare cases. Eukaryotic pre-mRNA, however, requires extensive processing. 5' cap addition A 5' cap (also termed an RNA cap, an RNA 7-methylguanosine cap or an RNA m7G cap) is a modified guanine nucleotide that has been added to the "front" or 5' end of a eukaryotic messenger RNA shortly after the start of transcription. The 5' cap consists of a terminal 7-methylguanosine residue which is linked through a 5'-5'-triphosphate bond to the first transcribed nucleotide. Its presence is critical for recognition by the ribosome and protection from RNases. Cap addition is coupled to transcription, and occurs co-transcriptionally, such that each influences the other. Shortly after the start of transcription, the 5' end of the mRNA being synthesized is bound by a cap-synthesizing complex associated with RNA polymerase. This enzymatic complex catalyzes the chemical reactions that are required for mRNA capping. Synthesis proceeds as a multi-step biochemical reaction. Splicing Splicing is the process by which pre-mRNA is modified to remove certain stretches of non-coding sequences called introns; the stretches that remain include protein-coding sequences and are called exons. Sometimes pre-mRNA messages may be spliced in several different ways, allowing a single gene to encode multiple proteins. This process is called alternative splicing. Splicing is usually performed by an RNA-protein complex called the spliceosome, but some RNA molecules are also capable of catalyzing their own splicing (see ribozymes). Editing In some instances, an mRNA will be edited, changing the nucleotide composition of that mRNA. An example in humans is the apolipoprotein B mRNA, which is edited in some tissues, but not others. The editing creates an early stop codon, which upon translation, produces a shorter protein. Polyadenylation Polyadenylation is the covalent linkage of a polyadenylyl moiety to a messenger RNA molecule. In eukaryotic organisms, most messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules are polyadenylated at the 3' end. The poly(A) tail and the protein bound to it aid in protecting mRNA from degradation by exonucleases. Polyadenylation is also important for transcription termination, export of the mRNA from the nucleus, and translation. mRNA can also be polyadenylated in prokaryotic organisms, where poly(A) tails act to facilitate, rather than impede, exonucleolytic degradation. Polyadenylation occurs during and immediately after transcription of DNA into RNA. After transcription has been terminated, the mRNA chain is cleaved through the action of an endonuclease complex associated with RNA polymerase. After the mRNA has been cleaved, around 250 adenosine residues are added to the free 3' end at the cleavage site. This reaction is catalyzed by polyadenylate polymerase. Just as in alternative splicing, there can be more than one polyadenylation variant of a mRNA. Transport Another difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes is mRNA transport. Because eukaryotic transcription and translation is compartmentally separated, eukaryotic mRNAs must be exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Mature mRNAs are recognized by their processed modifications and then exported through the nuclear pore. In neurons mRNA must be transported from the soma to the dendrites where local translation occurs in response to external stimuli. Many messages are marked with so-called "zip codes" which targets their transport to a specific location. Translation Because prokaryotic mRNA does not need to be processed or transported, translation by the ribosome can begin immediately after the end of transcription. Therefore, it can be said that prokaryotic translation is coupled to transcription and occurs co-transcriptionally. Eukaryotic mRNA that has been processed and transported to the cytoplasm (i.e. mature mRNA) can then be translated by the ribosome. Translation may occur at ribosomes free-floating in the cytoplasm, or directed to the endoplasmic reticulum by the signal recognition particle. Therefore, unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotic translation is not directly coupled to transcription. Structure 5' cap The 5' cap is a modified guanine nucleotide added to the "front" (5' end) of the pre-mRNA using a 5'-5'-triphosphate linkage. This modification is critical for recognition and proper attachment of mRNA to the ribosome, as well as protection from 5' exonucleases. It may also be important for other essential processes, such as splicing and transport. Coding regions Coding regions are composed of codons, which are decoded and translated into one (mostly eukaryotes) or several (mostly prokaryotes) proteins by the ribosome. Coding regions begin with the start codon and end with a stop codon. Generally, the start codon is an AUG triplet and the stop codon is UAA, UAG, or UGA. The coding regions tend to be stabilised by internal base pairs, this impedes degradation. In addition to being protein-coding, portions of coding regions may serve as regulatory sequences in the pre-mRNA as exonic splicing enhancers or exonic splicing silencers. Untranslated regions Untranslated regions (UTRs) are sections of the mRNA before the start codon and after the stop codon that are not translated, termed the five prime untranslated region (5' UTR) and three prime untranslated region (3' UTR), respectively. These regions are transcribed with the coding region and thus are exonic as they are present in the mature mRNA. Several roles in gene expression have been attributed to the untranslated regions, including mRNA stability, mRNA localization, and translational efficiency. The ability of a UTR to perform these functions depends on the sequence of the UTR and can differ between mRNAs. The stability of mRNAs may be controlled by the 5' UTR and/or 3' UTR due to varying affinity for RNA degrading enzymes called ribonucleases and for ancillary proteins that can promote or inhibit RNA degradation. Translational efficiency, including sometimes the complete inhibition of translation, can be controlled by UTRs. Proteins that bind to either the 3' or 5' UTR may affect translation by influencing the ribosome's ability to bind to the mRNA. MicroRNAs bound to the 3' UTR also may affect translational efficiency or mRNA stability. Cytoplasmic localization of mRNA is thought to be a function of the 3' UTR. Proteins that are needed in a particular region of the cell can actually be translated there; in such a case, the 3' UTR may contain sequences that allow the transcript to be localized to this region for translation. Some of the elements contained in untranslated regions form a characteristic secondary structure when transcribed into RNA. These structural mRNA elements are involved in regulating the mRNA. Some, such as the SECIS element, are targets for proteins to bind. One class of mRNA element, the riboswitches, directly bind small molecules, changing their fold to modify levels of transcription or translation. In these cases, the mRNA regulates itself. Poly(A) tail The 3' poly(A) tail is a long sequence of adenine nucleotides (often several hundred) added to the 3' end of the pre-mRNA. This tail promotes export from the nucleus and translation, and protects the mRNA from degradation. Monocistronic versus polycistronic mRNA An mRNA molecule is said to be monocistronic when it contains the genetic information to translate only a single protein. This is the case for most of the eukaryotic mRNAs . On the other hand, polycistronic mRNA carries the information of several genes, which are translated into several proteins. These proteins usually have a related function and are grouped and regulated together in an operon. Most of the mRNA found in bacteria and archea are polycistronic. Dicistronic is the term used to describe an mRNA that encodes only two proteins. mRNA circularization In eukaryotes it is thought that mRNA molecules form circular structures due to an interaction between the cap binding complex and poly(A)-binding protein. Circularization is thought to promote recycling of ribosomes on the same message leading to efficient translation. Degradation Different mRNAs within the same cell have distinct lifetimes (stabilities). In bacterial cells, individual mRNAs can survive from seconds to more than an hour; in mammalian cells, mRNA lifetimes range from several minutes to days. The greater the stability of an mRNA, the more protein may be produced from that mRNA. The limited lifetime of mRNA enables a cell to alter protein synthesis rapidly in response to its changing needs. There are many mechanisms which lead to the destruction of a message, some are described below. Prokaryotic mRNA degradation In prokaryotes the lifetime of mRNA is generally much shorter than in eukaryotes. The regulation of mRNA degradation in prokaryotes is much simpler than in eukaryotes. Prokaryotes have numerous RNases which degrade messages rapidly regardless of the sequence of the mRNA. Alternatively, small RNA molecules (sRNA) of tens to hundreds of nucleotides long can recognize specific mRNAs and stimulate their degradation. Complementary sequences in the sRNA bind to the mRNA creating a double-stranded RNA molecule which is a substrate for certain classes of RNAses. It was recently shown that bacteria also have a sort of 5' cap consisting of a triphosphate on the 5' end. Removal of two of the phosphates leaves a 5' monophosphate causing the message to be destroyed by the exonuclease RNAse E. Eukaryotic mRNA turnover Inside eukaryotic cells there is a balance between the processes of translation and mRNA decay. Messages which are being actively translated are bound by polysomes, the eukaryotic initiation factors eIF-4E and eIF-4G, and poly(A)-binding protein. eIF-4E and eIF-4G block the decapping enzyme (DCP2), and poly(A)-binding protein blocks the exosome complex, protecting the message. In nutrient-starvation conditions or during viral infection translation may be compromised and decay is stimulated. The balance between translation and decay is reflected in the size and abundance of the cytoplasmic structures known as P-bodies During rounds of translation the poly-A tail of the mRNA is shortened by exonucleases. This is thought to disrupt the circular structure of the message and destabilize the cap binding complex. The message is then subject to degradation by either the exosome complex or the decapping complex. In this way inactive messages are destroyed quickly and active messages remain intact leading to selection of those messages which the cell needs at the present time. The mechanism by which translation stops and the message and is handed-off to decay complexes is not understood in detail. AU-rich element decay The presence of AU-rich elements in some mammalian mRNAs tends to destabilize those transcripts through the action of cellular proteins that bind these sequences. Rapid mRNA degradation via AU-rich elements is a critical mechanism for preventing the overproduction of potent cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF). AU-rich elements also regulate oncogenic transcription factors like c-Jun and c-Fos. Binding of proteins which recognize AU-rich elements is thought to promote decay by both the exosome complex and decapping complex. Nonsense mediated decay Eukaryotic messages are subject to surveillance by nonsense mediated decay (NMD) which checks for the presence of premature stop codons (nonsense codons) in the message. These can arise via alternative splicing, V(D)J recombination in the adaptive immune system, mutations in DNA, transcription errors, leaky scanning by the ribosome causing a frame shift, and other causes. Detection of a premature stop codon results in decay by the decapping complex from the 5' end, the exosome complex from the 3' end, or endonucleolytic cleavage. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) In metazoans, small double-stranded RNA that is processed by Dicer is incorporated into a complex known as the RNA-induced silencing complex or RISC. This complex contains an endonuclease that cleaves the message leading to destruction of both fragments by exonucleases. siRNA is commonly used in laboratories to block the function of genes in cell culture. It is thought to be part of the innate immune system as a defense against double-stranded RNA viruses. MicroRNA (miRNA) MicroRNA (miRNA) are small RNAs that are partially complementary to a sequence in a messenger RNA. Binding of the miRNA to the mRNA can lead to repression of translation of the message or removal of the 5' cap by the decapping complex. The method of action of miRNA is the subject of active research. Other decay mechanisms There are other ways which messages can be decayed including Non-stop decay, silencing by Piwi-interacting RNA, and surely other means. References External links Life of mRNA Flash animation | Messenger_RNA |@lemmatized life:4 cycle:1 mrna:82 eukaryotic:17 cell:9 rna:30 transcribe:4 nucleus:4 completely:2 process:13 transport:10 cytoplasm:4 translate:9 ribosome:12 end:13 degrade:3 messenger:5 ribonucleic:1 acid:5 molecule:13 encode:5 chemical:2 blueprint:1 protein:26 product:2 dna:5 template:1 carry:2 cod:6 information:4 site:2 synthesis:5 nucleic:1 polymer:2 amino:3 genetic:2 sequence:11 nucleotide:7 arrange:1 codon:15 consist:2 three:2 base:2 specific:3 except:2 stop:9 terminate:2 require:5 two:3 type:1 transfer:1 trna:1 mediate:3 recognition:4 provide:1 corresponding:1 ribosomal:1 rrna:1 central:1 component:1 manufacture:1 machinery:1 processing:8 function:5 brief:1 existence:1 begin:3 transcription:19 ultimately:1 degradation:12 may:11 also:9 edit:5 prior:1 translation:22 often:2 extensive:2 prokaryotic:5 polymerase:5 make:1 copy:1 gene:5 need:5 similar:1 eukaryote:6 prokaryote:5 one:4 notable:1 difference:2 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2,435 | Chemical_element | The periodic table of the chemical elements A chemical element is a pure chemical substance consisting of one type of atom distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number of protons in its nucleus. The term is also used to refer to a pure chemical substance composed of atoms with the same number of protons. Common examples of elements are iron, copper, silver, gold, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. In total, 117 elements have been observed as of 2008, of which 94 occur naturally on Earth. 80 elements have stable isotopes, namely all elements with atomic numbers 1 to 82, except elements 43 and 61 (technetium and promethium). Elements with atomic numbers 83 or higher (bismuth and above) are inherently unstable, and undergo radioactive decay. The elements from atomic number 83 to 94 have no stable nuclei, but are nevertheless found in nature, either surviving as remnants of the primordial stellar nucleosynthesis which produced the elements in the solar system, or else produced as short-lived daughter-isotopes through the natural decay of uranium and thorium. A. Earnshaw, Norman Greenwood. Chemistry of the Elements, Second Edition. Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997 All chemical matter consists of these elements. New elements of higher atomic number are discovered from time to time, as products of artificial nuclear reactions. History Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table Several old philosophies used a set of archetypal classical elements to explain patterns in nature. The term 'element' was originally used to refer to a state of matter (solid/earth, liquid/water, gas/air, and plasma/fire) or a phase of matter (as in the Chinese Wu Xing), rather than the chemical elements of modern science. The Greek, Indian (Tattva and Mahābhūta) and Japanese (go dai) traditions essentially had the same five elements: Air, Earth, Fire, Water and Aether. The term 'elements' (stoicheia) was first used by the Greek philosopher Plato in about 360 BCE, in his dialogue Timaeus, which includes a discussion of the composition of inorganic and organic bodies and is a rudimentary treatise on chemistry. Plato assumed that the minute particle of each element corresponded to one of the regular polyhedra: tetrahedron (fire), octahedron (air), icosahedron (water), and cube (earth). Adding to the four elements of the Greek philosopher Empedocles, in about 350 BC, Aristotle also used the term "element" and conceived of a fifth element called "quintessence", which formed the heavens. Aristotle defined an element as: Building on the theory in circa 790, Arab/Persian chemist and alchemist, Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), postulated that metals were formed out of two elements: sulphur, ‘the stone which burns’, which characterized the principle of combustibility, and mercury, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Strathern, Paul. (2000). Mendeleyev’s Dream – the Quest for the Elements. New York: Berkley Books. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into the Arabic concept of the three principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and salt giving solidity. In the 10th century, Persian physician and alchemist Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) wrote the Doubts concerning Galen, in which he refuted both the Galenic medical theory of four humours and the underlying ancient concept of four classical elements. He carried out an experiment which would upset these theories by inserting a liquid with a different temperature into a body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Razi noted particularly that a warm drink would heat up the body to a degree much higher than its own natural temperature, thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. Razi's chemical experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as "oiliness" and "sulfurousness", or inflammability and salinity, which were not readily explained by the traditional fire, water, earth and air division of elements. G. Stolyarov II (2002), "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", The Rational Argumentator, Issue VI In 1524, Swiss chemist Paracelsus adopted Aristotle’s four element theory, but reasoned that they appeared in bodies as Geber’s three principles. Paracelsus saw these principles as fundamental, and justified them by recourse to the description of how wood burns in fire. Mercury included the cohesive principle, so that when it left in smoke the wood fell apart. Smoke represented the volatility (the mercury principle), the heat-giving flames represented flammability (sulphur), and the remnant ash represented solidity (salt). In 1669, German physician and chemist Johann Becher published his Physica Subterranea. In modification on the ideas of Paracelsus, he argued that the constituents of bodies are air, water, and three types of earth: terra fluida, the mercurial element, which contributes fluidity and volatility; terra lapida, the solidifying element, which produces fusibility or the binding quality; and terra pinguis, the fatty element, which gives material substance its oily and combustible qualities. Partington, J.R. (1937). A Short History of Chemistry. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. These three earths correspond with Geber’s three principles. A piece of wood, for example, according to Becher, is composed of ash and terra pinguis; when the wood is burnt, the terra pinguis is released, leaving the ash. In other words, in combustion the fatty earth burns away. In 1661, Robert Boyle showed that there were more than just four classical elements as the ancients had assumed. The first modern list of chemical elements was given in Antoine Lavoisier's 1789 Elements of Chemistry, which contained thirty-three elements, including light and caloric. By 1818, Jöns Jakob Berzelius had determined atomic weights for forty-five of the forty-nine accepted elements. Dmitri Mendeleev had sixty-six elements in his periodic table of 1869. From Boyle until the early 20th century, an element was defined as a pure substance that cannot be decomposed into any simpler substance. Put another way, a chemical element cannot be transformed into other chemical elements by chemical processes. In 1913, Henry Moseley discovered that the physical basis of the atomic number of the atom was its nuclear charge, which eventually led to the current definition. The current definition also avoids some ambiguities due to isotopes and allotropes. By 1919, there were seventy-two known elements. In 1955, element 101 was discovered and named mendelevium in honor of Mendeleev, the first to arrange the elements in a periodic manner. In October 2006, the synthesis of element 118 was reported; however, element 117 has not yet been created in the laboratory. Description The lightest elements are hydrogen and helium, both theoretically created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis during the first 20 minutes of the universe in a ratio of around 3:1 by mass (approximately 12:1 by number of atoms). Almost all other elements found in nature, including some further hydrogen and helium created since then, were made by various natural or (at times) artificial methods of nucleosynthesis, including occasionally breakdown activities such as nuclear fission, alpha decay, cluster decay, and cosmic ray spallation. As of 2006, there are 117 known elements (in this context, "known" means observed well enough, even from just a few decay products, to have been differentiated from any other element). Of these 117 elements, 94 occur naturally on Earth. Six of these occur in extreme trace quantities: technetium, atomic number 43; promethium, number 61; astatine, number 85; francium, number 87; neptunium, number 93; and plutonium, number 94. These 94 elements, and also possibly element 98 californium, have been detected in the universe at large, in the spectra of stars and also supernovae, where short-lived radioactive elements are newly being made. The remaining 22 elements, not found on Earth or in astronomical spectra, have been derived artificially. All of the elements that are derived solely through artificial means are radioactive with very short half-lives; if any atoms of these elements were present at the formation of Earth, they are extremely likely to have already decayed, and if present in novae, have been in quantities too small to have been noted. Technetium was the first purportedly non-naturally occurring element to be synthesized, in 1937, although trace amounts of technetium have since been found in nature, and the element may have been discovered naturally in 1925. This pattern of artificial production and later natural discovery has been repeated with several other radioactive naturally occurring trace elements. Lists of the elements are available by name, by symbol, by atomic number, by density, by melting point, and by boiling point as well as Ionization energies of the elements. The most convenient presentation of the elements is in the periodic table, which groups elements with similar chemical properties together. Atomic number The atomic number of an element, Z, is equal to the number of protons which defines the element. For example, all carbon atoms contain 6 protons in their nucleus; so the atomic number "Z" of carbon is 6. Carbon atoms may have different numbers of neutrons, which are known as isotopes of the element. The number of protons in the atomic nucleus also determines its electric charge, which in turn determines the electrons of the atom in its non-ionized state. This in turn (by means of the Pauli exclusion principle) determines the atom's various chemical properties. So all carbon atoms, for example, ultimately have identical chemical properties because they all have the same number of protons in their nucleus, and therefore have the same atomic number. It is for this reason that atomic number rather than mass number (or atomic weight) is considered the identifying characteristic of an element. Atomic mass The mass number of an element, A, is the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus. Different isotopes of a given element are distinguished by their mass numbers, which are conventionally written as a super-index on the left hand side of the atomic symbol (e.g., 238U). The relative atomic mass of an element is the average of the atomic masses of all the chemical element's isotopes as found in a particular environment, weighted by isotopic abundance, relative to the atomic mass unit (u). This number may be a fraction which is not close to a whole number, due to the averaging process. On the other hand, the atomic mass of a pure isotope is quite close to its mass number. Whereas the mass number is a natural (or whole) number, the atomic mass of a single isotope is a real number which is close to a natural number. In general, it differs slightly from the mass number as the mass of the protons and neutrons is not exactly 1 u, the electrons also contribute slightly to the atomic mass, and because of the nuclear binding energy. For example, the mass of 19F is 18.9984032 u. The only exception to the atomic mass of an isotope not being a natural number is 12C, which has a mass of exactly 12, due to the definition of u (it is fixed as 1/12th of the mass of a free carbon-12 atom, exactly). Isotopes Isotopes are atoms of the same element (that is, with the same number of protons in their atomic nucleus), but having different numbers of neutrons. Most (66 of 94) naturally occurring elements have more than one stable isotope. Thus, for example, there are three main isotopes of carbon. All carbon atoms have 6 protons in the nucleus, but they can have either 6, 7, or 8 neutrons. Since the mass numbers of these are 12, 13 and 14 respectively, the three isotopes of carbon are known as carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14, often abbreviated to <sup>12</sub>C, <sup>13</sub>C, and <sup>14</sub>C. Carbon in everyday life and in chemistry is a mixture of <sup>12</sub>C, <sup>13</sub>C, and <sup>14</sub>C atoms. Except in the case of the isotopes of hydrogen (which differ greatly from each other in relative mass-- enough to cause chemical effects), the isotopes of the various elements are typically chemically nearly indistinquishable from each other. For example, the three naturally-occuring isotopes of carbon have essentially the same chemical properties, but different nuclear properties. In this example, carbon-12 and carbon-13 are stable atoms, but carbon-14 is unstable; it is radioactive, undergoing beta decay into nitrogen-14. As illustrated by carbon, all of the elements have some isotopes which are radioactive ([radioisotopes]]), which decay into other elements upon radiating an alpha or beta particle. Certain elements only have radioactive isotopes: specifically the elements without any stable isotopes are technetium (atomic number 43), promethium (atomic number 61), and all observed elements with atomic numbers greater than 82. Of the 80 elements with at least one stable isotope, 26 have only one stable isotope, and the mean number of stable isotopes for the 80 stable elements is 3.1 stable isotopes per element. The largest number of stable isotopes that occur for an element is 10 (for tin, element 50). Allotropes Atoms of pure elements may bond to each other chemically in more than one way, allowing the pure element to exist in multiple structures (spacial arrangements of atoms), known as allotropes, which differ in their properties. For example, carbon can be found as diamond, which has a tetrahedral structure around each carbon atom; graphite, which has layers of carbon atoms with a hexagonal structure stacked on top of each other; graphene, which is a single layer of graphite which is incredibly strong; fullerenes, which have nearly spherical shapes; and carbon nanotubes, which are tubes with a hexagonal structure (even these may differ from each other in electrical properties). The ability for an element to exist in one of many structural forms is known as 'allotropy'. Standard state The standard state, or reference state, of an element is defined as its thermodynamically most stable state at 1 bar at a given temperature (typically at 298.15 K). In thermochemistry, an element is defined to have an enthalpy of formation of zero in its standard state. For example, the reference state for carbon is graphite, because it is more stable than the other allotropes. Nomenclature The naming of elements precedes the atomic theory of matter, although at the time it was not known which chemicals were elements and which compounds. When it was learned, existing names (e.g., gold, mercury, iron) were kept in most countries, and national differences emerged over the names of elements either for convenience, linguistic niceties, or nationalism. For example, the Germans use "Wasserstoff" for "hydrogen", "Sauerstoff" for "oxygen" and "Stickstoff" for "nitrogen", while English and some romance languages use "sodium" for "natrium" and "potassium" for "kalium", and the French, Italians, Greeks, Portuguese and Poles prefer "azote/azot/azoto" for "nitrogen". But for international trade, the official names of the chemical elements both ancient and recent are decided by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, which has decided on a sort of international English language. That organization has recently prescribed that "aluminium" and "caesium" take the place of the US spellings "aluminum" and "cesium", while the US "sulfur" takes the place of the British "sulphur". But chemicals which are practicable to be sold in bulk within many countries, however, still have national names, and those which do not use the Latin alphabet cannot be expected to use the IUPAC name. According to IUPAC, the full name of an element is not capitalized, even if it is derived from a proper noun such as the elements californium or einsteinium (unless it would be capitalized by some other rule, such as to begin a sentence). Isotopes of chemical elements are also uncapitalized if written out: carbon-12 or uranium-235. Symbols of chemical elements, however, are capitalized: thus the symbols for the elements just discussed are Cf and Es; C-12 and U-235. In the second half of the twentieth century physics laboratories became able to produce nuclei of chemical elements that have a half life too short for them to remain in any appreciable amounts. These are also named by IUPAC, which generally adopts the name chosen by the discoverer. This can lead to the controversial question of which research group actually discovered an element, a question which delayed the naming of elements with atomic number of 104 and higher for a considerable time. (See element naming controversy). Precursors of such controversies involved the nationalistic namings of elements in the late nineteenth century. For example, lutetium was named in reference to Paris, France. The Germans were reluctant to relinquish naming rights to the French, often calling it cassiopeium. The British discoverer of niobium originally named it columbium, in reference to the New World. It was used extensively as such by American publications prior to international standardization. Chemical symbols For the listing of current and not used Chemical symbols, and other symbols that look like chemical symbols, please see List of elements by symbol. Specific chemical elements Before chemistry became a science, alchemists had designed arcane symbols for both metals and common compounds. These were however used as abbreviations in diagrams or procedures; there was no concept of atoms combining to form molecules. With his advances in the atomic theory of matter, John Dalton devised his own simpler symbols, based on circles, which were to be used to depict molecules. The current system of chemical notation was invented by Berzelius. In this typographical system chemical symbols are not used as mere abbreviations - though each consists of letters of the Latin alphabet - they are symbols intended to be used by peoples of all languages and alphabets. The first of these symbols were intended to be fully universal; since Latin was the common language of science at that time, they were abbreviations based on the Latin names of metals - Fe comes from Ferrum, Ag from Argentum. The symbols were not followed by a period (full stop) as abbreviations were. Later chemical elements were also assigned unique chemical symbols, based on the name of the element, but not necessarily in English. For example, sodium has the chemical symbol 'Na' after the Latin natrium. The same applies to "W" (wolfram) for tungsten, "Hg" (hydrargyrum) for mercury, "K" (kalium) for potassium, "Au" (aurum) for gold, "Pb" (plumbum) for lead, and "Sb" (stibium) for antimony. Chemical symbols are understood internationally when element names might need to be translated. There are sometimes differences; for example, the Germans have used "J" instead of "I" for iodine, so the character would not be confused with a roman numeral. The first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized, as in the preceding examples, and the subsequent letters, if any, are always lower case (small letters). General chemical symbols There are also symbols for series of chemical elements, for comparative formulas. These are one capital letter in length, and the letters are reserved so they are not permitted to be given for the names of specific elements. For example, an "X" is used to indicate a variable group amongst a class of compounds (though usually a halogen), while "R" is used for a radical, meaning a compound structure such as a hydrocarbon chain. The letter "Q" is reserved for "heat" in a chemical reaction. "Y" is also often used as a general chemical symbol, although it is also the symbol of yttrium. "Z" is also frequently used as a general variable group. "L" is used to represent a general ligand in inorganic and organometallic chemistry. "M" is also often used in place of a general metal. Isotope symbols The three main isotopes of the element hydrogen are often written as H for protium, D for deuterium and T for tritium. This is in order to make it easier to use them in chemical equations, as it replaces the need to write out the mass number for each atom. It is written like this: D2O (heavy water) Instead of writing it like this: ²H2O The periodic table The periodic table of the chemical elements is a tabular method of displaying the chemical elements. Although precursors to this table exist, its invention is generally credited to Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. Mendeleev intended the table to illustrate recurring ("periodic") trends in the properties of the elements. The layout of the table has been refined and extended over time, as new elements have been discovered, and new theoretical models have been developed to explain chemical behavior. The periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of chemistry, providing an extremely useful framework to classify, systematize and compare all the many different forms of chemical behavior. The table has also found wide application in physics, biology, engineering, and industry. The current standard table contains 117 confirmed elements as of March 10, 2009 (while element 118 has been synthesized, element 117 has not). Abundance During the early phases of the Big Bang, nucleosynthesis of hydrogen nuclei resulted in the production of hydrogen and helium isotopes, as well as very minuscule amounts (on the order of 10-10) of lithium and beryllium. There is argument about whether or not some boron was produced in the Big Bang, as it has been observed in some very young stars, Hubble Observations Bring Some Surprises - New York Times but no heavier elements than boron were produced. As a result, the primordial abundance of atoms consisted of roughly 75% 1H, 25% 4He, and 0.01% deuterium. Subsequent enrichment of galactic halos occurred due to Stellar nucleosynthesis and Supernova nucleosynthesis. However intergalactic space can still closely resemble the primordial abundance, unless it has been enriched by some means. ElementParts per millionby massHydrogen739,000Helium240,000Oxygen10,400Carbon4,600Neon1,340Iron1,090Nitrogen960Silicon650Magnesium580Sulfur440Potassium210Nickel100 The following graph (note log scale) shows abundance of elements in our solar system. The table shows the twelve most common elements in our galaxy (estimated spectroscopically), as measured in parts per million, by mass. Nearby galaxies that have evolved along similar lines have a corresponding enrichment of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. The more distant galaxies are being viewed as they appeared in the past, so their abundances of elements appear closer to the primordial mixture. As physical laws and processes appear common throughout the visible universe, however, it is expected that these galaxies will likewise have evolved similar abundances of elements. Abundances of the chemical elements: Solar system abundances Recently discovered element claims The first transuranium element (element with atomic number greater than 92) discovered was neptunium in 1940. As of August 2007, only the elements up to 111, roentgenium, have been confirmed as valid by IUPAC, while more or less reliable claims have been made for synthesis of elements 112, 113, 114, 115, 116 and 118. The heaviest element that is believed to have been synthesized to date is element 118, ununoctium, on October 9, 2006, by the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna, Russia. Element 117, ununseptium, has not yet been created or discovered, but its place in the periodic table is preestablished. On April 24, 2008, Amnon Marinov and six other researchers claimed that element 122 has been detected in purified natural thorium. This is the first naturally occurring heavy element in more than 50 years. It has yet to be proved as it is still under confirmation by the university but could be a major development as previously all transuranic elements were artificial. The claim of Marinov et al. was criticized by a part of the scientific community, and Marinov says he has submitted the article to the journals Nature and Nature Physics but both turned it down without sending it for peer review. See also Abundance of the chemical elements Compound Chemical symbol Chemistry Discovery of the chemical elements Elements song Fictional element Goldschmidt classification Island of stability List of chemical element name etymologies List of elements by atomic number List of elements by name Periodic table Systematic element name Prices of elements and their compounds A New Model of the Atom References E.R. Scerri, The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance, Oxford University Press, NY, 2007. 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2,436 | International_Society_of_Olympic_Historians | The International Society of Olympic Historians (ISOH) is a non-profit organization founded in 1991 with the purpose of promoting and studying the Olympic Movement and the Olympic Games. The majority of recent books on the Olympic Games have been written by ISOH members. The ISOH publishes the Journal of Olympic History (JOH, formerly Citius, Altius, Fortius) three times a year. History The International Society of Olympic Historians (ISOH) was formed as the result of a meeting in London, England in December 1991. The idea of forming an Olympic historical society had been the subject of correspondence – mainly between Bill Mallon (United States) and Ture Widlund (Sweden) – for many years. On Thursday, 5 December 1991, a group of potential members met at the Duke of Clarence, a small pub in the Kensington section of London. Those present were Ian Buchanan (Great Britain), Stan Greenberg (Great Britain), Ove Karlsson (Sweden), Bill Mallon (United States), Peter Matthews (Great Britain), David Wallechinsky (United States), and Ture Widlund (Sweden). The invited guests who sent regrets were: Anthony Bijkerk (Netherlands), Peter Diamond (United States), Pim Huurman (Netherlands), Erich Kamper (Austria), Volker Kluge (Germany), John Lucas (United States), and Wolf Lyberg (Sweden). ISOH was formed with the purpose of promoting and studying the Olympic Movement and the Olympic Games. This purpose is achieved primarily through research into their history, through the gathering of historical and statistical data concerning the Olympic Movement and Olympic Games, through the publication of the research via journals and other publications, and through the cooperation of the membership. The ISOH publishes the Journal of Olympic History (formerly Citius, Altius, Fortius) three times a year. , the ISOH has about 340 members from 48 nations.ISOH 2007, cited. The membership includes well-known Olympic historians and researchers on Olympic topics. The majority of recent books on the Olympic Games have been written by ISOH members. Over 20 ISOH members have received the Olympic Order for their contributions to the Olympic Movement, and several members of the IOC and several Olympians are members.ISOH 2007, cited. From its inception to 2000, Ian Buchanan has been the president of the ISOH. In 2000, this function was taken over by Bill Mallon. See also Sports history organizations References Sources consulted Endnotes External links ISOH.org – official website | International_Society_of_Olympic_Historians |@lemmatized international:2 society:3 olympic:17 historian:3 isoh:13 non:1 profit:1 organization:2 found:1 purpose:3 promote:2 study:2 movement:4 game:5 majority:2 recent:2 book:2 write:2 member:7 publish:2 journal:3 history:5 joh:1 formerly:2 citius:2 altius:2 fortius:2 three:2 time:2 year:3 form:3 result:1 meeting:1 london:2 england:1 december:2 idea:1 historical:2 subject:1 correspondence:1 mainly:1 bill:3 mallon:3 united:5 state:5 ture:2 widlund:2 sweden:4 many:1 thursday:1 group:1 potential:1 meet:1 duke:1 clarence:1 small:1 pub:1 kensington:1 section:1 present:1 ian:2 buchanan:2 great:3 britain:3 stan:1 greenberg:1 ove:1 karlsson:1 peter:2 matthew:1 david:1 wallechinsky:1 invited:1 guest:1 send:1 regret:1 anthony:1 bijkerk:1 netherlands:2 diamond:1 pim:1 huurman:1 erich:1 kamper:1 austria:1 volker:1 kluge:1 germany:1 john:1 lucas:1 wolf:1 lyberg:1 achieve:1 primarily:1 research:2 gathering:1 statistical:1 data:1 concern:1 publication:2 via:1 cooperation:1 membership:2 nation:1 cite:2 include:1 well:1 know:1 researcher:1 topic:1 receive:1 order:1 contribution:1 several:2 ioc:1 olympian:1 inception:1 president:1 function:1 take:1 see:1 also:1 sport:1 reference:1 source:1 consult:1 endnotes:1 external:1 link:1 org:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram invited_guest:1 external_link:1 |
2,437 | Gracchi | The Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, were a pair of tribunes in 2nd century BC who attempted to pass land reform legislation in Ancient Rome that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. For this legislation and their membership in the Populares party they are deemed the founding fathers of both socialism and populism (other populists prefer Spartacus or the latter Populares as Julius Caesar as their predecessors by members of both ideologies trying to find immemorial roots to their movements). Both were assassinated for their efforts. The brothers were born to a progressive patrician family – their mother being Cornelia Africana, the daughter of Scipio Africanus. Early life After the boys' father died young, responsibility for their education fell to their mother. Cornelia ensured the brothers had the best available Greek tutors, teaching them oratory and political science, from which they were taught the view that in a democracy all the power rightly belongs to the people. The brothers were also well trained in martial pursuits; in horsemanship and combat they outshone all their peers. The older brother Tiberius was the most distinguished of the young officers in the last campaign against Carthage, where he was the first to scale the walls. As they grew up they futher developed strong connections with the ruling elite. The Gracchi reforms Background Central to the Gracchi reforms was an attempt to address economic distress. Recent trends were seeing peasants pushed off their farms by rich landowners. The peasants were often forced into idleness in Rome where they subsisted on hand outs, with their old lands being worked by slaves. A related issue concerned the demand for troops overseas. Problems in the army during the second century BC were rife. There were recruitment difficulties, with wars being fought in the east and in Spain, as well as mutinies. Traditionally one of the rewards for military service was to be granted an allotment of public land – in return the new farmers and their descendants would be subject to legionary service. The difficulty was that public lands had already been divided out to large landholders or speculators, causing protests. The efforts of Tiberius Gracchus Tiberius was elected to the office of tribune in 133BC. He immediately began pushing for a programme of land reform, partly by invoking an old Licinian law that limited the amount of land that could be owned by a single individual. Using the powers of Lex Hortensia , Tiberius established a commission to oversee the redistribution of land holdings from patricians to peasants. The commission consisting of himself, his father in law and his brother Gaius. Even liberal senators were agitated, fearing their own lands would be confiscated. Senators arranged for other tribunes to oppose Tiberius's reforms, and he responded with an appeal to the people, and an argument that a tribune who opposes the will of the people in favour of the rich is no true tribune at all. The senators were left with only one constitutional response – to threaten prosecution once Tiberius's term as a tribune came to an end. This necessitated Tiberius to stand for a second term . The senators obstructed the re-election and after gathering together an ad hoc force, several personally marched to the forum where they had Tiberius and some 300 of his supporters clubbed to death. This was the first time blood had been shed in Roman Politics for nearly four centuries . Tiberius's land reform commission continued distributing lands, albeit at a much slower pace than Tiberius had envisaged, as Senators were able to eliminate many of its supporters by legal means. The efforts of Gaius Gracchus Ten years later in 123BC Gaius took the same office as his brother, as a tribune for the plebeians. Gaius was more practically minded than Tiberius, and therefore considered more dangerous by the patricians. As well as gaining support from the agrarian poor by reviving the land reform programme and from the urban plebeians with various popular measures, Gaius sought support from the second estate, those equestrians who had not ascended to become senators. Many equestrians were publicans, in charge of tax-collecting in Asia and of contracting for construction projects. The equestrian class would get to control a court that tried senators for misconduct in provincial administration. In effect, the equestrians replaced senators already serving at the court. Thus, Gaius became an opponent of senatorial influence. Fixing prices on grain for the urban population and granting improvements in citizenship for Latins and others outside the city were other reforms made. With this broad coalition of supporters, Gaius was able to hold office for two years, with much of the prepared legislation passed. However Gaius's plans to extend rights to non Roman Italians were eventually vetoed by another Tribune. A substantial proportion of the plebeians, jealous of their privileged Roman citizenship, turned against Gaius. With Gaius's support from the people weakened, the consul Lucius Opimius was able to crush the Gracchan movement by force – Gaius himself was killed and about 3000 of his supporters also died in the fighting or in emergency execution shortly afterwards. Reasons for failure A problem for Gaius's aims was that the Roman constitution, specifically the Tribal Assembly, was designed to prevent any one individual governing for a sustained period of time – and there were several other checks and balances to prevent power being concentrated on any one person. Another reason for the efforts' failures was the Gracchi's idealism; they were deaf to the baser notes of human nature and failed to appreciate how corrupt and selfish all sections of Roman society had become. According to Oswald Spengler, the characteristic mistake of the Gracchan age was to believe in the possibility of the reversibility of history – a form of idealism shared by both sides of political spectrum – Cato had sought to turn back the clock to the time of Cincinnatus, and restore virtue by making people uncomfortable. Aftermath The new forces of urban factions, rural voters, and equestrian class members meant that the problem of effective governance awaited resolution. References External links * translation of Book 1 of The Civil Wars'' a history by Appian | Gracchi |@lemmatized gracchi:4 brother:7 tiberius:12 gaius:13 pair:1 tribune:8 century:3 bc:2 attempt:2 pass:2 land:11 reform:8 legislation:3 ancient:1 rome:2 would:4 redistribute:1 major:1 patrician:4 landholding:1 among:1 plebeian:4 membership:1 populares:2 party:1 deem:1 found:1 father:3 socialism:1 populism:1 populist:1 prefer:1 spartacus:1 latter:1 julius:1 caesar:1 predecessor:1 member:2 ideology:1 try:2 find:1 immemorial:1 root:1 movement:2 assassinate:1 effort:4 bear:1 progressive:1 family:1 mother:2 cornelia:2 africana:1 daughter:1 scipio:1 africanus:1 early:1 life:1 boy:1 die:2 young:2 responsibility:1 education:1 fell:1 ensure:1 best:1 available:1 greek:1 tutor:1 teach:2 oratory:1 political:2 science:1 view:1 democracy:1 power:3 rightly:1 belong:1 people:5 also:2 well:3 train:1 martial:1 pursuit:1 horsemanship:1 combat:1 outshine:1 peer:1 old:3 distinguished:1 officer:1 last:1 campaign:1 carthage:1 first:2 scale:1 wall:1 grow:1 futher:1 develop:1 strong:1 connection:1 rule:1 elite:1 background:1 central:1 address:1 economic:1 distress:1 recent:1 trend:1 see:1 peasant:3 push:2 farm:1 rich:2 landowner:1 often:1 force:4 idleness:1 subsist:1 hand:1 work:1 slave:1 related:1 issue:1 concern:1 demand:1 troops:1 overseas:1 problem:3 army:1 second:3 rife:1 recruitment:1 difficulty:2 war:2 fight:1 east:1 spain:1 mutiny:1 traditionally:1 one:4 reward:1 military:1 service:2 grant:2 allotment:1 public:2 return:1 new:2 farmer:1 descendant:1 subject:1 legionary:1 already:2 divide:1 large:1 landholder:1 speculator:1 cause:1 protest:1 gracchus:2 elect:1 office:3 immediately:1 begin:1 programme:2 partly:1 invoke:1 licinian:1 law:2 limit:1 amount:1 could:1 single:1 individual:2 use:1 lex:1 hortensia:1 establish:1 commission:3 oversee:1 redistribution:1 holding:1 consisting:1 even:1 liberal:1 senator:8 agitate:1 fear:1 confiscate:1 arrange:1 oppose:2 respond:1 appeal:1 argument:1 favour:1 true:1 leave:1 constitutional:1 response:1 threaten:1 prosecution:1 term:2 come:1 end:1 necessitated:1 stand:1 obstruct:1 election:1 gather:1 together:1 ad:1 hoc:1 several:2 personally:1 march:1 forum:1 supporter:4 club:1 death:1 time:3 blood:1 shed:1 roman:5 politics:1 nearly:1 four:1 continue:1 distribute:1 albeit:1 much:2 slow:1 pace:1 envisage:1 able:3 eliminate:1 many:2 legal:1 mean:2 ten:1 year:2 later:1 take:1 practically:1 mind:1 therefore:1 consider:1 dangerous:1 gain:1 support:3 agrarian:1 poor:1 revive:1 urban:3 various:1 popular:1 measure:1 seek:2 estate:1 equestrian:5 ascend:1 become:3 publican:1 charge:1 tax:1 collecting:1 asia:1 contract:1 construction:1 project:1 class:2 get:1 control:1 court:2 misconduct:1 provincial:1 administration:1 effect:1 replace:1 serve:1 thus:1 opponent:1 senatorial:1 influence:1 fix:1 price:1 grain:1 population:1 improvement:1 citizenship:2 latin:1 others:1 outside:1 city:1 make:2 broad:1 coalition:1 hold:1 two:1 prepared:1 however:1 plan:1 extend:1 right:1 non:1 italian:1 eventually:1 veto:1 another:2 substantial:1 proportion:1 jealous:1 privileged:1 turn:2 weaken:1 consul:1 lucius:1 opimius:1 crush:1 gracchan:2 kill:1 fighting:1 emergency:1 execution:1 shortly:1 afterwards:1 reason:2 failure:2 aim:1 constitution:1 specifically:1 tribal:1 assembly:1 design:1 prevent:2 governing:1 sustained:1 period:1 check:1 balance:1 concentrate:1 person:1 idealism:2 deaf:1 baser:1 note:1 human:1 nature:1 fail:1 appreciate:1 corrupt:1 selfish:1 section:1 society:1 accord:1 oswald:1 spengler:1 characteristic:1 mistake:1 age:1 believe:1 possibility:1 reversibility:1 history:2 form:1 share:1 side:1 spectrum:1 cato:1 back:1 clock:1 cincinnatus:1 restore:1 virtue:1 uncomfortable:1 aftermath:1 faction:1 rural:1 voter:1 effective:1 governance:1 await:1 resolution:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 translation:1 book:1 civil:1 appian:1 |@bigram julius_caesar:1 scipio_africanus:1 ad_hoc:1 shortly_afterwards:1 oswald_spengler:1 external_link:1 |
2,438 | 1903_World_Series | The 1903 World Series, the first modern World Series to be played in Major League Baseball, matched the Boston American League club against the Pittsburgh Pirates in a best-of-nine series, with Boston prevailing five games to three, winning the last four. Pittsburgh pitcher Sam Leever injured his shoulder while trap-shooting, so his teammate Deacon Phillippe had to pitch five complete games for Pittsburgh. Phillippe won three of his games, but it was not enough to overcome the club from the new American League. Boston pitchers Bill Dinneen and Cy Young led Boston to victory. In Game 1, Phillippe set a World Series record by striking out ten Boston batters. That record lasted barely one day, as Dinneen struck out eleven Pittsburgh batters in Game 2. A crowd overflows the playing field prior to Game 3 of the 1903 World Series. Honus Wagner, bothered by injuries, batted only 6 for 27 (.222) in the Series and committed six errors. The shortstop was deeply distraught by his performance. The following spring, Wagner (who led the league in 1903 in batting average) refused to send his portrait to a "Hall of Fame" for batting champions. "I was too bum last year," he wrote. "I was a joke in that Boston-Pittsburgh Series. What does it profit a man to hammer along and make a few hits when they are not needed only to fall down when it comes to a pinch? I would be ashamed to have my picture up now." DeValeria, p. 138 In this World Series, the Boston Americans came back from a three games to one deficit, winning the final four games (in a best-of-nine Series rather than the now standard best-of-seven). Such a comeback would not happen again until the Pirates came back to defeat the Washington Senators in the 1925 World Series, and has happened only ten times in baseball history. The Pirates repeated this feat in 1979 against the Baltimore Orioles.</s> Much was made of the influence of Boston's "Royal Rooters," who traveled to Pittsburgh and sang their theme song "Tessie" to distract the opposing players (especially Honus Wagner). Boston would end up winning three out of the four games at Pittsburgh. Crowd outside the 1903 World Series The Pirates' benevolent owner Barney Dreyfuss added his share of the gate receipts to the players' share, so the losing team's players actually finished with a larger individual share than the winning team's. The Series brought the new American League prestige and proved its best could beat the best of the National League, thus strengthening the demand for future World Series competitions. Background Earlier post-season contests The winners of the National League and American Association had played post-season contests from 1884 to 1891 called "The Championship of the United States" and "World's Championship Series". The Series ended when the American Association folded in 1891. The National League did hold a series of post-season contests on and off between its first and second place finisher for the rest of the decade. The Brooklyn Dodgers (then called the Superbas) and Pittsburgh Pirates, who finished first and second in 1900, played a five-game playoff in Pittsburgh that the Dodgers won three games to one.<ref>DeValeria, Dennis and Jeanne Burke, Honus Wagner: A Biography. Pittsburgh; University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995, pp. 85–86</ref> A new league In 1901, Ban Johnson, president of the Western League, a minor league organization, formed the American League to take advantage of the National League's 1900 contraction from twelve teams to eight. Johnson and fellow owners raided the senior circuit and signed away many star players, including Cy Young and Jimmy Collins. Johnson had a list of 46 National Leaguers he targeted for the American League; by 1902, all but one had made the jump. DeValeria, p. 99 . The constant raiding, however, scotched the idea of a championship between the two leagues. Pirates owner Barney Dreyfuss, whose team ran away with the 1902 National League pennant, was open to a post-season contest and even said he would allow the American League champion to stock his roster with All-Stars. DeValeria, p. 105 However, Johnson had spoken of putting a team in Pittsburgh and even attempted to raid the Pirates' rosters in August 1902, which soured Dreyfuss. At the end of the season, though, the Pirates played a group of American League All-Stars in a four-game exhibition series, winning two games to one, with one tie. DeValeria, 102 The leagues finally called a truce in the winter of 1902–03 and formed the National Commission to preside over organized baseball. The following season, the Boston Americans and Pittsburgh Pirates had secured their pennants by September. That August, Dreyfuss challenged the American League to an eleven game championship series. Encouraged by Johnson and National League President Harry Pulliam, Americans owner Henry J. Killilea met with Dreyfuss in Pittsburgh in September and instead agreed to a best-of-nine championship, with the first three games played in Boston, the next four in Pittsburgh, and the remaining two (if necessary) in Boston. DeValeria, 122 One significant point about this agreement was that it was an arrangement primarily between the two clubs rather than a formal arrangement between the leagues. In short, it was a voluntary event, a fact which would result in no Series at all for 1904, and eventually to the formal establishment of the Series as a compulsory event starting in 1905. The Teams The 1903 Pittsburgh Pirates The Pirates won their third straight pennant in 1903 thanks to a powerful line-up that included legendary shortstop Honus Wagner, who hit .355 and drove in 101 runs, player-manager Fred Clarke, who hit .351, and Ginger Beaumont, who hit .341 and led the league in hits and runs. The Pirates' pitching was weaker than it had been in previous years but boasted 24-game winner Deacon Phillippe and 25-game winner Sam Leever. DeValeria, pp. 119, 123 The Americans had a strong pitching staff, led by Cy Young, who went 28–9 in 1903 and became the all-time wins leader that year. Bill Dineen and Long Tom Hughes, right-handers like Young, had won 21 games and 20 games each. The Boston outfield, featuring Chick Stahl (.274), Buck Freeman (.287, 104 RBIs) and Patsy Dougherty (.331, 101 runs scored) was considered excellent. DeValeria, p.124 The 1903 Boston Americans Although the Pirates had dominated their league for the previous three years, they went into the series riddled with injuries and plagued by bizarre misfortunes. Otto Krueger, the team's only utility player, was beaned on September 19 and never fully played in the series. 16-game winner Ed Doheny left the team three days later, exhibiting signs of paranoia; he was committed to an insane asylum the following month. DeValeria, p. 122 Leever had been battling an injury to his pitching arm (which he made worse by entering a trapshooting competition). Worst of all, Wagner, who had a sore thumb throughout the season, injured his right leg in September and was never 100 percent for the post-season. DeValeria, pp. 122–123 Some sources say Boston were heavy underdogs. Boston bookies actually gave even odds to the teams (and only because Dreyfuss and other "sports" were alleged to have bet on Pittsburgh to bring down the odds). DeValeria, p. 124 The teams were generally thought to be evenly matched, with the Americans credited with stronger pitching and the Pirates with superior offense and fielding. The outcome, many believed, hinged on Wagner's health. "If Wagner does not play, bet your money at two to one on Boston," said the Sporting News, "but if he does play, place your money at two to one on Pittsburgh." quoted in DeValeria, p. 124 Summary AL Boston Americans (5) vs. NL Pittsburgh Pirates (3) GameScoreDateLocationAttendance1Pittsburgh Pirates – 7, Boston Americans – 3October 1Huntington Avenue Baseball Grounds16,242 2Pittsburgh Pirates – 0, Boston Americans – 3October 2Huntington Avenue Baseball Grounds9,415 3Pittsburgh Pirates – 4, Boston Americans – 2October 3Huntington Avenue Baseball Grounds18,801 4Boston Americans – 4, Pittsburgh Pirates – 5October 6Exposition Park (III)7,600 5Boston Americans – 11, Pittsburgh Pirates – 2October 7Exposition Park (III)12,322 6Boston Americans – 6, Pittsburgh Pirates – 3October 8Exposition Park (III)11,556 7Boston Americans – 7, Pittsburgh Pirates – 3October 10Exposition Park (III)17,038 8Pittsburgh Pirates – 0, Boston Americans – 3October 13Huntington Avenue Baseball Grounds7,455 Matchups Game 1 Thursday, October 1, 1903 at Huntington Avenue Baseball Grounds in Boston, Massachusetts The Pirates started Game 1 strong, scoring six runs in the first four innings. They extended their lead to 7–0 on a solo home run by Jimmy Sebring in the seventh, the first home run in World Series history. Boston tried to mount a comeback in the last three innings, but it was too little, too late, as they ended up losing by a score of 7–3 in the first ever World Series game. Both Phillippe and Young threw complete games, with Phillippe striking out ten and Young fanning five, but Young also gave up twice as many hits and allowed three earned runs to Phillippe's two. Game 2 Friday, October 2, 1903 at Huntington Avenue Baseball Grounds in Boston, Massachusetts After starting out strong in Game 1, the Pirates simply shut down offensively, managing to get a meager three hits, all of which were singles. Pirates starter Sam Leever went only one inning and gave up three hits and two runs before being replaced by Bucky Veil in the second inning due to injury, who finished the game for Pittsburgh. Bill Dinneen struck out eleven and pitched a complete game for the Americans, while Patsy Dougherty hit home runs in the first and sixth innings to produce two of the Boston's three runs. Game 3 Saturday, October 3, 1903 at Huntington Avenue Baseball Grounds in Boston, Massachusetts Deacon Phillippe, pitching on only one day rest, started Game 3 for the Pirates, and did not let them down as he pitched his second complete game victory of the series to put the Pirates up two games to one. Game 4 Tuesday, October 6, 1903 at Exposition Park (III) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania After two days of rest, Deacon Phillippe was ready to pitch his second straight game. He threw his third complete game victory of the series against Bill Dinneen, who was pitching in his second start of the series. However, Phillippe's second straight victory was almost not to be, as the Americans, down 5–1 in the top of the ninth, staged a rally to bring the game within one. The comeback attempt failed, though, as Phillippe managed to put an end to it and give the Pirates a commanding 3–1 series lead. Game 5 Wednesday, October 7, 1903 at Exposition Park (III) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Game 5 was a pitcher's duel for the first five innings, with Boston's Cy Young and Pittsburgh's Brickyard Kennedy giving up no runs. That changed at the top of the sixth, however, when the Americans scored a then-record six runs that inning. Young, on the other hand, managed to keep his shutout intact before finally giving up a pair of runs in the bottom of the eighth. He went the distance and struck out four for his first World Series win. Game 6 Thursday, October 8, 1903 at Exposition Park (III) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Game 6 featured a rematch between the starters of Game 2, Bill Dinneen (Boston) and Sam Leever (Pittsburgh). This time, Leever would pitch the entire game, but despite throwing a complete game he was outmatched by Dinneen, who ended up with his second complete game victory of the series. After losing three of the first four games of the World Series, the underdog Boston Americans had tied the series at three games apiece. Game 7 Saturday, October 10, 1903 at Exposition Park (III) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania The fourth and final game in Pittsburgh saw Deacon Phillippe start his fourth game of the series for Pittsburgh. This time, however, he wouldn't fare as well as he did in his first three starts. Cy Young, pitching in his third start of the series, would face a much more favorable fate, holding the Pirates to only three runs. Game 8 Tuesday, October 13, 1903 at Huntington Avenue Baseball Grounds in Boston, Massachusetts The final game of the inaugural World Series started out as an intense pitcher's duel, with no runs being scored until the fourth inning—when a Hobe Ferris single scored two runners. Deacon Phillippe started his fifth and final game of the series, while Bill Dinneen started his fourth game of the series. As he did in Game 2, Dinneen threw a complete game shutout while striking out seven, leading the Boston Americans to victory, while Phillippe, who also threw a respectable game, just couldn't pitch at Dinneen's level due to wearing out his arm in the series (as a result of playing so many games in such a short time span) and gave up three runs in the defeat. Honus Wagner struck out to end the Series. Composite box 1903 World Series (5–3): Boston Americans (A.L.) over Pittsburgh Pirates (N.L.) Series statistics Boston Americans BattingNote: G = Games played; AB = At Bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting Average; HR = Home Runs; RBI = Runs Batted In Player G AB H Avg. HR RBI Jimmy Collins8369.25001 Lou Criger8266.23104 Bill Dinneen4112.18200 Patsy Dougherty8348.23525 Duke Farrell210.00000 Hobe Ferris8319.29005 Buck Freeman8319.29004 Long Tom Hughes100.00000 Candy LaChance8256.24004 Jack O'Brien220.00000 Freddy Parent8319.29004 Chick Stahl83310.30303 Cy Young4151.06703 Notes References Neft, David S., and Richard M. Cohen. The World Series. 1st ed. New York: St Martins, 1990. (Neft and Cohen 3-8) Reichler, Joseph, ed. (1982). The Baseball Encyclopedia'' (5th ed.), p. 2112. MacMillian Publishing. ISBN 0-02-579010-2. External links 1903 World Series at Baseball-Reference.com 1903 World Series at WorldSeries.com (MLB.com) 1903 World Series at Baseball-Almanac.com 1903 World Series box scores and play-by-play at Retrosheet.org | 1903_World_Series |@lemmatized world:20 series:46 first:12 modern:1 play:12 major:1 league:24 baseball:14 match:2 boston:34 american:30 club:3 pittsburgh:33 pirate:31 best:6 nine:3 prevail:1 five:5 game:58 three:18 win:11 last:4 four:8 pitcher:4 sam:4 leever:6 injure:2 shoulder:1 trap:1 shooting:1 teammate:1 deacon:6 phillippe:14 pitch:10 complete:8 enough:1 overcome:1 new:4 bill:7 dinneen:9 cy:6 young:10 lead:7 victory:6 set:1 record:3 strike:7 ten:3 batter:2 barely:1 one:13 day:4 eleven:3 crowd:2 overflow:1 playing:1 field:1 prior:1 honus:5 wagner:9 bother:1 injury:4 bat:5 committed:1 six:3 error:1 shortstop:2 deeply:1 distraught:1 performance:1 following:2 spring:1 average:2 refuse:1 send:1 portrait:1 hall:1 fame:1 champion:2 bum:1 year:4 write:1 joke:1 profit:1 man:1 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advantage:1 contraction:1 twelve:1 eight:1 fellow:1 raid:2 senior:1 circuit:1 sign:2 away:2 many:4 star:3 include:2 jimmy:3 collins:1 list:1 leaguers:1 target:1 jump:1 constant:1 raiding:1 however:5 scotch:1 idea:1 two:12 whose:1 run:19 pennant:3 open:1 even:3 say:3 allow:2 stock:1 roster:2 speak:1 put:3 attempt:2 august:2 sour:1 though:2 group:1 exhibition:1 tie:2 finally:2 truce:1 winter:1 commission:1 preside:1 organize:1 secure:1 september:4 challenge:1 encourage:1 harry:1 pulliam:1 americans:2 henry:1 j:1 killilea:1 meet:1 instead:1 agree:1 next:1 remain:1 necessary:1 significant:1 point:1 agreement:1 arrangement:2 primarily:1 formal:2 short:2 voluntary:1 event:2 fact:1 result:2 eventually:1 establishment:1 compulsory:1 start:11 third:3 straight:3 thanks:1 powerful:1 line:1 legendary:1 drive:1 manager:1 fred:1 clarke:1 ginger:1 beaumont:1 pitching:3 weak:1 previous:2 boast:1 strong:4 staff:1 go:4 become:1 leader:1 dineen:1 long:2 tom:2 hughes:1 right:2 handers:1 like:1 outfield:1 feature:2 chick:2 stahl:1 buck:2 freeman:1 rbi:3 patsy:3 dougherty:2 score:7 consider:1 excellent:1 although:1 dominate:1 riddle:1 plague:1 bizarre:1 misfortune:1 otto:1 krueger:1 utility:1 bean:1 never:2 fully:1 ed:4 doheny:1 leave:1 later:1 exhibit:1 paranoia:1 commit:1 insane:1 asylum:1 follow:1 month:1 battle:1 arm:2 bad:2 enter:1 trapshooting:1 sore:1 thumb:1 throughout:1 leg:1 percent:1 source:1 heavy:1 underdog:2 bookie:1 give:7 odds:2 sport:2 allege:1 bet:2 generally:1 think:1 evenly:1 credit:1 superior:1 offense:1 fielding:1 outcome:1 believe:1 hinge:1 health:1 money:2 news:1 quote:1 summary:1 al:1 v:1 nl:1 avenue:8 park:8 iii:8 matchup:1 thursday:2 october:8 huntington:4 ground:4 massachusetts:4 inning:8 extend:1 solo:1 home:4 sebring:1 seventh:1 try:1 mount:1 little:1 late:1 ever:1 throw:5 fanning:1 also:2 twice:1 earn:1 friday:1 simply:1 shut:1 offensively:1 manage:3 get:1 meager:1 single:2 starter:2 replace:1 bucky:1 veil:1 due:2 sixth:2 produce:1 saturday:2 let:1 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boston_massachusetts:4 pittsburgh_pennsylvania:4 pitcher_duel:2 batting_average:1 hr_rbi:1 neft_cohen:1 external_link:1 baseball_almanac:1 |
2,439 | MIRC | mIRC is an Internet Relay Chat (IRC) client for Microsoft Windows, created in 1995 and developed by Khaled Mardam-Bey. Although it is a fully functional chat utility, its integrated scripting language makes it extensible and versatile. mIRC has been downloaded over twenty million times from CNET's www.download.com service . Nielsen//NetRatings also ranked mIRC among the top ten most popular Internet applications in 2003 . It is unknown if the "m" in mIRC stands for Mardam-Bey or anything (the author's personal FAQ explains that "it quite possibly stands for 'moo', or perhaps even MU"). The author pronounces it "m-I-R-C", or "mirk" for short. History Khaled Mardam-Bey decided to create mIRC because he found the first IRC client for Windows, WinIRC, lacked some basic IRC features. Then he continued developing it due to the challenge and the fact that people appreciated his work. The subsequent popularity allowed him to make a living out of mIRC. It costs $20 to register it after the 30-day evaluation period, though no functions are disabled if mIRC is run for longer than 30 days unregistered; a nag screen merely delays the start of the program. Recent versions of mIRC also spawn new browser windows with the registration page. Main features mIRC has a number of features that set it apart from other IRC clients. One of the more obvious differences is its own advanced scripting language (see below) which is further developed with each version. The scripting language can be used to make minor changes to the program like custom commands (aliases), but can also be used to completely alter the behaviour and appearance of mIRC. Another widely used feature is mIRC's file sharing abilities, via the DCC protocol. It also has a built in file server. Over the years various other features that have often been suggested by users have been incorporated. This includes support for multiple server connections, SSL, UTF-8 display support and an option to view channels and notify lists in a treebar format rather than the default switchbar. mIRC is still in active development but it is very rarely announced what features will be introduced in the future. mIRC scripting mIRC's abilities and behaviours can be altered and extended using the embedded mIRC scripting language. mIRC scripting is not limited to IRC related events and commands. There is also support for COM objects, calling DLLs, sockets and dialog boxes, amongst other things. This allows the client to be used in a variety of ways beyond chatting, for example as an IRC bot, a media player, a web HTML parser or for other entertainment purposes such as mIRC games. In practice however mIRC will not be used solely for such specific purposes, but rather they are addons for the client, which will otherwise be used for chatting. Due to the level of access the language has to a user's computer, for example, being able to rename and delete files, a number of abusive scripts have been made. Perhaps one of the more prominent examples of abuse was that executed with the $decode identifier which decodes a given encoded string. Many users who did not understand this were misguided into decoding strings which executed commands on their systems. Such messages were disguised as a fake promise of operator status in an IRC channel. However, this led to changes being made in version 6.17 so $decode is now disabled by default and various other features which can be considered 'dangerous' are able to be locked. Criticism Onno Tijdgat, author of Ircle, criticizes mIRC's color format, arguing that it uses a flawed design and follows no common standard . Khaled Mardam-Bey responded to this criticism, observing that there was no common standard between IRC clients at the time so using any one existing format would "have annoyed those clients that didn't use that particular format". Ultimately this led to him creating a new format designed for ease of use, however he acknowledged that "the design should have been more robust" . See also Comparison of IRC clients mIRC Scripting Language References External links Official website Official website of mIRC's author mircscripts.org mircscripts.com | MIRC |@lemmatized mirc:21 internet:2 relay:1 chat:3 irc:9 client:8 microsoft:1 window:3 create:3 develop:3 khaled:3 mardam:4 bey:4 although:1 fully:1 functional:1 utility:1 integrated:1 scripting:4 language:6 make:5 extensible:1 versatile:1 download:2 twenty:1 million:1 time:2 cnet:1 www:1 com:3 service:1 nielsen:1 netratings:1 also:6 rank:1 among:1 top:1 ten:1 popular:1 application:1 unknown:1 stand:2 anything:1 author:4 personal:1 faq:1 explain:1 quite:1 possibly:1 moo:1 perhaps:2 even:1 mu:1 pronounce:1 r:1 c:1 mirk:1 short:1 history:1 decide:1 find:1 first:1 winirc:1 lack:1 basic:1 feature:7 continue:1 due:2 challenge:1 fact:1 people:1 appreciate:1 work:1 subsequent:1 popularity:1 allow:2 live:1 cost:1 register:1 day:2 evaluation:1 period:1 though:1 function:1 disabled:1 run:1 long:1 unregistered:1 nag:1 screen:1 merely:1 delay:1 start:1 program:2 recent:1 version:3 spawn:1 new:2 browser:1 registration:1 page:1 main:1 number:2 set:1 apart:1 one:3 obvious:1 difference:1 advanced:1 see:2 far:1 use:11 minor:1 change:2 like:1 custom:1 command:3 alias:1 completely:1 alter:2 behaviour:2 appearance:1 another:1 widely:1 file:3 share:1 ability:2 via:1 dcc:1 protocol:1 build:1 server:2 year:1 various:2 often:1 suggest:1 user:3 incorporate:1 include:1 support:3 multiple:1 connection:1 ssl:1 utf:1 display:1 option:1 view:1 channel:2 notify:1 list:1 treebar:1 format:5 rather:2 default:2 switchbar:1 still:1 active:1 development:1 rarely:1 announce:1 introduce:1 future:1 script:4 extend:1 embedded:1 limit:1 related:1 event:1 object:1 call:1 dlls:1 socket:1 dialog:1 box:1 amongst:1 thing:1 variety:1 way:1 beyond:1 chatting:1 example:3 bot:1 medium:1 player:1 web:1 html:1 parser:1 entertainment:1 purpose:2 game:1 practice:1 however:3 solely:1 specific:1 addons:1 otherwise:1 level:1 access:1 computer:1 able:2 rename:1 delete:1 abusive:1 prominent:1 abuse:1 execute:2 decode:4 identifier:1 give:1 encoded:1 string:2 many:1 understand:1 misguide:1 system:1 message:1 disguise:1 fake:1 promise:1 operator:1 status:1 lead:2 disable:1 consider:1 dangerous:1 lock:1 criticism:2 onno:1 tijdgat:1 ircle:1 criticize:1 color:1 argue:1 flawed:1 design:3 follow:1 common:2 standard:2 respond:1 observe:1 existing:1 would:1 annoy:1 particular:1 ultimately:1 ease:1 acknowledge:1 robust:1 comparison:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 website:2 mircscripts:2 org:1 |@bigram relay_chat:1 chat_irc:1 irc_client:5 microsoft_window:1 dialog_box:1 external_link:1 |
2,440 | Datsun | Datsun was an automobile marque. There never was an actual "Datsun" company, as the brand name was used in production only by DAT Motors and its successor, Nissan Motor Co., Ltd. The name was created in 1931 by the DAT Motorcar Co. for a new car model, spelling it as "Datson" to indicate its smaller size when compared to the existing, larger DAT car. Later, in 1933 after Nissan Motor Co., Ltd. took control of DAT Motorcar Co., the last syllable of Datson was changed to "sun", because "son" also means "loss" (損) in Japanese, and also to honour the sun depicted in the national flag, hence the name "Datsun" : . Consumano, Michael A. The Japanese Automobile Industry, H.U.P (1985), ISBN 0-674-47255-1 p.33 . The Datsun brand was discontinued in March 1986. The Datsun name is most famous for the sports cars referred to as the Fairlady roadsters and later the Fairlady (240Z) coupes. History The origins of Datsun Before the Datsun brand name came into being, an automobile named the DAT car was built in 1914, by the , in the Azabu-Hiroo District in Tokyo. The new car's name was an acronym of the company's partners' surnames: . The firm was renamed Kaishinsha Motorcar Co. in 1918, seven years after their establishment and again, in 1925, to DAT Motorcar Co. DAT Motors constructed trucks in addition to the DAT passenger cars. In fact, their output focused on trucks since there was almost no consumer market for passenger cars at the time. Beginning in 1918, the first DAT trucks were assembled for the military market. The low demand from the military market during the 1920s forced DAT to consider merging with other automotive industries. In 1926 the Tokyo-based DAT Motors merged with the Osaka-based also known as Jitsuyo Motors (established 1919, as a Kubota subsidiary) to become in Osaka until 1932. The DAT corporation had been selling full size cars to Japanese consumers under the DAT name since 1914 (Madely, pg. 19), but in 1930 the Japanese government created a ministerial ordinance that allowed cars with engines up to 500 cc to be driven without a licence. (TOGO, pg. 11). DAT Automobile Manufacturing began development of a line of 495 cc cars to sell in this new market segment, calling the new small cars "Datson" - meaning "Son of DAT". The name was changed to "Datsun" two years later in 1933.(Madely, pg. 20) The first prototype Datson was completed in the summer of 1931.(Nissan). The production vehicle was called the Datson Type 10, and "approximately ten" of these cars were sold in 1931. (JSAE). They sold around 150 cars in 1932, now calling the model the Datson Type 11(JSAE). In 1933 the government rules were revised to permit 750 cc engines, and Datsun increased the size of their microcar engine to the maximum size allowed (JSAE). These larger displacement cars were called the Datsun Type 12.(Nissan Heritage) Datsun in the American market The use of the Datsun name in the American market derives from the name Nissan used for its production cars. In fact, the cars produced by Nissan already used the Datsun brand name, a successful brand in Japan since 1932, long before World War II. In fact before the entry into the American market in 1958, Nissan did not produce cars under the Nissan brand name, but only trucks. Their in-house designed cars were always branded as Datsuns. Hence, for Nissan executives it would be only natural to use such a successful name when exporting models to the United States. Only in the 1960s did Nissan begin to brand some automobile models as Nissans, and these were limited to their high-end models, for example the Cedric luxury sedan. In America, the Nissan branch was named "Nissan Motor Corporation in U.S.A.", and chartered on September 28, 1960, in California. Nissan may have had no problems with using the name Nissan in America, but the small cars the firm exported to America were still named Datsun. Corporate choice favoured “Datsun”, so as to distance the parent factory Nissan’s association by Americans with Japanese military manufacture. In fact Nissan's involvement in Japan's military industries was substantial. The company's car production at the Yokohama plant shifted towards military needs just a few years after the first passenger cars rolled off the assembly line, on April 11, 1935. By 1939 Nissan's operations had moved to Manchuria, then under Japanese occupation, where its founder and President, Yoshisuke Ayukawa, established the Manchurian Motor Company to manufacture military trucks. Ayukawa, a well connected and aggressive risk taker, also made himself a principal partner of the Japanese Colonial Government of Manchukuo. Halberstam, David The Reckoning, Avon Books, 1986 ISBN 0-380-72147-3. Ultimately, Nissan Heavy Industries emerged near the end of the war as an important player in Japan’s war machinery. After the war ended, Soviet Union seized all of Nissan’s Manchuria assets, while the Occupation Forces made use of over half of the Yokohama plant. General MacArthur had Ayukawa imprisoned for twenty-one months as a war criminal. After release he was forbidden from returning to any corporate or public office until 1951. He was never allowed back into Nissan, which returned to passenger car manufacture in 1947 and to its original name of Nissan Motor Company Ltd. in 1949. Datsun Fairlady American service personnel in their teens or early twenties during the Second World War would be in prime car-buying age by 1960, if only to find an economical, small second car for their growing family needs. Yutaka Katayama, (Mr. "K") former president of Nissan's American operations, would have had his personal second world war experiences in mind supporting the name Datsun. Katayama's visit to Nissan’s Manchuria truck factory in 1939, made him realise the appalling conditions of the assembly lines, leading him to abandon the firm. “Yutaka Katayama; A Man Who Realized a Dream in America", 1998 Z Car Club Association, pg 71 In 1945, near the end of the war, Katayama was ordered to return to the Manchurian plant, however he rebuffed these calls and refused to return. Datsun 240Z (USDM) or Fairlady Z (JDM) Katayama desired to build and sell passenger cars to people, not to the military; for him it was the name "Datsun" that survived the war with its purity intact, not "Nissan". This obviously led Katayama to have problems with the corporate management. The discouragement felt by Katayama as regards his prospects at Nissan, led to his going on the verge of resigning, when Datsun’s 1958 Australian Mobilgas victories vaunted him, as leader of the winning Datsun teams, to national prominence in a Japan bent on regaining international status. Katayama was made Vice President of the Nissan North American company in 1960, and as long as he was involved in decision making, both as North American Vice President from 1960 to 1965, and then President of Nissan Motor Company – USA from 1965 to 1975, the cars were sold as Datsuns. “What we need to do is improve our car’s efficiency gradually and creep up slowly before others notice. Then, before Detroit realizes it, we will have become an excellent car maker, and the customers will think so too. If we work hard to sell our own cars, we won’t be bothered by whatever the other manufacturers do. If all we do is worry about the other cars in the race, we will definitely lose.” “Yutaka Katayama; A Man Who Realized a Dream in America", 1998 Z Car Club Association, pg 36 Rebranding Datsun 720 In Japan, there appears to have been what probably constituted a long held 'official' company bias against use of the name “Datsun”. Business Week, April 7, 1973, interview with Katsuji Kawamata, president of Nissan Motor Company Ltd. At the time, Kawamata was a veteran of Nissan, in the last year of his presidency, a powerful figure whose experience in the firm exceeded two decades. His rise to its leadership position occurred in 1957 in part because of his handling of the critical Nissan workers' strike that began May 25, 1953, and ran for 100 days. During his tenure as Nissan President, Kawamata stated that he "regretted that his company did not imprint its corporate name on cars, the way Toyota does. ‘Looking back, we wish we had started using Nissan on all of our cars,’ he says. ‘But Datsun was a pet name for the cars when we started exporting.’ ” Business Week, April 7, 1973, pg. 69 Ultimately, the decision was made to stop using the brand name Datsun worldwide, in order to strengthen the company name Nissan. “The decision to change the name Datsun to Nissan in the U.S. was announced in the fall of 1981. The rationale was that the name change would help the pursuit of a global strategy. A single name worldwide would increase the possibility that advertising campaigns, brochures, and promotional materials could be used across countries and simplify product design and manufacturing. Further, potential buyers would be exposed to the name and product when traveling to other countries. Industry observers, however, speculated that the most important motivation was that a name change would help Nissan market stocks and bonds in the U.S. They also presumed substantial ego involvement, since the absence of the Nissan name in the U.S. surely rankled Nissan executives who had seen Toyota and Honda become household words.” Aaker, David A. MANAGING BRAND EQUITY : Capitalizing on the Value of a Brand Name, New York: The Free Press, 1991 ISBN 0-02-900101-3 Chapter 3, Pg. 57 Ultimately, the name change campaign lasted for a three year period from 1982 to 1984, and cost Nissan a figure in the region of US$500 million. Operational costs included the changing of signs at 1,100 Datsun dealerships, and amounted to US$30 million. Another US$200 million were spent during the 1982 to 1986 advertising campaigns, where the “Datsun, We Are Driven!” campaign yielded to “The Name is Nissan” campaign. (“The Name is Nissan” campaign was used for some years beyond 1985). Another US$50 million was lost in Datsun advertisements that were paid for but stopped or never used. A final large yet indefinite cost is assumed to have occurred from “brand confusion” as some North American buyers simply avoided the Datsun, Datsun by Nissan, or Nissan automobile altogether during this time period. If Nissan lost 0.3% (three tenths of one percent) of sales due to the confusion during the transitional period, the lost revenue would still amount to several hundred million dollars. Five years after the name change program was over, Datsun still remained more familiar than Nissan. Aaker, David A. MANAGING BRAND EQUITY : Capitalizing on the Value of a Brand Name, New York: The Free Press, 1991 ISBN 0-02-900101-3 Chapter 3, pg 56. Rebirth In 2001, Nissan marketed their D22 pick-up model in Japan with the name Datsun, this time however the use of the brand name was wholly restricted to this one specific model name. Production of this model was between May 2001 and October 2002 日産：ダットサン トラック TRUCK See also Datsun Sports Nissan Motor Co., Ltd. Laurence Hartnett Sports Car International Top Sports Cars References External links The Datsun Heritage Museum History of Datsun - Z car club The Sunny Owners Club | Datsun |@lemmatized datsun:36 automobile:6 marque:1 never:3 actual:1 company:11 brand:15 name:40 use:14 production:5 dat:15 motor:12 successor:1 nissan:47 co:7 ltd:5 create:2 motorcar:4 new:6 car:38 model:8 spell:1 datson:6 indicate:1 small:4 size:4 compare:1 exist:1 large:3 later:3 take:1 control:1 last:3 syllable:1 change:7 sun:2 son:2 also:6 mean:1 loss:1 損:1 japanese:7 honour:1 depict:1 national:2 flag:1 hence:2 consumano:1 michael:1 industry:5 h:1 u:9 p:2 isbn:4 discontinue:1 march:1 famous:1 sport:4 refer:1 fairlady:4 roadster:1 coupe:1 history:2 origin:1 come:1 build:2 azabu:1 hiroo:1 district:1 tokyo:2 acronym:1 partner:2 surname:1 firm:4 rename:1 kaishinsha:1 seven:1 year:7 establishment:1 construct:1 truck:7 addition:1 passenger:5 fact:4 output:1 focus:1 since:4 almost:1 consumer:2 market:9 time:4 begin:4 first:3 assemble:1 military:7 low:1 demand:1 force:2 consider:1 merge:2 automotive:1 base:2 osaka:2 know:1 jitsuyo:1 establish:2 kubota:1 subsidiary:1 become:3 corporation:2 sell:7 full:1 madely:2 pg:8 government:3 ministerial:1 ordinance:1 allow:3 engine:3 cc:3 drive:1 without:1 licence:1 togo:1 manufacturing:2 development:1 line:3 segment:1 call:5 meaning:1 two:2 prototype:1 complete:1 summer:1 vehicle:1 type:3 approximately:1 ten:1 jsae:3 around:1 rule:1 revise:1 permit:1 increase:2 microcar:1 maximum:1 displacement:1 heritage:2 american:9 derives:1 produce:2 already:1 successful:2 japan:6 long:3 world:3 war:9 ii:1 entry:1 house:1 design:2 always:1 datsuns:2 executive:2 would:8 natural:1 export:3 united:1 state:2 limit:1 high:1 end:4 example:1 cedric:1 luxury:1 sedan:1 america:5 branch:1 charter:1 september:1 california:1 may:3 problem:2 still:3 corporate:4 choice:1 favour:1 distance:1 parent:1 factory:2 association:3 manufacture:3 involvement:2 substantial:2 yokohama:2 plant:3 shift:1 towards:1 need:3 roll:1 assembly:2 april:3 operation:2 move:1 manchuria:3 occupation:2 founder:1 president:7 yoshisuke:1 ayukawa:3 manchurian:2 well:1 connect:1 aggressive:1 risk:1 taker:1 make:5 principal:1 colonial:1 manchukuo:1 halberstam:1 david:3 reckoning:1 avon:1 book:1 ultimately:3 heavy:1 emerge:1 near:2 important:2 player:1 machinery:1 soviet:1 union:1 seize:1 asset:1 half:1 general:1 macarthur:1 imprison:1 twenty:2 one:3 month:1 criminal:1 release:1 forbid:1 return:4 public:1 office:1 back:2 original:1 service:1 personnel:1 teen:1 early:1 second:3 prime:1 buying:1 age:1 find:1 economical:1 grow:1 family:1 yutaka:3 katayama:9 mr:1 k:1 former:1 personal:1 experience:2 mind:1 support:1 visit:1 realise:1 appalling:1 condition:1 lead:3 abandon:1 man:2 realize:2 dream:2 z:4 club:4 order:2 however:3 rebuff:1 refuse:1 usdm:1 jdm:1 desire:1 people:1 survive:1 purity:1 intact:1 obviously:1 management:1 discouragement:1 felt:1 regard:1 prospect:1 go:1 verge:1 resigning:1 australian:1 mobilgas:1 victory:1 vaunt:1 leader:1 win:2 team:1 prominence:1 bent:1 regain:1 international:2 status:1 vice:2 north:3 involve:1 decision:3 making:1 usa:1 improve:1 efficiency:1 gradually:1 creep:1 slowly:1 others:1 notice:1 detroit:1 realizes:1 excellent:1 maker:1 customer:1 think:1 work:1 hard:1 bother:1 whatever:1 manufacturer:1 worry:1 race:1 definitely:1 lose:3 rebranding:1 appear:1 probably:1 constitute:1 held:1 official:1 bias:1 business:2 week:2 interview:1 katsuji:1 kawamata:3 veteran:1 presidency:1 powerful:1 figure:2 whose:1 exceed:1 decade:1 rise:1 leadership:1 position:1 occur:2 part:1 handling:1 critical:1 worker:1 strike:1 run:1 day:1 tenure:1 regret:1 imprint:1 way:1 toyota:2 look:1 wish:1 start:2 say:1 pet:1 stop:2 worldwide:2 strengthen:1 announce:1 fall:1 rationale:1 help:2 pursuit:1 global:1 strategy:1 single:1 possibility:1 advertising:2 campaign:6 brochure:1 promotional:1 material:1 could:1 across:1 country:2 simplify:1 product:2 far:1 potential:1 buyer:2 expose:1 travel:1 observer:1 speculate:1 motivation:1 stock:1 bond:1 presume:1 ego:1 absence:1 surely:1 rankle:1 see:2 honda:1 household:1 word:1 aaker:2 managing:2 equity:2 capitalizing:2 value:2 york:2 free:2 press:2 chapter:2 three:2 period:3 cost:3 region:1 million:5 operational:1 include:1 changing:1 sign:1 dealership:1 amount:2 another:2 spend:1 driven:1 yield:1 beyond:1 advertisement:1 pay:1 final:1 yet:1 indefinite:1 assume:1 confusion:2 simply:1 avoid:1 altogether:1 tenth:1 percent:1 sale:1 due:1 transitional:1 lost:1 revenue:1 several:1 hundred:1 dollar:1 five:1 program:1 remain:1 familiar:1 rebirth:1 pick:1 wholly:1 restrict:1 specific:1 october:1 日産:1 ダットサン:1 トラック:1 laurence:1 hartnett:1 top:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 museum:1 sunny:1 owner:1 |@bigram dat_motor:3 nissan_motor:7 motorcar_co:4 datsun_brand:3 luxury_sedan:1 halberstam_david:1 soviet_union:1 vice_president:2 decision_making:1 toyota_honda:1 external_link:1 |
2,441 | String_Quartet_No._16_(Beethoven) | The String Quartet No. 16 in F major, Op. 135, by Ludwig van Beethoven was written in 1826 and was the last substantial work he finished. Only the last movement of the Quartet Op. 130, written as a replacement for the Große Fuge, was written later. It was premiered by the Schuppanzigh Quartet in March 1828. The work is on a smaller scale than his other late quartets. For the third movement, Beethoven used variation techniques, which is uncommon for pieces written in sonata form; he also did this in the second movement of his Quartet Op. 127. Bernard Jacobson. "Beethoven: The Complete String Quartets." EMI 5736062. CD liner notes, 24. Under the introductory slow chords in the last movement Beethoven wrote in the manuscript "Muß es sein?" (Must it be?) to which he responds, with the faster main theme of the movement, "Es muß sein!" (It must be!). The whole movement is headed "Der schwer gefaßte Entschluß" (The Difficult Resolution). It is in four movements: Allegretto Vivace Lento assai, cantante e tranquillo “Der schwer gefaßte Entschluß:” Grave — Allegro — Grave ma non troppo tratto — Allegro Notes External links Takacs Quartets program notes with more on the history of the finale of the quartet in particular Project Gutenberg E-Book of the Quartet | String_Quartet_No._16_(Beethoven) |@lemmatized string:2 quartet:9 f:1 major:1 op:3 ludwig:1 van:1 beethoven:4 write:5 last:3 substantial:1 work:2 finish:1 movement:7 replacement:1 große:1 fuge:1 later:1 premier:1 schuppanzigh:1 march:1 small:1 scale:1 late:1 third:1 use:1 variation:1 technique:1 uncommon:1 piece:1 sonata:1 form:1 also:1 second:1 bernard:1 jacobson:1 complete:1 emi:1 cd:1 liner:1 note:3 introductory:1 slow:1 chord:1 manuscript:1 muß:2 e:3 sein:2 must:2 respond:1 faster:1 main:1 theme:1 es:1 whole:1 head:1 der:2 schwer:2 gefaßte:2 entschluß:2 difficult:1 resolution:1 four:1 allegretto:1 vivace:1 lento:1 assai:1 cantante:1 tranquillo:1 grave:2 allegro:2 non:1 troppo:1 tratto:1 external:1 link:1 takacs:1 program:1 history:1 finale:1 particular:1 project:1 gutenberg:1 book:1 |@bigram string_quartet:2 ludwig_van:1 van_beethoven:1 quartet_op:2 liner_note:1 non_troppo:1 external_link:1 project_gutenberg:1 |
2,442 | Magdalena_of_Saxony | Magdalena of Saxony was born 7 March 1507 and died 25 January 1534 and was Margravine of Brandenburg, its "crown princess". She was the daughter of George the Bearded, Duke of Saxony and his wife Barbara. Magdalena's maternal grandparents were Kazimierz IV Jagiellon and his wife queen Elisabeth of Austria, daughter of Albert II of Germany. She was a granddaughter of the Elisabeth aforementioned,mother of the Jagiellonians, queen of Poland, who had claimed the Duchy of Luxembourg in 1460s as being the younger daughter of the last Luxembourg heiress Elisabeth of Luxembourg, Queen of Bohemia. Though by no means an heiress of her grandmother, she was intended to wed the heir of her grandmother's older sister. Joachim (1505-71), the future elector of Brandenburg, was the eldest son and heir of their current claimant of Luxembourg, Joachim I, Elector of Brandenburg (1484-1535), the eldest son and heir of the late Margaret of Thuringia (1449-1501), Dowager Electress of Brandenburg, herself the eldest daughter and heiress of Anna, Duchess of Luxembourg and William of Saxony, Landgrave of Thuringia. Magdalena was thus married, at Dresden, on 6 November 1524, to her second cousin's son Joachim Hector, the future Elector of Brandenburg. Their son was the future John George, the future Elector of Brandenburg. After Magdalena's untimely death which occurred well before Joachim ascended the electorate, Joachim II Hector married Hedwig (Jadviga), daughter of King Sigismund I of Poland. | Magdalena_of_Saxony |@lemmatized magdalena:4 saxony:3 bear:1 march:1 die:1 january:1 margravine:1 brandenburg:6 crown:1 princess:1 daughter:5 george:2 beard:1 duke:1 wife:2 barbara:1 maternal:1 grandparent:1 kazimierz:1 iv:1 jagiellon:1 queen:3 elisabeth:3 austria:1 albert:1 ii:2 germany:1 granddaughter:1 aforementioned:1 mother:1 jagiellonians:1 poland:2 claim:1 duchy:1 luxembourg:5 young:1 last:1 heiress:3 bohemia:1 though:1 mean:1 grandmother:2 intend:1 wed:1 heir:3 old:1 sister:1 joachim:5 future:4 elector:4 eldest:3 son:4 current:1 claimant:1 late:1 margaret:1 thuringia:2 dowager:1 electress:1 anna:1 duchess:1 william:1 landgrave:1 thus:1 marry:2 dresden:1 november:1 second:1 cousin:1 hector:2 john:1 untimely:1 death:1 occur:1 well:1 ascend:1 electorate:1 hedwig:1 jadviga:1 king:1 sigismund:1 |@bigram duke_saxony:1 maternal_grandparent:1 elector_brandenburg:4 eldest_son:2 joachim_hector:1 untimely_death:1 |
2,443 | Ahmed_III | Ahmed III (Ottoman Turkish: احمد ثالث Aḥmed-i sālis) (December 30/31, 1673 – July 1, 1736) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and a son of Sultan Mehmed IV (1648–87). His mother was Valide Sultan Mah-Para Ummatullah Rabia Gül-Nush, originally named Evemia, a Greek. He was born at Hajioglupazari, in Dobruja. He succeeded to the throne in 1703 on the abdication of his brother Mustafa II (1695–1703). Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha and his daughter, Princess Hatice (wife of the former) directed the government from 1718 to 1730, a period referred to as the Tulip Era. Biography Ahmed III cultivated good relations with France, doubtless in view of Russia's menacing attitude. He awarded refuge in Ottoman territory to Charles XII of Sweden (1682–1718) after the Swedish defeat at the hands of Peter I of Russia (1672–1725) in the Battle of Poltava of 1709. King Charles XII of Sweden escaped to the Ottoman Empire after losing the Battle of Poltava against the Russians, which was a part of the Great Northern War. In 1710 he convinced the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III to declare war against Russia, and the Ottoman forces under Baltacı Mehmet Paşa won a major victory at the Battle of Prut. In the aftermath, Russia returned Azov back to the Ottomans, agreed to demolish the fortress of Taganrog and others in the area, and to stop interfering into the affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Forced against his will into war with Russia, Ahmed III came nearer than any Ottoman sovereign before or since to breaking the power of his northern rival, whom his grand vizier Baltacı Mehmet Paşa succeeded in completely surrounding near the Prut River in 1711. The subsequent Ottoman victories against Russia enabled the Ottoman Empire to advance to Moscow, had the Sultan wished. However, this was halted as a report reached Constantinople that the Safavids were invading the Ottoman Empire, causing a period of panic, turning the Sultan's attention away from Russia. Sultan Ahmed III had become unpopular by reason of the excessive pomp and costly luxury in which he and his principal officers indulged; on September 20, 1730, a mutinous riot of seventeen janissaries, led by the Albanian Patrona Halil, was aided by the citizens as well as the military until it swelled into an insurrection in front of which the sultan was forced to give up the throne. Ahmed voluntarily led his nephew Mahmud I (1730–54) to the seat of sovereignty and paid allegiance to him as Sultan of the Empire. He then retired to the apartments in the palace previously occupied by Mahmud and died at Topkapi Palace after six years of confinement. Character of Ahmed III's rule The reign of Ahmed III, which had lasted for twenty-seven years, although marked by the disasters of the Great Turkish War, was not unsuccessful. The recovery of Azov and the Morea, and the conquest of part of Persia, managed to counterbalanced the Balkan territory ceded to the Habsburg Monarchy through the Treaty of Passarowitz, after the Ottoman Empire was defeated in Austro-Turkish War of 1716-18. In 1716, he sent and army of 33,000 men to capture Corfu from the Republic of Venice. Ahmed III left the finances of the Ottoman Empire in a flourishing condition, which had remarkably been obtained without excessive taxation or extortion procedures. He was a cultivated patron of literature and art, and it was in his time that the first printing press authorized to use the Arabic or Turkish languages was set up in Constantinople, operated by Ibrahim Muteferrika (while the printing press had been introduced to Constantinople in 1480, all works published before 1729 were in Greek). It was in this reign that an important change in the government of the Danubian Principalities was introduced: previously, the Porte had appointed Hospodars, usually native Moldavian and Wallachian boyars, to administer those provinces; after the Russian campaign of 1711, during which Peter the Great found an ally in Moldavian Prince Dimitrie Cantemir, the Porte began overtly deputizing Phanariote Greeks in that region, and extended the system to Wallachia after Prince Stefan Cantacuzino established links with Eugene of Savoy. The Phanariotes constituted a kind of Dhimmi nobility, which supplied the Porte with functionaries in many important departments of the state. Marriages and issue He married Valide Sultan Amina Mihr-i Shah, and Valide Sultan Rabia Sharmi. By first wife he had Mustafa III and by second wife he had Abdul Hamid I. See also Fountain of Ahmed III References This article incorporates text from the History of Ottoman Turks (1878) References External links | Ahmed_III |@lemmatized ahmed:10 iii:10 ottoman:14 turkish:4 احمد:1 ثالث:1 aḥmed:1 sālis:1 december:1 july:1 sultan:11 empire:7 son:1 mehmed:1 iv:1 mother:1 valide:3 mah:1 para:1 ummatullah:1 rabia:2 gül:1 nush:1 originally:1 name:1 evemia:1 greek:3 bear:1 hajioglupazari:1 dobruja:1 succeed:2 throne:2 abdication:1 brother:1 mustafa:2 ii:1 nevşehirli:1 damat:1 brahim:1 pasha:1 daughter:1 princess:1 hatice:1 wife:3 former:1 direct:1 government:2 period:2 refer:1 tulip:1 era:1 biography:1 cultivate:1 good:1 relation:1 france:1 doubtless:1 view:1 russia:7 menace:1 attitude:1 award:1 refuge:1 territory:2 charles:2 xii:2 sweden:2 swedish:1 defeat:2 hand:1 peter:2 battle:3 poltava:2 king:1 escape:1 lose:1 russian:2 part:2 great:3 northern:2 war:5 convince:1 declare:1 force:3 baltacı:2 mehmet:2 paşa:2 win:1 major:1 victory:2 prut:2 aftermath:1 return:1 azov:2 back:1 agree:1 demolish:1 fortress:1 taganrog:1 others:1 area:1 stop:1 interfering:1 affair:1 polish:1 lithuanian:1 commonwealth:1 come:1 nearer:1 sovereign:1 since:1 break:1 power:1 rival:1 grand:1 vizier:1 completely:1 surround:1 near:1 river:1 subsequent:1 enable:1 advance:1 moscow:1 wish:1 however:1 halt:1 report:1 reach:1 constantinople:3 safavids:1 invade:1 cause:1 panic:1 turn:1 attention:1 away:1 become:1 unpopular:1 reason:1 excessive:2 pomp:1 costly:1 luxury:1 principal:1 officer:1 indulge:1 september:1 mutinous:1 riot:1 seventeen:1 janissary:1 lead:2 albanian:1 patrona:1 halil:1 aid:1 citizen:1 well:1 military:1 swell:1 insurrection:1 front:1 give:1 voluntarily:1 nephew:1 mahmud:2 seat:1 sovereignty:1 pay:1 allegiance:1 retire:1 apartment:1 palace:2 previously:2 occupy:1 die:1 topkapi:1 six:1 year:2 confinement:1 character:1 rule:1 reign:2 last:1 twenty:1 seven:1 although:1 mark:1 disaster:1 unsuccessful:1 recovery:1 morea:1 conquest:1 persia:1 manage:1 counterbalance:1 balkan:1 cede:1 habsburg:1 monarchy:1 treaty:1 passarowitz:1 austro:1 send:1 army:1 men:1 capture:1 corfu:1 republic:1 venice:1 leave:1 finance:1 flourishing:1 condition:1 remarkably:1 obtain:1 without:1 taxation:1 extortion:1 procedure:1 cultivated:1 patron:1 literature:1 art:1 time:1 first:2 printing:2 press:2 authorize:1 use:1 arabic:1 language:1 set:1 operate:1 ibrahim:1 muteferrika:1 introduce:2 work:1 publish:1 important:2 change:1 danubian:1 principality:1 porte:3 appoint:1 hospodars:1 usually:1 native:1 moldavian:2 wallachian:1 boyars:1 administer:1 province:1 campaign:1 find:1 ally:1 prince:2 dimitrie:1 cantemir:1 begin:1 overtly:1 deputize:1 phanariote:1 region:1 extend:1 system:1 wallachia:1 stefan:1 cantacuzino:1 establish:1 link:2 eugene:1 savoy:1 phanariotes:1 constitute:1 kind:1 dhimmi:1 nobility:1 supply:1 functionary:1 many:1 department:1 state:1 marriage:1 issue:1 marry:1 amina:1 mihr:1 shah:1 sharmi:1 second:1 abdul:1 hamid:1 see:1 also:1 fountain:1 reference:2 article:1 incorporate:1 text:1 history:1 turk:1 external:1 |@bigram ottoman_empire:6 sultan_mehmed:1 mother_valide:1 valide_sultan:3 sultan_ahmed:2 polish_lithuanian:1 lithuanian_commonwealth:1 grand_vizier:1 topkapi_palace:1 habsburg_monarchy:1 dimitrie_cantemir:1 eugene_savoy:1 abdul_hamid:1 ottoman_turk:1 external_link:1 |
2,444 | Coin_collecting | Coin collecting is the collecting or trading of coins or other forms of legally minted currency. Frequently collected coins include those that were in circulation for only a brief time, coins minted with errors, or especially beautiful or historically interesting pieces. Coin collecting can be differentiated from numismatics in that the latter is the study of currency. Though both are closely related, a numismatist may be or not be a coin collector and vice versa. History While hoarding coins due to their value goes back to the beginning of coinage, collecting coins as pieces of art was a later development. Known as the "Hobby of Kings" and the "King of Hobbies", modern coin collecting is generally believed to have begun in the fourteenth century with the Italian scholar and poet Petrarch. Numismatics reached its apex during the late Middle Ages and the early Renaissance due to great demand. In this period, ancient coins were collected by many European Kings, Princes, and nobility. Some of the great collectors were Pope Boniface VIII, Emperor Maximilian of the Holy Roman Empire, Louis XIV of France, Ferdinand I, Elector Joachim II of Brandenburg, and Henry IV of France. Elector Joachim II of Bradenburg also started the Berlin coin cabinet. The first international convention for coin collectors was held August 15–18, 1962, in Detroit, Michigan, and was sponsored by the American Numismatic Association and the Royal Canadian Numismatic Association. Attendance was estimated at 40,000. Specialties Coin collectors often begin by saving coins they received in circulation but found interesting. These may be the remnants of change from an international trip or an old coin found in circulation. Over time, if their interests increase, chance will not be sufficient to satisfy the demands for new specimens, and a potentially expensive hobby is born. Some become dedicated generalists and look for a few examples of everything. If they have enough resources, this can result in an astounding collection such as that of King Farouk of Egypt, who collected all manner of things. Some are completists, wanting an example of everything within a certain set. For example, Louis Eliasberg is the only collector thus far to assemble a complete set of known coins of the United States; and John Yarwood of Melbourne is the first person to take a serious interest in British military money (especially tokens). Coin collecting can become a competitive activity, as evidenced recently by Registry Sets PCGS Set Registry SM Public Sets Home Page . Registry sets are sets of coins published by numismatic grading services. These include PCGS (Professional Coin Grading Service) PCGS.com and NGC (Numismatic Guarantee Corporation.) Coin grading services from NGC The grading services assess Registry Sets by their completeness and by their numerical grade. This can lead to astronomical prices as dedicated collectors strive for the very best examples of each date and mint mark combination. Most collectors determine that they must focus their financial resources on a narrower interest. Therefore, some collectors focus on coins of a certain nation or historic period, collect coins from various nations, or settle on error coins. Still others might focus on exonumia such as currency, tokens or challenge coins. Coin condition and value In coin collecting, the condition of a coin is paramount to its value; a high-quality example is often worth many times more than a poor example. Collectors have created systems to describe the overall condition of coins. One older system describes a coin as falling within a range from "poor" to "uncirculated". The newer Sheldon system, used primarily in the US, has been adopted by the American Numismatic Association. It uses a 1–70 numbering scale, where 70 represents a perfect specimen and 1 represents a barely identifiable coin. The generally accepted scale of adjectival descriptions and numeric grades for coins (from highest to lowest) is as follows: Mint State (MS) 60–70: Uncirculated About/Almost Uncirculated (AU) 50, 53, 55, 58 Extremely Fine (XF or EF) 40, 45 Very Fine (VF) 20, 25, 30, 35 Fine (F) 12, 15 Very Good (VG) 8, 10 Good (G) 4, 6 About Good (AG) 3 Fair (FA, FR) 2 Poor (PR, PO) 1 Several coin grading services will grade and encapsulate coins in a labeled, air-tight plastic holder. This process is commonly known as coin slabbing and is most prevalent in the US market. Two highly respected grading services are the Numismatic Guaranty Corporation (NGC) and the Professional Coin Grading Service (PCGS). However, professional grading services are the subject of controversy because grading is subjective; coins may receive different grades by different services or even upon resubmission to the same service. Due to potentially large differences in value over slight differences in a coin's condition, some commercial coin dealers will repeatedly resubmit a coin to a grading service in the hope of a higher grade. The grading services came into being (PCGS being first) in an effort to bring more safety to investors in rare coins. While they have reduced the number of counterfeits foisted upon investors and have improved matters substantially, the goal of creating a sight-unseen market for coins remains somewhat elusive. Damage of any sort (e.g. holes, edge dents, repairs, cleaning, re-engraving or gouges) can substantially reduce the value of a coin. Specimens are occasionally cleaned or polished in an attempt to pass them off as higher grades or as uncirculated strikes. Because of the substantially lower prices for cleaned or damaged coins, some specialize in their collection. When evaluating whether to buy a coin, it is important to develop a system for finding the best coin for the type you are looking to buy. As good system to use is to follow the following steps: 1) determine whether the coin has superb eye appeal; 2) check the rim for dents; 3) examine the surface of the coin for unsightly scratches or other blemishes; 4) determine whether the coin has nice luster; 5) determine whether the coin has nice toning; 6) determine whether the coin has full details. If the coin meets these requirements, you have found a good coin to purchase. Common collection themes A few themes are common and are often combined into a goal for a collection. Coins from around the world. Country collections Many collectors attempt to obtain a sample from every country which has issued a coin. In contrast to those who collect coins from all countries, many collect coins from only one country. The country selected is often their own. Year collections Rather than collecting one example of a type, some collectors prefer to collect by year. For example, they might collect one Lincoln cent for every year from 1909 to the present. This is probably one of the most practical ways to collect US currency. Most bookstores sell specially designed books, or coin albums, for the purpose of collecting coins by year. Mintmark collections Many collectors consider that different mint marks give sufficient differentiation to justify separate representation in their collection. This increases the number of examples needed to complete a collection from one per year to several per year. Some mintmarks are more rare than others. This is a great way to collect coins and to have a great time doing it. Variety collections As mints issues many thousands or millions of any given coin, there are generally multiple sets of dies used. Occasionally these dies will be slightly different. Generally this is in a very small detail, such as the number of leaves on the ear of corn on the recent US Wisconsin state quarter. Varieties are more common on older coins, when the coin dies were hand carved. Type collections Often a collection consists of an example of major design variants for a period of time in one country. Coins featuring eagles. Subject collections Collectors with an interest in a subject (e.g. ships or dogs) may collect only coins depicting that interest. Composition collections For some, the composition of the coin itself is interesting. For example there are several collectors of only bimetallic coins. Normally only precious metals like gold, silver, copper and platinum fit this category. Period collections A silver Mexican peso. Many collectors restrict themselves to coins issued after the 18th or 19th century, while others collect ancient and medieval coins. Coins of Roman, Byzantine, Greek, Indian, Celtic, Parthian, Merovingian, Ostrogothic, and ancient Israelite origin are amongst the more popular ancient coins collected. This theme also includes Mughal period, British Period, Republic Indian Peroid and coins issued during kingdom of various kings in India like Cholas, Maurayas, Guptas, Vijaynagars kingdoms. Specialties tend to vary greatly, but some approaches include the collection of coins minted during a particular emperor's reign or a representative coin from each emperor. Some collectors also like to collect all coins issued during the administration of a particular individual like RBI governor, finance secretory, prime minister, treasurer. For example, in India RBI governor issued new paper money with many added features while existing one also circulates. Coins are often a reflection of the events of the time in which they are produced, so coins issued during historically important periods are especially interesting to collectors and falls in this category. Signature collections Collectors with an interest in acquiring signatures of Finance Secretory (in India), RBI governor (in India), Chairman of Board of Commissioners of Currency (in Singapore), Gabenor (in Malaysia), treasurer (in United States and other countries) on the paper money (e.g. presently RBI governor Dr. D. Subbarao signs on all Indian Paper Money (except on Re.1), pastly Finance Secretory signs on Re. 1 Paper Money) Series collections Often a collection consists of an example of number series for a period of time in one country. This will be encouraged as the number would be lucky for collector or represents some mythological Symbols (e.g.786 for Muslim religion, they store that currency bearing 786 on them though they may not fall in any of the below mentioned category of "Types of Collector"). Some also interested in collecting paper money bearing a numerical series, an A.P., a G.P., an H.P., an number of identical numbers (90505050,99910299),others (1030507,987654,24680,1235813,1491625). Printed Value collections Often a collection consists of currency of a specific Printed Value. For example of 1 (includes 1 Indian Rupee, 1 American Dollor, 1 Singapore Dollor etc.) Volume collections Collectors with an interest in acquiring large volumes of a particular coins (e.g. as many pennies as they can store). These usually are not high-value coins, but the interest is in collecting a large volume of them either for the sake of the challenge, as a store of value, or in the hope that the intrinsic metal value will increase. Types of coin collectors Hobby Some collectors amass collections purely for fun with no real profit expectation. This may be most common with children just starting into coin collecting. Investors A common reason given for purchasing coins is as an investment. Coin prices can be cyclical and prices may drop for coins that are not in great long-term demand. In addition to demand, condition and rarity are also determinants in pricing. The age of a coin is not, per se, a factor. Many of the reasons given for investing in coins are similar to those given for investing in stamps, precious metals or other commodities. As with most collectibles, a coin collection does not produce income until it is sold, and may even incur costs (e.g. for safe deposit box storage) in the interim. While collecting for pleasure can make an enjoyable hobby, those entering the field primarily to profit should be warned to study before buying. Certain companies, some of whom may advertise on television, in newspapers, or in popular magazines, are alleged to make outlandish claims about the present and future values of their wares. After learning the basics of the field, it is often possible to make better purchases from reputable dealers. Hoarders Coin hoarders are similar to investors and collectors in the sense that they accumulate coins. However, they typically do not focus on one specific variety, rather they gather whatever coins they can and hold them. This is most common with coins whose metal value exceeds their spending value. Commercial Buyers and Speculators Commercial buyers and speculators purchase coins solely for the value of the metal used in the coin. Often, the coins purchased by this group are melted down or distributed as bullion for commercial purposes. Typically they purchase coins that are composed of rare or precious metals, or coins that have a high purity of a specific metal. Inheritors Someone who acquires coins (collection, hoard, investment) from another person. The inheritor does not necessarily know anything about numismatics, they just have the coins. References See also Coins Coin catalog Exonumia Numismatics Challenge coin Regular issue coinage Coin grading Colnect Examples Byron Reed Collection | Coin_collecting |@lemmatized coin:100 collecting:4 trading:1 form:1 legally:1 mint:7 currency:7 frequently:1 collected:1 include:5 circulation:3 brief:1 time:7 error:2 especially:3 beautiful:1 historically:2 interesting:3 piece:2 collect:22 differentiate:1 numismatics:4 latter:1 study:2 though:2 closely:1 relate:1 numismatist:1 may:9 collector:24 vice:1 versa:1 history:1 hoard:2 due:3 value:14 go:1 back:1 beginning:1 coinage:2 art:1 late:2 development:1 know:3 hobby:5 king:5 modern:1 generally:4 believe:1 begin:2 fourteenth:1 century:2 italian:1 scholar:1 poet:1 petrarch:1 reach:1 apex:1 middle:1 age:2 early:1 renaissance:1 great:5 demand:4 period:8 ancient:4 many:10 european:1 prince:1 nobility:1 pope:1 boniface:1 viii:1 emperor:3 maximilian:1 holy:1 roman:2 empire:1 louis:2 xiv:1 france:2 ferdinand:1 elector:2 joachim:2 ii:2 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investor:4 rare:3 reduce:2 counterfeit:1 foist:1 improve:1 matter:1 substantially:3 goal:2 sight:1 unseen:1 remain:1 somewhat:1 elusive:1 damage:2 sort:1 e:6 hole:1 edge:1 dent:2 repair:1 cleaning:1 engraving:1 gouge:1 occasionally:2 clean:2 polish:1 attempt:2 pass:1 strike:1 specialize:1 evaluate:1 whether:5 buy:3 important:2 develop:1 type:5 following:1 step:1 superb:1 eye:1 appeal:1 check:1 rim:1 examine:1 surface:1 unsightly:1 scratch:1 blemish:1 nice:2 luster:1 toning:1 full:1 detail:2 meet:1 requirement:1 purchase:6 common:6 theme:3 combine:1 around:1 world:1 country:8 obtain:1 sample:1 every:2 issue:8 contrast:1 select:1 year:6 rather:2 prefer:1 lincoln:1 cent:1 present:2 probably:1 practical:1 way:2 bookstore:1 sell:2 specially:1 design:2 book:1 album:1 purpose:2 mintmark:2 consider:1 give:5 differentiation:1 justify:1 separate:1 representation:1 need:1 per:3 variety:3 thousand:1 million:1 multiple:1 dy:3 slightly:1 small:1 leaf:1 ear:1 corn:1 recent:1 wisconsin:1 quarter:1 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2,445 | Medieval_Inquisition | Pedro Berruguete. Saint Dominic Presiding over an Auto-da-fé (around 1495 *Page of the painting at Prado Museum. ). The Medieval Inquisition is a series of Inquisitions (Roman Catholic Church bodies charged with suppressing heresy) from around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisition (1184-1230s) and later the Papal Inquisition (1230s). It was in response to large popular movements throughout Europe considered apostate or heretical to Christianity, in particular Catharism and Waldensians in southern France and northern Italy. These were the first inquisition movements of many that would follow. The Medieval Inquisitions were in response to growing religious movements, in particular the Cathars first noted in the 1140s and the Waldensians starting around 1170, in southern France and northern Italy. Individual "Heretics", such as Peter of Bruis, had often challenged the Church. However, the Cathars were the first mass heretical organization in the second millennium that posed a serious threat to the authority of the Church. History All major medieval inquisitions were decentralized. Authority rested with local officials based on guidelines from the Holy See, but there was no central top-down authority running the inquisitions, as would be the case in post-medieval inquisitions. Thus there were many different types of inquisitions depending on the location and methods; historians have generally classified them into the episcopal inquisition and the papal inquisition. The first medieval inquisition, the episcopal inquisition, was established in the year 1184 by a papal bull entitled Ad abolendam, "For the purpose of doing away with." The inquisition was in response to the growing Catharist heresy in southern France. It is called "episcopal" because it was administered by local bishops, which in Latin is episcopus. The episcopal inquisition was not very effective for many reasons. The bishops often did not reside in their dioceses, living in far-off cities such as Rome and rarely, if ever, visiting. When they did visit, bishops were busy and had many other responsibilities. Also, the procedures used in this inquisition were not effective. For example, according to the Ad abolendam, it was required to reveal the name of the accuser to the accused, and this would often lead to the revenge killing of the accuser before the trial. In the 1230s, Pope Gregory IX A History of the Inquisition responded to the failures of the episcopal inquisition with a series of papal bulls which became the papal inquisition. The papal inquisition was staffed by professionals, trained specifically for the job. Individuals were chosen from different orders and secular clergy, but primarily they came from the Dominican Order. The Dominicans were favored for their history of anti-heresy, education, and skill in debate. As mendicants, they were accustomed to travel and not interested in personal gain. Unlike the haphazard episcopal methods, the papal inquisition was thorough and systematic, keeping detailed records. Some of the most useful documents from the Middle Ages involving first-person speech by medieval peasants come from papal inquisition records. In northern Europe the Inquisition was considerably more benign: in the Scandinavian countries it had hardly any impact. It existed in the kingdom of Aragon during this period, but not elsewhere in the Iberian peninsula. The Inquisition was never instituted in England, but Christopher Columbus carried it with him to the New World. In the Early Modern period, during the turmoils of the Protestant Reformation, "witchhunts" became an issue, particularly in northern Europe, mostly outside the formal institution of the Inquisition. Persecutions against heretic movements The spread of heretic movements from the 12th century, can be seen at least in part as a reaction to the increasing moral corruption of the clergy, which included illegal marriages and the possession of wealth. In the Middle Ages, the Inquisition's main focus was to eradicate these new sects. Thus its range of action was predominantly set in Italy and France, where such sects had settled. The two main heretic movements of the period were the Cathars and the Waldensians. The former were mostly in south of France, in cities like Toulouse. They appear to have been originally founded by some soldiers from Second Crusade, who, on their way back, were converted by a Bulgarian sect, the Bogomils. Cathars' main heresy was their belief in dualism: the evil God created the materialistic world and the good God created the spiritual world. Therefore, Cathars preached poverty, chastity, modesty and all those values which in their view helped people to detach themselves from materialism. The Waldensians were mostly in Germany and North Italy. In contrast with the Cathars and in line with the Church, they believed in only one God, but they did not recognize priesthood nor the veneration (not synonymous with worship) of saints and martyrs, which were part of the Church's orthodoxy. The other two main sects of the period, which preached against the moral corruption of the Church, were the Dominicans and the Franciscans. However, instead of persecuting them, Pope Innocent III decided to employ them in the fight against heresy. As a result, many Franciscans and Dominicans became inquisitors. For example, Robert le Bougre, the "Hammer of Heretics" (Malleus Haereticorum), was a Dominican friar who became an inquisitor known for his cruelty and violence. Another example was the case of the province of Venice, which was handed to the Franciscan inquisitors, who quickly became notorious for their frauds against the Church, by enriching with confiscated property from the heretics and the selling of absolutions. Because of their corruption, they were eventually forced by the Pope to suspend their activities in 1302. At the beginning of the fourteenth century, two other movements attracted the attention of the Inquisition, the Knights Templars and the Beguines. It is not clear if the process against the Templars was initiated by the Inquisition on the basis of suspected heresy or if the inquisition itself was exploited by the king of France, Philip the Fair, who wanted the knights' wealth. In the search for Templars, two inquisitors were also sent to the British Isles. This is the only instance of inquisitorial action in the British Isles and not a successful one, mainly because the inquisitors could not instigate false confessions through torture, as its use was forbidden by common law. The Beguines were mainly a women's movement and had previously been recognized by the Church since their foundation in the thirteenth century as mystics. However, with the Council of Vienna in the fourteenth century, they were proclaimed heretics and persecuted, with large numbers being burned at the stake in Narbonne, Toulouse and other French cities. They were also attacked in Germany, the first attempt of the Inquisition to operate in the area. A possible explanation of this shift is that, after the successful extirpation of the Cathars, the Inquisition needed new heresies to fight against and new revenues to sustain itself. Thus it directed its attention to pseudo-heretic movements. Another aspect of the medieval Inquisition is that little attention was paid to sorcery. In fact several Popes were suspected of having a strong interest or practice alchemy and it was only with John XXII, who was himself suspected of being a magician, that sorcery became another form of heresy and thus liable of persecution by the Inquisition. Persecutions against individuals Saint Joan of Arc In 1430 Pierre Cauchon, the bishop of Beauvais, promoted a trial against Joan of Arc, also known as the "Maid of Orleans", a woman who, since her involvement in 1429 had subverted in fifteen months the course of the war between the English and the French, by liberating Orleans and defeating the English invaders on several occasions. The reasons behind this process were politically motivated. Cauchon aspired to become cardinal, but to obtain this and further recognitions, he needed the support of the King of England and the Duke of Bedford, who in turn needed to rid themselves of Joan. Furthermore, giving to her victories a diabolic origin would have been a conceivable way to alleviate their men's morale. Thus the decision to involve the Inquisition, which therefore did not instigate the trial and in fact showed a reluctance throughout its duration. Seventy charges were brought against her, including accusations of witchcraft and dressing as a male. Joan was first condemned to life imprisonment and the deputy-inquisitor, Jean Le Maitre, obtained from her assurances of relinquishing her male clothes. However, after four days, in which she was allegedly tortured by English soldiers and possibly raped, she refused again to wear female clothes, which was seen as a sign of her return to heresy. She was therefore burnt at the stake two days later, on 30 May 1431. In 1455, by the order of King Charles VII of France, who Joan had publicly supported, a rehabilitation trial was opened in Notre Dame at Paris to investigate the dubious circumstances which led to Joan's execution. The Inquisitor-General of France, was put in charge of the trial. After a careful analysis of all the proceedings, including Joan's answers to the allegations, he pronounced null her condemnation. Joan of Arc was eventually canonized in 1920. The rehabilitation of Joan of Arc, was also unprecedented in the previous history of the Inquisition, reflecting a clear signal in the decline of the medieval Inquisition in France. Inquisition procedure The papal inquisition developed a number of procedures to discover and prosecute heretics. Investigation When a papal inquisition arrived at a town it had a set of procedures and rules to identify likely heretics. First, the townspeople would be gathered in a public place. Although attendance was voluntary, those who failed to show would automatically be suspect, so most would come. The inquisitors would provide an opportunity for anyone to step forward and denounce themselves in exchange for easy punishment. As part of this bargain they would need to inform on other heretics. In addition, the inquisitors could simply force people to be interrogated. Once information had been gathered, an inquisitorial trial could begin. Trial The inquisitorial trial generally favored the prosecution (the Church). The accused was expected to self-incriminate and did not have the right to face and question the accuser. It was acceptable to take testimony from criminals, persons of bad reputation, excommunicated people, and convicted heretics. Blood relationship did not exempt one from the duty to testify against the accused. The inquisitor could keep a defendant in prison for years before the trial to obtain new information. Despite the seeming unfairness of the procedures, the inquisitors did provide some rights to the defendant. At the beginning of the trial, defendants were invited to name those who had "mortal hatred" against them. If the accusers were among those named, the defendant was set free and the charges dismissed; the accusers would face life imprisonment. This option was meant to keep the inquisition from becoming involved in local grudges. A confession under torture was not admissible in court, although the inquisitor could threaten the accused with torture during the proceedings. Torture Torture was used after 1252. On May 15, Pope Innocent IV issued a papal bull entitled Ad exstirpanda, which authorized the use of torture by inquisitors. Torture methods that resulted in bloodshed, mutilation or death were forbidden. Also, torture could be performed only once. However, it was common practice to consider a second torture session to be a "continuation" of the first. People were also tortured by getting hung by their wrists, and have weights hung from their ankles. Punishment Among the possible punishments were a long pilgrimage for first offenders, wearing a yellow cross for life, confiscation of property, banishment, public recantation, or long-term imprisonment. Burning at the stake was only for the most serious cases, including repeat offenders and unrepentant heretics. Execution was done not by the Church, which was forbidden to kill, but by secular officials. The accused could have all of his property confiscated, and in many cases, accusers may have been motivated by a desire to take the property of the accused. The inquisitors generally preferred not to hand over heretics to the secular arm for execution if they could persuade the heretic to repent. It was in the inquisitors' interest to be perceived as merciful, and they generally preferred to keep defendants alive, even while almost torturing them to death, in hopes of obtaining confessions. For example, Bernard Gui, a famous inquisitor working in the area of Toulouse (in modern France), executed 42 people out of over 900 guilty verdicts in fifteen years of office. Execution was to admit defeat, that the Church was unable to save a soul from heresy, which was the goal of the inquisition. Legacy The inquisitions in combination with the brutal Albigensian Crusade were fairly successful in eliminating mass heresy. When they started, the heretical sects were quite strong and growing, but by the 14th century the Waldensians had been driven underground and the Cathars had been slaughtered en masse or forced to recant. See also Goa Inquisition Spanish Inquisition Roman Inquisition Nicolau Aymerich However, it is also interesting to note that the Cathars continued to flourish; even at the height of the Inquisition their numbers only began to fall after relentless efforts by the Church. Today, there has been a resurgence of the group, and modern day Cathars are seen (in relatively small numbers) throughout Europe mostly. 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2,446 | Blue_crane | The Blue Crane (Anthropoides paradisea), also known as the Stanley Crane and the Paradise Crane, is the national bird of South Africa. It is a tall, ground-dwelling bird, but is fairly small by the standards of the crane family. It is 100-120 cm (40-47 in) tall and weighs from 4 to 6.2 kg (8.8-13.6 lbs). This crane is pale blue-gray in colour with a white crown, a pink bill, and long, dark gray wingtip feathers which trail to the ground. Characteristics Blue Cranes are birds of the dry, grassy uplands which feed on seeds and insects and spend little time in wetlands. They are altitudinal migrants, generally nesting in the upper grasslands and moving down to lower altitudes for winter. Many occupy agricultural areas. Of the 15 species of crane, the Blue Crane has the most restricted distribution of all. Decline While it remains common in parts of its historic range, and approx. 25,700 individuals remain, it began a sudden population decline from around 1980 and is now classified as vulnerable. In the last two decades, the Blue Crane has largely disappeared from the Eastern Cape, Lesotho, and Swaziland. The population in the northern Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga and North West Province has declined by up to 90%. The majority of the remaining population is in eastern and southern South Africa, with a small and separate population in the Etosha Pan of northern Namibia. Occasionally, isolated breeding pairs are found in five neighboring countries. The primary causes of the sudden decline of the Blue Crane are human population growth, the conversion of grasslands into commercial tree plantations, and poisoning: deliberate (to protect crops) or accidental (baits intended for other species, and as a side-effect of crop dusting. The South African government has stepped up legal protection for the Blue Crane. Other conservation measures are focusing on research, habitat management, education, and recruiting the help of private landowners. Cultural references The Blue Crane is a bird very special to the amaXhosa, who call it indwe. When a man distinguished himself by deeds of valour, or any form of meritorious conduct, he was often decorated by a chief by being presented with the feathers of this bird. After a battle, the chief would organise a ceremony called ukundzabela – a ceremony for the heroes, at which feathers would be presented. Men so honoured – they wore the feathers sticking out of their hair – were known as men of ugaba (trouble) - the implication being that if trouble arose, these men would reinstate peace and order. The Blue Crane is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. Media External links BirdLife Species Factsheet IUCN Red List International Crane Foundation's Blue Crane page Blue Crane videos on the Internet Bird Collection | Blue_crane |@lemmatized blue:11 crane:16 anthropoides:1 paradisea:1 also:1 know:2 stanley:1 paradise:1 national:1 bird:6 south:3 africa:2 tall:2 ground:2 dwell:1 fairly:1 small:2 standard:1 family:1 cm:1 weigh:1 kg:1 lbs:1 pale:1 gray:2 colour:1 white:1 crown:1 pink:1 bill:1 long:1 dark:1 wingtip:1 feather:4 trail:1 characteristic:1 dry:1 grassy:1 upland:1 fee:1 seed:1 insect:1 spend:1 little:1 time:1 wetland:1 altitudinal:1 migrant:1 generally:1 nest:1 upper:1 grassland:2 move:1 low:1 altitude:1 winter:1 many:1 occupy:1 agricultural:1 area:1 specie:4 restricted:1 distribution:1 decline:4 remain:3 common:1 part:1 historic:1 range:1 approx:1 individual:1 begin:1 sudden:2 population:5 around:1 classify:1 vulnerable:1 last:1 two:1 decade:1 largely:1 disappear:1 eastern:2 cape:1 lesotho:1 swaziland:1 northern:2 free:1 state:1 kwazulu:1 natal:1 limpopo:1 gauteng:1 mpumalanga:1 north:1 west:1 province:1 majority:1 southern:1 separate:1 etosha:1 pan:1 namibia:1 occasionally:1 isolate:1 breeding:1 pair:1 find:1 five:1 neighboring:1 country:1 primary:1 cause:1 human:1 growth:1 conversion:1 commercial:1 tree:1 plantation:1 poisoning:1 deliberate:1 protect:1 crop:2 accidental:1 bait:1 intend:1 side:1 effect:1 dusting:1 african:2 government:1 step:1 legal:1 protection:1 conservation:2 measure:1 focus:1 research:1 habitat:1 management:1 education:1 recruit:1 help:1 private:1 landowner:1 cultural:1 reference:1 special:1 amaxhosa:1 call:2 indwe:1 man:1 distinguish:1 deed:1 valour:1 form:1 meritorious:1 conduct:1 often:1 decorate:1 chief:2 present:2 battle:1 would:3 organise:1 ceremony:2 ukundzabela:1 hero:1 men:3 honour:1 wear:1 stick:1 hair:1 ugaba:1 trouble:2 implication:1 arose:1 reinstate:1 peace:1 order:1 one:1 agreement:1 eurasian:1 migratory:1 waterbird:1 aewa:1 applies:1 medium:1 external:1 link:1 birdlife:1 factsheet:1 iucn:1 red:1 list:1 international:1 foundation:1 page:1 video:1 internet:1 collection:1 |@bigram cm_tall:1 weigh_kg:1 lesotho_swaziland:1 kwazulu_natal:1 meritorious_conduct:1 external_link:1 iucn_red:1 |
2,447 | Bovril | Bovril in a 250g jar Bovril is the trademarked name of a thick, salty meat extract, developed in the 1870s by John Lawson Johnston and sold in a distinctive, bulbous jar. It is made in Burton upon Trent, Staffordshire and distributed by Unilever UK. Bovril can be made into a drink by diluting with hot water. It can also be used as a flavouring for soups, stews or porridge, or spread on bread, especially toast, rather like Marmite. The first part of the product's name comes from Latin bos (genitive bovis) meaning "ox" or "cow". Johnston took the -vril suffix from Bulwer-Lytton's then-popular 1870 "lost race" novel The Coming Race, whose plot revolves around a powerful energy fluid named "Vril". http://www.ubfoods.co.uk/ourbrands/foods/bovril.asp History Poster for Bovril, about 1900 V&A Museum no. E.163-1973 The Two Infallible Powers - The Pope & Bovril In the year of 1870, in the war against the Prussians, Napoleon III found that his armies could not 'march on empty stomachs'. He therefore ordered one million cans of beef to feed his starving troops. The task of providing all this beef went to a Scotsman named John Lawson Johnston. Unfortunately, Britain did not have a large enough quantity of beef to meet the French people's and Napoleon III's demand, so Johnston created a product known as 'Johnston's Fluid Beef' -- later called Bovril. By the year 1888, in excess of 3000 British public houses, grocers and chemists were beginning to sell Bovril. In 1889, the Bovril Company was formed. 1966 saw the beginnings of Bovril's instant beef stock, followed by the 'King Beef' range of instant flavours for stews, casseroles and gravy in 1971. During the Siege of Ladysmith in the Second Boer War a Borvil like paste was produced from horse meat. Named Chevril by replacing the Bov (ox) with Chev (horse) in the Borvil name, it was produced by boiling down the horse meat to a jelly paste and serving it like beef tea. Bovril continued to function as a "war food" in World War I, and was frequently mentioned in the 1930 account "Not So Quiet... Stepdaughters of War" by Helen Zenna Smith (Evadne Price). As a drink mixing the beef-flavouring with hot water, it helped sustain ambulance drivers. A thermos of "beef tea" was the favoured way to fend off the chill of winter matches for generations of Scottish and English football enthusiasts; to this day Bovril dissolved in hot water is sold in stadiums all over the United Kingdom. Bovril beef tea was the only warm drink that Ernest Shackleton's team had to drink when they were marrooned on Elephant Island during the Endurance Expedition. When John Lawson Johnston died, George Lawson Johnston inherited the Bovril business. In 1929, George Lawson Johnston was recognised by the British Government and monarchy and was ennobled as Lord Luke, of Pavenham in the county of Bedford. This hereditary title passed to Ian St John Lawson Johnston in 1943 and to Arthur Charles St John Lawson Johnston in 1996. The current Lord Luke is one of the ninety hereditary peers elected to remain in the House of Lords of the United Kingdom after its 1999 reform. Bovril holds the unusual position of having been advertised with a Pope. An advertising campaign of the early 20th Century in Britain depicted the Pope seated on his throne, bearing a mug of Bovril. The campaign slogan ran: "The Two Infallible Powers - The Pope & Bovril". Product Range Jar of Bovril and Bovril on bread Chicken Bovril Bovril 125g Bovril 250g Bovril 500g Bovril 125g (Chicken) Bovril cubes (12x71g) Recipe In November 2004, the manufacturers, Unilever, announced that the composition of Bovril was being changed from beef extract to a yeast extract, claiming it was to make the product suitable for vegetarians and vegans, although at the time fear of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) may have been a factor. According to Unilever, "in blind taste tests, 10% didn't notice any difference in taste, 40% preferred the original and 50% preferred the new product." The manufacturer also hoped to increase exports (Unilever UK Export) to Asian countries such as Malaysia, a primarily Muslim country where the government was becoming restrictive regarding non-halal meat. By changing Bovril to a non-meat base, Unilever hoped to increase sales there, where people enjoy Bovril stirred into porridge. The removal of beef from the recipe in 2004 was not without criticism, with many complaining that the new variant did not taste the same and had a different mouth feel. Beef extract was eventually re-introduced as a key Bovril ingredient in 2006, after the European Commission lifted its ban on the export of Britain's beef products - it was only at this point that the manufacturer stated explicitly that this had been the main reason for beef's removal. Culture Bovril is served at the Groucho Club and is associated with football culture, being commonly drunk on the terraces from thermos flasks in winter. At Scottish football stadiums, containers such as thermos flasks are banned by law, so Bovril is purchased inside the grounds, where it is served in polystyrene or plastic cups. Some Bovril lovers (as seen at football matches) like to shake white pepper and a little cayenne into the drink. Burton Albion have named their home end after Bovril due to the sponsorships between club and company. Famous Bovril Drinkers include former Coventry City stalwart Boncho Guenchev, BB7's Aisleyne Horgan-Wallace, Lewis Tomalin from the 'Perfect Week' and London Scottish's Martin Tattersall. In July 2008 NME magazine famously referred to up-and-coming Manchester-based indie band Mucky Minds as, "Vampire Weekend on Bovril". See also Bonox Marmite Vegemite (An Australian yeast extract) Soup References External links Official Bovril Website Unilever Website Bovril: A short official history Unilever explains the reintroduction of beef to Bovril. BBC: No beef over Bovril's veggie move Bring Back Beefy Bovril site Bovril Beefs It Up Again The Bovril Shrine | Bovril |@lemmatized bovril:42 jar:3 trademarked:1 name:7 thick:1 salty:1 meat:5 extract:5 develop:1 john:5 lawson:7 johnston:10 sell:3 distinctive:1 bulbous:1 make:3 burton:2 upon:1 trent:1 staffordshire:1 distribute:1 unilever:7 uk:3 drink:5 dilute:1 hot:3 water:3 also:3 use:1 flavouring:2 soup:2 stew:2 porridge:2 spread:1 bread:2 especially:1 toast:1 rather:1 like:4 marmite:2 first:1 part:1 product:6 come:3 latin:1 bos:1 genitive:1 bovis:1 meaning:1 ox:2 cow:1 take:1 vril:2 suffix:1 bulwer:1 lytton:1 popular:1 lose:1 race:2 novel:1 whose:1 plot:1 revolve:1 around:1 powerful:1 energy:1 fluid:2 http:1 www:1 ubfoods:1 co:1 ourbrands:1 food:2 asp:1 history:2 poster:1 v:1 museum:1 e:1 two:2 infallible:2 power:2 pope:4 year:2 war:5 prussian:1 napoleon:2 iii:2 find:1 army:1 could:1 march:1 empty:1 stomach:1 therefore:1 order:1 one:2 million:1 beef:18 fee:1 starve:1 troop:1 task:1 provide:1 go:1 scotsman:1 unfortunately:1 britain:3 large:1 enough:1 quantity:1 meet:1 french:1 people:2 demand:1 create:1 know:1 later:1 call:1 excess:1 british:2 public:1 house:2 grocer:1 chemist:1 begin:1 company:2 form:1 saw:1 beginning:1 instant:2 stock:1 follow:1 king:1 range:2 flavour:1 casserole:1 gravy:1 siege:1 ladysmith:1 second:1 boer:1 borvil:2 paste:2 produce:2 horse:3 chevril:1 replace:1 bov:1 chev:1 boil:1 jelly:1 serve:3 tea:3 continue:1 function:1 world:1 frequently:1 mention:1 account:1 quiet:1 stepdaughter:1 helen:1 zenna:1 smith:1 evadne:1 price:1 mix:1 help:1 sustain:1 ambulance:1 driver:1 thermos:3 favoured:1 way:1 fend:1 chill:1 winter:2 match:2 generation:1 scottish:3 english:1 football:4 enthusiast:1 day:1 dissolve:1 stadium:2 united:2 kingdom:2 warm:1 ernest:1 shackleton:1 team:1 marrooned:1 elephant:1 island:1 endurance:1 expedition:1 die:1 george:2 inherit:1 business:1 recognise:1 government:2 monarchy:1 ennoble:1 lord:3 luke:2 pavenham:1 county:1 bedford:1 hereditary:2 title:1 pass:1 ian:1 st:2 arthur:1 charles:1 current:1 ninety:1 peer:1 elect:1 remain:1 reform:1 hold:1 unusual:1 position:1 advertise:1 advertising:1 campaign:2 early:1 century:1 depict:1 seat:1 throne:1 bear:1 mug:1 slogan:1 ran:1 chicken:2 cube:1 recipe:2 november:1 manufacturer:3 announce:1 composition:1 change:2 yeast:2 claim:1 suitable:1 vegetarian:1 vegan:1 although:1 time:1 fear:1 bovine:1 spongiform:1 encephalopathy:1 bse:1 may:1 factor:1 accord:1 blind:1 taste:3 test:1 notice:1 difference:1 prefer:2 original:1 new:2 hop:2 increase:2 export:3 asian:1 country:2 malaysia:1 primarily:1 muslim:1 become:1 restrictive:1 regard:1 non:2 halal:1 base:2 sale:1 enjoy:1 stir:1 removal:2 without:1 criticism:1 many:1 complain:1 variant:1 different:1 mouth:1 feel:1 eventually:1 introduce:1 key:1 ingredient:1 european:1 commission:1 lift:1 ban:2 point:1 state:1 explicitly:1 main:1 reason:1 culture:2 groucho:1 club:2 associate:1 commonly:1 drunk:1 terrace:1 flask:2 container:1 law:1 purchase:1 inside:1 ground:1 polystyrene:1 plastic:1 cup:1 lover:1 see:2 shake:1 white:1 pepper:1 little:1 cayenne:1 albion:1 home:1 end:1 due:1 sponsorship:1 famous:1 drinker:1 include:1 former:1 coventry:1 city:1 stalwart:1 boncho:1 guenchev:1 aisleyne:1 horgan:1 wallace:1 lewis:1 tomalin:1 perfect:1 week:1 london:1 martin:1 tattersall:1 july:1 nme:1 magazine:1 famously:1 refer:1 manchester:1 indie:1 band:1 mucky:1 mind:1 vampire:1 weekend:1 bonox:1 vegemite:1 australian:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 website:2 short:1 explain:1 reintroduction:1 bbc:1 veggie:1 move:1 bring:1 back:1 beefy:1 site:1 shrine:1 |@bigram lawson_johnston:7 unilever_uk:2 soup_stew:1 bulwer_lytton:1 revolve_around:1 http_www:1 bovril_bovril:6 ernest_shackleton:1 hereditary_peer:1 yeast_extract:2 vegetarian_vegan:1 bovine_spongiform:1 spongiform_encephalopathy:1 external_link:1 |
2,448 | Lebanon | Lebanon (, or ; ), officially the Lebanese Republic CIA - The World Factbook (), is a country in Western Asia, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Lebanon established a unique political system in 1942, known as confessionalism, based on a community-based power-sharing mechanism. Countries Quest. Jonathan Trumbull was born here "Lebanon, Government". Retrieved 14 December 2006. It was created when the ruling French mandatory powers expanded the borders of the former autonomous Ottoman Mount Lebanon district that was mostly populated by Maronite Catholics and Druze. Lebanon was the historic home of the Phoenicians, a maritime culture that flourished for more than 3,000 years (3700-450 BC). Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the five provinces that comprise present-day Lebanon were mandated to France. The country gained independence in 1943, and French troops withdrew in 1946. Before the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the country enjoyed a period of relative calm and prosperity, driven by tourism, agriculture, and banking. U.S. Department of State. "Background Note: Lebanon (History) August 2005". Retrieved 2 December 2006. It is considered one of the banking capitals of Western Asia, and during its heyday was known to some as the "Switzerland of the East" due to its financial power and diversity at the time. Lebanon also attracted large numbers of tourists Anna Johnson (2006). "Lebanon: Tourism Depends on Stability". Retrieved 31 October 2006. to the point that the capital Beirut was sometimes referred to as "Paris of the Middle East." Immediately following the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure. Canadian International Development Agency. "Lebanon: Country Profile". Retrieved 2 December 2006. Until July 2006, a considerable degree of stability had been achieved throughout much of the country, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete, Center for the Study of the Built Environment. "Deconstructing Beirut's Reconstruction: 1990-2000". Retrieved 31 October 2006. and an increasing number of foreign tourists were pouring into Lebanon's resorts. This was until the one month long 2006 Lebanon War, between the Israeli military and Hezbollah, which caused significant civilian death and serious damage to Lebanon's civil infrastructure. The conflict lasted from 12 July 2006 until a cessation of hostilities call, by the UN Security Council, went into effect on 14 August 2006. After some turbulent political times, Lebanon was again able to revive and restablize its economy and government. Etymology Faraya, Mount Lebanon The name Lebanon ("Lubnān" in standard Arabic;) comes from the Aramaic (and common West Semitic) root "LBN", meaning "white", which could be regarded as a reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon. Other interpretations of the name are "Leb" (heart in Syriac) and (a)non (God) or "the Heart of God". Occurrences of the name have been found in three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh (May be as early as 2100 BC), the texts of the library of Ebla (2400 BC), and 71 times in the Old Testament. The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where R stood for Canaanite L. History Sarcophagus of Ahiram, king of Byblos, now in the National Museum of Beirut Inscription in Phoenician on one of the tombs found in the Roman-Byzantine necropolis in Tyre Ancient history The earliest known settlements in Lebanon date back to earlier than 5000 BC. Kassem Nayif archaeologists have discovered in Byblos, which is considered to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, "Byblos". and Bashir Shihab II (1767 in Ghazir – 1850 in Constantinople) was a Lebanese emir who ruled Lebanon in the first half of the 19th century and was as such the second ruler who managed to do this (the first one was Fahkr-al-Din II in the 17th century). Bashir was born into a noble Shihab family which came to power in 1697 when Ahmad Maan, the last member of the Maan family, died. Despite his noble roots he was born into poverty and married into a rich family. In 1788, after abdication of his predecessor, he was elected an emir and would rule under Ottoman suzerainty, being appointed wali or governor of Mount Lebanon, the Beqaa Valley and Jebel Amil, together forming about two thirds of modern day Lebanon. He would reform taxes and attempt to break the feudal system, in order to undercut rivals, the most important of which was also named Bashir: Bashir Jumblatt, whose wealth and feudal backers equaled or exceeded Bashir II – and who had increasing support in the Druze community. In 1799 Bashir refused to assist either Napoleon or al-Jazzar during Napoleon's - siege on Acre. The this was one of the the factors causing Napoleon's failure and eventual return to Egypt. In 1822 the Ottoman wali of Damascus went to war with Acre, which was allied with Muhammad Ali, the pasha of Egypt. As part of this conflict one of the most remembered massacres of Maronite Christians by Druze forces occurred, forces that were aligned with the wali of Damascus. Jumblatt represented the increasingly disaffected Druze, who were both shut out from official power and angered at the growing ties with the Maronites by Bashir II, who was himself a Maronite Christian (initially the Shihab family belonged to Shia[citation needed] Islam and converted to Christianity at the end of the 18th century, although Bashir was always trying not to emphasize his own faith) Bashir II was overthrown as wali when he backed Acre, and fled to Egypt, later to return and organize an army. Jumblatt gathered the Druze factions together, and the war became sectarian in character: the Maronites backing Bashir II, the Druze backing Bashir Jumblatt. Jumblatt declared a rebellion, and between 1821 and 1825 there were massacres and battles, with the Maronites attempting to gain control of the Mt. Lebanon district, and the Druze gaining control over the Beqaa valley. In 1825 Bashir II defeated his rival and killed him after the battle of al Simqaniya. Bashir II was not a forgiving man and repressed the Druze, particularly in and around Beirut. Bashir II, who had come to power through local politics and nearly fallen from power because of his increasing detachment from them, reached out for allies, allies who looked on the entire area as “the Orient” and who could provide trade, weapons and money, without requiring fealty and without, it seemed, being drawn into endless internal squabbles. Trying to obtain greater degree of autonomy he supported Muhammad Ali's rise against the Ottoman Empire and allied with Ali's son Ibrahim Pasha who occupied Syria on his father's behalf. This way United Kingdom's and Austrian interests were threatened, so in 1840 they both helped the Ottomans to drive Ibrahim Pasha from Syria. Bashir was captured and sent into exile to Malta. For a short time the direct Ottoman rule over Lebanon was imposed until Bashir shihab III, another member of the Shihab family, was appointed an emir. One of the most remarkable Bashir's monuments is a magnificent palace in Beit ed-Dine which he started building immediately after taking power in 1788. He moved his government from Deir al-Qamar to Beit ed-Dine when he had executed (as a part of his many Intrigues) a popular Maronite prince and caused riots in Deir al-Qamar. Today, the Shihabs are still one of the prominent families in Lebanon, better known as Chehab as spelt in French. Retrieved 31 July 2007. remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars which are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago. Lebanon was the homeland of the Phoenicians, a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great. About.com (1987)."Lebanon in Ancient Times". Retrieved 17 December 2006. After two centuries of Persian rule, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great attacked and burned Tyre, the most prominent Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them Persian, Armenian, Assyrian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Seljuks, Mamluks, Crusader, and Ottoman. French mandate and independence Lebanon was part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, in a region known as Greater Syria, U.S. Library of Congress. "History: Present-Day Syria". Retrieved 2 May 2007 until 1918 when the area became a part of the French Mandate of Syria following World War I. On 1 September 1920, France formed the State of Greater Lebanon as one of several ethnic enclaves within Syria. Chorbishop Seely Beggiani (2005). "Aspects of Maronite History (Part Eleven) The twentieth century in Western Asia". Retrieved 24 January 2007. Lebanon was a largely Christian (mainly Maronite) enclave but also included areas containing many Muslims (including Druze). On 1 September 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. The Republic was afterward a separate entity from Syria (related to the country Syria) but still administered under the French Mandate of Syria. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany. Lebanese Global Information Center. "History of Lebanon". Retrieved 9 December 2006. General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon. After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On 26 November 1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on 8 November 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on 22 November 1943 and accepted the independence of Lebanon. The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Maronite Christian, its speaker of the parliament to be a Shiite Muslim, and its prime minister be Sunni Muslim. Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil (including a civil conflict in 1958) interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade. Lebanese Military The Lebanese military was built mainly for defense. In 1982 the United States started a Lebanese Army Modernization Program to be implemented in four stages. In 2006, the U.S. government lent billions of dollars in military support in areas such as security and military training. The U.S. military has agreed to give Lebanon 12 un-manned aircraft. Russia has also agreed to give Lebanon 10 MiG-29 fighter jets. 1948 Arab-Israeli war In May 1948, Lebanon was among the five Middle-Eastern states that invaded Israel with the declared intent of destroying the newly-declared country. (See for example the statement by Jamal Husseini, spokesman for the Arab Higher Committee, who proclaimed that Arab countries would retake "the soil of our beloved country with the last drop of our blood." Quoted in Hurewitz, J.C., The Struggle for Palestine, Shocken Books, 1976, p. 308). The Arab states' intentions to adhere to the declared aims of the Arab League have, however, been challenged by Israeli historians writing in the 1980s, including Avi Shlaim. Indeed, according to Shlaim, each Arab state involved in the war had their own hidden agenda, with their aims being far less ambitious than the wholesale destruction of Israel. Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World During the war, about 100,000 Palestinians fled to Lebanon. Israel did not allow their return at the end of the hostilities despite a number of UN resolutions requiring their return. Today, most of their descendants live in camps throughout Lebanon. Though some Palestinian refugees did become Lebanese citizens, the great majority did not. Civil war and beyond Picture of the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing In 1975, civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War lasted fifteen years, devastating the country's economy, and resulting in massive loss of human life and property. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 wounded. Time (1991). "After the War, the Mop-Up". Retrieved 30 November 2006. The war ended in 1990 with the signing of the Taif Agreement and parts of Lebanon were left in ruins. Council on Foreign Relations (2006). "The Future of Lebanon". Retrieved 18 December 2006. During the civil war, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) used Lebanon to launch attacks against Israel. Lebanon was twice invaded and occupied by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in 1978 and 1982, People's Daily (2000). "Lebanese Troops Patrol Near Fatma Gate Along Border With Israel". Retrieved 18 December 2006. with the PLO expelled in the second invasion. Israel remained in control of Southern Lebanon until 2000, when there was a general decision, led by Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, to withdraw due to continuous attacks executed by Hezbollah, and a belief that the violence would diminish and dissolve without the Israeli presence in Lebanon. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2000)."Withdrawal from Lebanon: Press Briefing by Foreign Minister David Levy". Retrieved 1 November 2006. The UN determined that the withdrawal of Israeli troops beyond the blue line was in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425, although a border region called the Shebaa Farms is still disputed. Hezbollah declared that it would not stop its operations against Israel until this area was liberated. The key to Shebaa, Al-Jazeera online. Retrieved 1 April 2007. Nahr al-Bared conflict Nahr al-Bared (Arabic: نهر البارد, literally: Cold River) is a Palestinian refugee camp in northern Lebanon, 16 km from the city of Tripoli. Some 30,000 displaced Palestinians and their descendents live in and around the camp, which was named after the river that runs south of the camp. The camp was established in December 1949 by the League of Red Cross Societies in order to accommodate the Palestinian refugees suffering from the difficult winter conditions in the Beqaa Valley and the suburbs of Tripoli. The Lebanese Army is banned from entering all Palestinian camps under the 1969 Cairo Agreement. Late in the night of Saturday May 19, 2007, a building was surrounded by Lebanese Internal Security Forces (ISF) in which a group of Fatah al-Islam militants accused of taking part in a bank robbery earlier that day were hiding. The ISF attacked the building early on Sunday May 20, 2007, unleashing a day long battle between the ISF and Fatah al-Islam militants. As a response, members of Fatah al-Islam in Nahr al-Bared Camp attacked an army checkpoint, killing several soldiers in their sleep. The army immediately responded by shelling the camp. The camp became the centre of the fighting between the Lebanese Army and Fatah al-Islam. It sustained heavy shelling while under siege. UNRWA estimates the battle between the army and Islamic militant group Fatah al-Islam destroyed or rendered uninhabitable as much as 85 percent of homes in the camp and ruined infrastructure. The camp’s up to 40,000 residents were forced to flee, many of them sheltering in the already overcrowded Beddawi camp, 10 km south. At least 169 soldiers, 287 insurgents and 47 civilians were killed in the army’s battle with the al-Qaeda-inspired militants. Funds for the reconstruction of the area have been slow to materialise, and life for the displaced refugees is hard. UN IRIN news. "Life set to get harder for Nahr al-Bared refugees". Retrieved 5 November 2008. Cedar Revolution http://www.thestar.com/article/264773|publisher=Toronto Star|accessdate=2009-02-02|quote= Like a wound that just won't heal, a large expanse patch of fresh asphalt still mottles the grey surface of Rue Minet el-Hosn, where the street veers west around St. George Bay. The patch marks the exact spot where a massive truck bomb exploded February 14, 2005, killing prime minister Rafik Hariri and 22 others and gouging a deep crater in the road. Leaders of the March 14 Alliance, a pro-Western coalition, accused Syria of the attack CBC News Indepth (2006). "Recent background on Syria's presence in Lebanon". Retrieved 10 December 2006. due to its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, and the public rift between Hariri and Damascus over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending President Lahoud's term in office. Others, namely the March 8 Alliance and Syrian officials, claimed that the assassination may have been executed by the Israeli Mossad in an attempt to destabilize the country. See this MEMRI bulletin, includes several statements and sources. This incident triggered a series of demonstrations, dubbed the 'Cedar Revolution' by the media, that demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1595 on 7 April 2005, which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri. Preliminary findings of the investigation were officially published on 20 October 2005 in the Mehlis report, which cited indications that high-ranking members of the Syrian and Lebanese governments were involved in the assassination. Eventually, and under pressure from the West, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon. By 26 April 2005, all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria. CNN (2005) "Last Syrian troops leave Lebanon". Retrieved 11 December 2006. . The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that led to the loss of many prominent Lebanese figures. On March 14, 2005, up to one million protesters demanded an end to the Syrian occupation of Lebanon. On 12 July 2006, Hezbollah fired rockets at Israeli border towns as a diversion for an anti-tank missile attack on two armored Humvees patrolling the Israeli side of the border fence. Of the seven Israeli soldiers in the two jeeps, two were wounded, three were killed, and two were kidnapped and taken to Lebanon. Five more were killed in a failed Israeli rescue attempt. In Lebanon, air strikes caused serious damage to Lebanon's civil infrastructure (including Beirut's airport), and were followed by Israel's ground forces moving into areas of Lebanon militarily controlled by Hezbollah fighters. Israel rained as many as 4.6 million cluster sub-munitions across southern Lebanon in at least 962 separate strikes, the vast majority over the final three days of the war when Israel knew a settlement was imminent. In Israel, over 3,000 Hezbollah rockets landed on northern Israel, many in urban areas. The month-long conflict caused significant loss of life, both Israeli (nearly 100) and Lebanese (over 1,000). The conflict officially ended on 14 August 2006, when the United Nations Security Council issued resolution 1701 ordering a ceasefire between Hezbollah and Israel. (Goldwasser and Regev were held for two years, without indication as to their health, until their remains were returned by Hezbollah to Israel on July 16, 2008 in a trade for living prisoners.) In October 2007, Émile Lahoud finished his term as president. The opposition conditioned its vote for a successor on a power-sharing deal, thus leaving the country without a president for over 6 months. On 9 May 2008, Hezbollah and Amal resistance, in an armed attack triggered by a government decision on Hezbollah's communications network, temporarily took over Western Beirut. The situation was described by the government as an attempted coup and led many to fear the country was on the brink of another civil war. On 21 May 2008, all major Lebanese parties signed an accord to elect Michel Suleiman president and establish a government of national unity with a veto share for opposition parties, including one Hezbollah minister. The deal was brokered by an Arab League delegation, headed by the Emir and Foreign Minister of Qatar and the Secretary General of the Arab League, after five days of intense negotiations in Doha. Suleiman was officially elected president on 25 May 2008. Geography and climate Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the western and eastern mountain ranges Mountain scenery in Barouk A view from Beaufort Castle in south Lebanon Lebanon is located in Western Asia. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the west along a coastline, by Syria to the east and north, and by Israel to the south. The Lebanon-Syria border stretches for and the Lebanon-Israel border for . The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights in Syria is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms, but the border has been demarcated by the United Nations. Telegraph (2000) "Israel's Withdrawal from Lebanon Given UN's Endorsement". Retrieved 1 November 2006. Most of Lebanon's area is mountainous terrain, Encyclopædia Britannica. "Lebanon". Retrieved 10 December 2006. except for the narrow coastline and the Beqaa Valley, which plays an integral role in Lebanon's agriculture. However, climate change and political differences threaten conflict over water resources in Valley. UN IRIN news. "Climate change and politics threaten water wars in Bekaa". Retrieved 1 February 2009. Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with frequent, sometimes heavy snow; summers are warm and dry. (Bonechi et al.) (2004) Golden Book Lebanon, p. 3, Florence, Italy: Casa Editrice Bonechi. ISBN 88-476-1489-9 Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually (compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little due to the high peaks of the western mountain front blocking much of the rain clouds that originate over the Mediterranean Sea. Country Studies US. "Lebanon - Climate". Retrieved 5 November 2006. In ancient times, Lebanon housed large forests of the Cedars of Lebanon, which now serve as the country's national emblem. Blue Planet Biomes. "Lebanon Cedar - Cedrus libani". Retrieved 10 December 2006. However, centuries of trading cedar trees, used by mariners for boats, and the absence of any efforts to replant them have depleted the country's once-flourishing cedar forests. Government and politics The Lebanese parliament building at the Place de l'Étoile Lebanon is a parliamentary republic, which implements a special system known as confessionalism. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (2002). "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 2002: Lebanon". Retrieved 3 January 2007. This system is intended to ensure that sectarian conflict is kept at bay and attempts to fairly represent the demographic distribution of the 18 recognized religious groups in the governing body. Lijphart, Arend. Consociational Democracy, in "World Politics", Vol. 21, No. 2 (January 1969), pp. 207-225. Lijphart, Arend. Multiethnic democracy, in S. Lipset (ed.), "The Encyclopedia of Democracy". London, Routledge, 1995, Volume III, pp. 853-865. High-ranking offices are reserved for members of specific religious groups. The President, for example, has to be a Maronite Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim and the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’a Muslim. United States Institute of Peace (March 2006). "Lebanon's Confessionalism: Problems and Prospects". Retrieved 3 January 2007. Marie-Joëlle Zahar. "Chapter 9 Power sharing in Lebanon: Foreign protectors, domestic peace, and democratic failure". (DOC) Retrieved 3 January 2007. Lebanon's national legislature is the unicameral Parliament of Lebanon. Its 128 seats are divided equally between Muslims and Christians, proportionately between the different denominations and proportionately between regions. |title=Lebanon Public Administration Profile|accessdate=2008-09-11 |format=PDF |work=Division for Public Administration and Development Management, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations|month=October | year=2004 Prior to 1990, the ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians; however, the Taif Accord, which put an end to the 1975-1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions. The Parliament is elected for a four-year term by universal suffrage although the civil war precluded the exercise of this right. The Grand Serail, the government headquarters in downtown Beirut The executive branch constitute of the President, the head of state, and the Prime Minister, the head of government. The parliament elects the president for a non-renewable six-year term by a two-third majority. The president appoints the Prime Minister. UNDP. "Democratic Governance, Elections, Lebanon". Retrieved 15 December 2008. Following consultations with the parliament and the President, the Prime Minister forms the Cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism. Lebanon's judicial system is a mixture of Ottoman law, Napoleonic code, canon law and civil law. The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. The Constitutional Council rules on constitutionality of laws and electoral frauds. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage and inheritance. Foreign relations Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002. Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is working toward accession to the World Trade Organization. Aside from Syria, Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of the other Arab countries (despite historic tensions with Libya, the Palestinians, and Iraq), and hosted an Arab League Summit in March 2002 for the first time in more than 35 years. Lebanon is a member of the Francophone countries and hosted the Francophone Summit in October 2002. The Lebanese remain neutral with the Israelis although there has been tension between the two. Governorates and districts Lebanon is divided into six governorates (mohaafazaat, ;singular mohafazah, ) which are further subdivided into twenty-five districts (aqdya — singular: qadaa). USAID Lebanon. "USAID Lebanon — Definitions of Terms used". Retrieved 17 December 2006. The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below: Beirut Governorate The Beirut Governorate is not divided into districts and is limited to the city of Beirut. Nabatiyeh Governorate (Jabal Amel) Bint Jbeil Hasbaya Marjeyoun Nabatieh Beqaa Governorate Baalbek Hermel Rashaya Western Beqaa (al-Beqaa al-Gharbi) Zahle North Governorate (al-Shamal) Akkar Batroun Bsharri Koura Miniyeh-Danniyeh Tripoli Zgharta Mount Lebanon Governorate (Jabal Lubnan) Aley Baabda Byblos (Jbeil) Chouf Kesrwan Matn South Governorate (al-Janoub) Jezzine Sidon (Saida) Tyre (Sur) Economy The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise. U.S. Department of State (1994) Header: People, 4th paragraph. Retrieved 3 December 2006. Over the course of time, emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world. Background Note: Lebanon "www.washingtoninstitute.org". Retrieved 3 December 2006. Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labor comparable to most European nations and the highest among Arabic speaking countries. United Nations Population Fund."Lebanon - Overview". Retrieved 9 November 2006. Although Lebanon is ideally suited for agricultural activities in terms of water availability and soil fertility, as it possesses the highest proportion of cultivable land in the Arabic speaking world, Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, U.S.A. 1986-1988. . Retrieved 2 December 2006. it does not have a large agricultural sector. Attracting a mere 12% of the total workforce, Jean Hayek et al, 1999. The Structure, Properties, and Main Foundations of the Lebanese Economy. In The Scientific Series in Geography, Grade 11, 110-114. Beirut: Dar Habib. agriculture is the least popular economic sector in Lebanon. It contributes approximately 11.7% of the country's GDP, also placing it in the lowest rank compared to other economic sectors. Major produce includes apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons. US Department of State (2005). "Lebanon". Retrieved 1 November 2006. Industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses concerned with reassembling and packaging imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population, and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP. A combination of beautiful climate, many historic landmarks and World Heritage Sites continues to attract large numbers of tourists to Lebanon annually, in spite of its political instability. In addition, Lebanon's strict financial secrecy and capitalist economy — though no longer unique in the region — have given it significant, though no longer dominant, economic status among Arab countries. The at-times thriving tourism and banking activities have naturally made the services sector the most important pillar of the Lebanese economy. The majority of the Lebanese workforce (nearly 65%) take employment in the services sector as a result of abundant job opportunities, as the economy itself is not all the diverse. The GDP contribution, accordingly, is very large and amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP. The economy's dependence on services has always been an issue of great criticism and concern, as it leaves the country subject to the instability of this sector and the vagaries of international trade. The Kadisha Valley is a World Heritage Site The 1975-1990 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a West Asian entrepôt and banking hub. The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes (though not always successfully), and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange. CIA World Factbook 2001. Retrieved 2006-12-04. Until the 2006 Lebanon War, Lebanon's economy witnessed excellent growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion US dollars, Bank Audi (2006). "Lebanon Economic Report: 2nd Quarter, 2006". Retrieved 27 November 2005. By the end of the first half of 2006, the influx of tourists to Lebanon had already registered a 49.3% increase over 2005 figures (which was a low figure, making the 49.3% increase seem more spectacular than it was). Market capitalization was also at an all time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006, just weeks before the fighting started. The war severely damaged Lebanon's fragile economy, especially the tourism sector. According to a preliminary report published by the Lebanese Ministry of Finance on 30 August 2006, a major economic decline was expected as a result of the fighting. Lebanese Ministry of Finance (2006)."Impact of the July Offensive on the Public Finances in 2006". Retrieved 24 September 2006. Rafiq Hariri International Airport, re-opened in September 2006, and the efforts to revive the Lebanese economy have since been proceeding at a slow pace. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with US$ 1.5 billion pledged), Cyprus News (2006). "Saudi Arabia Key Contributor To Lebanon's Reconstruction". Retrieved 26 November 2006. the European Union (with about $1 billion) Lebanon Under Siege (2006). "Donors pledge more than $940 million for Lebanon". Retrieved 26 November 2006. and a few other Persian Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million. Ain-Al-Yaqeen (2006). "The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Reviews with the Jordanian King the Situation in Lebanon...". Retrieved 27 November 2006. Education Schools All Lebanese schools are required to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Private schools, approximately 1,400 in all, Samidoun (2006). "Aid groups scramble to fix buildings, fill backpacks before school bell rings". Retrieved 9 December 2006. may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. The main subjects taught are mathematics, sciences, history, civics, geography, Arabic, and at least one secondary language (either French or English). The subjects gradually increase in difficulty and in number. Students in Grade 11, for example, study up to eighteen different subjects. The government introduces a mild form of selectivity into the curriculum by giving 11th graders choice between two "concentrations": sciences, humanities, and 12th graders choose between four concentrations: life sciences, general sciences, sociology and economics, and humanities and literature. The choices in concentration do not include major changes in the number of subjects taken (if at all). However, subjects that fall out of the concentration are given less weight in grading and are less rigorous, while subjects that fall within the concentration are more challenging and contribute significantly to the final grade. Students go through three academic phases: NameNumber of yearsAnnotationsElementary6Intermediate3students earn Intermediate Certification (Lebanese Brevet) at completionSecondary3students who pass official exams earn a Baccalaureate Certificate (Baccalauréat Libanais) in the concentration they chose in 12th grade. Students studying at French-system schools may also graduate with a French Baccalaureate that is considered equivalent to the Lebanese Baccalaureate. These three phases are provided free to all students and the first eight years are, by law, compulsory. US Department of State (2005). "Lebanon". Retrieved 15 December 2006. Nevertheless, this requirement currently falls short of being fully enforced. Higher education Following secondary school, Lebanese students may choose to study at a university, a college, or a vocational training institute. The number of years to complete each program varies. While the Lebanese educational system offer a very high quality and international class of education, the local employment market lacks of enough opportunities, thus encouraging many of the young educated to travel abroad. Lebanon has forty-one nationally accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized. Infopro Management. "Lebanon Opportunities - Business Information". Retrieved 30 January 2007. Lebanese Directory of Higher Education. "Decrees". Retrieved 30 January 2007. The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Université Saint-Joseph (USJ) were the first Anglophone and the first Francophone universities to open in Lebanon, respectively. eIFL.net Regional Workshop (2005). "Country Report: Lebanon". Retrieved 14 December 2006. Université Saint-Joseph. "125 years of history - A timeline". Retrieved 8 December 2006. The universities, both public and private, largely operate in French or English. Yalla!. "Yalla! Students". Retrieved 15 December 2006. At the English universities, students who have graduated from an American-style high school program enter at the freshman level to earn their baccalaureate equivalence from the Lebanese Ministry of Higher Education. This qualifies them to continue studying at the higher levels. Such students are required to have already taken the SAT I and the SAT II upon applying to college, in lieu of the official exams. On the other hand, students who have graduated from a school that follows the Lebanese educational system are directly admitted to the sophomore year. These students are still required to take the SAT I, but not the SAT II. The university academic degrees for the first stage are the Bachelor or the Licence, for the second stage are the Master or the DEA and the third stage is the doctorate. The United Nations assigned Lebanon an education index of 0.871 in 2008. {} Demographics and religions The number of people inhabiting Lebanon proper was estimated at 3,971,941 (July 2008 estimate). Approximately 18 million people of Lebanese descent are spread all over the world, of whom a majority are Christians; Retrieved 21 March 2009. in Lebanon, it is 55% Muslim, 45% Christian. Most of the diaspora is located in Brazil. Marina Sarruf (2006). "Brazil Has More Lebanese than Lebanon". Retrieved 2 November 2006. As of 2007, Lebanon was host to over 375,000 refugees and asylum seekers: 270,800 from Palestine, 100,000 from Iraq, and 4,500 from Sudan. Lebanon forcibly repatriated more than 300 refugees and asylum seekers in 2007. No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional balance. The CIA World Fact Book gives the following distribution:Muslim 59.7% (Shia, Sunni, Druze, Isma'ilite, Alawite or Nusayri), Christian 40% (Maronite Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Melkite Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Syrian Catholic, Armenian Catholic, Syrian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Chaldean, Assyrian, Copt, Protestant), other 1.3%. See under heading "Religions" on CIA World Factbook - Lebanon. There are 17 recognized religious sects. CIA, the World Factbook (2006). "Lebanon". Retrieved 7 November 2006. An 18th sect, the Copts, was officially added recently. Some followers of the Druze religion do not consider themselves to be Muslim, but the state legally considers them Muslim. It should be noted that almost half the groups, though recognized, have less than 5,000 members each. According to the Pew Research Center, 54 percent of Lebanese Muslims believe that religion is very important. Lebanon's Muslims: Relatively Secular and Pro-Christian Pew Research Center (2006). Language Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language may be used". "Article 11 of the Lebanese Constitution" http://www.servat.unibe.ch/law/icl/le00000_.html#A011_ Retrieved 28 June 2008. The majority of Lebanese people speak Arabic and sometimes French and/or English. The Arabic language is mostly used in magazines and newspapers. Lebanese people of Armenian or Greek descent often speak Armenian or Greek fluently. Culture Overview Phoenicia and its colonies. The area including modern Lebanon has been home to various civilizations and cultures for thousands of years. Originally home to the Phoenicians, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Crusaders, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups. Lebanon's diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country's festivals, musical styles and literature as well as cuisine, and numerous violent clashes amongst different religious and ethnic groups. When compared to the rest of the Western Asia, Lebanese society as a whole is well educated, and as of 2003 87.4% of the population was literate. Lebanon CIA World Fact Book. . 18 December 2006. Lebanese society is very modern and similar to certain cultures of Mediterranean Europe. It is often considered to serve as Europe's gateway to Western Asia as well as the Asian gateway to the Western World. Lebanon Culture. . 18 December 2006. National flag The cedar tree is a prominent feature of the Lebanese flag. It has been used as a symbol by the Maronite Christians of Lebanon since the 18th and 19th centuries. The tree represents peace, immortality and tolerance. The red stripes symbolize martyrdom, and the white represents the snow-capped peaks of Lebanon's mountains. Historically, red and white have symbolized the Kayssites and the Yemmenites respectively, who were opposing clans within the Lebanese territory between 634 and 1711. Sports Because of Lebanon's unique geography, both summer and winter sports thrive in the country. In autumn and spring it is sometimes possible to engage in both during the same season, skiing in the morning and swimming in the Mediterranean during the afternoon, much as one can in Cyprus. At the competitive level, basketball, football, and in recent years, Lebanon has hosted the Asian Cup and the Pan-Arab Games; the country will host the Winter Asian Games in 2009. Lebanon has six ski resorts, with opportunities also available for cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, and snowmobiling. In the summer, skilifts can be used to access hiking trails, with views stretching as far as Cyprus to the west and Syria to the east on clear days. Canoeing, cycling, rafting, climbing, swimming, sailing and spelunking are among the other common leisure sports in Lebanon. Adventure and extreme sports are also possible throughout the country. The Beirut Marathon is held every fall, drawing top runners from Lebanon and abroad. Race day is promoted as a fun, family event, and it has become a tradition for many to participate in costumes or outlandish clothing. Arts and literature By the turn of the 20th century, Beirut was vying with Cairo as the major centre for modern Arab thought, with many newspapers, magazines, and literary societies. In literature, Khalil Gibran, who was born in Bsharri, is particularly known for his book The Prophet, which has been translated into more than twenty different languages. The Hindu (5 January 2003). "Called by life";. Retrieved 8 January 2007. Several contemporary Lebanese writers have also achieved international success; including Elias Khoury, Amin Maalouf and Hanan al-Shaykh. In art, Moustafa Farroukh was one of Lebanon's most prominent painters of the 20th century. Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to New York to Beirut over his career. His work was applauded for its representation of real life in Lebanon in pictures of the country, its people and its customs. Farroukh became highly regarded as a Lebanese nationalist painter at a time when Lebanon was asserting its political independence. His art captured the spirit and character of the Lebanese people and he became recognized as the outstanding Lebanese painter of his generation. He also wrote five books and taught art at the American University of Beirut. Music Lebanese music is known around the Arab world for its soothing rhythms and oriental beats. Traditional and folk music are extremely popular, as are western rhythms. One of the most well-known Lebanese singers is Fairuz; her songs are broadcast every morning on most radio stations and many TV channels, both in Lebanon and the Arab world in general. Other prominent artists include Julia Boutros, composer and oud player Marcel Khalife, Majida El Roumi, Sabah, Wadih El Safi, and the important nun and singer Sister Marie Keyrouz, founder of The Ensemble of the Peace. Some Lebanese artists, such as Najwa Karam and Assi Hellani, remain loyal to a traditional type of music known as 'jabali' ("from the mountains"), while other artists incorporate Western styles into their songs. Lebanese performers are among the most popular in the Arab world, and the star scene includes prominent figures like Najwa Karam, Nancy Ajram, Haifa Wehbe, Elissa, Ragheb Alame, Myriam Fares, Wael Kfoury, Nawal al Zoghbi, Carole Samaha, Julia Boutros, Marwan Khouri, Waleed Tawfeek, Amal Hijazi and Majida El Roumi. Festivals Beiteddine Palace, the venue of Beiteddine Festival Several international music festivals are held in Lebanon, featuring world-renowned artists and drawing crowds from Lebanon and abroad. Among the most famous are Baalbeck International Festival, Beiteddine Festival, Byblos International Festival, Deir el Qamar Festival, and the Al-Bustan Festival. Beirut (Beirut Nights) in particular has a vibrant arts scene, with numerous performances, exhibits, fashion shows, and concerts held throughout the year in its galleries, museums, theatres, and public spaces. Movies There are several movies which are filmed in or based on Lebanon, such as: Bosta - a movie by Philippe Aractingi, which was released in 2005. Caramel - a movie starring Nadine Labaki, which was released in 2007. West Beirut - a movie by Ziad Doueiri, which was released in 1998 See also List of Lebanon-related topics Footnotes Further reading Fisk, Robert. Pity the Nation: The Abduction of Lebanon. New York: Nation Books, 2002. Firzli, Nicola Y. Al-Baath wa-Lubnân [Arabic only] ("The Baath and Lebanon"). Beirut: Dar-al-Tali'a Books, 1973 Hitti Philip K. History of Syria Including Lebanon and Palestine, Vol. 2 (2002) (ISBN 1-931956-61-8) Holst, Sanford. Phoenicians: Lebanon's Epic Heritage. Los Angeles: Cambridge and Boston Press, 2005. Norton, Augustus R. Amal and the Shi'a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon. Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1987. Plonka Arkadiusz, L’idée de langue libanaise d’après Sa‘īd ‘Aql, Paris, Geuthner, 2004 (French) ISBN 2705337393 Sobelman, Daniel. New Rules of the Game: Israel and Hizbollah After the Withdrawal From Lebanon, Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, Tel-Aviv University, 2004. Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Salibi, Kamal. A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. External links Lebanese Politcal Parties General information News media Government The Lebanese Governmental Portal for Information & Forms Official site of the President of the Lebanese Republic Official site of The Lebanese Parliament Central Administration for Statistics The Lebanese Armed Forces Ministry of Tourism Internal Security Forces Lebanon Customs site Central Bank of Lebanon Beirut Stock Exchange Permanent Mission of Lebanon to the United Nations Chief of State and Cabinet Members Non-governmental organizations The Center for Democracy in Lebanon Learned Societies and Non-Profit Organizations Lebanese Academy of Sciences Lebanese Global Information Center Lebanese Language Institute Web portals Culture and education Festivals Travel and tourism be-x-old:Лібан | Lebanon |@lemmatized lebanon:170 officially:5 lebanese:66 republic:5 cia:6 world:23 factbook:4 country:33 western:14 asia:6 eastern:4 shore:2 mediterranean:8 sea:4 border:12 syria:24 north:4 east:5 israel:22 south:6 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2,449 | Holy_Roman_Empire | The Holy Roman Empire (HRE; , ) was a union of territories in Central Europe during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period under a Holy Roman Emperor. Under the principle of translatio imperii, the Holy Roman Empire regarded itself as titular successor to the former Western Roman Empire. The first Holy Roman Emperor was Otto I, crowned in 962 AD. The last was Francis II, who abdicated and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. It was officially known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (, ) from the 16th century onwards. The Empire's territorial extent varied over its history, but at its peak it encompassed the Kingdom of Germany, the Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Burgundy; territories embracing present-day Germany (except Southern Schleswig), Austria (except Burgenland), Liechtenstein, Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, the Czech Republic, Slovenia (except Prekmurje), as well as significant parts of modern France (mainly Artois, Alsace, Franche-Comté, Savoie and Lorraine), Italy (mainly Lombardy, Piedmont, Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany, and South Tyrol), and present-day Poland (mainly Silesia, Pomerania, and Neumark). For much of its history the Empire consisted of hundreds of smaller sub-units, principalities, duchies, counties, Free Imperial Cities, as well as other domains. Despite its name, for much of its history the Empire did not include Rome within its borders. Institutions From the High Middle Ages onwards, the Empire was stamped by an uneasy coexistence of the Empire with the struggle of the princes of the local territories to take power away from it. To a greater extent than in other medieval kingdoms such as France and England, the Emperors were unable to gain much control over the lands that they formally owned. Instead, to secure their own position from the threat of deposition, Emperors were forced to grant more and more autonomy to local rulers, both nobles and bishops. This process began in the 11th century with the Investiture Controversy and was more or less concluded with the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. Several Emperors attempted to reverse this steady dissemination of their authority, but were thwarted both by the papacy and by the princes of the Empire. King of the Romans The crown of the Holy Roman Empire (2nd half of the 10th century), now held in the Vienna Schatzkammer A prospective Emperor had first to be elected King of the Romans ('Rex romanorum' / 'römischer König'). German kings had been elected since time immemorial: in the 9th century by the leaders of the five most important tribes: (the Salian Franks of Lorraine, the Ripuarian Franks of Franconia, and the Saxons, Bavarians, and Swabians); later by the main dukes and bishops of the kingdom; finally only by the so-called Kurfürsten (electing dukes, electors). This electoral college was formally established in 1356 by the King of Bohemia Charles IV, through a decree known as the Golden Bull. Initially, there were seven electors: the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the King of Bohemia, the Duke of Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg, and the Archbishops of Cologne, Mainz, and Trier. During the Thirty Years' War, the Duke of Bavaria was given the right to vote as the eighth elector. A candidate for election would be expected to offer concessions of land or money to the electors in order to secure their vote. After being elected, the King of the Romans could theoretically claim the title of "Emperor" only after being crowned by the Pope. In many cases, this took several years while the King was held up by other tasks: frequently he first had to resolve conflicts in rebellious northern Italy, or was in quarrel with the Pope himself. Later Emperors dispensed with the papal coronation altogether, being content with the styling Emperor-Elect: the last Emperor to be crowned by the Pope was Charles V in 1530. The Emperor had to be a man of good character over 18 years. All four of his grandparents were expected to be of noble blood. No law required him to be a Catholic, though imperial law assumed that he was. He did not need to be a German (Alfonso X of Castile was not). By the 17th century candidates generally possessed estates within the Empire, such as Louis XIV of France. At no time could the Emperor simply issue decrees and govern autonomously over the Empire. His power was severely restricted by the various local leaders: after the late 15th century, the Reichstag established itself as the legislative body of the Empire, a complicated assembly that convened irregularly at the request of the Emperor at varying locations. Only after 1663 would the Reichstag become a permanent assembly. Imperial estates An entity was considered Reichsstand (imperial estate) if, according to feudal law, it had no authority above it except the Holy Roman Emperor himself. They included: Territories governed by a prince or duke, and in some cases kings. Rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, with the exception of the King of Bohemia (an elector), were not allowed to become King within the Empire, but some had kingdoms outside the Empire, as was, for instance, the case in the Kingdom of Great Britain, where the ruler was also the Prince-elector of Hanover from 1714 until the dissolution of the Empire. Feudal territories led by a clerical dignitary, who was then considered a prince of the church. In the common case of a Prince-Bishop, this temporal territory (called a prince-bishopric) frequently overlapped his—often larger—ecclesiastical diocese (bishopric), giving the bishop both worldly and clerical powers. Examples include the three prince-archbishoprics: Cologne, Trier, and Mainz. Imperial Free Cities The number of territories was amazingly large, rising to approximately 300 at the time of the Peace of Westphalia. Many of these comprised no more than a few square miles, so the Empire is aptly described as a "patchwork carpet" (Flickenteppich) by many (see Kleinstaaterei). For a list of Reichsstände in 1792, see List of Reichstag participants (1792). Reichstag The Reichstag, correctly: Reichsversammlung, was the legislative body of the Holy Roman Empire and superior to the emperor himself (see: Johann Georg Estor). It was divided into three distinct classes: The Council of Electors, which included the Electors of the Holy Roman Empire. The Council of Princes, which included both laypersons and clerics. The Secular Bench: Princes (those with the title of Prince, Grand Duke, Duke, Count Palatine, Margrave, or Landgrave) held individual votes; some held more than one vote on the basis of ruling several territories. Also, the Council included Counts or Grafs, who were grouped into four Colleges: Wetterau, Swabia, Franconia, and Westphalia. Each College could cast one vote as a whole. The Ecclesiastical Bench: Bishops, certain Abbots, and the two Grand Masters of the Teutonic Order and the Order of St John had individual votes. Certain other Abbots were grouped into two Colleges: Swabia and the Rhine. Each College held one collective vote. The Council of Imperial Cities, which included representatives from Imperial Cities grouped into two Colleges: Swabia and the Rhine. Each College had one collective vote. The Council of Imperial Cities was not fully equal to the others; it could not vote on several matters such as the admission of new territories. The representation of the Free Cities at the Reichstag had become common since the late Middle Ages. Nevertheless, their participation was formally acknowledged only as late as in 1648 with the peace of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years' War. Imperial courts The Empire also had two courts: the Reichshofrat (also known in English as the Aulic Council) at the court of the King/Emperor (that is, later in Vienna), and the Reichskammergericht (Imperial Chamber Court), established with the Imperial Reform of 1495. Imperial circles As part of the Reichsreform, six Imperial Circles were established in 1500 and extended to ten in 1512. These were regional groupings of most (though not all) of the various states of the Empire for the purposes of defence, imperial taxation, supervising of coining, peace keeping functions and public security. Each circle had its own Kreistag ("Circle Diet"). History From the East Franks to the Investiture Controversy Charlemagne, crowned Roman Emperor in 800 AD, is sometimes considered as a forerunner of the Holy Roman Empire http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=aa35 http://history-world.org/charlemagne.htm ; most historians today reject this view, arguing that the Holy Roman Empire had different antecedents and a different constitution, and the Holy Roman Emperor had a different status and role than Charlemagne and his successors. After the collapose of Charlemagne's empire, the Imperial crown was initially disputed among the Carolingian rulers of Western Francia (France) and Eastern Francia (Germany), with first the western king (Charles the Bald) and then the eastern (Charles the Fat) attaining the prize. However, after the death of Charles the Fat in 888 the empire broke asunder, never to be restored. According to Regino of Prüm, each part of the realm elected a "kinglet" from its own "bowels". After the death of Charles the Fat those who were crowned Emperors by the Pope controlled only territories in Italy. The last of such Emperors was Berengar I of Italy who died in 924. The leaders of Alemannia, Bavaria, Francia and Saxonia elected Conrad I of the Franks, not a Carolingian, as their leader in 911. His successor, Henry (Heinrich) I the Fowler (r. 919–936), a Saxon elected at the Reichstag of Fritzlar in 919, achieved the acceptance of a separate Eastern Empire by the West Frankish (still ruled by the Carolingians) in 921, calling himself Rex Francorum Orientalum (King of the East Franks). He founded the Ottonian dynasty. Henry designated his son Otto, who was elected King in Aachen in 936, to be his successor. A marriage alliance with the widowed queen of Italy gave Otto control over that nation as well. His later crowning as Emperor Otto I (later called "the Great") in 962 would mark an important step, since from then on the Eastern-Frankish realm and not the West-Frankish kingdom that was the other remainder of the Frankish kingdoms–would have the blessing of the Pope. Otto had gained much of his power earlier, when, in 955, the Magyars were defeated in the Battle of Lechfeld. The Holy Roman Empire around the year 1000 The Empire in 1000 In contemporary and later writings, this crowning would also be referred to as translatio imperii, the transfer of the Empire from the Romans to a new Empire. The German Emperors thus thought of themselves as being in direct succession of those of the Roman Empire; this is why they initially called themselves Augustus. Still, they did not call themselves "Roman" Emperors at first, probably in order not to provoke conflict with the Roman Emperor who still existed in Constantinople. The term imperator Romanorum only became common under Conrad II (later than his crowning in 1027, thus in the early-middle 11th century) after the Great Schism. At this time, the eastern kingdom was not "German" but a "confederation" of the old Germanic tribes of the Bavarians, Alemanns, Franks and Saxons. The Empire as a political union probably only survived because of the strong personal influence of King Henry the Saxon and his son, Otto. Although formally elected by the leaders of the Germanic tribes, they were actually able to designate their successors. This changed after Henry II died in 1024 without any children. Conrad II, first of the Salian Dynasty, was then elected king in 1024 only after some debate. How exactly the king was chosen thus seems to be a complicated conglomeration of personal influence, tribal quarrels, inheritance, and acclamation by those leaders that would eventually become the collegiate of Electors. Already at this time the dualism between the "territories", then those of the old tribes rooted in the Frankish lands, and the King/Emperor, became apparent. Each king preferred to spend most time in his own homelands; the Saxons, for example, spent much time in palatinates around the Harz mountains, among them Goslar. This practice had only changed under Otto III (king 983, Emperor 996–1002), who began to utilize bishoprics all over the Empire as temporary seats of government. Also, his successors, Henry II, Conrad II, and Henry III, apparently managed to appoint the dukes of the territories. It is thus no coincidence that at this time, the terminology changes and the first occurrences of a regnum Teutonicum (German Kingdom) are found. The glory of the Empire almost collapsed in the Investiture Controversy, in which Pope Gregory VII declared a ban on King Henry IV (king 1056, Emperor 1084–1106). Although this was taken back after the 1077 Walk to Canossa, the ban had wide-reaching consequences. Meanwhile, the German dukes had elected a second king, Rudolf of Swabia, whom Henry IV could only defeat after a three-year war in 1080. The mythical roots of the Empire were permanently damaged; the German king was humiliated. Most importantly though, the church was clearly an independent player in the political system of the Empire, not subject to imperial authority. Under the Hohenstaufen Conrad III came to the throne in 1138, being the first of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, which was to restore the glory of the Empire, albeit under the new conditions of the 1122 Concordat of Worms. It was Frederick I "Barbarossa" (king 1152, Emperor 1155–1190) who first called the Empire "holy", with which he intended to address mainly law and legislation. Adhemar de Monetel carries the Holy Lance Also, under Barbarossa, the idea of the "Romanness" of the Empire culminated again, which seemed to be an attempt to justify the Emperor's power independently of the (now strengthened) Pope. An imperial assembly at the fields of Roncaglia in 1158 explicitly reclaimed imperial rights at the advice of quattuor doctores of the emerging judicial facility of the University of Bologna, citing phrases such as princeps legibus solutus ("the emperor princeps is not bound by law") from the Digestae of the Corpus Juris Civilis. That the Roman laws were created for an entirely different system and didn't fit the structure of the Empire was obviously secondary; the point here was that the court of the Emperor made an attempt to establish a legal constitution. Imperial rights had been referred to as regalia since the Investiture Controversy, but were enumerated for the first time at Roncaglia as well. This comprehensive list included public roads, tariffs, coining, collecting punitive fees, and the investiture, the seating and unseating of office holders. These rights were now explicitly rooted in Roman Law, a far-reaching constitutional act; north of the Alps, the system was also now connected to feudal law, a change most visible in the withdrawal of the feuds of Henry the Lion in 1180 which led to his public banning. Barbarossa thus managed for a time to more closely bind the stubborn Germanic dukes to the Empire as a whole. Another important constitutional move at Roncaglia was the establishment of a new peace (Landfrieden) for all of the Empire, an attempt to (on the one hand) abolish private vendettas not only between the many local dukes, but on the other hand a means to tie the Emperor's subordinates to a legal system of jurisdiction and public prosecution of criminal acts a predecessor concept of "rule of law", in modern terms, that was, at this time, not yet universally accepted. In order to solve the problem that the emperor was (after the Investiture Controversy) no longer as able to use the church as a mechanism to maintain power, the Staufer increasingly lent land to ministerialia, formerly non-free service men, which Frederick hoped would be more reliable than local dukes. Initially used mainly for war services, this new class of people would form the basis for the later knights, another basis of imperial power. Another new concept of the time was the systematic foundation of new cities, both by the emperor and the local dukes. These were partly caused by the explosion in population, but also to concentrate economic power at strategic locations, while formerly cities only existed in the shape of either old Roman foundations or older bishoprics. Cities that were founded in the 12th century include Freiburg, possibly the economic model for many later cities, and Munich. The later reign of the last Staufer Emperor, Frederick II, was in many ways different from that of earlier Emperors. Still a child, he first reigned in Sicily, while in Germany, Barbarossa's second son Philip of Swabia and Henry the Lion's son Otto IV competed with him for the title of King of the Germans. After finally having been crowned emperor in 1220, he risked conflict with the pope when he claimed power over Rome; astonishingly to many, he managed to claim Jerusalem in a crusade in 1228 while still under the pope's ban. While Frederick brought the mythical idea of the Empire to a last high point, he was also the one to initiate the major steps that led to its disintegration. On the one hand, he concentrated on establishing an innovative state in Sicily, with public services, finances, and other reforms. On the other hand, Frederick was the emperor who granted major powers to the German dukes in the form of two far-reaching privileges that would never be reclaimed by the central power. In the 1220 Confoederatio cum principibus ecclesiasticis, Frederick gave up a number of regalia in favour of the bishops, among them tariffs, coining, and fortification. The 1232 Statutum in favorem principum mostly extended these privileges to the other (non-clerical) territories (Frederick II was forced to give those privileges by a rebellion of his son, Henry). Although many of these privileges had existed earlier, they were now granted globally, and once and for all, to allow the German dukes to maintain order north of the Alps while Frederick wanted to concentrate on his homelands in Italy. The 1232 document marked the first time that the German dukes were called domini terræ, owners of their lands, a remarkable change in terminology as well. The Teutonic Knights were invited to Prussia by Duke Konrad of Masovia to Christianize the Prussians in 1226. The monastic state of the Teutonic Order () and its later German successor states of Prussia never formally belonged to the Holy Roman Empire during its existence. During the long stays of the Hohenstaufen emperors (1138–1254) in Italy, the German princes became stronger and facilitated a successful, peaceful eastward settlement of lands previously sparsely inhabited by West Slavs or uninhabited, by German farmers, traders and others. The gradual germanization of these lands was a complex phenomenon which should not be interpreted in terms of 19th century nationalism's bias. By the eastward settlement the empire's influence increased to eventually include Pomerania and Silesia - also due to intermarriage of the local, still mostly Slavic, rulers with German spouses. Rise of the territories after the Staufen Flag of the Holy Roman Empire 1200–1350After the death of Frederick II in 1250, none of the dynasties worthy of producing the king proved able to do so, and the leading dukes elected several competing kings. The time from 1246 (beginning with the election of Heinrich Raspe and William of Holland) to 1273, when Rudolph I of Habsburg was elected king, is commonly referred to as the Interregnum. During the Interregnum, much of what was left of imperial authority was lost, as the princes were given time to consolidate their holdings and become even more independent rulers. The Prince-electors In 1257, there occurred a double election which produced a situation that guaranteed a long interregnum. William of Holland had fallen the previous year, and Conrad of Swabia had died three years earlier. First, three electors (Palatinate, Cologne and Mainz) (being mostly of the Guelph persuasion) cast their votes for Richard of Cornwall who became the successor of William of Holland as king. After a delay, a fourth elector, Bohemia, joined this choice. However, a couple of months later, Bohemia and the three other electors Trier, Brandenburg and Saxony voted for Alfonso X of Castile, this being based on Ghibelline party. The realm now had two kings. Was the King of Bohemia entitled to change his vote, or was the election complete when four electors had chosen a king? Were the four electors together entitled to depose Richard a couple of months later, if his election had been valid? Holy Roman Empire from 1273–1378, and its principal royal dynasties The difficulties in electing the king eventually led to the emergence of a fixed college of electors, the Kurfürsten, whose composition and procedures were set forth in the Golden Bull of 1356. This development probably best symbolizes the emerging duality between Kaiser und Reich, emperor and realm, which were no longer considered identical. This is also revealed in the way the post-Staufen kings attempted to sustain their power. Earlier, the Empire's strength (and finances) greatly relied on the Empire's own lands, the so-called Reichsgut, which always belonged to the respective king (and included many Imperial Cities). After the 13th century, its relevance faded (even though some parts of it did remain until the Empire's end in 1806). Instead, the Reichsgut was increasingly pawned to local dukes, sometimes to raise money for the Empire but, more frequently, to reward faithful duty or as an attempt to civilize stubborn dukes. The direct governance of the Reichsgut no longer matched the needs of either the king or the dukes. Instead, the kings, beginning with Rudolph I of Habsburg, increasingly relied on the lands of their respective dynasties to support their power. In contrast with the Reichsgut, which was mostly scattered and difficult to administer, these territories were comparably compact and thus easier to control. In 1282, Rudolph I thus lent Austria and Styria to his own sons. With Henry VII, the House of Luxembourg entered the stage. In 1312, he was crowned as the first Holy Roman Emperor since Frederick II. After him all kings and emperors relied on the lands of their own family (Hausmacht): Louis IV of Wittelsbach (king 1314, emperor 1328–1347) relied on his lands in Bavaria; Charles IV of Luxembourg, the grandson of Henry VII, drew strength from his own lands in Bohemia. Interestingly, it was thus increasingly in the king's own interest to strengthen the power of the territories, since the king profited from such a benefit in his own lands as well. The 13th century also saw a general structural change in how land was administered. Instead of personal duties, money increasingly became the common means to represent economic value in agriculture. Peasants were increasingly required to pay tribute for their lands. The concept of "property" began to replace more ancient forms of jurisdiction, although they were still very much tied together. In the territories (not at the level of the Empire), power became increasingly bundled: Whoever owned the land had jurisdiction, from which other powers derived. It is important to note, however, that jurisdiction at this time did not include legislation, which virtually did not exist until well into the 15th century. Court practice heavily relied on traditional customs or rules described as customary. It is during this time that the territories began to transform themselves into predecessors of modern states. The process varied greatly among the various lands and was most advanced in those territories that were most identical to the lands of the old Germanic tribes, e.g. Bavaria. It was slower in those scattered territories that were founded through imperial privileges. Imperial Reform Map of the Empire showing division into Circles in 1512 The "constitution" of the Empire was still largely unsettled at the beginning of the 15th century. Although some procedures and institutions had been fixed, for example by the Golden Bull of 1356, the rules of how the king, the electors, and the other dukes should cooperate in the Empire much depended on the personality of the respective king. It therefore proved somewhat fatal that Sigismund of Luxemburg (king 1410, emperor 1433–1437) and Frederick III of Habsburg (king 1440, emperor 1452–1493) neglected the old core lands of the empire and mostly resided in their own lands. Without the presence of the king, the old institution of the Hoftag, the assembly of the realm's leading men, deteriorated. The Reichstag as a legislative organ of the Empire did not exist yet. Even worse, dukes often went into feuds against each other that, more often than not, escalated into local wars. At the same time, the church was in crisis too. The conflict between several competing popes was only resolved at the Council of Constance (1414–1418); after 1419, much energy was spent on fighting the heresy of the Hussites. The medieval idea of a unified Corpus christianum, of which the papacy and the Empire were the leading institutions, began to decline. With these drastic changes, much discussion emerged in the 15th century about the Empire itself. Rules from the past no longer adequately described the structure of the time, and a reinforcement of earlier Landfrieden was urgently called for. During this time, the concept of "reform" emerged, in the original sense of the Latin verb re-formare, to regain an earlier shape that had been lost. When Frederick III needed the dukes to finance war against Hungary in 1486 and at the same time had his son, later Maximilian I elected king, he was presented with the dukes' united demand to participate in an Imperial Court. For the first time, the assembly of the electors and other dukes was now called Reichstag (to be joined by the Imperial Free Cities later). While Frederick refused, his more conciliatory son finally convened the Reichstag at Worms in 1495, after his father's death in 1493. Here, the king and the dukes agreed on four bills, commonly referred to as the Reichsreform (Imperial Reform): a set of legal acts to give the disintegrating Empire back some structure. Among others, this act produced the Imperial Circle Estates and the Reichskammergericht (Imperial Chamber Court); structures that would — to a degree — persist until the end of the Empire in 1806. However, it took a few more decades until the new regulation was universally accepted and the new court began to actually function; only in 1512 would the Imperial Circles be finalized. The King also made sure that his own court, the Reichshofrat, continued to function in parallel to the Reichskammergericht. It is interesting to note that in this year, the Empire also received its new title, the Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation ("Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation"). Crisis after Reformation In 1517, Martin Luther initiated what would later be known as the Reformation. At this time, many local dukes saw it as a chance to oppose the hegemony of Emperor Charles V. The empire then became fatally divided along religious lines, with the North, the East, and many of the major cities—Strasbourg, Frankfurt and Nuremberg—becoming Protestant while the southern and western regions largely remained Catholic. Carta itineraria europae (by Waldseemüller, 1520 dedicated to Emperor Charles V.) From 1515 to 1523, the Habsburg government in the Netherlands also had to contend with the Frisian peasant rebellion, led first by Pier Gerlofs Donia and then by his nephew Wijerd Jelckama. The rebels were initially successful, but after a series of defeats, the remaining leaders were taken and decapitated in 1523. This was a blow for the Holy Roman Empire since many major cities were sacked and as many as 132 ships disappeared (once even 28 in a single battle). Meanwhile, religious conflicts were waged in various parts of Europe for a century, though in German regions there was relative quiet from the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 until the Defenestration of Prague in 1618. When Bohemians rebelled against the emperor, the immediate result was the series of conflicts known as the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), which devastated the Empire. Foreign powers, including France and Sweden, intervened in the conflict and strengthened those fighting Imperial power, but they also seized considerable chunks of territory for themselves. The long conflict bled the Empire to such a degree that it would never recover its former strength. At the Battle of Vienna (1683), the army of the Holy Roman Empire led by Polish King John Sobieski decisively defeated a large Turkish army, ending the western colonial Ottoman advance and leading to the eventual dismemberment of the Ottoman empire in Europe. The HRE army was half Polish/Lithuanian Commonwealth forces, mostly cavalry, and half Holy Roman Empire forces (German/Austrian), mostly infantry. The cavalry charge was the largest in the history of warfare. The long decline The Empire after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648 The Empire in 1705, map "L’Empire d’Allemagne" from Nicolas de Fer The actual end of the empire came in several steps. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which ended the Thirty Years' War, gave the territories almost complete sovereignty. The Swiss Confederation, which had already established quasi-independence in 1499, as well as the Northern Netherlands, left the empire. Although its constituent states still had some restrictions — in particular, they could not form alliances against the Emperor — the Empire from this point was a powerless entity, existing in name only. The Habsburg Emperors instead focused on consolidating their own estates in Austria and elsewhere. By the rise of Louis XIV, the Habsburgs were dependent on the position as Archdukes of Austria to counter the rise of Prussia, some of whose territories lay inside the Empire. Throughout the 18th century, the Habsburgs were embroiled in various European conflicts, such as the War of the Spanish Succession, the War of the Polish Succession and the War of the Austrian Succession. The German dualism between Austria and Prussia dominated the empire's history after 1740. From 1792 onwards, revolutionary France was at war with various parts of the Empire intermittently. The Empire was formally dissolved on 6 August 1806 when the last Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of Austria) abdicated, following a military defeat by the French under Napoleon (see Treaty of Pressburg). Napoleon reorganized much of the empire into the Confederation of the Rhine, a French satellite. Francis' House of Habsburg-Lorraine survived the demise of the Empire, continuing to reign as Emperors of Austria and Kings of Hungary until the Habsburg empire's final dissolution in 1918 in the aftermath of World War I. Meanwhile, the Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine was replaced by the German Confederation and the North German Confederation in succession, until the German-speaking territories outside of Austria and Switzerland were united under Prussian leadership in 1871, as the German Empire, the predecessor-state of modern Germany. Analysis It has been said that modern history of Germany was primarily predetermined by three factors: the Reich, the Reformation, and the later dualism between Austria and Prussia. Many attempts have been made to explain why the Reich never managed to gain a strong centralized power over its territories, as opposed to neighbouring France. Some reasons include: The Empire had been a very federal body from the beginning: again, as opposed to France, which had mostly been part of the Roman Empire, in the eastern parts of the Frankish kingdom, the Germanic tribes later comprising the German nation (Saxons, Thuringians, Franks, Bavarians, Alamanni or Swabians) were much more independent and reluctant to cede power to a central authority. All attempts to make the kingdom hereditary failed; instead, the king was always elected. Later, every candidate for the king had to make promises to his electorate, the so-called Wahlkapitulationen (election capitulations), thus granting the territories more and more power over the centuries. Because of its religious connotations, the Empire as an institution was severely damaged by the contest between the Pope and the German Kings over their respective coronations as Emperor. It was never entirely clear under which conditions the pope would crown the emperor and especially whether the worldly power of the emperor was dependent on the clerical power of the pope. Much debate occurred over this, especially during the 11th century, eventually leading to the Investiture Controversy and the Concordat of Worms in 1122. Whether the feudal system of the Empire, where the King formally was the top of the so-called "feudal pyramid", was a cause of or a symptom of the Empire's weakness is unclear. In any case, military obedience, which according to Germanic tradition was closely tied to the giving of land to tributaries, was always a problem: when the Empire had to go to war, decisions were slow and brittle. Until the sixteenth century, the economic interests of the south and west diverged from those of the north where the Hanseatic League operated. The Hanseatic League was far more closely allied to Scandinavia and the Baltic than the rest of Germany. German historiography nowadays often views the Holy Roman Empire as a well balanced system of organizing a multitude of (effectively independent) states under a complex system of legal regulations. Smaller estates like the Lordships or the Imperial Free cities survived for centuries as independent entities, although they had no effective military strength. The supreme courts, the Reichshofrat and the Reichskammergericht helped to settle conflicts, or at least prevent verbal arguments from spilling over into actual conflicts. The multitude of different territories with different languages (German, French, Italian, Czech, Slovene etc.), religious denominations and different forms of government led to a great variety of cultural diversification, which can be felt even in present day Germany with regional cultures, patterns of behaviour and dialects changing sometimes within the range of kilometres. After the Empire After the end of the Napoleonic Wars a new German union, the German Confederation, was established in 1815. It lasted until 1866 when Prussia founded the North German Confederation, which in 1871 became a part of the German Empire. See also Institutions Holy Roman Emperor List of Holy Roman Emperors King of the Romans List of Italian monarchs List of Frankish kings List of German monarchs Reichstag (institution) Imperial Circle History History of Germany History of Austria History of Belgium History of Liechtenstein History of the Netherlands History of Switzerland History of the Czech lands History of Italy History of Poland History of Slovenia History of France Concordat of Worms First Council of the Lateran Component states List of states in the Holy Roman Empire Habsburg Monarchy Kingdom of Italy (medieval) Kingdom of Germany Kingdom of Burgundy Kingdom of Bohemia Margraviate of Brandenburg (Brandenburg-Prussia) Electorate of Bavaria Electorate of Saxony Electorate of Hanover Electoral Palatinate Papal States Burgundy Silesia Pomerania Other Legacy of the Roman Empire Translatio imperii Carolingian Empire Western Roman Empire Studia Generalia German mysticism Pact of Steel Christendom Crusades Byzantine Empire Caliphate Notes References Heinz Angermeier, Das Alte Reich in der deutschen Geschichte. Studien über Kontinuitäten und Zäsuren, München 1991 Karl Otmar Freiherr von Aretin, Das Alte Reich 1648–1806. 4 vols. Stuttgart, 1993–2000 Peter Claus Hartmann, Kulturgeschichte des Heiligen Römischen Reiches 1648 bis 1806. Wien, 2001 Georg Schmidt, Geschichte des Alten Reiches. München, 1999 James Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire. ISBN 0-333-03609-3 Jonathan W. Zophy (ed.), The Holy Roman Empire: A Dictionary Handbook. Greenwood Press, 1980 Deutsche Reichstagsakten George Donaldson, Germany: A Complete History. Gotham Books, New York 1985 External links The constitutional structure of the Reich Das Heilige Reich (German Museum of History, Berlin) List of Wars of the Holy Roman Empire Deutschland beim Tode Kaiser Karls IV. 1378 (Germany at the death of emperor Charles IV.) taken from "Meyers Kleines Konversationslexikon in sechs Bänden. Bd. 2. Leipzig u. Wien : Bibliogr. Institut 1908", map inserted after page 342 Books and articles on the Reich The Holy Roman Empire Maps The Holy Roman Empire, 1138–1254 The Holy Roman Empire c. 1500 The Holy Roman Empire in 1648 The Holy Roman Empire in 1789 (interactive map) be-x-old:Сьвяшчэнная Рымская імпэрыя | Holy_Roman_Empire |@lemmatized holy:37 roman:51 empire:109 hre:2 union:3 territory:27 central:3 europe:3 middle:4 age:3 early:5 modern:6 period:1 emperor:59 principle:1 translatio:3 imperii:3 regard:1 titular:1 successor:8 former:2 western:6 first:17 otto:8 crown:10 ad:2 last:7 francis:4 ii:11 abdicate:2 dissolve:2 napoleonic:3 war:17 officially:1 know:5 german:35 nation:5 century:20 onwards:3 territorial:1 extent:2 vary:3 history:22 peak:1 encompass:1 kingdom:17 germany:12 italy:10 burgundy:3 embrace:1 present:4 day:3 except:4 southern:2 schleswig:1 austria:10 burgenland:1 liechtenstein:2 switzerland:3 belgium:2 netherlands:4 luxembourg:3 czech:3 republic:1 slovenia:2 prekmurje:1 well:9 significant:1 part:9 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2,450 | China | The People's Republic of China (PRC) ( ), commonly known as China, is the largest country in East Asia and the most populous in the world with over 1.3 billion people, approximately a fifth of the world's population. It is a socialist republic ruled by the Communist Party of China under a single-party system, and according to the Constitution, is a people's democratic dictatorship of socialist state, and has jurisdiction over twenty-two provinces, five autonomous regions, four municipalities, and two largely self-governing Special Administrative Regions. China's capital is Beijing. At 9.6 million square kilometres, the People's Republic of China is the world's third or fourth largest country by total area, Area rank is disputed with the United States and is either ranked third or fourth. See List of countries and outlying territories by area for more information. and the second largest by land area. Its landscape is diverse with forest steppes and deserts (the Gobi and Taklamakan) in the dry north near Mongolia and Russia's Siberia, and subtropical forests in the wet south close to Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar. The terrain in the west is rugged and high altitude, with the Himalayas and the Tian Shan mountain ranges forming China's natural borders with India and Central Asia. In contrast, China's eastern seaboard is low-lying and has a 14,500-kilometre long coastline bounded on the southeast by the South China Sea and on the east by the East China Sea beyond which lies Taiwan, Korea, and Japan. Ancient Chinese civilization—one of the world's earliest—flourished in the fertile basin of the Yellow River which flows through the North China Plain. http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/China2004/106396.htm For over 4,000 years, China's political system was based on hereditary monarchies (also known as dynasties). The first of these dynasties was the Xia but it was later the Qin Dynasty who first unified China in 221 BC. The last dynasty, the Qing, ended in 1911 with the founding of the Republic of China (ROC) by the Nationalist Kuomintang (KMT). The first half of the 20th century saw China plunged into a period of disunity and civil wars that divided the country into two main political camps – the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Communists. Major hostilities ended in 1949, when the People's Republic of China (PRC) was established in mainland China by the victorious Communists. The KMT-led Republic of China government retreated to Taipei, its jurisdiction now limited to Taiwan and several outlying islands. As of today, the PRC is still involved in disputes with the ROC over issues of sovereignty and the political status of Taiwan. China's importance in the world today is reflected through its role as the world's third largest economy nominally (or second largest by PPP) and a permanent member of the UN Security Council as well as being a member of several other multilateral organizations including the WTO, APEC, East Asia Summit, and Shanghai Cooperation Organization. In addition, it is a nuclear state and has the world's largest standing army with the second largest defense budget. Since the introduction of market-based economic reforms in 1978, China has become one of the world's fastest growing economies BBC NEWS Country profile: China and the world's second largest exporter and the third largest importer of goods. Rapid industrialization has reduced its poverty rate from 53% in 1981 to 8% in 2001. Fighting Poverty: Findings and Lessons from China’s Success (World Bank). Retrieved 10 August 2006. However, the PRC is now faced with a number of other problems including a rapidly aging population due to the one-child policy, Jim Landers [China's rapidly aging population may strain its economy August 11, 2008. Accessed October 15, 2008. a widening rural-urban income gap, and environmental degradation. Beijing’s Olympic Quest: Turn Smoggy Sky Blue - New York Times BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | China fails environment targets History Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the Communist Party of China in control of the mainland, and the Kuomintang (KMT) retreating to Taiwan. On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China. The Chinese people have stood up. UCLA Center for East Asian Studies. Retrieved 16 April 2006. Red China was a frequent appellation for the PRC (generally within the Western Bloc) used from the time of Communist ascendance until the mid-late 1970s with the improvement of relations between China and the West. Justin Raimondo. "China and the New Cold War". 17 June 1999. Retrieved 19 March 2007. Following a series of dramatic economic failures caused by the Great Leap Forward, Mao stepped down from his position as chairman in 1959, with Liu Shaoqi as successor. Mao still had much influence over the Party, but was removed from day-to-day management of economic affairs, which came under the control of Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping. In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, which would last until Mao's death a decade later. The Cultural Revolution, motivated by power struggles within the Party and a fear of the Soviet Union, led to a major upheaval in Chinese society. In 1972, at the peak of the Sino-Soviet split, Mao and Zhou Enlai met Richard Nixon in Beijing to establish relations with the United States. In the same year, the PRC was admitted to the United Nations, replacing the Republic of China for China's membership of the United Nations, and permanent membership of the Security Council. After Mao's death in 1976 and the arrest of the Gang of Four, blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping quickly wrested power from Mao's anointed successor Hua Guofeng. Although Deng never became the head of the Party or State himself, though Deng was in fact the Paramount Leader of China at that time, his influence within the Party led the country to economic reforms of significant magnitude. The Communist Party subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the communes were disbanded with many peasants receiving multiple land leases, which greatly increased incentives and agricultural production. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment, a system termed by some Martin Hart-Landsberg and Paul Burkett. "China and Socialism. Market Reforms and Class Struggle". Retrieved 30 October 2008. "market socialism". The PRC adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982. In 1989, the death of pro-reform official, Hu Yaobang, helped to spark the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, during which students and others campaigned for several months for more democratic rights and freedom of speech. However, they were eventually put down on 4 June when PLA troops and vehicles entered and forcibly cleared the square, resulting in numerous casualties. This event was widely reported and famously videotaped, which brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the government. President Jiang Zemin and Premier Zhu Rongji, both former mayors of Shanghai, led post-Tiananmen PRC in the 1990s. Under Jiang Zemin's ten years of administration, the PRC's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual GDP growth rate of 11.2%. Nation bucks trend of global poverty (11 July 2003). China Daily China's Average Economic Growth in 90s Ranked 1st in World (1 March 2000). People's Daily Online. The country formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001. Although the PRC needs economic growth to spur its development, the government has begun to worry that rapid economic growth has negatively impacted the country's resources and environment. Another concern is that certain sectors of society are not sufficiently benefiting from the PRC's economic development. As a result, under current President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao, the PRC has initiated policies to address these issues of equitable distribution of resources, but the outcome remains to be seen. "China worried over pace of growth". BBC. Retrieved 16 April 2006. For much of the PRC's population, living standards have seen extremely large improvements, and freedom continues to expand, but political controls remain tight. Politics The PRC is regarded by many political scientists as one of the last five Communist states (along with Vietnam, North Korea, Laos and Cuba), Randall Hoven, 7 November 2007 American Thinker Cienciala, Anna(1996). The Rise and Fall of Communist Nations 1917-1994. Retrieved 16 October 2008. Juan Carlos EspinosaCivil Society in Cuba: The logic of emergence in comparative perspective, Retrieved 16 October 2008 but simple characterizations of PRC's political structure since the 1980s are no longer possible. Boum, Aomar (1999). Journal of Political Ecology: Case Studies in History and Society. Retrieved 5 May 2007. The PRC government has been variously described as communist and socialist, but also as authoritarian, with heavy restrictions remaining in many areas, most notably on the Internet, the press, freedom of assembly, reproductive rights, and freedom of religion. However, compared to its closed-door policies until the mid-1970s, the liberalization of the PRC is such that the administrative climate is much less restrictive than before, though the PRC is still far from the full-fledged democracy practiced in most of Europe or North America, and the National People's Congress has been described as a "rubber stamp" body. , BBC, Country Report: China The PRC's incumbent President is Hu Jintao and its premier is Wen Jiabao. The country is run by the Communist Party of China (CPC), which is guaranteed power by the Constitution. Constitution Of The People'S Republic Of China There are other political parties in the PRC, referred to in China as "democratic parties", which participate in the People's Political Consultative Conference and the National People's Congress. There have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open contested elections are now held at the village and town levels, "Does China’s Land-Tenure System Discourage Structural Adjustment?" by Bryan Lohmar and Agapi Somwaru. 1 May 2006. USDA Economic Research Service. URL accessed 3 May 2006. and that legislatures have shown some assertiveness from time to time. However, the Party retains effective control over government appointments: in the absence of meaningful opposition, the CPC wins by default most of the time. Political concerns in the PRC include lessening the growing gap between rich and poor and fighting corruption within the government leadership. China sounds alarm over fast-growing gap between rich and poor. Retrieved 16 April 2006. The level of support that the Communist Party of China has among the PRC population in general is unclear since there are no consistently contested national elections. Beijingers get greater poll choices According to a survey conducted in Hong Kong, where a relatively high level of freedom is enjoyed, the current CPC leaders have received substantial votes of support when residents were asked to rank their favorite leaders from mainland China and Taiwan. University of Hong Kong releases the latest ratings of the top 10 political figures in Mainland China and Taiwan as well as people's appraisal of past Chinese leaders". 4 April 2006. accessed 3 May 2006. Foreign relations The People's Republic of China maintains diplomatic relations with most major countries in the world. Sweden was the first western country to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic on 9 May 1950. China and Sweden In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. Eddy Chang (22 August 2004). Perseverance will pay off at the UN The Taipei Times. It is considered a founding member of the UN, though the PRC was not in control of China at the time. The PRC was also a former member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement. Under its interpretation of the One-China policy, the PRC has made it a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and severs official ties with the Republic of China government. The government opposes publicized foreign travels by former and present ROC officials promoting Taiwan's independence, such as Lee Teng-hui and Chen Shui-bian, and other politically controversial figures, such as Tenzin Gyatso, the Dalai Lama of Tibetan Buddhism, in an official context. The PRC has been playing an increasing role in calling for free trade areas and security pacts amongst its Asia-Pacific neighbors. In 2004, the PRC proposed an entirely new East Asia Summit (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues that pointedly excluded the United States. Dillon, Dana and John Tkacik Jr, "China’s Quest for Asia", Policy Review, December 2005 and January 2006, Issue No. 134. Retrieved 22 April 2006. The EAS, which includes ASEAN Plus Three, India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. The PRC is also a founding member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), with Russia and the Central Asian republics. Much of the current foreign policy is based on the concept of China's peaceful rise. Conflicts with foreign countries have occurred at times in its recent history, particularly with the United States; for example, the U.S. bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade during the Kosovo conflict in May 1999 and the U.S.-China spy plane incident in April 2001. Its foreign relations with many Western nations suffered for a time following the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, though they have since recovered. The relationship between China and Japan has been strained at times by Japan's refusal to acknowledge its wartime past to the satisfaction of the PRC; take for instance revisionist comments made by prominent Japanese officials and in some Japanese history textbooks. Another point of conflict between the two countries is the frequent visits by Japanese government officials to the Yasukuni Shrine. However, Sino-Japanese relations have warmed considerably since Shinzo Abe became the new Japanese Prime Minister in September 2006. A joint historical study to be completed by 2008 of WWII atrocities is being conducted by the PRC and Japan. Equally bordering the most countries in the world alongside Russia, the PRC was in a number of international territorial disputes. China's territorial disputes have led to localized wars in the last 50 years, including the Sino-Indian War in 1962, the Sino-Soviet border conflict in 1969, and the Sino-Vietnamese War in 1979. In 2001, the PRC and Russia signed the Sino-Russian Treaty of Friendship, Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation (21 March 2006). Retrieved 16 April 2006. which paved the way in 2004 for Russia to transfer Yinlong Island as well as one-half of Heixiazi to China, ending a long-standing Sino-Russian border dispute. Other territorial disputes include islands in the East and South China Seas, and undefined or disputed land borders with India and Bhutan. While accompanying a rapid economic rise, the PRC since the 1990s seeks to maintain a policy of quiet diplomacy with its neighbors. It does so by keeping economic growth steady and participating in regional organizations and cultivating bi-lateral relations in order to ease suspicion over China's burgeoning military capabilities. The PRC has started a policy of wooing African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation. http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0330/p01s01-woaf.html. Abraham McLaughlin, "A rising China counters US clout in Africa", The Christian Science Monitor, 30 March 2005 edition. Princeton N. Lyman. "China’s Rising Role in Africa", 21 July 2005 Council of Foreign Relations. Retrieved 26 June 2007. There are some discussions about whether China will become a new superpower in the 21st century, with certain commentators pointing out its economic progress, military might, very large population, and increasing international influence but others claiming it is headed for economic collapse. Civil rights While economic and social controls have been greatly relaxed in China since the 1960s, political freedom is still tightly controlled by both central and local governments. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal suffrage, and property rights. However, these provisions do not afford significant protection in practice against criminal prosecution by the State. , Human Rights Watch, World Report 2009 Will the Boat Sink the Water?: The Life of China's Peasants / Chen Guidi and Wu Chuntao (2006) ISBN 1586483587 Empire of Lies: The Truth About China in the Twenty-First Century / Guy Sorman (2008) ISBN 1594032165 Censorship of political speech and information is openly and routinely used to silence criticism of government and the ruling Chinese Communist Party. China Human Rights Fact Sheet (March 1995). Retrieved 16 April 2006. In particular, press control is notoriously tight: Reporters Without Borders considers the PRC one of the least free countries in the world for the press. Reporters sans frontières - Annual Worldwide Press Freedom Index - 2005 The government has a policy of limiting groups, organizations, and beliefs that it considers a potential threat to "social stability" and control, as was the case with the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The Communist Party has had mixed success in controlling information: a very strong media control system faces very strong market forces, an increasingly educated citizenry, and cultural change that are making China more open, especially on environmental issues. 1998 U.S. Embassy Beijing report "The Fading of Environmental Secrecy". Retrieved 4 February 2007. 1997 U.S. Embassy Beijing report "Environmental NGOs in China: Green is Good, But Don't Openly Oppose the Party". Retrieved 4 February 2007. A number of foreign governments and NGOs routinely criticize the PRC, alleging widespread civil rights violations including systematic use of lengthy detention without trial, forced confessions, torture, mistreatment of prisoners, restrictions of freedom of speech, assembly, association, religion, the press, and labor rights. China leads the world in capital punishment, accounting for roughly 90% of total executions in 2004. http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/0405-07.htm 5 April 2005. Accessed 23 June 2006. The Independent/UK article, republished. Civil rights issues are one of the factors driving independence movements in Tibet and Xinjiang. In the Reporters Without Borders' Annual World Press Freedom Index of 2005, the PRC ranked 159 out of 167 places. Chinese journalist He Qinglian in her 2004 book Media Control in China Media Control in China published 2004 by Human Rights in China, New York. Revised edition 2006 published by Liming Cultural Enterprises of Taiwan documents government controls on the Internet and other media in China. The PRC government has responded by arguing that the notion of human rights should take into account a country's present level of economic development, and focus more on the people's rights to subsistence and development in poorer countries. "China's Progress in Human Rights" July 2005, Accessed: 18 April 2008. The rise in the standard of living, literacy, and life expectancy for the average Chinese in the last three decades is seen by the government as tangible progress made in human rights. "China's reform and opening-up promotes human rights, says premier". 11 December 2003. Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States. Retrieved 28 April 2006. Efforts in the past decade to combat deadly natural disasters, such as the perennial Yangtze River floods, and work-related accidents are also portrayed in China as progress in human rights for a still largely poor country. Administrative divisions The People's Republic of China has administrative control over twenty-two provinces and considers Taiwan to be its twenty-third province. Gwillim Law (2 April 2005). Provinces of China. Retrieved 15 April 2006. There are also five autonomous regions, each with a designated minority group; four municipalities; and two Special Administrative Regions that enjoy considerable autonomy. The twenty-two provinces, five autonomous regions, and four municipalities can be collectively referred to as "mainland China", a term which usually excludes Hong Kong and Macau. Geography and climate China is the second largest country in Asia by area after Russia, and is considered the third largest "The People's Republic of China" (7 September 2005). Foreign & Commonwealth Office in the world in respect to land and sea area. The uncertainty over size is related to (a) the validity of claims by China on territories such as Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract (both territories also claimed by India), and (b) how the total size of the United States is calculated: The World Factbook gives 9,826,630 km², and the Encyclopedia Britannica gives 9,522,055 km². China borders 14 nations (counted clockwise from south): Vietnam, Laos, Burma, India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan, China's border with Pakistan falls in the disputed Kashmir province. The area under Pakistani-administration is claimed by India. Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Mongolia and North Korea. Additionally the border between PRC and ROC is located in territorial waters. The territory of China contains a large variety of landscapes. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, grasslands can be seen. Southern China is dominated by hill country and low mountain ranges. In the central-east are the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Yellow River and Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). Other major rivers include the Xi, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. To the west, major mountain ranges, notably the Himalayas, with China's highest point at the eastern half of Mount Everest, and high plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. A major issue is the continued expansion of deserts, particularly the Gobi Desert. "Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm". BBC news. Retrieved 17 April 2006. Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices result in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Korea and Japan. Water, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. China has some relevant environmental regulations: the 1979 Environmental Protection Law, which was largely modeled on U.S. legislation. But the environment continues to deteriorate. While the regulations are fairly stringent, they are frequently disregarded by local communities while seeking economic development. Twelve years after the law, only one Chinese city was making an effort to clean up its water discharges. Sinkule, Barbara J., Implementing Environmental Policy in China, Praeger Publishers, 1995, ISBN 0-275-94980-X This indicates that China is about twenty years behind the U.S. schedule of environmental regulation. Part of the price China is paying for increased prosperity is damage to the environment. Leading Chinese environmental campaigner Ma Jun has warned that water pollution is one of the most serious threats facing China. According to the Ministry of Water Resources, roughly 300 million Chinese are drinking unsafe water. This makes the crisis of water shortages more pressing, with 400 out of 600 cities short of water. Military With 2.3 million active troops, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest military in the world. China Seeks to Allay U.S. Fears as Summit Nears (2006). Retrieved 15 April 2006. The PLA consists of an army, navy, air force, and strategic nuclear force. The official announced budget of the PLA for 2009 was $70 billion. However, the United States claims China does not report its real military spending. The DIA estimates that the real Chinese military budget for 2008 could be anywhere from US$105 to US$150 billion. Although this is still only a fraction of US spending.U.S. Department of Defense The PRC, despite possession of nuclear weapons and delivery systems, is widely seen by military researchers both within and outside of China as having only limited power projection capability; this is, among other things, because of the limited effectiveness of its navy. It is considered a major military regional power and an emerging military superpower. Nolt, James H. Analysis: The China-Taiwan military balance. Asia Times. Retrieved 15 April 2006. Much progress has been made in the last decade and the PRC continues to make efforts to modernize its military. It has purchased state-of-the-art fighter jets from Russia, such as the Sukhoi Su-30s, and has also produced its own modern fighters, specifically the Chinese J-10s and the J-11s. SinoDefence: Fighter Aircraft. Retrieved 15 April 2006. It has also acquired and improved upon the Russian S-300 surface-to-air missile systems, which are considered to be among the best aircraft-intercepting systems in the world, SinoDefence: Surface-to-air Missile System (2006). Retrieved 15 April 2006. albeit Russia has since produced the new generation S-400 Triumf, which has been reported to at least have been semi developed with China. HQ-19 (S-400) (China) - Jane's Strategic Weapon Systems The PRC's armored and rapid-reaction forces have been updated with enhanced electronics and targeting capabilities. In recent years, much attention has been focused on building a navy with blue-water capability. SinoDefence: Aircraft carrier programme (2006). Retrieved 15 April 2006. Economy From its founding in 1949 to late 1978, the People's Republic of China was a Soviet-style centrally planned economy. Private businesses and capitalism were suppressed. To propel the country towards a modern, industrialized communist society, Mao Zedong instituted the Great Leap Forward which is now widely seen – both within the PRC and outside – as a major economic failure and a great humanitarian disaster. His death and the end of the Cultural Revolution allowed Deng Xiaoping and the new Chinese leadership to reform the economy and move to a market-oriented mixed economy under one-party rule. Collectivization of the agriculture was dismantled and farmlands were privatized to increase productivity. A wide variety of small-scale enterprises were allowed to flourish while the government relaxed price controls and promoted foreign investment. Foreign trade was focused upon as a major vehicle of growth, which led to the creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) first in Shenzhen (near Hong Kong) and then in other Chinese cities. Inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were restructured by introducing western-style management system and the unprofitable ones were closed, resulting in massive job losses. Since economic liberalization began in 1978, the PRC's investment- and export-led China must be cautious in raising consumption China Daily. Retrieved on February 8, 2009. economy has grown 70 times bigger China jumps to world's No 3 economy The Australian. Retrieved on January 21, 2009. and is among the fastest growing in the world. GDP growth 1952-2007. Chinability. Retrieved on 2008-10-16. It now has the world's third largest nominal GDP at 30 trillion yuan (US$4.4 trillion), although its per capita income of US$3,300 is still low and puts the PRC behind roughly a hundred countries. China's GDP grows by seven-year low of 9% in 2008 Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved on January 27, 2009. The primary, secondary, and tertiary industries contributed 11.3%, 48.6%, and 40.1% respectively to the total economy. If PPP is taken into account, the PRC's economy is second only to the US at US$7.9 trillion corresponding to US$5,900 per capita. World Economic Outlook Database International Monetary Fund (April 2008). Retrieved on 27 July 2008. The PRC is the fourth most visited country in the world with 49.6 million inbound international visitors in 2006. UNTWO Tourism Barometer. June 2007 issue It is a member of the WTO and is the world's third largest trading power behind the US and Germany with a total international trade of US$2.56 trillion - US$1.43 trillion in exports (#2) and US$1.13 trillion in imports (#3). Its foreign exchange reserves have reached US$1.9 trillion, making it the world's largest. China forex reserves exceed 1.9 trillion U.S. dollars Xinhua (14 October 2008). Retrieved on 21 November 2008. It is among the world's favorite destination for FDI, attracting more than US$80 billion in 2007 alone. FDI doubles despite tax concerns Ministry of Commerce of the People's Republic of China (19 February 2008). Retrieved 26 July 2008. The PRC's success has been primarily due to manufacturing as a low-cost producer. This is attributed to a combination of cheap labor, good infrastructure, medium level of technology and skill, relatively high productivity, favorable government policy, and some say, an undervalued exchange rate. The latter has been blamed for the PRC's bulging trade surplus (US$262.7 billion in 2007) 2007 trade surplus hits new record - $262.2B ChinaDaily.com.cn (11 January 2008). Retrieved on 26 July 2008. and has become a major source of dispute between the PRC and its major trading partners – the US, EU, and Japan – despite the yuan having been de-pegged and risen in value by 20% against the US dollar since 2005. China widens yuan, non-dollar trading range to 3% (23 September 2005). Retrieved 15 April 2006. The state still dominates in strategic "pillar" industries (such as energy and heavy industries), but private enterprise (30 million private businesses) Putting Democracy in China on Hold John Lee, The Center for Independent Studies. Retrieved 26 July 2008. now accounts for approximately 70% of China's national output, up from 1% in 1978. Its stock market in Shanghai (SSE) is raising record amounts of IPOs and its benchmark Shanghai Composite index has doubled since 2005. SSE's market capitalization reached US$3 trillion in 2007 and is the world's fifth largest exchange. China now ranks 34th in the Global Competitiveness Index. The Global Competitiveness Report 2007-2008 World Economic Forum. Retrieved on 26 July 2008. Twenty nine Chinese companies made the list in the 2008 Fortune Global 500. GLOBAL 500 CNN Money.com. Retrieved on 27 July 2008. Measured on market capitalization, 3 out of 10 of the world's most valuable companies are in China including #2-PetroChina, #5-China Mobile (world's most valuable telecommunications company), and #6-Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (world's most valuable bank). Global 500 2008 Financial Times.com. Retrieved on 27 July 2008. Although still relatively poor by the world's standard, the PRC's rapid growth managed to pull hundreds of millions of its people out of poverty since 1978. Today, about 10% of the Chinese population (down from 64% in 1978) live below the poverty line of US$1 per day (PPP) while life expectancy has dramatically increased to 73 years. More than 90% of the population is relatively literate, CIA - The World Fact Book compared to 20% in 1950. Plafker, Ted, China's Long — but Uneven — March to Literacy International Herald Tribune Urban unemployment declined to 4 percent in China by the end of 2007 (true overall unemployment might be higher at around 10%). Urban unemployment declines to 4% in China People's Daily Online (22 January 2008). Retrieved on 27 July 2008. Its middle class population (defined as those with annual income of at least US$5,000) has now reached 80-150 million. China’s middle class reaches 80 million Euromonitor International (25 July 2007). Retrieved on 26 July 2008. China's Middle Class Leslie T. Chang, National Geographic.com (May 2008). Retrieved on 26 July 2008. Burgeoning bourgeoisie The Economist (12 Feb 2009). Retrieved on 5 May 2009. China's retail market is worth RMB8921 billion (US$1302 billion) in 2007 and growing at 16.8% annually. Total Retail Sales of Consumer Goods (2007.12) National Bureau of Statistics of China (13 March 2008). Retrieved on 21 November 2008. It is also now the world's third biggest consumer of luxury goods with 12% of the global share. China's hunger for luxury goods grows Jehangir S. Pocha, The Boston Globe (21 March 2006). Retrieved on 26 July 2008. The PRC's growth has been uneven when comparing different geographic regions and rural and urban areas. The urban-rural income gap is getting wider in the PRC with a Gini coefficient of 46.9%. Development has also been mainly concentrated in the eastern coastal regions while the remainder of the country are left behind. To counter this, the government has promoted development in the western, northeastern, and central regions of China. The economy is also highly energy-intensive and inefficient – it uses 20%-100% more energy than OECD countries for many industrial processes. China Quick Facts The World Bank. Retrieved on 26 July 2008. It has now become the world's second largest energy consumer behind the US China - Background Energy Information Administration - U.S. government official statistics. Retrieved on 26 July 2008. but relies on coal to supply about 70% of its energy needs. China's Coal Gordon Feller, ECOworld. Retrieved on 26 July 2008. Coupled with a lax environmental regulation, this has led to a massive water and air pollution (China has 20 of the world's 30 most polluted cities). Consequently, the government has promised to use more renewable energy with a target of 10% of total energy use by 2010 and 30% by 2050. China have set a Renewable Energy Target of 10% of Electric Power Capacity by 2010 Thomson Reuters (11 March 2008). Retrieved on 26 July 2008. Science and technology After the Sino-Soviet split, China started to develop its own nuclear weapons and delivery systems, successfully detonating its first surface nuclear test in 1964 at Lop Nur. A natural outgrowth of this was a satellite launching program, which culminated in 1970 with the launching of Dong Fang Hong I, the first Chinese satellite. This made the PRC the fifth nation to independently launch a satellite. In 1992, the Shenzhou manned spaceflight program was authorized. China's First Man-made Satellite (2003). Ministry of Culture. Retrieved 16 April 2006. After four tests, Shenzhou 5 was launched on 15 October 2003, using a Long March 2F launch vehicle and carrying Chinese astronaut Yang Liwei, making the PRC the third country to put a human being into space through its own endeavors. Wade, Mark. Shenzhou (6 January 2006). Retrieved 16 April 2006. With the successful completion of the second manned mission, Shenzhou 6 in October 2005, the country plans to build a Chinese Space Station in the near future and achieve a lunar landing in the next decade. Wade, Mark. (30 March 2005)Project 921-2. Retrieved 16 April 2006. China has the world's second largest research and development budget, and is expected to invest over $136 billion this year after growing more than 20% in the past year. "China overtakes Japan on R&D" Financial Times. Retrieved 3 December 2006. The Chinese government continues to place heavy emphasis on research and development by creating greater public awareness of innovation, and reforming financial and tax systems to promote growth in cutting-edge industries. President Hu Jintao in January 2006 called for China to make the transition from a manufacturing-based economy to an innovation-based one, and this year's National People's Congress has approved large increases in research funding. Stem cell research and gene therapy, which some in the Western world see as controversial, face minimal regulation in China. China has an estimated 926,000 researchers, second only to the 1.3 million in the United States. OECD: China to spend $136 billion on R&D BusinessWeek. Retrieved 3 December 2006. China is also actively developing its software, semiconductor and energy industries, including renewable energies such as hydro, wind and solar power. "Blinding Science: China's Race to Innovate" Bruce Einhorn, Business Week, 31 March 2006, accessed: 16 April 2006. In an effort to reduce pollution from coal-burning power plants, China has been pioneering the deployment of pebble bed nuclear reactors, which run cooler and safer, and have potential applications for the hydrogen economy. "China leading world in next generation of nuclear plants" Robert J. Saiget. DAGA. 5 October 2004. Retrieved 16 April 2006. China presently has the most cell phone users in the world. The CIA World Factbook Transportation Transportation in the mainland of the People's Republic of China has improved significantly since the late 1990s as part of a government effort to link the entire nation through a series of expressways known as the National Trunk Highway System (NTHS). The total length of expressway is 45,000 km at the end of 2006, second only to the United States. China to build more highways in 2007 Expressways Being Built at Frenetic Pace Most of the expressways, however, require tolls. Private car ownership is increasing at an annual rate of 15%, although it is still uncommon because of government policies which make car ownership expensive, such as taxes and toll roads. "China's Car Drive" (13 June 2005). Earlywarning. Private highway driving is becoming more common, being almost nonexistent ten years ago. Domestic air travel has increased significantly, but remains too expensive for most. Long distance transportation is dominated by railways and charter bus systems. Railways are the vital carrier in China; they are monopolized by the state, divided into various railway bureaus in different regions. At the rates of demand it experiences, the system has historically been subject to overcrowding during travel seasons such as Chunyun during the Chinese New Year. Cities such as Beijing and Shanghai both have a rapidly expanding network of underground or light rail systems, while several other cities also have running rapid transit. Numerous cities are also constructing subways. Hong Kong has one of the most developed transport systems in the world. Shanghai has a Maglev rail line connecting Shanghai's urban area to Pudong International Airport. Demographics , there are 1,313,973,713 people in the PRC. About 20.8% (male 145,461,833; female 128,445,739) are 14 years old or younger, 71.4% (male 482,439,115; female 455,960,489) are between 15 and 64 years old, and 7.7% (male 48,562,635; female 53,103,902) are over 65 years old. The population growth rate for 2006 is 0.59%. The PRC officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, the largest of which are the Han Chinese, who constitute about 91.9% of the total population. CIA factbook (29 March 2006). Retrieved 16 April 2006. Large ethnic minorities include the Zhuang (16 million), Manchu (10 million), Hui (9 million), Miao (8 million), Uyghur (7 million), Yi (7 million), Tujia (5.75 million), Mongols (5 million), Tibetans (5 million), Buyei (3 million), and Koreans (2 million). Stein, Justin J (Spring 2003). Taking the Deliberative in China. Retrieved 16 April 2006. In the past decade, China's cities expanded at an average rate of 10% annually. The country's urbanization rate increased from 17.4% to 41.8% between 1978 and 2005, a scale unprecedented in human history. Zhou Qun, Lin Yanhua. China's urbanization encounters "urban disease", Chinanews.cn (中国新闻网), 11 November 2005. Retrieved 21 April 2005. Between 150 and 200 million migrant workers work part-time in the major cities and return home to the countryside periodically with their earnings. Today, the People's Republic of China has dozens of major cities with one million or more long-term residents, including the three global cities of Beijing, Hong Kong, and Shanghai. Major cities in China play key roles in national and regional identity, culture and economics. Largest cities The figures below are from the 2008 census, and are only estimates of the population within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban and rural populations). The large floating populations of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult; Francesco Sisci, "China's floating population a headache for census", The Straits Times, 22 September 2000. the figures below do not include the floating population, only long-term residents. Population policy With a population of over 1.3 billion, the PRC is very concerned about its population growth and has attempted, with mixed results, The New England Journal of Medicine, September 2005 to implement a strict family planning policy. The government's goal is one child per family, with exceptions for ethnic minorities and flexibility in rural areas, where a family can have a second child if the first is a girl or physically disabled. The government's goal is to stabilize population growth early in the 21st century, though some projections estimate a population of anywhere ranging from 1.4 billion to 1.6 billion by 2025. Hence, the country's family planning minister has indicated that China will maintain its one-child policy until at least the year 2020. China to keep one-child policy - CNN.com The policy is resisted, particularly in rural areas, because of the need for agricultural labour and a traditional preference for boys (who can later serve as male heirs). Families who breach the policy often lie during the census. http://www.usembassy-china.org.cn/sandt/fertl2b.htm, Official government policy opposes forced sterilization or abortion, but allegations of coercion continue as local officials, who are faced with penalties for failing to curb population growth, may resort to forced abortion or sterilization, or manipulation of census figures. The decreasing reliability of PRC population statistics since family planning began in the late 1970s has made evaluating the effectiveness of the policy difficult. http://www.usembassy-china.org.cn/sandt/fertl2b.htm Estimates by Chinese demographers of the average number of children for a Chinese woman vary from 1.5 to 2.0. The government is particularly concerned with the large imbalance in the sex ratio at birth, apparently the result of a combination of traditional preference for boys and family planning pressure, which led to the ban of using ultrasound devices for the purpose of preventing sex-selective abortion. Other factors include under-reporting of female children to circumvent the law and that some areas unofficially allow a second child if the first is not a male but not otherwise. Based on a 2005 report by China's National Population and Family Planning Commission, there were 118.6 boys born for every 100 girls, and in some rural areas the boy/girl ratio could be as high as 130/100. As this trend of gender imbalance is on the increase, experts warn of increased social instability should this trend continue. Education In 1986, China set the long-term goal of providing compulsory nine-year basic education to every child. , there were 628,840 primary schools, 78,642 secondary schools and 1,020 higher education institutions in the PRC. Education (2002). Orasia co., ltd. In February 2006, the government advanced its basic education goal by pledging to provide completely free nine-year education, including textbooks and fees, in the poorer western provinces. China pledges free 9-year education in rural west (21 February 2006). China Economic Net. , 90.9% (male: 95.1%; female: 86.5%) of the population over age 15 are literate. "Chinese People" (2005). TravelBlog. China's youth (age 15 to 24) literacy rate is 98.9% (99.2% for males and 98.5% for females) in 2000. Where And Who Are The World’s Illiterates: China In March 2007, China announced the decision of making education a national "strategic priority", the central budget of the national scholarships will be tripled in two years and 223.5 billion Yuan (28.65 billion US dollars) of extra funding will be allocated from the central government in the next 5 years to improve the compulsory education in rural areas. Premier Wen announces hefty educational investment (2007). Retrieved 6 March 2007. The quality of Chinese colleges and universities varies considerably across the country. The consistently top-ranked universities in mainland China are: 2005 Chinese University Ranking unveiled (21 February 2005). China Daily. Retrieved 16 April 2006. All-around Ranking (2003). Retrieved 17 April 2006. Beijing: Peking University, Tsinghua University, Renmin University of China, Beijing Normal University Shanghai: Fudan University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,Tongji University Tianjin: Nankai University,Tianjin University Xi'an Jiaotong University (Xi'an) Nanjing University (Nanjing) University of Science and Technology of China (Hefei) Zhejiang University (Hangzhou) Shandong University (Jinan) Wuhan University (Wuhan) Sun Yat-sen University (aka Zhongshan University) (Guangzhou) Many parents are highly committed to their children's education, often investing large portions of the family's income on education. Private lessons and recreational activities, such as in foreign languages or music, are popular among the middle-class families who can afford them. "China's graft: Tough talk, old message" by Mary Hennock. 27 September 2004. BBC News. Accessed 2 May 2006. Public health The Ministry of Health, together with its counterparts in the provincial health bureaus, oversees the health needs of the Chinese population. China AIDS Survey at Yahoo. Retrieved 18 April 2006. An emphasis on public health and preventative treatment characterized health policy since the early 1950s. At that time, the party started the Patriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as attacking several diseases. This has shown major results as diseases like cholera, typhoid, and scarlet fever were nearly eradicated. With economic reform after 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition despite the disappearance, along with the People's Communes, of much of the free public health services provided in the countryside. Health care in China became largely private fee-for-service. This was widely criticised by the Islamic Hui populations of the North West, who were often unable to obtain medical support in their remote communities. By 2000, when the World Health Organization made a large study of public health systems throughout the world, The World Health Report 2000 Health Systems: Improving Performance the Chinese public health system ranked 144 of the 191 UN member states ranked. The country's life expectancy at birth jumped from about 35 years in 1949 to 73.18 years in 2008, "Population Growth in China : The Basic Characteristics of China’s Demographic Transition" by Maristella Bergaglio. "China". CIA World Factbook, 2008-05-16 and infant mortality went down from 300 per thousand in the 1950s to about 23 per thousand in 2006. CIA World Factbook. 20 April 2006. URL accessed 3 May 2006. China’s Infant Mortality Rate Down. 11 September 2001. CHINA.ORG.CN. URL accessed 3 May 2006. Malnutrition stood at 12 percent of the population according to United Nations FAO sources. Despite significant improvements in health and the introduction of western style medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, which include respiratory problems as a result of widespread air pollution and millions of cigarette smokers, "Smoking 'will kill one third of young Chinese men'". 16 August 2001. Honolulu Community College. Retrieved 17 April 2006. a possible future HIV/AIDS epidemic, and an increase in obesity among urban youths. "Serving the people?". 1999. Bruce Kennedy. CNN. Retrieved 17 April 2006. "Obesity Sickening China's Young Hearts" 4 August 2000. People's Daily. Retrieved 17 April 2006. Estimates of excess deaths in China from environmental pollution (apart from smoking) are placed at 760,000 people per annum from air and water pollution (including indoor air pollution). International Herald Tribune, Tues 31 July 2007, p16 China's large population and close living quarters has led to some serious disease outbreaks in recent years, such as the 2003 outbreak of SARS (a pneumonia-like disease) which has since been largely contained. "China’s latest SARS outbreak has been contained, but biosafety concerns remain". 18 May 2004. World Health Organization. Retrieved 17 April 2006. Reports by the World Bank and the New York Times have claimed industrial pollution, particularly of the air, to be significant health hazards in China. Religion China does allow a limited degree of religious freedom although the state is officially atheist. However, official tolerance is only extended to members of state-approved religious organizations and not to those who worship underground, such as house churches. An accurate number of religious adherents is hard to obtain due to a lack of official data, but there is general consensus that religion has been enjoying a resurgence over the past 20 years. BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | Survey finds 300m China believers A survey by Phil Zuckerman on Adherents.com found that in 1998, 59% (over 700 million) Adherents.com of the population was irreligious. Meanwhile, another survey in 2007 found that there are 300 million (23% of the population) believers as opposed to an official figure of 100 million. Despite the surveys' varying results, most agree that China's traditional religions – Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religions – are the dominant faiths. According to a number of sources, Buddhism in China accounts for between 660 million (~50%) and over 1 billion (~80%) Buddhists in the world while Taoists number 400 million (~30%). Asia Sentinel - How Now Tao? Alliance of Religions and Conservation (ARC) However, the number of adherents to these religions can be overcounted because one person may subscribe to one or more of these traditional beliefs simultaneously, and the difficulty in clearly differentiating Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religions. In addition, subscribing to Buddhism and Taoism is not necessarily considered religious by those who follow the philosophies in principle but stop short of subscribing to any kind of divinity. Religions and Beliefs in China Society for Anglo Chinese Understanding (SACU) Index-China Chinese Philosophies and religions Most Chinese Buddhists are nominal adherents because only a small proportion of the population (over 8% or over 100 million) Adherents.com: Buddhism International Religious Freedom Report 2007 - China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau) may have taken the formal step of going for refuge. AskAsia - Buddhism in China TheAmericanForum For Global Education Even then, it's still difficult to estimate accurately the number of Buddhists because they do not have congregational memberships and often do not participate in public ceremonies. U.S. Department of States - International Religious Freedom Report 2006: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau) Mahayana (大乘, Dacheng) and its subsets Pure Land (Amidism), Tiantai and Zen are the most widely practiced denominations of Buddhism. Other forms, such as Theravada and Tibetan, are practiced largely by ethnic minorities along the geographic fringes of the Chinese mainland. Macintosh, R. Scott. China's prosperity inspires rising spirituality (9 March 2006). Retrieved 15 April 2006. Christianity in China was first introduced during the Tang period in the 7th century with the arrival of Nestorianism in 635 CE. This was followed by Franciscan missionaries in the 13th century, Jesuits in the 16th century, and finally Protestants in the 19th century, during which time Christianity began to make significant foothold in China. Of the minority religions, Christianity has been particularly noted as one of the fastest growing (especially since the last 200 years) and today may number between 40 million (3%) and 54 million (4%) China Survey Reveals Fewer Christians than Some Evangelicals Want to Believe according to independent surveys, while official estimates suggested that there are only 16 million Christians. Islam in China dates to a mission in 651, eighteen years after Muhammad's death. Muslims came to China for trade, dominating the import/export industry during the Song Dynasty. BBC Islam in China (650-present) They became influential in government circles, including Zheng He, Lan Yu and Yeheidie'erding. Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study. The Qing Dynasty waged war and genocide against Muslims in the Dungan revolt and Panthay rebellion. Levene, Mark. Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State. I.B.Tauris, 2005. ISBN 1845110579, page 288 Giersch, Charles Patterson. Asian Borderlands: The Transformation of Qing China's Yunnan Frontier. Harvard University Press, 2006. ISBN 1845110579, page 219 Dillon, Michael. China’s Muslim Hui Community. Curzon, 1999. ISBN 0700710264, page xix The number of Muslims in China today is estimated between 20 and 100 million by one source while most estimates figures that there are 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population). Counting up the number of people of traditionally Muslim nationalities who were enumerated in the 1990 census gives a total of 17.6 million, 96% of whom belong to just three nationalities: Hui 8.6 million, Uyghurs 7.2 million, and Kazakhs 1.1 million. Other nationalities that are traditionally Muslim include Kyrghyz, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Tatars, Salar, Bonan, and Dongxiang. See Dru C. Gladney, "Islam in China: Accommodation or Separatism?", Paper presented at Symposium on Islam in Southeast Asia and China, Hong Kong, 2002. Available at http://www.islamsymposium.cityu.edu.hk. The 2000 census reported a total of 20.3 million members of Muslim nationalities, of which again 96% belonged to just three groups: Hui 9.8 million, Uyghurs 8.4 million, and Kazakhs 1.25 million. CIA - The World Factbook - China China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet) China Daily - NW China region eyes global Muslim market Muslim Media Network Islamtoday.com - China’s Halal Food and Muslim Commodities Festival Begins Today BBC Islam in China (650-present) BBC - Religion & Ethics - Islam in China (650-present) There are also followers of minority religions including Hinduism, Dongbaism, Bon, and a number of new religions and sects (particularly Xiantianism). In July 1999, the Falun Gong spiritual practice was officially banned by the authorities, Xinhua, China Bans Falun Gong, People's Daily, 22 July 1999 and many international organizations have criticized the persecution of Falun Gong that has occurred since then. Mary-Anne Toy, Underground existence for Falun Gong faithful, The Age, July 26, 2008."The US State Department, US Congress, the United Nations and human rights groups such as Amnesty say persecution of Falun Gong practitioners in China is a continuing abuse of human rights." According to official estimates, 50–70 million Chinese practised Falun Gong in 1998. Joseph Kahn, "Notoriety Now for Exiled Leader of Chinese Movement", The New York Times, 27 April 1999 Other estimates have varied, however: Falun Gong itself claims to have as many as 100 million practitioners, while the China's Ministry of Civil Affairs later claimed that there were as few as 2 million. Xu Jiatun, Cultural Revolution revisited in crackdown, Taipai Times, 8 September 1999. As there is no official membership or lists, current global numbers are unknown. Culture For centuries, opportunity for economic and social advancement in China could be provided by high performance on Imperial examinations. The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief that calligraphy and literati painting were higher forms of art than dancing or drama. China's traditional values were derived from various versions of Confucianism and conservatism. A number of more authoritarian and rational strains of thought have also been influential, such as Legalism. There was often conflict between the philosophies, such as the individualistic Song Dynasty neo-Confucians, who believed Legalism departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number of New Confucians have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values." Bary, Theodore de. "Constructive Engagement with Asian Values". Columbia University. The first leaders of the People's Republic of China were born in the old society but were influenced by the May Fourth Movement and reformist ideals. They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and a Confucian education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and obedience to the state. Many observers believe that the period following 1949 is a continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history, while others say that the CPC's rule has damaged the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the Cultural Revolution, where many aspects of traditional culture were labeled 'regressive and harmful' or 'vestiges of feudalism' by the regime and thus, were destroyed. They further argue that many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, Chinese art, literature, and performing arts like Beijing opera, were altered to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time. Today, the Chinese government has accepted a great deal of traditional Chinese culture as an integral part of Chinese society, lauding it as an important achievement of the Chinese civilization and emphasizing it as vital to a Chinese national identity. Since the Cultural Revolution ended, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival, "China: Traditional arts". Library of Congress - Country Studies. Accessed: 26 December 2007. "China: Cultural life: The arts". Encyclopædia Britannica Online Accessed: 26 December 2007. and folk and variety art in particular have gained a new found respectability, and sparked interest nationally and even worldwide. "China: Folk and Variety Arts". Library of Congress - Country Studies. Accessed: 26 December 2007. Sports and recreation China has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the world, spanning the course of several millennia. There is, in fact, evidence that a form of football was played in China in ancient times. Origins of the Great Game. 2000. Athleticscholarships.net. Retrieved 23 April 2006. Besides football, ESPN Soccernet. 2002. ESPN Soccernet. Retrieved 26 January 2006. some of the most popular sports in the country include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, swimming, basketball and snooker. Board games such as Go (Weiqi), and Xiangqi (Chinese chess) and recently chess are also commonly played and have organized competitions. Physical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture. Morning exercises are a common activity and often one can find the elderly practicing qigong and tai chi chuan in parks or students doing stretches on school campuses. Young people are especially keen on basketball, especially in urban centers with limited space and grass areas. The NBA has a huge following among Chinese youths, with Yao Ming being the idol of many. The 2008 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, were held in Beijing. Many traditional sports are also played. The popular Chinese dragon boat racing (龙舟) occurs during the Dragon Boat Festival. In Inner Mongolia, sports such as Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are popular. In Tibet, archery and equestrianism are a part of traditional festivals. Qinfa, Ye. Sports History of China. About.com. Retrieved 21 April 2006. Other names 大陸 (translation: "Big continent", or "Mainland"), commonly used by residents of Hong Kong and Taiwan to refer to the PRC, because they themselves live on islands, whereas the majority of the PRC is situated on the continent. 神州大地 (translation: "The Grand Expanse of the Divine Provinces") 天朝大國 (Tianchao Daguo or Tianchao; translation: "Celestial court") 禮儀之邦, literally the "Land of Etiquette and Rites' " See also Society of the People's Republic of China China (civilization) Chinese government Chinese people Chinese Soviet Republic Zhonghua minzu Social issues in the People's Republic of China International rankings of the People's Republic of China References Further reading Farah, Paolo, Five Years of China’s WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives on China’s Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism, Legal Issues of Economic Integration, Kluwer Law International, Volume 33, Number 3, pp. 263–304, 2006. Abstract. Heilig, Gerhard K., China Bibliography - Online. 2006, 2007. . External links Overviews People's Daily: China at a Glance BBC News — Country Profile: China "Rethinking ‘Capitalist Restoration’ in China" by Yiching Wu Documentaries "China on the Rise" PBS Online NewsHour. October 2005. China Rises a documentary co-produced by The New York Times, Discovery Times, CBC, ZDF, France 5 and S4C. 9 April 2006. China in the Red, 1998–2001. PBS Frontline. China From the Inside A documentary series co-produced by KQED Public Television and Granada Television. Government The Central People's Government of People's Republic of China (English) China's Official Gateway for News & Information (English) Studies Assertive Pragmatism: China's Economic Rise and Its Impact on Chinese Foreign Policy - analysis by Minxin Pei, IFRI Proliferation Papers n°15, 2006 The Dragon's Dawn: China as a Rising Imperial Power 11 February 2005. History of The People's Republic of China Timeline of Key Events since 1949. Media, advertising, and urban life in China. China's Neoliberal Dynasty by Peter Kwong, originally published in The Nation 2 October 2006. 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2,451 | Marjoram | Marjoram (Origanum majorana, Lamiaceae) is a somewhat cold-sensitive perennial herb or undershrub with sweet pine and citrus flavours. It is also called Sweet Marjoram or Knotted Marjoram and Majorana hortensis. The name marjoram (Old French majorane, Medieval Latin majorana) does not directly derive from the Latin word maior (major). Marjoram, Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper, November 2001 Marjoram is indigenous to the Mediterranean area and was known to the Greeks and Romans as a symbol of happiness. Marjoram is cultivated for its aromatic leaves, either green or dry, for culinary purposes; the tops are cut as the plants begin to flower and are dried slowly in the shade. It is often used in herb combinations such as Herbes de Provence and Za'atar. The flowering leaves and tops of Marjoram are steam distilled to produce an essential oil that is yellowish in color (darkening to brown as it ages). It has many chemical components, some of which are borneol, camphor, origanol and pinene. Although considered cold-sensitive, marjoram can sometimes prove hardy even in zone 5. Related species Oregano (Origanum vulgare, sometimes listed with Marjoram as Origanum majorana) is also called Wild Marjoram. It is a perennial common in southern Europe in dry copses and on hedge-banks, with many stout stems 30-80 cm high, bearing short-stalked somewhat ovate leaves and clusters of purple flowers. It has a stronger flavor and a more penetrating quality. Pot Marjoram or Cretan Oregano (Origanum onites) has similar uses to marjoram. Hardy Marjoram or French marjoram is a cross of marjoram with oregano that is much more resistant to cold, but is slightly less sweet. Origanum pulchellum, Showy Marjoram or Showy Oregano. (Catalan marduix; Spanish mejorana; Romanian măghiran) References External links Origanum majorana List of Chemicals (Dr. Duke's Databases) Origanum majorana (Plants For A Future database) | Marjoram |@lemmatized marjoram:17 origanum:7 majorana:6 lamiaceae:1 somewhat:2 cold:3 sensitive:2 perennial:2 herb:2 undershrub:1 sweet:3 pine:1 citrus:1 flavour:1 also:2 call:2 knot:1 hortensis:1 name:1 old:1 french:2 majorane:1 medieval:1 latin:2 directly:1 derive:1 word:1 maior:1 major:1 online:1 etymology:1 dictionary:1 douglas:1 harper:1 november:1 indigenous:1 mediterranean:1 area:1 know:1 greek:1 roman:1 symbol:1 happiness:1 cultivate:1 aromatic:1 leaf:3 either:1 green:1 dry:3 culinary:1 purpose:1 top:2 cut:1 plant:2 begin:1 flower:2 slowly:1 shade:1 often:1 use:1 combination:1 herbes:1 de:1 provence:1 za:1 atar:1 flowering:1 steam:1 distil:1 produce:1 essential:1 oil:1 yellowish:1 color:1 darken:1 brown:1 age:1 many:2 chemical:2 component:1 borneol:1 camphor:1 origanol:1 pinene:1 although:1 consider:1 sometimes:2 prove:1 hardy:2 even:1 zone:1 related:1 specie:1 oregano:4 vulgare:1 list:2 wild:1 common:1 southern:1 europe:1 copse:1 hedge:1 bank:1 stout:1 stem:1 cm:1 high:1 bear:1 short:1 stalk:1 ovate:1 cluster:1 purple:1 strong:1 flavor:1 penetrating:1 quality:1 pot:1 cretan:1 onites:1 similar:1 us:1 cross:1 much:1 resistant:1 slightly:1 less:1 pulchellum:1 showy:2 catalan:1 marduix:1 spanish:1 mejorana:1 romanian:1 măghiran:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 dr:1 duke:1 database:2 future:1 |@bigram external_link:1 |
2,452 | Italian_Greyhound | The Italian Greyhound is a small breed of dog of the sight hound type. They are sometimes called an "I.G.", or "Iggy" for short. Barber, Lillian S., The New Complete Italian Greyhound, p.5 (1993, Italian Greyhound Productions) ISBN 0961198621 Description Appearance The Italian Greyhound is the smallest American Kennel Club - Italian Greyhound Did You Know? of the sighthounds, typically weighing about and standing about tall at the withers. Though they are in the "toy" group based on their weight, they are larger than other dogs in the category due to their slender bodies, so owners must be careful when sizing clothing or accommodations. The Italian Greyhound's chest is deep, with a tucked up abdomen, long slender legs and a long neck that tapers down to a small head. The face is long and pointed, like a full sized greyhound. Overall, they look like "miniature" Greyhounds, though many Italian Greyhound owners dispute the use of the term "miniature Greyhound", in reference to the breed itself. By definition of the American Kennel Club American Kennel Club - Italian Greyhound History - they are true genetic greyhounds, with a bloodline extending back over 2000 years. Their current small stature is a function of selective breeding. Their gait is distinctive and should be high stepping and free, rather like that of a horse. They are able to run at top speed with a double suspension gallop, IG in a double suspension gallop (video) and can achieve a top speed of up to . The color of the coat is a subject of much discussion. For The Kennel Club (UK), the American Kennel Club, and the Australian National Kennel Council, parti colored Italian Greyhounds are accepted, while the Fédération Cynologique Internationale standard for international shows allows white only on the chest and feet. Fédération Cynologique Internationale standard The modern Italian Greyhound's appearance is a result of breeders throughout Europe, particularly Austrian, German, Italian, French and British breeders, making great contributions to the forming of this breed. The Italian Greyhound should resemble a small Greyhound, or rather a Sloughi, though they are in appearance more elegant and graceful. Example of a double-suspension gallop, note all four feet off the ground. Temperament The Italian Greyhound is affectionate and makes a good companion dog. The breed is excellent for families and enjoys the company of people. While they are excellent with children, the breed's slim build and short coat make them somewhat fragile, and injury can result from rough play. The breed is equally at home in the city or the country. They are fast, agile and athletic. Like any dog, daily exercise is a must for a happier, well adjusted pet. Italian greyhounds love to run. The young dog is often particularly active, and this high level of activity may lead them to attempt ill-advised feats of athleticism that can result in injury. They enjoy running as fast as they possibly can, typically faster than other larger dogs. In general the Italian Greyhound is intelligent, but they often have a "what's in it for me" attitude and do not exactly throw themselves into training with great excitement, so patience, firmness, gentleness, and reward in training seem to work best. They are also known for their mischievous ingenuity; despite a high center of gravity, they can easily walk upright on their hind legs to reach items up on tables. They may also use their 'hidden talent' of jumping to unusual heights to reach high-up items of interest to them. Italian Greyhounds make reasonably good watchdogs, as they bark at unfamiliar sounds. They may also bark at passers-by and other animals. However, they often get along well with other dogs and cats they are raised with. However, they should not be considered "true" guard dogs as they are often aloof with strangers and easily spooked to run. Due to their slim build and extremely short coat, Italian Greyhounds are at times reluctant to go outside in cold or wet weather, so some owners lay old newspaper on the floor near an exit so their pets can relieve themselves. Some respond well to dog-litter training as well. This breed tends to gravitate to warm places, curl up with other dogs or humans, or burrow into blankets and under cushions for warmth. As gazehounds, Italian Greyhounds instinctively hunt by sight and have an extremely high predator drive. Owners of Italian Greyhounds typically keep their dogs leashed at all times when not in an enclosed area to avoid the risk of even a well-behaved pet breaking away at high speed after a small animal. Also, a short leash is highly suggested to owners due to reports of animals breaking their own necks when running a full lead mounted to the ground or a wall. Sometimes a dog harness is a good option; since the IG has a tapering neck and small head, they can often "slip" their collar and leash. This can also be used to avoid the above-mentioned neck injury if your dog is prone to bolting. It also gives the dog the freedom of a long leash. Owners of Italian Greyhounds should be extremely mindful of any unknown dogs, no matter what size, because Italian Greyhounds can be extremely territorial, and may even "have a go" at any larger unknown dogs on their property. Grooming Dogs of this breed have an extremely short and almost odorless coat that requires little more than an occasional bath, but a wipe-down with a damp cloth is recommended after walks as seeds, burrs and floating dust in the air can get into the coat and irritate the skin. Shedding is typical as of other breeds, but the hair that is shed is extremely short and fine and is easily vacuumed. Oral The teeth of an Italian Greyhound should be brushed daily. Their scissor-bite and thin jaw bones make them susceptible to periodontal disease, which can be avoided with good dental care. Daily brushing has been shown to be very beneficial. Health Health problems that can be found in the breed: Epilepsy Legg-Perthes disease (degeneration of the hip) Patellar Luxation (slipped stifles) von Willebrand disease (vWD) (Bleeding disorder) Progressive retinal atrophy (PRA) Color dilution alopecia (hair loss in dilute pigmented dogs, ie: blues, blue fawns, etc) Leg Breaks (most common under the age of 2) Cataracts Vitreous degeneration Liver shunts Autoimmune hemolytic anemia Periodontal disease, gum recession, early tooth loss, bad tooth enamel Hypothyroidism, Autoimmune Thyroid Disease (Hashimoto's disease) Responsible breeders will routinely check their dogs for the onset of various inherited disorders, these commonly include (but are not limited to): CERF examinations on eyes, OFA patellar examinations, OFA thyroid function panels, von Willebrand's factor, OFA hip and Legg-Perthes disease x-rays, and others. History The name of the breed is a reference to the breed's popularity in Renaissance Italy. Mummified dogs very similar to the Italian Greyhound (or small Greyhounds) have been found in Egypt, and pictorials of small Greyhounds have been found in Pompeii, and they were probably the only accepted companion-dog there. As an amusing aside the expression 'Cave Canem' (Beware of the dog) was a warning to visitors, not that the dogs would attack but to beware of damaging, tripping over or stepping on the small dogs. Although the small dogs are mainly companionship dogs they have in fact been used for hunting purposes, often in combination with hunting falcons, rat or mice. The Italian Greyhound is the smallest of the family of gaze hounds (dogs that hunt by sight). The breed is an old one and is believed to have originated more than 4,000 years ago in the countries now known as Greece and Turkey. This belief is based on the depiction of miniature greyhounds in the early decorative arts of these countries and on the archaeological discovery of small greyhound skeletons. By the Middle Ages, the breed had become distributed throughout Southern Europe and was later a favorite of the Italians of the sixteenth century, among whom miniature dogs were in great demand. Sadly, though, 'designer' breeders tried, and failed, to make the breed even smaller by crossbreeding it with other breeds of dogs. This only led to mutations with deformed skulls, bulging eyes and dental problems. The original Italian Greyhound had almost disappeared when groups of breeders got together and managed to return the breed to normal. From this period onward the history of the breed can be fairly well traced as it spread through Europe, arriving in England in the seventeenth century. Miscellaneous Italian Greyhounds in the arts Portrait of the aging Catherine The Great with an Italian Greyhound.The grace of the breed has prompted several artists to include the dogs in paintings, among others Velázquez, Pisanello and Giotto.Vision des Hl. Eustathius by Pisanello The breed has been popular with royalty throughout, among the best known royal aficionados were Mary Stuart, Queen Anne, Queen Victoria, Catherine The Great, Frederick the Great and the Norwegian Queen Maud. Italian Greyhounds in popular culture Nelly from the film Good Boy! is an Italian Greyhound played by "Motif" and "Imp". http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0326900/fullcredits#cast Internet Movie Database: Good Boy! Full cast and crew. Retrieved April 26, 2007 The American rock band Shellac named their fourth album Excellent Italian Greyhound in reference to drummer Todd Trainer's pet Italian Greyhound, Uffizi. The 3.5 Edition of the Player's Handbook for Dungeons & Dragons features a sketch of an Italian Greyhound under its description for "handle animal." New York Alternative Rock band Interpol's bass guitar player Carlos Dengler owns an Italian Greyhound named Gaius. Activities Some Italian Greyhounds enjoy dog agility. The breed's lithe body and its love of action enable it to potentially do well at this sport, although not many Italian Greyhounds participate and their natural inclination is for straight-out racing rather than for working tightly as a team with a handler on a technical course. Lure coursing is another activity well-fitted to the Italian Greyhound, and they seem to enjoy it tremendously. Although the Italian Greyhound is a very fast dog, it is not as well suited to racing as its larger cousin. Regardless, many Italian Greyhounds participate in amateur straight-track and oval-track racing. External links IG Connection IG Whispers Forum Italian Greyhound Society of the UK Rescue There are a very large number of rescue organizations for this breed. Rescue By Country Italian Greyhound Club of America Rescue Italian Greyhound Club of Canada Rescue United Kingdom - Italian Greyhound Rescue Charity Rescue By State, Province, or Region Alaska Italian Greyhound IGCA Rescue Arizona IGCA Rescue California Italian Greyhound Club of America Rescue California Italian Greyhound Rescue Colorado IGCA Rescue Colorado - Wiseguys Italian Greyhound Rescue Connecticut IGCA Italian Greyhound Rescue East Coast Italian Greyhound Rescue Florida IGCA Representative Florida - Rocket Angel Italian Greyhound Rescue Georgia & Alabama Italian Greyhound Rescue Idaho - Sighthound Adoption and Fostering Center Illinois Windy City IGs Italian Greyhound Rescue Indiana IG Rescue Italian Greyhound Rescue of the Western United States Louisiana IGCA Rescue Michigan IG Rescue Midwest Italian Greyhound Rescue Minnesota/Wisconsin - Lifeline Italian Greyhound Rescue Missouri Italian Greyhound Rescue Nebraska Italian Greyhound Rescue Nevada IGCA Rescue New Jersey Italian Greyhound Rescue New Mexico IGCA Rescue New York IGCA Rescue Affiliate North Carolina Italian Greyhound Rescue North Carolina - Triangle Italian Greyhound Rescue Northwest (Idaho, Oregon & Washington) Italian Greyhound Rescue Ohio IG Rescue Ohio - Golden Years Senior Greyhounds Oklahoma - Hazeljanes Blessings IG Rescue Oklahoma IGCA Rescue Ontario - Southern Ontario Sighthound Rescue Pennsylvania Italian Greyhound Rescue Silver Hounds Senior Italian Greyhounds Tennessee Italian Greyhound Rescue Texas IGCA Rescue Utah Iggy Palace Rescue Wisconsin Italian Greyhound Rescue See also Hound Companion dog Companion Dog Group Toy Group Lap dog References | Italian_Greyhound |@lemmatized italian:65 greyhound:72 small:14 breed:22 dog:35 sight:3 hound:4 type:1 sometimes:2 call:1 g:1 iggy:2 short:6 barber:1 lillian:1 new:5 complete:1 p:1 production:1 isbn:1 description:2 appearance:3 american:5 kennel:6 club:8 know:3 sighthounds:1 typically:3 weigh:1 stand:1 tall:1 withers:1 though:4 toy:2 group:4 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2,453 | England_national_football_team | The English national football team represents England in international football and is controlled by The Football Association, the governing body for football in England. Although most national teams worldwide represent an independent state, the four home nations which form the United Kingdom are each represented separately in international tournaments. England is one of the more successful footballing teams, being one of only seven countries to ever win the FIFA World Cup, which they did in 1966 when they hosted the finals. They defeated West Germany 4–2 in extra time in the Final. England share with France the record of having one World Cup victory and this being achieved on home soil (the other winners have all won the trophy at least twice and at least once on foreign soil). Since then they have only reached the semi-finals once, losing to West Germany on penalties. Nevertheless, they remain a prominent team on the global stage, rarely dropping outside of the top ten rankings of both FIFA and Elo. England also reached the semi-finals of the UEFA European Championship in 1968 and 1996 (again played in England). They were the most successful of the Home Nations in the British Home Championship with 54 wins (including 20 shared wins) before the competition was suspended in 1984. Traditionally, England's greatest rivals have been Scotland, who were their opponents in the first-ever international football match in 1870. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/991601.cms Since regular fixtures against Scotland came to an end in the late 1980s, other rivalries have become more prominent. Matches with Argentina and Germany have produced particularly eventful encounters. England's home ground is Wembley Stadium in London. History The England national football team is the joint oldest in the world, formed at the same time as Scotland. A representative match between England and Scotland was played on the 5th March 1870, having been organised by the Football Association. A return fixture was organised by representatives of Scottish football teams on 30 November 1872. This match, at Hamilton Crescent in Scotland, is viewed as the first official international as the two teams were independently selected and operated, rather than being the work of a single football association, as the previous 1870 match had been. Over the next forty years, England played exclusively with the other three "Home Nations" - Scotland, Wales and Ireland. The games were made competitive with the British Home Championship from 1883 to 1984. Before Wembley, London was opened, England had no permanent home ground. England joined FIFA in 1906, playing its first ever game outside the British Isles in 1908. However, the relationship between the two was strained, resulting in the British nations' departure from FIFA in 1928, before rejoining in 1946. As a result, England did not compete in a World Cup until 1950, in which they were beaten in a 1–0 defeat against the United States, failing to get past the first round. England's first ever defeat on home soil to a non-UK team was a 0–2 loss to Ireland on 21 September 1949 at Goodison Park, Liverpool. A 6–3 loss in 1953 to Hungary was England's first ever defeat to a non-UK team at Wembley. In the return match in Budapest, Hungary won 7–1, which still stands as England's worst ever defeat. Ivor Broadis scored the England goal. After the game bewildered England centre half Syd Owen said, “It was like playing people from outer space”. Report of Hungary v England World Cup warm up game and England at the 1954 World Cup in the profile of Ivor Broadis In the 1954 World Cup two goals by Broadis saw him become the first England player to score two goals in a game at the World Cup finals. Broadis beat Nat Lofthouse by 30 minutes when both scored 2 each in the thrilling 4–4 draw against Belgium. In reaching the quarter finals for the first time England lost 4–2 being eliminated by Uruguay. Only once have England progressed beyond the World Cup quarter finals away from home. Although Walter Winterbottom was appointed as the first ever full time manager in 1946, the team was still picked by a committee until Alf Ramsey took over in 1963. Under Ramsey, England experienced its greatest ever success, winning the 1966 FIFA World Cup Final against West Germany 4–2 after extra time. Geoff Hurst famously scored a hat-trick in the final. The 1966 World Cup was also held in England. Though England lost again to the Auld Enemy Scotland only a year later with a famous 3–2 for the Scots at Wembley. England qualified for the 1970 FIFA World Cup in Mexico as reigning cup holders. They reached the Quarter-finals but were knocked out by West Germany. England had been 2–0 up but were eventually beaten 3–2 after extra time. For the 1974 and 1978 World Cups, England failed to qualify. In 1982, England under Ron Greenwood qualified for 1982 FIFA World Cup in Spain after a 12-year absence and were eliminated from the second round without losing a match. The team under Bobby Robson fared better as England reached the quarter finals of the 1986 FIFA World Cup and finished fourth in the tournament four years later. This is the only time England have progressed beyond the World Cup quarter finals away from home. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/71d78840-f256-11da-b78e-0000779e2340.html Graham Taylor's short reign as Robson's successor ended after his England failed to qualify for the 1994 FIFA World Cup, but then the 1996 European Championships were held in England, and under new coach Terry Venables the team had its best performance at a European Championship, reaching the semi-final. The England team of the 1990s and 2000s has been consistently in football's top twenty countries, but hasn't progressed beyond the quarter finals of any international tournament apart from Italia 90 and Euro 96. Sven-Göran Eriksson took charge of the team between 2001 and 2006 and was the first non-English manager of England. Despite controversial press coverage of his personal life, Eriksson was consistently popular with the majority of fans and England enjoyed some success with top qualifying place in two World Cup tournaments and Euro 2004, losing only five competitive matches during his tenure and rising to a (joint) record FIFA No.4 world ranking for the English national team during the 2006 World Cup under his guidance. Eriksson's contract was extended by The FA by two years to include Euro 2008 prior to being terminated by them at the conclusion of the 2006 FIFA World Cup. Steve McClaren was appointed as the head coach following the 2006 World Cup. The reign was marked with little success, with England failing to qualify for the 2008 European Championships. McClaren left on 22 November 2007, after only 16 months in charge and making him the shortest tenured full time England manager ever since the inauguration of the post in 1946. He was replaced by the former Real Madrid and AC Milan manager Fabio Capello. The Italian is the second foreign manager to coach England, after Eriksson, and took charge of his first game on 6 February 2008 against Switzerland. England won 2–1. Since then Capello has also managed England in games against France, USA and Trinidad & Tobago. England lost 1–0 to France, won 2–0 against the USA and 3–0 against T&T. His next game against the Czech Republic ended in a 2–2 draw. In their first qualifying games for the 2010 World Cup, Joe Cole scored both England's goals in a 2–0 win over Andorra and a 4–1 victory over Croatia with a hat-trick from Theo Walcott and a goal from Wayne Rooney. This was followed by a 5–1 victory at home over Kazhakstan, with Wayne Rooney scoring twice and Rio Ferdinand and Jermain Defoe, along with an own goal, completing the scoring. Their last game of the 2008 international season was a 2–1 away win in a friendly against arch-rivals Germany. 2009 got off to a poor start with a 2–0 defeat to Spain. England's performance was explained as being as a result of being without many key players against the then Fifa-ranked Number 1 team in the world. England bounced back to beat Slovakia 4–0; they then made it five qualifying wins out of five with a 2–1 win against Ukraine. Home stadium For the first 50 years of its existence, England played its home matches all around the country; for the first few years it used cricket grounds, before later moving on to football clubs' stadiums. England played their first match at Wembley Stadium in 1924 against Scotland, but for the next 27 years only used Wembley as a venue for Scotland matches. The Wembley Stadium is a stadium in Wembley, located in the London Borough of Brent in London, England. It is owned by The Football Association (FA) via its subsidiary Wembley National Stadium Limited, and its primary use is for home games of the England national football team, and the main English domestic football finals. The original Wembley Stadium first opened its doors in 1924 in a match against Scotland and closed them in 2000 with a farewell defeat to arch rivals Germany. The new 90,000 seater Wembley costing £800 million, hosted its first match on June 1 2007 against Brazil ending 1–1, with former captain David Beckham setting up new captain John Terry for England's first goal at the new Wembley Stadium. Media coverage From the 2008–09 season to the 2011–12 season, England's home qualifiers will be shown live on ITV with away qualifiers and home friendlies being shown live on Setanta Sports. Away friendlies will again be sold by the home team. Before this, home qualifiers and friendlies were shown on BBC with away matches on Sky Sports. In Australia, England national football team home games and selected away games are broadcast by Setanta Sports Australia. All matches are broadcast with full commentary on BBC Radio Five Live. Gary Lineker is England's 2nd highest goalscorer with 48 goals Colours England's traditional home colours are white shirts, navy blue shorts and white socks. Since 2001, the team has periodically worn white shorts during home matches. The traditional England away colours are red shirts, white shorts and red socks, although England did not need an away kit until they played against a non-British side. From 1945 to 1952, England wore a blue away kit. In 1996 England's away kit was changed to grey shirts, shorts and socks. This kit was worn against Bulgaria, Germany and Georgia but the deviation from traditional red was unpopular with supporters and since then the England away kit has remained red. Periodically, the red kit is worn during home matches. On 28 March 2009, England debuted a new Umbro retro inspired all white home kit, in the 4–0 friendly victory over Slovakia at Wembley. The new kit replaces the traditional navy blue shorts with white shorts. Third kit England have occasionally had a third kit as well. At the 1970 World Cup England wore a third kit with light blue shirt, shorts and socks against Czechoslovakia. They had a strip similar to Brazil's kit, with a yellow shirt and blue shorts in 1973, worn against Czechoslovakia, Poland and Italy. Between 1986 and 1992 England had pale blue third kits which were rarely worn. Results 2008–09 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification - UEFA Group 6 Friendly matches Opponents Venue Date Result Switzerland Wembley Stadium, London 6 Feb 2008 England Win 2–1 France Stade de France, Paris 26 Mar 2008 England Lose 0–1USAWembley Stadium, London28 May 2008England Win 2–0Trinidad & TobagoHasely Crawford Stadium, Port of Spain1 June 2008England Win 3–0Czech RepublicWembley Stadium, London20 August 2008England Draw 2–2GermanyOlympiastadion, Berlin19 November 2008England Win 2–1SpainEstadio Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán, Seville11 February 2009England Lose 0–2SlovakiaWembley Stadium, London28 March 2009England Win 4–0NetherlandsAmsterdam ArenA, Amsterdam12 August 2009 SloveniaWembley Stadium, London5 September 2009 England squad Most recent squad The following players were named in the squad for the world cup qualifiers against Kazakhstan on the 6th June and Andorra on the 10th June. NameDOBClubCaps (goals)DebutGoalkeepers Paul Robinson Blackburn Rovers 41 (0) v Australia, 12 February 2003 Scott Carson West Bromwich Albion 3 (0) v Austria, 16 November 2007 Robert Green West Ham United 2 (0) v Colombia, 31 May 2005Defenders Gary Neville Manchester United 85 (0) v Japan, 3 June 1995 Rio Ferdinand Manchester United 73 (3) v Cameroon, 15 November 1997 Ashley Cole Chelsea 71 (0) v Albania, 28 March 2001 John Terry Chelsea 51 (6) v Serbia & Montenegro, 3 June 2003 Wayne Bridge Manchester City 32 (1) v Netherlands, 13 February 2002 Matthew Upson West Ham United 14 (1) v South Africa, 22 May 2003 Glen Johnson Portsmouth 12 (0) v Denmark, 18 November 2003 Joleon Lescott Everton 6 (0) v Estonia, 13 October 2007Midfielders David Beckham L.A. Galaxy 110 (17) v Moldova, 1 September 1996 Steven Gerrard Liverpool 72 (14) v Ukraine, 31 May 2000 Frank Lampard Chelsea 69 (15) v Belgium, 10 October 1999 Gareth Barry Aston Villa 27 (1) v Ukraine, 31 May 2000 Shaun Wright-Phillips Manchester City 24 (4) v Ukraine, 18 August 2004 Michael Carrick Manchester United 17 (0) v Mexico, 25 May 2001 Theo Walcott Arsenal 6 (3) v Hungary,30 May 2006 Ashley Young Aston Villa 4 (0) v Austria, 16 November 2007 Strikers Emile Heskey Aston Villa 52 (6) v Hungary, 28 April 1999 Wayne Rooney Manchester United 50 (21) v Australia, 12 February 2003 Peter Crouch Portsmouth 33 (15) v Colombia, 31 May 2005 Jermain Defoe Tottenham Hotspur 32 (6) v Sweden, 31 March 2004 Carlton Cole West Ham United 2 (0) v Spain, 11 February 2009 Recent call-ups The following players have also been called up to the England squad within the last twelve months: Name DOB ClubCaps (goals)Debut Most recent callupGoalkeepers David James Portsmouth 48 (0) v Mexico, 29 March 1997 v Ukraine, 1 April 2009 Ben Foster Manchester United 2 (0) v Spain, 7 February 2007 v Ukraine, 1 April 2009 Joe Hart Manchester City 1 (0) Trinidad & Tobago, 1 June 2008 v Spain, 11 February 2009Defenders Wes Brown Manchester United 21 (1) v Hungary, 28 April 1999 v Belarus, 15 October 2008 Ledley King Tottenham Hotspur 19 (1) v United States, March 2002 v Ukraine, 1 April 2009 Micah Richards Manchester City 11 (1) v Netherlands, 15 November 2006 v Germany, 19 November 2008 Jonathan Woodgate Tottenham Hotspur 8 (0) v Bulgaria, 9 June 1999 v Czech Republic, 20 August 2008 Luke Young Aston Villa 7 (0) United States, 28 May 2005 v Spain, 11 February 2009 Phil Jagielka Everton 3 (0) v Trinidad & Tobago, 1 June 2008 v Ukraine, 1 April 2009 Leighton Baines Everton 0 (0) N/A v Ukraine, 1 April 2009 Curtis Davies Aston Villa 0 (0) N/A v Germany, 19 November 2008 Michael Mancienne Chelsea 0 (0) N/A v Germany, 19 November 2008 David Wheater Middlesbrough 0 (0) N/A v Belarus, 15 October 2008 Midfielders Joe Cole Chelsea 53 (10) v Mexico, 25 May 2001 v Croatia, 10 September 2008 Stewart Downing Middlesbrough 23 (0) v Netherlands, 9 February 2005 v Ukraine, 1 April 2009 Jermaine Jenas Tottenham Hotspur 20 (1) v Australia, 12 February 2003 v Belarus, 15 October 2008 Aaron Lennon Tottenham Hotspur 11 (0) v Jamaica, 02 June 2006 v Ukraine, 1 April 2009 Scott Parker West Ham United 3 (0) v Denmark, 16 November 2003 v Germany, 19 November 2008 Jimmy Bullard Hull City 0 (0) N/A v Germany, 19 November 2008 Strikers Darren Bent Tottenham Hotspur 4 (0) v Uruguay, 1 March 2006 v Ukraine, 1 April 2009 Gabriel Agbonlahor Aston Villa 2 (0) v Germany, 19 November 2008 v Ukraine, 1 April 2009 Coaching staff Manager Fabio CapelloGeneral Manager Franco BaldiniAssistant Manager Italo GalbiatiUnder-21 Manager and Coach Stuart PearceUnder-18 and Under-19 Manager Brian EastickUnder-20 Manager Noel BlakeUnder-17 Manager John PeacockUnder-16 Manager Kenny SwainCoach Ray ClemenceFitness Coach Massimo NeriGoalkeeping Coach Franco TancrediPhysiotherapist Gary LewinTeam Doctor Dr. Ian BeasleyMasseurs Dan Hitch Chris Neville Steve Slattery Rod ThornleyKit Manager Martin Grogan Tom McKechnie Previous squads FIFA World Cup squads 1950 FIFA World Cup squad 1954 FIFA World Cup squad 1958 FIFA World Cup squad 1962 FIFA World Cup squad 1966 FIFA World Cup squad 1970 FIFA World Cup squad 1982 FIFA World Cup squad 1986 FIFA World Cup squad 1990 FIFA World Cup squad 1998 FIFA World Cup squad 2002 FIFA World Cup squad 2006 FIFA World Cup squad UEFA European Football Championship squads UEFA Euro 1968 squad UEFA Euro 1980 squad UEFA Euro 1988 squad UEFA Euro 1992 squad UEFA Euro 1996 squad UEFA Euro 2000 squad UEFA Euro 2004 squad Competition history FIFA World Cup record YearRoundPositionGPWD*LGSGA 1930Did Not Enter------- 1934Did Not Enter------- 1938Did Not Enter------- 1950Round 18310222 1954Quarter-finals6311188 1958Round 111403145 1962Quarter-finals8411256 1966Champions16510113 1970Quarter-finals8420244 1974 Did not Qualify------- 1978 Did not Qualify------- 1982Group Round 26532061 1986Quarter-Finals8521273 1990Fourth Place4733186 1994 Did not Qualify------- 1998Round 29421174 † 2002Quarter-finals6522163 2006Quarter-finals7532062 2010Not Yet Qualified------- Total12/181 Title552517137447 *Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks. †2002 World Cup held also in Republic of Korea but all England matches in Japan European Championship record YearRoundGPWD*LGSGA 1964Did not Qualify------ 1968Third Place210121 1972Did not Qualify------ 1976Did not Qualify------ 1980Round 1311133 1984Did not Qualify------ 1988Round 1300327 1992Round 1302112 1996Semi-finals523083 2000Round 1310256 2004Quarter-finals4211106 2008Did not Qualify------ 2012Not Yet Qualified------Total7/12237793128 *Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks. **Gold background color indicates that the tournament was won. Red border colour indicates tournament was held on home soil. Minor tournaments YearRoundPositionGPWD*LGSGA 1964 Taça de Nações Group Stage 3rd301227 1976 U.S.A. Bicentennial Cup Tournament Group Stage 2nd320164 1985 Rous Cup 1 Match 2nd100101 1985 Ciudad de México Cup Tournament Group Stage 3rd200213 1985 Azteca 2000 Tournament Group Stage 2nd210131 1986 Rous Cup Champions 1 Match 1st110021 1987 Rous CupGroup Stage 2nd202011 1988 Rous Cup Champions Group Stage 1st211021 1989 Rous Cup Champions Group Stage 1st211020 1991 England Challenge Cup Champions Group Stage 1st211053 1993 U.S. Cup Group Stage 4th301225 1995 Umbro Cup Group Stage 2nd311167 1997 Tournoi de FranceChampions Group Stage 1st320131 1998 King Hassan II International Cup Tournament Group Stage2nd211010 2004 FA Summer TournamentChampions Group Stage 1st211072 Total6 Titles552517137447 *Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks. Player history Notable past players The following England players have been inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame: Tony Adams 1987–2000 Viv Anderson 1978–1988 Jimmy Armfield 1959–1966 Alan Ball 1965–1975 Gordon Banks 1963–1972 John Barnes 1983–1995 Peter Beardsley 1986–1996 Colin Bell 1968–1975 Steve Bloomer 1895–1907 Bobby Charlton 1958–1970 Jack Charlton 1965–1970 Dixie Dean 1927–1932 Duncan Edwards 1955–1957 Tom Finney 1946–1958 Paul Gascoigne 1988–1998 Jimmy Greaves 1959–1967 Johnny Haynes 1954–1962 Glenn Hoddle 1979–1988 Emlyn Hughes 1969–1980 Roger Hunt 1962–1969 Geoff Hurst 1966–1972 Kevin Keegan 1972–1982 Tommy Lawton 1938–1948 Gary Lineker 1984–1992 Nat Lofthouse 1950–1958 Wilf Mannion 1946–1951 Stanley Matthews 1934–1957 Jackie Milburn 1948–1955 Bobby Moore 1962–1973 Stan Mortensen 1947–1953 Martin Peters 1966–1974 Bryan Robson 1980–1991 Paul Scholes 1997–2004 Alan Shearer 1992–2000 Peter Shilton 1970–1990 Nobby Stiles 1965–1970 Ray Wilson 1960–1968 Billy Wright 1946–1959 Ian Wright 1991–1998 Most capped players As of 1 April, 2009, the players with the most caps for England are: #NameCareerCapsGoalsGoals per game1Peter Shilton1970–1990125002David Beckham1996– 110170.15893Bobby Moore1962–197310820.01854Sir Bobby Charlton1958–1970106490.46235Billy Wright1946–195910530.02866Bryan Robson1980–199190260.28897Michael Owen1998– 89400.44948Kenny Sansom1979–19888610.01169Gary Neville Still available for selection 1995– 850010Ray Wilkins1976–19868430.0357 Top goalscorers #PlayerCareerGoals (Games)Goals per game1Sir Bobby Charlton1958–197049 (106)0.46232Gary Lineker1984–1992 48 (80)0.60003Jimmy Greaves1959–196744 (57)0.77194Michael Owen1998– 40 (89)0.44945Tom Finney1946–195830 (76)0.39476Nat Lofthouse1950–195830 (33)0.90917Alan Shearer1992–200030 (63)0.47628Viv Woodward1903–191129 (23)1.26099Steve Bloomer1895–190728 (23)1.217410David Platt1986–199627 (62)0.4355 Managers {| class="wikitable sortable" cellpadding="3" style="text-align: center;" |- !Manager !England career !Played !Won !Drawn !Lost !Win % |- |style="text-align: left;"| |1946–1962 |139 |78 |33 |28 |56 |- |style="text-align: left;"| |1963–1974 |113 |69 |27 |17 |61 |- |style="text-align: left;"| |1974 |7 |3 |3 |1 |43 |- |style="text-align: left;"| |1974–1977 |29 |14 |8 |7 |48 |- |style="text-align: left;"| |1977–1982 |55 |33 |12 |10 |60 |- |style="text-align: left;"| |1982–1990 |95 |47 |30 |18 |49 |- |style="text-align: left;"| |1990–1993 |38 |20 |19 |7 |47 |- |style="text-align: left;"| |1994–1996 |23 |11 |11 |1 |48 |- |style="text-align: left;"| |1996–1999 |28 |17 |6 |5 |61 |- |style="text-align: left;"| |1999 |1 |0 |0 |1 |0 |- |style="text-align: left;"| |1999–2000 |18 |7 |7 |4 |39 |- |style="text-align: left;"| |2000 |1 |0 |1 |0 |0 |- |style="text-align: left;"| |2000 |1 |0 |0 |1 |0 |- |style="text-align: left;"| |2001–2006 |67 |40 |17 |10 |60 |- |style="text-align: left;"| |2006–2007 |18 |9 |4 |5 |50 |- |style="text-align: left;"| |2007–Present |13 |10 |1 |2 |77 |- |}Managers in italics were hired as caretakers'' See also Argentina and England football rivalry Coat of Arms of England England and Germany football rivalry England and Scotland football rivalry England national football team results England national under-17 football team England national under-19 football team England national under-21 football team England national youth football team (U17 squad only) Football in England List of England national football team captains List of foreign footballers who played for England National Football Centre Origins of the Three Lions emblem Three Lions United Kingdom national football team References External links Official website at the FA's website englandstats.com - England statistics since 1872 IFFHS Archive:1872-1900;1901-1910 England National Football Team Records England win the 2008 Four Nations Tournament Football is Global | England_national_football_team |@lemmatized english:5 national:16 football:31 team:28 represent:3 england:89 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2,454 | Granville,_New_South_Wales | Granville, is a suburb in western Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Granville is located west of the Sydney central business district, in the local government area of the City of Parramatta. A small part in the north-west is located in the Local Government Area of the City of Holroyd. South Granville is a separate suburb with the distinguishing feature of a light industrial area. Lisgar, Redfern, Heath and Mona Streets form the approximate border between Granville and South Granville. The Duck River provides a boundary with Auburn, to the east. History Granville was named in 1880, after the British Colonial Secretary, the Granville Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville. Granville: From Forest to Factory, John Watson (ed.), 1992, Granville Historical Society. European Settlement The area evolved primarily after 1855, when it became the final stop of the first railway line of New South Wales. The Sydney-Parramatta Line line ran from Sydney terminus, just south from today's Central railway station to the Granville area which was originally known as 'Parramatta Junction'. This led to the development of this area, which attracted speculators and some local industries. In the early days of European settlement, timber was harvested to fuel the steam engines in Sydney and Parramatta. By the 1860s, the supply of timber was exhausted. The remainder was used by scavengers who made a living by collecting firewood. Wattle bark found use with tanners and the bark from stringybark trees was used for roofing of huts. In 1862, a major estate, Drainville, became subject to a mortgagee sale and subdivided for villa homes, and small agricultures. At the end of the decade a Tweed Mill was established, which was steam powered using water from the Duck River. In 1878, the locality received its own post office, which was then part of the stationmasters house. In 1880 Parramatta Junction was renamed to Granville, after the British Colonial Secretary, Granville Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville. The place then had a population of 372, of which 176 were male and 196 female. In this era some German settlers, Joseph Klein and P W Merkell, tried to establish vineyards in the area, but eventually found the land was not suited for this type of agriculture. More farmers discovered the limitations of the local soils and fruit growers complained about the damage from flying foxes. Thus, the only practical use for the grasslands, which replaced the original bushland, was for dairy cattle. The Granville Municipality was formed in 1885 and the council carried on the local government of the area until 1948, when it became part of an enlarged City of Parramatta. On Anzac Day of 1974, Granville was partially severed by flooding due to a blockage in the drainage of Duck Creek. The nearby RSL underwent wilful damage and many of the club's old photograph's and honour boards were destroyed. Granville is also the location of the Granville railway disaster, which occurred on January 18, 1977 when a commuter train derailed just before the Bold Street overpass and hit the staunchion, causing the bridge to collapse. 83 people perished, making it the worst rail disaster in Australian history. Parramatta - a Past Revealed, Terry Kass, Carol Liston, John McClymot, 1996, Parramatta City Council. Developments St. Aphanasius Ukrainian Autocephalic Orthodox church Granville Crest Granville has a mixture of residential, commercial and industrial developments. The commercial and residential developments are mostly around Granville railway station and Parramatta Road. Granville is primarily dominated by freestanding weatherboard, fibro and unrendered brick buildings. The area is no longer exactly "typical" quarter acre block territory, but blocks are reasonably common. Terraced houses are rare, but increasing in number. Apartment blocks, generally three to four storeys in height, are also becoming more common in the vicinity of the railway station. Buildings that deserve some attention are: Granville Town Hall, which was built in 1888. The Royal Hotel corresponds with the architecture of the Town Hall about 200m away. The Brianna's function centre building just north of the railway station on Good Street. St. Marks Anglican Church dates back to 1882. St. Aphanasius Church, which caters for the Ukrainian Autocephalic Orthodox denomination, adds some interest to William Street. It dates back to 1956. The Crest building on Blaxcell Street, which is influenced by the "Picture Palace" and Art Deco architecture of the 1920s, is not often seen in this part of Sydney. Originally a Hoyts movie theater, it was later used as a function room and ballroom and as a hall for Bingo (a gambling game). The White Palace in South Street has an exterior with Art Deco features. The building was gutted and redeveloped in 2007. The Granville RSL Sub-Branch Building serves as an interesting example of modern architecture. Transport Granville railway station is a major station on the South line and Western line of the CityRail network. It is also an inter-city stop on the Blue Mountains Line. Education Granville has a major college of Technical and Further Education, which is part of the South Western Sydney Institute of TAFE. Schools include Granville Boys High School which was founded in 1926, Granville Public School, Granville East Public School, Blaxcell Street Public School and Holy Family Catholic School. The suburb is also home to a branch of the Parramatta City Library. Culture Entertainment The Granville RSL Club at sunset The suburb boasts four pubs. The Royal Hotel and the Granville Hotel are located south and north of the railway line respectively. The Rosehill Hotel is located on the northern side of Parramatta Road and the Vauxhall Inn is on the same street on the western edge of Granville on the corner of Woodville Road. Granville is also home to a sub-branch club of the RSL. Sport Granville has an Olympic size pool and a football (soccer) facility. Historic Garside Park is home to State Super League and Super Youth League club, Granville Rage. Parramatta City Raceway caters for enthusiasts of speedcars with races every Saturday evening in the summer-half year. Population Notable Residents John Devitt: Olympic gold medallist and manager of the Australian Commonwealth Games team grew up in Granville Jack Ferguson (1924-2002): Former Deputy Premier of New South Wales. Col. Sydney Herring (1881-1951): World War I commander at Gallipoli. Paul Hogan, actor, grew up in Granville http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/hansart.nsf/V3Key/LA20071107038 Bernie McGann (1937–): Saxophonist who was born in Granville. Judy Stone (1942–): Australian pop singer, was born and raised in Granville. References See also Granville railway disaster External links Council of the City of Parramatta Granville Historical Society | Granville,_New_South_Wales |@lemmatized granville:41 suburb:4 western:4 sydney:8 state:2 new:3 south:10 wale:3 australia:1 locate:4 west:2 central:2 business:1 district:1 local:5 government:3 area:9 city:8 parramatta:13 small:2 part:5 north:3 holroyd:1 separate:1 distinguish:1 feature:2 light:1 industrial:2 lisgar:1 redfern:1 heath:1 mona:1 street:8 form:2 approximate:1 border:1 duck:3 river:2 provide:1 boundary:1 auburn:1 east:2 history:2 name:1 british:2 colonial:2 secretary:2 leveson:2 gower:2 earl:2 forest:1 factory:1 john:3 watson:1 ed:1 historical:2 society:2 european:2 settlement:2 evolve:1 primarily:2 become:4 final:1 stop:2 first:1 railway:9 line:7 run:1 terminus:1 today:1 station:6 originally:2 know:1 junction:2 lead:1 development:4 attract:1 speculator:1 industry:1 early:1 day:2 timber:2 harvest:1 fuel:1 steam:2 engine:1 supply:1 exhaust:1 remainder:1 use:6 scavenger:1 make:2 living:1 collect:1 firewood:1 wattle:1 bark:2 find:2 tanner:1 stringybark:1 tree:1 roofing:1 hut:1 major:3 estate:1 drainville:1 subject:1 mortgagee:1 sale:1 subdivide:1 villa:1 home:4 agriculture:2 end:1 decade:1 tweed:1 mill:1 establish:2 power:1 water:1 locality:1 receive:1 post:1 office:1 stationmaster:1 house:2 rename:1 place:1 population:2 male:1 female:1 era:1 german:1 settler:1 joseph:1 klein:1 p:1 w:1 merkell:1 try:1 vineyard:1 eventually:1 land:1 suit:1 type:1 farmer:1 discover:1 limitation:1 soil:1 fruit:1 grower:1 complain:1 damage:2 fly:1 fox:1 thus:1 practical:1 grassland:1 replace:1 original:1 bushland:1 dairy:1 cattle:1 municipality:1 council:3 carry:1 enlarged:1 anzac:1 partially:1 sever:1 flood:1 due:1 blockage:1 drainage:1 creek:1 nearby:1 rsl:4 underwent:1 wilful:1 many:1 club:4 old:1 photograph:1 honour:1 board:1 destroy:1 also:6 location:1 disaster:3 occur:1 january:1 commuter:1 train:1 derail:1 bold:1 overpass:1 hit:1 staunchion:1 cause:1 bridge:1 collapse:1 people:1 perish:1 bad:1 rail:1 australian:3 past:1 revealed:1 terry:1 ka:1 carol:1 liston:1 mcclymot:1 st:3 aphanasius:2 ukrainian:2 autocephalic:2 orthodox:2 church:3 crest:2 mixture:1 residential:2 commercial:2 mostly:1 around:1 road:3 dominate:1 freestanding:1 weatherboard:1 fibro:1 unrendered:1 brick:1 building:5 longer:1 exactly:1 typical:1 quarter:1 acre:1 block:3 territory:1 reasonably:1 common:2 terraced:1 rare:1 increase:1 number:1 apartment:1 generally:1 three:1 four:2 storey:1 height:1 vicinity:1 deserve:1 attention:1 town:2 hall:3 build:2 royal:2 hotel:4 corresponds:1 architecture:3 away:1 brianna:1 function:2 centre:1 good:1 mark:1 anglican:1 date:2 back:2 cater:1 denomination:1 add:1 interest:1 william:1 blaxcell:2 influence:1 picture:1 palace:2 art:2 deco:2 often:1 see:2 hoyts:1 movie:1 theater:1 later:1 room:1 ballroom:1 bingo:1 gambling:1 game:2 white:1 exterior:1 gutted:1 redevelop:1 sub:2 branch:3 serf:1 interesting:1 example:1 modern:1 transport:1 cityrail:1 network:1 inter:1 blue:1 mountains:1 education:2 college:1 technical:1 institute:1 tafe:1 school:6 include:1 boy:1 high:1 found:1 public:3 holy:1 family:1 catholic:1 library:1 culture:1 entertainment:1 sunset:1 boast:1 pub:1 respectively:1 rosehill:1 northern:1 side:1 vauxhall:1 inn:1 edge:1 corner:1 woodville:1 sport:1 olympic:2 size:1 pool:1 football:1 soccer:1 facility:1 historic:1 garside:1 park:1 super:2 league:2 youth:1 rage:1 raceway:1 caters:1 enthusiast:1 speedcars:1 race:1 every:1 saturday:1 even:1 summer:1 half:1 year:1 notable:1 resident:1 devitt:1 gold:1 medallist:1 manager:1 commonwealth:1 team:1 grow:2 jack:1 ferguson:1 former:1 deputy:1 premier:1 col:1 herring:1 world:1 war:1 commander:1 gallipoli:1 paul:1 hogan:1 actor:1 http:1 www:1 parliament:1 nsw:1 gov:1 au:1 prod:1 parlment:1 hansart:1 nsf:1 bernie:1 mcgann:1 saxophonist:1 bear:2 judy:1 stone:1 pop:1 singer:1 raise:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram male_female:1 commuter_train:1 art_deco:2 deco_architecture:1 football_soccer:1 gold_medallist:1 http_www:1 nsw_gov:1 gov_au:1 external_link:1 |
2,455 | Common_descent | A group of organisms is said to have common descent if they have a common ancestor. In modern biology, it is generally accepted that all living organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool. The earliest life-like forms probably exchanged genetic material laterally in a manner that is analogous to lateral gene transfer amongst bacteria. For this and other reasons, the most recent common ancestor may have been a genetic pool rather than an organism. A theory of universal common descent via an evolutionary process was proposed by Charles Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species (1859), and later in The Descent of Man (1871). This theory is now generally accepted by biologists, and the last universal common ancestor (LUCA or LUA), that is, the most recent common ancestor of all currently living organisms, is believed to have appeared about 3.9 billion years ago. The theory of a common ancestor between all organisms is one of the principles of evolution, although for single cell organisms and viruses, single phylogeny is disputed (see: origin of life). History In discussing the unity of God, Bahya ibn Paquda, a Jewish philosopher, discussed the similarities found in nature in his work Chovot ha-Levavot ("Duties of the Heart"), written in approximately 1040: "The second [argument for God's unity] is drawn from the signs of wisdom which are manifest throughout this worlds, in its upper and lower regions, in its minerals, vegetation and animals. When we study the world, it shows us that it is entirely the plan of a Designer, the work of a single Creator. For we find that, with all the differences in its substances and elements, it shows uniformity in its effects and parts. The signs of the Creator's wisdom, manifest in the smallest as well as in the largest creatures, testify that they all have one wise Creator. If the world really had more than one Creator, diverse forms of wisdom would be manifest in its different parts and in its species and individuals." Chovot_ha-Levavot#Unity_of_God, 7, as translated by Natan Slifkin in The Challenge of Creation, (New York: Yashar Books, 2006) page 258. The first suggestion that all organisms may have had a common ancestor and diverged through random variation and natural selection was made in 1745 by the French mathematician and scientist Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (1698-1759) in his work Vénus physique. Specifically: "Could one not say that, in the fortuitous combinations of the productions of nature, as there must be some characterized by a certain relation of fitness which are able to subsist, it is not to be wondered at that this fitness is present in all the species that are currently in existence? Chance, one would say, produced an innumerable multitude of individuals; a small number found themselves constructed in such a manner that the parts of the animal were able to satisfy its needs; in another infinitely greater number, there was neither fitness nor order: all of these latter have perished. Animals lacking a mouth could not live; others lacking reproductive organs could not perpetuate themselves... The species we see today are but the smallest part of what blind destiny has produced..." In 1790, Immanuel Kant (Königsberg (Kaliningrad) 1724 - 1804), in his Kritik der Urtheilskraft, states that the analogy of animal forms implies a common original type and thus a common parent. Charles Darwin's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, hypothesized in 1795 that all warm-blooded animals were descended from a single "living filament": "...would it be too bold to imagine, that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living filament, which THE GREAT FIRST CAUSE endued with animality...?" (Zoonomia, 1795, section 39, "Generation") In 1859, Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species was published. The views about common descent expressed therein vary between suggesting that there was a single "first creature" to allowing that there may have been more than one. Here are the relevant quotations from the Conclusion: "[P]robably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed." "The whole history of the world, as at present known, ... will hereafter be recognized as a mere fragment of time, compared with the ages which have elapsed since the first creature, the progenitor of innumerable extinct and living descendants, was created." "When I view all beings not as special creations, but as the lineal descendants of some few beings which lived long before the first bed of the Silurian system was deposited, they seem to me to become ennobled." The famous closing sentence describes the "grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one." The phrase "one form" here seems to hark back to the phrase "some few beings"; in any case, the choice of words is remarkable for its consistency with recent ideas about there having been a single ancestral "genetic pool". Evidence of universal common descent Common biochemistry and genetic code All known forms of life are based on the same fundamental biochemical organisation: genetic information encoded in DNA, transcribed into RNA, through the effect of protein- and RNA-enzymes, then translated into proteins by (highly similar) ribosomes, with ATP, NADH and others as energy sources, etc. Furthermore, the genetic code (the "translation table" according to which DNA information is translated into proteins) is nearly identical for all known lifeforms, from bacteria to humans. The universality of this code is generally regarded by biologists as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent. Analysis of the small differences in the genetic code has also provided support for universal common descent. Selectively neutral similarities Similarities which have no relevance to evolution and therefore cannot be explained by convergence, tend to be very compelling support for the universal common descent theory. Such evidence has come from two domains: amino acid sequences and DNA sequences. Proteins with the same three-dimensional structure need not have identical amino acid sequences; any irrelevant similarity between the sequences is evidence for common descent. In certain cases, there are several codons (DNA triplets) that code for the same amino acid. Thus, if two species use the same codon at the same place to specify an amino acid that can be represented by more than one codon, that is evidence for a recent common ancestor. Other similarities The universality of many aspects of cellular life is often pointed to as supportive evidence to the more compelling evidence listed above. These similarities include the energy carrier ATP, and the fact that all amino acids found in proteins are left-handed. It is possible that these similarities resulted because of the laws of physics and chemistry, rather than universal common descent and therefore resulted in convergent evolution. Phylogenetic trees Another important piece of evidence is that it is possible to construct detailed phylogenetic trees (that is, "genealogic trees" of species) mapping out the proposed divisions and common ancestors of all living species. Traditionally, these trees have been built using morphological methods (based on appearance, embryology, etc). Recently, it has been possible to construct these trees using molecular data (based on similarities and differences between genetic and protein sequences). Crucially, all these methods produce essentially similar results, despite the fact that most genetic variation has no influence over external morphology. The fact that phylogenetic trees based on different types of information agree with each other is strong evidence of a real underlying phylogeny - that is, common descent. Theobald, Douglas, Consilience of independent phylogenies. This is part of his 29+ Evidences for Macroevolution at the TalkOrigins Archive. Illustrations of common descent Artificial selection Artificial selection offers remarkable examples of the amount of diversity that can exist between individuals sharing a late common ancestor. To perform artificial selection, one begins with a particular species (following examples include wolves and wild cabbage) and then, at every generation, only allow certain individuals to reproduce, based on the degree to which they exhibit certain desirable characteristics. In time, it is expected that these characteristics become increasingly well-developed in successive generations. Many examples of artificial selection, like the ones below, occurred without the guidance of modern scientific insight. This Chihuahua mix and Great Dane show the wide range of dog breed sizes Dog breeding An obvious example of the power of artificial selection is the diversity found in various breed in domesticated dogs. The various breeds of dogs all share common ancestry (being all ultimately descended from wolves) but were domesticated by humans and then selectively bred in order to enhance various features such as coat color and length or body size. To see the wide range of difference between the many breeds of dogs compare the Chihuahua, Great Dane, Basset Hound, Pug, and Poodle. Also compare this enormous diversity with the relative uniformity of wild wolves. Wild cabbage Wild Cabbage plant Early farmers cultivated many popular vegetables from the Brassica oleracea (common name wild cabbage) by artificially selecting for certain attributes. Common vegetables such as cabbage, kale, broccoli, cauliflower, kohlrabi and Brussels sprouts are all descendants of the wild cabbage plant. Biology of Plants (7th edition) by Raven, Evert, and Eichhorn, 2005, states that these vegetables were "all produced from a single species of plant (Brassica oleraca), a member of the mustard family." Brussels sprouts were created by artificially selecting for large bud size. Broccoli was bred by selecting for large flower stalks. Cabbage was created by selecting for short petioles. Kale was bred by selecting for large leaves. Natural selection Darwin's finches Natural selection is the evolutionary process by which heritable traits that increase an individual's fitness become more common, and heritable traits that decrease an individual's fitness become less common. Darwin's finches During Darwin's studies on the Galápagos Islands, Darwin observed 13 species of finches that are closely related and differ most markedly in the shape of their beaks. The beak of each species is suited to the food available in its particular environment, suggesting that beak shapes evolved by natural selection. Large beaks were found on the islands where the primary source of food for the finches is nuts and therefore the large beaks allowed the birds to be better equipped for opening the nuts and staying well nourished. Slender beaks were found on the finches which found insects to be the best source of food on the island they inhabited; their slender beaks allowed the birds to be better equipped for pulling out the insects from their tiny hiding places. The finch is also found on the main land and it is thought that they migrated to the islands and began adapting to their environment through natural selection. References External links 29+ Evidences for Macroevolution: the Scientific Case for Common Descent. 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2,456 | Neal_Stephenson | Neal Town Stephenson (born October 31, 1959) is an American writer, known for his speculative fiction works, which have been variously categorized science fiction, historical fiction, maximalism, cyberpunk, and postcyberpunk. Stephenson explores areas such as mathematics, cryptography, philosophy, currency, and the history of science. He also writes non-fiction articles about technology in publications such as Wired Magazine, and has worked part-time as an advisor for Blue Origin, a company (funded by Jeff Bezos) developing a manned sub-orbital launch system. Background Born in Fort Meade, Maryland, Stephenson came from a family comprising engineers and hard scientists he dubs "propeller heads". His father is a professor of electrical engineering whose father was a physics professor; his mother worked in a biochemistry laboratory, while her father was a biochemistry professor. Stephenson's family moved to Champaign-Urbana, Illinois in 1960 and then to Ames, Iowa in 1966 where he graduated from Ames High School in 1977. Stephenson furthered his studies at Boston University. He first specialized in physics, then switched to geography after he found that it would allow him to spend more time on the university mainframe. He graduated in 1981 with a B.A. in Geography and a minor in physics. Since 1984, Stephenson has lived mostly in the Pacific Northwest and currently resides in Seattle with his family. Literary works His first novel, The Big U, was published in 1984. The Big U received very little attention when it first came out, and was subsequently out of print until Stephenson allowed it to be reprinted in 2001. After The Big U, Stephenson published the eco-thriller Zodiac before rising to prominence in the early 1990s with the novel Snow Crash (1992), which fuses memetics, computer viruses, and other high-tech themes with Sumerian mythology, along with an analysis of the differences between ideologies such as libertarianism, laissez-faire capitalism, and communism. Averaging one novel every four years, he has written several subsequent novels: The Diamond Age: or A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer (1995), which deals with a future with extensive nanotechnology and dynabooks. The SciFi Channel and George Clooney have discussed producing a miniseries adaptation of The Diamond Age, to be penned by Stephenson, however this seems to be in development hell. Clooney, Others Develop SCI FI Shows Cryptonomicon (1999), a novel concerned with concepts ranging from computing and Alan Turing's research into codebreaking and cryptography during the Second World War at Bletchley Park, to a modern attempt to set up a data haven. It has subsequently been reissued in three separate volumes in some countries, including in French and Spanish translations. The Baroque Cycle is a series of historical novels and is in some respects a prequel to Cryptonomicon. It was originally published in three volumes but has subsequently been republished as eight separate books: Quicksilver (2003) (containing the books Quicksilver, King of the Vagabonds, and Odalisque); The Confusion (2004) (containing the books Bonanza and Juncto); The System of the World (2004) (containing the books Solomon's Gold, Currency, and System of the World). His most recent novel, Anathem, a work of speculative fiction set in a far-future Earth-like world, was released on September 9, 2008. Stephenson has also written non fiction. In The Beginning Was The Command Line, an essay on operating systems and specifically the history of Linux from both a cultural and technical viewpoint was published in book form in 1999. Various other essays have been published in magazines such as Wired. With the 2003 publication of Quicksilver, Stephenson debuted The Metaweb (main page as partially preserved in the Wayback Machine at 5 April 2006), a wiki (using the same software as Wikipedia) annotating the ideas and historical period explored in the novel. As of April 25, 2007 the metaweb.com site is no longer an active wiki. Style Discussing Anathem at MIT. Stephenson, at least in his earlier novels, deals heavily in pop culture-laden metaphors and imagery, and in quick, hip dialogue, as well as in extended narrative monologues. The tone of his books is generally more irreverent and less self-serious than that of previous cyberpunk novels, notably those of William Gibson. Stephenson's books tend to have elaborate, inventive plots drawing on numerous technological and sociological ideas at the same time. This distinguishes him from other mainstream science fiction authors who tend to focus on a few technological or social changes in isolation from others. The discursive nature of his writing, together with significant plot and character complexity and an abundance of detail suggests a baroque writing style, which Stephenson brought fully to bear in the three-volume Baroque Cycle. His book The Diamond Age follows a simpler plot, but features "neo-Victorian" characters and employs Victorian-era literary conceits. In keeping with the baroque style, Stephenson's books have become longer as he has gained recognition. (At least one printing of Cryptonomicon is well over one thousand pages long and the novel contains various digressions, including a lengthy erotic story about antique furniture and stockings.) Bibliography Stephenson at a book signing in 2004 Novels The Big U (1984) Zodiac (1988) Snow Crash (1992) -- British Science Fiction Association Award nominee, 1993 ; Clarke Award nominee, 1994 Interface (1994) as Stephen Bury with J. Frederick George The Diamond Age: or A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer (1995) -- Hugo and Locus SF Awards winner, 1996 ; Nebula, Campbell and Clarke Awards nominee, 1996 The Cobweb (1996) as Stephen Bury with J. Frederick George Cryptonomicon (1999) -- Locus SF Award winner, 2000 ; Hugo and Clarke Awards nominee, 2000 Quicksilver (2003), volume I:The Baroque Cycle -- Clarke Award winner, 2004 ; Locus SF Award nominee, 2004 The Confusion (2004), volume II:The Baroque Cycle and winner 2005 Locus Award The System of the World (2004), volume III:The Baroque Cycle -- Locus SF winner, 2005 ; Prometheus Award winner, 2005; Clarke Award nominee, 2005 Anathem (2008) -- British Science Fiction Association Award nominee, 2008 ; Hugo and Clarke Awards nominee, 2009 Short fiction "Spew" (1994), in Hackers (1996) "The Great Simoleon Caper" (1995), TIME "Jipi and the Paranoid Chip" (1997), Forbes Non-fiction "Smiley's people". 1993. "In the Kingdom of Mao Bell". Wired. 1994. "A billion Chinese are using new technology to create the fastest growing economy on the planet. But while the information wants to be free, do they?" "Mother Earth Mother Board". Wired. 1996. "In which the Hacker Tourist ventures forth across three continents, telling the story of the business and technology of undersea fiber-optic cables, as well as an account of the laying of the longest wire on Earth." "Global Neighborhood Watch". Wired. 1998. Stopping street crime in the global village. In the Beginning...was the Command Line. Harpers Perennial. 1999. ISBN 0-380-81593-1. (Online) "Communication Prosthetics: Threat, or Menace?". Whole Earth Review, Summer 2001. "Turn On, Tune In, Veg Out". Op-Ed piece on Star Wars, in The New York Times, June 17, 2005. "It's All Geek To Me". Op-Ed piece on the movie 300 and geek culture, The New York Times, March 18, 2007. References External links Neal Stephenson's official website Neal Stephenson's new personal website "Science Fiction as a Literary Genre" Lecture by Stephenson at Gresham College, London in May 2008 Stephenson discusses Anathem at Google, September 2008 Authors@Google: Neal Stephenson Interviews Neal Stephenson Sees the Light by David Chute, LA Weekly 1999 A Conversation With Neal Stephenson by Catherine Asaro, SF Site 1999 Deep Code, Salon Article by Andrew Leonard in 1999 Locus Online: Neal Stephenson interview, 1999 Interview:Neal Stephenson, by Therese Littleton for HarperCollins, 2003 Wired 11.09: Neal Stephenson Rewrites History, 2003 Neal Stephenson Responds With Wit and Humor Slashdot interview 2004 The Summit of Mount Stephenson, Salon Article by Andrew Leonard in 2004 The Salon Interview by Laura Miller in 2004 Neal Stephenson - the interview, guardian.co.uk 2004 Neal Stephenson's Past, Present, and Future Interview by Mike Godwin in the February 2005 issue of Reason 2008 "Neal Stephenson Talks to io9 About Religion, Aliens, and Spoilers", io9, September 9, 2008 A Voice from the Future by Devin Hahn, Bostonia Magazine, Oct 2008 I'm Choosing to Be Left Behind by Christian Stöcker, Spiegel Online, Oct 2008 | Neal_Stephenson |@lemmatized neal:13 town:1 stephenson:31 born:1 october:1 american:1 writer:1 know:1 speculative:2 fiction:12 work:5 variously:1 categorize:1 science:6 historical:3 maximalism:1 cyberpunk:2 postcyberpunk:1 explore:2 area:1 mathematics:1 cryptography:2 philosophy:1 currency:2 history:3 also:2 write:4 non:3 article:3 technology:3 publication:2 wired:2 magazine:3 part:1 time:6 advisor:1 blue:1 origin:1 company:1 fund:1 jeff:1 bezos:1 develop:2 man:1 sub:1 orbital:1 launch:1 system:5 background:1 bear:2 fort:1 meade:1 maryland:1 come:2 family:3 comprise:1 engineer:1 hard:1 scientist:1 dub:1 propeller:1 head:1 father:3 professor:3 electrical:1 engineering:1 whose:1 physic:3 mother:3 biochemistry:2 laboratory:1 move:1 champaign:1 urbana:1 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2,457 | Harmonic_series_(music) | See harmonic series (mathematics) for the related mathematical concept. Harmonic series of a string. Pitched musical instruments are often based on an approximate harmonic oscillator such as a string or a column of air, which oscillates at numerous frequencies simultaneously. At these resonant frequencies, waves travel in both directions along the string or air column, reinforcing and canceling each other to form standing waves. Interaction with the surrounding air causes audible sound waves, which travel away from the instrument. Because of the typical spacing of the resonances, these frequencies are mostly limited to integer multiples, or harmonics, of the lowest frequency, and such multiples form the harmonic series. The musical pitch of a note is usually perceived as the lowest partial present (the fundamental frequency), which may be the one created by vibration over the full length of the string or air column, or a higher harmonic chosen by the player. The musical timbre of a steady tone from such an instrument is determined by the relative strengths of each harmonic. Terminology Partial, harmonic, fundamental, inharmonicity, and overtone Any complex tone "...can be described as a combination of many simple periodic waves (i.e., sine waves) or partials, each with its own frequency of vibration, amplitude, and phase." A partial is any of the sine waves by which a complex tone is described. A harmonic (or a harmonic partial) is any of a set of partials that are whole number multiples of a common fundamental frequency. This set includes the fundamental, which is a whole number multiple of itself (1 times itself). Inharmonicity is a measure of the deviation of a partial from the closest ideal harmonic, typically measured in cents for each partial. Typical pitched instruments are designed to have partials that are close to being harmonics, with very low inharmonicity; therefore, in music theory, and in instrument tuning, it is convenient to speak of the partials in those instruments' sounds as harmonics, even if they have some inharmonicity. Other pitched instruments, especially certain percussion instruments, such as marimba, vibraphone, tubular bells, and timpani, contain non-harmonic partials, yet give the ear a good sense of pitch. Non-pitched, or indefinite-pitched instruments, such as cymbals, gongs, or tam-tams make sounds rich in inharmonic partials. An overtone is any partial except the lowest. Overtone does not imply harmonicity or inharmonicity and has no other special meaning other than to exclude the fundamental. This can lead to numbering confusion when comparing overtones to partials; the first overtone is the second partial. Some electronic instruments, such as theremins and synthesizers, can play a pure frequency with no overtones, although synthesizers can also combine frequencies into more complex tones, for example to simulate other instruments. Certain flutes and ocarinas are very nearly without overtones. Frequencies, wavelengths, and musical intervals in example systems The simplest case to visualise is a vibrating string, as in the illustration; the string has fixed points ("nodes") at each end, and each harmonic mode divides it into 2, 3, 4, etc., equal-sized sections resonating at increasingly higher frequencies. Similar arguments apply to vibrating air columns in wind instruments, although these are complicated by having the possibility of anti-nodes (that is, the air column is closed at one end and open at the other) or conical as opposed to cylindrical bores. In most pitched musical instruments, the fundamental (first harmonic) is accompanied by other, higher-frequency harmonics. Thus shorter-wavelength, higher-frequency waves occur with varying prominence and give each instrument its characteristic tone quality. The fact that a string is fixed at each end means that the longest allowed wavelength on the string (giving the fundamental frequency) is twice the length of the string (one round trip, with a half cycle fitting btween the nodes at the two ends). Other allowed wavelengths are 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, 1/6, etc. times that of the fundamental. Theoretically, these shorter wavelengths correspond to vibrations at frequencies that are 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc., times the fundamental frequency. Physical characteristics of the vibrating medium and/or the resonator against which it vibrates often alter these frequencies. (See inharmonicity and stretched tuning for alterations specific to wire-stringed instruments and certain electric pianos.) However, those alterations are small, and except for precise, highly specialized tuning, it is reasonable to think of the frequencies of the harmonic series as integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. The harmonic series is an arithmetic series (1×f, 2×f, 3×f, 4×f, 5×f, ...). In terms of frequency (measured in cycles per second, or hertz (Hz) where f is the fundamental frequency), the difference between consecutive harmonics is therefore constant and equal to the fundamental. But because our ears respond to sound nonlinearly, we perceive higher harmonics as "closer together" than lower ones. On the other hand, the octave series is a geometric progression (2×f, 4×f, 8×f, 16×f, ...), and we hear these distances as "the same" in the sense of musical interval. In terms of what we hear, each octave in the harmonic series is divided into increasingly "smaller" and more numerous intervals. The second harmonic (or first overtone), twice the frequency of the fundamental, sounds an octave higher; the third harmonic, three times the frequency of the fundamental, sounds a perfect fifth above the second. The fourth harmonic vibrates at four times the frequency of the fundamental and sounds a perfect fourth above the third (two octaves above the fundamental). Double the harmonic number means double the frequency (which sounds an octave higher). The combined oscillation of a string with several of its lowest harmonics can be seen clearly in an interactive animation at Edward Zobel's "Zona Land". An illustration of the harmonic series as musical notation. The numbers above the harmonic indicate the number of cents it deviates from equal temperament. Red notes are sharp. Blue notes are flat. For a fundamental of C1, the first 20 harmonics are notated as shown. You can listen to A2 (110 Hz) and 15 of its partials if you have a media player capable of playing Vorbis files. You can also hear a sweep of the first 20 harmonics of A1 (55 Hz) in QuickTime format by clicking here. Harmonics and tuning Image showing the relationship between notes of the diatonic scale and frequency (in Hz), starting with C1 and ending with C5 ("middle C" is C4). Horizontal grid lines correspond to the harmonic series for C1. If the harmonics are transposed into the span of one octave, they approximate some of the notes in what the West has adopted as the chromatic scale based on the fundamental tone. The Western chromatic scale has been modified into twelve equal semitones, which is slightly out of tune with many of the harmonics, especially the 7th, 11th, and 13th harmonics. In the late 1930s, composer Paul Hindemith ranked musical intervals according to their relative dissonance based on these and similar harmonic relationships. Below is a comparison between the first 31 harmonics and the intervals of 12-tone equal temperament (12tET), transposed into the span of one octave. Tinted fields highlight differences greater than 5 cents (1/20th of a semitone), which is the human ear's "just noticeable difference" for notes played one after the other. (Smaller differences are noticeable with notes played simultaneously.) Harmonic 12tET Interval Note Variance cents 1 2 4 8 16 prime (octave) C 0 17 minor second C, D +5 9 18 major second D +4 19 minor third D, E −2 5 10 20 major third E −14 21 fourth F −29 11 22 tritone F, G −49 23 +28 3 6 12 24 fifth G +2 25 minor sixth G, A −27 13 26 +41 27 major sixth A +6 7 14 28 minor seventh A, B −31 29 +30 15 30 major seventh B −12 31 +45 The frequencies of the harmonic series, being integer multiples of the fundamental frequency, are naturally related to each other by whole-numbered ratios and small whole-numbered ratios are likely the basis of the consonance of musical intervals. For example, a perfect fifth, say 200 and 300 Hz (cycles per second), produces a combination tone of 100 Hz (the difference between 300 Hz and 200 Hz); that is, an octave below the lower (actual sounding) note. This 100 Hz first order combination tone then interacts with both notes of the interval to produce second order combination tones of 200 (300-100) and 100 (200-100) Hz and, of course, all further nth order combination tones are all the same, being formed from various subtraction of 100, 200, and 300. When we contrast this with a dissonant interval such as a tritone (not tempered) with a frequency ratio of 7:5 we get, for example, 700-500=200 (1st order combination tone)and 500-200=300 (2nd order). The rest of the combination tones are octaves of 100 Hz so the 7:5 interval actually contains 4 notes: 100 Hz (and its octaves), 300 Hz, 500 Hz and 700 Hz. It will be noted that the lowest combination tone (100 Hz) is a 17th (2 octaves and a major third) below the lower (actual sounding) note of the tritone. All the intervals succumb to similar analysis as has been demonstrated by Paul Hindemith in his book, The Craft of Musical Composition. Timbre of musical instruments The relative amplitudes (strengths) of the various harmonics primarily determine the timbre of different instruments and sounds, though onset transients, formants, noises, and inharmonicities also play a role. For example, the clarinet and saxophone have similar mouthpieces and reeds, and both produce sound through resonance of air inside a chamber whose mouthpiece end is considered closed. Because the clarinet's resonator is cylindrical, the even-numbered harmonics are suppressed, which produces a purer tone. The saxophone's resonator is conical, which allows the even-numbered harmonics to sound more strongly and thus produces a more complex tone. Of course, the differences in resonance between the wood of the clarinet and the brass of the saxophone also affect their tones. The inharmonic ringing of the instrument's metal resonator is even more prominent in the sounds of brass instruments. Our ears tend to group harmonically-related frequency components into a single sensation. Rather than perceiving the individual harmonics of a musical tone, we perceive them together as a tone color or timbre, and we hear the overall pitch as the fundamental of the harmonic series being experienced. If we hear a sound that is made up of even just a few simultaneous tones, and if the intervals among those tones form part of a harmonic series, our brains tend to group this input into a sensation of the pitch of the fundamental of that series, even if the fundamental is not sounding. This phenomenon is used to advantage in music recording, especially with low bass tones that cannot be reproduced on small speakers. Variations in the frequency of harmonics can also affect the perceived fundamental pitch. These variations, most clearly documented in the piano and other stringed instruments but also apparent in brass instruments, are caused by a combination of metal stiffness and the interaction of the vibrating air or string with the resonating body of the instrument. The complex splash of strong, high overtones and metallic ringing sounds from a cymbal almost completely hide its fundamental tone. centre|Click to enlarge, Table of Harmonics up to the 7th harmonic. The colored dots indicate which positions have similar overtones. Interval strength David Cope (1997) suggests the concept of interval strength Cope, David (1997). Techniques of the Contemporary Composer, p.40–41. New York, New York: Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-02-864737-8. , in which an interval's strength, consonance, or stability (see consonance and dissonance) is determined by its approximation to a lower and stronger, or higher and weaker, position in the harmonic series. See also: Lipps-Meyer law. Thus, an equal tempered perfect fifth () is stronger than an equal tempered minor third(), since they approximate a just perfect fifth () and just minor third (), respectively. The just minor third appears between harmonics 5 and 6 while the just fifth appears lower, between harmonics 2 and 3. See also Inharmonicity Piano acoustics Scale of harmonics Stretched tuning Sources External links Interaction of reflected waves on a string is illustrated in a simplified animation A Web-based Multimedia Approach to the Harmonic Series How to tune the normally inharmonic overtones of bells to the harmonic series Importance of prime harmonics in music theory | Harmonic_series_(music) |@lemmatized see:6 harmonic:56 series:17 mathematics:1 related:2 mathematical:1 concept:2 string:13 pitched:5 musical:12 instrument:22 often:2 base:4 approximate:3 oscillator:1 column:5 air:8 oscillate:1 numerous:2 frequency:31 simultaneously:2 resonant:1 wave:8 travel:2 direction:1 along:1 reinforce:1 cancel:1 form:4 stand:1 interaction:3 surround:1 cause:2 audible:1 sound:15 away:1 typical:2 spacing:1 resonance:3 mostly:1 limit:1 integer:3 multiple:6 low:12 pitch:6 note:13 usually:1 perceive:4 partial:16 present:1 fundamental:24 may:1 one:7 create:1 vibration:3 full:1 length:2 high:9 choose:1 player:2 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2,458 | Draco_(lawgiver) | Draco (; from Greek , ) was the first legislator of ancient Athens, Greece, 7th century BCE. Life During the 39th Olympiad, in 622 or 621 BC, Draco established the legal code with which he is identified. Little is known about his life. He probably belonged to the Greek nobility of the Attic deme called the Eupatridae, with which the 10th century Suda text records him as contemporaneous, prior to the period of the Seven Sages of Greece. It also relates a folkloric story of his death in the Aeginetan theater Cobham, Ebenezer. "", The reader's handbook of allusions, references, plots and stories, p.451. . In a traditional ancient Greek show of approval, his supporters "threw so many hats and shirts and cloaks on his head that he suffocated, and was buried in that selfsame theatre" Suidas. "", Suda On Line, Adler number delta, 1495. . Aristotle specifies that Draco laid down his legal code in the archonship of Aristaechmus (Ἀρισταίχμος), 620 or 621 BC Aristotle. The Athenian Constitution. . The Draconian constitution The laws () he laid down were the first written constitution of Athens, Greece. So that no one would be unaware of them, they were posted on wooden tablets (), where they were preserved for almost two centuries, on steles of the shape of three-sided pyramids (). The tablets were called axones, perhaps because they could be pivoted along the pyramid's axis, to read any side. The constitution featured several major innovations: Instead of oral laws known to a special class, arbitrarily applied and interpreted, all laws were written, thus made known to all literate citizens, who could make appeal to the Areopagus for injustices. The laws distinguish between murder and involuntary homicide. The laws, however, were particularly harsh. For example, any debtor whose status was lower than that of his creditor was forced into slavery. The punishment was more lenient for those owing debt to a member of a lower class. The death penalty was the punishment for even minor offenses. Concerning the liberal use of the death penalty in the Draconic code, Plutarch states: Plutarch. "Solon," Lives. In Stewart and Long's translation, It is said that Drakon himself, when asked why he had fixed the punishment of death for most offences, answered that he considered these lesser crimes to deserve it, and he had no greater punishment for more important ones.<ref>Plutarch, et alia. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm Plutarch's Lives, Volume 1 (of 4)]. Aubrey Stewart and George Long, translators.</ref> Draco extended the franchise to all free men who could furnish themselves with a set of military equipment. They elected the Council of Four Hundred from among their number; nine Archons and the Treasurers were drawn from persons possessing an unencumbered property of not less than ten minas, the generals (strategoi) and commanders of cavalry (Hipparchoi) from those who could show an unencumbered property of not less than a hundred minas, and had children born in lawful wedlock over ten years of age. Thus, in the event of their death, their estate could pass to a competent heir. These officers were required to hold to account the prytanes, strategoi and hipparchoi'' of the preceding year until their accounts had been audited. "The Council of Areopagus was guardian of the laws, and kept watch over the magistrates to see that they executed their offices in accordance with the laws. Any person who felt himself wronged might lay an information before the Council of Areopagus, on declaring what law was broken by the wrong done to him. But, as has been said before, loans were secured upon the persons of the debtors, and the land was in the hands of a few." Aristotle, Constitution, §4. Draco introduced the lot-chosen Council of Four Hundred (in reality, 401) Aristotle. The Athenian Constitution, 4.1. —distinct from the Areopagus—which evolved in later constitutions to play a large role in Athenian democracy. Aristotle notes that Draco, while having the laws written, merely legislated for an existing unwritten Athenian constitution, Aristotle. Politics, 1274a. such as setting exact qualifications for eligibility for office. Draco's code was later largely revised by Solon, in the early 6th century BC, with the exception of homicide laws. Aristotle, Athenian Constitution, 7.1. "Draconian" The stringency of his legal code gave rise to the modern English word "draconian," meaning marked by extreme severity or cruelty, especially about laws or governments. Sample quotes: "Emancipation at the price of a ruinous war and a Draconian peace." (G.W. Johnson) "...by draconian labor laws the regime makes life harder than it need be." (F.C. Barghoorn) "The threat…could never be eliminated unless he were empowered to take drakonian punitive measures." (S. Rushdie) "...the increasingly nasty and draconian measures now used to enforce software copyright." (R. Stallman) References | Draco_(lawgiver) |@lemmatized draco:7 greek:3 first:2 legislator:1 ancient:2 athens:2 greece:3 century:4 bce:1 life:5 olympiad:1 bc:3 establish:1 legal:3 code:5 identify:1 little:1 know:3 probably:1 belong:1 nobility:1 attic:1 deme:1 call:2 eupatridae:1 suda:2 text:1 record:1 contemporaneous:1 prior:1 period:1 seven:1 sage:1 also:1 relate:1 folkloric:1 story:2 death:5 aeginetan:1 theater:1 cobham:1 ebenezer:1 reader:1 handbook:1 allusion:1 reference:2 plot:1 p:1 traditional:1 show:2 approval:1 supporter:1 throw:1 many:1 hat:1 shirt:1 cloak:1 head:1 suffocate:1 bury:1 selfsame:1 theatre:1 suidas:1 line:1 adler:1 number:2 delta:1 aristotle:7 specifies:1 lay:3 archonship:1 aristaechmus:1 ἀρισταίχμος:1 athenian:5 constitution:9 draconian:6 law:12 write:3 one:2 would:1 unaware:1 post:1 wooden:1 tablet:2 preserve:1 almost:1 two:1 stele:1 shape:1 three:1 side:2 pyramid:2 axone:1 perhaps:1 could:6 pivot:1 along:1 axis:1 read:1 feature:1 several:1 major:1 innovation:1 instead:1 oral:1 special:1 class:2 arbitrarily:1 apply:1 interpret:1 thus:2 make:3 literate:1 citizen:1 appeal:1 areopagus:4 injustice:1 distinguish:1 murder:1 involuntary:1 homicide:2 however:1 particularly:1 harsh:1 example:1 debtor:2 whose:1 status:1 low:2 creditor:1 force:1 slavery:1 punishment:4 lenient:1 owe:1 debt:1 member:1 penalty:2 even:1 minor:1 offense:1 concern:1 liberal:1 use:2 draconic:1 plutarch:4 state:1 solon:2 stewart:2 long:2 translation:1 say:2 drakon:1 ask:1 fix:1 offence:1 answer:1 consider:1 less:3 crime:1 deserve:1 great:1 important:1 ref:2 et:1 alia:1 http:1 www:1 gutenberg:1 org:1 file:1 h:2 htm:1 volume:1 aubrey:1 george:1 translator:1 extend:1 franchise:1 free:1 men:1 furnish:1 set:2 military:1 equipment:1 elect:1 council:4 four:2 hundred:3 among:1 nine:1 archons:1 treasurer:1 draw:1 person:3 possess:1 unencumbered:2 property:2 ten:2 mina:2 general:1 strategoi:2 commander:1 cavalry:1 hipparchoi:2 child:1 bear:1 lawful:1 wedlock:1 year:2 age:1 event:1 estate:1 pass:1 competent:1 heir:1 officer:1 require:1 hold:1 account:2 prytanes:1 precede:1 audit:1 guardian:1 keep:1 watch:1 magistrate:1 see:1 execute:1 office:2 accordance:1 felt:1 wrong:2 might:1 information:1 declare:1 break:1 loan:1 secure:1 upon:1 land:1 hand:1 introduce:1 lot:1 choose:1 reality:1 distinct:1 evolve:1 late:1 play:1 large:1 role:1 democracy:1 note:1 merely:1 legislate:1 exist:1 unwritten:1 politics:1 exact:1 qualification:1 eligibility:1 later:1 largely:1 revise:1 early:1 exception:1 stringency:1 give:1 rise:1 modern:1 english:1 word:1 meaning:1 mark:1 extreme:1 severity:1 cruelty:1 especially:1 government:1 sample:1 quote:1 emancipation:1 price:1 ruinous:1 war:1 peace:1 g:1 w:1 johnson:1 labor:1 regime:1 hard:1 need:1 f:1 c:1 barghoorn:1 threat:1 never:1 eliminate:1 unless:1 empower:1 take:1 drakonian:1 punitive:1 measure:2 rushdie:1 increasingly:1 nasty:1 enforce:1 software:1 copyright:1 r:1 stallman:1 |@bigram http_www:1 athenian_democracy:1 |
2,459 | Madeline_Amy_Sweeney | Madeline Amy Sweeney, known as Amy Sweeney (December 14, 1966 – September 11, 2001), was a flight attendant on board American Airlines Flight 11 when it was flown into the North Tower of the World Trade Center as part of the September 11, 2001 attacks. Flight 11 On September 11, Sweeney was asked by American Airlines to take an extra shift, because the other crew member who was assigned to the position was ill. Normally, she would only work on weekends. "I see water. I see buildings. I see the buildings. We are flying low. We are flying very, very low. We are flying way too low. Oh my God, OH MY GOD!." Sweeney's last words on the call. BBC NEWS | Americas | Extract: 'We have some planes' During the hijacking, she used an airphone to call the flight operations center. She reached Michael Woodward, the manager on duty. She relayed information about the hijackers' seats, and described them as middle easterners. She also reported that two flight attendants and a passenger were injured. During the last minutes of the call, she said that the aircraft was flying erratically and that they were descending very rapidly. She was 35 years old when she died. She had been a flight attendant for 12 years. She was survived by her husband and two children, ages 4 and 6. They lived in Acton, Massachusetts. On February 11, 2002, she was commemorated in a series of new annual bravery awards initiated by the Massachusetts government. The annual Madeline Amy Sweeney Award for Civilian Bravery is awarded every September 11 to at least one Massachusetts resident who displayed extraordinary courage in defending or saving the lives of others. Madeline Amy Sweeney Award for Civilian Bravery - EOPS The first recipients were Ms. Sweeney and fellow flight attendant Betty Ong, who had also relayed information about the hijacking to personnel on the ground. Pilot John Ogonowski also received a posthumous award for turning a radio switch on, which allowed ground control to listen to remarks being made by the hijackers. They were all residents of Massachusetts. Relatives of all three accepted the awards on their behalf. Quotations "In her nation's darkest hour, she responded with a selfless bravery that illustrates the very best of human nature. She was empowered by her ability to shed light where none existed." -- Massachusetts Gov. Jane Swift, presenting the award to Sweeney's children. "She calmly and in a detailed fashion told us that Flight 11 had been hijacked, which was nothing short of a miracle." -- American Airlines flight services manager Michael Woodward, who took the call from Sweeney. "She would have said she was just doing her job." -- Michael Sweeney, her husband, a police officer. References External links BBC report on Amy Sweeney. BBC extracts from the commission report. New York Observer article on Amy Sweeney by Gail Sheehy from 2004, including an interview with Sweeney's husband. Madeline Sweeney | Madeline_Amy_Sweeney |@lemmatized madeline:4 amy:6 sweeney:14 know:1 december:1 september:4 flight:9 attendant:4 board:1 american:3 airline:3 fly:5 north:1 tower:1 world:1 trade:1 center:2 part:1 attack:1 ask:1 take:2 extra:1 shift:1 crew:1 member:1 assign:1 position:1 ill:1 normally:1 would:2 work:1 weekend:1 see:3 water:1 building:2 low:3 way:1 oh:2 god:2 last:2 word:1 call:4 bbc:3 news:1 america:1 extract:2 plane:1 hijacking:2 use:1 airphone:1 operation:1 reach:1 michael:3 woodward:2 manager:2 duty:1 relay:2 information:2 hijacker:2 seat:1 describe:1 middle:1 easterner:1 also:3 report:3 two:2 passenger:1 injure:1 minute:1 say:2 aircraft:1 erratically:1 descend:1 rapidly:1 year:2 old:1 die:1 survive:1 husband:3 child:2 age:1 live:1 acton:1 massachusetts:5 february:1 commemorate:1 series:1 new:2 annual:2 bravery:4 award:7 initiate:1 government:1 civilian:2 every:1 least:1 one:1 resident:2 display:1 extraordinary:1 courage:1 defend:1 save:1 life:1 others:1 eops:1 first:1 recipient:1 ms:1 fellow:1 betty:1 ong:1 personnel:1 ground:2 pilot:1 john:1 ogonowski:1 receive:1 posthumous:1 turn:1 radio:1 switch:1 allow:1 control:1 listen:1 remark:1 make:1 relative:1 three:1 accept:1 behalf:1 quotation:1 nation:1 dark:1 hour:1 respond:1 selfless:1 illustrate:1 best:1 human:1 nature:1 empower:1 ability:1 shed:1 light:1 none:1 exist:1 gov:1 jane:1 swift:1 present:1 calmly:1 detailed:1 fashion:1 tell:1 u:1 hijack:1 nothing:1 short:1 miracle:1 service:1 job:1 police:1 officer:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 commission:1 york:1 observer:1 article:1 gail:1 sheehy:1 include:1 interview:1 |@bigram amy_sweeney:6 flight_attendant:4 bbc_news:1 middle_easterner:1 external_link:1 |
2,460 | Blackadder | Blackadder is the generic name that encompasses four series of BBC One historical sitcom, along with several one-off instalments. All episodes star Rowan Atkinson and Tony Robinson as anti-hero Edmund Blackadder and his dogsbody, Baldrick. Each series is set in a different historical period: apart from Blackadder and Baldrick, the main characters are different in each series. The first series was written by Richard Curtis and Rowan Atkinson, while subsequent episodes were written by Curtis and Ben Elton. The shows were produced by John Lloyd. In 2000 the fourth series, Blackadder Goes Forth, ranked at 16 in the "100 Greatest British Television Programmes", a list created by the British Film Institute. Also in the 2004 TV poll to find "Britain's Best Sitcom", Blackadder was voted the second best British sitcom of all time, topped by Only Fools and Horses. It was also ranked as the 20th Best TV Show of All Time by Empire Magazine. Overview Although each series is set in a different time era, all follow the fortunes (or rather, misfortunes) of Edmund Blackadder (played by Atkinson), who in each is a member of an English family dynasty present at many significant periods and places in British history. Although the character starts as being quite unintelligent in the first series and gradually becomes smarter and more perceptive through each passing generation (while decreasing in social status), each Blackadder is a cynical, cowardly opportunist concerned with maintaining and increasing his own status and fortunes, regardless of his surroundings. In each series, Blackadder is usually a cynical (almost modern) voice puncturing the pretensions and stupidity of those around him, and what might — through modern eyes — be seen as the more ludicrous and insane follies of history (from the medieval religious witch-hunts and the petty whims and insanities of various British monarchs to the bloodshed and horror of World War I). The lives of each of the Blackadders are also entwined with their servants, all from the Baldrick family line (played by Tony Robinson). Each generation acts as the dogsbody to their respective Blackadder. They decrease in intelligence (and in personal hygiene standards) just as their masters' intellect increases. Each Blackadder and Baldrick are also saddled with the company of a dim-witted aristocrat whose presence Blackadder must somehow tolerate. This role was taken in the first two series by Lord Percy Percy (Tim McInnerny), in the third series by Prince George, Prince Regent, and in the fourth by Lieutenant George, the latter two played by Hugh Laurie. Each series was set in a different period of English history, beginning in 1485 and ending in 1917 comprising six half-hour episodes. The first series, made in 1983, was called The Black Adder (set in the fictional reign of 'Richard IV'). This was followed by Blackadder II in 1985 (set during the reign of Elizabeth I), Blackadder the Third in 1987 (set in the reign of George III), and finally Blackadder Goes Forth in 1989 (set in the trenches of the Great War). In addition to these, three specials were also made: Blackadder: The Cavalier Years (set in the reign of Charles I) appeared as a 15-minute insert during the 1988 Comic Relief telethon; Blackadder's Christmas Carol (mostly set during the reign of Queen Victoria with some scenes taking place in the locations of the second and third series, as well as another many centuries hence) was a 45-minute Christmas installment, broadcast the same year; and Blackadder: Back & Forth was a 30-minute film originally shown in a special cinema at the Millennium Dome throughout 2000, and later transmitted by Sky and the BBC. A pilot episode was recorded in 1982, but has never been shown on television in its entirety, although a brief clip was shown in the 2008 documentary Blackadder Rides Again. It is notable for Baldrick being played by Philip Fox. Its plot was re-used for the episode "Born to be King" in Series 1. Although DVD releases have never included the pilot, copies are known to circulate online. Developments over the series It is implied in each series that the Blackadder character is a distant descendant of the previous one, although it is never mentioned how any of the Blackadders manage to father children. The first series incarnation, Prince Edmund Plantagenet, is supposedly the originator of the Blackadder surname, after adopting the title "The Black Adder". However, in Back & Forth, Centurion Blackaddicus (presumably an ancestor) is revealed also to have had it as a name. With each observed generation, the family's social standing is reduced, from prince, to lord, to royal butler, and finally a regular army captain. However, he concurrently goes from being an incompetent fool (in the first series) to an ever more devious strategist in matters that affect him with each succeeding series. The Macbeth-inspired witches, in "The Foretelling" (1.1) (thinking he is, in fact, Henry Tudor), promise that one day Blackadder will be king and, in "Bells" (2.1), the "wise woman" says "thou plottest, Blackadder: thou wouldst be King!" In the first series, Edmund does become king for less than a minute, but then dies after succumbing to some poisoned wine, which is alluded to in the closing credits song in "Head" (2.2): His great-grandfather was a king Although for only thirty seconds In the second series, Blackadder comes very close to marrying Elizabeth I but fails. At the end of Blackadder the Third the character assumes the role of Prince Regent, after the real prince is killed by Duke of Wellington, and so presumably ascends the throne as George IV. After his general decline in status through the series, Blackadder, or at least the descendant of the original, finally becomes absolute monarch in Blackadder: Back & Forth through manipulation of the timeline. A Grand Admiral Blackadder of the far future is also seen in the Christmas special, and his status further rises when he manages to achieve control of the entire universe upon marrying Queen Asphyxia XIX. Theme tune Howard Goodall's iconic theme tune has the same melody throughout all the series, but is played in roughly the style of the period in which it is set. It is performed mostly with trumpets and timpani in The Black Adder, the fanfares used suggesting typical medieval court fanfares; with a combination of recorder, string quartet and electric guitar in Blackadder II; on oboe, cello and harpsichord (in the style of a minuet) for Blackadder the Third; by a military band in Blackadder Goes Forth; sung by carol singers in Blackadder's Christmas Carol; and by an orchestra in Blackadder: The Cavalier Years and Blackadder: Back & Forth. "List of Musicians and Singers who Played or Sang on Blackadder and Red Dwarf Themes" Popularity and effects on popular culture After the first series — which had enjoyed a considerable budget for a sitcom, been shot largely on location and received a mixed reception — the BBC decided not to take up the option of a follow-up. However, in 1984, Michael Grade took over as the controller of BBC One and, after talks with the team behind The Black Adder, finally agreed that a second series could be made, albeit with a considerably reduced budget. Blackadder II was therefore to be a studio-only production (along with the inclusion of a live audience during recording, instead of showing the episodes to one after taping), with Rowan Atkinson stepping down from co-writing duties and Ben Elton taking his place. Besides adding more jokes, Elton suggested a major change in character emphasis: Baldrick would become the stupid sidekick, while Edmund Blackadder evolved into a cunning sycophant. This led to the now familiar set-up that was maintained in the following series. Only in the Back & Forth millennium special was the shooting once again on location, due to the fact that this was a production with a budget estimated at £3 million, and was a joint venture between Tiger Aspect, Sky Television, the New Millennium Experience Company and the BBC, rather than the BBC alone. While each episode was plot-driven, they were still formulaic to a degree. For example, whenever Blackadder found himself in a difficult situation (as was the case most of the time), Baldrick would invariably suggest a solution, starting with the words, "I have a cunning plan". This became the character's catch phrase and, while his ideas were usually totally unhelpful (particularly from series 2 onward), he would sometimes come up with a useful scheme. Blackadder was mentioned in the House of Commons on 21 November 2007, during the 2007 UK child benefit data scandal. Elfyn Llwyd, a Plaid Cymru MP, suggested it was "time for Blackadder to say goodbye to Darling", comparing Alistair Darling, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, to his fictional namesake, Kevin Darling. Mark Bolland, the Deputy Private Secretary to the Prince of Wales from 1998 until 2002, was reportedly nicknamed "Lord Blackadder" by the young princes William and Harry. It was me what spun it, The Guardian 27 October 2003. Accessed on 29 May 2008 Origin of name Blackadder is a genuine surname, its usage in the UK currently documented back to the 15th century (which may explain the choice of the name, with the first series being set in this time period) although the name is thought to be mostly Scottish in origin. This matches perfectly, as in Series 3 it is revealed that Blackadder has family in Scotland. Dr Eric Blackadder, Chief Medical Officer at the BBC at the time of the first programme, claims that the series is named after him. The name 'Baldrick' is also authentic—but much rarer—and has been dated in Britain all the way back to the Norman Conquest of 1066. The name is Germanic in origin. Series and specials Chronological order Title Type Production / air date Set in century Prince Edmund Pilot 1982 (unaired) 15th The Black Adder Series 1983 15th Blackadder II Series 1986 16th Blackadder the Third Series 1987 18th–19th Blackadder: The Cavalier Years Comic Relief Special 1988 17th Blackadder's Christmas Carol Special 1988 19th Woman's Hour Invasion Radio 1988 Blackadder Goes Forth Series 1989 20th The Shakespeare Sketch Theatre 1989 16th 1775 Pilot for US series 1992 18th Blackadder and the King's Birthday Sketch 1998 17th Blackadder: Back & Forth Millennium Special 2000 21st, Various Blackadder: The Army Years Theatre 2000 21st The Royal Gardener (From the Queen's Jubilee) Sketch 2002 Jubilee Girl Sketch 2002 Blackadder Rides Again Documentary 2008 Series 1: The Black Adder The Black Adder was the first series of Blackadder and was written by Richard Curtis and Rowan Atkinson, and produced by John Lloyd. The series was originally aired on BBC 2 from 15 June 1983 to 20 July, 1983, and was a joint production with the Australian Seven Network. Set in 1485 at the end of the British Middle Ages, the series is written as a secret history which contends that King Richard III won the Battle of Bosworth Field, only to be accidentally murdered, and is succeeded by Richard IV, one of the Princes in the Tower. The series follows the exploits of Richard IV's unfavoured second son Edmund, the Duke of Edinburgh (who calls himself "The Black Adder") in his various attempts to increase his standing with his father and his eventual quest to overthrow him. Conceived while Atkinson and Curtis were working on Not the Nine O'Clock News, the series dealt comically with a number of medieval issues in Britain - witchcraft, Royal succession, European relations, the Crusades and the conflict between the Crown and the Church. The filming of the series was highly ambitious, with a large cast and much location shooting. The series also featured Shakespearean dialogue, often adapted for comic effect. The end credits featured "Additional Dialog by William Shakespeare" until series 3. Series 2: Blackadder II Blackadder II is set in England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603), played by Miranda Richardson. The principal character is Edmund, Lord Blackadder, the great-grandson of the original Black Adder. During the series, he often comes into contact with the Queen, her obsequious Lord Chamberlain Lord Melchett (Stephen Fry) and her demented former nanny Nursie (Patsy Byrne). Following the BBC's request for improvements to be made to the show, several changes were made. The second series was the first to establish the familiar character of Blackadder: cunning, shrewd and witty, in sharp contrast with Prince Edmund of the first series. To make the show more cost effective, it was also shot with far fewer outdoor scenes than the first series and several, frequently used, indoor scenes, such as the Queen's throne room and Blackadder's front room. A quote from this series was placed in third position for the top twenty-five television 'put downs' of the last 40 years by the Radio Times magazine. It was the following insult directed at Lord Percy by Edmund Blackadder: "The eyes are open, the mouth moves, but Mr Brain has long since departed, hasn't he, Percy?" Series 3: Blackadder the Third Blackadder the Third is set in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a period known as the Regency. In the series, E. Blackadder Esquire is the butler to the Prince of Wales (the prince is played by Hugh Laurie as a complete fop and idiot). Despite Edmund's respected intelligence and abilities, he has no personal fortune to speak of, apart from his frequently fluctuating wage packet from the Prince, as he says: 'If I'm running short of cash all I have to do is go upstairs and ask Prince Fat-head for a raise'. As well as Rowan Atkinson and Tony Robinson in their usual roles, this series starred Hugh Laurie as the Prince Regent, and Helen Atkinson-Wood as Mrs. Miggins. The series features rotten boroughs (or "robber buttons"), Dr. Samuel Johnson (played by Robbie Coltrane), William Pitt the Younger, the French Revolution (featuring Chris Barrie, Nigel Planer and Tim McInnerny as the Scarlet Pimpernel), over-the-top theatrical actors, a squirrel-hating transvestite highwayman, and a duel with the Duke of Wellington (played by Stephen Fry). Series 4: Blackadder Goes Forth This series is set in 1917, on the Western Front in the trenches of the First World War. Another "big push" is planned, and Captain Blackadder's one goal is to avoid getting shot, so he plots ways to get out of it. Blackadder is joined by the idealistic Edwardian twit Lieutenant George (Hugh Laurie), and their cook, Private S. Baldrick (Tony Robinson). General Melchett (Stephen Fry) rallies his troops from a French mansion thirty-five miles from the front, where he is aided and abetted by his assistant, Captain Darling (Tim McInnerny), pencil-pusher supreme and Blackadder's nemesis, whose name is played on for maximum comedy value. Except for the final episode, the episode titles are all plays on words involving military titles, e.g. "Captain Cook" (about food), "Private Plane" (involving Rik Mayall as Squadron Commander Lord Flashheart). The final episode of this series, "Goodbyeee...", is known for being extraordinarily poignant for a comedy – especially the final scene, which sees the main characters (Blackadder, Baldrick, George, and Darling) finally venturing forward and charging off to die in the fog and smoke of no man's land. Melchett remains at his office but blithely orders a reluctant Darling to fight with the others. "Goodbyeee ..." had no closing titles, simply fading from the protagonists charging across no man's land under fire, to a field of poppies in the sunlight: like the poem "In Flanders Fields". This particular poignant moment illustrates how the series had the capacity to be more than just a sitcom. In a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000, voted for by industry professionals, Blackadder Goes Forth was placed 16th. Specials The Pilot Episode The Blackadder pilot was shot but never aired in the UK. One notable difference in the pilot, as in many pilots, is the casting. Baldrick is played not by Tony Robinson, but by Philip Fox. Another significant difference is that the character of Prince Edmund presented in the pilot is much closer to the intelligent, conniving Blackadder of the later series than the sniveling, weak Edmund of the original series. The script of the pilot is roughly the same as the episode Born to be King, albeit with some different jokes, with some lines appearing in other episodes of the series. "The Pilot Episode", BlackadderHall.com Blackadder: The Cavalier Years This takes place at the time of the English Civil War. It is a short episode, shown as part of Comic Relief's Red Nose Day in 1988. The 15-minute episode was set in November 1648, during the last days of the Civil War. Sir Edmund Blackadder and his servant, Baldrick, are the last two men loyal to the defeated King Charles I of England (played by Stephen Fry, portrayed as a soft-spoken, ineffective, slightly dim character, with the voice and mannerisms of Charles I's namesake, the current Prince of Wales). However, due to a misunderstanding between Oliver Cromwell (guest-star Warren Clarke) and Baldrick, the King is arrested and sent to the Tower of London. The rest of the episode revolves around Blackadder's attempts to save the king, as well as improve his standing. BBC One, Friday 5 February 1988, 9.45–10pm Blackadder's Christmas Carol The second special was broadcast in 1988. In a twist on Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol, Ebenezer Blackadder is the "kindest and loveliest" man in England. The Spirit of Christmas shows Blackadder the contrary antics of his ancestors and descendants, and reluctantly informs him that if he turns evil his descendants will enjoy power and fortune, while if he remains the same a future Blackadder will live shamefully subjugated to a future incompetent Baldrick. This remarkable encounter causes him to proclaim, "Bad guys have all the fun", and adopt the personality with which viewers are more familiar. BBC One, Friday 23 December 1988, 9.30–10.15pm Woman's Hour Invasion Woman's Hour is a show on BBC Radio 4 consisting of reports, interviews and debates aimed at women, and also includes short serials during the last quarter of the show. On one instance of the show, in 1988, Blackadder and Baldrick show up, travel back in time and talk to Shakespeare and others. The purpose of the "invasion" was to raise money for Children in Need. "Woman's Hour Invasion", BlackadderHall.com The Shakespeare Sketch This non-canonical sketch was performed on stage at the Sadlers Wells Theatre on 18 September 1989. It was written for, and performed at an AIDS benefit concert directed by Stephen Fry, and features Rowan Atkinson as a Blackadder-esque character chatting with Hugh Laurie as "Bill" Shakespeare, talking about cutting various sections of Hamlet – in particular the "To be or not to be" soliloquy. Ultimately, Blackadder talks Shakespeare down from an over-long speech to the familiar 'snappy' phrase. From Will's first draft: "To be a victim of all life's earthly woes, or not to be a coward and take Death by his proffered hand" is, via Blackadder's suggestion, shortened to "To be a victim, or not to be a coward," and ultimately condensed to "To be, or not to be". To which Shakespeare naturally replies: "You can't say that – it's gibberish!" The sketch was available on video as part of Hysteria 2 – The Second Coming, released by Palace Video on 21 May 1990. Shakespeare Sketch at Blackadder Hall. Retrieved 12 January 2008. Blackadder and the King's Birthday A short sketch performed at the Prince of Wales' 50th Birthday Gala. It featured Rowan Atkinson as Lord Blackadder and Stephen Fry as King Charles II, and was televised on ITV (in the UK) on 14 November 1998. The King's Birthday at Blackadder Hall. Retrieved 12 January 2008. Blackadder: Back & Forth Blackadder: Back & Forth was originally shown in the Millennium Dome in 2000, followed by a screening on Sky One in the same year (and later on BBC1). It is set on the turn of the millennium, and features Lord Blackadder placing a bet with his friends – modern versions of Queenie (Miranda Richardson), Melchett (Stephen Fry), George (Hugh Laurie) and Darling (Tim McInnerny) – that he has built a working time machine. While this is intended as a clever con trick, the machine, surprisingly, works, sending Blackadder and Baldrick back to the time of the dinosaurs, where they manage to cause the extinction of the dinosaurs, through the use of Baldrick's best, worst and only pair of underpants as a weapon against a hungry T.Rex. Finding that Baldrick has forgotten to write dates on the machine's dials, the rest of the film follows their attempts to find their way back to 1999, often creating huge historical anomalies in the process which must be corrected before the end. The film was notable for featuring cameo roles from all the main Blackadder actors, as well as a number of famous stars of stage and screen. Blackadder: The Army Years A short monologue performed at the Dominion Theatre for the Royal Variety Performance 2000. It features Rowan Atkinson as the modern-day Lord Edmund Blackadder of Her Royal Highness's regiment of Shirkers. The sketch was written and introduced by Ben Elton, who was the compère of the evening. The Army Years at Blackadder Hall. Retrieved January 12, 2008. The Jubilee Girl The Jubilee Girl was a 29 December 2002 BBC special about Queen Elizabeth II's Golden Jubilee Concert. The concert was hosted by Sir Osmond Darling-Blackadder (Keeper of Her Majesty's Lawn Sprinklers) and Dame Edna Everage. Earlier, a BBC "advertisement" for the celebrations also featured this incarnation of Blackadder, in which Sir Osmond is told to announce the event, even though he thinks it is a terrible idea: We don't want thousands of people wandering around here willy-nilly, leaving orange peel on the petunias and frightening the corgis. I said to her, I said, you're the Queen, not Fatboy Slim. The Royal Gardner at Blackadder Hall. Retrieved 12 January 2008. Blackadder Rides Again A 60 minute documentary produced by the BBC and broadcast on 25 December 2008, to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the show. It featured interviews with all of the major cast members and other contributors, including Rowan Atkinson, Stephen Fry, Hugh Laurie, Richard Curtis, Ben Elton, Miranda Richardson, Tim McInnerny and Tony Robinson. Future In January 2005, Tony Robinson told ITV's This Morning that Rowan Atkinson was more keen than he has been in the past to do a fifth series, set in the 1960s (centred around a rock band called the "Black Adder Five", with Baldrick – aka 'Bald Rick' – as the drummer). Robinson in a stage performance 1 June 2007, again mentioned this idea, but in the context of a movie. One idea mentioned by Curtis was that it was Baldrick who had accidentally assassinated John F. Kennedy. However, aside from a brief mention in June 2005, there have been no further announcements from the BBC that a new series is being planned. Furthermore, in November 2005, Rowan Atkinson told BBC Breakfast that although he would very much like to do a new series set in Colditz or another prisoner-of-war camp during World War II, the chances of it happening are extremely low. There were a couple of ideas that had previously floated for the fifth series. Batadder was intended to be a parody of Batman with Baldrick as the counterpart of Robin (suggested by John Lloyd). This idea eventually came to surface as part of the Comic Relief sketch "Spider-Plant Man" in 2005, with Atkinson as the title hero, Robinson as Robin, Jim Broadbent as Batman and Rachel Stevens as Jane Mary. Star Adder was to be set in space in the future (suggested by Atkinson), "Black Adder Program Guide" though this too was touched upon in Blackadder's Christmas Carol. On 10 April 2007, Hello! reported that Atkinson was moving forward with his ideas for a fifth series. He said, "I like the idea of him being a prisoner of war in Colditz. That would have the right level of authority and hierarchy which is apparent in all the Blackadders." A post on www.BlackAdderHall.com from Ben Elton in early 2007 states that Blackadder will return in some form, whether it be a TV series or movie. Elton has since not given any more information on the putative Blackadder 5. During an interview in August 2007 regarding his latest movie, Mr. Bean's Holiday, Atkinson was asked about the possibility of a further Blackadder series, to which the simple reply "No, no chance" was given: "There was a plan for a film set in the Russian revolution, a very interesting one called The Red Adder. He would have been a lieutenant in the Secret Police. Then the revolution happened and at the end he is in the same office doing the same job but just the colours on his uniform have changed. It was quite a sweet idea and we got quite a long way with it but in the end it died a death." Stephen Fry has expressed the view that, since the series went out on such a good "high", a film might not be a good idea. "Atkinson Developing "Black Adder" Film", Darkhorizons.com During his June 2007 stage performance, chronicled on the Tony Robinson's Cunning Night Out DVD, Robinson states that after filming the Back & Forth special, the general idea was to reunite for another special in 2010. Robinson jokingly remarked that Hugh Laurie's success on House may make that difficult. At the end of Blackadder Rides Again Robinson asked Tim McInnerny if he would do another Series and he responded "no", because he thought people wouldn't want to see them as they are now and would rather remember them for how they were. In the same documentary, Rowan Atkinson voiced his similar view; 'Times pass; that's what they were!' However, Miranda Richardson expressed enthusiasm towards the idea of a series set in the Wild West. Cast Ben Elton's arrival after the first series heralded the more frequent recruitment of comic actors from the famed "alternative" era for guest appearances, including Robbie Coltrane, Rik Mayall (who had actually appeared in the final episode of the first series as Mad Gerald), Adrian Edmondson, Nigel Planer, Mark Arden, Stephen Frost, Chris Barrie and Jeremy Hardy. Elton himself played an anarchist in Blackadder the Third. However, aside from the regular cast listed above, only one actor – Lee Cornes – appeared in an episode of all three Curtis-Elton series. He appeared as a guard in the episode Chains of Blackadder II; as the poet Shelley in the episode Ink and Incapability of Blackadder the Third; and as firing squad soldier Private Fraser in the episode Corporal Punishment of Blackadder Goes Forth. More 'establishment'-style actors, some at the veteran stage of their careers, were also recruited for roles. These included Brian Blessed, John Grillo, Simon Jones, Tom Baker, Jim Broadbent, Hugh Paddick, Frank Finlay, Miriam Margolyes, Kenneth Connor, Bill Wallis, Ronald Lacey, Roger Blake, Denis Lill, Warren Clarke and Geoffrey Palmer who played Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig in Goodbyeee..., the final, fatal episode of Blackadder Goes Forth. Unusually for a sitcom based loosely on factual events and in the historical past, a man was recruited for one episode essentially to play himself. Political commentator Vincent Hanna played a character billed as "his own great-great-great grandfather" in the episode Dish and Dishonesty of Blackadder the Third. Hanna was asked to take part because the scene was of a by-election in which Baldrick was a candidate and, in the style of modern television, Hanna gave a long-running "live" commentary of events at the count (and interviewed candidates and election agents) to a crowd through the town hall window. Main Characters Each series tended to feature the same set of regular actors in different period settings. The only character types to retain the same name throughout were: Edmund Blackadder: (Rowan Atkinson) (although "The Black Adder" was an adopted name of Prince Edmund Plantagenet, who was significantly different from the other Blackadders) S. Baldrick: (Tony Robinson) Some characters recurred as their own presumed descendants: Melchett – Stephen Fry Sycophantic Lord Melchett (a sort of William Cecil character), an adviser to Queen Elizabeth I, series 2 General Sir Anthony Cecil Hogmanay Melchett, a blustering buffoon and presumed descendant of Lord Melchett, series 4 General Melchecus – Blackadder Back & Forth King Charles I The Duke Of Wellington, not a Melchett, but definitely a precursor to the Melchett character seen in series 4 (e.g. his use of Melchett's eventual catchphrase "Behh!"), series 3 Bishop Flavius Melchett – Blackadder: Back & Forth Lord Frondo Percy / Darling - Tim McInnerny Lord Percy Percy - Series 1 and 2 Captain Kevin Darling, Series 4. A somewhat smarter than Percy character but also an antagonist to Blackadder instead of a sidekick. The Scarlet Pimpernel (alias Lord Topper and Le Comte de Frou Frou) for one episode in the third series. Archdeacon Darling and Duke of Darling / Duc de Darling – Blackadder: Back & Forth. George – Hugh Laurie HRH The Prince George Augustus Frederick, Series 3 Lieutenant The Honourable George Colthurst St. Barleigh, Series 4 Hugh Laurie also played Simon "Farters Parters" Partridge (also known as Mr Ostrich) in episode five, and Prince Ludwig the Indestructible in the final installment of Blackadder II, and Lord Pigmot. Elizabeth – Miranda Richardson Queen Elizabeth I in Series 2, Christmas Carol, and Back & Forth Lady Elizabeth in Back & Forth. Queen Asphyxia in the Christmas Carol. Amy Hardwood (aka The Shadow) in "Amy and Amiability" in the third series Mary Fletcher-Brown, a dutiful Nurse in "General Hospital" from the fourth. Bob – Gabrielle Glaister – an attractive girl who poses as a man called Bob, before revealing her true sex and becoming romantically involved with Flashheart (2 and 4). Series 2 gives her real name as Kate. Lord Flashheart – Rik Mayall, a vulgar yet successful rival of Blackadder (series 2 and 4) Mayall also plays Mad Gerald in The Black Adder series finale and a decidedly Flashheart-like Robin Hood in Back & Forth. Non-recurring characters Elspet Gray played the queen (Blackadder's) mother in all six episodes of The Black Adder and the Blackadder pilot. As Brian Blessed and Robert East, who also appeared in all six episodes of the first series (as the Black Adder's father and brother respectively), Gray never appears again in another related show. Patsy Byrne received plaudits for her crucial role as Nursie in all six episodes of Blackadder II but never featured in either of the subsequent series, either as a regular character or one-off. Her only future roles in Blackadder were in Blackadder: Back & Forth and Blackadder's Christmas Carol, when she briefly reprised Nursie during scenes set in the Blackadder II era and then in Carol's Christmas future scenes, also playing a member of the "triple husbandoid" to Queen Asphyxia, credited as 'Bernard' (though not named in the special this was the name Nursie claimed to have been born under in Series II). Similarly, Helen Atkinson-Wood played the role of Mrs. Miggins in all six episodes of Blackadder the Third, but did not appear again in the programme, although she was mentioned in "Goodbyeee", the final episode of Blackadder Goes Forth and a Mrs. Miggins had been mentioned several times in Blackadder II Multiple guest appearances Robbie Coltrane appeared in the Season Three episode Ink and Incapability as Samuel Johnson, and had a cameo role in the Christmas Carol as the Ghost of Christmas Past. Jim Broadbent portrayed the interpreter, Don Speekenglish, in The Queen of Spain's Beard, and later reappeared as Prince Albert in the Christmas special. Miriam Margolyes made appearances as three distinct characters: as the Spanish Infanta in Queen of Spain's Beard, as Blackadder's Puritan aunt in Beer, and as Queen Victoria in the Christmas episode. Denis Lill played an MP in Dish and Dishonesty and portrayed the Beadle in the Christmas Carol. Lee Cornes also portrayed three characters: one of Prince Ludwig's guards in Chains, Percy Shelley in Ink and Incapability, and Private Fraser, a member of the firing squad in Corporal Punishment. Precursors The plot device of a 'modern' man in ancient times is not new, and has a venerable history in fiction. Likewise there have been many books and plays using a historical setting for comedy. An early example of a movie using multiple historical periods is The Three Ages from 1923, in which Buster Keaton relives the same story three ages: the Stone Age, Roman times, and the 1920s. In TV comedies, perhaps the most obvious 'ancestor' of the Blackadder series is Up Pompeii!. The series, starring Frankie Howerd as Lurcio, was set in ancient Rome and made similar play with historical characters. Even the apparent 'reincarnation' device found in Blackadder "The Blackadder Guide to Reincarnation" is also used. The TV series inspired three feature films, the first of which, Up Pompeii!, was also set in Imperial Rome with Howerd as Lurcio. The film ended with the eruption of Vesuvius and had a final scene set in the present day, in which the actors all played tourists closely resembling their ancient roles, with Howerd being a tour guide, showing them around the ruins of Pompeii. The second was set in medieval times and called Up the Chastity Belt, with Howerd's character as 'Lurkalot' (cf The Black Adder). In this, Howerd's character is discovered to be a double of Richard Lionheart, and later assumes the throne under his identity while the real king leads a bawdy life as Lurkalot (cf Blackadder the Third). Most strikingly, the third and final Up ... film, Up the Front, sees Howerd's character reborn as 'Private Lurk' and fighting in the First World War (cf Blackadder Goes Forth). In 1991, after 4 generations of Blackadders had come and gone, Frankie Howerd returned as the (Roman) Lurcio for one last time, in a pilot episode called "Further up Pompeii", that failed to become a series. The Blackadder stories draw on a variety of literary, historical, and film backgrounds for its story and characters. The first two series draw heavily upon the works of William Shakespeare. The first episode of The Black Adder, The Foretelling, references Richard III (the characters and setting), Macbeth (the three witches predicting Blackadder's rise to power and the appearance of King Richard's ghost at the dinner), and King Lear (the witches are named Goneril, Regan, and Cordelia). Bells, the first episode of the second series, draws on Twelfth Night with its cross-dressing "Bob" character. The third series parodies at various points classic novels such as The Scarlet Pimpernel (Nob and Nobility), Cyrano de Bergerac (Amy and Amiability), and The Prince and the Pauper (Duel and Duality), and the titles themselves parody Sense and Sensibility. There are also many references to classic films, for instance Blackadder's forming of his dark army in The Black Seal is parodic of The Magnificent Seven (down to Blackadder holding up fingers to indicate the number of men he has), the Season 1 episode The Archbishop explicitly parodies Becket. Successors: series inspired by Blackadder Some historical comedies made in the decade after Blackadder show possible traces of Blackadder influence. These include: BlackflyA Canadian sitcom which ran for two seasons in 2001 and 2002. The show is set in 18th-century Canada, and features a twisted Canadian history in which Benny "Blackfly" Broughton (Ron James), a jack-of-all-trades of colonial Canada, is joined by the by-the-book British officer, Corporal Entwhistle (Colin Mochrie). Chelmsford 123With one series in 1988 and one in 1990, Chelmsford 123 tells the story of Roman Britain, and the rivalry between the civilized but slightly ineffectual Romans, and the primitive but resourceful native Britons. While not directly copied, the characters and the plots nevertheless reveal a strong influence from the Blackadder series. Further Up Pompeii (1991)As discussed in the previous paragraph, Up Pompeii was in some ways an important predecessor to the Blackadder series, with incarnations of Lurcio showing up in various periods in history. But its last appearance would even be after the Blackadder series has ended. In 1991, LWT attempted to revive the show. Frankie Howerd returned once more as the Roman Lurcio, who had now gained his freedom and owned a tavern and slaves of his own. The pilot episode was not a success and Howerd himself died shortly after it was aired, and no series was made. 1775 (US series pilot)This was the pilot for a prospective US Blackadder series. It was shot in 1992 and aired once, but failed to be picked up. There was no real link with the Blackadder story: the cast was completely different, the series was set in colonial Philadelphia, and the main character's name was Jeremy Proctor. theLogBook.com Episode Guides » 1775 (US Series Pilot) The Secret Diary of Desmond PfeifferIn 1998, the US channel UPN made a sitcom about Desmond Pfeiffer, the black servant to president Abraham Lincoln. In this version of history, Desmond is the brains and the one who keeps things running, not unlike Blackadder and the Prince of Wales in the third Blackadder series. The show attracted criticism for being politically incorrect, and did not attract significant ratings; it was cancelled after one month. Notes Media availability All series and many of the specials are available on DVD and video, and as well many are available on BBC Audio Cassette. As of 2008 a "Best of BBC" edition box set is available containing all four major series together with Blackadder's Christmas Carol and Back & Forth. Single DVD releases DVD Title Region 1 Region 2 Region 4Series 1The Black Adder <center>Jun 26 2001 <center>Nov 01 1999 <center>Nov 29 1999Series 2Blackadder II <center>Jun 26 2001 <center>Nov 06 2000 <center>Jul 11 2001Series 3Blackadder The Third <center>Jun 26 2001 <center>Feb 05 2001 <center>Oct 03 2001Series 4Blackadder Goes Forth <center>Jun 26 2001 <center>Oct 22 2001 <center>Feb 28 2002Special 1 Blackadder's Christmas Carol <center>Jun 26 2001 <center>Nov 18 2002 <center>Nov 04 2002Special 2Blackadder: Back & Forth <center>Jun 26 2001 <center>Sep 15 2003 <center>Nov 11 2004 Box Set DVD releases DVD Title DVD Content Region 1 Region 2 Region 4 The Complete Blackadder - All Four Series The Black AdderBlackadder IIBlackadder The ThirdBlackadder Goes Forth <center>N/A Nov 12 2001 Oct 03 2002 Blackadder - The Complete Series The Black AdderBlackadder IIBlackadder The ThirdBlackadder Goes ForthBlackadder's Christmas CarolBlackadder: Back & ForthBlackadder: The Cavalier Years Jun 26 2001 Oct 03 2005 <center>N/A Blackadder Remastered - The Ultimate Edition The Black Adder (Remastered)Blackadder II (Remastered)Blackadder the Third (Remastered)Blackadder Goes Forth (Remastered)Blackadder's Christmas Carol (Remastered)Blackadder: Back and Forth (Remastered)Blackadder: The Cavalier Years (Remastered)Blackadder Rides Again+Audio Commentary+Interviews 15 Jun 2009 References Curtis, Richard, Elton, and Atkinson. Blackadder: The Whole Damn Dynasty 1485–1917. Penguin Books, 2000. ISBN 0-14-029608-5. Being the—almost—complete scripts of the four regular series. Howarth, Chris, and Steve Lyons. Cunning: The Blackadder Programme Guide. Virgin Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0-7535-0447-2. An unofficial guide to the series, with asides, anecdotes and observations. Curtis, Richard, Ben Elton. Blackadder: Back & Forth. Penguin Books, 2000. ISBN 0-14-029135-0. A script book with copious photographs from the most recent outing. 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2,461 | Auto_racing | Auto racing (also known as automobile racing, motor racing or car racing) is a motorsport involving racing cars. It is one of the world's most watched television sports. History The beginning of racing Racing began soon after the construction of the first successful petrol-fueled autos; before that time people raced in other vehicles such as horse-drawn buggies. The first race ever organized, by the chief editor of Paris publication Le Vélocipède, Monsieur Fossier, was on April 28 1887 and ran 2 kilometers from Neuilly Bridge to the Bois de Boulogne. It was won by Georges Bouton, in a car he had constructed with Albert, the Comte de Dion, but as he was the only competitor to show up it is rather pointless to call it a race. On July 22 1894, the first real contest was organized by Paris magazine Le Petit Journal, as a reliability test. The Comte de Dion was first to arrive in Rouen on his steam car, but a Panhard et Levassor was judged to be the winner. In 1895, one year later, the first real race was staged in France, from Paris to Bordeaux. First over the line was Émile Levassor but he was disqualified because his car was not a required four-seater. The first regular auto racing venue was Nice, France, run in late March 1897 as a "Speed Week." To fill out the schedule, most types of racing event were invented here, including the first hill climb (Nice - La Turbie) and a sprint that was, in spirit, the first drag race. An international competition, between nations rather than individuals, began with the Gordon Bennett Cup in auto racing. The first auto race in the United States took place in Evanston, Illinois on November 28, 1895 over an 87.48-km (54.36 mile) course, with Frank Duryea winning in 10 hours and 23 minutes, beating three petrol-fueled and two electric cars. Historic Racing The first trophy awarded was the Vanderbilt Cup. City to city racing |Fernand Gabriel driving a Mors in Paris-Madrid 1903 With auto construction and racing dominated by France, the French automobile club ACF staged a number of major international races, usually from or to Paris, connecting with another major city in Europe or France. These very successful races ended in 1903 when Marcel Renault was involved in a fatal accident near Angouleme in the Paris-Madrid race. Nine fatalities caused the French government to stop the race in Bordeaux and ban open-road racing. 1910-1950 The 1930s saw the transformation from high-priced road cars into pure racers, with Delage, Auto Union, Mercedes-Benz, Delahaye, and Bugatti constructing streamlined vehicles with engines producing up to 450 kW (612 hp), aided by multiple-stage supercharging. From 1928-1930 and again in 1934-1936, the maximum weight permitted was 750 kg, a rule diametrically opposed to current racing regulations. Extensive use of aluminium alloys was required to achieve light weight, and in the case of the Mercedes, the paint was removed to satisfy the weight limitation, producing the famous Silver Arrows. See: Grand Prix motor racing Categories Single-seater racing Modern Formula One car: McLaren MP4-24. Heikki Kovalainen testing at the Circuito de Jerez, 2009 Single-seater (open-wheel) racing is a popular form of motorsport, with cars designed specifically for high-speed racing. The wheels are not covered, and the cars often have aerofoil wings front and rear to produce downforce and enhance adhesion to the track. In Europe and Asia, open wheeled racing is commonly referred to as "Formula", with appropriate hierarchical suffixes. In North America, the "Formula" terminology is not followed (with the exception of F1). The sport is usually arranged to follow an "international" format (such as F1), a "regional" format (such as the Formula 3 Euro Series), or a "domestic", or country-specific format (such as the German Formula 3 championship, or the British Formula Ford). The best-known variety of single-seater racing, Formula One, involves an annual World Championship for drivers and constructors of around 18 races a year featuring major international car and engine manufacturers, and independent constructors, such as Ferrari, McLaren, Williams, BMW Sauber, Toyota, Honda, Renault, Red Bull Racing - in an ongoing battle of technology and driver skill and talent. The sport is one of the top five ,watched sporting events in the world, alongside the FIFA World Cup, the Olympic Games, the Super Bowl and the UEFA European Football Championship. Formula One is, by any measure, the most expensive sport in the world, with some teams spending in excess of $400 million per year. Formula One is widely considered to be the pinnacle of motorsports, with the F1 Drivers' Championship being one of, and the oldest among, only three World Championships awarded each year by the FIA (the others being the World Touring Car Championship and the World Rally Championship). What separates Formula 1 from all other forms of open wheel racing, is the basic premise of F1 revolves around the very important issue that each team is a "constructor". That is, the chassis of the car must be designed and manufactured in-house, and chassis can not be supplied to competitors on a "customer" basis. Engines are usually funded and/or developed by established major motor manufacturers, and can be supplied exclusively to just one team, or may be offered as "customer" engines, often to the smaller, lower-ranked teams. In North America, the cars used in the National Championship (currently the IndyCar Series, and previously CART) have traditionally been similar though less sophisticated than F1 cars, with more restrictions on technology aimed at controlling costs. Formula Three car racing at the Hockenheimring, 2008 Other international single-seater racing series are the A1 Grand Prix (unofficially often referred to as the "world cup of motorsport"), and the GP2 (formerly known as Formula 3000 and Formula Two). Regional series include Formula Nippon and Formula V6 Asia (specifically in Asia), Formula Renault 3.5 (also known as the World Series by Renault, succession series of World Series by Nissan), Formula Three, Formula Palmer Audi and Formula Atlantic. In 2009, the FIA Formula Two Championship brought about the revival of the F2 series. Domestic, or country-specific series include Formula Three, Formula Renault, Formula Ford with the leading introductory series being Formula BMW. Single seater racing is not limited merely to professional teams and drivers. There is a large amateur 'club racing' scene catering for those who want to race single seaters against similar people all over the world. In the UK the major club series are the Monoposto Racing Club, BRSCC F3 (Formerly ClubF3, formerly ARP F3), Formula Vee and Club Formula Ford. Each series caters for a section of the 'market', with some primarily providing low cost racing whilst others aim for an authentic experience using the same regulations as the professional series (BRSCC F3). There are other categories of single-seater racing, including kart racing, which employs a small, low-cost machine on small tracks. Many of the current top drivers began their careers in karts. Formula Ford once represented a popular first open-wheel category for up-and-coming drivers stepping up from karts and now the Formula BMW series is the preferred option as it has introduced an aero package and slicks, allowing the junior drivers to gain experience in a race car with dynamics closer F1. The Star Mazda Series is another entry level series. Students at colleges and universities can also take part in single seater racing through the Formula SAE competition, which involves designing and building a single seater car in a multidisciplinary team, and racing it at the competition. This also develops other soft skills such as teamwork whilst promoting motorsport and engineering. In 2006, producer Todd Baker was responsible for creating the world's first all-female Formula racing team. The group was an assemblage of drivers from different racing disciplines, and formed for an MTV reality pilot which was shot at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca. In December, 2005 the FIA gave approval to Superleague Formula racing, set to debut in 2008. This will be open-wheel, single-seat stock car racing around Grand Prix racetracks. The teams will be owned and run by prominent sports clubs such as AC Milan and FC Porto. The race weekend will follow the GP2 format of Saturday qualifying and two Sunday races, one featuring a reverse grid. Touring car racing World Touring Car Championship 2006: Andy Priaulx leads at Curitiba. Touring car racing is a style of road racing that is run with production derived race cars. It often features exciting, full-contact racing due to the small speed differentials and large grids. The V8 Supercars originally from Australia, British Touring Car Championship, Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters originally from Germany, and the World Touring Car Championship held with 2 non-European races (previously the European Touring Car Championship) are the major touring car championships conducted worldwide, along with a European Touring Cup, a one day event open to Super 2000 specification touring cars from Europe's many national championships. The Sports Car Club of America's SPEED World Challenge Touring Car and GT championships are dominant in North America while the venerable British Touring Car Championship continues in the United Kingdom. America's historic Trans-Am Series is undergoing a period of transition, but is still the longest-running road racing series in the U.S. The National Auto Sport Association also provides a venue for amateurs to compete in home-built factory derived vehicles on various local circuits. Production car racing Production car racing or known in the US as showroom stock, is an economical and rules restricted version of touring car racing, mainly to restrict costs. Many series follow the Group N regulation with a few exceptions. There are several different series that are run all over the world, most notably, Japan's Super Taikyu and IMSA's Firehawk Series which ran between the 1980s to 1990s all over the United States. One-make racing One-make, or single marque, championships often employ production-based cars from a single manufacturer or even a single model from a manufacturer's range. There are numerous notable one-make formulae from various countries and regions, some of which – such as the Porsche Supercup and, previously, IROC – have fostered many distinct national championships. Single marque series are often found at club level, to which the production-based cars, limited modifications, and close parity in performance are very well suited. Some of the better-known single-make series are the SEAT Cupra Championship, John Cooper Mini Challenge, and Clio Cup, and at a more modest budget, Ginettas, Caterhams, BMWs, and MX5s. There are also single-chassis single seater formulae, such as Formula Ford, Formula Saab, Formula BMW, and defunct Formula Vee, usually as "feeder" series for "senior" race formula (in the fashion of farm teams). Stock car racing Stock car racing, is hugely popular in the USA and is also widely followed in the UK and Europe. It is the most popular form of racing in the United States ESPN.com "Addition of IndyCar champ Hornish will give Penske third Cup team" Retrieved February 8, 2009 Usually raced on oval tracks made with clay, asphalt, or concrete, stock cars may resemble production cars but are in fact purpose-built racing machines which are built to tight specifications. Early stock cars were actual production vehicles; the car to be raced was often driven from track to track. The modern car however is far removed from the production model which it represents, making the term "stock car" somewhat incorrect. The largest stock car racing governing body is NASCAR. NASCAR's premier series is the Sprint Cup Series, its most famous races being the Daytona 500 and the Brickyard 400. NASCAR also runs several feeder series. The Nationwide Series, and Camping World Truck Series (a pickup truck racing series) conduct races across the entire continental United States. The NASCAR Canadian Tire Series conducts races across Canada and the NASCAR Corona Series conducts races across Mexico. NASCAR also governs several smaller regional series. NASCAR also governs the Whelen Modified Tour. Modified cars are best described as hybrids of stock cars and open-wheel cars. They are heavily altered from stock, with powerful engines, large tires, tubular chassis and light bodies. The Whelen Modified tour is NASCAR's oldest series. There are also other stock car governing bodies, such as Automobile Racing Club of America and United Speed Alliance Racing. In the UK, British Stock car racing is also referred to as "Short Circuit Racing". This takes place on shale or tarmac tracks - usually around 1/4 mile in length. The governing bodies for the sport are the Oval Racing Council (ORC) and BriSCA. Both bodies are made up of individual stadium promoters. There are around 35 tracks in the UK and upwards of 7000 active drivers. The sport is split into three basic "divisions" - distinguished by the rules regarding car-contact during racing. Full Contact formulas include Bangers, Bombers and Rookie Bangers - and racing features Demolitions Derbies, Figure of Eight racing and Oval Racing Semi Contact Formulas include BriSCA F1, F2 and Superstox - where bumpers are used tactically. Non-contact formulas include National Hot Rods, Stock Rods and Lightning Rods. UK Stockcar racing started in the 1950s and grew rapidly through the 60s and 70s. Today it remains one of the most popular forms of motorsport in the UK - with regular events attacting substantial crowds to dramatic and intense events. The major Promoter of stock car racing in the UK is Spedeworth, based at Aldershot (including its Midlands division Incarace), with 10 raceways and 250 events each year. Rallying A Ford Escort RS Cosworth, driven by Malcolm Wilson on a stage rally. Rallying, or rally racing, involves two classes of car. The modified Group A, but road legal, production based cars and the Group N Production cars compete on (closed) public roads or off-road areas run on a point-to-point format where participants and their co-drivers "rally" to a set of points, leaving in regular intervals from start points. A rally is typically conducted over a number of "special stages" of any terrain, which entrants are often allowed to scout beforehand at reduced speeds compiling detailed shorthand descriptions of the track or road as they go. These detailed descriptions are known as "pace notes." During the actual rally, the co-driver reads the pace notes aloud (using an in-helmet intercom system) to the driver, enabling them to complete each stage as quickly as possible. Competition is based on lowest total elapsed time over the course of an event's special stages, including penalties. The top series is the World Rally Championship (WRC), but there also regional championships and many countries have their own national championships. Some famous rallies include the Monte Carlo Rally, Rally Argentina, Rally Finland and Rally GB. Another famous event (actually best described as a "rally raid") is the Paris-Dakar Rally. There are also many smaller, club level, categories of rallies which are popular with amateurs, making up the "grass roots" of motor sports. Targa Racing (Targa Rally) A Toyota MR2 , driven by Adam Spence in the 2006 Targa Tasmania prologue stage. Targa is a tarmac-based road rally which is run all around the world. This began with the Targa Florio. There are many races including Targa Tasmania held on the island state of Tasmania, Australia, run annually since 1992. The event takes its name from the Targa Florio, a former motoring event held on the island of Sicily. The competition concept is drawn directly from the best features of the Mille Miglia, the Coupe des Alpes and the Tour de Corse. Other events around the world include the Targa Newfoundland based in Canada, Targa West based in Western Australia, Targa New Zealand and other smaller events. Drag racing In drag racing, the objective is to complete a given straight-line distance, from a standing start, ahead of a vehicle in a parallel lane. This distance is traditionally ¼ mile (400 m), though 1/8 mile (200 m) has become popular since the 1990s. The vehicles may or may not be given the signal to start at the same time, depending on the class of racing. Vehicles range from the everyday car to the purpose-built dragster. Speeds and elapsed time differ from class to class. Average street cars cover the ¼ mile in from 10 to 15 seconds whereas a top fuel dragster takes 4.5 seconds or less, reaching speeds of up to 530 km/h (330 mph). Drag racing was organized as a sport by Wally Parks in the early 1950s through the NHRA (National Hot Rod Association). The NHRA was formed to discourage street racing. Launching, a top fuel dragster will accelerate at 4.5 g (44 m/s²), and when braking parachutes are deployed the deceleration is 4 g (39 m/s²), more than the Space Shuttle experiences. A top fuel car can be heard over 8 miles (13 km) away and generates a reading of 1.5 to 2 on the Richter scale. NHRA Mile High Nationals 2001, and 2002 testing from the National Seismology Center. Drag racing is two cars head-to-head, the winner proceeding to the next round. Professional classes are all first to the finish line wins. Sportsman racing is handicapped (slower car getting a head start) using an index (a lowest e.t. allowed), and cars running under (quicker than) their index "break out" and lose. The slowest cars, bracket racers, are also handicapped, but rather than an index, they use a "dial-in". Bracket racing has been viewed as the main cause of the loss of public interest in drag racing. People don't understand why the slower car wins or why somebody needs to hit the brakes to avoid going too fast. Many local tracks have also complained that bracket racers will also go out of their way to spend as little as possible while at the track by bringing their own food, beverages, fuel and supplies thus, making it more difficult for tracks to make money on these events. This causes gate prices to rise and tracks losing interest in having such events. Sports car racing The Audi R8 was one of the most successful sports prototypes ever made, seen here at Road Atlanta. In sports car racing, production versions of sports cars and/or grand tourers, and sports prototype cars compete within their respective classes on closed circuits. The races are often conducted over long distances, at least 1000 km, and cars are driven by teams of two or three drivers (and sometimes more in the US), switching every few hours. Due to the performance difference between production-based sports cars and purpose-built sports prototypes, one race usually involves several racing classes. In the US the American Le Mans Series (ALMS) was organized in 1999, featuring GT1, GT2, and two prototype classes, LMP1 (Le Mans Prototype 1) and LMP2. Manufacturers such as Audi and Acura/Honda field or support entries in the Prototype class. Another series based on Le Mans began in 2004, the Le Mans Endurance Series, which included four 1000 km races at tracks in Europe. A competing body, Grand-Am, which began in 2000, sanctions its own endurance series the Rolex Sports Car Series. Famous sports car races include the 24 Hours of Le Mans, the 24 Hours of Daytona, 24 Hours of Spa-Franchorchamps, the 12 Hours of Sebring, and the Petit Le Mans at Road Atlanta. Off-road racing In off-road racing, various classes of specially modified vehicles, including cars, compete in races through off-road environments. In North America these races often take place in the desert, such as the famous Baja 1000. In Europe, "offroad" refers to events such as autocross or rallycross, while desert races and rally-raids such as the Paris-Dakar, Master Rallye or European "bajas" are called "cross-country rallies." many people have died while trying to win the world cup. Kart racing A sprint kart race in Atwater California hosted by the International Karting Federation. Although often seen as the entry point for serious racers into the sport, kart racing, or karting, can be an economical way for amateurs to try racing and is also a fully fledged international sport in its own right. World-famous F1-drivers like Michael Schumacher or Fernando Alonso and most of the typical starting grid of a modern Grand Prix took up the sport at around the age of eight, with some testing from age three. Several former motorcycle champions have also taken up the sport, notably Wayne Rainey, who was paralysed in a racing accident and now races a hand-controlled kart. As one of the cheapest ways to go racing, karting is seeing its popularity grow worldwide. Go-karts, or just "karts" - seem very distant from normal road cars, with diminutive frames and wheels, but a small engine combined with very light weight make for a quick machine. Historical racing Laguna Seca, Monterey, 2008 As modern motor racing is centered on modern technology with a lots of corporate sponsors and politics involved, historical racing tends to be the opposite. Because it is based on a particular era it is more hobbyist oriented, reducing corporate sponsorship and politics. Events are regulated to only allow cars of a certain era to participate. The only modern equipment used is related to safety and timing. A historical event can be of various different motorsport disciplines. Notably some of the most famous events of them all are the Goodwood Festival of Speed and Goodwood Revival in Britain and Monterey Historic in the United States. Championships range from "grass root" Austin Seven racing to the FIA Thoroughbred Grand Prix Championship for classic Formula One chassis. While there are several professional teams and drivers in historical racing, this branch of auto sport tends to be contested by wealthy car owners and is thus more amateur and laid back in its approach. Other categoriesSee also :Category:Auto racing by type Use of flags In open-wheel, stock-car and other types of circuit auto races, flags are displayed to indicate the general status of a race and to communicate instructions to competitors in a race. While the flags have changed from the first years (e.g. red used to start a race), these are generally accepted for today. Flag Displayed from start tower Displayed from observation postGreen flagThe race has started or resumed after a full caution or stop, or the race is proceeding normally.End of hazardous section of track.Yellow flagFull course caution condition for ovals. On road courses, it means a local area of caution. Depending on the type of racing, either two yellow flags will be used for a full course caution or a sign with 'SC' (Safety car) will be used as the field follows the pace/safety car on track and no cars may pass.Local caution condition — no cars may pass at the particular corner where being displayed.Yellow flag with red stripesDebris or slippery patches on the track.Black flagThe car with the indicated number must pit for consultation.The session is halted; all cars on course must return to pit lane.Meatball flagThe car with the indicated number has mechanical trouble.Black and white flagThe driver of the car with the indicated number has been penalized for misbehaviour.White cross flagThe driver of the car with the indicated number is disqualified or will not be scored until they report to the pits.Blue flag with yellow stripeA car must allow another car to pass if the flag is blue only. With an orange or yellow stripe, it simply serves as a warning that faster traffic is behind. SCCA Check mirrors/ faster traffic comingA car is being advised to give way to faster traffic approaching.Red flagThe race is stopped—all cars must halt on the track or return to pit lane.White flagOne lap remains. SCCA Slow vehicle on Track.A slow vehicle is on the track.Chequered flagThe race has concluded. Accidents For the worst accident in racing history see 1955 Le Mans disaster. (See also Deaths in motorsports) Racing car setup In auto racing, the racing setup or car setup is the set of adjustments made to the vehicle in order to optimize its behaviour (performance, handling, reliability, etc.). Adjustments can occur in suspensions, brakes, transmissions, engines, tires, and many others. Trivia In auto racing, the car in which is used to drive is called a racecar. Racecar spelled backwards is racecar. See also Car handling Composite materials Engine tuning Import scene List of auto racing tracks Race track Racing game Sim racing Trans-oriental Rally References External links Sanctioning bodies Motor Sports Association (MSA UK) American Le Mans Series (ALMS) Indy Racing League (IRL) WRC.com - Official site of World Rally Championship Best in the Desert Racing Association The FIA - The Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile Grand American Road Racing Association International Hot Rod Association International Motor Sports Association (IMSA) National Auto Sport Association National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR) National Hot Rod Association SCORE International Off Road Racing Sports Car Club of America United States Auto Club http://www.600racing.com/ | Auto_racing |@lemmatized auto:17 racing:54 also:22 know:7 automobile:4 motor:7 car:95 motorsport:6 involve:7 race:93 one:19 world:24 watched:1 television:1 sport:30 history:2 beginning:1 begin:6 soon:1 construction:2 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2,462 | Cutaway_(filmmaking) | In film, a cutaway is the interruption of a continuously filmed action by inserting a view of something else. It is usually, although not always, followed by a cutback to the first shot. Method Cutaways usually do not contribute any dramatic content of their own, but help the editor assemble a longer sequence. For this reason, editors choose cutaways related to the main action, such as another action or object in the same location. Cutaways, article from WNEO.org For example, if the main shot is of a man walking down an alley, possible cutaways may include a shot of a cat on a nearby dumpster or a shot of a woman watching from a window overhead. Usage Its most common use in dramatic films are to adjust the pace of the main action, to conceal the deletion of some unwanted part of the main shot, or to allow the joining of parts of two versions of that shot. For example, a scene may be improved by cutting a few frames out of an actor's pause; a brief view of a listener can help conceal the break. Or the actor may fumble some of his lines in a group shot; rather than discarding a good version of the shot, the director may just have the actor repeat the lines "in one" and cut to that solitary view when necessary. Cutaways are also used often in older horror films in place of special effects. For example, a shot of a zombie getting its head cut off may, for instance, start with a view of an axe being swung through the air, followed by a close-up of the actor swinging it, then followed by a cut back to the now severed head. George A. Romero, creator of the Dead Series, and Tom Savini were well known for pioneering effects that removed the need for cutaways in horror films. In news broadcasting and documentary work, the cutaway is used much as it would be in fiction. On location, there is usually just one camera to film an interview, and it's usually trained on the interviewee. Often there is also only one microphone. After the interview, the interviewer will usually repeat his questions while he himself is being filmed, with pauses as they act as if to listen to the answers. These shots can be used as cutaways. Examples One example of a cutaway being used deliberately to break continuity, for comic effect, appears in Shoot the Piano Player (Tirez sur le pianiste), by François Truffaut: the pianist and his female companion are being followed; she opens her compact and uses it to show him the two gangsters behind them, impossibly large in the reflection. The comedy film Airplane! has a large number of cutaway scenes, most of them showing events at ground control, such as showing Steve McCroskey (Lloyd Bridges) exclaim "Looks like I picked the wrong week to quit smoking". In the 2008 movie, Meet Dave, cutaway gags are used very often, mainly showing what is happening inside of the spacecraft (Dave) and in the 2008 movie Get Smart, cutaway gags were used to show previous times and awkward references. Television shows frequently using cutaway scenes include 30 Rock, Arrested Development, That '70s Show, Scrubs, Grounded For Life and Family Guy. Among television writers, this now somewhat predictable technique is often called "cut-to humour". See also Buffer shot Cross-cutting Dissolve (filmmaking) Fast cutting Jump cut Match cut Shot reverse shot Slow cutting Flashback References by matthew levin-nussbaum | Cutaway_(filmmaking) |@lemmatized film:8 cutaway:14 interruption:1 continuously:1 action:4 insert:1 view:4 something:1 else:1 usually:5 although:1 always:1 follow:4 cutback:1 first:1 shot:13 method:1 contribute:1 dramatic:2 content:1 help:2 editor:2 assemble:1 long:1 sequence:1 reason:1 choose:1 relate:1 main:4 another:1 object:1 location:2 article:1 wneo:1 org:1 example:4 man:1 walk:1 alley:1 possible:1 may:5 include:2 cat:1 nearby:1 dumpster:1 woman:1 watch:1 window:1 overhead:1 usage:1 common:1 use:9 adjust:1 pace:1 conceal:2 deletion:1 unwanted:1 part:2 allow:1 joining:1 two:2 version:2 scene:3 improve:1 cut:10 frame:1 actor:4 pause:2 brief:1 listener:1 break:2 fumble:1 line:2 group:1 rather:1 discard:1 good:1 director:1 repeat:2 one:4 solitary:1 necessary:1 also:3 often:4 old:1 horror:2 place:1 special:1 effect:3 zombie:1 get:2 head:2 instance:1 start:1 axe:1 swing:2 air:1 close:1 back:1 sever:1 george:1 romero:1 creator:1 dead:1 series:1 tom:1 savini:1 well:1 know:1 pioneer:1 remove:1 need:1 news:1 broadcasting:1 documentary:1 work:1 much:1 would:1 fiction:1 camera:1 interview:2 train:1 interviewee:1 microphone:1 interviewer:1 question:1 act:1 listen:1 answer:1 examples:1 deliberately:1 continuity:1 comic:1 appear:1 shoot:1 piano:1 player:1 tirez:1 sur:1 le:1 pianiste:1 françois:1 truffaut:1 pianist:1 female:1 companion:1 open:1 compact:1 show:7 gangster:1 behind:1 impossibly:1 large:2 reflection:1 comedy:1 airplane:1 number:1 event:1 ground:2 control:1 steve:1 mccroskey:1 lloyd:1 bridge:1 exclaim:1 look:1 like:1 pick:1 wrong:1 week:1 quit:1 smoke:1 movie:2 meet:1 dave:2 gag:2 mainly:1 happen:1 inside:1 spacecraft:1 smart:1 previous:1 time:1 awkward:1 reference:2 television:2 frequently:1 rock:1 arrest:1 development:1 scrub:1 life:1 family:1 guy:1 among:1 writer:1 somewhat:1 predictable:1 technique:1 call:1 humour:1 see:1 buffer:1 cross:1 dissolve:1 filmmaking:1 fast:1 jump:1 match:1 reverse:1 slow:1 flashback:1 matthew:1 levin:1 nussbaum:1 |@bigram sur_le:1 françois_truffaut:1 |
2,463 | Great_auk | The Great Auk, Pinguinus impennis, formerly of the genus Alca, is a bird that became extinct in the mid-19th century. It was the only species in the genus Pinguinus, a group which included several flightless giant auks from the Atlantic, to survive until modern times. It was also known as garefowl (from the Old Norse geirfugl, meaning "spear-bird", a reference to the shape of its beak) and penguin before the birds known by that name today were so called. The Great Auk was found in great numbers on islands off eastern Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Ireland and Great Britain before being hunted to extinction. Remains found in Floridian middens suggest that, at least occasionally, the Great Auk ventured that far south in winter as recently as the 14th century. Taxonomy Great Auk, Leipzig The Great Auk was one of the many species originally described by Carolus Linnaeus in his 18th century work, Systema Naturae. Analysis of mtDNA sequences have confirmed morphological and biogeographical studies in regarding the Razorbill as the Great Auk's closest living relative. They were also closely related to the Little Auk (Dovekie), which underwent a radically different evolution compared to Pinguinus. Due to its outward similarity to the Razorbill (apart from flightlessness and size), the Great Auk was often placed in the genus Alca. The name Alca is a Latin derivative of the Scandinavian word for razorbills and their relatives. The word impennis in Latin refers to the lack of flight feathers or pennae. Paul Johnsgard (1987) Diving Birds of North America. University of Nebraska Press. (Appendix) However, the fossil record, especially Pinguinus alfrednewtoni from the Early Pliocene Yorktown Formation of the Lee Creek Mine, United States, and molecular evidence demonstrate that the three genera, while still closely related, diverged soon after their common ancestor, a bird probably similar to a stout Xantus's Murrelet, had spread to the coasts of the Atlantic. By that time however, the murres, or Atlantic Guillemots, had apparently already split off from the other Atlantic alcids. Razorbill-like birds were common in the Atlantic during the Pliocene, but the evolution of the Little Auk is sparsely documented. The molecular data are compatible with either view, but the weight of evidence suggests placing the Great Auk in a distinct genus. The Basque name for this bird is "arponaz" and the early French name was "apponatz", both meaning "spearbill". The Norse called the auk "geirfugl", which means "spearbird". This has led to an alternative common name for the bird, "garefowl". Cokinos 2000, p. 333 Spanish and Portuguese sailors called the bird "pinguinos", which means "fat bird". The Inuit name for the auk was "isarukitsck", which meant "little wing". The Welsh referred to this species as "pingwen". Crofford 1989, p. 8 When European explorers discovered what are today known as penguins in the Southern Hemisphere, they noticed the similar appearance to the Great Auk and named them after the bird. Crofford 1989, p. 10 Description Great Auks by John James Audubon Standing about tall and weighing around , the flightless Great Auk was both the largest of the auks and the largest member of the order Charadriiformes. Males and females were similar in size and plumage. The back was primarily a glossy black, while the stomach was white. The neck and legs were short, while the head and wings were small. Crofford 1989, p. 15 The auk appeared chubby due to a thick layer of fat necessary for warmth. Crofford 1989, p. 28 During the breeding season, the Great Auk developed a wide white eye patch in front of the eye. Crofford 1989, p. 9 However, after the breeding season the auk lost this eye patch and instead a wide white band and a gray line of feathers which stretched from the eye to the ear. The eye had a hazel or chestnut iris. Cokinos 2000, p. 310 During the summer, the auk's chin and throat were blackish brown. During the winter, this alcid molted and the throat became white. The bill was large at long and curved downwards at the top. There were deep white grooves in both the upper and lower mandibles of the bill. The wings were only in length and the longest wing feathers were only long. Its feet and claws were black while the webbed skin between the toes was brownish black. The legs were far back on the bird's body to give it more powerful swimming and diving abilities. Cokinos 2000, p. 312 Juvenile birds had less prominent grooves in their beaks and had mottled white and black necks. Distribution and habitat This bird was found in the cold Atlantic coastal waters along the coasts of Canadia, the northeastern United States, Norway, and Britain. Crofford 1989, p. 5 This bird only left the Atlantic waters for land in order to breed. Crofford 1989, p. 29 Its rookeries were found from Baffin Bay down to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, across the far northern Atlantic, including Iceland, and in Norway and the British Isles in Europe. Crofford 1989, p. 30 Meldegaard, Morten (1988) The Great Auk, Pinguinus impennis (L.) in Greenland. Historical Biology 1:145-178 PDF The auk's nesting colonies required rocky islands with sloping shorelines to provide the bird access. Cokinos 2000, p. 312 This was an extremely limiting factor and it is believed that the Great Auk may never have had more than 20 breeding colonies. Only eight breeding colonies are known: Papa Westray in the Orkneys, St. Kilda off Scotland, Faeroe Islands between Iceland and Ireland, Grímsey and Eldey Island near Iceland, Penguin Island and Funk Island near Newfoundland, and Bird Rocks in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Additionally, records suggest that the species may have bred in Cape Cod. By the late 1700's and early 1800's, its colonies were restricted to Funk Island, Grimsey, Eldey, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and St. Kilda. This species migrated south in the winter. Bones have been found as far south as Florida and Gibraltar, while it frequented France, Spain, and even Italy.i852 Ecology and behavior Great Auk eating a fish, by John Gould. Great Auks walked slowly and sometimes used their wings to help them traverse rough terrain. They had few natural predators, mainly large marine mammals and birds of prey, and had no innate fear of humans. Polar bears preyed on nesting colonies of the auk. Their flightlessness and awkwardness on land compounded their vulnerability to humans, who hunted them for food, feathers, and as specimens for museums and private collections. These birds reacted to noises, but were rarely scared by the sight of something. Cokinos 2000, p. 315 The auks were believed to have lived for 20 to 25 years. Great Auks were excellent swimmers, using their wings to propel themselves underwater. They were capable of banking, veering, and turning underwater. The Great Auk was known to dive to depths of and was claimed to be able to dive to . Cokinos 2000, p. 311 It could also hold its breath for 15 minutes, longer than a seal. This auk was capable of swimming rapidly to gather speed, then shooting out of the water and landing on a rocky ledge not level with the ocean. During the winter the auk migrated south in either pairs or small groups, never with the entire nesting colony. Diet This alcid typically fed in shoaling waters. Their main food was fish, usually in length, but occasionally up to half the bird's own length. Based on remains associated with Great Auk bones found on Funk Island and on ecological and morphological considerations, it seems that Atlantic menhaden and capelin were favored prey. Other species suggested as potential prey include lumpsuckers, shorthorn sculpins, cod, and sand lance. The young of the Great Auk are believed to have eaten plankton and, possibly, fish regurgitated by adult auks. Cokinos 2000, p. 313 Reproduction Great Auks are believed to have mated for life. Once paired, they nested at the base of cliffs. The Great Auk laid only one egg each year between late May and early June. Crofford 1989, p. 32 Both parents helped create a rough nest by raking guano together in a small bound, although it was also known to have incubated the egg on bare ground. Crofford 1989, p. 33 Nests in the colonies were extremely close together. Crofford 1989, p. 35 The eggs were pear-shaped and averaged in length and across at the widest point. The eggs were yellowish white to light ochre with a varying pattern of black, brown or greyish spots and lines which often congregated on the large end. The pair took turns incubating the egg for the six weeks before the egg hatched, typically in June. The parents also took turns feeding their chick. At birth, the chick was covered with grey down. The young bird took only two or three weeks to mature enough to abandon the nest and land for the water. Relationship with humans The Great Auk is known to have been preyed upon by Neanderthals over 100,000 years ago as well-cleaned bones have been found by their campfires. This bird was also carved into the walls of El Pinto Cave in Spain over 35,000 years ago, Crofford 1989, p. 6 while cave paintings 20,000 years old have been found in France's Grotte Cosquer. Cokinos 2000, p. 314 Native Americans valued the auk as a food source during the winter. Images of the Great Auk have been found in bone necklaces. Crofford 1989, p. 36 A person buried at the Maritime Archaic site at Port au Choix, Newfoundland, dating to about 2000 BC, seems to have been interred clothed in a suit made from more than 200 Great Auk skins, with the heads left attached as decoration. Tuck, J. A. (1976): Ancient peoples of Port au Choix: The Excavation of an Archaic Indian Cemetery in Newfoundland. Newfoundland Social and Economic Studies 17. The extinct Beothuks of Newfoundland made pudding out of the auk's eggs. Later, European sailors utilized the auks as a navigational beaker, as it was known that the presence of these birds signalled that the Grand Banks were near. Extinction Egg, Ipswich Museum, Suffolk This species is estimated to have had a maximum population in the millions, although some scientists dispute this estimation. The Great Auk was hunted on a significant scale for food, eggs, and down from at least the 8th century. Prior to that, hunting by local natives can be documented from Late Stone Age Scandinavia and Eastern North America, Greenway, James C., Jr. (1967): Great Auk. In: Extinct and Vanishing Birds of the World, 2nd edition: 271-291. Dover, New York. QL676.7.G7 and from early 5th century Labrador where the bird only seems to have occurred as a straggler. Jordan, Richard H. & Olson, Storrs L. (1982): First Record of the Great Auk (Pinguinus impennis) from Labrador. Auk 99(1): 167-168. PDF fulltext Early explorers, including Jacques Cartier and numerous ships attempting to find gold on Baffin Island, were not provisioned with food for the journey home and therefore utilized this species as a replacement food source. Crofford 1989, p. 38 Some of the later vessels anchored next to a colony and ran out planks to the land. The sailors then herded hundreds of auks onto the ship, where they were then slaughtered. Crofford 1989, p. 39 Stuffed Great Auk, Belgium. The Little Ice Age may have reduced their numbers, but massive exploitation for their down drastically reduced the population. By the mid-1500s, the nesting colonies along the European side of the Atlantic were nearly all eliminated by individuals killing this bird for its down, which was used to make pillows. Crofford 1989, p. 40 In 1553, the auk received its first official protection, and in 1794 London banned the killing of this species for their feathers. Cokinos 2000, p. 330 On the North American side, eider down was initially preferred, but once the eiders were nearly driven to extinction in the 1770's, down collectors switched to the auk. Cokinos 2000, p. 329 Specimens of the Great Auk and its eggs became collectible and highly prized, and collecting of the eggs contributed to the demise of the species. It was on Stac an Armin, St Kilda, Scotland, in July, 1840, that the last great auk seen in the British Isles was caught and then killed. A then 75-year-old inhabitant of St Kilda told Henry Evans, a frequent visitor to the archipelago, that he and his father-in-law with another man had caught a "garefowl," noticing its little wings and the large white spot on its head. They tied it up and kept it alive for three days, and then killed it by beating it with a stick, apparently because they believed it to be a witch. Eggers, individuals who visited the nesting sites of the Great Auk to collect their eggs, quickly realized that the birds did not all lay their eggs on the same day, so they could make return visits to the same breeding colony. Eggers only collected eggs without embryos growing inside of them and typically discarded of the eggs with embryos. The last population lived on Geirfuglasker ("Great Auk Rock") off Iceland. This island was a volcanic rock surrounded by cliffs which made it inaccessible to humans, but in 1830 the rock submerged, and the birds moved to the nearby island Eldey, which was accessible from a single side. When the colony was initially discovered in 1835, nearly fifty birds were present. Museums, desiring the skins of the auk for preservation and display, quickly began collecting birds from the colony. Crofford 1989, p. 43 The last pair, found incubating an egg, were killed there on 3 July 1844, with Jón Brandsson and Sigurður Ísleifsson strangling the adults and Ketill Ketilsson smashing the egg with his boot. However, a later claim of a live individual sighted in 1852 on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland has been accepted by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). Today, around 75 eggs of the Great Auk remain in museum collections, along with 24 complete skeletons and 81 mounted skins. While thousands of isolated bones have been collected from 19th century Funk Island to Neolithic middens, only a minute number of complete skeletons exist. Luther, Dieter (1996): Riesenalk. In: Die ausgestorbenen Vögel der Welt, 4th edition (Die neue Brehm-Bücherei 424): 78-84. Westarp-Wissenschaften, Magdeburg; Spektrum, Heidelberg. ISBN 3-89432-213-6 [in German] Following the bird's extinction, the price of its eggs sometimes reached up to 11 times the amount earned by a skilled worker in a year. In popular culture Mounted specimen, Natural History Museum, London The Great Auk is the mascot of Archmere Academy in Claymont, Delaware, USA, Sir Sandford Fleming College in Ontario, Canada, and the Adelaide University Choral Society (AUCS) in Australia. It is also the mascot of the Knowledge Masters educational competition. The Auk, the scientific journal of the American Ornithologists' Union, is named after this bird. Cokinos 2000, p. 331 According to Homer Hickam's memoir Rocket Boys and its subsequent film production October Sky, the early rockets he and his friends built were named "Auk" along with a sequential numeration as an obvious display of irony. Engraving by George Edward Lodge The Great Auk is the subject of a novel, The Last Great Auk by Allen Eckert, which tells of the events leading to the extinction of the Great Auk as seen from the perspective of the last one alive. Great Auk Cigarettes was a British cigarette company named after this bird. A Great Auk (presumably stuffed) appears among the possessions of Baba the Turk in the opera The Rake's Progress by Igor Stravinsky. In the novel adaptation of The Wicker Man by Robin Hardy & Anthony Shaffer, the (fictitious) Summerisle is revealed to be home to a surviving colony of Great Auks. The Two Ronnies enacted a parody shown on BBC TV entitled "Raiders of the Lost Auk", in which an archaeologist tracks down a golden auk, pursued by Nazis. The Great Auk is a significant factor in the children's book The Island of Adventure by Enid Blyton. Jack is a keen ornithologist, and believes that the mysterious Island of Gloom may host a surviving Great Auk. This belief leads the children to the island, where they don't find a Great Auk but do find adventure. The Great Auk is also the subject of a Ballet called Still Life at the Penguin Café. The Great Auk is a featured character and subject of the song "Dream too Far" in the ecological musical story, Rockford's Rock Opera. References Cited Texts External links Auk Egg Auction Time Magazine, November 26 1934. Great Auk: Audubon fact sheet 3D view of specimen RMNH 110.104 at Naturalis, Leiden (requires QuickTime browser plugin). | Great_auk |@lemmatized great:49 auk:74 pinguinus:6 impennis:4 formerly:1 genus:5 alca:3 bird:33 become:3 extinct:3 mid:2 century:6 specie:9 group:2 include:4 several:1 flightless:2 giant:1 atlantic:10 survive:3 modern:1 time:4 also:8 know:8 garefowl:3 old:3 norse:2 geirfugl:2 mean:5 spear:1 reference:2 shape:1 beak:2 penguin:4 name:10 today:3 call:4 find:13 number:3 island:15 eastern:2 canada:2 greenland:2 iceland:5 norway:3 ireland:2 britain:2 hunt:3 extinction:5 remain:2 floridian:1 midden:2 suggest:4 least:2 occasionally:2 venture:1 far:5 south:4 winter:5 recently:1 taxonomy:1 leipzig:1 one:3 many:1 originally:1 describe:1 carolus:1 linnaeus:1 work:1 systema:1 naturae:1 analysis:1 mtdna:1 sequence:1 confirm:1 morphological:2 biogeographical:1 study:2 regard:1 razorbill:4 close:2 living:1 relative:2 closely:2 relate:1 little:5 dovekie:1 undergo:1 radically:1 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2,464 | Modular_arithmetic | In mathematics, modular arithmetic (sometimes called clock arithmetic) is a system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers "wrap around" after they reach a certain value—the modulus. Modular arithmetic was introduced by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, published in 1801. Time-keeping on a clock gives an example of modular arithmetic. A familiar use of modular arithmetic is its use in the 12-hour clock: the arithmetic of time-keeping in which the day is divided into two 12 hour periods. If the time is 7:00 now, then 8 hours later it will be 3:00. Usual addition would suggest that the later time should be 7 + 8 = 15, but this is not the answer because clock time "wraps around" every 12 hours; there is no "15 o'clock". Likewise, if the clock starts at 12:00 (noon) and 21 hours elapse, then the time will be 9:00 the next day, rather than 33:00. Since the hour number starts over when it reaches 12, this is arithmetic modulo 12. The congruence relation Modular arithmetic can be handled mathematically by introducing a congruence relation on the integers that is compatible with the operations of the ring of integers: addition, subtraction, and multiplication. For a fixed modulus n, it is defined as follows. Two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n, if their difference a − b is an integer multiple of n. An equivalent definition is that both numbers have the same remainder when divided by n. If this is the case, it is expressed as: The above mathematical statement is read: "a is congruent to b modulo n". For example, because 38 − 14 = 24, which is a multiple of 12. For positive n and non-negative a and b, congruence of a and b can also be thought of as asserting that these two numbers have the same remainder after dividing by the modulus n. So, because both numbers, when divided by 12, have the same remainder (2). Equivalently, the fractional parts of doing a full division of each of the numbers by 12 are the same: 0.1666... (38/12 = 3.166..., 2/12 = 0.1666...). From the prior definition we also see that their difference, a − b = 36, is a whole number (integer) multiple of 12 ( n = 12, 36/12 = 3). The same rule holds for negative values of a: A remark on the notation: Because it is common to consider several congruence relations for different moduli at the same time, the modulus is incorporated in the notation. In spite of the ternary notation, the congruence relation for a given modulus is binary. This would have been clearer if the notation a n b had been used, instead of the common traditional notation. The properties that make this relation a congruence relation (respecting addition, subtraction, and multiplication) are the following. If and , then: The ring of congruence classes Like any congruence relation, congruence modulo n is an equivalence relation, and the equivalence class of the integer a, denoted by , is the set . This set, consisting of the integers congruent to a modulo n, is called the congruence class or residue class of a modulo n. Another notation for this congruence class, which requires that in the context the modulus is known, is . The set of congruence classes modulo n is denoted as (or, alternatively, or ) and defined by: When n ≠ 0, has n elements, and can be written as: When n = 0, does not have zero elements; rather, it is isomorphic to , since . We can define addition, subtraction, and multiplication on by the following rules: The verification that this is a proper definition uses the properties given before. In this way, becomes a commutative ring. For example, in the ring , we have as in the arithmetic for the 24-hour clock. The notation is used, because it is the factor ring of by the ideal containing all integers divisible by n, where is the singleton set . Thus is a field when is a maximal ideal, that is, when is prime. In terms of groups, the residue class is the coset of a in the quotient group , a cyclic group. The set has a number of important mathematical properties that are foundational to various branches of mathematics. Rather than excluding the special case n = 0, it is more useful to include (which, as mentioned before, is isomorphic to the ring of integers), for example when discussing the characteristic of a ring. Remainders The notion of modular arithmetic is related to that of the remainder in division. The operation of finding the remainder is sometimes referred to as the modulo operation and we may see "2 = 14 (mod 12)". The difference is in the use of congruency, indicated by ≡, and equality indicated by =. Equality implies specifically the "common residue", the least non-negative member of an equivalence class. When working with modular arithmetic, each equivalence class is usually represented by its common residue, for example "38 ≡ 2 (mod 12)" which can be found using long division. It follows that, while it is correct to say "38 ≡ 14 (mod 12)", and "2 ≡ 14 (mod 12)", it is incorrect to say "38 = 14 (mod 12)" (with "=" rather than "≡"). The difference is clearest when dividing a negative number, since in that case remainders are negative. Hence to express the remainder we would have to write "-5 ≡ -17 (mod 12)", rather than "7 = -17 (mod 12)", since "=" can only be used with the (positive) common residue. In computer science, it is the remainder operator that is usually indicated by either "%" (e.g. C, java, and javascript) or "mod" (e.g. SQL, Visual Basic), with exceptions (e.g. Excel). These operators are commonly pronounced as "mod", but it is specifically a remainder that is computed (since a negative number will be returned if the first argument is negative). The function modulo instead of mod, like "38 ≡ 14 (modulo 12)" is sometimes used to indicate the common residue rather than a remainder (e.g. Ruby). Parentheses are sometimes dropped from the expression, e.g. "38 ≡ 14 mod 12" or "2 = 14 mod 12", or placed around the divisor e.g. "38 ≡ 14 mod (12)". Notation such as "38(mod 12)" has also been observed, but is ambiguous without contextual clarification. Functional representation of the remainder If , a ≥ 0, and 0 ≤ b < n, then there exists an integer k ≥ 0 such that . b, the remainder can be written , where is the integer (whole) part of . if -n ≤ b < 0 then , Another functional representation is using Sine and Arcsine. Let then , where or and , where or and a is the angle (in radians) of the expression inside the sinus: Applications Modular arithmetic is referenced in number theory, group theory, ring theory, knot theory, abstract algebra, cryptography, computer science, chemistry and the visual and musical arts. It is one of the foundations of number theory, touching on almost every aspect of its study, and provides key examples for group theory, ring theory and abstract algebra. In cryptography, modular arithmetic directly underpins public key systems such as RSA and Diffie-Hellman, as well as providing finite fields which underlie elliptic curves, and is used in a variety of symmetric key algorithms including AES, IDEA, and RC4. In computer science, modular arithmetic is often applied in bitwise operations and other operations involving fixed-width, cyclic data structures. The modulo operation, as implemented in many programming languages and calculators, is an application of modular arithmetic that is often used in this context. In chemistry, the last digit of the CAS registry number (a number which is unique for each chemical compound) is a check digit, which is calculated by taking the last digit of the first two parts of the CAS registry number times 1, the next digit times 2, the next digit times 3 etc., adding all these up and computing the sum modulo 10. In music, arithmetic modulo 12 is used in the consideration of the system of twelve-tone equal temperament, where octave and enharmonic equivalency occurs (that is, pitches in a 1∶2 or 2∶1 ratio are equivalent, and C-sharp is considered the same as D-flat). The method of casting out nines offers a quick check of decimal arithmetic computations performed by hand. It is based on modular arithmetic modulo 9, and specifically on the crucial property that 10 ≡ 1 (mod 9). More generally, modular arithmetic also has application in disciplines such as law (see e.g., apportionment), economics, (see e.g., game theory) and other areas of the social sciences, where proportional division and allocation of resources plays a central part of the analysis. Computational complexity Since modular arithmetic has such a wide range of applications, it is important to know how hard it is to solve a system of congruences. A linear system of congruences can be solved in polynomial time with a form of Gaussian elimination, for details see Linear congruence theorem. Algorithms, such as Montgomery reduction, also exist to allow simple arithmetic operations, such as multiplication and exponentiation modulo n, to be performed efficiently on large numbers. Solving a system of non-linear modular arithmetic equations is NP-complete. For details, see for example M. R. Garey, D. S. Johnson: Computers and Intractability, a Guide to the Theory of NP-Completeness, W. H. Freeman 1979. See also Quadratic residue Legendre symbol Quadratic reciprocity Primitive root Finite field Topics relating to the group theory behind modular arithmetic: Cyclic group Multiplicative group of integers modulo n Other important theorems relating to modular arithmetic: Carmichael's theorem Euler's theorem Fermat's little theorem – a special case of Euler's theorem. Chinese remainder theorem Lagrange's theorem Modulo Modulo operation Division Remainder Pisano period - Fibonacci sequences modulo n Boolean ring Carl Friedrich Gauss References . See in particular chapters 5 and 6 for a review of basic modular arithmetic. Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Section 31.3: Modular arithmetic, pp.862–868. Anthony Gioia, Number Theory, an Introduction Reprint (2001) Dover. ISBN 0-486-41449-3 External links In this modular art article, one can learn more about applications of modular arithmetic in art. An article on modular arithmetic on the GIMPS wiki Modular Arithmetic and patterns in addition and multiplication tables Automated modular arithmetic theorem provers: BAT Spear STP AAProver - Simple C++ framework easy to use in other applications, supporting (among others) all integer operators present in languages such as C/C++/Java and arbitrary bit-width. | Modular_arithmetic |@lemmatized mathematics:2 modular:24 arithmetic:31 sometimes:4 call:2 clock:7 system:6 integer:14 number:17 wrap:2 around:3 reach:2 certain:1 value:2 modulus:7 introduce:2 carl:2 friedrich:2 gauss:2 book:1 disquisitiones:1 arithmeticae:1 publish:1 time:11 keep:2 give:3 example:7 familiar:1 use:14 hour:7 day:2 divide:5 two:4 period:2 later:1 usual:1 addition:5 would:3 suggest:1 late:1 answer:1 every:2 likewise:1 start:2 noon:1 elapse:1 next:3 rather:6 since:6 modulo:19 congruence:15 relation:8 handle:1 mathematically:1 compatible:1 operation:8 ring:10 subtraction:3 multiplication:5 fixed:1 n:23 define:3 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chapter:1 review:1 thomas:1 cormen:1 charles:1 leiserson:1 ronald:1 l:1 rivest:1 clifford:1 stein:1 introduction:2 algorithms:1 second:1 edition:1 mit:1 press:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 isbn:2 section:1 pp:1 anthony:1 gioia:1 reprint:1 dover:1 external:1 link:1 article:2 learn:1 gimp:1 wiki:1 pattern:1 table:1 automate:1 provers:1 bat:1 spear:1 stp:1 aaprover:1 framework:1 easy:1 support:1 among:1 others:1 present:1 arbitrary:1 bit:1 |@bigram modular_arithmetic:23 carl_friedrich:2 friedrich_gauss:2 disquisitiones_arithmeticae:1 arithmetic_modulo:3 addition_subtraction:3 subtraction_multiplication:3 congruent_modulo:2 equivalence_relation:1 commutative_ring:1 maximal_ideal:1 mod_mod:2 angle_radian:1 abstract_algebra:2 diffie_hellman:1 elliptic_curve:1 bitwise_operation:1 check_digit:1 equal_temperament:1 computational_complexity:1 gaussian_elimination:1 linear_congruence:1 np_complete:1 np_completeness:1 quadratic_reciprocity:1 integer_modulo:1 fibonacci_sequence:1 h_cormen:1 cormen_charles:1 e_leiserson:1 leiserson_ronald:1 l_rivest:1 rivest_clifford:1 clifford_stein:1 introduction_algorithms:1 mcgraw_hill:1 external_link:1 |
2,465 | Europa | Europa is a beautiful Phoenician princess in Greek mythology. Her name is the name for Europe in Latin and other languages. Europa may also refer to: Europa Island, a small island in the Indian Ocean which is a possession of France, part of the Îles Éparses Europa (moon), the smallest of the Galilean moons of the planet Jupiter 52 Europa, the seventh-largest asteroid known Entertainment Europa Universalis, a strategy computer game released in 2000 by Paradox Entertainment Europa (film), a film by Lars von Trier released as Zentropa in North America Europa Europa, a 1990 film about a young Jewish man who survived the war pretending to be a German war hero Europa Barbarorum, a "total conversion" modification of the PC game Rome: Total War, designed to improve the game's historical accuracy Europa (wargame), a series of board wargames launched in 1973 Europa (album), by Covenant "Europa", a song from the Epicon album by Globus Europa (record label), a German record label "Europa (Earth's Cry Heaven's Smile)", an instrumental from Carlos Santana's 1976 album Amigos "Europa" (Mónica Naranjo song), a song from Mónica Naranjo's 2008 album Tarantula "Europa and the Pirate Twins", a song appearing on Thomas Dolby's 1982 album The Golden Age of Wireless "Europa", the lead track on Blondie's 1980 album Autoamerican Sega Europa-R, an arcade system board by Sega Europa League, the future name of the UEFA Cup Europa 1400: The Guild, a 2002 video game by 4HEAD Studios and JoWood Productions Transport Bizzarrini Europa, a small GT car produced by Bizzarrini between 1966 and 1969 Europa rocket, an early expendable launch system project of the European Launcher Development Organisation , a number of ships and shore establishments of the Royal Navy Europa (ship), a traditionally rigged tall ship from the Netherlands, built in 1911 but continuing to sail major training missions around the world , an ocean liner operated by the North German Lloyd in 1930–45 , an immigrant ship on the Europe to North America route in 1950–51 (originally the SS Mongolia) , a combined ocean liner / cruise ship operated by the North German Lloyd in 1965–70 and Hapag-Lloyd in 1970–81 , a cruise ship operated by Hapag-Lloyd in 1981–99 , a cruise ship operated by Hapag-Lloyd since 1999 , a cruiseferry operated by Silja Line since 1993 Costa Europa, a cruise ship operated by Costa Cruises since 2002 Europa Aircraft, a light-aircraft kitplane company based in the UK Lotus Europa, a sports car manufactured by Lotus Cars Miscellanea Europa (novel) by Tim Parks Europa, a novel by Romain Gary Europa (New Zealand), an oil company that operated in New Zealand until its purchase by BP in 1989 Europa Hotel, a hotel in Belfast, Northern Ireland Europa, the name of the 3.3 release of the open-source integrated development environment Eclipse Europa Ferris Wheel, a 55-metre transportable Ferris wheel operated by Kipp & Sohn of Bonn Europa Coins, coins with a common theme issued by European countries Europa postage stamp, issued annually since 1956, representing the founding 6 members of the ECSC, European Coal and Steel Community. Europa (web portal), the official web portal of the European Union Europa (racehorse), A competitor that finished 20th in the 2005 Grand National Steeplechase See also Europe (disambiguation) | Europa |@lemmatized europa:37 beautiful:1 phoenician:1 princess:1 greek:1 mythology:1 name:4 europe:3 latin:1 language:1 may:1 also:2 refer:1 island:2 small:3 indian:1 ocean:3 possession:1 france:1 part:1 îles:1 éparses:1 moon:2 galilean:1 planet:1 jupiter:1 seventh:1 large:1 asteroid:1 know:1 entertainment:2 universalis:1 strategy:1 computer:1 game:4 release:3 paradox:1 film:3 lars:1 von:1 trier:1 zentropa:1 north:4 america:2 young:1 jewish:1 man:1 survive:1 war:3 pretending:1 german:4 hero:1 barbarorum:1 total:2 conversion:1 modification:1 pc:1 rome:1 design:1 improve:1 historical:1 accuracy:1 wargame:1 series:1 board:2 wargames:1 launch:2 album:6 covenant:1 song:4 epicon:1 globus:1 record:2 label:2 earth:1 cry:1 heaven:1 smile:1 instrumental:1 carlos:1 santana:1 amigo:1 mónica:2 naranjo:2 tarantula:1 pirate:1 twin:1 appear:1 thomas:1 dolby:1 golden:1 age:1 wireless:1 lead:1 track:1 blondie:1 autoamerican:1 sega:2 r:1 arcade:1 system:2 league:1 future:1 uefa:1 cup:1 guild:1 video:1 studio:1 jowood:1 production:1 transport:1 bizzarrini:2 gt:1 car:3 produce:1 rocket:1 early:1 expendable:1 project:1 european:4 launcher:1 development:2 organisation:1 number:1 ship:8 shore:1 establishment:1 royal:1 navy:1 traditionally:1 rig:1 tall:1 netherlands:1 build:1 continue:1 sail:1 major:1 train:1 mission:1 around:1 world:1 liner:2 operate:8 lloyd:5 immigrant:1 route:1 originally:1 mongolia:1 combined:1 cruise:5 hapag:3 since:4 cruiseferry:1 silja:1 line:1 costa:2 aircraft:2 light:1 kitplane:1 company:2 base:1 uk:1 lotus:2 sport:1 manufacture:1 miscellanea:1 novel:2 tim:1 park:1 romain:1 gary:1 new:2 zealand:2 oil:1 purchase:1 bp:1 hotel:2 belfast:1 northern:1 ireland:1 open:1 source:1 integrate:1 environment:1 eclipse:1 ferris:2 wheel:2 metre:1 transportable:1 kipp:1 sohn:1 bonn:1 coin:2 common:1 theme:1 issue:2 country:1 postage:1 stamp:1 annually:1 represent:1 found:1 member:1 ecsc:1 coal:1 steel:1 community:1 web:2 portal:2 official:1 union:1 racehorse:1 competitor:1 finish:1 grand:1 national:1 steeplechase:1 see:1 disambiguation:1 |@bigram îles_éparses:1 galilean_moon:1 lars_von:1 von_trier:1 carlos_santana:1 uefa_cup:1 ocean_liner:2 ferris_wheel:2 postage_stamp:1 |
2,466 | Foreign_relations_of_Namibia | Namibia follows a largely independent foreign policy, with strong affiliations with states that aided the independence struggle, including Libya and Cuba. In Africa, Namibia has been involved in conflicts in neighbouring Angola as well as the Democratic Republic of Congo. International organizations Namibia is a member of 46 different international organizations. Theses are: Lomé Convention (ACP) African Development Bank (AfDB) African Union (AU) Commonwealth of Nations (CN) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Group of 77 (G-77) International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) International Criminal Court (ICCt) International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) ICRM International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) International Finance Corporation (IFC) International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (IFRCS) International Labour Organization (ILO) International Monetary Fund (IMF) Interpol International Olympic Committee (IOC) International Organization for Migration (IOM, observer) IPU International Organization for Standardization (ISO, correspondent) International Telecommunication Union (ITU) MIGA Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) ONUB Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) SACU Southern African Development Community (SADC) United Nations (UN) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) UNHCR United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) UNMIS UNOCI Universal Postal Union (UPU) WCL World Customs Organization (WCO) World Health Organization (WHO) World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) World Meteorological Organization (WMO) World Tourism Organization (WToO) World Trade Organization (WTrO) United Nations Namibia became the 160th member of the United Nations on April 23, 1990 upon independence. African Union With a small army and a fragile economy, the Namibian Government's principal foreign policy concern is developing strengthened ties within the Southern African region. A dynamic member of the Southern African Development Community, Namibia is a vocal advocate for greater regional integration. Other countries Angola Angola In 1999 Namibia signed a mutual defence pact with its northern neighbour Angola. This affected the Angolan Civil War that has been ongoing since Angola's independence in 1975. Namibias ruling party SWAPO wanted to support the ruling party MPLA in Angola to fight the rebel movement UNITA, whose stronghold is in southern Angola, bordering to Namibia. The defence pact allowed Angolan troops to use Namibian territory when attacking UNITA. The alliance between SWAPO and MPLA is old began as both Angola's and Namibia's ruling parties sought independence during the mid nineteenth century and into the Angolan Civil War. In Angola, the leftist movement MPLA was fighting the rightist movement UNITA, which was supported by South Africa. In Namibia, SWAPO, then being a rebel movement, was fighting for independence from South Africa. As MPLA and SWAPO shared a common ideological ground, and had a common enemy in South Africa, they came to cooperate. The Angolan civil war resulted in a large number of Angolan refugees coming to Namibia. At its peak in 2001 there were over 30,000 Angolan refugees in Namibia. The calmer situation in Angola has made it possible for many of them to return to their home with the help of UNHCR, and in 2004 only 12,600 remained in Namibia. Most of them reside in the refugee camp Osire north of Windhoek. Congo Congo Along with numerous other African nations, Namibia intervened in the Second Congo War, sending troops in support of the Democratic Republic of Congo's president Laurent-Désiré Kabila. It is not clear why Namibia intervened in the conflict, although it has been suggested that Namibia was interested in Congo's natural resources, especially copper. Namibia's decision to join the conflict resulted in criticism from opposition parties, the public, as well as from within the ruling party SWAPO. International disputes Namibia is involved in several minor international disputes. Commission established with Botswana to resolve small residual disputes along the Caprivi Strip, including the Situngu marshlands along the Linyanti River Botswana residents protest Namibia's planned construction of the Okavango hydroelectric dam on Popa Falls Managed dispute with South Africa over the location of the boundary in the Orange River Dormant dispute remains where Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe boundaries converge Angolan rebels and refugees still reside in Namibia. See also Diplomatic missions of Namibia List of diplomatic missions in Namibia Notes and references | Foreign_relations_of_Namibia |@lemmatized namibia:23 follow:1 largely:1 independent:1 foreign:2 policy:2 strong:1 affiliation:1 state:1 aid:1 independence:5 struggle:1 include:2 libya:1 cuba:1 africa:5 involve:2 conflict:3 neighbour:2 angola:10 well:2 democratic:2 republic:2 congo:6 international:18 organization:15 member:3 different:1 thesis:1 lomé:1 convention:1 acp:1 african:7 development:7 bank:2 afdb:1 union:5 au:1 commonwealth:1 nation:10 cn:1 food:1 agriculture:1 fao:1 group:1 g:1 atomic:1 energy:1 agency:1 iaea:1 reconstruction:1 ibrd:1 civil:4 aviation:1 icao:1 criminal:1 court:1 icct:1 confederation:1 free:1 trade:3 icftu:1 icrm:1 fund:2 agricultural:1 ifad:1 finance:1 corporation:1 ifc:1 red:2 cross:1 crescent:1 movement:6 ifrcs:1 labour:1 ilo:1 monetary:1 imf:1 interpol:1 olympic:1 committee:1 ioc:1 migration:1 iom:1 observer:1 ipu:1 standardization:1 iso:1 correspondent:1 telecommunication:1 itu:1 miga:1 non:1 align:1 nam:1 onub:1 organisation:1 prohibition:1 chemical:1 weapon:1 opcw:1 sacu:1 southern:4 community:2 sadc:1 unite:3 un:1 united:5 conference:1 unctad:1 educational:1 scientific:1 cultural:1 unesco:1 unhcr:2 industrial:1 unido:1 mission:4 ethiopia:1 eritrea:1 unmee:1 liberia:1 unmil:1 unmis:1 unoci:1 universal:1 postal:1 upu:1 wcl:1 world:6 custom:1 wco:1 health:1 intellectual:1 property:1 wipo:1 meteorological:1 wmo:1 tourism:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 become:1 april:1 upon:1 small:2 army:1 fragile:1 economy:1 namibian:2 government:1 principal:1 concern:1 develop:1 strengthened:1 tie:1 within:2 region:1 dynamic:1 vocal:1 advocate:1 great:1 regional:1 integration:1 country:1 sign:1 mutual:1 defence:2 pact:2 northern:1 affect:1 angolan:7 war:4 ongoing:1 since:1 rule:3 party:5 swapo:5 want:1 support:3 mpla:4 fight:3 rebel:3 unita:3 whose:1 stronghold:1 border:1 allow:1 troop:2 use:1 territory:1 attack:1 alliance:1 old:1 begin:1 ruling:1 seek:1 mid:1 nineteenth:1 century:1 leftist:1 rightist:1 south:4 share:1 common:2 ideological:1 ground:1 enemy:1 come:2 cooperate:1 result:2 large:1 number:1 refugee:4 peak:1 calmer:1 situation:1 make:1 possible:1 many:1 return:1 home:1 help:1 remain:2 reside:2 camp:1 osire:1 north:1 windhoek:1 along:3 numerous:1 intervene:2 second:1 send:1 president:1 laurent:1 désiré:1 kabila:1 clear:1 although:1 suggest:1 interested:1 natural:1 resource:1 especially:1 copper:1 decision:1 join:1 criticism:1 opposition:1 public:1 dispute:5 several:1 minor:1 commission:1 establish:1 botswana:3 resolve:1 residual:1 caprivi:1 strip:1 situngu:1 marshlands:1 linyanti:1 river:2 resident:1 protest:1 plan:1 construction:1 okavango:1 hydroelectric:1 dam:1 popa:1 fall:1 manage:1 location:1 boundary:2 orange:1 dormant:1 zambia:1 zimbabwe:1 converge:1 still:1 see:1 also:1 diplomatic:2 list:1 note:1 reference:1 |@bigram republic_congo:2 agency_iaea:1 icftu_icrm:1 monetary_fund:1 fund_imf:1 migration_iom:1 iom_observer:1 organization_standardization:1 standardization_iso:1 iso_correspondent:1 community_sadc:1 unesco_unhcr:1 ethiopia_eritrea:1 eritrea_unmee:1 liberia_unmil:1 universal_postal:1 upu_wcl:1 angola_namibia:2 angolan_civil:3 nineteenth_century:1 caprivi_strip:1 hydroelectric_dam:1 botswana_namibia:1 zambia_zimbabwe:1 diplomatic_mission:2 |
2,467 | GTE | GTE Corporation (formerly General Telephone & Electronics Corporation) was the largest of the "independent" US telephone companies during the days of the Bell System. It acquired the third largest independent, Continental Telephone (ConTel) in 1991. Verizon | Investor Relations | Shareowner Information | Cost Basis Worksheet They also owned Automatic Electric, a telephone equipment supplier similar in many ways to Western Electric, and Sylvania Lighting, the only non-communications-oriented company under GTE ownership. GTE provided local telephone service to a large number of areas of the U.S. through operating companies, much like how American Telephone & Telegraph provided local telephone service through its 22 Bell Operating Companies. The company also acquired BBN Planet, one of the earliest Internet service providers, in 1997. That division became known as GTE Internetworking, and was later spun off into the independent company Genuity (a name recycled from another Internet company GTE acquired in 1997) as part of the GTE-Bell Atlantic merger that created Verizon. GTE operated in Canada via large interests in subsidiary companies such as BC TEL and Quebec-Téléphone. When foreign ownership restrictions on telecommunications companies were introduced, GTE's ownership was grandfathered. When BC Tel merged with Telus (the name given the privatized Alberta Government Telephones (AGT)) to create BCT.Telus, GTE's Canadian subsidiaries were merged into the new parent, making it the second-largest telecommunications carrier in Canada. As such, GTE's successor, Verizon Communications, was the only foreign telecommunications company with a greater than 20% interest in a Canadian carrier, until Verizon completely divested itself of its shares in 2004. In the Caribbean, CONTEL purchased several major stakes in the newly independent countries of the British West Indies (Namely in Barbados, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago). Cable & Wireless Barbados: Early History Telecommunications Services of Trinidad and Tobago - Corporate History Prior to GTE's merger with Bell Atlantic, GTE also maintained an interactive television service joint-venture called GTE mainStreet (sometimes also called mainStreet USA) as well as an interactive entertainment and video game publishing operation, GTE Interactive Media. History GTE's heritage can be traced to 1918, when three Wisconsin public utility accountants (John F. O'Connell, Sigurd L. Odegard, and John A. Pratt) pooled $33,500 to purchase the Richland Center Telephone Company, serving 1,466 telephones in the dairy belt of southern Wisconsin. In 1920 the three accountants formed a corporation, Commonwealth Telephone Company, with Odegard as president, Pratt as vice-president, and O'Connell as secretary. Richland Center Telephone became part of Commonwealth Telephone, which quickly purchased telephone companies in three nearby communities. In 1922 Pratt resigned as vice-president and was replaced by Clarence R. Brown, a former Bell System employee. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html By the mid-1920s Commonwealth had extended beyond Wisconsin borders and purchased the Belvidere Telephone Company in Illinois. It also diversified into other utilities by acquiring two small Wisconsin electrical companies. Expansion was stepped up in 1926, when Odegard secured an option to purchase Associated Telephone Company of Long Beach, California and proceeded to devise a plan for a holding company, to be named Associated Telephone Utilities Company. An aggressive acquisition program was quickly launched in eastern, midwestern, and western states, with the company using its own common stock to complete transactions. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html During its first six years, Associated Telephone Utilities acquired 340 telephone companies, which were consolidated into 45 companies operating more than 437,000 telephones in 25 states. By the time the stock market bottomed out in October 1929, Associated Telephone Utilities was operating about 500,000 telephones with revenues approaching $17 million. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html In January 1930 a new subsidiary, Associated Telephone Investment Company, was established. Designed to support its parent's acquisition program, the new company's primary business was buying company stock in order to bolster its market value. Within two years the investment company had incurred major losses, and a $1 million loan had to be negotiated. Associated Telephone Investment was dissolved but not before its parent's financial plight had become irreversible, and in 1933 Associated Telephone Utilities went into receivership. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html The company was reorganized that same year and resurfaced in 1935 as General Telephone Corporation, operating 12 newly consolidated companies. John Winn, a 26-year veteran of the Bell System, was named president. In 1936 General Telephone created a new subsidiary, General Telephone Directory Company, to publish directories for the parent's entire service area. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html Like other businesses, the telephone industry was under government restrictions during World War II, and General Telephone was called upon to increase services at military bases and war-production factories. Following the war, General Telephone reactivated an acquisitions program that had been dormant for more than a decade and purchased 118,000 telephone lines between 1946 and 1950. In 1950 General Telephone purchased its first telephone-equipment manufacturing subsidiary, Leich Electric Company, along with the related Leich Sales Corporation. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html By 1951, General Telephone's assets included 15 telephone companies operating in 20 states. In 1955 Theodore Gary & Company, the second-largest independent telephone company, which had 600,000 telephone lines, was merged into General Telephone, which had grown into the largest independent outside the Bell System. The merger gave the company 2.5 million lines. Theodore Gary's assets included telephone operations in the Dominican Republic, British Columbia, and the Philippines, as well as Automatic Electric, the second-largest telephone equipment manufacturer in the U.S. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html In 1959 General Telephone and Sylvania Electric Products merged, and the parent's name was changed to General Telephone & Electronics Corporation (GT&E). The merger gave Sylvania - a leader in such industries as lighting, television and radio, and chemistry and metallurgy - the needed capital to expand. For General Telephone, the merger meant the added benefit of Sylvania's extensive research and development capabilities in the field of electronics. Power also orchestrated other acquisitions in the late 1950s, including Peninsular Telephone Company in Florida, with 300,000 lines, and Lenkurt Electric Company, Inc., a leading producer of microwave and data transmissions system. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html In 1960 the subsidiary GT&E International Incorporated was formed to consolidate manufacturing and marketing activities of Sylvania, Automatic Electric, and Lenkurt, outside the United States. During the early 1960s the scope of GT&E's research, development, and marketing activities was broadened. In 1963 Sylvania began full-scale production of color television picture tubes, and within two years it was supplying color tubes for 18 of the 23 domestic U.S. television manufacturers. About the same time, Automatic Electric began supplying electronic switching equipment for the U.S. defense department's global communications systems, and GT&E International began producing earth-based stations for both foreign and domestic markets. GT&E's telephone subsidiaries, meanwhile, began acquiring community-antenna television systems (CATV) franchises in their operating areas. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html In 1964 GT&E president Leslie H. Warner orchestrated a deal that merged Western Utilities Corporation, the nation's second-largest independent telephone company, with 635,000 telephones, into GT&E. The following year Sylvania introduced the revolutionary four-sided flashcube, enhancing its position as the world's largest flashbulb producer. Acquisitions in telephone service continued under Warner during the mid-1960s. Purchases included Quebec Telephone in Canada, Hawaiian Telephone Company, and Northern Ohio Telephone Company and added a total of 622,000 telephone lines to GT&E operations. By 1969 GT&E was serving ten million telephones. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html In March 1970 GT&E's New York City headquarters was bombed by a radical antiwar group in protest of the company's participation in defense work. In December of that year the GT&E board agreed to move the company's headquarters to Stamford, Connecticut. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html After initially proposing to build separate satellite systems, GT&E and its telecommunications rival, American Telephone & Telegraph, announced in 1974 joint venture plans for the construction and operation of seven earth-based stations interconnected by two satellites. That same year Sylvania acquired name and distribution rights for Philco television and stereo products. GTE International expanded its activities during the same period, acquiring television manufacturers in Canada and Israel and a telephone manufacturer in Germany. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html In 1976 newly elected chairman Theodore F. Brophy reorganized the company along five global product lines: communications, lighting, consumer electronics, precision materials, and electrical equipment. GTE International was phased out during the reorganization, and GTE Products Corporation was formed to encompass both domestic and foreign manufacturing and marketing operations. At the same time, GTE Communications Products was formed to oversee operations of Automatic Electric, Lenkurt, Sylvania, and GTE Information Systems. In 1979, another reorganization soon followed under new president Theodore F. Vanderslice. GTE Products Group was eliminated as an organizational unit and GTE Electrical Products, consisting of lighting, precision materials, and electrical equipment, was formed. Vanderslice also revitalized the GT&E Telephone Operating Group in order to develop competitive strategies for anticipated regulatory changes in the telecommunications industry. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html GT&E sold its consumer electronics businesses, including the accompanying brand names of Philco and Sylvania in 1980, after watching revenues from television and radio operations decrease precipitously with the success of foreign manufacturers. Following AT&T's 1982 announcement that it would divest 22 telephone operating companies, GT&E made a number of reorganization moves. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html In 1982 the company adopted the name GTE Corporation and formed GTE Mobilnet Incorporated to handle the company's entrance into the new cellular telephone business. In 1983 GTE sold its electrical equipment, brokerage information services, and cable television equipment businesses. That same year, Automatic Electric and Lenkurt were combined as GTE Network Systems. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html GTE became the third-largest long-distance telephone company in 1983 through the acquisition of Southern Pacific Communications Company. At the same time, Southern Pacific Satellite Company was acquired, and the two firms were renamed GTE Sprint Communications Corporation and GTE Spacenet Corporation, respectively. Through an agreement with the Department of Justice, GTE conceded to keep Sprint Communications separate from its other telephone companies and limit other GTE telephone subsidiaries in certain markets. In December 1983 Vanderslice resigned as president and chief operating officer. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html In 1984 GTE formalized its decision to concentrate on three core businesses: telecommunications, lighting, and precision metals. That same year, the company's first satellite was launched, and GTE's cellular telephone service went into operation; GTE's earnings exceeded $1 billion for the first time. In 1986, GTE acquired Airfone Inc., a telephone service provider for commercial aircraft and railroads, and Rotaflex plc, a United Kingdom-based manufacturer of lighting fixtures. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html Beginning in 1986 GTE spun off several operations to form joint ventures. In 1986 GTE Sprint and United Telecommunication's long-distance subsidiary, U.S. Telecom, agreed to merge and form US Sprint Communications Company, with each parent retaining a 50 percent interest in the new firm. That same year, GTE transferred its international transmission, overseas central office switching, and business systems operations to a joint venture with Siemens AG of Germany, which took 80 percent ownership of the new firm. The following year, GTE transferred its business systems operations in the United States to a new joint venture, Fujitsu GTE Business Systems, Inc., formed with Fujitsu Limited, which retained 80 percent ownership. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html In 1988 GTE divested its consumer communications products unit as part of a telecommunications strategy to place increasing emphasis on the services sector. The following year GTE sold the majority of its interest in US Sprint to United Telecommunications and its interest in Fujitsu GTE Business Systems to Fujitsu. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html In 1989 GTE and AT&T formed the joint venture company AG Communication Systems Corporation, designed to bring advanced digital technology to GTE's switching systems. GTE retained 51 percent control over the joint venture, with AT&T pledging to take complete control of the new firm in 15 years. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html With an increasing emphasis on telecommunications, in 1989 GTE launched a program to become the first cellular provider offering nationwide service and introduced the nation's first rural service area, providing cellular service on the Hawaiian island of Kauai. The following year GTE acquired the Providence Journal Company's cellular properties in five southern states for $710 million and became the second largest cellular-service provider in the United States. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html In 1990 GTE reorganized its activities around three business groups: telecommunications products and services, telephone operations, and electrical products. That same year, GTE and Contel Corporation announced merger plans that would strengthen GTE's telecommunications and telephone sectors. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html Following action or review by more than 20 governmental bodies, in March 1991 the merger of GTE and Contel was approved. Over half of Contel's $6.6 billion purchase price, $3.9 billion, was assumed debt. When Charles Lee succeeded James (Rocky) L. Johnson to become CEO in 1992, his first order of business was reduction of that obligation. He sold GTE's North American Lighting business to a Siemens affiliate for over $1 billion, shaved off local exchange properties in Idaho, Tennessee, Utah, and West Virginia to generate another $1 billion, divested its interest in Sprint in 1992, and sold its GTE Spacenet satellite operations to General Electric in 1994. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html The Telecommunications Act of 1996, promised to encourage competition among local phone providers, long distance services, and cable television companies. Many leading telecoms prepared for the new competitive realities by aligning themselves with entertainment and information providers. GTE, on the other hand, continued to focus on its core operations, seeking to make them as efficient as possible. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html Among other goals, GTE's plan sought to double revenues and slash costs by $1 billion per year by focusing on five key areas of operation: technological enhancement of wireline and wireless systems, expansion of data services, global expansion, and diversification into video services. GTE hoped to cross-sell its large base of wireline customers on wireless, data and video services, launching Tele-Go, a user-friendly service that combined cordless and cellular phone features. The company bought broadband spectrum cellular licenses in Atlanta, Seattle, Cincinnati and Denver, and formed a joint venture with SBC Communications to enhance its cellular capabilities in Texas. In 1995, the company undertook a 15-state test of video conferencing services, as well as a video dialtone (VDT) experiment that proposed to offer cable television programming to 900,000 homes by 1997. GTE also formed a video programming and interservices joint venture with Ameritech Corporation, BellSouth Corporation, SBC, and The Walt Disney Company in the fall of 1995. Foreign efforts included affiliations with phone companies in Argentina, Mexico, Germany, Japan, Canada, the Dominican Republic, Venezuela and China. The early 1990s reorganization included a 37.5 percent workforce reduction, from 177,500 in 1991 to 111,000 by 1994. Lee's fivefold strategy had begun to bear fruit by the mid-1990s. While the communication conglomerate's sales remained rather flat, at about $19.8 billion, from 1992 through 1994, its net income increased by 43.7 percent, from $1.74 billion to a record $2.5 billion, during the same period. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/GTE-Corporation-Company-History.html Merger with Bell Atlantic Bell Atlantic merged with GTE on June 30, 2000, renaming itself Verizon Communications. The seven GTE operating companies retained by Verizon are now collectively known as Verizon West division of Verizon (including east coast service territories). Six others were sold off: Retained by Verizon Verizon California, Inc. Verizon Florida, Inc. Verizon Northwest, Inc. Verizon South, Inc. GTE Southwest, Inc. d/b/a Verizon Southwest Verizon North, Inc. Contel of the South, Inc. d/b/a Verizon Mid-States Sold/transferred GTE Alaska Inc., sold to ATEAC GTE Arkansas, Inc. sold to CenturyTel GTE Hawaiian Telephone Company, Inc., later Verizon Hawaii, Inc., sold to The Carlyle Group in 2005 Micronesian Telecommunications GTE Midwest Inc., later Verizon Midwest, Inc., sold to CenturyTel Contel of Minnesota, Inc., sold to Citizens Communications GTE of Iowa - Spun off to Iowa Telecom Verizon Dominicana (CODETEL), sold to América Móvil Telecomunicaciones de Puerto Rico d/b/a Puerto Rico Telephone, assets sold to América Móvil GTE Government Systems to General Dynamics GTE Wireless (assets in Alabama, Arizona, Florida, Ohio, New Mexico, South Carolina and Texas) sold to Alltel. 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2,468 | Easter | Easter (, Pascha) is the most important annual religious feast in the Christian liturgical year. Anthony Aveni, "The Easter/Passover Season: Connecting Time's Broken Circle," The Book of the Year: A Brief History of Our Seasonal Holidays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 64-78. According to Christian scripture, Jesus was resurrected from the dead on the third day after his crucifixion. Christians celebrate this resurrection on Easter Day or Easter Sunday 'Easter Day' is the traditional name in English for the principal feast of Easter, used (for instance) by the Book of Common Prayer, but in the 20th century 'Easter Sunday' became widely used, despite this term also referring to the following Sunday. (also Resurrection Day or Resurrection Sunday), two days after Good Friday and three days after Maundy Thursday. The chronology of his death and resurrection is variously interpreted to be between A.D. 26 and 36. Easter also refers to the season of the church year called Eastertide or the Easter Season. Traditionally the Easter Season lasted for the forty days from Easter Day until Ascension Day but now officially lasts for the fifty days until Pentecost. The first week of the Easter Season is known as Easter Week or the Octave of Easter. Easter also marks the end of Lent, a season of fasting, prayer, and penance. Easter is a moveable feast, meaning it is not fixed in relation to the civil calendar. The First Council of Nicaea (325) established the date of Easter as the first Sunday after the full moon (the Paschal Full Moon) following the vernal equinox. Frequently asked questions about the date of Easter Ecclesiastically, the equinox is reckoned to be on 21 March. The date of Easter therefore varies between 22 March and 25 April. Eastern Christianity bases its calculations on the Julian Calendar whose 21 March corresponds, during the twenty-first century, to 3 April in the Gregorian Calendar, in which calendar their celebration of Easter therefore varies between 4 April and 8 May. Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover not only for much of its symbolism but also for its position in the calendar. Relatively newer elements such as the Easter Bunny and Easter egg hunts have become part of the holiday's modern celebrations, and those aspects are often celebrated by many Christians and non-Christians alike. There are also some Christian denominations who do not celebrate Easter. Theological significance The New Testament teaches that the resurrection of Jesus, which Easter celebrates, is a foundation of the Christian faith. The resurrection established Jesus as the powerful son of God and is cited as proof that God will judge the world in righteousness. God has given Christians "a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead". Christians, through faith in the working of God are spiritually resurrected with Jesus so that they may walk in a new way of life. Easter is linked to the Passover and Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper and crucifixion that preceded the resurrection. As Jesus prepared himself and his disciples for his death in the upper room during the Last Supper, he gave the Passover meal a new meaning. He identified the loaf of bread and cup of wine as symbolizing his body soon to be sacrificed and his blood soon to be shed. states, "Get rid of the old yeast that you may be a new batch without yeast—as you really are. For Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed"; this refers to the Passover requirement to have no yeast in the house and to Christ's identification as the Paschal lamb. , , , , and the associated notes and Passion Week table in One interpretation of the Gospel of John is that Jesus, as the Passover lamb, was crucified at roughly the same time as the Passover lambs were being slain in the temple, on the afternoon of Nisan 14. . The scriptural instructions specify that the lamb is to be slain "between the two evenings", that is, at twilight. By the Roman period, however, the sacrifices were performed in the mid-afternoon. Josephus, Jewish War 6.10.1/423 ("They sacrifice from the ninth to the eleventh hour"). Philo, Special Laws 2.27/145 ("Many myriads of victims from noon till eventide are offered by the whole people"). This interpretation, however, is inconsistent with the chronology in the Synoptic Gospels. It assumes that text literally translated "the preparation of the passover" in refers to Nisan 14 (Preparation Day for the Passover) and not necessarily to Yom Shishi (Friday, Preparation Day for Sabbath) , , , and the associated notes in and that the priests' desire to be ritually pure in order to "eat the passover" in refers to eating the Passover lamb, not to the public offerings made during the days of Unleavened Bread (). Origins and etymology Anglo-Saxon and German The modern English term Easter is speculated to have developed from Old English word Ēastre or Ēostre or Eoaster, which itself developed prior to 899. The name refers to Eostur-monath, a month of the Germanic calendar attested by Bede as named after the goddess Ēostre of Anglo-Saxon paganism. Barnhart, Robert K. The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology (1995) ISBN 0-06-270084-7. Bede notes that Eostur-monath was the equivalent to the month of April, and that feasts held in her honor during Ēostur-monath had died out by the time of his writing, replaced with the Christian custom of Easter. De Temporum Ratione 15: "Eosturmonath, qui nunc paschalis mensis interpretatur, quondam a dea illorum quae Eostre vocabatur et cui in illo festa celebrabant nomen habuit. A cuius nomine nunc paschale tempus congnominant, consueto antiquae observationis vocabulo gaudia novae solemnitatis vocantes." (Eosturmonath, which now is taken to mean Paschal month, once had its name from their goddess who was called Eostre, and to whom they celebrated a festival in that month. Now they call the Paschal season by the name of this month, calling the joys of the new rite by the old observance's customary name.) Using comparative linguistic evidence from continental Germanic sources, the 19th century scholar Jacob Grimm proposed the existence of an equivalent form of Eostre among the pre-Christian beliefs of the continental Germanic peoples, whose name he reconstructed as *Ostara. The implications of the goddess have resulted in scholarly theories about whether or not Eostre is an invention of Bede, theories connecting Eostre with records of Germanic folk custom (including hares and eggs), and as descendant of the Proto-Indo-European goddess of the dawn through the etymology of her name. Grimm's reconstructed *Ostara has had some influence in modern popular culture. Modern German has Ostern, but otherwise, Germanic languages have generally borrowed the form pascha, see below. Semitic, Romance, Celtic and other Germanic languages The Greek word Πάσχα and hence the Latin form Pascha is derived from Hebrew Pesach () meaning the festival of Passover. In Greek the word Ανασταση, (upstanding) is used also as an alternative. Christians speaking Arabic or other Semitic languages generally use names cognate to Pesach. For instance, the second word of the Arabic name of the festival has the root F-Ṣ-Ḥ, which given the sound laws applicable to Arabic is cognate to Hebrew P-S-Ḥ, with "Ḥ" realized as in Modern Hebrew and in Arabic. Arabic also uses the term , meaning "festival of the resurrection," but this term is less common. In Maltese the word is L-Għid. In Ge'ez and the modern Ethiosemitic languages of Ethiopia and Eritrea, two forms exist: ፋሲካ ("Fasika," fāsīkā) from Greek Pascha, and ትንሣኤ ("Tensae," tinśā'ē), the latter from the Semitic root N-Ś-', meaning "to rise" (cf. Arabic nasha'a - ś merged with "sh" in Arabic and most non-South Semitic languages). In all Romance languages the name of the Easter festival is derived from the Latin Pascha. In Spanish, Easter is la Pascua, in Italian Pasqua, in Portuguese Páscoa and in Romanian Paşti. In French, the name of Easter Pâques also derives from the Latin word but the s following the a has been lost and the two letters have been transformed into a â with a circumflex accent by elision. In all modern Celtic languages the term for Easter is derived from Latin. In Brythonic languages this has yielded Welsh Pasg, Cornish and Breton Pask. In Goidelic languages the word was borrowed before these languages had re-developed the /p/ sound and as a result the initial /p/ was replaced with /k/. This yielded Irish Cáisc, Gaelic Càisg and Manx Caisht. These terms are normally used with the definite article in Goidelic languages, causing lenition in all cases: An Cháisc, A' Chàisg and Y Chaisht. In Dutch, Easter is known as pasen and in the Scandinavian languages Easter is known as påske (Danish and Norwegian), påsk (Swedish), páskar (Icelandic) and páskir (Faeroese). The name is derived directly from Hebrew Pesach. The letter å is a double a pronounced /o/, and an alternate spelling is paaske or paask. Slavic languages In most Slavic languages, the name for Easter either means "Great Day" or "Great Night". For example, Wielkanoc, Veľká noc and Velikonoce mean "Great Night" or "Great Nights" in Polish, Slovak and Czech, respectively. Велигден (Veligden), Великдень (Velykden), Великден (Velikden), and Вялікдзень (Vyalikdzyen) mean "The Great Day" in Macedonian, Ukrainian, Bulgarian, and Belarusian, respectively. In Croatian and Serbian, however, the day's name reflects a particular theological connection: it is called Uskrs, meaning "Resurrection". In Croatian it is also called Vazam (Vzem or Vuzem in Old Croatian), which is a noun that originated from the Old Church Slavonic verb vzeti (now uzeti in Croatian, meaning "to take"). It also explains the fact that in Serbian Easter is sometimes also called Vaskrs, a liturgical form inherited from the Serbian recension of Church Slavonic. The archaic term Velja noć (velmi: Old Slavic for "great"; noć: "night") was used in Croatian while the term Velikden ("Great Day") was used in Serbian. It is believed that Cyril and Methodius, the "holy brothers" who baptized the Slavic people and translated Christian books from Greek into Old Church Slavonic, invented the word Uskrs from the word krsnuti or "enliven". It should be noted that in these languages the prefix Velik (Great) is used in the names of the Holy Week and the three feast days preceding Easter. Another exception is Russian, in which the name of the feast, Пасха (Paskha), is a borrowing of the Greek form via Old Church Slavonic. Max Vasmer, Russisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg, 1950-1958. Finno-Ugric languages In Finnish the name for Easter pääsiäinen, traces back to the Swedish påsk, as does the Sámi word Beassážat. The Estonian name lihavõtted and the Hungarian húsvét, however, literally mean the taking of the meat, relating to the end of the Great Lent fasting period. Easter in the early Church The first Christians, Jewish and Gentile, were certainly aware of the Hebrew calendar (; ; ; ; ), but there is no direct evidence that they celebrated any specifically Christian annual festivals. The observance by Christians of non-Jewish annual festivals is believed by some to be an innovation postdating the Apostolic Age. The ecclesiastical historian Socrates Scholasticus (b. 380) attributes the observance of Easter by the church to the perpetuation of its custom, "just as many other customs have been established," stating that neither Jesus nor his Apostles enjoined the keeping of this or any other festival. However, when read in context, this is not a rejection or denigration of the celebration—which, given its currency in Scholasticus' time would be surprising—but is merely part of a defense of the diverse methods for computing its date. Indeed, although he describes the details of the Easter celebration as deriving from local custom, he insists the feast itself is universally observed. Socrates, Church History, 5.22, in Perhaps the earliest extant primary source referencing Easter is a mid-2nd century Paschal homily attributed to Melito of Sardis, which characterizes the celebration as a well-established one. Evidence for another kind of annual Christian festival, the commemoration of martyrs, begins to appear at about the same time as evidence for the celebration of Easter. Cheslyn Jones, Geoffrey Wainwright, Edward Yarnold, and Paul Bradshaw, Eds., The Study of Liturgy, Revised Edition, Oxford University Press, New York, 1992, p. 474. But while martyrs' "birthdays" were celebrated on fixed dates in the local solar calendar, the date of Easter was fixed by means of the local Jewish lunisolar calendar. This is consistent with the celebration of Easter having entered Christianity during its earliest, Jewish period, but does not leave the question free of doubt. Cheslyn Jones, Geoffrey Wainwright, Edward Yarnold, and Paul Bradshaw, Eds., The Study of Liturgy, Revised Edition, Oxford University Press, New York, 1992, p. 459:"[Easter] is the only feast of the Christian Year that can plausibly claim to go back to apostolic times...[It] must derive from a time when Jewish influence was effective....because it depends on the lunar calendar (every other feast depends on the solar calendar)." Second-century controversy By the later second century, it was accepted that the celebration of Pascha (Easter) was a practice of the disciples and an undisputed tradition. The Quartodeciman controversy, the first of several Paschal/Easter controversies, then arose concerning the date on which Pascha should be celebrated. The term "Quartodeciman" refers to the practice of celebrating Pascha or Easter on Nisan 14 of the Hebrew calendar, "the 's passover" (). According to the church historian Eusebius, the Quartodeciman Polycarp (bishop of Smyrna, by tradition a disciple of John the Evangelist) debated the question with Anicetus (bishop of Rome). The Roman province of Asia was Quartodeciman, while the Roman and Alexandrian churches continued the fast until the Sunday following, wishing to associate Easter with Sunday. Neither Polycarp nor Anicetus persuaded the other, but they did not consider the matter schismatic either, parting in peace and leaving the question unsettled. Controversy arose when Victor, bishop of Rome a generation after Anicetus, attempted to excommunicate Polycrates of Ephesus and all other bishops of Asia for their Quartodecimanism. According to Eusebius, a number of synods were convened to deal with the controversy, which he regarded as all ruling in support of Easter on Sunday. Eusebius, Church History 5.23. Polycrates (c. 190), however wrote to Victor defending the antiquity of Asian Quartodecimanism. Victor's attempted excommunication was apparently rescinded and the two sides reconciled upon the intervention of bishop Irenaeus and others, who reminded Victor of the tolerant precedent of Anicetus. Quartodecimanism seems to have lingered into the fourth century, when Socrates of Constantinople recorded that some Quartodecimans were deprived of their churches by John Chrysostom Socrates, Church History, 6.11, at and that some were harassed by Nestorius. Socrates, Church History 7.29, at Third/fourth-century controversy and Council It is not known how long the Nisan 14 practice continued. But both those who followed the Nisan 14 custom, and those who set Easter to the following Sunday (the Sunday of Unleavened Bread) had in common the custom of consulting their Jewish neighbors to learn when the month of Nisan would fall, and setting their festival accordingly. By the later 3rd century, however, some Christians began to express dissatisfaction with the custom of relying on the Jewish community to determine the date of Easter. The chief complaint was that the Jewish communities sometimes erred in setting Passover to fall before the spring equinox. Anatolius of Laodicea in the later third century wrote:Those who place [the first lunar month of the year] in [the twelfth zodiacal sign before the spring equinox] and fix the Paschal fourteenth day accordingly, make a great and indeed an extraordinary mistake Eusebius, Church History, 7.32. Peter, bishop of Alexandria (died 312), had a similar complaint On the fourteenth day of [the month], being accurately observed after the equinox, the ancients celebrated the Passover, according to the divine command. Whereas the men of the present day now celebrate it before the equinox, and that altogether through negligence and error. Peter of Alexandria, quoted in the Chronicon Paschale. In Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, eds., Ante-Nicene Christian Library, Volume 14: The Writings of Methodius, Alexander of Lycopolis, Peter of Alexandria, And Several Fragments, Edinburgh, 1869, p. 326, at The Sardica paschal table MS Verona, Biblioteca Capitolare LX(58) folios 79v-80v. confirms these complaints, for it indicates that the Jews of some eastern Mediterranean city (possibly Antioch) fixed Nisan 14 on March 11 (Julian) in A.D. 328, on March 5 in A.D. 334, on March 2 in A.D. 337, and on March 10 in A.D. 339, all well before the spring equinox. Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community: A History of the Jewish Calendar Second Century BCE - Tenth Century CE, Oxford, 2001, pp. 124-132. Because of this dissatisfaction with reliance on the Jewish calendar, some Christians began to experiment with independent computations. Eusebius reports that Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria, proposed an 8-year Easter cycle, and quotes a letter from Anatolius, Bishop of Laodicea, that refers to a 19-year cycle. Eusebius, Church History, 7.20, 7.31. An 8-year cycle has been found inscribed on a statue unearthed in Rome in the 17th century, dated to the third century. Allen Brent, Hippolytus and the Roman Church in the Third Century, Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1995. Others, however, felt that the customary practice of consulting Jews should continue, even if the Jewish computations were in error. A version of the Apostolic Constitutions used by the sect of the Audiani advised:Do not do your own computations, but instead observe Passover when your brethren from the circumcision do. If they err [in the computation], it is no matter to you.... Epiphanius, Adversus Haereses Heresy 70, 10,1, in Frank Williams, The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis Books II and II, Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1994, p. 412. Also quoted in Margaret Dunlop Gibson, The Didascalia Apostolorum in Syriac, London, 1903, p. vii. Two other objections that some Christians may have had to maintaining the custom of consulting the Jewish community in order to determine Easter are implied in Constantine's letter from the Council of Nicea to the absent bishops:<blockquote> It appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews...For we have it in our power, if we abandon their custom, to prolong the due observance of this ordinance to future ages by a truer order...For their boast is absurd indeed, that it is not in our power without instruction from them to observe these things....Being altogether ignorant of the true adjustment of this question, they sometimes celebrate Passover twice in the same year.<ref>Eusebius, Life of Constantine, 3.18, in A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series, Volume 14: The Seven Ecumenical Councils, Eerdmans, 1956, p. 54.</ref> </blockquote> The reference to Passover twice in the same year might refer to the geographical diversity that existed at that time in the Jewish calendar, due in large measure to the breakdown of communications in the Empire. Jews in one city might determine Passover differently from Jews in another city. Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community: A History of the Jewish Calendar Second Century BCE - Tenth Century CE, Oxford, 2001, pp. 72-79. The reference to the Jewish "boast", and, indeed, the strident anti-Jewish tone of the whole passage, suggests another issue: some Christians thought that it was undignified for Christians to depend on Jews to set the date of a Christian festival. This controversy between those who advocated independent computations, and those who wished to continue the custom of relying on the Jewish calendar, was formally resolved by the First Council of Nicaea in 325 (see below), which endorsed the move to independent computations, effectively requiring the abandonment of the old custom of consulting the Jewish community in those places where it was still used. That the older custom (called "protopaschite" by historians) did not at once die out, but persisted for a time, is indicated by the existence of canons Apostolic Canon 7: If any bishop, presbyter, or deacon shall celebrate the holy day of Easter before the vernal equinox with the Jews, let him be deposed. A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series, Volume 14: The Seven Ecumenical Councils, Eerdmans, 1956, p. 594. and sermons St. John Chrysostom, "Against those who keep the first Passover", in Saint John Chrysostom: Discourses against Judaizing Christians, translated by Paul W. Harkins, Washington, D.C., 1979, p. 47ff. against it. Some historians have argued that mid-4th century Roman authorities, in an attempt to enforce the Nicene decision on Easter, attempted to interfere with the Jewish calendar. This theory was developed by S. Liebermann, S. Liebermann, "Palestine in the 3rd and 4rh Centuries", Jewish Quarterly Review (New Series), 36, p. 334 (1946). and is repeated by S. Safrai in the Ben-Sasson History of the Jewish People. S. Safrai, "From the Roman Anarchy Until the Abolition of the Patriarchate", in H. H. Ben-Sasson, ed., A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1969 (English trans. 1976), p. 350. This view receives no support, however, in surviving mid-4th century Roman legislation on Jewish matters. Amnon Linder, The Jews in Roman Imperial Legislation, Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1987. Linder presents only one piece of legislation from the time of Constantine II and one from the time of Constantius II dealing with Jewish matters. Neither has anything do do with the Jewish calendar. The Historian Procopius, in his Secret History, Procopius, Secret History 28.16-19. claims that the emperor Justinian attempted to interfere with the Jewish calendar in the 6th century, and a modern writer has suggested Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community: A History of the Jewish Calendar Second Century BCE-Tenth Century CE, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001, pp. 85-87. that this measure may have been directed against the protopaschites. However, none of Justinian's surviving edicts dealing with Jewish matters is explicitly directed against the Jewish calendar, Justinian's Novel 146 of A.D. 553 does, however, forbid public reading of the deuterosis, (probably the Mishnah) or expounding of its doctrines. Amnon Linder, The Jews in Roman Imperial Legislation, pp. 402-411. making the interpretation of Procopius's statement a complex matter. Date of Easter + Dates for Easter 1982–2022In Gregorian dates Year Western Eastern 1982 April 11 April 18 1983 April 3 May 8 1984 April 22 1985 April 7 April 14 1986 March 30 May 4 1987 April 19 1988 April 3 April 10 1989 March 26 April 30 1990 April 15 1991 March 31 April 7 1992 April 19 April 26 1993 April 11 April 18 1994 April 3 May 1 1995 April 16 April 23 1996 April 7 April 14 1997 March 30 April 27 1998 April 12 April 19 1999 April 4 April 11 2000 April 23 April 30 2001 April 15 2002 March 31 May 5 2003 April 20 April 27 2004 April 11 2005 March 27 May 1 2006 April 16 April 23 2007 April 8 2008 March 23 April 27 2009* April 12 April 19 2010 April 4 2011 April 24 2012 April 8 April 15 2013 March 31 May 5 2014 April 20 2015 April 5 April 12 2016 March 27 May 1 2017 April 16 2018 April 1 April 8 2019 April 21 April 28 2020 April 12 April 19 2021 April 4 May 2 2022 April 17 April 24 Easter and the holidays that are related to it are moveable feasts, in that they do not fall on a fixed date in the Gregorian or Julian calendars (both of which follow the cycle of the sun and the seasons). Instead, the date for Easter is determined on a lunisolar calendar similar to the Hebrew calendar. In Western Christianity, using the Gregorian calendar, Easter always falls on a Sunday between March 22 and April 25 inclusively. The Date of Easter. Article from United States Naval Observatory (March 27, 2007). The following day, Easter Monday, is a legal holiday in many countries with predominantly Christian traditions. In Eastern Orthodox Churches which continue to use the Julian calendar for religious dating, Easter also falls on a Sunday between March 22 and April 25 inclusive of the Julian calendar. (The Julian calendar is no longer used as the civil calendar of the countries where Eastern Christian traditions predominate.) In terms of the Gregorian calendar, due to the 13 day difference between the calendars between 1900 and 2099, these dates are between April 4 and May 8 inclusive. Among the Oriental Orthodox some churches have changed from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar and the date for Easter as for other fixed and moveable feasts is the same as in the Western Church. "The Church in Malankara switched entirely to the Gregorian calendar in 1953, following Encyclical No. 620 from Patriarch Mor Ignatius Aphrem I, dt. December 1952." Calendars of the Syriac Orthodox Church. Retrieved 22 April 2009. The precise date of Easter has at times been a matter for contention. At the First Council of Nicaea in 325 it was decided that all Christians would celebrate Easter on the same day, which would be computed independently of any Jewish calculations to determine the date of Passover. It is probable, though, that no method of determining the date was specified by the Council. (No contemporary account of the Council's decisions has survived.) Epiphanius of Salamis wrote in the mid-4th century: ...the emperor...convened a council of 318 bishops...in the city of Nicea...They passed certain ecclesiastical canons at the council besides, and at the same time decreed in regard to the Passover that there must be one unanimous concord on the celebration of God's holy and supremely excellent day. For it was variously observed by people.... Epiphanius, Adversus Haereses, Heresy 69, 11,1, in In the years following the council, the computational system that was worked out by the church of Alexandria came to be normative. It took a while for the Alexandrian rules to be adopted throughout Christian Europe, however. The Church of Rome continued to use an 84-year lunisolar calendar cycle from the late third century until 457. The Church of Rome continued to use its own methods until the 6th century, when it may have adopted the Alexandrian method as converted into the Julian calendar by Dionysius Exiguus (certain proof of this does not exist until the ninth century). Early Christians in Britain and Ireland also used a late third century Roman 84-year cycle. This was replaced by the Alexandrian method in the course of the 7th and 8th centuries. Churches in western continental Europe used a late Roman method until the late 8th century during the reign of Charlemagne, when they finally adopted the Alexandrian method. However, with the adoption of the Gregorian calendar by the Catholic Church in 1582 and the continuing use of the Julian calendar by Eastern Orthodox and most Oriental Orthodox Churches, the date on which Easter is celebrated again deviated, and the divergence continues to this day. Computations The rule has since the Middle Ages been phrased as Easter is observed on the Sunday after the first full moon on or after the day of the vernal equinox. However, this does not reflect the actual ecclesiastical rules precisely. One reason for this is that the full moon involved (called the Paschal full moon) is not an astronomical full moon, but the 14th day of a calendar lunar month. Another difference is that the astronomical vernal equinox is a natural astronomical phenomenon, which can fall on March 19, 20, or 21, while the ecclesiastical date is fixed by convention on March 21. Paragraph 7 of Inter gravissimas to "the vernal equinox, which was fixed by the fathers of the [first] Nicene Council at XII calends April [March 21]". This definition can be traced at least back to chapters 6 & 59 of Bede's De temporum ratione (725). In applying the ecclesiastical rules, Christian Churches use March 21 as the starting point in determining the date of Easter, from which they find the next full moon, etc. The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches continue to use the Julian calendar. Their starting point in determining the date of Orthodox Easter is also March 21, but according to the Julian reckoning, which corresponds to April 3 in the Gregorian calendar. In addition, the lunar tables of the Julian calendar are 4 days (sometimes 5 days) behind those of the Gregorian calendar. The 14th day of the lunar month according to the Gregorian system is only the 9th or 10th day according to the Julian. The result of this combination of solar and lunar discrepancies is divergence in the date of Easter in most years. (see table) The actual calculations for the date of Easter are somewhat complicated, but can be described briefly as follows: Easter is determined on the basis of lunisolar cycles. The lunar year consists of 30-day and 29-day lunar months, generally alternating, with an embolismic month added periodically to bring the lunar cycle into line with the solar cycle. In each solar year (January 1 to December 31), the lunar month beginning with an ecclesiastical new moon falling in the 29-day period from March 8 to April 5 inclusive is designated as the Paschal lunar month for that year. Easter is the 3rd Sunday in the Paschal lunar month, or, in other words, the Sunday after the Paschal lunar month's 14th day. The 14th of the Paschal lunar month is designated by convention as the Paschal full moon, although the 14th of the lunar month may differ from the date of the astronomical full moon by up to two days. Montes, Marcos J. "Calculation of the Ecclesiastical Calendar" Retrieved on 2008-01-12. Since the ecclesiastical new moon falls on a date from March 8 to April 5 inclusive, the Paschal full moon (the 14th of that lunar month) must fall on a date from March 21 to April 18 inclusive. Accordingly, Gregorian Easter can fall on 35 possible dates - between March 22 and April 25 inclusive. Easter Sunday always falls after (never on) March 21, so the earliest it can fall is March 22; if the 14th of the Paschal lunar month falls on April 18 and this day is a Sunday, then Easter falls one week (seven days) later on April 25. It last fell on March 22 in 1818, and will not do so again until 2285. It fell on March 23 in 2008, but will not do so again until 2160. Easter last fell on the latest possible date, April 25, in 1943 and will next fall on that date in 2038. However, it will fall on April 24, just one day before this latest possible date, in 2011. The cycle of Easter dates repeats after exactly 5,700,000 years, with April 19 being the most common date, happening 220,400 times or 3.9%, compared to the median for all dates of 189,525 times or 3.3%. To prevent any differences developing in the dating of Easter in the Catholic Church, the Church has compiled tables for Easter, which are based on the ecclesiastical rules described above. All affiliated churches celebrate Easter in accordance with these tables. Relationship to date of Passover In determining the date of the Gregorian and Julian Easter a lunisolar cycle is followed. In determining the date of the Jewish Passover a lunisolar calendar is also used, and because Easter always falls on a Sunday it usually falls up to a week after the first day of Passover (Nisan 15 in the Hebrew calendar). However, the differences in the rules between the Hebrew and Gregorian cycles results in Passover falling about a month after Easter in three years of the 19-year cycle. These occur in years 3, 11, and 14 of the Gregorian 19-year cycle (corresponding respectively to years 19, 8, and 11 of the Jewish 19-year cycle). The reason for the difference is the different scheduling of embolismic months in the two cycles (see computus). In addition, without changes to either calendar, the frequency of monthly divergence between the two festivals will increase over time as a result of the differences in the implicit solar years: the implicit mean solar year of the Hebrew calendar is 365.2468 days while that of the Gregorian calendar is 365.2425 days. In years 2200-2299, for example, the start of Passover will be about a month later than Gregorian Easter in four years out of nineteen. Since in the modern Hebrew calendar Nisan 15 can never fall on Monday, Wednesday, or Friday, the seder of Nisan 15 never falls on the night of Maundy Thursday. The second seder, observed in some Jewish communities on the second night of Passover can, however, occur on Thursday night. Because the Julian calendar's implicit solar year has drifted further over the centuries than the those of the Gregorian or Hebrew calendars, Julian Easter is a lunation later than Gregorian Easter in five years out of nineteen, namely years 3, 8,11, 14, and 19 of the Christian cycle. This means that it is a lunation later than Jewish Passover in two years out of nineteen, years 8 and 19 of the Christian cycle. Furthermore, because the Julian calendar's lunar age is now about 4 to 5 days behind the mean lunations, Julian Easter always follows the start of Passover. This cumulative effect of the errors in the Julian calendar's solar year and lunar age has led to the often-repeated, but false, belief that the Julian cycle includes an explicit rule requiring Easter always to follow Jewish Passover. Peter L'Huillier, The Church of the Ancient Councils, St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, Crestwood, 1996, p. 25. The supposed "after Passover" rule is called the Zonaras proviso, after Joannes Zonaras, the Byzantine canon lawyer who may have been the first to formulate it. Reform of the date of Easter A Pan-Orthodox congress of Eastern Orthodox bishops met in Istanbul in 1923 under the presidency of Patriarch Meletios IV, where the bishops agreed to the Revised Julian calendar. The original form of this calendar would have determined Easter using precise astronomical calculations based on the meridian of Jerusalem. M. Milankovitch, "Das Ende des julianischen Kalenders und der neue Kalender der orientalischen Kirchen", Astronomische Nachrichten 200, 379–384 (1924). Miriam Nancy Shields, "The new calendar of the Eastern churches", Popular Astronomy 32 (1924) 407–411 (page 411). This is a translation of M. Milankovitch, "The end of the Julian calendar and the new calendar of the Eastern churches", Astronomische Nachrichten No. 5279 (1924). However, all the Eastern Orthodox countries that subsequently adopted the Revised Julian calendar adopted only that part of the revised calendar that applied to festivals falling on fixed dates in the Julian calendar. The revised Easter computation that had been part of the original 1923 agreement was never permanently implemented in any Orthodox diocese. At a summit in Aleppo, Syria, in 1997, the World Council of Churches proposed a reform in the calculation of Easter which would have replaced the present divergent practices of calculating Easter with modern scientific knowledge taking into account actual astronomical instances of the spring equinox and full moon based on the meridian of Jerusalem, while also following the Council of Nicea position of Easter being on the Sunday following the full moon. WCC: Towards a common date for Easter The WCC presented comparative data of the relationships: + Table of dates of Easter - 2001–2020In Gregorian dates Year Astronomical full moon Astronomical Easter (Sunday after full moon) Gregorian Easter Julian Easter Jewish Passover 2001 April 8 April 15 April 15 April 15 April 8 2002 March 28 March 31 March 31 May 5 March 28 2003 April 16 April 20 April 20 April 27 April 17 2004 April 5 April 11 April 11 April 11 April 6 2005 March 25 March 27 March 27 May 1 April 24 2006 April 13 April 16 April 16 April 23 April 13 2007 April 2 April 8 April 8 April 8 April 3 2008 March 21 March 23 March 23 April 27 April 20 2009* April 9 April 12 April 12 April 19 April 9 2010 March 30 April 4 April 4 April 4 March 30 2011 April 18 April 24 April 24 April 24 April 19 2012 April 6 April 8 April 8 April 15 April 7 2013 March 27 March 31 March 31 May 5 March 26 2014 April 15 April 20 April 20 April 20 April 15 2015 April 4 April 5 April 5 April 12 April 4 2016 March 23 March 27 March 27 May 1 April 23 2017 April 11 April 16 April 16 April 16 April 11 2018 March 31 April 1 April 1 April 8 March 31 2019 March 21 March 24 April 21 April 28 April 20 2020 April 8 April 12 April 12 April 19 April 9 Notes: 1. Astronomical Easter is the first Sunday after the Astronomical full moon. 2. Passover commences at sunset preceding the date indicated. The recommended WCC changes would have side-stepped the calendar issues and eliminated the difference in date between the Eastern and Western churches. The reform was proposed for implementation starting in 2001, but it was not ultimately adopted by any member body. A few clergymen of various denominations have advanced the notion of disregarding the moon altogether in determining the date of Easter. Their proposals include always observing Easter on the second Sunday in April, or always having seven Sundays between the Epiphany and Ash Wednesday, producing the same result except that in leap years Easter could fall on April 7. These suggestions have not attracted significant support, and their adoption in the future is considered unlikely. In the United Kingdom, the Easter Act 1928 set out legislation to allow the date of Easter to be fixed as the first Sunday after the second Saturday in April (or, in other words, the Sunday in the period from April 9 to April 15). However, the legislation has not been implemented, although it remains on the Statute book and could be implemented subject to approval by the various Christian churches. See Hansard reports April 2005 Position in the church year Western Christianity In Western Christianity, Easter marks the end of Lent, a period of fasting and penitence in preparation for Easter, which begins on Ash Wednesday and lasts forty days (not counting Sundays). The week before Easter, known as Holy Week, is very special in the Christian tradition. The Sunday before Easter is Palm Sunday and the last three days before Easter are Maundy Thursday or Holy Thursday, Good Friday and Holy Saturday (sometimes referred to as Silent Saturday). Palm Sunday, Maundy Thursday and Good Friday respectively commemorate Jesus' entry in Jerusalem, the Last Supper and the Crucifixion. Holy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday are sometimes referred to as the Easter Triduum (Latin for "Three Days"). In some countries, Easter lasts two days, with the second called "Easter Monday." The week beginning with Easter Sunday is called Easter Week or the Octave of Easter, and each day is prefaced with "Easter", e.g. Easter Monday, Easter Tuesday, etc. Easter Saturday is therefore the Saturday after Easter Sunday. The day before Easter is properly called Holy Saturday. Many churches begin celebrating Easter late in the evening of Holy Saturday at a service called the Easter Vigil. Eastertide, or Paschaltide, the season of Easter, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts until the day of Pentecost, seven weeks later. Eastern Christianity In Eastern Christianity, the spiritual preparation for Pascha begins with Great Lent, which starts on Clean Monday and lasts for 40 continuous days (including Sundays). The last week of Great Lent (following the fifth Sunday of Great Lent) is called Palm Week, and ends with Lazarus Saturday. The Vespers which begins Lazarus Saturday officially brings Great Lent to a close, although the fast continues through the following week. After Lazarus Saturday comes Palm Sunday, Holy Week, and finally Pascha itself, and the fast is broken immediately after the Paschal Divine Liturgy. The Paschal Vigil begins with the Midnight Office, which is the last service of the Lenten Triodion and is timed so that it ends a little before midnight on Holy Saturday night. At the stroke of midnight the Paschal celebration itself begins, consisting of Paschal Matins, Paschal Hours, and Paschal Divine Liturgy. Placing the Paschal Divine Liturgy at midnight guarantees that no Divine Liturgy will come earlier in the morning, ensuring its place as the pre-eminent "Feast of Feasts" in the liturgical year. The liturgical season from Pascha to the Sunday of All Saints (the Sunday after Pentecost) is known as the Pentecostarion (the "fifty days"). The week which begins on Easter Sunday is called Bright Week, during which there is no fasting, even on Wednesday and Friday. The Afterfeast of Pascha lasts 39 days, with its Apodosis (leave-taking) on the day before Ascension. Pentecost Sunday is the fiftieth day from Pascha (counted inclusively). Although the Pentecostarion ends on the Sunday of All Saints, Pascha's influence continues throughout the following year, determining the daily Epistle and Gospel readings at the Divine Liturgy, the Tone of the Week, and the Matins Gospels all the way through to the next year's Lazarus Saturday. Religious observance of Easter Western Christianity The Easter festival is kept in many different ways among Western Christians. The traditional, liturgical observation of Easter, as practised among Roman Catholics and some Lutherans and Anglicans begins on the night of Holy Saturday with the Easter Vigil. This, the most important liturgy of the year, begins in total darkness with the blessing of the Easter fire, the lighting of the large Paschal candle (symbolic of the Risen Christ) and the chanting of the Exultet or Easter Proclamation attributed to Saint Ambrose of Milan. After this service of light, a number of readings from the Old Testament are read; these tell the stories of creation, the sacrifice of Isaac, the crossing of the Red Sea, and the foretold coming of the Messiah. This part of the service climaxes with the singing of the Gloria and the Alleluia and the proclamation of the Gospel of the resurrection. A sermon may be preached after the gospel. Then the focus moves from the lectern to the font. Anciently, Easter was considered the ideal time for converts to receive baptism, and this practice continues within Roman Catholicism and the Anglican Communion. Whether there are baptisms at this point or not, it is traditional for the congregation to renew the vows of their baptismal faith. This act is often sealed by the sprinkling of the congregation with holy water from the font. The Catholic sacrament of Confirmation is also celebrated at the Vigil. The Easter Vigil concludes with the celebration of the Eucharist (known in some traditions as Holy Communion). Certain variations in the Easter Vigil exist: Some churches read the Old Testament lessons before the procession of the Paschal candle, and then read the gospel immediately after the Exsultet. Some churches prefer to keep this vigil very early on the Sunday morning instead of the Saturday night, particularly Protestant churches, to reflect the gospel account of the women coming to the tomb at dawn on the first day of the week. These services are known as the Sunrise service and often occur in outdoor setting such as the church cemetery, yard, or a nearby park. The first recorded "Sunrise Service" took place in 1732 among the Single Brethren in the Moravian Congregation at Herrnhut, Saxony, in what is now Germany. Following an all-night vigil they went before dawn to the town graveyard, God's Acre, on the hill above the town, to celebrate the Resurrection among the graves of the departed. This service was repeated the following year by the whole congregation and subsequently spread with the Moravian Missionaries around the world. The most famous "Moravian Sunrise Service" is in the Moravian Settlement Old Salem in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. The beautiful setting of the Graveyard, God's Acre, the music of the Brass Choir numbering 500 pieces, and the simplicity of the service attract thousands of visitors each year and has earned for Winston-Salem the soubriquet "the Easter City." Additional celebrations are usually offered on Easter Sunday itself. Typically these services follow the usual order of Sunday services in a congregation, but also typically incorporate more highly festive elements. The music of the service, in particular, often displays a highly festive tone; the incorporation of brass instruments (trumpets, etc.) to supplement a congregation's usual instrumentation is common. Often a congregation's worship space is decorated with special banners and flowers (such as Easter lilies). In predominantly Roman Catholic Philippines, the morning of Easter (known in the national language as "Pasko ng Muling Pagkabuhay" or the Pasch of the Resurrection) is marked with joyous celebration, the first being the dawn "Salubong," wherein large statues of Jesus and Mary are brought together to meet, imagining the first reunion of Jesus and his mother Mary after Jesus' Resurrection. This is followed by the joyous Easter Mass. In Polish culture, The Rezurekcja (Resurrection Procession) is the joyous Easter morning Mass at daybreak when church bells ring out and explosions resound to commemorate Christ rising from the dead. Before the Mass begins at dawn, a festive procession with the Blessed Sacrament carried beneath a canopy encircles the church. As church bells ring out, handbells are vigorously shaken by altar boys, the air is filled with incense and the faithful raise their voices heavenward in a triumphant rendering of age-old Easter hymns. After the Blessed Sacrament is carried around the church and Adoration is complete, the Easter Mass begins. Another Polish Easter tradition is Święconka, the blessing of Easter baskets by the parish priest on Holy Saturday. This custom is celebrated not only in Poland, but also in the United States by Polish-Americans. Eastern Christianity Pascha is the fundamental and most important festival of the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Churches. Every other religious festival on their calendars, including Christmas, is secondary in importance to the celebration of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. This is reflected in rich Paschal customs in the cultures of countries that have traditionally had an Orthodox Christian majority. Eastern Catholics have similar emphasis in their calendars, and many of their liturgical customs are very similar. This is not to say that Christmas and other elements of the Christian liturgical calendar are ignored. Instead, these events are all seen as necessary but preliminary to, and illuminated by, the full climax of the Resurrection, in which all that has come before reaches fulfilment and fruition. They shine only in the light of the Resurrection. Pascha (Easter) is the primary act that fulfills the purpose of Christ's ministry on earth—to defeat death by dying and to purify and exalt humanity by voluntarily assuming and overcoming human frailty. This is succinctly summarized by the Paschal troparion, sung repeatedly during Pascha until the Apodosis of Pascha, which is the day before Ascension: Χριστὸς ἀνέστη ἐκ νεκρῶν, θανάτῳ θάνατον πατήσας, καὶ τοῖς ἐν τοῖς μνήμασι ζωὴν χαρισάμενος. Christ is risen from the dead, Trampling down death by death, And upon those in the tombs Bestowing life! Preparation for Pascha begins with the season of Great Lent. In addition to fasting, almsgiving, and prayer, Orthodox Christians cut down on all entertainment and non-essential worldly activities, gradually eliminating them until Great and Holy Friday, the most austere day of the year. Traditionally, on the evening of Great and Holy Saturday, the Midnight Office is celebrated shortly after 11:00 p.m. (see Paschal Vigil). At its completion all light in the church building is extinguished, and all wait in darkness and silence for the stroke of midnight. Then, a new flame is struck in the altar, or the priest lights his candle from the perpetual lamp kept burning there, and he then lights candles held by deacons or other assistants, who then go to light candles held by the congregation (this practice has its origin in the reception of the Holy Fire at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem). Then the priest and congregation go in a Crucession (procession with the cross) around the temple (church building), holding lit candles, chanting: By Thy Resurrection O Christ our savior, the angels in Heaven sing, enable us who are on Earth, to glorify thee in purity of heart. This procession reenacts the journey of the Myrrhbearers to the Tomb of Jesus "very early in the morning" (). After circling around the temple once or three times, the procession halts in front of the closed doors. In the Greek practice the priest reads a selection from the Gospel Book (). Then, in all traditions, the priest makes the sign of the cross with the censer in front of the closed doors (which represent the sealed tomb). He and the people chant the Paschal Troparion, and all of the bells and semantra are sounded. Then all re-enter the temple and Paschal Matins begins immediately, followed by the Paschal Hours and then the Paschal Divine Liturgy. After the dismissal of the Liturgy, the priest may bless Paschal eggs and baskets brought by the faithful containing those foods which have been forbidden during the Great Fast. Immediately after the Liturgy it is customary for the congregation to share a meal, essentially an Agápē dinner (albeit at 2:00 a.m. or later). In Greece the traditional meal is mageiritsa, a hearty stew of chopped lamb liver and wild greens seasoned with egg-and-lemon sauce. Traditionally, Easter eggs, hard-boiled eggs dyed bright red to symbolize the spilt Blood of Christ and the promise of eternal life, are cracked together to celebrate the opening of the Tomb of Christ. The next morning, Easter Sunday proper, there is no Divine Liturgy, since the Liturgy for that day has already been celebrated. Instead, in the afternoon, it is often traditional to celebrate "Agápē Vespers". In this service, it has become customary during the last few centuries for the priest and members of the congregation to read a portion of the Gospel of John (in some places the reading is extended to include verses ) in as many languages as they can manage, to show the universality of the Resurrection. For the remainder of the week, known as "Bright Week", all fasting is prohibited, and the customary Paschal greeting is: "Christ is risen!," to which the response is: "Truly He is risen!" This may also be done in many different languages. The services during Bright Week are nearly identical to those on Pascha itself, except that the do not take place at midnight, but at their normal times during the day. The Crucession during Bright Week takes place either after Paschal Matins or the Paschal Divine Liturgy. Religious and secular Easter traditions As with many other Christian dates, the celebration of Easter extends beyond the church. Since its origins, it has been a time of celebration and feasting and many Traditional Easter games and customs developed, such as Egg rolling, Egg tapping, Pace egging and Egg decorating. Today Easter is commercially important, seeing wide sales of greeting cards and confectionery such as chocolate Easter eggs, marshmallow bunnies, Peeps, and jelly beans. Even many non-Christians celebrate these aspects of the holiday while eschewing the religious aspects. English-speaking world Throughout the English-speaking world, many Easter traditions are similar with only minor differences. For example, Saturday evening is traditionally spent decorating Easter eggs and hunting for them with children on Sunday morning, by which time they have been mysteriously hidden all over the house and garden. Chocolate eggs have largely supplanted decorated eggs sometimes with a present contained within. Other traditions involve parents telling their children that eggs and other treats have been delivered and hidden by the Easter Bunny in an Easter basket which children find waiting for them when they wake up. Many families still observe the religious aspects of Easter and will attend Sunday Mass or services in the morning and then participate in a feast or party in the afternoon. Many families have a traditional Sunday roast, particularly of roast lamb which is regarded as the traditional Easter feast, and some eat Easter foods such as Simnel cake, a fruit cake with eleven marzipan balls representing the eleven faithful apostles. Hot cross buns, spiced buns with a cross on top, are traditionally associated with Good Friday, but today are often eaten well before and after. In Scotland, the north of England, and Northern Ireland, the traditions of rolling decorated eggs down steep hills and pace egging are still adhered to. In Louisiana, USA, egg tapping is known as egg knocking. Marksville, Louisiana claims to host the oldest egg-knocking competition in the US, dating back to the 1950s. Competitors pair up on the steps of the courthouse on Easter Sunday and knock the tips of two eggs together. If the shell of your egg cracks you have to forfeit it, a process that continues until just one egg remains. Easter Traditions: from the barmy to the beautiful The Times, London, 2009. In the British Overseas Territory of Bermuda, the most notable feature of the Easter celebration is the flying of kites to symbolize Christ's ascent. http://members.chello.nl/h.hagg3/Bermuda_Kite_3.htm Chello.nl: Bermuda Kite History. Traditional Bermuda kites are constructed by Bermudians of all ages as Easter approaches, and are normally only flown at Easter. In addition to hot cross buns and Easter eggs, fish cakes are traditionally eaten in Bermuda at this time. The Netherlands, Belgium and France Church bells are silent as a sign of mourning for one or more days before Easter in The Netherlands, Belgium and France. This has led to an Easter tradition that says the bells fly out of their steeples to go to Rome (explaining their silence), and return on Easter morning bringing both colored eggs and hollow chocolate candy shaped like eggs or rabbits. In both The Netherlands and Flemish-speaking Belgium many of more modern traditions exist alongside the Easter Bell story. The bells ("de Paasklokken") leave for Rome on Holy Saturday, called "Stille Zaterdag" (literally "Silent Saturday") in Dutch. In French-speaking Belgium and France the same story of Easter Bells (« les cloches de Pâques ») bringing eggs from Rome is told, but church bells are silent beginning Maundy Thursday, the first day of the Paschal Triduum. Nordic countries In Norway, in addition to staying at mountain cabins and cross-country skiing in the mountains and painting eggs, a contemporary tradition is to read or watch murder mysteries at Easter. All the major television channels run crime and detective stories (such as Agatha Christie's Poirot), magazines print stories where the readers can try to figure out "Whodunnit", and new detective novels are scheduled for publishing before Easter. Even the milk cartons are altered for a couple of weeks. Each Easter a new short mystery story is printed on their sides. Another tradition, related to stays in holiday cabins, is playing board games, dice gamesYahtzee or cards. Stores and businesses close for five straight days at Easter, with the exception of grocery stores, which re-open for a single day on the Saturday before Easter Sunday. In Finland, Sweden and Denmark, traditions include egg painting and small children dressed as witches collecting candy door-to-door, in exchange for decorated pussy willows. This is a result of the mixing of an old Orthodox tradition (blessing houses with willow branches) and the Scandinavian Easter witch tradition. Geographia.com accessed March 22, 2008. Brightly coloured feathers and little decorations are also attached to birch branches in a vase. For lunch/dinner on Holy Saturday, families traditionally feast on a smörgåsbord of herring, salmon, potatoes, eggs and other kinds of food. In Finland, the Lutheran majority enjoys mämmi as another traditional Easter treat, while the Orthodox minority's traditions include eating pasha (also spelt paskha) instead. Netherlands and Northern Germany In the northern and eastern parts of the Netherlands (Twente and Achterhoek), Easter Fires (in Dutch: "Paasvuur") are lit on Easter Day at sunset. Easter Fires also take place on the same day in large portions of Northern Germany ("Osterfeuer"). Central Europe Main article: see Egg decorating in Slavic cultureMany eastern European ethnic groups, including the Ukrainians, Belarusians, Hungarians, Bulgarians, Croats, Czechs, Lithuanians, Poles, Romanians, Serbs, Macedonians, Slovaks, and Slovenes decorate eggs for Easter. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, a tradition of spanking or whipping is carried out on Easter Monday. In the morning, men spank women with a special handmade whip called a pomlázka (in Czech) or korbáč' (in Slovak), or, in eastern Moravia and Slovakia, throw cold water on them. The pomlázka/korbáč consists of eight, twelve or even twenty-four withies (willow rods), is usually from half a meter to two meters long and decorated with coloured ribbons at the end. The spanking normally is not painful or intended to cause suffering. A legend says that women should be spanked in order to keep their health and beauty during whole next year. An additional purpose can be for men to exhibit their attraction to women; unvisited women can even feel offended. Traditionally, the spanked woman gives a coloured egg and sometimes a small amount of money to the man as a sign of her thanks. In some regions the women can get revenge in the afternoon or the following day when they can pour a bucket of cold water on any man. The habit slightly varies across Slovakia and the Czech Republic. A similar tradition existed in Poland (where it is called Dyngus Day), but it is now little more than an all-day water fight. The butter lamb (Baranek wielkanocny) is a traditional addition to the Easter Meal for many Polish Catholics. Butter is shaped into a lamb either by hand or in a lamb-shaped mould. In Hungary, Transylvania, Southern Slovakia, Kárpátalja, Northern Serbia - Vojvodina and other territories with Hungarian-speaking communities, the day following Easter is called Locsoló Hétfő, "Watering Monday". Water, perfume or perfumed water is often sprinkled in exchange for an Easter egg. Easter controversies Christian denominations and organizations that do not observe Easter Along with Christmas celebrations, Easter traditions were among the first casualties of some areas of the Protestant Reformation, being deemed "pagan" by some Reformation leaders. Other Reformation Churches, such as the Lutheran, Methodist, and Anglican, retained a very full observance of the Church Year. In Lutheran Churches, not only were the days of Holy Week observed, but also Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost were observed with three day festivals, including the day itself and the two following. Among the other Reformation traditions, things were a bit different. These holidays were eventually restored (though Christmas only became a legal holiday in Scotland in 1967, after the Church of Scotland finally relaxed its objections). Some Christians (usually, but not always fundamentalists), however, continue to reject the celebration of Easter (and, often, of Christmas), because they believe them to be irrevocably tainted with paganism and idolatry. Their rejection of these traditions is based partly on their interpretation of . Additionally, some Christians who do celebrate the event prefer to call it "Resurrection Sunday" or "Resurrection Day", as a way of distinguishing the religious celebration from more secular or commercial aspects of the holiday such as the Easter Bunny. This is also the view of Jehovah's Witnesses, who instead observe a yearly commemorative service of the Last Supper and subsequent death of Christ on the evening of Nisan 14, as they calculate it derived from the lunar Hebrew Calendar. It is commonly referred to, in short, by many Witnesses as simply "The Memorial". Jehovah's Witnesses believe that such verses as and constitute a commandment to remember the death of Christ (and not the resurrection, as only the remembrance of the death was observed by early Christians), and they do so on a yearly basis just as Passover is celebrated yearly by the Jews. Members of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) traditionally do not celebrate or observe Easter (or any other Church holidays), believing instead that "every day is the Lord's day", and that elevation of one day above others suggests that it is acceptable to do un-Christian acts on other days—they believe that every day is holy, and should be lived as such. This belief of Quakers is known as their testimony against time and season''. Some groups feel that Easter is something to be regarded with great joy: not marking the day itself, but remembering and rejoicing in the event it commemorates—the miracle of Christ's resurrection. In this spirit, these Christians teach that each day and all Sabbaths should be kept holy, in Christ's teachings. Hebrew-Christian, Sacred Name, and Armstrong movement churches (such as the Living Church of God) usually reject Easter in favor of Nisan 14 observance and celebration of the Christian Passover. This is especially true of Christian groups that celebrate the New Moons or annual High Sabbaths in addition to seventh-day Sabbath. This is textually supported by the letter to the Colossians: "Let no one...pass judgment on you in matters of food and drink or with regard to a festival or new moon or sabbath. These are shadows of things to come; the reality belongs to Christ." (Col. 2:16-17, NAB) Critics charge that such feasts are meaningless in light of the end of the Old Testament sacrificial system and the destruction of the Second Temple in A.D. 70. Televangelist Larry Huch (Pentecostal) and many Calvary Chapel churches have adopted Hebrew-Christian practices, but without rejecting Easter. Other seventh-day Sabbatarian groups, such as the Church of God, celebrate a Christian Passover that lacks most of the practices or symbols associated with Western Easter and retains more of the presumed features of the Passover observed by Jesus Christ at the Last Supper. Modern avoidance controversy In the modern-day United States, there have been instances where public mention of Easter and Good Friday have been replaced with euphemistic terminology. Examples include renaming "Good Friday" as "Spring holiday" on school calendars, to avoid association with a Christian holiday while at the same time allowing a state-sanctioned day off. (Note that the modern USA "Spring Break" can no longer be assumed to correspond with any version of Easter week.) In the United Kingdom, which still recognizes Good Friday and Easter Monday as national holidays, numerous secular events have been established to take advantage of the holidays but not the religious meaning behind the days including numerous annual clubbing events. London Easter References External links Primary sources Bede, De ratione temporum - Extract referring to the goddess Eostre. Liturgical 50 Catholic Prayers for Easter Liturgical Resources for Easter Holy Pascha: the Resurrection of Our Lord (Orthodox icon and synaxarion) Traditions Christian Festivals - Easter on RE:Quest Liturgical Meaning of Holy Week (Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia) Easter in the Armenian Orthodox Church Easter Badarak at the Empty Tomb Easter service in Jerusalem Armenian Apostolic Church Eastern Orthodox views on Easter Church of God (sabbatarian) story of how Easter came into being a holiday Roman Catholic view of Easter (from the Catholic Encyclopedia) Rosicrucians: The Cosmic Meaning of Easter (the esoteric Christian tradition) Calculating A Perpetual Easter and Passover Calculator Julian and Gregorian Easter for any year plus other info Almanac - The Christian Year Julian or Gregorian Easter and associated festivals for any year Calculating the date of Easter algorithm Easter Dating Method for calculator Orthodox Paschal Calculator Julian Easter and associated festivals in 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2,469 | Nullum_crimen,_nulla_poena_sine_praevia_lege_poenali | Nullum crimen, nulla poena sine praevia lege poenali (Latin, lit. "No crime, no punishment without a previous penal law") is a basic maxim in continental European legal thinking. It was written by Paul Johann Anselm Ritter von Feuerbach as part of the Bavarian Criminal Code in 1813. The maxim states that there can be no crime committed, and no punishment meted out, without a violation of penal law as it existed at the time. Another consequence of this principle is that only those penalties that had already been established for the offence in the time when it was committed can be imposed. Thus, not only the existence of the crime depends on there being a previous legal provision declaring it to be a penal offense (nullum crimen sine praevia lege), but also, for a specific penalty to be imposed in a certain case, it is also necessary that the penal legislation in force at the time when the crime was committed ranked the penalty to be imposed as one of the possible sanctions to that crime (nulla poena sine praevia lege). This basic legal principle has been incorporated into international criminal law. It thus prohibits the creation of ex post facto laws to the disadvantage of the defendant. Since the Nuremberg Trials, penal law is taken to include the prohibitions of international criminal law, in addition to those of domestic law. Thus prosecutions have been possible of such individuals as Nazi war criminals and officials of the German Democratic Republic responsible for the Berlin Wall, even though their deeds may have been allowed or even ordered by domestic law. Also, courts when dealing with such cases will tend to look to the letter of the law at the time, even in regimes where the law as it was written was generally disregarded in practice by its own authors. However, some legal scholars criticize this, because generally, in the legal systems of Continental Europe where the maxim was first developed, "penal law" was taken to mean statutory penal law, so as to create a guarantee to the individual, considered as a fundamental right, that he would not be prosecuted for an action or omission that was not considered a crime according to the statutes passed by the legislators in force at the time of the action or omission, and that only those penalties that were in place when the infringement took place would be applied. Also, even if one considers that certain actions are prohibited under general principles of international law, critics point out that a prohibition in a general principle does not amount to the establishment of a crime, and that the rules of international law also do not stipulate specific penalties for the violations. In an attempt to address those criticisms, the statute of the recently established International Criminal Court provides for a system in which crimes and penalties are expressly set out in written law, that shall only be applied to future cases. This principle is enshrined in several national constitutions, and a number of international instruments. See e.g. European Convention on Human Rights, article 7(1); Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, articles 22 and 23 (see ) For discussion of these issues, see Streletz, Kessler, and Krenz v. Germany (European Court of Human Rights), and K.H.-W. v. Germany (European Court of Human Rights). The maxim itself is sometimes rendered: nullum delictum, nulla poena sine praevia lege poenali nullum crimen, nulla poena sine praevia lege poenali nullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege praevia or abbreviated to: nullum crimen et nulla poena sine lege (also nullum crimen et nulla poene sine lege nullum crimen et nulla poene sine lege — Primary source (Grayling,A.C.: 'Among the Dead Cities' [Bloomsbury 2006], p.245) confirmed July 27 2007 ) nullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege nullum crimen sine lege nulla poena sine lege See also Ex post facto law Rechtsstaat 1942-43 Riom Trial References Footnotes | Nullum_crimen,_nulla_poena_sine_praevia_lege_poenali |@lemmatized nullum:10 crimen:9 nulla:10 poena:8 sine:12 praevia:6 lege:12 poenali:3 latin:1 lit:1 crime:8 punishment:2 without:2 previous:2 penal:7 law:16 basic:2 maxim:4 continental:2 european:4 legal:5 thinking:1 write:3 paul:1 johann:1 anselm:1 ritter:1 von:1 feuerbach:1 part:1 bavarian:1 criminal:6 code:1 state:1 commit:3 meted:1 violation:2 exist:1 time:5 another:1 consequence:1 principle:5 penalty:6 already:1 establish:2 offence:1 impose:3 thus:3 existence:1 depend:1 provision:1 declare:1 offense:1 also:7 specific:2 certain:2 case:3 necessary:1 legislation:1 force:2 rank:1 one:2 possible:2 sanction:1 incorporate:1 international:7 prohibit:2 creation:1 ex:2 post:2 facto:2 disadvantage:1 defendant:1 since:1 nuremberg:1 trial:2 take:3 include:1 prohibition:2 addition:1 domestic:2 prosecution:1 individual:2 nazi:1 war:1 official:1 german:1 democratic:1 republic:1 responsible:1 berlin:1 wall:1 even:4 though:1 deed:1 may:1 allow:1 order:1 court:5 deal:1 tend:1 look:1 letter:1 regime:1 generally:2 disregard:1 practice:1 author:1 however:1 scholar:1 criticize:1 system:2 europe:1 first:1 develop:1 mean:1 statutory:1 create:1 guarantee:1 consider:2 fundamental:1 right:4 would:2 prosecute:1 action:3 omission:2 accord:1 statute:3 pass:1 legislator:1 place:2 infringement:1 apply:2 considers:1 general:2 critic:1 point:1 amount:1 establishment:1 rule:1 stipulate:1 attempt:1 address:1 criticism:1 recently:1 provide:1 expressly:1 set:1 shall:1 future:1 enshrine:1 several:1 national:1 constitution:1 number:1 instrument:1 see:4 e:1 g:1 convention:1 human:3 article:2 rome:1 discussion:1 issue:1 streletz:1 kessler:1 krenz:1 v:2 germany:2 k:1 h:1 w:1 sometimes:1 render:1 delictum:1 abbreviate:1 et:3 poene:2 primary:1 source:1 grayling:1 c:1 among:1 dead:1 city:1 bloomsbury:1 p:1 confirm:1 july:1 rechtsstaat:1 riom:1 reference:1 footnote:1 |@bigram nullum_crimen:9 crimen_nulla:4 nulla_poena:8 poena_sine:8 sine_praevia:5 praevia_lege:5 ritter_von:1 nuremberg_trial:1 sine_lege:7 |
2,470 | The_Trial | The Trial () is a novel by Franz Kafka about a character named Josef K., who awakens one morning and, for reasons never revealed, is arrested and prosecuted for an unspecified crime. According to Kafka's friend Max Brod, the author never finished the novel and wrote in his will that it was to be destroyed. After his death, Brod went against Kafka's wishes and edited The Trial into what he felt was a coherent novel and had it published in 1925. The Trial was filmed and released in 1962 by director Orson Welles, starring Anthony Perkins (as Josef K.) and Romy Schneider. A more recent remake was released in 1993 and featured Kyle MacLachlan in the star role. In 1999, it was adapted for comics by Italian artist Guido Crepax. Plot summary On his thirtieth birthday, a senior bank clerk, Josef K., who lives in lodgings, is unexpectedly arrested by two unidentified agents for an unspecified crime. The agents do not name the authority for which they are acting. He is not taken away, however, but left at home to await instructions from the Committee of Affairs. Josef K goes to visit the magistrate, but instead is forced to have a meeting with an attendant's wife. Looking at the Magistrate's books, he discovers a cache of pornography. Josef returns home to find Fräulein Montag, a lodger from another room, moving in with Fräulein Bürstner. He suspects that this is to prevent him from pursuing his affair with the latter woman. Yet another lodger, Captain Lanz, appears to be in league with Montag. Later, in a store room at his own bank, Josef K discovers the two agents who arrested him being whipped by a flogger for asking Josef for bribes, as a result of complaints Josef K previously made about them to the Magistrate. K. tries to argue with the flogger, saying that the men need not be whipped, but the flogger cannot be swayed. This surreal event appears to have been staged for his viewing, either to simply frighten him, or to demonstrate the seriousness with which the court views incompetence and corruption. The next day he returns to the store room and is shocked to find everything as he had found it the day before, including the Whipper and the two agents. Josef K is visited by his influential uncle, who by coincidence is a friend of a lawyer. That lawyer was with the Clerk of the Court. The uncle is, or appears to be, distressed by Josef's predicament and is at first sympathetic, but becomes concerned that K is underestimating the seriousness of the case. The uncle introduces Josef K to an Advocate, who is attended by Leni, a nurse, who is also his mistress. K has a sexual encounter with Leni, whilst his uncle is talking with the Advocate and the Chief Clerk of the Court, much to his uncle's anger, and to the detriment of his case. K visits the advocate and finds him to be a capricious and unhelpful character. K returns to his bank but finds that his colleagues are trying to undermine him. Josef K is advised by one of his bank clients to visit Titorelli, a painter, for advice. Titorelli has no official connections, yet seems to have a deep understanding of the process. He explains: "You see, everything belongs to the Court." He sets out what K's options are, but the consequences of all of them are unpleasant. The laborious requirements of these options, and the limited outlook that they offer, lead the reader to lose hope for Josef K. Josef K decides to take control of his own life and visits his advocate with the intention of dismissing him. At the advocate's office he meets a downtrodden individual, Block, a client who offers K some insight from a client's perspective. Block's case has continued for five years, yet he appears to have been virtually enslaved by his dependence on the advocate's unpredictable advice. This experience further poisons K's opinion of his advocate, and K is bemused as to why his advocate would think that seeing such a client, in such a state, could change his mind. This chapter was left unfinished by the author. K has to show an important client from Italy around the Cathedral. The client doesn't show up, but just as K is leaving the Cathedral, the priest calls out K's name, although K has never known the priest. The priest works for the court, and tells K a fable, (which has been published separately as Before the Law) that is meant to explain his situation, but instead causes confusion, and implies that K's fate is hopeless. Before the Law begins as a parable, then continues with several pages of interpretation between the Priest and Josef K. The gravity of the priest's words prepares the reader for an unpleasant ending. On the last day of Josef K's thirtieth year, two men arrive to execute him. He offers little resistance, suggesting that he has realised this as being inevitable for some time. They lead him to a quarry where he is expected to kill himself, but he cannot. The two men then execute him. His last words describe his own death: "Like a dog!" As the novel was never completed, certain inconsistencies exist within the novel, such as disparities in timing in addition to other flaws in narration. Characters Others Fräulein Bürstner - A boarder in the same house as Josef K. She lets him kiss her one night, but then rebuffs his advances. She makes a brief reappearance in the novel's final pages. Fräulein Montag - Friend of Fräulein Bürstner, she talks to K. about ending his relationship with Fräulein Bürstner after his arrest. She claims she can bring him insight, because she is an objective third party. Frau Grubach - The proprietress of the lodging house in which K. lives. She holds K. in high esteem, despite his arrest. Uncle Karl - K.'s impetuous uncle from the country, formerly his guardian. Upon learning about the trial, Karl insists that K. hire Herr Huld, the lawyer. Herr Huld, the Lawyer - K.'s pompous and pretentious advocate who provides precious little in the way of action and far too much in the way of anecdote. Leni - Herr Huld's nurse, she has feelings for Josef K. and soon becomes his lover. She shows him her webbed hand, yet another reference to the motif of the hand throughout the book. Apparently, she finds accused men extremely attractive--the fact of their indictment makes them irresistible to her. Vice-President - K.'s unctuous rival at the Bank, only too willing to catch K. in a compromising situation. He repeatedly takes advantage of K.'s preoccupation with the trial to advance his own ambitions. President - Manager of the Bank. A sickly figure, whose position the Vice-President is trying to assume. Gets on well with K., inviting him to various engagements. Rudi Block, the Merchant - Block is another accused man and client of Huld. His case is five years old, and he is but a shadow of the prosperous grain dealer he once was. All his time, energy, and resources are now devoted to his case, to the point of detriment to his own life. Although he has hired five additional lawyers on the side, he is completely and pathetically subservient to Huld. Titorelli, the Painter - Titorelli inherited the position of Court Painter from his father. He knows a great deal about the comings and goings of the Court's lowest level. He offers to help K., and manages to unload a few identical landscape paintings on the accused man. Style Parable (Taken directly from Novels for Students: The Trial.) Kafka intentionally set out to write parables, not just novels, about the human condition. The Trial is a parable that includes the smaller parable Before the Law. There is clearly a relationship between the two but the exact meaning of either parable is left up to the individual reader. K. and the Priest discuss the many possible readings. Both the short parable and their discussion seem to indicate that the reader is much like the man at the gate; there is a meaning in the story for everyone just as there is one gate to the Law for each person. Relations between The Trial and Crime and Punishment In 1983 Guillermo Sánchez Trujillo, professor of UNAULA ("Universidad Autónoma Latinoamericana" of Medellín, Colombia) undertook a research project to investigate some of the possible sources used by Kafka in writing The Trial. He dedicated twenty years of his life to the investigation, and finally in 2002 published the final results in Crimen y castigo de Franz Kafka, anatomía de El proceso ("Crime and Punishment by Franz Kafka, anatomy of The Trial"), edited by UNAULA. At the end of his investigation, Sánchez advanced the theory that Kafka had used Crime and Punishment and other works by Fyodor Dostoevsky, as palimpsest to write his works, including The Trial. By closely comparing Crime and Punishment with The Trial, Sanchez discovered that Kafka used the first three chapters of the second part of Crime and Punishment (in the order 3, 2, 1), to write and organize The Trial. This idea, and the role of Crime and Punishment as a "template" for Kafka's novel, was first discussed in close textual detail in a study by W. J. Dodd (now Professor of Modern German Studies at the University of Birmingham, UK) "Kafka and Dostoyevsky: the shaping of influence", Macmillan, Houndmills 1992, chapter 6, pp. 108-154. ISBN 0-333-55865-0 . Dodd specifically argues that in writing The Trial Kafka was impelled by a critical response to Dostoyevsky's metaphysics, and that a comparative reading shows Kafka's novel to be a sceptic's reworking of Dostoyevsky's religious universe, with significant features of a counterfactual. Sánchez also put forward a new theory on the correct order of the chapters of the novel -- something which has never been clear because of the confusing way Kafka had of systematizing his work. Kafka bequeathed his works to his friend Max Brod. After Kafka died, Brod started to organize and edit Kafka's works to publish them, but with The Trial Brod couldn't decipher Kafka's system, so he organized the chapters in an intuitive and arbitrary way. The new order found in the study re-establishes the logic of the plot and fits on it the chapters that were relegated to the appendix by Brod and the editors. But the study also argues that the work A Dream, published as an independent short story, was an essential chapter of the novel. The investigation also confirmed the autobiographic contents that Kafka put in the novel, and the identity of the real persons and the historical events that inspired some of the characters and events of the novel. A critical edition of the novel with the new order was published in 2005 by UNAULA, containing an introduction detailing the most important points of the investigation and its results and also, side notes explaining the creative process of the author and the use of Dostoevsky's work as a palimpsest. The UNAULA edition arranges the chapters thus: The Arrest Conversation with Frau Grubach then Fräulein Bürstner B.’s Friend Initial Inquiry In the Empty Courtroom - The Student - The Offices The Flogger To Elsa Public Prosecutor The Uncle - Leni Lawyer- Manufacturer - Painter In The Cathedral Block, the Merchant - Dismissal of the Lawyer Struggle with the Vice President The Building A Dream Journey to His Mother The End More info see: Film portrayals In the 1962 Orson Welles movie adaptation of The Trial, Josef K. is played by Anthony Perkins. Kyle MacLachlan portrays him in the 1993 version. Martin Scorsese's 1985 film After Hours is a re-imagining of the Trial. See also Museum of Modern Literature, where the original manuscript is held. Notes References External links The Trial: A Study Guide The Trial at Literapedia Freely available at Project Gutenberg The Trial movie at liketelevision.com Der Prozeß, original text in German Critical Edition in Spanish SparkNotes Kafka's Parable Before The Law | The_Trial |@lemmatized trial:20 novel:15 franz:3 kafka:20 character:4 name:3 josef:19 k:43 awaken:1 one:4 morning:1 reason:1 never:5 reveal:1 arrest:6 prosecute:1 unspecified:2 crime:8 accord:1 friend:5 max:2 brod:6 author:3 finish:1 write:6 destroy:1 death:2 go:2 wish:1 edit:3 felt:1 coherent:1 publish:6 film:3 release:2 director:1 orson:2 welles:2 star:2 anthony:2 perkins:2 romy:1 schneider:1 recent:1 remake:1 feature:2 kyle:2 maclachlan:2 role:2 adapt:1 comic:1 italian:1 artist:1 guido:1 crepax:1 plot:2 summary:1 thirtieth:2 birthday:1 senior:1 bank:6 clerk:3 live:1 lodging:2 unexpectedly:1 two:6 unidentified:1 agent:4 authority:1 act:1 take:4 away:1 however:1 leave:4 home:2 await:1 instruction:1 committee:1 affair:2 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2,471 | Donald_Campbell | Donald Malcolm Campbell, CBE (23 March 1921 – 4 January 1967) was a British car and motorboat racer who broke eight world speed records in the 1950s and 60s. He remains the only person to set both land and water speed records in the same year (1964). Family and personal life Donald Campbell was born in Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, the son of Sir Malcolm Campbell, holder of 13 world speed records in the 1920s and 30s in the famous Bluebird cars and boats, and his second wife, Dorothy Evelyn née Whittall. GRO Register of Births: JUN 1921 2a 815 KINGSTON - Donald M. Campbell, mmn = Whittall He attended Uppingham School. At the outbreak of World War II he volunteered for the Royal Air Force, but was unable to serve because of a childhood illness. He joined Briggs Motor Bodies Ltd in West Thurrock, where he became a maintenance engineer. Following his father's death in 1948 and aided by Malcolm's chief engineer, Leo Villa, the younger Campbell strove to set speed records on land and water. He married three times: to Daphne Harvey in 1945, producing daughter Georgina (Gina) Campbell in 1946; to Dorothy McKegg in 1952; and to Tonia Bern in 1958, which lasted until his death in 1967. The Racing Campbells - Donald & Malcolm Campbell - Donald Water speed records Campbell began his speed record attempts using his father's old boat Bluebird K4, but after a structural failure at 170 mph (270 km/h) on Coniston Water, Lancashire in 1951 he developed a new boat. Designed by Ken and Lew Norris, the Bluebird K7 was an all-metal jet-propelled 3-point hydroplane with a Metropolitan-Vickers Beryl jet engine producing 3500 lbf (16 kN) of thrust. Campbell set seven world water speed records in K7 between 1955 and 1964. The first was at Ullswater on 23 July 1955, where he set a record of 202.15 mph (324 km/h). The series of speed increases— later in 1955, in 1956, in 1957, in 1958, in 1959—peaked on 31 December 1964 at Dumbleyung Lake, Western Australia when he reached ; he remains the world's most prolific breaker of water speed records. Land speed record attempt Bluebird CN7 in July 1964 at Lake Eyre In 1956, Campbell began planning a car to break the land speed record, which then stood at 394 mph (630 km/h). The Norris brothers designed Bluebird-Proteus CN7 with in mind. The CN7 was completed by the spring of 1960, and was powered by a Bristol-Siddeley Proteus free-turbine engine of . Following low-speed tests conducted at the Goodwood circuit in Sussex, England, the CN7 was taken to the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah, USA, scene of his father's last LSR triumph in 1935. The attempt was unsuccessful and CN7 was written off following a high-speed crash in September at Bonneville. Campbell was not seriously hurt, suffering a fracture to his lower skull, and was by 1961 on the road to recovery and planning the rebuild of CN7. The rebuilt car was completed, with minor modifications, in 1962 and, by the end of the year, was shipped to Australia for a new attempt at Lake Eyre in 1963. The Lake Eyre location was chosen as it offered of dried salt lake, where rain had not fallen in the previous 20 years, and the surface of the track was as hard as concrete. As Campbell arrived in late March, with a view to a May attempt, the first light rain fell. Campbell and Bluebird were running by early May but once again more rain fell, and low-speed test runs could not progress into the higher speed ranges. By late May, the rain became torrential, and the lake was flooded. Campbell had to move the CN7 off the lake in the middle of the night to save the car from being submerged by the rising flood waters. The 1963 attempt was over. Campbell and his team returned to Lake Eyre in 1964, but the surface never returned to the promise it had held in 1962 and Campbell had to battle with CN7 to reach record speeds (over ). After more light rain in June, the lake finally began to dry enough for an attempt to be made. On 17 July 1964, Campbell set a record of for a four-wheeled vehicle (Class A). Campbell was disappointed with the record as the vehicle had been designed for much higher speeds. CN7 covered the final third of the measured mile at an average of , peaking as it left the measured distance at over . In 1969, after Cambell's fatal accident, his widow, Tonia Bern-Campbell negotiated a deal with Lynn Garrison, President of Craig Breedlove and Associates, that would see Craig Breedlove run Bluebird on Bonnyville's Salt Flats. This concept was cancelled when the parallel Spirit of America supersonic car project failed to find support. Dual record holder Campbell now reverted to Bluebird K7 for a further attempt on the water speed record. After more delays, he finally achieved his seventh WSR at Lake Dumbleyung near Perth, Western Australia, on the final day of 1964, at a speed of . He had become the first, and so far only, person to set both land and water speed records in the same year. Campbell's land record was short-lived, because rule changes meant that Craig Breedlove's Spirit of America , a pure jet car, would begin setting records later in 1964 and 1965. Campbell's speed on his final Lake Eyre run, however remained the highest speed achieved by a wheel-driven car until 2001; Bluebird CN7 is now on display at the National Motor Museum in Hampshire, England, her potential only part realised. Final record attempt In 1966, Campbell decided to once more try for a water speed record. This time the target was 300 mph (480 km/h). Bluebird K7 was fitted with a lighter and more powerful Bristol Orpheus engine, taken from a Folland Gnat jet aircraft, which developed of thrust. The modified boat was taken back to Coniston in the first week of November 1966. The trials did not go well. The weather was appalling, and K7 suffered an engine failure when her air intakes collapsed and debris was drawn into the engine. Eventually, by the end of November, some high-speed runs were made, but well below Campbell's existing record. Problems with Bluebird'''s fuel system meant that the engine could not reach full rpm, and so would not develop maximum power. Eventually, by the end of December, the fuel starvation problem was fixed, and Campbell awaited better weather to mount an attempt. Death On 4 January 1967, Campbell was killed when Bluebird K7 flipped and disintegrated at a speed in excess of . GRO Register of Deaths: MAR 1967 10F 692 ULVERSTON - Donald M. Campbell, aged 45 Bluebird had completed a perfect north-south run at an average of , and Campbell used a new water brake to slow K7 from her peak speed of . Instead of refueling and waiting for the wash of this run to subside, as had been pre-arranged, Campbell decided to make the return run immediately. The second run was even faster; as K7 passed the start of the measured kilometre, it was travelling at over . However the craft's stability had begun to break down as it travelled over the rough water, and the boat started tramping from sponson to sponson. from the end of the measured mile, Bluebird lifted from the surface and took off at a 45-degree angle. It somersaulted and plunged back into the lake, nose first. The boat then cartwheeled across the water before coming to rest. The impact broke Bluebird forward of the air intakes (where Donald was sitting) and the main hull sank shortly afterwards. Campbell had been killed instantly. Campbell's last words on his final run were, via radio intercom: The cause of the crash has been variously attributed to Campbell not waiting to refuel after doing a first run of , and hence the boat being lighter; the wash caused by his first run and made much worse by the use of the water brake; and, possibly, a cut-out of the jet engine caused by fuel starvation. Some evidence for this last possibility may be seen in film recordings of the crash - as the nose of the boat climbs and the jet exhaust points at the water surface no disturbance or spray can be seen at all. Mr Whoppit, Campbell's teddy bear mascot, was found among the floating debris. Royal Navy divers made strenuous efforts to find and recover Campbell's body but, although the wreck of K7 was soon found, they called off the search without locating his body. Recovery of Bluebird The wreckage of Campbell's craft was recovered by Gilgeous Diving Services (http://www.extremeoceaneering.co.uk/bluebird.htm on 8 March 2001 when diver Bill Smith was inspired to look for the wreck after hearing the Marillion song "Out of This World" (from the album Afraid of Sunlight), which was written about Campbell and Bluebird. Mr Smith was criticised in some quarters for appearing jubilant sitting astride the wreck when she rose from the lake. He later issued an apology on his website Bluebird Project. The recovered wreck revealed that Campbell had possibly activated the water brake to try to slow Bluebird down on her final run though it later emerged that a secondary power source may have activated it subsequent to the sinking. The boat still contained fuel in the engine fuel lines, discounting the fuel-starvation theory, though the engine could have cut out as a result of injector blockage. No evidence has emerged thus far to support this theory. Campbell's body was recovered from the lake on 28 May 2001. Marillion members Steve Rothery and Steve Hogarth were present in the recovery of the wrecked boat but not that of Mr Campbell's remains. Campbell was interred in Coniston cemetery on 12 September 2001 after a funeral service in Coniston village attended by his wife Tonia, daughter Gina, other members of his family, members of his former team, and admirers. Jean Wales (Donald Campbell's sister) had, however, been against the recovery of her brother's body out of respect for his stated wish that, in the event of something going wrong, "Skipper and boat stay together". When Donald Campbell was buried in Coniston cemetery on 12 September 2001 she did not attend the service; nor did she afterwards visit his grave. Steve Hogarth, lead singer for Marillion, was also present at the funeral and performed the song "Out of This World" solo. Legacy Between them, Donald Campbell and his father had set eleven speed records on water and ten on land. The story of Campbell's last attempt at the water speed record on Coniston Water was told in the BBC television drama Across the Lake in 1988, with Anthony Hopkins as Donald, and Robert Hardy as Malcolm Campbell. In 2003, the BBC showed a documentary reconstruction of Campbell's fateful water-speed record attempt in an episode of Days That Shook the World. It featured a mixture of modern reconstruction and original film footage. All of the original colour clips were taken from a film capturing the event, Campbell at Coniston by John Lomax, a local amateur filmmaker from Wallasey, England. Lomax's film won awards worldwide in the late 1960s for recording the final weeks of Campbell's life. In the village of Coniston, the Ruskin Museum has a display of Donald Campbell memorabilia, and is home to the actual tail fin of K7, as well as the air intake of the Bristol Orpheus engine recovered in 2001. A project is under way to restore K7, aimed at returning Bluebird'' to Coniston before permanently housing her at the Ruskin museum. The project is due for completion in late 2009 / early 2010. See also James Milner Phillips References External links Across the Lake tribute site Bluebird Project website with information on the recovery of K7 and her restoration The Racing Campbells tribute site Steve Hogarth's account of the raising of Bluebird Campbell at Coniston original colour footage Lakeland Motor Museum in Cumbria Malcolm and Donald Campbell Exhibit http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1556039/Jean-Wales.html | Donald_Campbell |@lemmatized donald:13 malcolm:6 campbell:52 cbe:1 march:3 january:2 british:1 car:8 motorboat:1 racer:1 break:4 eight:1 world:8 speed:29 record:26 remain:4 person:2 set:8 land:7 water:20 year:4 family:2 personal:1 life:2 bear:2 kingston:2 upon:1 thames:1 surrey:1 son:1 sir:1 holder:2 famous:1 bluebird:23 boat:11 second:2 wife:2 dorothy:2 evelyn:1 née:1 whittall:2 gro:2 register:2 birth:1 jun:1 mmn:1 attend:3 uppingham:1 school:1 outbreak:1 war:1 ii:1 volunteer:1 royal:2 air:4 force:1 unable:1 serve:1 childhood:1 illness:1 join:1 briggs:1 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2,472 | Hephaestus | Hephaestus ( or ; Greek Hēphaistos) was a Greek god whose Roman equivalent was Vulcan. He was the god of technology, blacksmiths, craftsmen, artisans, sculptors, metals, metallurgy, fire and volcanoes. Like other mythic smiths but unlike most other gods, Hephaestus was lame, which gave him a grotesque appearance in Greek eyes. He served as the blacksmith of the gods, and he was worshipped in the manufacturing and industrial centers of Greece, particularly in Athens. The center of his cult was in Lemnos. Walter Burkert, Greek Religion 1985: III.2.ii; see coverage of Lemnos-based traditions and legends at Mythic Lemnos) Hephaestus's symbols are a smith's hammer, an anvil and a pair of tongs, although sometimes he is portrayed holding an axe. Origin Hephaestus was identified by Greek colonists in southern Italy with the volcano gods Adranus of Mount Etna and Vulcanus of the Lipari islands. His forge was moved there by the poets. The first-century sage Apollonius of Tyana is said to have observed, "there are many other mountains all over the earth that are on fire, and yet we should never be done with it if we assigned to them giants and gods like Hephaestus". Life of Apollonius of Tyana, book v.16. Vulcano (Roman counterpart of Hephaestus) by Peter Paul Rubens. An Athenian founding myth tells that Athena refused a union with Hephaestus because of his unsightly appearance, and that when he became angry and forceful with her, she disappeared from the bed. His ejaculation landed on the earth, impregnating Gaia, who subsequently gave birth to Erichthonius of Athens; then the surrogate mother gave the child to Athena to foster, guarded by a serpent. Hyginus made an imaginative etymology for Erichthonius, of strife (Eri-) between Athena and Hephaestus and the Earth-child (chthonios). There is a Temple of Hephaestus, the Hephaesteum miscalled the "Theseum", located near the Athenian agora, or marketplace. On the island of Lemnos, his consort was the sea nymph Cabeiro, by whom he was the father of two metalworking gods named the Cabeiri. In Sicily, his consort was the nymph Aetna, and his sons two gods of Sicilian geysers called Palici. Homer makes Charis the wife of Hephaestus. However, according to most myths, Hephaestus is a husband of Aphrodite, who commits adultery with Ares. Craft Hephaestus crafted much of the other magnificent equipment of the gods, and almost any finely-wrought metalwork imbued with powers that appears in Greek myth is said to have been forged by Hephaestus: Hermes' winged helmet and sandals, the Aegis breastplate, Aphrodite's famed girdle, Agamemnon's staff of office, its provenance recounted in Iliad II Achilles' armor, Heracles' bronze clappers, Helios' chariot as well as his own due to his lameness, the shoulder of Pelops, Eros' bow and arrows. Hephaestus worked with the help of the chthonic Cyclopes, his assistants in the forge. He also built automatons of metal to work for him. He gave to blinded Orion his apprentice Cedalion as a guide. In one version of the myth, Prometheus stole the fire that he gave to man from Hephaestus's forge. Hephaestus also created the gift that the gods gave to man, the woman Pandora and her pithos. Being a skilled blacksmith, Hephaestus created all the thrones in the Palace of Olympus. In Iliad i.590, Zeus threw Hephaestus from Olympus because he released his mother Hera who was suspended by a golden chain between earth and sky, after an argument she had with Zeus. Hephaestus fell for nine days and nights before landing on the island of Lemnos where he grew to be a master craftsman and was allowed back into Olympus when his ability and usefulness became known to the gods. The Smith Hephaestus (Vulcan in Roman mythology) is the only Olympian god to have been exiled from Olympus and to have returned. In a Homeric version of Hephaestus's myth, Hera, mortified to have brought forth such grotesque offspring, promptly threw him from Mount Olympus. He fell nine days and nights and landed in the ocean, as he tells it himself in the Iliad (xviii.395) where he was brought up by the Oceanids Thetis (mother of Achilles) and Eurynome. In an archaic story, Features within the narrative suggest its archaic nature to Kerenyi and others; the fullest literary account, however, is a late one, in the Roman rhetorician Libanios, according to Guy Hedreen, "The Return of Hephaistos, Dionysiac Processional Ritual and the Creation of a Visual Narrative" The Journal of Hellenic Studies 124 (2004:38-64) p. 38 and note. Hephaestus gained revenge against Hera for rejecting him by making her a magical golden throne, which, when she sat on it, did not allow her to leave it. A section "The Binding of Hera" is devoted to this archaic theme in Karl Kerenyi, The Gods of the Greeks (1951, pp 156-58) who refers to this "ancient story", which is one of the "tales of guileful deeds performed by cunning gods, mostly at a time when they had not joined the family on Olympus". The other gods begged Hephaestus to return to Olympus to let her go, but he refused, saying "I have no mother". Kerenyi 1951:157. At last Dionysus shared his wine, intoxicating the smith, and took him back to Olympus on the back of a mule accompanied by revelers, a scene that sometimes appears on painted pottery of Attica and in Corinth. Axel Seeberg, "Hephaistos Rides Again" The Journal of Hellenic Studies 85 (1965), pp. 102-109, describes and illustrates four pieces of Corinthian painted pottery with the theme as well. In the painted scenes the padded dancers and phallic figures of the Dionysan throng leading the mule show that the procession was a part of the dithyrambic celebrations that were the forerunners, in Athens, of the satyr plays of the fifth century. The significance of the subject for the pre-history of Greek drama is argued by T.B.L. Webster, "Some thoughts on the pre-history of Greek drama", Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 5 ((1958) pp 43ff; more recently, see Guy Hedreen 2004:38-64. Hephaestus was reported in myth as cholōs, "lame", Odyssey viii.308; Iliad xviii.397, etc. and depicted with crippled feet, said to be halting (ēpedanos)and misshapen. Either from birth or as a result of his fall: in the vase-paintings, Hephaestus is shown lame and bent over his anvil, hard at work on a metal creation, his feet sometimes back-to-front: Hephaistos amphigyēeis. He walked with the aid of a stick. The Argonaut Palaimonius, "son of Hephaestus"— which is to say a bronze-smith— was also lame. Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica i.204. Other "sons of Hephaestus" were the Kabeiroi on the island of Samothrace; they were identified with the crab (karkinos) by the lexicographer Hesychius, and the adjective karkinopous, "crab-footed" signified "lame", Detienne and Vernant Marcel Detienne and Jean-Pierre Vernant, Cunning Intelligence in Greek Culture and Society, trans. Janet Lloyd (Atlantic Highlands NJ: Humanities Press), 1978:269-72, cited by Morris Silver, Taking Ancient Mythology Economically 1992:35 note 5. have observed: the Kabeiroi were seen as lame too. Hephaestus' Roman counterpart Vulcan was seen as lame also. In Ugarit, among other parallels with Greek myth, the craftsman-god Kothar Hasis limps about (Baruch Margalit, Aqhat Epic 1989:289); in Egypt, Herodotus (iii.36) was given to understand, the craftsman-god Ptah was club-footed. Compare the Nordic lame bronzeworker Weyland the Smith. In some myths, Hephaestus built himself a "wheeled chair" or charioteer with which to move around, thus helping him overcome his lameness while showing the other gods his skill. Jay Dolmage, "'Breathe Upon Us an Even Flame': Hephaestus, History, and the Body of Rhetoric," Rhetoric Review Vol. 25, No. 2 (2006), 119-140. 120. In the Illiad it is said that Hephaestus built some bronze human machines to help him get around. Hephaestus’s physical appearance indicates arsenicosis, low levels of arsenic poisoning, resulting in lameness and skin cancers. In place of less available tin, arsenic was added to copper in the Bronze Age to harden it; most smiths of the Bronze Age would have suffered from chronic workplace poisoning, and the mythic image of the lame smith is widespread. H. W. F. Saggs, Civilization Before Greece and Rome, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989:p200-2001. The Doric temple of Hephaestus, Agora of Athens – western face Hephaestus and Aphrodite Hephaestus, being the most unfaltering of the gods, was given Aphrodite’s hand in marriage by Zeus in order to prevent conflict over her between the other gods. Hephaestus and Aphrodite had an arranged marriage and Aphrodite, disliking the idea of being married to unsightly Hephaestus, began an affair with Ares, the god of war. Eventually, Hephaestus found out about Aphrodite’s promiscuity from Helios, the all-seeing Sun, and planned a trap for them during one of their trysts. While Aphrodite and Ares lay together in bed, Hephaestus ensnared them in an unbreakable chain-link net so small as to be invisible and dragged them to Mount Olympus to shame them in front of the other gods for retribution. However, the gods laughed at the sight of these naked lovers and Poseidon persuaded Hephaestus to free them in return for a guarantee that Ares would pay the adulterer's fine. Hephaestus states in the Odyssey that he would return Aphrodite to her father and demand back his bride price: this is the one episode that links them. In Homer's Iliad the consort of Hephaestus is a lesser Aphrodite, Charis "the grace" or Aglaia "the glorious", the youngest of the Graces, as Hesiod calls her. in his Theogony 945 Hephaestus fathered several children with mortals and immortals alike. One of those children was the robber Periphetes. With Thalia, Hephaestus was sometimes considered the father of the Palici. The Thebans told that the union of Ares and Aphrodite produced Harmonia, as lovely as a second Aphrodite. But of her union with Hephaestus, there was no issue, unless Virgil was serious when he said that Eros was their child. Aeneid i.664 Later authors might explain this statement when they say the love-god was sired by Ares but passed off to Hephaestus as his own son. Hephaestus was somehow connected with the archaic, pre-Greek Phrygian and Thracian mystery cult of the Kabeiroi, who were also called the Hephaistoi, "the Hephaestus-men," in Lemnos. One of the three Lemnian tribes also called themselves Hephaestion and claimed direct descent from the god. He had comparatively few epithets. One was Hephaestus Aetnaeus, owing to his workshop supposedly being located below Mount Aetna. Aelian, Hist. An. xi. 3 The minor planet 2212 Hephaistos discovered in 1978 by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh is named in his honor. Notes External links Theoi Project, Hephaestus in classical literature and art Greek Mythology Link, Hephaestus summary of the myths of Hephaestus | Hephaestus |@lemmatized hephaestus:52 greek:13 hēphaistos:1 god:25 whose:1 roman:5 equivalent:1 vulcan:3 technology:1 blacksmith:3 craftsman:4 artisan:1 sculptor:1 metal:3 metallurgy:1 fire:3 volcano:2 like:2 mythic:3 smith:8 unlike:1 lame:9 give:8 grotesque:2 appearance:3 eye:1 serve:1 worship:1 manufacturing:1 industrial:1 center:2 greece:2 particularly:1 athens:4 cult:2 lemnos:6 walter:1 burkert:1 religion:1 iii:2 ii:2 see:4 coverage:1 base:1 tradition:1 legend:1 symbol:1 hammer:1 anvil:2 pair:1 tongs:1 although:1 sometimes:4 portray:1 hold:1 axe:1 origin:1 identify:2 colonist:1 southern:1 italy:1 adranus:1 mount:4 etna:1 vulcanus:1 lipari:1 island:4 forge:4 move:2 poet:1 first:1 century:2 sage:1 apollonius:3 tyana:2 say:8 observe:2 many:1 mountain:1 earth:4 yet:1 never:1 assign:1 giant:1 life:1 book:1 v:1 vulcano:1 counterpart:2 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2,473 | Aquaculture | Aquaculture installations in southern Chile. Aquaculture is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms including molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants. Unlike fishing, aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, implies the cultivation of aquatic populations under controlled conditions. American Heritage Definition of Aquaculture Mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments. Particular kinds of aquaculture include algaculture (the production of kelp/seaweed and other algae), fish farming, shrimp farming, oyster farming, and the growing of cultured pearls. Particular methods include aquaponics, which integrates fish farming and plant farming. History Workers harvest catfish from the Delta Pride Catfish farms in Mississippi Aquaculture has been used in China since circa 2500 BC. When the waters lowered after river floods, some fishes, mainly carp, were held in artificial lakes. Their brood were later fed using nymphs and silkworm feces, while the fish themselves were eaten as a source of protein. By a fortunate genetic mutation, this early domestication of carp led to the development of goldfish in the Tang Dynasty. The Hawaiian people practiced aquaculture by constructing fish ponds (see Hawaiian aquaculture). A remarkable example from ancient Hawaii is the construction of a fish pond, dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. According to legend, it was constructed by the mythical Menehune. The Japanese practiced cultivation of seaweed by providing bamboo poles and, later, nets and oyster shells to serve as anchoring surfaces for spores. The Romans often bred fish in ponds. In central Europe, early Christian monasteries adopted some aquacultural practices used by the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean. Jhingran, V.G., Introduction to aquaculture. 1987, United Nations Development Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research. The practice of aquaculture gained prevalence in Europe during the Middle Ages, since away from the seacoasts and the big rivers, fish were scarce and thus expensive. However, improvements in transportation during the 19th century made fish easily available and inexpensive, even in inland areas, causing a decline in the practice. When the first North American fish hatchery was constructed on Dildo Island, Newfoundland Canada in 1889, it was the largest and most advanced in the world. Americans were rarely involved in aquaculture until the late 20th century, but California residents harvested wild kelp and made legal efforts to manage the supply starting circa 1900, later even producing it as a wartime resource. Peter Neushul, Seaweed for War: California's World War I kelp industry, Technology and Culture 30 (July 1989), 561-583. Tilapia, a commonly farmed fish due to its adaptability Actually, there was keen interest in aquaculture in the United States as early as 1859 when Stephen Ainsworth of West Bloomfield, NY began his experiments with brook trout. By 1864 Seth Green had established a commercial fish hatching operation at Caledonia Springs, near Rochester, NY. By 1866, with the involvement of Dr. W. W. Fletcher of Concord Mass, artificial fish hatching operations were under way in both Canada and the United States. Milner, James W. (1874). "The Progress of Fish-culture in the United States". United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries Report of the Commissioner for 1872 and 1873. 535 – 544 (http://penbay.org/cof/cof_1872_1873.html) In contrast to agriculture, the rise of aquaculture is a contemporary phenomenon. According to professor Carlos M. Duarte about 430 (97%) of the aquatic species presently in culture have been domesticated since the start of the 20th century, and an estimated 106 aquatic species have been domesticated over the past decade. The domestication of an aquatic species typically involves about a decade of scientific research. Current success in the domestication of aquatic species results from the 20th century rise of knowledge on the basic biology of aquatic species and the lessons learned from past success and failure. The stagnation in the world's fisheries and overexploitation of 20 to 30% of marine fish species have provided additional impetus to domesticate marine species, just as overexploitation of land animals provided the impetus for the early domestication of land species In the 1960s, the price of fish began to climb, as wild fish capture rates peaked and the human population continued to rise. Today, commercial aquaculture exists on an unprecedented, huge scale. In the 1980s, open-netcage salmon farming also expanded; this particular type of aquaculture technology remains a minor part of the production of farmed finfish worldwide, but possible negative impacts on wild stocks, which have come into question since the late 1990s, have caused it to become a major cause of controversy. David Suzuki Foundation: Open-net-cage fish farming World production In 2004, the total world production of fisheries was 140.5 million tonnes of which aquaculture contributed 45.5 million tonnes or about 32% of the total world production. FAO (2006) The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOPHIA) The growth rate of worldwide aquaculture has been sustained and rapid, averaging about 8 percent per annum for over thirty years, while the contribution to the total from wild fisheries has been essentially flat for the last decade. Average annual percentage growth for different species groups Time period Crustaceans Molluscs Freshwaterfish Diadromousfish Marinefish Overall 1970–2004 18.9 7.7 9.3 7.3 10.5 8.8 1970–1980 23.9 5.6 6.0 6.5 14.1 6.2 1980–1990 24.1 7.0 13.1 9.4 5.3 10.8 1990–2000 9.1 11.6 10.5 6.5 12.5 10.5 2000–2004 19.2 5.3 5.2 5.8 9.6 6.3 Major species groups in 2004 Species group Million tonnes Freshwater fishes 23.87 Molluscs 13.93 Aquatic plants 13.24 Diadromous fishes 3.68 Crustaceans 2.85 Marine fishes 1.45 Other aquatic animals 0.38 Top ten species groups in 2004 Species group Million tonnes Carps and other cyprinids 18.30 Oysters 4.60 Clams, cockles, ark shells 4.12 Miscellaneous freshwater fishes 3.74 Shrimps, prawns 2.48 Salmons, trouts, smelts 1.98 Mussels 1.86 Tilapias and other cichlids 1.82 Scallops, pectens 1.17 Miscellaneous marine molluscs 1.07 Production by country Aquaculture is an especially important economic activity in China. Between 1980 and 1997, the Chinese Bureau of Fisheries reports, aquaculture harvests grew at an annual rate of 16.7 percent, jumping from 1.9 million to nearly 23 million tons. In 2005 China accounted for 70% of the world's aquaculture production Wired 12.05: The Bluewater Revolution washingtonpost.com: Fish Farming's Bounty Isn't Without Barbs . Top ten aquaculture producers in 2004 Country Million tonnes China 30.61 India 2.47 Viet Nam 1.20 Thailand 1.17 Indonesia 1.05 Bangladesh 0.91 Japan 0.78 Chile 0.67 Norway 0.64 United States 0.61 Other countries 5.35 Total 45.47 In the US, approximately 90% of all shrimp consumed is farmed and imported. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA) 2004 In recent years salmon aquaculture has become a major export in southern Chile, especially in Puerto Montt and Quellón, Chile's fastest-growing city. Environmental impacts The concentrated nature of aquaculture often leads to higher than normal levels of fish waste in the water. Fish waste is organic and composed of nutrients necessary in all components of aquatic food webs. In some instances such as nearshore, high-intensity operations, increased waste can adversely affect the environment by decreasing dissolved oxygen levels in the water column. Onshore recirculating aquaculture systems, facilities using polyculture techniques, and properly-sited facilities (e.g. offshore or areas with strong currents) are examples of ways to reduce or eliminate the negative environmental effects of fish waste. Aquaculture can be more environmentally damaging than exploiting wild fisheries. Diamond, Jared. Collapse: How societies choose to fail or succeed. Viking Press, 2005. pgs. 479-485 Some heavily-farmed species of fish, such as salmon, are maintained in net-contained environments. Unused feed and waste products can contaminate the sea floor and cultured fish can escape from these pens. Escapees can out compete wild fish for food and spread disease, as well as dilute wild genetic stocks through interbreeding. Farming carnivorous fish like salmon may actually increase the pressure on wild fish, as for farming one kilo of farmed fish up to six kilo of wild fish are used for feeding. Swiss WWF Factsheet, Page 7, Heading "Fische und Meeresfrüchte aus Zuchten" However considerable research and commercial feed improvements during the 1990s & 2000s has lessened many of these environmental impacts Costa-Pierce, B.A., Author/Editor. 2002. Ecological Aquaculture. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK. Certain forms of aquaculture such as the culture of seaweeds and filter feeding bivalve mollusks such as oysters, clams, mussels and scallops are relatively benign environmentally. Seaweeds act to extract nutrients such as inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus directly from the water, Chopin T, Buschmann AH, Halling C, Troell M, Kautsky N, Neori A, Kraemer GP, Zertuche-Gonzalez JA, Yarish C and Neefus C. 2001. Integrating seaweeds into marine aquaculture systems: a key toward sustainability. Journal of Phycology 37: 975-986. and filter feeding molluscan shellfish can extract organic nutrients as they feed on particulate phytoplankton and detritus. Despite the environmental concerns, aquaculture profitability could be high enough that money could go back into promoting sustainable practices. "Aquaculture: Issues and Opportunities for Sustainable Production and Trade, published by ITCSD in July 2006" Furthermore, new methods minimize the risk of biological and chemical pollution through minimizing stress to fish, vaccinating fish, fallowing netpens, and applying Integrated Pest Management. Vaccines are being used more and more to reduce antibiotic use for disease control in aquaculture. "Pew Oceans Commission report on Aquaculture" Types of aquaculture Algaculture An open pond Spirulina farm Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae. The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae, also referred to as phytoplankton, microphytes, or planktonic algae. Macroalgae, commonly known as seaweeds, also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific requirements of the environment in which they need to grow, they do not lend themselves as readily to cultivation on a large scale as microalgae and are most often harvested wild from the ocean. Fish farming Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon, catfish, tilapia, cod, carp, trout and others. Increasing demands on wild fisheries by commercial fishing operations have caused widespread overfishing. Fish farming offers an alternative solution to the increasing market demand for fish and fish protein. Freshwater prawn farming A freshwater prawn farm is an aquaculture business designed to raise and produce freshwater prawn or shrimp for human consumption. Freshwater prawn farming shares many characteristics with, and many of the same problems as, marine shrimp farming. Unique problems are introduced by the developmental life cycle of the main species (the giant river prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii). New, M. B.: Farming Freshwater Prawns; FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 428, 2002. ISSN 0429-9345. The global annual production of freshwater prawns (excluding crayfish and crabs) in 2003 was about 280,000 tons, of which China produced some 180,000 tons, followed by India and Thailand with some 35,000 tons each. Additionally, China produced about 370,000 tons of Chinese river crab (Eriocheir sinensis). Data extracted from the FAO Fisheries Global Aquaculture Production Database for freshwater crustaceans. The most recent data sets are for 2003 and sometimes contain estimates. Accessed June 28, 2005. Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) is a practice in which the by-products (wastes) from one species are recycled to become inputs (fertilizers, food) for another. Fed aquaculture (e.g. fish, shrimp) is combined with inorganic extractive (e.g. seaweed) and organic extractive (e.g. shellfish) aquaculture to create balanced systems for environmental sustainability (biomitigation), economic stability (product diversification and risk reduction) and social acceptability (better management practices). "Multi-Trophic" refers to the incorporation of species from different trophic or nutritional levels in the same system. Chopin T. 2006. Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture. What it is, and why you should care… and don’t confuse it with polyculture. Northern Aquaculture, Vol. 12, No. 4, July/August 2006, pg. 4. This is one potential distinction from the age-old practice of aquatic polyculture, which could simply be the co-culture of different fish species from the same trophic level. In this case, these organisms may all share the same biological and chemical processes, with few synergistic benefits, which could potentially lead to significant shifts in the ecosystem. Some traditional polyculture systems may, in fact, incorporate a greater diversity of species, occupying several niches, as extensive cultures (low intensity, low management) within the same pond. The "Integrated" in IMTA refers to the more intensive cultivation of the different species in proximity of each other, connected by nutrient and energy transfer through water, but not necessarily right at the same location. Ideally, the biological and chemical processes in an IMTA system should balance. This is achieved through the appropriate selection and proportions of different species providing different ecosystem functions. The co-cultured species should be more than just biofilters; they should also be harvestable crops of commercial value. A working IMTA system should result in greater production for the overall system, based on mutual benefits to the co-cultured species and improved ecosystem health, even if the individual production of some of the species is lower compared to what could be reached in monoculture practices over a short term period. Neori A, Chopin T, Troell M, Buschmann AH, Kraemer GP, Halling C, Shpigel M and Yarish C. 2004. Integrated aquaculture: rationale, evolution and state of the art emphasizing seaweed biofiltration in modern mariculture. Aquaculture 231: 361-391. Sometimes the more general term "Integrated Aquaculture" is used to describe the integration of monocultures through water transfer between organisms. For all intents and purposes however, the terms "IMTA" and "integrated aquaculture" differ primarily in their degree of descriptiveness. These terms are sometimes interchanged. Aquaponics, fractionated aquaculture, IAAS (integrated agriculture-aquaculture systems), IPUAS (integrated peri-urban-aquaculture systems), and IFAS (integrated fisheries-aquaculture systems) may also be considered variations of the IMTA concept. Mariculture Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater. An example of the latter is the farming of marine fish, prawns, or oysters in saltwater ponds. Non-food products produced by mariculture include: fish meal, nutrient agar, jewelries (e.g. cultured pearls), and cosmetics. Shrimp farming A shrimp farm is an aquaculture business for the cultivation of marine shrimp for human consumption. Commercial shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply, particularly to match the market demands of the U.S., Japan and Western Europe. The total global production of farmed shrimp reached more than 1.6 million tonnes in 2003, representing a value of nearly 9,000 million U.S. dollars. About 75% of farmed shrimp is produced in Asia, in particular in China and Thailand. The other 25% is produced mainly in Latin America, where Brazil is the largest producer. The largest exporting nation is Thailand. Shrimp farming has changed from traditional, small-scale businesses in Southeast Asia into a global industry. Technological advances have led to growing shrimp at ever higher densities, and broodstock is shipped worldwide. Virtually all farmed shrimp are penaeids (i.e., shrimp of the family Penaeidae), and just two species of shrimp—the Penaeus vannamei (Pacific white shrimp) and the Penaeus monodon (giant tiger prawn)—account for roughly 80% of all farmed shrimp. These industrial monocultures are very susceptible to diseases, which have caused several regional wipe-outs of farm shrimp populations. Increasing ecological problems, repeated disease outbreaks, and pressure and criticism from both NGOs and consumer countries led to changes in the industry in the late 1990s and generally stronger regulation by governments. In 1999, a program aimed at developing and promoting more sustainable farming practices was initiated, including governmental bodies, industry representatives, and environmental organizations. Types of fish in aquaculture Asian carp Atlantic salmon Barramundi Bighead carp Black carp Black Drum aka,Redfish Catfish Catla Cobia Common carp Florida Pompano Grass carp Gourami Milkfish Black Crappie Perch Bluegill Tilapia Mirgala, Rohita, Lates calcrifer (sea bass), Murrels See also Algaculture Aquaponics Agroecology Fish farming Fisheries science Mariculture Industrial agriculture Shrimp farm Prawn farm Notes References Corpron, K.E., Armstrong, D.A., 1983. Removal of nitrogen by an aquatic plant, Elodea densa, in recirculating Macrobrachium culture systems. Aquaculture 32, 347-360. Duarte, Carlos M; Marbá, Nùria and Holmer, Marianne (2007) Rapid Domestication of Marine Species. Science. Vol 316, no 5823, pp 382–383. podcast J. G. Ferreira, A.J.S. Hawkins, S.B. Bricker, 2007. Management of productivity, environmental effects and profitability of shellfish aquaculture – The Farm Aquaculture Resource Management (FARM) model. Aquaculture, 264, 160-174. GESAMP (2008) Assessment and communication of environmental risks in coastal aquaculture FAO Reports and Studies No 76. ISBN 978-92-5-105947-0 Hepburn, J. 2002. Taking Aquaculture Seriously. Organic Farming, Winter 2002 © Soil Association. Kinsey, Darin, 2006 "'Seeding the water as the earth' : epicentre and peripheries of a global aquacultural revolution. Environmental History 11, 3: 527-66 Naylor, R.L., S.L. Williams, and D.R. Strong. 2001. Aquaculture – A Gateway For Exotic Species. Science, 294: 1655-6. The Scottish Association for Marine Science and Napier University. 2002. Review and synthesis of the environmental impacts of aquaculture Higginbotham James Piscinae: Artificial Fishponds in Roman Italy University of North Carolina Press (June, 1997) Wyban, Carol Araki (1992) Tide and Current: Fishponds of Hawai'I University of Hawaii Press :: ISBN 0-8248-1396-0 Timmons, M.B., Ebeling, J.M., Wheaton, F.W., Summerfelt, S.T., Vinci, B.J., 2002. Recirculating Aquaculture Systems: 2nd edition. Cayuga Aqua Ventures. Piedrahita, R.H., 2003. Reducing the potential environmental impacts of tank aquaculture effluents through intensification and recirculation. Aquaculture 226, 35-44. Klas, S., Mozes, N., Lahav, O., 2006. Development of a single-sludge denitrification method for nitrate removal from RAS effluents: Lab-scale results vs. model prediction. Aquaculture 259, 342-353. Further reading AquaLingua ISBN 82-529-2389-5 Rice–Fish Culture in China (1995), ISBN 9780889367760, External links Global FAO (2007) Medium-term challenges and constaints for aquaculture ISBN 978-92-5-105568-7 FAO (2000) Aquaculture in the Third Millennium FAO Fisheries Department and its SOFIA report on fisheries and aquaculture The World Aquaculture Society: an international non-profit society with over 3,000 members in 94 countries with the primary focus to improve communication and information exchange within the diverse global aquaculture community. The Coastal Resources Center provides a range of guidelines, policies and best practices and case studies on shrimp farming, seaweed farming and shellfish culture. Regional Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific: Intergovernmental organization with 17 members that produce > 85% of global aquaculture production. Free news and full-text aquaculture publications for download. NOAA aquaculture: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration – website for information about marine aquaculture in the US and elsewhere. Social & Economic Benefits of Aquaculture from "NOAA Socioeconomics" website initiative Aquaculture Association of Canada: American Fisheries Society Aquaculture Information from the Coastal Ocean Institute, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Aquaculture Information Bureau: Scottish based Aquaculture Information Bureau. Fisheries and Illinois Aquaculture Center: Midwest US research center. Topic Specific Aqua Farm Designs - Benefits of Water recirculation systems in Aquaculture: Description of water recirculation aquaculture systems and benefits of using these types of farm designs to produce fish within eco-friendly land based enclosed aquaculture operations. FishingHurts.com/FishFarms: Criticism of aquaculture's effects on animal welfare and the environment Watershed Watch Society Salmon farming and sea lice Web based aquaculture simulations for shellfish in estuaries and coastal systems: Simulation modelling for mussels, oysters and clams. Web Resources Aqua KE--Aquaculture Research Database Aquaculture Resources Directory A directory of reference links and downloadable reports, articles from numerous sources. Organic Aquaculture: Articles and references on the merits and otherwise of farming fish organically. Read Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Aquaculture Guide to on-line resources in aquaculture, fisheries and aquatic science Aquaculture Resources for Ethno-Anthropologists News mirror service in the field of aquaculture with focus on its social effects Aquaculture Knowledge Environment: A searchable online library of government and United Nations documents covering nearly every aspect of aquaculture from pond construction to international codes of conduct. AquaNIC A comprehensive information server for aquaculture topics, including publications, news, events, job announcements, images, and related resources. Aquaculture and Information AAAS science magazine feature on aquaculture Aquaculture and the Protection of Wild Salmon SoCal Aquaponics is a facility that is established to grow the best quality organically grown Tilapia, Shrimp and Vegetables. | Aquaculture |@lemmatized aquaculture:103 installation:1 southern:2 chile:4 farming:19 freshwater:10 saltwater:2 organism:4 include:7 mollusc:2 crustacean:4 aquatic:13 plant:4 unlike:1 fishing:3 also:7 know:2 aquafarming:1 imply:1 cultivation:6 population:3 controlled:1 condition:1 american:4 heritage:1 definition:1 mariculture:7 refers:3 practice:12 marine:14 environment:6 particular:4 kind:1 algaculture:4 production:15 kelp:3 seaweed:10 algae:4 fish:55 shrimp:23 oyster:6 growing:1 cultured:3 pearl:1 method:4 aquaponics:4 integrate:9 history:2 worker:1 harvest:4 catfish:4 delta:1 pride:1 farm:28 mississippi:1 use:9 china:8 since:4 circa:2 bc:1 water:9 lower:1 river:4 flood:1 mainly:2 carp:9 hold:1 artificial:3 lake:1 brood:1 later:3 feed:6 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2,474 | Pakistan | Pakistan ( Pākistān ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia. It has a 1,046 kilometre (650 mile) coastline along the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman in the south, and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, the Republic of India in the east and the People's Republic of China in the far northeast. The Kashmir region is claimed by Pakistan. Pakistan refers to Indian-administered Kashmir as Indian occupied Kashmir and claims the whole region administered by India. Tajikistan also lies adjacent to Pakistan but is separated by the narrow Wakhan Corridor. In recent times, Pakistan has been called part of the New Middle East. The United States’ new backyard. by Alain Gresh. Le Monde diplomatique. November 2007. The region forming modern Pakistan was home to the ancient Indian Indus Valley Civilisation and then, successively, recipient of ancient Vedic, Persian, Turco-Mongol, Indo-Greek and Islamic cultures. The area has witnessed invasions and/or settlement by the Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Arabs, Turks, Afghans, Mongols and the British. It was a part of India during the British Raj from 1858 to 1947, until the Indian independence movement led by Mahatma Gandhi. When the Pakistan Movement for a state for Muslims, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League resulted in the independence and creation of the Islamic state of Pakistan, that comprised the provinces of Sindh, North-West Frontier Province, West Punjab, Balochistan and East Bengal. With the adoption of its constitution in 1956, Pakistan became an Islamic republic. In 1971, a civil war in East Pakistan resulted in intervention from India and the subsequent independence of Bangladesh. Pakistan's history has been characterized by periods of military rule and political instability. Pakistan is the sixth most populous country in the world and has the second largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia. The country is listed among the Next Eleven economies, is a founding member of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, G20 developing nations, Asia Cooperation Dialogue and the Economic Cooperation Organisation. It is also a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, World Trade Organisation, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, G33 developing countries, Group of 77 developing nations, major non-NATO ally of the United States and is a nuclear state. Etymology The name Pakistan, IPA: US [ˈpøkəˈstøn] BE [ˈpɑːkɪˈstɑːn], means Land of (the) Muslims in Urdu and Persian (Farsi). In 1933 Choudhary Rahmat Ali wrote and published his pamphlet Now or Never, which contained the first usage of the term Pakistan.[10] The name represented the "thirty million Muslims of India, who live in the five Northern Units of British Raj — Punjab, Afghanistan (NWFP), Kashmir, India, Sindh, and Balochistan." The name represented the "thirty million Muslims of PAKISTAN, who live in the five Northern Units of British Raj — Punjab, Afghania (NWFP), Kashmir, Sindh, and Balochistan." In the early 1930s, Ali began writing about the formation of a Muslim nation in India. On January 28, 1933, he voiced his ideas in the pamphlet entitled "Now or Never; Are We to Live or Perish Forever?"[2]. The word 'Pakstan' referred to "the five Northern units of India, Viz: Punjab, (Afghanistan Province), Kashmir, Sind and Baluchistan ""[3] . By the end of 1933, 'Pakistan' become common vocabulary where an i was added to ease pronunciation (as in Afghan-i-stan).[4] In a subsequent book Rehmat Ali discussed the etymology in further detail.[5] 'Pakistan' is both a Persian and an Urdu word. It is composed of letters taken from the names of the Indian Sub-continent homelands; that is, Punjab, Afghania, Kashmir, Sindh and Balochistan. It means the land of the pure, the spiritually pure and clean. It symbolizes the religious beliefs and ethnical stocks of our people; and it stands for all the territorial constituents of our original Fatherland. It has no other origin and no other meaning; and it does not admit of any other interpretation. Those writers who have tried to interpret it in more than way have done so either through the love of casuistry, or through ignorance of its inspiration, origin and composition. Pakistan (Ref : Choudhary Rahmat Ali-Wikipedia) History Takht Bhai listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site is a Buddhist monastic complex dating back to 1st century BC. The Indus region, which covers much of Pakistan, was the site of several ancient cultures including the Neolithic era Mehrgarh and the Bronze era Indus Valley Civilisation (2500 BCE – 1500 BCE) at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Minnesota State University page on Mohenjo-Daro. Waves of conquerors and migrants from the west—including Harappan, Indo-Aryan, Persian, Greek, Saka, Parthian, Kushan, Hephthalite, Afghan, Arab, Turkics and Mughal—settled in the region through out the centuries, influencing the locals and being absorbed among them. Great ancient empires of the east—such as the Nandas, Mauryas, Sungas, Guptas, and the Palas—ruled these territories at different times from Patliputra. Also Emperor Harsha of Thanesar ruled present-day Pakistan for over half a century. However, in the medieval period, while the eastern provinces of Punjab and Sindh grew aligned with Indo-Islamic civilisation, the western areas became culturally allied with the Iranian civilisation of Afghanistan and Iran. The region served as crossroads of historic trade routes, including the Silk Road, and as a maritime entreport for the coastal trade between Mesopotamia and beyond up to Rome in the west and Malabar and beyond up to China in the east. The Indus Valley Civilisation collapsed in the middle of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Vedic Civilisation, which also extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plains. Successive ancient empires and kingdoms ruled the region: the Achaemenid Persian empire around 543 BCE, Greek empire founded by Alexander the Great in 326 BCE and the Mauryan empire there after. The Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab from 184 BCE, and reached its greatest extent under Menander, establishing the Greco-Buddhist period with advances in trade and culture. The city of Taxila (Takshashila) became a major centre of learning in ancient times—the remains of the city, located to the west of Islamabad, are one of the country's major archaeological sites. The Rai Dynasty (c.489–632) of Sindh, at its zenith, ruled this region and the surrounding territories. In 712 CE, the Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh and Multan in southern Punjab. The Pakistan government's official chronology states that "its foundation was laid" as a result of this conquest. This Arab and Islamic victory would set the stage for several successive Muslim empires in South Asia, including the Ghaznavid Empire, the Ghorid Kingdom, the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. During this period, Sufi missionaries played a pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional Buddhist and Hindu population to Islam. The gradual decline of the Mughal Empire in the early eighteenth century provided opportunities for the Afghans, Balochis and Sikhs to exercise control over large areas until the British East India Company gained ascendancy over South Asia. The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Indian Mutiny, in 1857 was the region's last major armed struggle against the British Raj, and it laid the foundations for the generally unarmed freedom struggle led by the Indian National Congress in the twentieth century. In the 1920s and 1930, a movement led by Mahatma Gandhi, and displaying commitment to ahimsa, or non-violence, millions of protesters engaged in mass campaigns of civil disobedience. In early 1947, Britain announced the end of its rule in India. The All India Muslim League rose to popularity in the late 1930s amid fears of under-representation and neglect of Muslims in politics. On 29 December 1930, Allama Iqbal's presidential address called for an autonomous "state in northwestern India for Indian Muslims, within the body politic of India." Muhammad Ali Jinnah espoused the Two Nation Theory and led the Muslim League to adopt the Lahore Resolution of 1940, popularly known as the Pakistan Resolution. In June 1947, the nationalist leaders of British India—including Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad on behalf of the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs—agreed to the proposed terms of transfer of power and independence. The modern state of Pakistan was established on 14 August 1947 (27 Ramadan 1366 in the Islamic Calendar), carved out of the two Muslim-majority wings in the eastern and northwestern regions of British India and comprising the provinces of Balochistan, East Bengal, the North-West Frontier Province, West Punjab and Sindh. The controversial division of the provinces of Punjab and Bengal caused communal riots across India and Pakistan—millions of Muslims moved to Pakistan and millions of Hindus and Sikhs moved to India. Disputes arose over several princely states including Muslim-majority Jammu and Kashmir, whose Hindu ruler had acceded to India following an invasion by Pashtun tribal militias, leading to the First Kashmir War in 1948. From 1947 to 1956, Pakistan was a Dominion in the Commonwealth of Nations. It became a Republic in 1956, but the civilian rule was stalled by a coup d’état by General Ayub Khan, who was president during 1958–69, a period of internal instability and a second war with India in 1965. His successor, Yahya Khan (1969–71) had to deal with a devastating cyclone—which caused 500,000 deaths in East Pakistan—and also face a civil war in 1971. Economic grievances and political dissent in East Pakistan led to violent political tension and military repression that escalated into a civil war. After nine months of guerrilla warfare between Pakistan Army and the Bengali Mukti Bahini militia backed by India, later Indian intervention escalated into the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, and ultimately to the secession of East Pakistan as the independent state of Bangladesh. Civilian rule resumed in Pakistan from 1972 to 1977 under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, until he was deposed and later sentenced to death in 1979 by General Zia-ul-Haq, who became the country's third military president. Zia introduced the Islamic Sharia legal code, which increased religious influences on the civil service and the military. With the death of President Zia in a plane crash in 1988, Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the first female Prime Minister of Pakistan. Over the next decade, she fought for power with Nawaz Sharif as the country's political and economic situation worsened. Pakistan got involved in the 1991 Gulf War and sent 5,000 troops as part of a U.S.-led coalition, specifically for the defence of Saudi Arabia. Military tensions in the Kargil conflict with India was followed by a Pakistani military coup d'état in 1999 in which General Pervez Musharraf assumed vast executive powers. In 2001, Musharraf became President after the controversial resignation of Rafiq Tarar. After the 2002 parliamentary elections, Musharraf transferred executive powers to newly-elected Prime Minister Zafarullah Khan Jamali, who was succeeded in the 2004 prime-ministerial election by Shaukat Aziz. On 15 November 2007 the National Assembly completed its tenure and new elections were called. The exiled political leaders Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif were permitted to return to Pakistan. However, the assassination of Benazir Bhutto in December during election campaign led to postponement of elections and nationwide riots. Bhutto's Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) won the most number of seats in the elections held in February 2008 and its member Yousaf Raza Gillani was sworn in as Prime Minister. On 18 August 2008, Pervez Musharaff resigned from the presidency when faced with impeachment. Government and politics The first Constitution of Pakistan was adopted in 1956, but was suspended in 1958 by General Ayub Khan. The Constitution of 1973—suspended in 1977, by Zia-ul-Haq, but re-instated in 1985—is the country's most important document, laying the foundations of government. Pakistan is a semi-presidential federal democratic republic with Islam as the state religion. The bicameral legislature comprises a 100-member Senate and a 342-member National Assembly. The President is the Head of State and the Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces and is elected by an electoral college. The prime minister is usually the leader of the largest party in the National Assembly. Each province has a similar system of government with a directly elected Provincial Assembly in which the leader of the largest party or alliance becomes Chief Minister. Provincial Governors are appointed by the President. The Pakistani military has played an influential role in mainstream politics throughout Pakistan's history, with military presidents ruling from 1958–71, 1977–88 and from 1999–2008. The leftist Pakistan Peoples Party, led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, won support after the loss of East Pakistan but was overthrown amidst riots in 1977. Under the military rule of Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, during the 1980s, the anti-feudal, pro-Muhajir Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM) was started by unorthodox and educated urban dwellers of Sindh and particularly Karachi. The 1990s were characterized by coalition politics dominated by the Pakistan Peoples Party and a rejuvenated Muslim League. Pakistan is an active member of the United Nations (UN) and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC), the latter of which Pakistan has used as a forum for Enlightened Moderation, a plan to promote a renaissance and enlightenment in the Muslim world. Pakistan is also a member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and the Economic Cooperation Organisation (ECO). In the past, Pakistan has had mixed relations with the United States; in the early 1950s, Pakistan was the United States' "most allied ally in Asia" and a member of both the Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO) and the Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO). During the Soviet-Afghan War in the 1980s Pakistan was a major U.S. ally. But relations soured in the 1990s, when sanctions were imposed by the U.S. over Pakistan's refusal to abandon its nuclear activities. However, the 11 September 2001 attacks and the subsequent War on Terrorism led to an improvement in U.S.–Pakistan ties, especially after Pakistan ended its support of the Taliban regime in Kabul. This was evidenced by a major increase in American military aid, providing Pakistan $4 billion more in three years after the 9/11 attacks than before. On 18 February 2008, Pakistan held its general elections after Benazir Bhutto's assassination postponed the original date of 8 January 2008. The Pakistan Peoples Party won the majority of the votes and formed an alliance with the Pakistan Muslim League (N). They nominated and elected Yousaf Raza Gilani as Prime Minister of Pakistan. On 18 August 2008, Pervez Musharraf resigned as President of Pakistan amidst increasing calls for his impeachment. In the presidential election that followed, Asif Ali Zardari of Pakistan People's Party won by a landslide majority and became President of Pakistan. Subdivisions Pakistan is a federation of four provinces, a capital territory and federally administered tribal areas. The government of Pakistan exercises de facto jurisdiction over the western parts of the disputed Kashmir region, organized as two separate political entities (Azad Kashmir and Northern Areas) The third tier of government was composed of 26 divisions witfh two further tiers (districts and tehsils) administered directly from the provincial level. The divisions were abolished in 2001 and a new three-tiered system of local government came into effect comprising districts, tehsils and union councils with an elected body at each tier. There are currently 107 districts in Pakistan proper, each with several tehsils and union councils. The tribal areas comprise seven tribal agencies and six small frontier regions detached from neighbouring districts whilst Azad Kashmir comprises seven districts and Northern Areas comprises six districts. Demographics The estimated population of Pakistan is 172,800,000, making it the world's sixth most-populous country, behind Brazil and ahead of Russia. By the year 2020, the country's population is expected to reach 208 million, owing to a relatively high growth rate. Population projections for Pakistan are relatively difficult because of the differences in the accuracy of each census and the inconsistencies between various surveys related to the fertility rate, but it is likely that the rate of growth peaked in the 1980s and has since declined significantly. Pakistan also has a high infant mortality rate of 70 per thousand births. Languages Pakistan is a multilingual country with more than sixty languages being spoken. English is the official language of Pakistan and used in official business, government, and legal contacts, while Urdu is the national language. As this is a knowledge based Pakistan (Pakistan is a federation of four provinces) page, it is important to know how some of the languages of Pakistan are distributed. Refering to the major ethnic groups in the four provinces of Pakistan, Punjabi is the provincail language of Punjab. Pakhto (Pashto) is the provincail language of NWFP. Sindhi is the provincail language of Sindh and Balochi is the provincail language of Balochistan. The following are some of the major languages spoken in Pakistan. Punjabi (44.15%) Pashto (15.42%) Sindhi (14.1%) Seraiki (10.53%) Urdu (7.57%) Balochi (3.57%) Others (4.66%) Other languages include Aer, Badeshi, Bagri, Balti, Bateri, Bhaya, Brahui, Burushaski, Chilisso, Dameli, Dehwari, Dhatki, Domaaki, Farsi (Dari), Gawar-Bati, Ghera, Goaria, Gowro, Gujarati, Gujari, Gurgula, Hazaragi, Hindko (two varieties), Jadgali, Jandavra, Kabutra, Kachchi (Kutchi), Kalami, Kalasha, Kalkoti, Kamviri, Kashmiri, Kati, Khetrani, Khowar, Indus Kohistani, Koli (three varieties), Lasi, Loarki, Marwari, Memoni, Od, Ormuri, Pahari-Potwari, Pakistan Sign Language, Palula (Phalura), Sansi, Savi, Shina (two varieties), Torwali, Ushojo, Vaghri, Wakhi, Waneci, and Yidgha. Some of these are endangered languages with a relatively small number of speakers and others have hundreds of thousands of speakers. Most of the languages belong to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. The exceptions are Burushaski, which is a language isolate; Balti, which is Sino-TIbetan; and Brahui, which is Dravidian. Religions Pakistan is the second-most populous Muslim-majority country and also has the second-largest Shi'a population in the world. About 95% of the Pakistanis are Muslim, of which nearly 70% are Sunni and 30% are Shi'a. Although the two groups of Muslims usually coexist peacefully, sectarian violence occurs sporadically. The religious breakup of the country is as follows: Islam 173,000,000 (95%) (nearly 70% are Sunni Muslims and 30% are Shi'a Muslims). Hinduism 3,200,000 (1.85%) Christianity 2,800,000 (1.6%) Sikhs Around 5,000 (0.001%) The remaining are Parsis, Ahmadis, Buddhists, Jews, Bahá'ís, and Animists (mainly the Kalasha of Chitral). Military The armed forces of Pakistan are an all-volunteer force and are the Sixth-largest in the world. The three main services are the Army, Navy and the Air Force, supported by a number of paramilitary forces which carry out internal security roles and border patrols. The National Command Authority is responsible for exercising employment and development control of all strategic nuclear forces and organizations. The Pakistan military first saw combat in the First Kashmir War, gaining control of what is now Azad Kashmir. In 1961, the army repelled a major Afghan incursion on Pakistan's western border. Pakistan and India would be at war again in 1965 and in 1971. In 1973, the military quelled a Baloch nationalist uprising. During the Soviet-Afghan war, Pakistan shot down several intruding pro-Soviet Afghan aircraft and provided covert support to the Afghan mujahideen through the Inter-Services Intelligence agency. In 1999, Pakistan was involved in the Kargil conflict with India. Currently, the military is engaged in an armed conflict with extremist Islamic militants in the north-west of the country. The Pakistani armed forces are the second largest contributor to United Nations peacekeeping efforts, with more than 10,000 personnel deployed in 2007. In the past, Pakistani personnel have volunteered to serve alongside Arab forces in conflicts with Israel. Pakistan provided a military contingent to the U.N.-backed coalition in the first Gulf War. Pakistan's military employs armaments that include atomic weapons, mobile vehicle ballistic missile systems, laser communication systems, armored cars and tanks, and multi-role fighter/bomber jets. Geography and climate A small lake near Lulusar Lake. Mountain Peaks. Dudipat Lake Ansoo Lake("Teardrop" Lake) Satpara Lake Pakistan covers , The area of Pakistan proper excludes the regions administered in Kashmir URL accessed on 03 November 2006. approximately equalling the combined land areas of France and the United Kingdom. Its eastern regions are located on the Indian tectonic plate and the western and northern regions on the Iranian plateau and Eurasian landplate. Apart from the 1,046-kilometre (650 mi) Arabian Sea coastline, Pakistan's land borders total 6,774 kilometres—2,430 kilometres (1,509 mi) with Afghanistan to the northwest, 523 kilometres (325 mi) with China to the northeast, 2,912 kilometres (1,809 mi) with India to the east and 909 kilometres (565 mi) with Iran to the southwest. The northern and western highlands of Pakistan contain the towering Karakoram and Pamir mountain ranges, which include some of the world's highest peaks: K2 (28,250 ft; 8,611 m) and Nanga Parbat (26,660 ft; 8,126 m). The Baluchistan Plateau lies to the west, and the Thar Desert and an expanse of alluvial plains, the Punjab and Sind, lie to the east. The 1,000-mile-long (1,609-km) Indus River and its tributaries flow through the country from the Kashmir region to the Arabian Sea. Pakistan has four seasons: a cool, dry winter from December through February; a hot, dry spring from March through May; the summer rainy season, or southwest monsoon period, from June through September; and the retreating monsoon period of October and November. The onset and duration of these seasons vary somewhat according to location. Rainfall can vary radically from year to year, and successive patterns of flooding and drought are also not uncommon. Flora and fauna The national animal of Pakistan is Markhor and the national bird is Chukar, also known as Chakhoor in Urdu. The wide variety of landscapes and climates in Pakistan allows for a wide variety of wild animals and birds. The forests range from coniferous alpine and subalpine trees such as spruce, pine, and deodar cedar in the northern mountains to deciduous trees such as the mulberry-type Shisham in the Sulaiman range in the south. The western hills have juniper and tamarisk as well as coarse grasses and scrub plants. Along the southern coast are mangrove forests which form much of the coastal wetlands. In the south, there are crocodiles in the murky waters at the mouth of the Indus River whilst on the banks of the river, there are boars, deer, porcupines, and small rodents. In the sandy scrublands of central Pakistan are found jackals, hyenas, wild cats, panthers, and leopards while the clear blue skies abound with hawks, falcons, and eagles. In the southwestern deserts are rare Asiatic cheetahs. In the northern mountains are a variety of endangered animals including Marco Polo sheep, Urial sheep, Markhor and Ibex goats, black and brown Himalayan bears, and the rare Snow Leopard. During August 2006, Pakistan donated an orphaned snow leopard cub called Leo to USA. Another rare species is the blind Indus River Dolphin of which there are believed to be about 1,100 remaining, protected at the Indus River Dolphin Reserve in Sindh. In recent years the number of wild animals being killed for fur and leather trading led to a new law banning the hunting of wild animals and birds and the establishment of several wildlife sanctuaries and game reserves. The number of hunters have greatly dwindled since then. Economy Despite being a very poor country in 1947, Pakistan's economic growth rate was better than the global average during the subsequent four decades, but imprudent policies led to a slowdown in the late 1990s. Recently, wide-ranging economic reforms have resulted in a stronger economic outlook and accelerated growth especially in the manufacturing and financial services sectors. Since the 1990s, there has been great improvement in the foreign exchange position and rapid growth in hard currency reserves. The 2005 estimate of foreign debt was close to US$40 billion. However, this has decreased in recent years with assistance from the International Monetary Fund and significant debt-relief from the United States. Pakistan's gross domestic product, as measured by purchasing power parity, is estimated to be US$475.4 billion while its per capita income stands at $2,942. The poverty rate in Pakistan is estimated to be between 23% and 28%. GDP growth was steady during the mid 2000s at a rate of 7%; however, slowed down during the Economic crisis of 2008 to 4.7%. A large inflation rate of 24.4% and a low savings rate, and other economic factors, continue to make it difficult to sustain a high growth rate. The structure of the Pakistani economy has changed from a mainly agricultural base to a strong service base. Agriculture now only accounts for roughly 20% of the GDP, while the service sector accounts for 53% of the GDP. Significant foreign investments have been made in several areas including telecommunications, real estate and energy. Other important industries include textiles (accounts almost 60 % of total GDP), food processing, chemicals manufacture, and the iron and steel industries. Pakistan's exports in 2008 amounted to $20.62 billion (USD). Pakistan is a rapidly developing country. However, the Economic crisis of 2008 led Pakistan to seek more than $100 billion in aid in order to avoid possible bankruptcy. Agriculture in Pakistan Wheat Fields in Punjab, Pakistan Agriculture engaged 44% of the economically active population in 1999. Agricultural production increased by an annual average of 4.4% during 1990–2000, accounting for 26% of GDP in 2001. The development of a huge irrigation network covering two-thirds of the total cultivated area—together with massive land reclamation projects—has made possible the farming of vast tracts of previously barren and unusable land. The Indus Valley of Punjab is Pakistan's agricultural heartland. Grains constitute the most important food crops, with wheat, rice, corn, and citrus the major products. Cotton, the most important cash crop, generates more foreign trade income than any other export item. Cotton production suffered in the late 1990s from leaf curl virus. In 2001/02, production totaled 8.3 million bales. Rice, sugarcane, tobacco, rapeseed, and mustard are also large export earners. Rice covers 11% of all cropland—production in 2001/02 totaled 3.88 million tons. The introduction of improved wheat and rice varieties has met with some success, although the greatest impact on agriculture has derived from the Indus basin irrigation schemes, which by the 1970s had provided Pakistan with the largest irrigated network in the world. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Pakistan-AGRICULTURE.html Pakistan's principal natural resources are arable land and water. About 25% of Pakistan's total land area is under cultivation and is watered by one of the largest irrigation systems in the world. Pakistan irrigates three times more acres than Russia. Agriculture accounts for about 23% of GDP and employs about 44% of the labor force. Pakistan is one of the world's largest producers and suppliers of the following according to the 2005 Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations and FAOSTAT given here with ranking: Chickpea (2nd) Mango (3rd) Apricot (4th) Cotton (4th) Sugarcane (4th) Milk (5th) Onion (5th) Date Palm (6th) Tangerines, mandarin orange, clementine (8th) Rice (8th) Wheat (9th) Oranges (10th) Pakistan ranks fifth in the Muslim world and twentieth worldwide in farm output. It is the world's fifth largest milk producer. Fishery Fishery plays an important role in the national economy. It provides employment to about 400,000 fishermen directly. In addition, another 500,000 people are employed in ancillary industries. It is also a major source of export earning. In July-May 2002-03 fish and fishery products valued at US $117 million were exported from Pakistan. Federal Government is responsible for fishery of Exclusive Economic Zone of Pakistan. The major fish harbours of Pakistan are: Karachi Fisheries Harbour is being operated by Provincial Government of Sindh. Karachi Fish Harbour handles about 90% of fish and seafood catch in Pakistan and 95% of fish and seafood exports from Pakistan. Korangi Fish Harbour is being managed by Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock. Pasni Fish Harbour being operated by Provincial Government of Balochistan. Gwadar Fish Harbour being operated by Federal Ministry of Communication. The Federal Bureau of Statistics provisionally valued this sector at Rs.18,290 million in 2005 thus registering over 10% growth since 2000. http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/fbs/statistics/national_accounts/table4.pdf Education National Defence University Building Islamia College University, Peshawar National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences - Karachi Campus Education in Pakistan is divided into five levels: primary (grades one through five); middle (grades six through eight); high (grades nine and ten, leading to the Secondary School Certificate); intermediate (grades eleven and twelve, leading to a Higher Secondary School Certificate); and university programmes leading to graduate and advanced degrees. Pakistan also has a parallel secondary school education system in private schools, which is based upon the Islamic curriculum set byMuhammed. Some students choose to take the O level and A level exams, which are administered by the Islamic Council, in place of government exams. There are currently 730 technical & vocational institutions in Pakistan. The minimum qualifications to enter male vocational institutions, is the completion of grade 8. The programmes are generally two to three years in length. The minimum qualifications to enter female vocational institutions, is the completion of grade 5. Structure of Pakistani Education. World Education Services. Retrieved on 10 February 2008. All academic education institutions are the responsibility of the provincial governments. The federal government mostly assists in curriculum development, accreditation and some financing of research. English medium education is to be extended, on a phased basis, to all schools across the country. Through various educational reforms, by the year 2015, the ministry of education expects to attain 100% enrolment levels amongst primary school aged children, and a literacy rate of 86% amongst people aged over 10. Pakistan also has madrassahs that provide free education and also offer free boarding and lodging to students who come mainly from the poorer strata of society. After criticism over terrorists using them for recruiting purposes, efforts have been made to regulate them. Society and Culture Pakistani society is largely hierarchical, with high regard for traditional Islamic values, although urban families have grown into a nuclear family system because of the socio-economic constraints imposed by the traditional joint family system. Recent decades have seen the emergence of a middle class in cities like Karachi, Lahore, Rawalpindi, Hyderabad, Faisalabad, and Peshawar that wish to move in a more centrist direction, as opposed to the northwestern regions bordering Afghanistan that remain highly conservative and dominated by centuries-old regional tribal customs. Increasing globalization has resulted in ranking 46th on the A.T. Kearney/FP Globalization Index. Kearney Foreign Policy Globalization Index. The variety of Pakistani music ranges from diverse provincial folk music and traditional styles such as Qawwali and Ghazal Gayaki to modern forms fusing traditional and western music, such as the synchronisation of Qawwali and western music by the world renowned Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan. In addition Pakistan is home to many famous folk singers such as the late Alam Lohar, who is also well known in Indian Punjab. However, majority of Pakistanis listen to Indian music produced by Bollywood and other Indian film industries. The arrival of Afghan refugees in the western provinces has rekindled Pashto and Persian music and established Peshawar as a hub for Afghan musicians and a distribution centre for Afghan music abroad. Tohid, Owais Music soothes extremism along troubled Afghan border. Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved on 18 February 2008. State-owned Pakistan Television Corporation (PTV) and Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation were the dominant media outlets, but there are now numerous private television channels. Various American, European, and Asian television channels and films are available to the majority of the Pakistani population via private Television Networks, cable, and satellite television. There are also small indigenous film industries based in Lahore and Peshawar (often referred to as Lollywood). And while Bollywood films have been banned from being played in public cinemas since 1965 they have remained popular in popular culture. The architecture of the areas now constituting Pakistan can be designated to four distinct periods — pre-Islamic, Islamic, colonial and post-colonial. With the beginning of the Indus civilization around the middle of the 3rd millennium Dehejia, Vidja South Asian Art and Culture. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved on 10 February 2008. B.C., an advanced urban culture developed for the first time in the region, with large structural facilities, some of which survive to this day. The Indus Valley And The Genesis Of South Asian Civilization Retrieved on 6 February 2008. Mohenjo Daro, Harappa and Kot Diji belong to the pre-Islamic era settlements. The rise of Buddhism and the Persian and Greek influence led to the development of the Greco-Buddhist style, starting from the 1st century CE. The high point of this era was reached with the culmination of the Gandhara style. An example of Buddhist architecture is the ruins of the Buddhist monastery Takht-i-Bahi in the northwest province. The arrival of Islam in today's Pakistan meant a sudden end of Buddhist architecture. Architecture in Pakistan: A Historical Overview. All Things Pakistan. Retrieved on 10 February 2008. However, a smooth transition to predominantly pictureless Islamic architecture occurred. The most important of the few completely discovered buildings of Persian style is the tomb of the Shah Rukn-i-Alam in Multan. During the Mughal era design elements of Islamic-Persian architecture were fused with and often produced playful forms of the Hindustani art. Lahore, occasional residence of Mughal rulers, exhibits a multiplicity of important buildings from the empire, among them the Badshahi mosque, the fortress of Lahore with the famous Alamgiri Gate, the colourful, still strongly Persian seeming Wazir Khan Mosque as well as numerous other mosques and mausoleums. Also the Shahjahan Mosque of Thatta in Sindh originates from the epoch of the Mughals. In the British colonial period, predominantly functional buildings of the Indo-European representative style developed from a mixture of European and Indian-Islamic components. Post-colonial national identity is expressed in modern structures like the Faisal Mosque, the Minar-e-Pakistan and the Mazar-e-Quaid. The literature of Pakistan covers the literatures of languages spread throughout the country, namely Urdu, Sindhi, Punjabi, Pushto, Baluchi as well as English Shamsie, Muneeza Pakistani Writers in English: A Question of Identity. Sepia Mutiny. Retrieved on 9 February 2008. in recent times and in the past often Persian as well. Prior to the 19th century, the literature mainly consisted of lyric poetry and religious, mystical and popular materials. During the colonial age the native literary figures, under the influence of the western literature of realism, took up increasingly different topics and telling forms. Today, short stories enjoy a special popularity. Kamran, Gilani Pakistani Literature- Evolution & trends. The South Asian. Retrieved on 9 February 2008. The national poet of Pakistan, Allama Muhammad Iqbal, suggested the creation of a separate homeland for the Muslims of India. However, Iqbal had also wrote the Tirana-e-Hind which stated the belief of a strong united India. His book The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam is a major work of modern Islamic philosophy. The most well-known representative of the contemporary Urdu literature of Pakistan is Faiz Ahmed Faiz. Sufi poetry Shah Abdul Latif, Bulleh Shah and Khawaja Farid are also very popular in Pakistan. Shah Abdul Latif. Story of Pakistan. Retrieved on 9 February 2008. Mirza Kalich Beg has been termed the father of modern Sindhi prose. Holidays Gregorian Date English Arabic/Urdu Islamic Date variable The Tenth Day Ashura عاشوراء 9-10 Muharram variable Day of the Sacrifice Eid ul-Adha عيد الأضحى 10 Dhu al-Hijjah variable Birth of the Prophet Muhammad Eid Milad an Nabi مَوْلِدُ آلنَبِيِّ 12 Rabi' al-awwal variable End of month of Ramadan Eid ul-Fitr عيد الفطر 01 Shawwal January 1 New Year's Day Ra's as-Sana al-meladiah رأس السنة الميلادية variable March 23 Pakistan day Yom-e-Pakistan یوم پاکستان variable May 1 Labor Day Yom-e-Karigar یوم کاریگر variable August 14 Independence Day Yum-e-Azadi یومِ آذادی variable November 9 Birthday of Muhammad Iqbal Yum-e-Iqbal یوم اقبال variable December 25 Birthday of Muhammad Ali Jinnah Yom-e-Viladat-e-Quaid-e-Azam وم ولادت قائداعظم variable Social Issues Over the years, fertility rate, infant and maternal mortality rates have increased in Pakistan. Where as, literacy, contraception prevalence, average age at marriage and life expectancy have decreased in Pakistan. Age at Marriage (Male + Female) Pakistan Tourism Despite having a image problem particularly in the West and once described as one of the most dangerous countries in the world by the British magazine "The Economist", http://www.economist.com/opinion/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=10430237 tourism is still a growing industry in Pakistan because of its diverse cultures, peoples and landscapes. The variety of attractions range from the ruins of ancient civilizations such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Taxila, to the Himalayan hill stations, that attract those interested in field and winter sports. Pakistan also has several mountain peaks over that attract adventurers and mountaineers from around the world, especially to K2. Starting in April to September, domestic and international tourists visit these areas helping tourism become a source of income for the local people. Majority of the tourists are from other Asian countries. The northern parts of Pakistan are the site of several historical fortresses, towers and other architecture. Including the Hunza and Chitral valleys, the latter being home to the Kalash, a small pre-Islamic Animist community. Punjab is also the site of Alexander's battle on the Jhelum River. The historic city of Lahore is considered Pakistan's cultural center and has many examples of Mughal architecture such as the Badshahi Masjid, Shalimar Gardens, Tomb of Jahangir and the Lahore Fort. The PTDC also helps promote tourism in the country. However, tourism is still limited because of the lack of proper infrastructure and the worsening security situation in the country. The recent militancy in Pakistan's scenic sites including Swat and NWFP has given a massive blow to the tourism industry. Much of the trouble is also being blamed on the frail travel, tourism regulatory framework, low prioritization of the tourism industry by the government, low effectiveness of marketing and a constricted tourism perception. Sports Cricket is the most popular sport in Pakistan Field hockey match against India Polo is regarded as a traditional sport and played widely in the northern areas Field hockey and Polo are the national sports of Pakistan, however cricket is the most popular sport and is played throughout Pakistan. Popularity of Cricket in South Asia. Over recent years there has been an decrease in sporting activity in Pakistan, with Pakistani sportsmen and women participating at many international events. Due to the 2009 Lahore attack on Sri Lankan cricket team and other terrorist bombings, Pakistan has been deemed an unsafe country and overseas sportspeople generally refuse to tour the country. Notably, Pakistan was stripped of co-hosting rights for the 2011 Cricket World Cup following the attack on the Sri Lankans. The size of the teams Pakistan sends, and the number of events they participate in the Olympic and Commonwealth Games has decreased since the turn of the century. There have also been restructuring of national tournaments, and new facilities and equipment being provided. This has seen overall results improve. See also Index of Pakistan-related articles Outline of Pakistan References Further reading Cohen, Stephen P. The Idea of Pakistan. The Brookings Institution. November 2004. ISBN 0-8157-1502-1. Banuazizi, Ali and Weiner, Myron. The State, Religion, and Ethnic Politics: Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan. Syracuse University Press. August 1988. ISBN 0-8156-2448-4. Halliday, Fred. State and Ideology in the Middle East and Pakistan. Monthly Review Pr. February 1998. ISBN 0-85345-734-4. Hammond Incorporated. Hammond Greater Middle East Region: Including Afghanistan, Pakistan, Libya, and Turkey. American Map Corporation. August 2002. ISBN 0-8437-1827-7. Hilton, Isabel. Letter from Pakistan: The Pashtun Code. The New Yorker. 3 December 2001. Insight Guides, Halliday, Tony and Ikram, Tahir. Insight Guide Pakistan. Apa Productions. January 1998. ISBN 0-88729-736-6. Malik, Hafeez. Pakistan: Founders' Aspirations and Today's Realities. Oxford University Press, USA. May 2001. ISBN 0-19-579333-1. Malik, Iftikhar H. Religious Minorities in Pakistan. Minority Rights Group International. September 2002. ISBN 1-897693-69-9. Malik, Iftikhar H. Culture and customs of Pakistan. Greenwood Press. December 2005. ISBN 031333126X. Najim, Adil. Pakistan and Democracy. The News International Pakistan. 6 May 2004. Rooney, John. Shadows in the dark: A history of Christianity in Pakistan up to the 10th century. Christian Study Centre. January 1984. Rahman, Tariq.1996. Language and Politics in Pakistan Karachi: Oxford University Press. Reprinted several times, latest repr. 2006. Rahman, Tariq .2002. Language, Ideology and Power: Language-learning Among the Muslims of Pakistan and North India Karachi: OUP. Rahman, Tariq .2004. Denizens of Alien Worlds: A Study of Education, Inequality and Polarization in Pakistan Karachi: OUP, 2006 repr. Sharif, Shuja. Musharraf's Administration And Pakistan's Economy. Contemporary Review. 31 March 2005. 129–134. Wolpert, Stanley. Jinnah of Pakistan. Oxford University Press, USA. May 1984. ISBN 0-19-503412-0. Zakaria, Rafiq. The Man Who Divided India: An Insight into Jinnah's Leadership and its Aftermath. Popular Prakashan. 2001. ISBN 81-7154-892-X. Statehood in South Asia. Strategic Insights, Volume III, Issue 10 (October 2004). PAKISTAN TELEVISION (PTV) NEWS OF WEATHER REPORT. External links Government of Pakistan PakVillage.com: Pakistan Culture, Poetry, Recipes, Fashion, News The President of Pakistan The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting Amazing Pakistan - Facts about Pakistan Chief of State and Cabinet Members Pakistan at UCB Libraries GovPubs be-x-old:Пакістан | Pakistan |@lemmatized pakistan:172 pākistān:1 officially:1 islamic:23 republic:6 country:25 locate:3 south:13 asia:9 kilometre:7 mile:2 coastline:2 along:3 arabian:3 sea:3 gulf:3 oman:1 border:6 afghanistan:8 iran:4 west:11 india:29 east:16 people:11 china:3 far:2 northeast:2 kashmir:16 region:19 claim:2 refers:1 indian:15 administer:6 occupy:1 whole:1 tajikistan:1 also:27 lie:3 adjacent:1 separate:3 narrow:1 wakhan:1 corridor:1 recent:7 time:7 call:5 part:5 new:8 middle:7 united:11 state:21 backyard:1 alain:1 gresh:1 le:1 monde:1 diplomatique:1 november:6 form:6 modern:6 home:3 ancient:7 indus:13 valley:6 civilisation:6 successively:1 recipient:1 vedic:2 persian:12 turco:1 mongol:2 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2,475 | Ennius | Quintus Ennius (239 - c. 169 BC) was a writer during the period of the Roman Republic, and is often considered the father of Roman poetry. He was of Greek descent. Although only fragments of his works survive, his influence in Latin literature was significant. Biography Ennius was born at Rudiae in Salento, a town where the Greek, Oscan and Latin languages were in contact with one another. (But see also a remark under Messapian language.) Ennius continued the nascent literary tradition by writing praetextae, tragedies, and palliaetae, as well as his most famous work, a historic epic called the Annales. Other minor works include the Epicharmus, the Euhemerus, the Hedyphagetica, and Saturae. The Epicharmus presented an account of the gods and the physical operations of the universe. In it, the poet dreamed he had been transported after death to some place of heavenly enlightenment. The Euhemerus presented a theological doctrine of a vastly different type in a mock-simple prose style modelled on the Greek of Euhemerus of Messene and several other theological writers. According to this doctrine, the gods of Olympus were not supernatural powers still actively intervening in the affairs of men, but great generals, statesmen and inventors of olden times commemorated after death in extraordinary ways. The Hedyphagetica took much of its substance from the gastronomical epic of Archestratus of Gela. The eleven extant hexameters have prosodical features avoided in the more serious Annales. The remains of six books of Saturae show a considerable variety of metres. There are signs that Ennius varied the metre sometimes even within a composition. A frequent theme was the social life of Ennius himself and his upper-class Roman friends and their intellectual conversation. The Annals was an epic poem in fifteen books, later expanded to eighteen, covering Roman history from the fall of Troy in 1184 BC down to the censorship of Cato the Elder in 184 BC. It was the first Latin poem to adopt the dactylic hexameter metre used in Greek epic and didactic poetry, leading it to become the standard metre for these genres in Latin poetry. The Annals became a school text for Roman schoolchildren, eventually supplanted by Virgil's Aeneid. About 600 lines survive. A copy of the work is among the Latin rolls of the Herculaneum library, the last 2 acts were recently read. "The idle mind knows not what it wants." - Ennius "Amicus certus in re incerta cernitur." - Ennius (quoted by Cicero, Laelius 17.64) Translation: "A sure friend shows himself in an unsure time" Further reading Brooks, R A: Ennius and Roman Tragedy (1981) Evans, R L S: Ennius in The Dictionary of Literary Biography: Latin Writers. Ed.Ward Briggs. Vol. 211, 1999. Jocelyn, H D: - The Tragedies of Ennius (1967) - "The Poems of Quintus Ennius", in H. Temporini (ed.) ANRW I.2 (1972), 987-1026 Skutsch, O: The Annals of Quintus Ennius (1985) External links Fragments of Ennius' Annals at The Latin Library; text from Wordsworth (1874), line numbering from Warmington (1935) | Ennius |@lemmatized quintus:3 ennius:13 c:1 bc:3 writer:3 period:1 roman:6 republic:1 often:1 consider:1 father:1 poetry:3 greek:4 descent:1 although:1 fragment:2 work:4 survive:2 influence:1 latin:7 literature:1 significant:1 biography:2 bear:1 rudiae:1 salento:1 town:1 oscan:1 language:2 contact:1 one:1 another:1 see:1 also:1 remark:1 messapian:1 continue:1 nascent:1 literary:2 tradition:1 write:1 praetextae:1 tragedy:3 palliaetae:1 well:1 famous:1 historic:1 epic:4 call:1 annales:2 minor:1 include:1 epicharmus:2 euhemerus:3 hedyphagetica:2 saturae:2 present:2 account:1 god:2 physical:1 operation:1 universe:1 poet:1 dream:1 transport:1 death:2 place:1 heavenly:1 enlightenment:1 theological:2 doctrine:2 vastly:1 different:1 type:1 mock:1 simple:1 prose:1 style:1 model:1 messene:1 several:1 accord:1 olympus:1 supernatural:1 power:1 still:1 actively:1 intervene:1 affair:1 men:1 great:1 general:1 statesman:1 inventor:1 olden:1 time:2 commemorate:1 extraordinary:1 way:1 take:1 much:1 substance:1 gastronomical:1 archestratus:1 gela:1 eleven:1 extant:1 hexameter:2 prosodical:1 feature:1 avoid:1 serious:1 remains:1 six:1 book:2 show:2 considerable:1 variety:1 metre:4 sign:1 vary:1 sometimes:1 even:1 within:1 composition:1 frequent:1 theme:1 social:1 life:1 upper:1 class:1 friend:2 intellectual:1 conversation:1 annals:4 poem:3 fifteen:1 later:1 expand:1 eighteen:1 cover:1 history:1 fall:1 troy:1 censorship:1 cato:1 elder:1 first:1 adopt:1 dactylic:1 use:1 didactic:1 lead:1 become:2 standard:1 genre:1 school:1 text:2 schoolchildren:1 eventually:1 supplant:1 virgil:1 aeneid:1 line:2 copy:1 among:1 roll:1 herculaneum:1 library:2 last:1 act:1 recently:1 read:1 idle:1 mind:1 know:1 want:1 amicus:1 certus:1 incerta:1 cernitur:1 quote:1 cicero:1 laelius:1 translation:1 sure:1 unsure:1 reading:1 brook:1 r:2 evans:1 l:1 dictionary:1 ed:2 ward:1 briggs:1 vol:1 jocelyn:1 h:2 temporini:1 anrw:1 skutsch:1 external:1 link:1 wordsworth:1 number:1 warmington:1 |@bigram cato_elder:1 dactylic_hexameter:1 virgil_aeneid:1 external_link:1 |
2,476 | Emperor_Annei | ; also known as shikitsuhikotamatemi no Mikoto; was the 3rd emperor of Japan to appear on the traditional list of emperors. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, p. 4; Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, p. 251; Varley, Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, p. 89. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign. Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan, p. 29. Legendary narrative Annei is regarded by historians as a "legendary emperor" because of the paucity of information about him, which does not necessarily imply that no such person ever existed. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study. The reign of Emperor Kimmei (509?-571), the 29th emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession, is the first for which contemporary historiography are able to assign verifiable dates; Titsingh, pp. 34-36; Brown, pp. 261-262; Varley, pp. 123-124. however, the conventionally accepted names and dates of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of Emperor Kammu (737–806), the 50th sovereign of the Yamato dynasty. Aston, William. (1896). Nihongi, pp. 109. In Kojiki and Nihonshoki only his name and genealogy were recorded. The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and an Imperial misasagi or tomb for Annei is currently maintained; however, no extant contemporary records have been discovered which confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned. He is considered to have been the second of eight emperors without specific legends associated with them, also known as the . Aston, pp. 141-142. Later generations may have included this name to the list of emperors of Japan, thus making him posthumously an emperor and assigning him as one of the early sovereigns and ancestors of the dynasty that has reigned unbroken since time immemorial. If he lived, at his time the title tenno was not yet used, and the polity he possibly ruled did certainly not contain all or even the most of Japan. In the chronicle which encompasses his alleged successors in beginnings of historical time, it becomes reasonable to conclude that Annei, if he existed, might have been a chieftain or a regional king in early Yamato tribal society. Emperor Annei was either the eldest son Brown, p. 251. or the only son of Emperor Suizei. Jien records that he ruled from the palace of Ukena-no-miya at Katashiro in Kawachi in what will come to be known as Yamato province. This emperor's posthumous name literally means "steady tranquillity". It is undisputed that this identification is Chinese in form and Buddhist in implication, which suggests that the name must have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Annei, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki. Notes References Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult | Emperor_Annei |@lemmatized also:3 know:4 shikitsuhikotamatemi:1 mikoto:1 emperor:16 japan:10 appear:1 traditional:3 list:3 titsingh:3 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 p:5 brown:4 delmer:2 et:1 al:1 gukanshō:3 varley:4 paul:4 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 firm:1 date:3 assign:3 life:1 reign:5 ponsonby:3 fane:2 richard:2 imperial:4 house:2 legendary:2 narrative:1 annei:5 regard:1 historian:1 paucity:1 information:1 necessarily:1 imply:1 person:1 ever:1 exist:2 insufficient:1 material:1 available:1 verification:1 study:2 kimmei:1 accord:1 order:1 succession:1 first:1 contemporary:2 historiography:1 able:1 verifiable:1 pp:5 however:2 conventionally:1 accept:2 name:5 early:4 confirm:2 kammu:1 sovereign:4 yamato:4 dynasty:3 aston:3 william:2 nihongi:2 kojiki:2 nihonshoki:1 genealogy:1 record:3 japanese:1 traditionally:1 historical:3 existence:1 misasagi:1 tomb:1 currently:1 maintain:1 extant:1 discover:1 view:1 figure:1 actually:1 consider:1 second:1 eight:1 without:1 specific:1 legend:1 associate:1 late:1 generation:1 may:1 include:1 thus:1 make:1 posthumously:1 one:1 ancestor:1 unbroken:1 since:1 time:5 immemorial:1 live:1 title:1 tenno:1 yet:1 use:1 polity:1 possibly:2 rule:2 certainly:1 contain:1 even:1 chronicle:4 encompass:1 alleged:1 successor:1 beginning:1 become:1 reasonable:1 conclude:1 might:1 chieftain:1 regional:1 king:1 tribal:1 society:2 either:1 eldest:1 son:2 suizei:1 jien:2 palace:1 ukena:1 miya:1 katashiro:1 kawachi:1 come:1 province:1 posthumous:1 literally:1 mean:1 steady:1 tranquillity:1 undisputed:1 identification:1 chinese:1 form:1 buddhist:1 implication:1 suggest:1 must:1 regularize:1 century:1 lifetime:1 ascribe:1 legends:1 origin:1 compile:1 today:1 note:1 reference:1 george:1 london:1 kegan:1 trench:1 trubner:1 reprint:1 tuttle:1 publishing:1 tokyo:1 isbn:4 ichirō:1 ishida:1 ed:3 c:1 future:1 past:1 translation:2 interpretative:1 history:1 write:1 berkeley:1 university:2 california:1 press:2 arthur:1 brabazon:1 kyoto:1 memorial:1 oclc:1 siyun:1 sai:1 rin:1 siyo:1 hayashi:1 gahō:1 nipon:2 daï:1 itsi:2 run:2 ou:1 http:1 book:2 google:1 com:1 id:1 dq:1 dai:1 de:1 paris:1 oriental:1 fund:1 great:1 britain:1 ireland:1 h:2 kitabatake:2 chikafusa:2 god:1 translate:1 new:1 york:1 columbia:1 see:1 cult:1 |@bigram titsingh_isaac:2 isaac_annales:1 annales_des:1 des_empereurs:1 empereurs_du:2 du_japon:2 brown_delmer:2 delmer_et:1 et_al:1 paul_jinnō:1 jinnō_shōtōki:3 ponsonby_fane:2 fane_richard:2 emperor_paucity:1 paucity_information:1 emperor_kimmei:1 emperor_kammu:1 yamato_dynasty:2 william_nihongi:1 kojiki_nihonshoki:1 imperial_misasagi:1 misasagi_tomb:1 title_tenno:1 tenno_yet:1 yamato_tribal:1 eldest_son:1 yamato_province:1 undisputed_identification:1 must_regularize:1 george_nihongi:1 nihongi_chronicle:1 kegan_paul:1 trench_trubner:1 trubner_reprint:1 reprint_tuttle:1 tuttle_publishing:1 delmer_ichirō:1 ichirō_ishida:1 ishida_ed:1 ed_jien:1 jien_c:1 gukanshō_future:1 gukanshō_interpretative:1 arthur_brabazon:1 brabazon_imperial:1 kyoto_ponsonby:1 ponsonby_memorial:1 oclc_titsingh:1 ed_siyun:1 siyun_sai:1 sai_rin:1 rin_siyo:1 siyo_hayashi:1 hayashi_gahō:1 gahō_nipon:1 nipon_daï:1 daï_itsi:1 itsi_run:2 id_dq:1 dq_nipon:1 nipon_dai:1 dai_itsi:1 japon_paris:1 ireland_varley:1 varley_h:1 ed_kitabatake:1 kitabatake_chikafusa:2 chikafusa_jinnō:1 shōtōki_chronicle:1 sovereign_jinnō:1 shōtōki_kitabatake:1 chikafusa_translate:1 paul_varley:1 |
2,477 | Jacques_Maroger | Jacques Maroger [pron. ma - ro - ZHAY](1884–1962) was a painter and the technical director of the Louvre Museum's laboratory in Paris, France. He devoted his life to understanding the oil-based media of the Old Masters. In 1907, Maroger began to study with Louis Anquetin and worked under his direction until Anquetin's death in 1932. Anquetin worked closely and exhibited with the artists Vincent van Gogh, Charles Angrand, Emile Bernard, Paul Gauguin, Camille Pissarro, Georges Seurat, Paul Signac and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. He was very active in the impressionist movement of the time. In his later years, Anquetin became very interested in the works of the Flemish masters. As Maroger's teacher, Anquetin provided guidance in the study of drawing, anatomy and master painting techniques. Maroger began to become famous around 1931, when the National Academy of Design in New York, New York reported Maroger's painting discoveries. From 1930 to 1939, Maroger started to work at the Louvre Museum in Paris as Technical Director of the Louvre Laboratory. He served as a professor at the Louvre School, a Member of the Conservation Committee, General Secretary of the International Experts, and President of the Restorers of France. In 1937, he received the Légion d'honneur, and his pride at the honor is reflected in his self-portrait of the time, in which one can see his Legion pin on his lapel. He emigrated to the United States in 1939 and became a lecturer at the Parsons School of Design in New York. His New York students, Reginald Marsh, John Koch, Fairfield Porter and Frank Mason adopted his Old Master painting techniques, and taught it in turn to their own students. In 1942, Maroger became a Professor at the Maryland Institute College of Art in Baltimore and established a school of painting. At the Maryland Institute he led a group of painters who came to be known as the Baltimore Realists, including the outstanding painters Earl Hofmann, Thomas Rowe, Joseph Sheppard, Ann Didusch Schuler, Frank Redelius, John Bannon, Evan Keehn, and Melvin Miller. Maroger published The Secret Formulas and Techniques of the Old Masters in 1948. When Maroger's book became available, Reginald Marsh drew on Maroger's book-jacket an airplane dropping an atomic bomb on the Maryland Art Institute, a reference to the controversy Maroger was causing in the local press over the abstract art versus realism debate. Maroger's formula and techniques have been studied by many modern painters who wish to obtain the paint quality of the Old Masters. The "secret formula" that Maroger devised during his lifetime included the main ingredient white lead. White lead when cooked into linseed oil acts as a drying agent and preservative of the oil paint color layers. If one examines the 17th century master works closely you will find the paintings that are in good to excellent condition, after 500 years, contain the critical chemical white lead. Lead, or litharge, in the Maroger medium acts in the same way as lead paint used outdoors. It stands up to dirt, weather, fading, humidity and other forms of damage. Maroger claimed to have introduced to the modern day artist what the masters achieved centuries before in their paintings, a way to ensure permanence and color quality in oils without sacrificing fluid and subtle paint handling. Equipped with these formulas, the artist could once again blend his paint easily without losing control of his brush. The paint stays where it is applied and does not run off the panel. It dries very fast so that he can paint on the same areas the very next day, which speeds up painting. Critics of Maroger Maroger has been criticized by some modern writers on painting because of his bold claims about having found the secret formulas of the Masters. The most commonly used of Maroger's recipes today is in fact nothing other than a renamed version of the ages-old "megilp", also known as "macguilp", "meglip", "meguilp", and a variety of other names. Megilp/maroger medium is simply the thixotropic gel resulting from the equal combination of mastic varnish and black oil. Megilp and related media have been in use for centuries, and such media were readily available from many artists' colormen during the time of Maroger's research. The archival quality of the medium itself is controversial in art circles, in part because its documented use dates back less than a century. This is from Michael Skalka, Conservation Administrator, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.: [Our convervators] know that Maroger and other media do not betray their bad characteristics for a long time. (60 years is not enough time - oil paint isn't even fully dry in 60 -80 years on a typical thickly painted painting) Maroger (1884-1962) did not influence artists until the early 20th century so 19th century works are not affected by his practices. However, recently, two conservators in a museum in New England examined and studied the work of John Stuart Curry who was an avid fan of Maroger. Many of his works have suffered through the use of the medium. Granted, Curry was a zealot who followed Maroger's early and late formulations. Curry's work employed an early Maroger formula that involved leaded oil, resin and in early versions incorporated water based additives. These have suffered the most. This criticism can be misleading, however. Many of the media involved in Curry's work (and other followers of Maroger) bear no resemblance whatsoever to the modern mastic varnish/black oil recipe. Maroger medium which is not made properly may contain a large amount of dirt and impurities from improperly filtered mastic varnish, or the black oil may be overcooked, both of which would contribute to darkening and weakening of the work. In addition the overuse of megilp media (or any medium for that matter) tends to create weak paint films. It is in fact more likely that a properly made megilp which is employed with a sound technique and in reasonable proportions would be quite archival. There are extant pictures of at least two centuries painted with the documented use of Maroger medium that have been very well preserved, something probably attributable to the presence of lead in the paint film. Lost old master formulas by Maroger Six formulas of Maroger taken from his book on painting formulas Lead Medium - attributed to Antonello da Messina - One part litharge (yellow lead oxide) or lead white, combined by cooking with three to four parts linseed. Lead Medium - attributed to Leonardo da Vinci - One part litharge or lead white, combined by cooking with three to four parts raw linseed oil, and three to four parts water. Lead Medium - attributed to the Venetian painters - Giorgione, Titian and Tintoretto - One or two parts litharge or lead white, combined by cooking with 20 parts raw linseed or walnut oil. Lead Medium - attributed to Peter Paul Rubens -This medium was allegedly based on the black oil of Giorgione with an addition of mastic resin, Venice turpentine and beeswax. One or two parts litharge or lead white, combines by cooking with 20 parts raw linseed. A little more than one spoonful of "black oil" combined with even one spoonful of mastic varnish resulted in the "jelly" medium thought to be Megilp (another name of Maroger media). Lead Medium - (attributed to the "Little Dutch Masters") This medium was the same as the one used by Rubens, but did not include beeswax. Lead Medium - attributed to Velázquez - One part verdigris (derived from copper - this material is substituted for the lead-based metallic driers), combined by cooking with 20 parts raw linseed or walnut oil. The majority of these recipes are not employed today, as there are few companies to be found that produce them. The primary form of "Maroger medium" known today is black oil ("Giorgione's" medium) and mastic varnish combined in approximately equal parts to form a gel. While maroger medium is usually mixed directly with oil paints, its proportion should be kept to no more than 20% of the mixture. A useful technique is to rub a very thin film of Maroger medium over the area to be painted and paint into that--known as "painting into the couch." This lubricates the brush stroke. Maroger medium (or any other painting medium, for that matter) should never be used as a final picture varnish, as Maroger requires reaction by admixture with oil paint in order to dry. The reduced availability of lead, combined with injunctions against lead use in household products and other factors has caused most major paint makers to discontinue the production of Maroger's medium. Many paint makers now offer faux-maroger's media or faux-megilps, generally made by substituting inferior materials such as lime for genuine lead, or (as in the case of Gamblin's Neo-Megilp) by creating a completely unrelated product out of specially thickened alkyd medium. None of these pseudo-Maroger's products produce effects which are at all related to those of real Maroger medium, which depends on specific chemical reactions between leaded oil, mastic resin, and turpentine (the mastic varnish vehicle). Furthermore, alkyds can cause delamination of paint layers when combined with drying oils such as linseed, walnut and safflower oils--all of them used as the primary vehicle in oil paint. Home and current studio The white gingerbread cottage that was Maroger's home in Baltimore is found on the east campus of Loyola College in Maryland and is used for drawing and painting courses. The building, created in the style of a Parisian studio, is aptly called the Maroger Art Studio. External links The Secret Formulas and Techniques of the Masters by Jacques Maroger ISBN 0-87817-245-9 The Schuler School of Fine Arts, Baltimore, MD, USA http://www.schulerschool.com/ | Jacques_Maroger |@lemmatized jacques:2 maroger:43 pron:1 ro:1 zhay:1 painter:5 technical:2 director:2 louvre:4 museum:3 laboratory:2 paris:2 france:2 devote:1 life:1 understand:1 oil:21 base:4 medium:33 old:6 master:12 begin:2 study:4 louis:1 anquetin:5 work:11 direction:1 death:1 closely:2 exhibit:1 artist:5 vincent:1 van:1 gogh:1 charles:1 angrand:1 emile:1 bernard:1 paul:3 gauguin:1 camille:1 pissarro:1 george:1 seurat:1 signac:1 henri:1 de:1 toulouse:1 lautrec:1 active:1 impressionist:1 movement:1 time:5 late:2 year:4 become:5 interested:1 flemish:1 teacher:1 provide:1 guidance:1 draw:3 anatomy:1 painting:8 technique:7 famous:1 around:1 national:2 academy:1 design:2 new:5 york:4 report:1 discovery:1 start:1 serve:1 professor:2 school:4 member:1 conservation:2 committee:1 general:1 secretary:1 international:1 expert:1 president:1 restorer:1 receive:1 légion:1 honneur:1 pride:1 honor:1 reflect:1 self:1 portrait:1 one:10 see:1 legion:1 pin:1 lapel:1 emigrate:1 united:1 state:1 lecturer:1 parson:1 student:2 reginald:2 marsh:2 john:3 koch:1 fairfield:1 porter:1 frank:2 mason:1 adopt:1 paint:25 teach:1 turn:1 maryland:4 institute:3 college:2 art:7 baltimore:4 establish:1 lead:23 group:1 come:1 know:5 realist:1 include:3 outstanding:1 earl:1 hofmann:1 thomas:1 rowe:1 joseph:1 sheppard:1 ann:1 didusch:1 schuler:2 redelius:1 bannon:1 evan:1 keehn:1 melvin:1 miller:1 publish:1 secret:4 formula:9 book:3 available:2 jacket:1 airplane:1 drop:1 atomic:1 bomb:1 reference:1 controversy:1 cause:3 local:1 press:1 abstract:1 versus:1 realism:1 debate:1 many:5 modern:4 wish:1 obtain:1 quality:3 devise:1 lifetime:1 main:1 ingredient:1 white:8 cook:6 linseed:7 act:2 drying:1 agent:1 preservative:1 color:2 layer:2 examine:2 century:7 find:4 good:1 excellent:1 condition:1 contain:2 critical:1 chemical:2 litharge:5 way:2 use:11 outdoors:1 stand:1 dirt:2 weather:1 fading:1 humidity:1 form:3 damage:1 claim:2 introduce:1 day:2 achieve:1 ensure:1 permanence:1 without:2 sacrifice:1 fluid:1 subtle:1 handling:1 equip:1 could:1 blend:1 easily:1 lose:2 control:1 brush:2 stay:1 apply:1 run:1 panel:1 dry:4 fast:1 area:2 next:1 speed:1 critic:1 criticize:1 writer:1 bold:1 commonly:1 recipe:3 today:3 fact:2 nothing:1 renamed:1 version:2 age:1 megilp:8 also:1 macguilp:1 meglip:1 meguilp:1 variety:1 name:2 simply:1 thixotropic:1 gel:2 result:2 equal:2 combination:1 mastic:8 varnish:7 black:6 related:2 readily:1 colormen:1 research:1 archival:2 controversial:1 circle:1 part:13 document:2 date:1 back:1 less:1 michael:1 skalka:1 administrator:1 gallery:1 washington:1 dc:1 convervators:1 betray:1 bad:1 characteristic:1 long:1 enough:1 even:2 fully:1 typical:1 thickly:1 influence:1 early:4 affect:1 practice:1 however:2 recently:1 two:4 conservator:1 england:1 stuart:1 curry:4 avid:1 fan:1 suffer:2 grant:1 zealot:1 follow:1 formulation:1 employ:3 involve:2 leaded:1 resin:3 incorporate:1 water:2 additive:1 criticism:1 misleading:1 follower:1 bear:1 resemblance:1 whatsoever:1 make:3 properly:2 may:2 large:1 amount:1 impurity:1 improperly:1 filter:1 overcook:1 would:2 contribute:1 darken:1 weakening:1 addition:2 overuse:1 matter:2 tend:1 create:3 weak:1 film:3 likely:1 sound:1 reasonable:1 proportion:2 quite:1 extant:1 picture:2 least:1 well:1 preserve:1 something:1 probably:1 attributable:1 presence:1 six:1 take:1 formulas:1 attribute:6 antonello:1 da:2 messina:1 yellow:1 oxide:1 combine:9 three:3 four:3 leonardo:1 vinci:1 raw:4 venetian:1 giorgione:3 titian:1 tintoretto:1 walnut:3 peter:1 rubens:2 allegedly:1 venice:1 turpentine:2 beeswax:2 little:2 spoonful:2 jelly:1 think:1 another:1 dutch:1 velázquez:1 verdigris:1 derive:1 copper:1 material:2 substitute:2 metallic:1 drier:1 majority:1 company:1 produce:2 primary:2 approximately:1 usually:1 mixed:1 directly:1 keep:1 mixture:1 useful:1 rub:1 thin:1 couch:1 lubricate:1 stroke:1 never:1 final:1 require:1 reaction:2 admixture:1 order:1 reduced:1 availability:1 injunction:1 household:1 product:3 factor:1 major:1 maker:2 discontinue:1 production:1 offer:1 faux:2 generally:1 inferior:1 lime:1 genuine:1 case:1 gamblin:1 neo:1 completely:1 unrelated:1 specially:1 thicken:1 alkyd:2 none:1 pseudo:1 effect:1 real:1 depend:1 specific:1 vehicle:2 furthermore:1 delamination:1 safflower:1 home:2 current:1 studio:3 gingerbread:1 cottage:1 east:1 campus:1 loyola:1 course:1 building:1 style:1 parisian:1 aptly:1 call:1 external:1 link:1 isbn:1 fine:1 md:1 usa:1 http:1 www:1 schulerschool:1 com:1 |@bigram van_gogh:1 paul_gauguin:1 camille_pissarro:1 george_seurat:1 toulouse_lautrec:1 légion_honneur:1 atomic_bomb:1 linseed_oil:2 maroger_medium:13 mastic_varnish:6 washington_dc:1 avid_fan:1 leonardo_da:1 da_vinci:1 paul_rubens:1 external_link:1 baltimore_md:1 http_www:1 |
2,478 | Nuclear_pore | Diagram of human cell nucleus. Nuclear pore labeled at bottom left Nuclear pore. Side view. 1. Nuclear envelope. 2. Outer ring. 3. Spokes. 4. Basket. 5. Filaments. (Drawing is based on electron microscopy images) Nuclear pores are large protein complexes that cross the nuclear envelope, which is the double membrane surrounding the eukaryotic cell nucleus. There are about on average 2000 nuclear pore complexes in the nuclear envelope of a vertebrate cell, but it varies depending on cell type and throughout the life cycle. The proteins that make up the nuclear pore complex are known as nucleoporins. About half of the nucleoporins typically contain either an alpha solenoid or a beta-propeller fold, or in some cases both as separate structural domains. The other half show structural characteristics typical of "natively unfolded" proteins, i.e. they are highly flexible proteins that lack ordered secondary structure. These disordered proteins are the FG nucleoporins, so called because their amino-acid sequence contains many repeats of the peptide phenylalanine—glycine. Nuclear pores allow the transport of water-soluble molecules across the nuclear envelope. This transport includes RNA and ribosomes moving from nucleus to the cytoplasm and proteins (such as DNA polymerase and lamins), carbohydrates, signal molecules and lipids moving into the nucleus. It is notable that the nuclear pore complex (NPC) can actively conduct 1000 translocations per complex per second. Although smaller molecules simply diffuse through the pores, larger molecules may be recognized by specific signal sequences and then be diffused with the help of nucleoporins into or out of the nucleus. This is known as the RAN cycle. Each of the eight protein subunits surrounding the actual pore (the outer ring) projects a spoke-shaped protein into the pore channel. The center of the pore often appears to contains a plug-like structure. It is yet unknown whether this corresponds to an actual plug or is merely cargo caught in transit. Size and complexity The entire nuclear pore complex (NPC) has a diameter of about 120 nanometers, the diameter of the opening (functional diameter) is about 9 nanometers wide and its "depth" is about 200 nanometers. It had been suggested that the pore can be dilated to around 26 nanometers to allow molecule passage. The molecular mass of the mammilian NPC is about 120 megadaltons and it contains approximately 30 different protein components, each in multiple copies .. Transport through the nuclear pore complex Small particles (< 30 kDa) are able to pass through the nuclear pore complex by passive diffusion. Larger particles are also able to pass through the large diameter of the pore but at almost negligible rates. Efficient passage through the complex requires several protein factors. Karyopherins, which may act as importins or exportins are part of the Importin-β super-family which all share a similar three-dimensional structure. Three models have been suggested to explain the translocation mechanism: Affinity gradients along the central plug Brownian affinity gating Selective phase Import of proteins Any cargo with a nuclear localization signal (NLS) exposed will be destined for quick and efficient transport through the pore. Several NLS sequences are known, generally containing a conserved polypeptide sequence with basic residues such as PKKKRKV. Any material with an NLS will be taken up by importins to the nucleus. The classical scheme of NLS-protein importation begins with Importin-α first binding to the NLS sequence, and acts as a bridge for Importin-β to attach. The importinβ—importinα—cargo complex is then directed towards the nuclear pore and diffuses through it. Once the complex is in the nucleus, RanGTP binds to Importin-β and displaces it from the complex. Then the cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein (CAS), an exportin which in the nucleus is bound to RanGTP, displaces Importin-α from the cargo. The NLS-protein is thus free in the nucleoplasm. The Importinβ-RanGTP and Importinα-CAS-RanGTP complex diffuses back to the cytoplasm where GTPs are hydrolyzed to GDP leading to the release of Importinβ and Importinα which become available for a new NLS-protein import round. Although cargo passes through the pore with the assistance of chaperone proteins, the translocation through the pore itself is not energy dependent. However, the whole import cycle needs the hydrolysis of 2 GTPs and is thus energy dependent and has to be considered as active transport. The import cycle is powered by the nucleo-cytoplasmic RanGTP gradient. This gradient arises from the exclusive nuclear localization of RanGEFs, proteins that exchange GDP to GTP on Ran molecules. Thus there is an elevated RanGTP concentration in the nucleus compared to the cytoplasm. Export of proteins Some nuclear proteins need to be exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, as do ribosome subunits and messenger RNAs. Thus there is an export mechanism similar to the import mechanism. In the classical export scheme, proteins with an nuclear export sequence (NES) can bind in the nucleus to form a heterotrimeric complex with an exportin and RanGTP (for example the exportin CRM1). The complex can then diffuse to the cytoplasm where GTP is hydrolysed and the NES-protein is released. CRM1-RanGDP diffuses back to the nucleus where GDP is exchanged to GTP by RanGEFs. This process is also energy dependent as it consumes one GTP. Export with the exportin CRM1 can be inhibited by Leptomycin B. Export of RNA There are different export pathways through the NPC for each RNA class that exists. RNA export is also signal mediated (NES), the NES is in RNA-binding proteins (except for tRNA which has no adapter). It is notable that all viral RNAs and cellular RNAs (tRNA, rRNA, U snRNA, microRNA) except mRNA are dependent on RanGTP. Conseved mRNA export factors are necessary for mRNA nuclear export. Export factors are Mex67/Tap (large subunit) and Mtr2/p15 (small subunit). An adapter binds to the large export factor subunit mediating the export process. Assembly of The NPC As the NPC controls access to the genome, it is essential that it exists in large amounts in areas of the cell cycle where plenty of transcription is necessary. For example cycling mammalian and yeast cells double the amount of NPC in the nucleus between the G1 and G2 phase of cell Mitosis. And oocytes accumulate large numbers of NPCs to prepare for the rapid mitosis that exists in the early stages of development. Interphase cells must also keep up a level of NPC generation to keep the levels of NPC in the cell constant as some may get damaged. Some cells can even increase the NPC numbers due to increased transcriptional demand. So how are these vast proteins complexes assembled? As the immunodepletion of certain protein complexes, such as the Nup 107–160 complex, leads to the formation of poreless nuclei, it seems likely that the Nup complexes are involved in fusing the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope with the inner and not that the fusing of the membrane begins the formation of the pore. There are several ways that this could lead to the formation of the full NPC. One possibility is that as a protein complex it binds to the chromatin. It is then inserted into the double membrane close to the chromatin. This, in turn, leads to the fusing of that membrane. Around this protein complex others eventually bind forming the NPC. This method is possible during every phases of mitosis as the double membrane is present around the chromatin before the membrane fusion proteins complex can insert. Post mitotic cells could form a membrane first with pores being inserted into after formation. Another model for the formation of the NPC is the production of a prepore as a start as opposed to a single protein complex. This prepore would form when several Nup complexes come together and bind to the chromatin. This would have the double membrane form around it in during mitotic reassembly. Possible prepore structures have been observed on chromatin before nuclear envelope(NE) formation using electron microscopy. During the interphase of the cell cycle the formation of the prepore would happen within the nucleus, each component being transported in through existing NPCs. These Nups would bind to an importin, once formed, preventing the assembly of a prepore in the cytoplasm. Once transported into the nucleus Ran GTP would bind to the importin and cause it to release the cargo. This Nup would be free to from a prepore. The binding of importins has at least been shown to bring Nup 107 and the Nup 153 nucleoporins into the nucleus. NPC assembly is a very rapid process yet defined intermediate states occur which leads to the idea that this assembly occurs in a stepwise fashion. A third possible method of NPC assembly is splitting. This method seems to be tailor made for NPC formation during the interphase. It happens when more protomers are added on to an existing NPC. The eightfold symmetry of the NPC has been shown to have a degree of plasticity and will allow this. Eventually enough protomers will add and allow a new NPC to split off the original. This method of NPC assembly can only happen during the interphase of the cell cycle. During mitosis the NPC appears to disassemble in stages. Peripheral nucleoporins such as the Nup 153 Nup 98 and Nup 214 disassociate from the NPC. The rest, which can be considered a scaffold proteins remain stable, as cylindrical ring complexes within the nuclear envelope. This disassembly of the NPC peripheral groups is largely thought to be phosphate driven, as several of these nucleoporins are phosphorylated during the stages of mitosis. However, the enzyme involved in the phosphorlyation is unknown in vivo. In metazoans (which undergo open mitosis) the NE degrades quickly after the loss of the peripheral Nups. The reason for this may be due to the change in the NPC’s architecture. This change may make the NPC more permeable to enzymes involved in the degradation of the NE such as cytoplasmic tubulin, as well as allowing the entry of key mitotic regulator proteins. It was shown, in fungi that undergo closed mitosis (where the nucleus does not degrade), that the change of the permeability barrier of the NE was due to changes with in the NPC and is what allows the entry of mitotic regulators. In Aspergillus nidulans the NPC composition appears to be effected by the mitotic kinase NIMA, possibly by phosphorylating the nucleoporins Nup98 and Gle2/Rae1. This remodelling seems to allow the proteins complex cdc2/cyclinB enter the nucleus as well as many other proteins such as soluble tubulin. The NPC scaffold remains intact throughout the whole closed mitosis. This seems to preserve the integrity of the NE. 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2,479 | God_Save_the_Queen | "God Save the Queen", or "God Save the King", is an anthem used in a number of Commonwealth realms. It is the national anthem of the United Kingdom and her territories and dependencies, Norfolk Island, one of the two national anthems of the Cayman Islands and New Zealand (since 1977) and the royal anthem of Canada (since 1980), Australia (since 1984), the Isle of Man, Belize, Jamaica, and Tuvalu. In countries not previously part of the British Empire the tune of "God Save the Queen" has also been used as the basis for different patriotic songs, though still generally connected with royal ceremony. The authorship of the song is unknown, and beyond its first verse, which is consistent, it has many historic and extant versions: Since its first publication, different verses have been added and taken away and, even today, different publications include various selections of verses in various orders. cf. the versions in the hymn books English Hymnal, Hymns Ancient and Modern and Songs of Praise and the version at the website royalty.gov.uk. In general only one, or sometimes two verses are sung, but on rare occasions three. In Britain, the Queen (or King) is saluted with the entire anthem, while other members of the royal family who are entitled to royal salute (such as the Prince of Wales) receive just the first six bars. The first six bars also form part of the Vice Regal Salute in some Commonwealth realms outside the United Kingdom (e.g., in Canada, governors general and lieutenant governors are saluted with the first six bars of "God Save the Queen", followed by the first four and last four bars of "O Canada"). The words of the song, like its title, are adapted to the gender of monarch, with "King" replacing "Queen", "he" replacing "she", and so forth, when a king reigns. In the United Kingdom, the last line of the third verse is also changed (see below). History The origin of the tune is surrounded by uncertainty, myth and speculation. In The Oxford Companion to Music, Percy Scholes devotes about four pages to this subject, pointing out the similarities to an early plainsong melody, although the rhythm is very distinctly that of a galliard, and he gives examples of several such dance tunes that bear a striking resemblance to "God Save the King/Queen". Scholes quotes a keyboard piece by Dr. John Bull (1619) which has some strong similarities to the modern tune, depending on the placing of accidentals which at that time were unwritten in certain cases and left to the discretion of the player (see musica ficta). He also points to several pieces by Henry Purcell, one of which includes the opening notes of the modern tune, set to the words "God Save The King". Nineteenth century scholars and commentators mention the widespread belief that an old Scots carol, "Remember O Thou Man" was the source of the tune. The first definitive published version of the present tune appeared in 1744 in Thesaurus Musicus, as a setting of the familiar first verse, and the song was popularised in Scotland and England the following year, with the landing of Charles Edward Stuart. It was recorded as being sung in London theatres in 1745, with, for example, Thomas Arne writing a setting of the tune for the Drury Lane Theatre. Scholes' analysis includes mention of "untenable" and "doubtful" claims, as well as "an American misattribution". Some of these are: The French Marquise de Créquy wrote in her book "Souvenirs", that the tune Grand Dieu Sauve Le Roi, was written by Jean-Baptiste Lully to celebrate the healing of Louis XIV's anal fistula. Lully set words by the Duchess of Brinon to music, and the tune was plagiarised by Händel. Translated in Latin under the name Domine, Salvum Fac Regem, it became the French anthem until 1792. see the sheet music available online: After the Battle of Culloden, the Hanover dynasty would have adopted this melody as the British anthem. Scholes points out gross errors of date which render these claims untenable, and they have been ascribed to a 19th-century forgery, the Souvenirs of the Marquise de Créquy. James Oswald: He is a possible author of the Thesaurus Musicus, so may have played a part in the history of the song, but is not a strong enough candidate to be cited as the composer of the tune. Dr. Henry Carey: Scholes refutes this attribution, firstly, on the grounds that Carey himself never made such a claim. Secondly, when the claim was made by Carey's son (as late as 1795), it was accompanied by a request for a pension from the British Government on that score. Thirdly, the younger Carey claimed that his father had written parts of it in 1745, even though the older Carey had died in 1743. It has also been claimed that the work was first publicly performed by Carey during a dinner in 1740 in honour of Admiral Edward "Grog" Vernon, who had captured the Spanish harbour of Porto Bello (then in Colombia, now Panama) during the War of Jenkins' Ear. Scholes recommends the attribution "traditional" or "traditional; earliest known version by John Bull (1562–1628)". The English Hymnal (musical editor Ralph Vaughan Williams) gives no attribution, stating merely "17th or 18th cent." Hymn No. 560 "National Anthem" Use in the United Kingdom The phrase "God Save the King" has continued to be used quite separately from the song, as seen in this poster from World War I. "God Save the Queen" is the national anthem of the United Kingdom. Like many aspects of British constitutional life, its official status derives from custom and use, not from Royal Proclamation or Act of Parliament. In general only one or two verses are sung, but on rare occasions three. The variation in the United Kingdom of the lyrics to "God Save the Queen" is the oldest amongst those currently used, and forms the basis on which all other versions used throughout the Commonwealth are formed; though, again, the words have varied throughout the years. When only England, rather than all four nations of the United Kingdom, is represented (usually at a team sporting event) "God Save the Queen" is still treated as the English national anthem, though there are exceptions to this rule. There is a movement to establish a distinctively English national anthem, with Blake's "Jerusalem" and Elgar's "Land of Hope and Glory" among the top contenders. Scotland and Wales have their own anthems for political and national events and for use at international Football, Rugby and other sports in which those nations compete independently. On all occasions Wales' national anthem is "Mae Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" (Land of my Fathers). Scotland's anthem changes according to circumstance: "Flower of Scotland" is used the majority of the time, although "Scotland the Brave" is occasionally substituted. In Northern Ireland, "God Save the Queen" is still used as the official anthem. Since 2003, God Save the Queen, considered an all inclusive Anthem for Great Britain and Northern Ireland, as well as other countries within the Commonwealth, has been dropped from the Commonwealth Games. Northern Irish athletes receive their gold medals to the tune of the "Londonderry Air", popularly known as "Danny Boy", whilst English winners hear Elgar's Pomp and Circumstance March Number 1, usually known as Land of Hope and Glory Anthem 4 England - Land of Hope and Glory . In sports in which England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland compete as one nation, most notably in the Olympic Games "God Save the Queen" is used to represent anyone or any team that comes from the United Kingdom. Lyrics in the United Kingdom The phrase "God Save the King" is much older than the song, appearing, for instance, several times in the King James Bible. 1 Samuel x. 24; 2 Samuel xvi. 16 and 2 Kings xi. 12 Scholes says that as early as 1545 "God Save the King" was a watchword of the Royal Navy, with the response being "Long to reign over us". "The Watchword in the Night shall be, 'God save King Henrye!' The other shall answer, 'Long to raign over Us!' He also notes that the prayer read in churches on anniversaries of the Gunpowder Plot includes words which might have formed part of the basis for the second verse "Scatter our enemies... assuage their malice and confound their devices". In 1745, The Gentleman's Magazine published "God save our lord the king: A new song set for two voices", describing it "As sung at both Playhouses" (the Theatres Royal at Drury Lane and Covent Garden). The Gentleman's Magazine Vol. 15, Oct. 1745, p.552 Traditionally, the first performance was thought to have been in 1745, when it was sung in support of King George II, after his defeat at the Battle of Prestonpans by the army of the Charles Edward Stuart, son of James Francis Edward Stuart, the Jacobite claimant to the British throne. It is sometimes claimed that, ironically, the song was originally sung in support of the Jacobite cause: the word "send" in the line "Send him victorious" could imply that the king was absent. Also there are examples of early eighteenth century Jacobean drinking glasses which are inscribed with a version of the words and were apparently intended for drinking the health of King James II. Scholes acknowledges these possibilities but argues that the same words were probably being used by both Jacobite and Hanoverian supporters and directed at their respective kings. Scholes p.412 Standard version in the United Kingdom God Save the Queen (standard version) God save our gracious Queen,1 Long live our noble Queen, God save the Queen: Send her victorious, Happy and glorious, Long to reign over us: God save the Queen. O Lord, our God, arise, Scatter her enemies, And make them fall. Confound their politics, Frustrate their knavish tricks, On Thee our hopes we fix, God save us all. Thy choicest gifts in store, On her be pleased to pour; Long may she reign: May she defend our laws, And ever give us cause To sing with heart and voice God save the Queen.* * When the monarch of the time is male, beyond the other alterations mentioned above, the last line of the third verse is changed to "with heart and voice to sing/ God Save the King". There is no definitive version of the lyrics. However, the version consisting of the following three verses has the best claim to be regarded as the 'standard' UK version, appearing not only in the 1745 Gentleman's Magazine, but also in publications such as The Book of English Songs: From the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century (1851), National Hymns: How They are Written and how They are Not Written (1861), Household Book of Poetry (1882), and Hymns Ancient and Modern, revised version (1982). The same version with verse two omitted appears in publications including Scouting for boys (1908), and on the U.K. Government's "Monarchy Today" website. At the Queen's Golden Jubilee Party at the Palace concert, Prince Charles referred in his speech to the "politically incorrect second verse" of the National Anthem. According to Alan Michie's "God Save the Queen," which was published in 1952 after the death of King George VI but prior to the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, the first General Assembly of the United Nations was held in London in January, 1946, and the King, in honour of the occasion, "ordered the belligerent imperious second stanza of 'God Save the King' rewritten to bring it more into the spirit of the brotherhood of nations." In the United Kingdom, the first verse is the only verse typically sung, even at official occasions, although the third verse is sung in addition on rare occasions, and usually at the Last Night of the Proms. At the Closing Ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Olympics, the fourth verse of the William Hixton alternative lyrics was sung instead of the third verse. Around 1745, the anti-Jacobite sentiment was captured in a verse appended to the song, with a prayer for the success of Field Marshal George Wade's army then assembling at Newcastle. These words attained some short-term popularity, although they did not appear in the published version in the October 1745 Gentleman's Magazine, and were only later published as an "additional verse... though being of temporary application only... stored in the memory of an old friend... who was born in the very year 1745, and was thus the associate of those who heard it first sung" in an article in the same magazine in 1837, the lyrics given being: Lord, grant that Marshal Wade, May by thy mighty aid, Victory bring. May he sedition hush and like a torrent rush, Rebellious Scots to crush, God save the King. The 1837 article and other sources make it clear that this verse was abandoned soon after 1745, and certainly before the song became accepted as the UK national anthem in the 1780s and 1790s. "A fourth verse was briefly in vogue at the time of the rebellion, but was rapidly abandoned thereafter: God grant that Marshal Wade...etc" "The history of God Save the King": The Gentleman's Magazine, Vol 6 (new series), 1837, p.373. "There is an additional verse... though being of temporary application only, it was but short-lived...[but]...it was stored in the memory of an old friend of my own... 'Oh! grant that Marshal Wade... etc.' It was included as an integral part of the song in the Oxford Book of Eighteenth Century Verse of 1926, although erroneously referencing the "fourth verse" to the Gentleman's Magazine article of 1745. http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3835950 On the opposing side, Jacobite beliefs were demonstrated in an alternative verse used during the same period: God bless the prince, I pray, God bless the prince, I pray, Charlie I mean; That Scotland we may see Freed from vile Presbyt'ry, Both George and his Feckie, Ever so, Amen. Various other attempts were made during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to add verses to commemorate particular royal or national events. For example, according to Fitzroy Maclean, when Jacobite forces bypassed Wade's force and reached Derby, but then retreated and when their garrison at Carlisle surrendered to a second government army led by King George's son, the Duke of Cumberland, another verse was added. Note that the verse he quotes appears to have a line missing. Other short-lived verses were notably anti-French. For example the verse quoted in the book Handel by Edward J. Dent (see: text at project Gutenberg and at Fullbooks.com) However, none of these survived into the twentieth century. Richards p.90. Standard version of the Music The standard version of the melody is still that of the original, and in the same key of G, though the start of the anthem is often signalled by an introductory side-drum roll of two bars length. The bass line of the standard version differs little from the second voice part shown in the original, and there is a standard version in four-part harmony for choirs. The first three lines (six bars of music) are soft, ending with a short crescendo into "Send her victorious", and then is another crescendo at "over us:" into the final words "God save the Queen". In the early part of the twentieth century there existed a Military Band version, usually played in march time, in the higher key of B, Official versions published by Kneller Hall Royal Military School of Music because it was easier for brass instruments to play in tune in that key, though it had the disadvantage of being more difficult to sing: however now most Bands play it in the correct key of G. Alternative UK versions There have been several attempts to improve the song by rewriting the words. In the nineteenth century there was some lively debate about the national anthem and, even then, verse two was considered to be slightly offensive. Notably, the question arose over the phrase "scatter her enemies." Some thought it placed better emphasis on the respective power of Parliament and the Crown to change "her" to "our"; others pointed out that the theology was somewhat dubious and substituted "thine" instead. Sydney G. R. Coles wrote a completely new version, as did Canon F. K. Harford. Richards p.91 In 1836, William Edward Hickson wrote four alternative verses. The first, third, and fourth of these verses are appended to the National Anthem in the English Hymnal (which only includes verses one and three of the original lyrics). William Hixton's alternative version William Hixton's alternative (1836) version includes the following verses, of which the first, third, and fourth have some currency as they are appended to the National Anthem in the English Hymnal. The fourth verse was sung after the traditional first verse during the raising of the Union Jack during the closing ceremonies of the 2008 Summer Olympics. William Hixton's text of God Save the Queen 1 God bless our native land! May heaven's protecting hand Still guard our shore: May peace her power extend, Foe be transformed to friend, And Britain's rights depend On war no more. 2 O Lord, our monarch bless With strength and righteousness: Long may she reign: Her heart inspire and move With wisdom from above; And in a nation's love Her throne maintain 3 May just and righteous laws Uphold the public cause, And bless our isle: Home of the brave and free, Thou land of liberty, We pray that still on thee Kind heaven may smile. 4 Nor on this land alone, But be God's mercies known From shore to shore: Lord make the nations see That men should brothers be, And form one family The wide world o'er Official peace version A less militaristic version of the song, entitled "Official peace version, 1919", was first published in the hymn book Songs of Praise in 1925. This was "official" in the sense that it was approved by the British Privy Council in 1919. However, despite being reproduced in some other hymn books, it is largely unknown today. Article in the Black Country Bugle describes it as an "unusual and little known version of the national anthem...taken from the order of service for the blessing of Halesowen’s borough charter...on Sunday, 20th September, 1936." Official peace version of God Save the Queen 1 God save our gracious Queen Long live our noble Queen God save the Queen! Send her victorious Happy and glorious Long to reign over us God save the Queen! 2 One realm of races four Blest more and ever more God save our land! Home of the brave and free Set in the silver sea True nurse of chivalry God save our land! 3 Of many a race and birth From utmost ends of earth God save us all! Bid strife and hatred cease Bid hope and joy increase Spread universal peace God save us all! Performance in the United Kingdom The style most commonly heard in official performances was proposed as the "proper interpretation" by King George V, who considered himself something of an expert (in view of the number of times he had heard it). An Army Order was duly issued in 1933, which laid down regulations for tempo, dynamics and orchestration. This included instructions such as that the opening "six bars will be played quietly by the reed band with horns and basses in a single phrase. Cornets and side-drum are to be added at the little scale-passage leading into the second half of the tune, and the full brass enters for the last eight bars". The official tempo for the opening section is a metronome setting of 60, with the second part played in a broader manner, at a metronome setting of 52. Percy A Scholes: Oxford Companion to Music, Tenth Edition, Oxford University Press In recent years the prescribed sombre-paced introduction is often played at a faster and livelier tempo. Until the latter part of the 20th century, theatre and concert goers were expected to stand to attention while the anthem was played after the conclusion of a show. In cinemas this brought a tendency for audiences to rush out while the end credits played to avoid this formality. The anthem continues to be played at traditional formal events, particularly those with a royal connection, such as Wimbledon, Royal Ascot, Henley Royal Regatta and The Proms. The anthem was traditionally played at closedown on the BBC and with the introduction of commercial television to the UK this practice was adopted by some ITV regions. BBC Two never played the anthem at closedown, and ITV dropped the practice in the late 1980s, but it continued on BBC One until 8 November 1997 (thereafter BBC1 began to simulcast with BBC News 24 after end of programmes). The tradition is carried on, however, by BBC Radio 4, which usually plays the anthem as a transition piece between the end of the Radio Four broadcasting and the move to BBC World Service. Radio 4 and Radio 2 also play the National Anthem at 0700 and 0800 on the actual and official birthdays of the Queen and the birthdays of senior members of the Royal Family. The anthem usually prefaces the The Queen's Christmas Message (although in 2007 it appeared at the end, taken from a recording of the 1957 television broadcast), and important royal announcements, such as of royal deaths, when it is played in a slower, sombre arrangement. Other United Kingdom anthems Frequently, when an anthem is needed for one of the countries in the UK at an international sporting event, for instance an alternative song is used: England generally uses "God Save the Queen", but "Jerusalem", "Rule Britannia" and "Land of Hope and Glory" have also been used. At international test cricket matches, England (and Wales) has, since 2004, used "Jerusalem" as the anthem. At international rugby league matches, England uses "God Save the Queen". At international rugby union and football matches, England uses "God Save the Queen" At the Commonwealth Games "Land of Hope and Glory" is used Scotland uses either "Flower of Scotland" or "Scotland the Brave", depending on the occasion. Wales has its own officially recognised anthem: Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau ("Land of My Fathers"). Northern Ireland most frequently uses "God Save the Queen" at national sporting events, and events associated with the British tradition. The Irish national anthem Amhrán na bhFiann ("The Soldiers' Song") is used at events associated with the Irish tradition - such as events organised by the GAA. "Londonderry Air" ("Danny Boy") is a popular cross-community anthem and is used at the Commonwealth Games. In international rugby union, Ireland (a team representing both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland) uses "Ireland's Call", a song which attempts to unite the two traditions on the island. The song is sung at Ireland's home and away games. In addition, Amhrán na bhFiann is played at home matches in the Republic. Isle of Man uses God Save the Queen and "O Land of Our Birth" ("") Recently the British and Irish Lions rugby union tour used the song "The Power of Four", but this anthem was especially designed for the tour. In April 2007 there was an Early Day Motion, number 1319, to the UK Parliament to propose that there should be a separate England anthem: "That this House ... believes that all English sporting associations should adopt an appropriate song that English sportsmen and women, and the English public, would favour when competing as England". An amendment (EDM 1319A3) was proposed by Evan Harris that the song "should have a bit more oomph than God Save the Queen and should also not involve God." Parliamentary Information Management Services. Early day Motion 1319 Use in other Commonwealth countries "God Save the King/Queen" was exported around the world via the expansion of the British Empire, serving as each country's national anthem. Throughout the Empire's evolution into the Commonwealth of Nations, the song declined in use in most states which became independent. In some countries it remains as one of the official national anthems, such as in New Zealand, - Royal assent that the two songs should have equal status or as an official royal anthem, as is the case in Canada, Australia, Jamaica, Isle of Man, and Tuvalu, to be played during formal ceremonies involving national royalty or vice-royalty. The National Anthem of the United Kingdom is also used in all British Overseas Territories. Use in Australia In Australia, the song has standing through a Royal Proclamation issued by Governor-General Sir Ninian Stephen on 19 April 1984. Commonwealth of Australia Gazette; No. S 142; 19 April, 1984 It was declared the Royal Anthem and is to be played when the Monarch or a member of the Royal Family is present. The same Proclamation made "Advance Australia Fair" the National Anthem and the basis for the Vice-Regal Salute (first four and last two bars) of the Anthem. Use in Canada In Canada "God Save the Queen" has not been adopted as the Royal Anthem by statute or proclamation, however it has come to be used as such through convention, and is sometimes sung together with "O Canada" at public events. The Department of National Defence and the Canadian Forces regulates that "God Save the Queen" be played as a salute to the monarch and other members of the Canadian Royal Family, though it may also be used as a hymn, or prayer. The words are not to be sung when the song is played as a military Royal Salute, and is abbreviated to the first three lines while arms are being presented. Department of National Defence: The Honours, Flags and Heritage Structure of the Canadian Forces; p. 503 Queen Elizabeth II stipulated that the arrangement in G major by Lieutenant Colonel Basil H. Brown be used in Canada. The authorised version to be played by pipe bands is Mallorca. Canadian lyrics As "God Save the Queen" is the Royal Anthem of Canada, the first verse has been translated into French for use in that country, as shown below. Dieu protège la reine De sa main souveraine! Vive la reine! Qu'un règne glorieux, Long et victorieux Rende son peuple heureux. Vive la reine! A bilingual version is typically sung in Canada to close Remembrance Day ceremonies: Dieu protège notre reine, Notre gracieuse noble reine, Vive la Reine! Send her victorious, Happy and glorious, Long to reign over us, God Save the Queen! Or as: God save our gracious Queen Long live our noble Queen God save the Queen! Qu'elle soit victorieuse Heureuse et glorieuse Que Dieu protège notre Reine Vive la Reine! The order of the English and French portions depends upon how the national anthem, "O Canada", which is also sung bilingually, is performed at the opening of the ceremony. The translations above are those used by the combined choirs of the public schools in Ottawa, under the direction of Ms. Barbara Clark. There is a special Canadian verse in English which was once commonly sung as a second verse in place of the original second verse: Our lovèd Dominion bless With peace and happiness From shore to shore; And let our Empire be United, loyal, free, True to herself and Thee For evermore. Modernly, however, on the rare occasion that two verses of the royal anthem are sung, it is almost invariably sung in Canada the same as it is sung in UK - with the actual second verse ("O Lord, our God, arise", etc.) replaced by the third verse ("Thy choicest gifts in store", etc.) sung as a second verse. But even in UK, a second verse is rarely sung Use in New Zealand The New Zealand national anthem is "God Defend New Zealand" however, "God save the Queen" is only played when the Sovereign, Governor-General or other member of the Royal Family is present, or on certain occasions such as Anzac Day. In New Zealand, the second more militaristic verse is replaced with Hixtons verse "Nor in this land alone..." (often sung as Not in this land alone"), otherwise known as a "Commonwealth verse". However, that verse is primarily used only when the anthem is played past the first verse. Maori version of God Save the QueenAtua tohu o tikanga pai Kuini, Roa ora o tikanga pai Kuini, Atua tohu te Kuini: Tonoa ia toa, Hari me tino ātaahua, Roa kia kuinitanga ki runga: Atua tohu te Kuini. O ariki, a Atua, pute, Marara ia hoariri, A momo rātau takanga. Hane to rātau tōrangapū, Hua ta rātau hīanga hārau, Kai runga koe o awhero mātau whakamaua Atua tohungia mātou katoa. Tōu whiriwhiria koha i toa, Kai runga tana mauri ora manawa reka mai ringihia; Roa ora taea ia hira: Taea ia tautīneitia a ture, Me tonu tautoro mātou pūtake Ake waiatatia me manawa hoki reo Atua tohu te Kuini. Atua tohu o tikanga pai Kīngi, Roa ora o tikanga pai Kīngi, Atua tohu te Kīngi: Tonoa ia toa, Hari me tino ātaahua, Roa kia kuinitanga ki runga: Atua tohu te Kīngi. O ariki, a Atua, pute, Marara ia hoariri, A momo rātau takanga. Hane to rātau tōrangapū, Hua ta rātau hīanga hārau, Kai runga koe o awhero mātau whakamaua Atua tohungia mātou katoa. Tōu whiriwhiria koha i toa, Kai runga ia mauri ora manawa reka mai ringihia; Roa ora taea ia hira: Taea ia tautīneitia a ture, Me tonu tautoro mātou pūtake Ake waiatatia me manawa hoki reo Atua tohu te Kīngi. Use elsewhere "God Save the King" was the first song to be used as a national anthem, although the Netherlands' national anthem, Het Wilhelmus, is older. Its success prompted a number of imitations, notably in France and, later, Germany. Both commissioned their own songs to help construct a concrete national(ist) identity. The first German national anthem used the melody of "God Save the King" with the words changed to Heil dir im Siegerkranz, and sung to the same tune as the UK version. The tune was either used or officially adopted as the national anthem for several other countries, including those of Russia (until 1833) and Switzerland (Rufst Du, mein Vaterland or O monts indépendants, until 1961). Molitva russkikh, considered to be the first Russian anthem, was also sung to the same music. It is also the melody to the United States patriotic hymn "America" (also known by its first line, "My Country, 'Tis of Thee"), and was played during the Presidential Inauguration parade of President George W. Bush on 20 January, 2001 and sung by Aretha Franklin prior to the inauguration of Barack Obama on 20 January, 2009. In Iceland it is sung to the poem of Eldgamla Ísafold. It is Norway's royal anthem entitled Kongesangen. It was the Swedish royal anthem between 1805 and 1893, entitled Bevare gud vår kung. The tune is still used as the national anthem of Liechtenstein, Oben am jungen Rhein. The same tune was therefore played twice before the Euro 96 qualifying match between Northern Ireland and Liechtenstein; likewise when England played Liechtenstein in a Euro 2004 qualifier. (When England play Northern Ireland, the tune is only played once.) The melody of "God Save the King" has been, and continues to be, used as a hymn tune by Christian churches in various countries. The United Methodists of the southern United States, Mexico, and Latin America, among other denominations (usually Protestant), play the same melody as a hymn. The Christian hymn "Glory to God on High" is frequently sung to the same tune, as well as an alternative tune that fits both lyrics. Musical adaptations Classical composers In total, about 140 composers, including Beethoven, Haydn, Clementi, J.C.Bach, Liszt, Brahms, Carl Maria von Weber, Niccolò Paganini, Johann Strauss I, Sir Edward Elgar, etc., have used the tune in their compositions. Ludwig van Beethoven composed a set of seven piano variations in the key of C major to the theme of "God Save the King", catalogued as WoO.78 (1802–1803). Moreover, he also quotes it in his "battle symphony" Wellington's Victory. Muzio Clementi, another composer who used the theme to "God Save the King", did so in his Symphony No. 3 in G major. This work is dubbed the "Great National Symphony" and is catalogued as WoO. 34. For the noblest reasons, Clementi payed a high tribute to his adopted homeland (the United Kingdom) where he grew up and stayed most of his lifetime. He based the Symphony(about 1816–1824) on "God Save the King", which is hinted at earlier in the work, not least in the second movement, and announced by the trombones in the finale. • Symphony No. 3 " Great National Symphony " in en sol majeur/G-dur/G major/sol maggiore 1. Andante sostenuto - Allegro con brio 2. Andante un poco mosso 3. Minuetto. Allegretto 4. Finale. Vivace Johann Christian Bach composed a set of variations on "God Save the King" for the finale to his sixth keyboard concerto (Op. 1) written c. 1763. Joseph Haydn was impressed by the use of "God Save the King" as a national anthem during his visit to London in 1794, and on his return to Austria wrote a tune to the national anthem, the Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser ("God Save Emperor Franz"), for the birthday of the Emperor Franz of Austria. The tune of "God Save the King" was later adopted for the Prussian national anthem Heil Dir im Siegerkranz. Franz Liszt wrote a piano paraphrase on the anthem. Johann Strauss I quoted God Save the Queen in full at the end of his waltz Huldigung der Königin Victoria von Grossbritannien (Homage to Queen Victoria of Great Britain) Op. 103, where he also quoted Rule, Britannia! in full at the beginning of the piece. Siegfried August Mahlmann in the early 19th century wrote alternate lyrics to adapt the hymn for the Kingdom of Saxony, as "Gott segne Sachsenland" ("God Save Saxony"). Gaetano Donizetti used this anthem in his opera "Roberto Devereux". Gioachino Rossini used this anthem in the last scene of his "Il viaggio a Reims", when all the characters, coming from many different European countries, sing a song which recalls their own homeland. Lord Sidney, bass, sings "Della real pianta" on the notes of "God save the King". Samuel Ramey used to interpolate a spectacular virtuoso cadenza at the end of the song. Arthur Sullivan quotes the anthem at the end of his ballet Victoria and Merrie England. Claude Debussy opens with a brief introduction of God Save the King in one of his Preludes, Hommage à S. Pickwick Esq. P.P.M.P.C. The piece draws its inspiration from the main character of the Charles Dickens novel The Pickwick Papers. Niccolò Paganini wrote a set of highly virtuosic variations on "God Save the King" as his Opus 9. Max Reger wrote "Variations and Fugue on 'Heil dir im Siegerkranz' (God Save the King)" for organ in 1901 after the death of Queen Victoria. It does not have an opus number. Sir Edward Elgar wrote his own orchestration of the National Anthem, performed with choir and symphony orchestra in 1927, for the occasion of the mayoral procession at the opening of the Hereford Music Festival on September 4 of that year. Jerrold Northrop Moore, Edward Elgar, a Creative Life, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1987 Carl Maria von Weber uses the "God Save the King" theme at the end of his "Jubel Overture" Giuseppe Verdi, included "God Save the Queen" in his "Inno delle Nazioni" (Hymn of the Nations), composed for the London International Exhibition of 1862. Charles Ives wrote Variations on "America" for organ in 1891 at age seventeen. It included a polytonal section in three simultaneous keys, though this was omitted from performances at his father's request, because "it made the boys laugh out loud". Ives was fond of the rapid pedal line in the final variation, which he said was "almost as much fun as playing baseball". The piece was not published until 1949; the final version includes an introduction, seven variations and a polytonal interlude. The piece was adapted for orchestra in 1963 by William Schuman. This version became popular during the bicentennial celebrations, and is often heard at pops concerts. Muthuswamy Dikshitar: (1776-1835), one of the musical trinity in South Indian Classical (carnatic) music has composed some Sanskrit pieces set to Western tunes. The notations for these pieces which are referred to as "nottu swara sahityam" are available in the Sangeeta Sampradaya Pradarshini of Subbarama Dikshitar(the composer's great grandson). These are set to the raga Sankarabharanam. Among these, the composition "Santatam Pahimam Sangita Shyamale" is set to the tune of "God save the Queen" Rock adaptations Jimi Hendrix of the The Jimi Hendrix Experience played an impromptu version of "God Save the Queen" to open his set at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970. Just before walking onto the stage, he can be seen (on the DVD) and heard to ask "How does it go again?" in reference to the said UK national anthem. He was able just to hear it mimicked by voice and then perform it. It should be noted that the musical melody of "God Save the Queen" is identical to a traditionally popular, patriotic song in the United States, "My Country 'Tis of Thee." His relatively accurate lead-guitar rendition of "God Save the Queen' can be viewed in stark contrast to his performance of "The Star-Spangled Banner" at the Woodstock Festival, 1969. In 1977, the Sex Pistols recorded a song entitled God Save The Queen in open reference to the National Anthem, with the song intending to stand for sympathy for the working class and resentment of the monarchy. Queen - A Night at the Opera"Bohemian Rhapsody"(Track 11)"God Save the Queen"(Track 12)(end of album) The rock band Queen recorded an instrumental version of "God Save the Queen" on their 1975 album A Night at the Opera. It was arranged by guitarist Brian May and features his distinctive layers of overdubbed electric guitars. A tape of this version would be played at the end of almost every concert, with Freddie Mercury walking around the stage wearing a crown and a cloak on their Magic Tour in 1986. On 3 June 2002, during the Queen's Golden Jubilee, Brian May performed the anthem on his Red Special electric guitar for Party at the Palace, performing from the roof of Buckingham Palace. The Beatles briefly ran through the melody of "God Save The Queen" in between songs during their 30 January 1969 rooftop concert. Preserved on bootlegs, this short musical sketch has never been officially released. A version of "God Save the Queen" by Madness features the melody of the song played on kazoos. It was included on the compilation album The Business. Notes External links Official Royal webpage on the anthem Department of Canadian Heritage - Royal anthem page God Save Great George our King: - article discussing different versions of the lyrics Le 'God save the king' à Saint-Cyr Himnuszok - The Himnuszok website has a vocal version of the first three verses of "God Save the Queen". 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2,480 | European_Broadcasting_Union | The European Broadcasting Union (EBU; ) is a confederation of 75 broadcasting organisations from 56 countries, and 43 associate broadcasters from a further 25. It is unrelated to the European Union. Members are radio and television companies, most of which are government-owned public service broadcasters or privately owned stations with public missions. Full active Members are based in countries from Algeria to the Vatican State, including almost all European countries. Associate members are not limited to those from European countries and the Mediterranean but include broadcasters from Canada, Japan, Mexico, India and Hong Kong, as well as many others. Associate Members from the United States include ABC, CBS, NBC, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, and Time Warner. Active members are those whose states fall within the European Broadcasting Area, or otherwise those who are members of the Council of Europe. The EBU's highest profile production is the Eurovision Song Contest, organised by its Eurovision Network. The Eurovision Network also organises the Eurovision Dance Contest, the Junior Eurovision Song Contest, the former Eurovision Young Dancers competition, and other competitions for young musicians and screenwriters, which are modelled along similar lines. The countries in the EBU have also often worked together to create documentaries and (animated) children's programming. Most EBU broadcasters have a group deal to carry the Olympics and FIFA World Cup (particularly, the games of their country and the Final). Another annually recurring event which is broadcast across Europe through the EBU is the Vienna New Year's Concert. The theme music played before EBU broadcasts is Marc-Antoine Charpentier's Prelude to Te Deum. It is well known to Europeans as it is played before and after the Eurovision Song Contest and other important events (click to listen). History The classic opening ident that preceded all Eurovision network transmissions until the mid-90s. The logotypes of both the sending and receiving company were shown in the middle. The pattern around the middle is based on the Flag of Europe. It was formed on 12 February 1950 by 23 broadcasting organisations from Europe and the Mediterranean at a conference in the coastal resort of Torquay in Devon, England. In 1993, the International Radio and Television Organisation (OIRT), an equivalent organisation of broadcasters from Central and Eastern Europe, was merged with the EBU. The first co-production was the animated series The Animals of Farthing Wood from 1993 based on the books of the same title by Colin Dann. The second animated collaboration was Noah's Island from 1997 and more recently, Pitt and Kantrop. Another important EBU program is Jeux sans frontières. Technical activities The objective of the EBU’s technical activities is simply to assist EBU Members (see below) in this period of unprecedented technological changes. This includes provision of technical information to Members via conferences and workshops, as well as in written form (such as the EBU Technical Review). The EBU also encourages active collaboration between its Members on the basis that they can freely share their knowledge and experience, thus achieving considerably more than individual Members could achieve by themselves. Much of this collaboration is achieved through Project Groups which study specific technical issues of common interest: for example, EBU Members have long been preparing for the revision of the 1961 Stockholm Plan. The EBU places great emphasis on the use of open standards. Widespread use of open standards (such as MPEG-2, DAB, DVB, etc.) ensures interoperability between products from different vendors, as well as facilitating the exchange of programme material between EBU Members and promoting "horizontal markets" for the benefit of all consumers. EBU Members and the EBU Technical Department have long played an important role in the development of many systems used in radio and television broadcasting, such as: The AES/EBU digital audio interface; Serial and parallel interfaces for digital video (ITU-R Recommendations 601 and 656); RDS - the Radio Data System used on FM broadcasting. The EBU has also actively encouraged the development and implementation of: Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) through Eureka Project 147 and the WorldDAB Forum; Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) through the DVB Project and DigiTAG; Digital radio in the bands currently used for AM broadcasting through DRM (Digital Radio Mondiale); Standardisation of PVR systems through the TV-Anytime Forum. Development of other content distribution networks on the internet through P2PTV; EBU Project Group D/P2P, from November 2007 to April 2008, with a trial of selected member channels, thanks to Octoshape's distribution platform. . The EBU is also part of the European P2P-Next project. Members A map illustrating the entry dates of EBU member states. Some states have more than one channel so only the earliest is counted. European members Country Broadcasting organisation National script Abbr. Year Albanian Public Radio and Television Radio Televizioni Shqiptar RTSH 1999 Radio and Television of Andorra Ràdio i Televisió d'Andorra RTVA 2002 Armenian Public Television Հայաստանի հանրային հեռուստաընկերություն ARMTV2005 Austrian Broadcasting Österreichischer Rundfunk ORF 1953 Public Television and Radio Broadcasting Company İctimai Televiziya və Radio Yayımları Şirkəti İTV 2007 National State Teleradiocompany Нацыянальная дзяржаўная тэлерадыёкампанія Рэспублікі Беларусь BTRC 1993 Flemish Radio- and Television Network Vlaamse Radio- en Televisieomroep VRT 1950 Belgian Radio and Television of the French Community Radio-Télévision Belge de la Communauté Française RTBF 1950 Radiotelevision of Bosnia & Herzegovina Radio-televizija Bosne i Hercegovine BHRT 1993 Bulgarian National Radio Българско национално радио BNR 1993 Bulgarian National Television Българска национална телевизия BNT 1993 Croatian Radiotelevision Hrvatska radiotelevizija HRT 1993 Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation Ραδιοφωνικό Ίδρυμα Κύπρου \ Kıbrıs Yayın Kurumu CY/CBC 1968 Czech Radio Český rozhlas ČR 1993 Czech Television Česká televize ČT 1993 Denmark's Radio Danmarks Radio DR 1950 TV2 TV2 AS DK/TV2 1996 Estonian Public Broadcasting Eesti Rahvusringhääling ERR 1993 - Finnish Broadcasting Corporation- Swedish Broadcasting of Finland Yleisradio Oy / (Swedish) Rundradion AB YLE/FST5 1926 Commercial Channel 3 Mainotelevisio 3 MTV3 1957 - Télévision Française 1- France Télévisions- Canal+- Radio France- Radio France Internationale Groupement des Radiodiffuseurs Français de l’UER GRF 1950 Europe 1 Europe 1 E1 1978 Georgian Public Broadcasting საქართველოს საზოგადოებრივი მაუწყებელი GPB 2005 German National Broadcasting Arbeitsgemeinschaft der öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland ARD 1952 Second German Television Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen ZDF 1963 Hellenic Radio Television Ελληνική Ραδιοφωνία Τηλεόραση ERT 1950 Hungarian Radio Magyar Rádió MR 1993 Hungarian Television Magyar Televízió HU/MTV 1993 National Broadcasting Service Ríkisútvarpið RÚV 1956 Irish Radio- Television Radio Telefís Éireann RTÉ 1950 Irish-Gaelic Television Teilifís na Gaeilge 4 TG4 2007 Italian Radio- Television Radiotelevisione Italiana RAI 1950 Latvian Television Latvijas Televīzija LR 1993 Latvian Radio Latvijas Radio LTV 1993 Lithuanian National Radio and Television Lietuvos Radijas ir Televizija LRT 1993 CLT Multi Media Compagnie Luxembourgeoise de Télédiffusion RTL 1950 Radio 100,7 Radio 100,7 ERSL 1996 Macedonian Radio-Television Македонска радио телевизија MKRTV 1993 Public Broadcasting Services Public Broadcasting Services MT/PBS 1969 Teleradio-Moldova Teleradio-Moldova TRM 1993 Radio Monte-Carlo Groupement de Radiodiffuseurs Monégasques TMC 1950 Radio Television of Montenegro Radio televizija Crne Gore/ Радио телевизија Црне Горе RTCG 2001 Netherlands Public Broadcasting Nederlandse Publieke Omroep NPO 1950 Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation Norsk Rikskringkasting NRK 1950 TV2 TV2 AS NO/TV2 1992 Polish Television Telewizja Polska TVP 1993 Polish Radio Polskie Radio PR 1993 Radio and Television of Portugal Rádio e Televisão de Portugal RTP 1950 Romanian Radio Broadcasting Company Societatea Română de Radiodifuziune ROR 1993 Romanian Television Televiziunea Română TVR 1993 Channel One Russia Первый канал C1R 1993 Radio House Ostankino Радиодом Останкино RDO 1993 Russia TV Channel Телеканал Россия RTR 1993 San Marino RTV Radiotelevisione della Repubblica di San Marino SMRTV 1995 Radio Television of Serbia Радио-телевизија Србије RTS 2001 Slovak Radio Slovenský rozhlas SK/SR 1993 Slovak Television Slovenská televízia SK/STV 1993 Radio-Television Slovenia Radiotelevizija Slovenije RTVSLO 1993 Spanish Radio- Television Corporación Radiotelevisión Española RTVE 1955 Spanish Society of Radio Sociedad Española de Radiodifusión SER 1982 People's Radiowaves of Spain Cadena de Ondas Populares de España COPE 1998 - Swedish Television- Swedish Radio - Swedish Educational Broadcasting Sveriges Television och Radio Grupp AB SVT 1950 TV4 TV4 AB TV4 2004 Swiss Broadcasting Corporation SRG SSR idée suisse SSR SRG 1950 Turkish Radio and Television Corporation Türkiye Radyo-Televizyon Kurumu TRT 1950 National Television Company of Ukraine Національна телекомпанія України NTU 1993 National Radio Company of Ukraine Національна радіокомпанія України NRU 1993 - British Broadcasting Corporation British Broadcasting Corporation BBC 1950 - Independent Television- Channel 4- S4C United Kingdom Independent Broadcasting / (Welsh) Darlledu Annibynnus Deyrnas Gyfunol UKIB 1959 Vatican Radio Radio Vaticana RV 1950 Non-European members Country Broadcasting organisation National script Abbr. Year National Television Company المـؤسـسـة العمومية للتـلـفزيـون ENTV 1969 National Sound-broadcasting Company الإذاعة الجزائري ENRS 1969 Television of Algeria التلفزيون في الجزائر TDA 1969 Egyptian Radio and Television Union التلفزيون المصري ERTU 1950-1958, 1984 Israel Broadcasting Authority רָשׁוּת השׁידוּר IBA 1957 Jordan Radio and Television Corporation الفضائية JRTV 1969 Télé Liban تلفزيون لبنان TL 1950 Libya Jamahiriya Broadcasting الجماهيرية اللّيبيّة LJB 1974 Société Nationale de Radiodiffusion et de Télévision الشركة الوطنبة للإذاعة والتلفرة SNRT 1950-1961, 1968 Êtablissement de la Radiodiffusion-Télévision Tunisienne - ERTT 1950 Associate Members Country Broadcasting organisation Abbr. Year Australian Broadcasting Corporation ABC Australia SBS Australia SBS National Broadcasting Authority of Bangladesh Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (Societé Radio Canada) CBC/SRC Canal 13 (Chile) UC13 Cuban Television ICRT Gambia Radio & Television Service GRTS Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa KNR Radio Television Hong Kong RTHK All India Radio AIR Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting IRIB Nippon Hoso Kyokai NHK Radio Television Malaysia RTM TV de Mauritanie MR/TVM Mauritius Broadcasting Corporation MBC Nepal Television NTVC Radio New Zealand RNZ Television New Zealand Ltd TVNZ Oman Directorate General of Radio and Television ODGRT Pakistan Television Corporation PK/PTV Al Jazeera Children's Channel JCC South African Broadcasting Corporation SABC National Broadcasting Company European Broadcasting Union list of Associate Members NBC American Broadcasting Company ABC Columbia Broadcasting System CBS National Public Radio NPR American Public Media APM WFMT 98.7 FM, Chicago, Illinois WFMT Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation ZBC Venezuela's contribution to the union was stopped with the closure of RCTV by President Chavez. Approved Members Country Broadcasting organisation Abbr. Year Palestine Radio and TV Corporation PRTV Past Members Country Broadcasting organisation Abbr. Years Yugoslav Radio Television JRT 1950-1992 Potential active EBU members Country Broadcasting organisation Abbr. Notes El Arna - El Arna channel, member of Khabar media-holding is not a member, but purchased rights to broadcast Eurovision Song Contest 2008, an EBU event. Radio Television of Kosovo RTK RTK has shown interest in joining the EBU. 1 Fürstentum Liechtenstein Television 1FLTV Liechtenstein's only television broadcaster which began broadcasting on 15 August 2008. 2 Morocco Television 2M TV The second commercial channel of Morocco has asked for membership to the EBU. Qatar Radio Qatar Radio Currently seeking membership and is hoping to enter the Eurovision Song Contest by 2011. Organisme de la Radio-Télévision Arabe Syrienne ORTAS Currently an associate member only (1950-58). See also Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union Eurovision Song Contest Eurovision Dance Contest Eurovision Young Musicians Eurovision Young Dancers Junior Eurovision Song Contest Notes and references Notes: a. 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2,481 | Definition | A definition is a statement of the meaning of a word or phrase. The term to be defined is known as the definiendum (Latin: what is to be defined). The words which define it are known as the definiens (Latin: what defines). OED, www.dictionary.com, and Microsoft Encarta Dictionary (2004 edition): "literally 'something that defines'". Stipulative definitions A definition may either describe the meaning that a term bears in general use, providing a descriptive definition, or that which the speaker intends to impose upon it, a stipulative definition. A definition may be used to introduce a new term, or to prescribe a new meaning to a term which is already in use. A descriptive definition can be shown to be "right" or "wrong" by comparison to usage, but a stipulative definition cannot, although it may lead to contradictions. A precising definition extends the descriptive dictionary definition (lexical definition) of a term for a specific purpose by including additional criteria that narrow down the set of things meeting the definition. C.L. Stevenson has identified persuasive definition as a form of stipulative definition which purports to describe the "true" or "commonly accepted" meaning of a term, while in reality stipulating an altered use, perhaps as an argument for some specific view. Stevenson has also noted that some definitions are "legal" or "coercive", whose object is to create or alter rights, duties or crimes. Stevenson, C.L., Ethics and Language, Connecticut 1944 Intension and extension An intensional definition, also called a connotative definition, specifies the necessary and sufficient conditions for a thing being a member of a specific set. Any definition that attempts to set out the essence of something, such as that by genus and differentia, is an intensional definition. An extensional definition, also called a denotative definition, of a concept or term specifies its extension. It is a list naming every object that is a member of a specific set. So, for example, an intensional definition of 'Prime Minister' might be the most senior minister of a cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. An extensional definition would be a list of all past, present and future prime ministers. One important form of the extensional definition is ostensive definition. This gives the meaning of a term by pointing, in the case of an individual, to the thing itself, or in the case of a class, to examples of the right kind. So you can explain who Alice (an individual) is by pointing her out to me; or what a rabbit (a class) is by pointing at several and expecting me to 'catch on'. The process of ostensive definition itself was critically appraised by Ludwig Wittgenstein. Philosophical investigations, Part 1 §27-34 An enumerative definition of a concept or term is an extensional definition that gives an explicit and exhaustive listing of all the objects that fall under the concept or term in question. Enumerative definitions are only possible for finite sets and only practical for relatively small sets. ===Divisio and partitio===Divisio and partitio are classical terms for definitions. A partitio is simply an intensional definition. A divisio is not an extensional definition. Divisio is an exhaustive list of subsets of a set, in the sense that every member of the "divided" set is a member of one of the subsets. An extreme form of divisio lists all sets whose only member is a member of the "divided" set. The difference between this and an extensional definition is that extensional definitions list members, and not sets. Katerina Ierodiakonou, "The Stoic Division of Philosophy", in Phronesis: A Journal for Ancient Philosophy, Volume 38, Number 1, 1993 , pp. 57-74. Definition by genus and differentia Scientific classification of living things uses definition by genus and differentia. Traditionally, a definition consists of the genus (the family) of thing to which the defined thing belongs, and the differentia (the distinguishing feature which marks it off from other members of the same family). Thus 'triangle' is defined as 'a plane figure (genus) bounded by three straight sides (differentia). See Genus-differentia definition Rules for definition by genus and differentia Certain rules have traditionally been given for this particular type of definition. Copi 1982 pp 165-169 Joyce, Ch. X Joseph, Ch. V A definition must set out the essential attributes of the thing defined. Definitions should avoid circularity. To define a horse as 'a member of the species equus' would convey no information whatsoever. For this reason, Locke adds that a definition of a term must not consist of terms which are synonymous with it. This would be a circular definition, a circulus in definiendo. Note, however, that it is acceptable to define two relative terms in respect of each other. Clearly, we cannot define 'antecedent' without using the term 'consequent', nor conversely. The definition must not be too wide or too narrow. It must be applicable to everything to which the defined term applies (i.e. not miss anything out), and to nothing else (i.e. not include any things to which the defined term would not truly apply). The definition must not be obscure. The purpose of a definition is to explain the meaning of a term which may be obscure or difficult, by the use of terms that are commonly understood and whose meaning is clear. The violation of this rule is known by the Latin term obscurum per obscurius. However, sometimes scientific and philosophical terms are difficult to define without obscurity. (See the definition of Free will in Wikipedia, for instance). A definition should not be negative where it can be positive. We should not define 'wisdom' as the absence of folly, or a healthy thing as whatever is not sick. Sometimes this is unavoidable, however. We cannot define a point except as 'something with no parts', nor blindness except as 'the absence of sight in a creature that is normally sighted'. Essence In classical thought, a definition was taken to be a statement of the essence of a thing. Aristotle had it that an object's essential attributes form its "essential nature", and that a definition of the object must include these essential attributes. Posterior Analytics, Bk 1 c. 4 The idea that a definition should state the essence of a thing led to the distinction between nominal and real essence, originating with Aristotle. In a passage from the Posterior Analytics, Posterior Analytics Bk 2 c. 7 he says that we can know the meaning of a made-up name (he gives the example 'goat stag'), without knowing what he calls the 'essential nature' of the thing that the name would denote, if there were such a thing. This led medieval logicians to distinguish between the so-called quid nominis or 'whatness of the name', and the underlying nature common to all the things it names, which they called the quid rei or 'whatness of the thing'. (Early modern philosophers like Locke used the corresponding English terms 'nominal essence' and 'real essence'). The name 'hobbit', for example, is perfectly meaningful. It has a quid nominis. But we could not know the real nature of hobbits, even if there were such things, and so we cannot know the real nature or quid rei of hobbits. By contrast, the name 'man' denotes real things (men) that have a certain quid rei. The meaning of a name is distinct from the nature that thing must have in order that the name apply to it. This leads to a corresponding distinction between nominal and real definition. A nominal definition is the definition explaining what a word means, i.e. which says what the 'nominal essence' is, and is definition in the classical sense as given above. A real definition, by contrast, is one expressing the real nature or quid rei of the thing. This preoccupation with essence dissipated in much of modern philosophy. Analytic philosophy in particular is critical of attempts to elucidate the essence of a thing. Russell described it as "a hopelessly muddle-headed notion". A history of Western Philosophy, p. 210 More recently Kripke's formalisation of possible world semantics in modal logic led to a new approach to essentialism. Insofar as the essential properties of a thing are necessary to it, they are those things it possesses in all possible worlds. Kripke refers to names used in this way as rigid designators. Recursive definitions A recursive definition, sometimes also called an inductive definition, is one that defines a word in terms of itself, so to speak, albeit in a useful way. Normally this consists of three steps: At least one thing is stated to be a member of the set being defined; this is sometimes called a "base set". All things bearing a certain relation to other members of the set are also to count as members of the set. It is this step that makes the definition recursive. All other things are excluded from the set For instance, we could define natural number as follows (after Peano): "0" is a natural number. Each natural number has a distinct successor, such that: the successor of a natural number is also a natural number, and no natural number is succeeded by "0". Nothing else is a natural number. So "0" will have exactly one successor, which for convenience we can call "1". In turn, "1" will have exactly one successor, which we would call "2", and so on. Notice that the second condition in the definition itself refers to natural numbers, and hence involves self-reference. Although this sort of definition involves a form of circularity, it is not vicious, and the definition is quite successful. Limitations of definition Given that a natural language such as English contains, at any given time, a finite number of words, any comprehensive list of definitions must either be circular or leave some terms undefined. If every term of every definiens must itself be defined, "where at last should we stop?" Locke, Essay, Bk. III, Ch. iv, 5 This problem parallels the diallelus, but leads to scepticism about meaning rather than knowledge. A dictionary, for instance, insofar as it is a comprehensive list of lexical definitions, must resort to circularity. Generally lexicographers seek to avoid circularity wherever possible, but the definitions of words such as "the" and "a" use those words and are therefore circular. Lexicographer Sidney I. Landau's essay "Sexual Intercourse in American College Dictionaries" provides other examples of circularity in dictionary definitions. (McKean, p. 73-77) An exercise suggested by J. L. Austin involved taking up a dictionary and finding a selection of terms relating to the key concept, then looking up each of the words in the explanation of their meaning. Then, iterating this process until the list of words begins to repeat, closing in a “family circle” of words relating to the key concept.(A plea for excuses in Philosophical Papers. Ed. J. O. Urmson and G. J. Warnock. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1961. 1979.) In the game of Vish, players compete to find circularity in a dictionary. Many philosophers have chosen instead to leave some terms undefined. The scholastic philosophers claimed that the highest genera (the so-called ten generalissima) cannot be defined, since we cannot assign any higher genus under which they may fall. Thus we cannot define being, unity and similar concepts. Locke supposes in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding Locke, Essay, Bk. III, Ch. iv that the names of simple concepts do not admit of any definition. More recently Bertrand Russell sought to develop a formal language based on logical atoms. Other philosophers, notably Wittgenstein, rejected the need for any undefined simples. Wittgenstein pointed out in his Philosophical Investigations that what counts as a "simple" in one circumstance might not do so in another. See especially Philosophical Investigations Part 1 §48 He rejected the very idea that every explanation of the meaning of a term needed itself to be explained: "As though an explanation hung in the air unless supported by another one", He continues: "Whereas an explanation may indeed rest on another one that has been given, but none stands in need of another - unless we require it to prevent a misunderstanding. One might say: an explanation serves to remove or to avert a misunderstanding - one, that is, that would occur but for the explanation; not every one I can imagine." Philosophical Investigations, Part 1 §87, italics in original claiming instead that explanation of a term is only needed when we need to avoid misunderstanding. Locke and Mill also argued that we cannot define individuals. We learn names by connecting an idea with a sound, so that speaker and hearer have the same idea when the same word is used. This theory of meaning is one of the targets of the private language argument This is not possible when no one else is acquainted with the particular thing that has "fallen under our notice". Locke, Essay, Bk. III, Ch. iii, 3 Russell offered his theory of descriptions in part as a way of defining a proper name, the definition being given by a definite description that "picks out" exactly one individual. Saul Kripke pointed to difficulties with this approach, especially in relation to modality, in his book Naming and Necessity. There is a presumption in the classic example of a definition that the definiens can be stated. Wittgenstein argued that for some terms this is not the case.<ref>Philosophical Investigations</ref> The examples he used include game, number and family. In such cases, he argued, there is no fixed boundary that can be used to provide a definition. Rather, the items are grouped together because of a family resemblance. For terms such as these it is not possible and indeed not necessary to state a definition; rather, one simply comes to understand the use of the term. See also Analytic proposition Definable set Demonstration Extensional definition Fallacies of definition Indeterminacy Intensional definition Ramsey–Lewis method Semantic Synthetic proposition Notes References (full text of 1st ed. (1906)) (worldcat) (full text of 2nd ed. (1916)) (full text: vol 1, vol 2) External links Definitions at Synonyms.Me Definitions, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Gupta, Anil (2008) Definitions, Dictionaries, and Meanings, Norman Swartz 1997 Guy Longworth (ca. 2008) "Definitions: Uses and Varieties of". = in: K. Brown (ed.): Elsevier Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Elsevier. 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2,482 | Hudson's_Bay_Company | The Hudson's Bay Company (), abbreviated HBC, is the oldest commercial corporation in North America and is one of the oldest in the world. The company was incorporated by British royal charter in 1670 as The Governor and Company of Adventurers of England trading into Hudson's Bay; it is now domiciled in Canada and has adopted the more common shorter name as its legal moniker. Federal Corporations Data It was once the de facto government in parts of North America before European-based colonies and nation states existed. It was at one time the largest landowner in the world, with Rupert's Land being a large part of North America. From its longtime headquarters at York Factory on Hudson Bay, it controlled the fur trade throughout much of British-controlled North America for several centuries, undertaking early exploration. Its traders and trappers forged early relationships with many groups of First Nations/Native Americans and its network of trading posts formed the nucleus for later official authority in many areas of Western Canada and the United States. In the late 19th century, its vast territory became the largest component in the newly formed Dominion of Canada, in which the company was the largest private landowner. With the decline of the fur trade, the company evolved into a mercantile business selling vital goods to settlers in the Canadian West. Today the company is best known for its department stores throughout Canada. The Hudson's Bay Company Archives are located in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The company is owned by Hudson's Bay Trading Company, the retail arm of American private equity firm NRDC Equity Partners, which also owns U.S. chains Lord & Taylor and Fortunoff. History Early years Historical flag of the Hudson's Bay Company from its days as a British trading company. In the 17th century, the French had a monopoly on the Canadian fur trade. However, two French traders, Pierre-Esprit Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers, learned from the Cree that the best fur country was north and west of Lake Superior and that there was a "frozen sea" still further north. Correctly guessing that this was Hudson Bay, they sought French backing for a plan to set up a trading post on the Bay, thus reducing the cost of moving furs overland. However, the recently appointed French Secretary of State, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, was trying to promote farming in the colony and was opposed to exploration and trapping. Radisson and des Groseilliers then approached a group of businessmen in Boston, Massachusetts to help finance their explorations. The Bostonians agreed on the plan's merits, and brought the two to England to elicit financing. In 1668, the English commissioned two ships, the Nonsuch and the Eaglet to explore possible trade into Hudson Bay. The Nonsuch was commanded by Captain Zachariah Gillam and accompanied by des Groseilliers, while the Eaglet was commanded by Captain William Stannard and accompanied by Radisson. On June 5, 1668, both ships left port at Deptford, England, but the Eaglet was forced to turn back off the coast of Ireland. The Nonsuch continued on all the way to the southern portion of James Bay, where Fort Rupert was founded at the mouth of the Rupert River. Both the fort and the river were named after the sponsor of the expedition, Prince Rupert of Bavaria. After a successful trading expedition over the winter of 1668–1669, the Nonsuch returned to England. Rupert's Land, the drainage basin of Hudson Bay, the Company's grant. The Governor and Company of Adventurers of England trading into Hudson's Bay was incorporated on May 2, 1670, with a Royal Charter from King Charles II. The charter granted the company a monopoly over the Indian Trade, especially the trade, in the region watered by all rivers and streams flowing into Hudson Bay in northern Canada, an area known as Rupert's Land after Prince Rupert, the first director of the company and a first cousin of Charles. This region constitutes 1.5 million square miles (3.9 million km²) in the drainage basin of Hudson Bay, comprising over one third the area of modern-day Canada and stretching into the north central United States, but the specific boundaries were unknown at the time. The company founded its first headquarters at Fort Nelson at the mouth of the Nelson River in present-day northeastern Manitoba. The location afforded convenient access to the fort from the vast interior waterway systems of the Saskatchewan and Red rivers. Other posts were quickly established around the southern edge of Hudson Bay in Manitoba and present-day Ontario and Quebec. Called "factories" (because the "factor", i.e. a person acting as a mercantile agent and frequently specializing in one or a small number of commodities, did business from there), these posts operated in the manner of the Dutch fur trading operations in New Netherland. The Hudson's Bay Company's second inland trading post was established by Samuel Hearne in 1774 in Cumberland House, Saskatchewan. During the spring and summer, First Nations traders, who did the vast majority of the actual trapping, travelled by canoe and were received at the fort to sell their pelts. In exchange they typically received metal tools and hunting gear, often imported by the company from Germany, the centre of inexpensive manufacturing in that era. Logo on old fur trading fort. The early coastal factory model contrasted with the system of the French, who established an extensive system of inland posts and sent traders to live among the tribes of the region. After war broke out in Europe between France and England in the 1680s, the two nations regularly sent expeditions to raid and capture each other's fur trading posts. In March 1686, the French sent a raiding party under Chevalier des Troyes over 1300 km (800 miles) to capture the company's posts along James Bay. The French appointed Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, who had shown extreme heroism during the raids, as commander of the company's captured posts. In 1697, d'Iberville commanded a French naval raid on the company's headquarters at York Factory. On the way to the fort, he defeated three ships of the Royal Navy in the Battle of the Bay, the largest naval battle in the history of the North American Arctic. D'Iberville's depleted French force captured York Factory by a ruse in which they laid siege to fort while pretending to be a much larger army. York Factory changed hands several times in the next decade. It was finally ceded permanently to what was by then the Kingdom of Great Britain (following the union of Scotland and England in 1707) in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht. After the treaty, the company rebuilt York Factory as a brick star fort at the mouth of the nearby Hayes River, its present location. In its trade with native peoples, the company adopted the widespread use of issuing wool blankets, called Hudson's Bay point blankets, in exchange for the beaver pelts trapped by native hunters. A parallel may be drawn between HBC's control over Rupert's Land and the trade monopoly and government functions enjoyed by the Honourable East India Company over India during roughly the same period. 19th century HBC coat of arms, showing the old Latin motto pro pelle cutem: a skin for a skin. In 1821, the North West Company of Montreal and Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined territory that was extended by a licence to the North-Western Territory, which reached to the Arctic Ocean on the north and the Pacific Ocean on the west. Before the merger, the employees of the HBC, unlike the North West Company, did not participate in its profits. After the merger, with all of its operations under the management of Sir George Simpson from 1826 to 1860, the company had a corps of commissioned officers, 25 chief factors and 28 chief traders who shared in the profits of the company during the monopoly years. Its trade covered 7 770 000 km² (3,000,000 square miles) and it had 1,500 contract employees. These officers, together referred to as the Commissioned Gentlemen, would be promoted first to the rank of Chief Trader. A Chief Trader would be in charge of an individual post and was entitled to one share of the profits of the company. Chief Factors sat in council with the Governors and were the heads of districts. They were entitled to two shares of the profits or the losses of the company. The average income of a Chief Trader was £360 and that of a Chief Factor was £720. A Hudson's Bay Company post on Lake Winnipeg, c.1884. Although the HBC maintained a monopoly on the fur trade during the early-mid 19th century, there was competition from James Sinclair and Andrew McDermot (Dermott), independent traders in the Red River Colony, who shipped furs by the Red River Trails to Norman Kittson a buyer in the United States. Throughout the 1820s and 1830s the company controlled nearly all trading operations in the Pacific Northwest, based out of the company headquarters at Fort Vancouver on the Columbia River. Although authority over the region was nominally shared by the United States and Britain through the Anglo-American Convention of 1818, company policy, enforced via Chief Factor John McLoughlin of the company's Columbia District, was to actively discourage U.S. settlement of the territory. The company's effective monopoly on trade virtually forbade any settlement in the region. It established Fort Boise in 1834 (in present-day southwestern Idaho) to compete with the American Fort Hall, 483 km (300 miles) to the east. In 1837 it purchased Fort Hall, also along the route of the Oregon Trail, where the outpost director displayed the abandoned wagons of discouraged settlers to those seeking to move west along the trail. The company's stranglehold on the region was broken by the first successful large wagon train to reach Oregon in 1843, led by Marcus Whitman. In the years that followed, thousands of emigrants poured into the Willamette Valley and in 1846 the United States acquired full authority of the most settled areas of the Oregon Country south of the 49th parallel. McLoughlin, who had once turned away would-be settlers as company director, now welcomed them from his general store at Oregon City and was later proclaimed the "Father of Oregon". The company retains no presence today in what is now the United States portion of the Pacific Northwest. Also during the 1820s and 1830s, HBC trappers were deeply involved in the early exploration and development of Northern California. Company trapping brigades were sent south from Fort Vancouver, along what became known as the Siskiyou Trail into Northern California as far south as the San Francisco Bay Area. These trapping brigades sent into Northern California faced serious risks, and were often the first to explore what was one of the last regions of North America to remain unexplored by Europeans or Americans. Between 1820 and 1870, HBC issued its own paper money. The notes, denominated in pounds sterling, were printed in London and issued at the York Factory, Fort Garry and the Red River colony. One major event that lead to the demise of the HBC's monopoly in Rupert's Land was the Guillaume Sayer Trial in 1849. Sayer, a Métis trapper and trader, was accused of the illegal trading of furs and brought to trial by the Court of Assiniboia, which was heavily stacked with either HBC officials or HBC supporters. During the trial, a crowd of armed Métis men led by Louis Riel Sr. gathered outside the courtroom, ready to support their Métis brother peacefully or by force if necessary. Although found guilty of illegal trade by Judge Adam Thom, no fine or punishment was levied — many reports state it was due to the intimidating crowd gathered outside the courthouse. With the cry, "Le commerce est libre! Le commerce est libre!" ("Trade is free! Trade is free!"), the HBC could no longer use the courts to enforce their monopoly on the settlers of Red River. Another factor was the findings of the Palliser Expedition of 1857 to 1860, led by Captain John Palliser. Although the initial report was unfavourable towards settlement, it sparked a debate which ended the myth being propagated by the Hudson's Bay Company that the Canadian West was unfit for agricultural settlement. In 1863, the International Financial Society became the majority shareholders of the HBC. In 1870 the trade monopoly was abolished and trade in the region was opened to any entrepreneur. The company relinquished its ownership of Rupert's Land under the Rupert's Land Act 1868 enacted by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Aboriginal Women A HBC employee, Samuel Hearne gives great insight into the role that Aboriginal women had in the fur trade. Through his journals we see the various aspects that Aboriginal women helped European fur traders, and therefore the HBC Company succeed. Any success that HBC employees had while in Rupert’s Land was not solely their doing, but resulted from the help of local Aboriginal women. European men were typically used to a stereotypical view of women but Aboriginal women defied every stereotype. The women were physically strong which proved valuable when HBC company employees travelled long distances. As Samuel Hearne said in his journal, women could haul as much as two men could and they could not travel very far without them. The Aboriginal women would carry supplies as well as large game that was hunted. They would carry the animal back to the camp where they would make the meat eatable and the fur or hide usable. This was very useful to HBC employees because it freed their time to do other tasks to benefit them economically. They were able to save a large sum of money by bringing the Aboriginal women with them on their journeys because they would have had to pay two employees to do the work that Aboriginal women did. A measure of success for any company is its profit, and the HBC profited more from having Aboriginal women with them. The women were responsible for making and mending the clothing. The process of making leather clothing was long and strenuous but the Aboriginal women were able to make and mend clothing much faster than HBC employees. The most useful article of clothing they made was moccasins because without them the European traders would have had no footwear and they would not have been able to continue working. If they had to have ships bring shoes from Europe it would have taken much more time and more money. The Aboriginal women helped the HBC succeed by providing them with shoes that were ideal for the environmental region in a timely and cost effective manner. Aboriginal women were companions for the HBC employees and were often married, sometimes formally and sometimes informally. These marriages came to be known as a la facon du pays, or after the custom of the country. The Aboriginal women later became known as country wives. These country wives had a large part in the fur trade. The women also were provided economic ties to the Aboriginal community. When an Aboriginal woman married a European man she brought her relationships with her. This brought potential clients and friends that could help the HBC employees. Because the Europeans had no ties in the communities, this natural alliance that came with marriage brought in much more revenue for the HBC. Aboriginal women were also able to resolve many disputes between the Aboriginal communities and Europeans. Aboriginal women acted as mediators between two very different groups, their European husbands and their Aboriginal families. Aboriginal women were aware of traditions and customs that their new husbands were unfamiliar with which proved very valuable in resolving disputes. Had the women not been able to resolve disputes between HBC employees and Aboriginal communities, the HBC would have lost economic ties and potential revenue. Aboriginal women brought success to the Hudson’s Bay Company. They provided labour, which saved the company money and freed their men up for other tasks. They made and mended clothing providing possibly the most important article of clothing at the time, moccasins. They provided the European employees with economic ties to the community that brought added revenue and they also provided information about Aboriginal traditions and customs that helped resolve disputes between the two groups. The Aboriginal women were an important part of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Modern operations One aspect of the company's operations was the Hudson's Bay Company Stores, trading posts that were established across northern Canada. Today, this is the only part of the company operation remaining, in the form of department stores under the name The Bay. The first department store opened in Winnipeg, Manitoba in 1881 (this building is considered the flagship store). Others soon followed. Many Hudson's Bay Company stores were, until quite recently, the only stores in remote towns. More recently, the stores in major downtown locations have been transformed into boutiques. In 1970, on the 300th birthday of the company, head office functions were transferred from London to Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. As the company expanded into the east, head office functions were moved to Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The Hudson's Bay Company building in Montreal. Today there are four retail divisions: The Bay, Zellers, Home Outfitters, and Fields, after Designer Depot was sold for lagging sales performance. Northern Stores are no longer operated by HBC, but by a corporation organized in 1987 under the name The North West Company. Simpson's department stores which were acquired by Hudson's Bay Company in 1979 were converted to The Bay stores in 1991. In the 1970s and 1980s, HBC operated a chain of catalogue stores under the name Shop-Rite. In these stores, little merchandise was displayed openly: customers made their selections from catalogues, and staff would retrieve the merchandise from storerooms. This form of retailing, now largely disappeared, was referred to as "catalogue showroom". The legacy of the HBC has been maintained in part by the detailed record-keeping and archiving of material by the Company. Before 1974, the records of the HBC were kept in the London office headquarters. The HBC opened an Archives department to researchers in 1931. In 1974, the Hudson's Bay Company Archives were transferred from London to their Canadian headquarters in Winnipeg and granted public access to the collection the following year. In 1991 the archival records of the company were donated to the Manitoba Archives in Winnipeg, Manitoba. In 1987, HBC sold off its Canadian fur auction business to Hudson's Bay Fur Sales Canada (this company is now known as North American Fur Auctions). In 1991, the Bay agreed to stop selling in response to complaints from people opposed to killing animals for this purpose. However, in 1997, the Bay reopened its fur salons to meet the demand of consumers desiring to buy fur. Animal rights groups such as Freedom for Animals have been campaigning to get the Bay to once again stop selling fur. In 1994, the HBC donated the Company records to the Province of Manitoba. The appraised value of the records was nearly $60 million. A foundation, funded through the tax savings resulting from the donation, was established to support the operations of the HBCA as a division of the Archives of Manitoba, along with other activities and programs. There are more than two kilometres of documents as well as hundreds of microfilm reels now stored in a special climate-controlled vault in the Manitoba Archives Building. In December 2003, Maple Leaf Heritage Investments, a Nova Scotia-based company that was created to acquire shares of Hudson's Bay Company, announced that it was considering making an offer to acquire all or some of the common shares of Hudson's Bay Company. Maple Leaf Heritage Investments is a subsidiary of B-Bay Inc., whose CEO and chairman is American businesswoman, Anita Zucker, widow of Jerry Zucker, the head of The InterTech Group Inc., a conglomerate that is the second-largest private firm in the state of South Carolina. Zucker had previously been the head of the Polymer Group that acquired another Canadian institution, the Dominion Textile Company. On January 26, 2006, HBC's board unanimously agreed to a bid of $15.25 CAD/share from Jerry Zucker, whose original bid was $14.75 CAD/share, ended a prolonged fight between HBC and Zucker, a South Carolina billionaire financier and longtime HBC minority shareholder. In a March 9, 2006 press release, HBC announced that Jerry Zucker would replace George Heller as the new Governor and CEO, to become the first US citizen to lead the company. Zucker's wife, Anita Zucker, was immediately named HBC Governor and HBC Deputy-Governor Rob Johnston named CEO, after the death of her husband from brain cancer (April 14, 2008, CBC Newsworld). In 2007, the Hudson's Bay Company Archives became part of the United Nations Memory of the World project, under UNESCO. The records covered HBC history from the founding of the company in 1670. The records contained business transactions, medical records, personal journals of officials, inventories, company reports, etc. On March 2, 2005, the company was announced as the new clothing outfitter for the Canadian Olympic team. The $100 million deal means that The Bay will provide clothing for the 2006, 2008, 2010, and 2012 games. The previous Canadian Olympic wear supplier Roots Canada Ltd. ended its involvement with Canada's Olympic teams in 2004. Though the company is under criticism for the way that the uniforms look and where they are made. Roots made sure that the clothes were Made in Canada using Canadian material where HBC is producing the clothes in China. Today's modern HBC has diversified into joint ventures and other types of business products. HBC has credit card, mortgage, and personal insurance branches. These other products and services are joint partnerships with other corporations, similar to what President's Choice Financial brands are to Loblaw Companies Limited. HBC also has other HBC Rewards corporate partners such as: Imperial Oil/Esso, M&M Meat Shops, Chapters/Indigo Books, Kelsey's/Montana's Restaurants, Thrifty Car Rental, Cineplex Entertainment Theatres, etc. HBC Rewards points can be redeemed in house or into corporate partners' gift cards and certificates. Points can also be converted to Air Miles. HBC is involved in community and charity activities. The HBC Rewards Community Program help fund raise for community causes. HBC Foundation is a charity agency involved in social issues and service. HBC is also the sponsor of the annual HBC Run For Canada marathons in major Canadian cities. The marathons fund raise to support Canada's athletes in pursuing their Olympic dreams of potentially winning medals and other opportunities that may follow (http://www.hbcrunforcanada.ca/2008/index.php). The U.S. firm NRDC Equity Partners, LLC, parent company of American department store chains Lord & Taylor and Fortunoff, announced its purchase of the company on July 16, 2008. The new Hudson's Bay Trading Company will become a multinational Corporation. CBC Newsworld did a news story on February 4, 2009 that stated HBC will layoff about 1000 workers to save expenses in the current world economic recession crisis of 2008-2009. Rent obligation under charter Under the charter forming the Hudson's Bay Company, the company was required to give two elk skins and two black beaver pelts to the English King, then Charles II, or his heirs, whenever they visit an area that was formerly Rupert's Land. The ceremony was first conducted with the Prince of Wales (the future Edward VIII) in 1927, then with King George VI in 1939, and last with his daughter, Queen Elizabeth II in 1959 and 1970. On the last such visit, the pelts were given in the form of two live beavers, which the Queen donated to the Winnipeg Zoo in Assiniboine Park. Urban Legends Reference Pages: Fur the Queen However, when the Company permanently moved its headquarters to Canada, the Charter was amended to remove the rent obligation. Hbc Heritage – Our History – Business Each of the four "rent ceremonies" took place in or around Winnipeg. It is, however, a persistent urban legend that the company would lose its charter if it did not give the monarch the rent any time they visit Western Canada, and so, it is alleged, there are furs and blankets stored at a Bay store in each city, with the manager prepared to rush to the airport and present them to the monarch should their plane touch down, even to refuel. Corporate governance Current members of the board of directors of the Hudson's Bay Company are: James A. Ingram Steven Richardson Bonnie Brooks Francis Casale Richard A. Baker Jeffrey B. Sherman A. Mark Foote Governors 1670–1682 Prince Rupert of the Rhine 1683–1685 James Stuart, Duke of York 1685–1692 John Churchill, Earl of Marlborough 1692–1696 Sir Stephen Evans 1696–1700 Sir William Trumbull 1700–1712 Sir Stephen Evans 1712–1743 Sir Bibye Lake, Sr. 1744–1746 Benjamin Pitt 1746–1750 Thomas Knapp 1750–1760 Sir Atwell Lake 1760–1770 Sir William Baker 1770–1782 Sir Bibye Lake, Jr. 1782–1799 Samuel Wegg 1799–1807 Sir James Winter Lake 1807–1812 William Mainwaring 1812–1822 Joseph Berens 1822–1852 Sir John Henry Pelly 1852–1856 Robert Waznerboj Colvile 1856–1858 John Shepherd 1858–1863 Henry Hulse Berens 1863–1868 Sir Edmund Walker Head 1868–1869 Simon Williams, 1st Earl of Kimberley 1869–1874 Sir Stafford Henry Northcote 1874–1880 George Joachim Goschen 1880–1889 Eden Colvile 1889–1914 Donald Alexander Smith 1914–1915 Sir Thomas Skinner 1916–1925 Sir Robert Molesworth Kindersley 1925–1931 Charles Vincent Sale 1931–1952 Sir Patrick Ashley Cooper 1952–1965 William Keswick 1965–1970 Derick Heathcoat-Amory 1970–1982 George T. Richardson 1982–1994 Donald S. McGiverin 1994–1997 David E. Mitchell 1997–2006 L. Yves Fortier 2006–2008 Jerry Zucker 2008 Anita Zucker 2008-Present Richard Baker Stores owned and operated by HBC The Hudson's Bay Company is a parent company to many different retail and online stores, including: The Bay Zellers Home Outfitters Fields hbc.com (e-commerce website; on hiatus as of February 2009) From 2004 until 2008, HBC also owned and operated a small chain of off-price stores called Designer Depot. Similar to the Winners and Home Sense retail format, Designer Depot did not meet sales expectations, and its nine stores were sold. In 2008, after Zucker's death, the company was sold to NRDC Equity Partners, the private equity firm of Purchase, New York-based National Realty & Development Corporation. In the United States, NRDC Equity Partners previously acquired Lord & Taylor, the oldest department store chain in the U.S., as well as the upscale jewelry and home furnishings retailer Fortunoff, which is currently being liquidated. The Canadian and U.S. holdings are parts of a newly-formed limited partnership, Hudson's Bay Trading Company, as of the fall of 2008. Historic Rivals Years Company Fate 1551–1917 Muscovy Company taken over by Soviet Union</tr> 1602–1800 Dutch East India Company went bankrupt</tr> 1621–1791 Dutch West India Company bought by Dutch government</tr> 1672-1752 Royal African Company replaced by African Company of Merchants 1600–1858 Honourable East India Company dissolved</tr> 1711–1850s The South Sea Company abolished</tr> 1808–1842 American Fur Company folded</tr> 1779–1821 North West Company merged with HBC</tr> 1799-1867 Russian American Company folded with sale of Russian America to the U.S. See also References Hearne, Samuel. A Journey to the Northern Ocean: The Adventures of Samuel Hearne. Victoria: Touchwood Editions, 2007. Van Kirk, Sylvia. Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur-Trade Society, 1670-1870. Winnipeg: Watson & Dwyer Pub., 1980. Van Kirk, Sylvia. “The Role of Native Women in the Fur Trade Society of WesternCanada, 1670-1830.” Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 7, no. 3 (1984): 9-13. White, Bruce. M. “The Woman who Married a Beaver: Trade Patterns and Gender Roles in the Ojibwa Fur Trade.” Ehtnohistory 46, no. 1 (Winter 1999): 109-147. Further reading Strong-Boag, Veronica and Anita Clair Fellman, ed. Rethinking Canada: The Promise of Women’s History. Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman Ltd., 1991. Van Kirk, Sylvia. Many Tender Ties: Women in the Fur- Trade Society, 1670-1870.Winnipeg: Watson & Dwyer Pub., 1980. Van Kirk, Sylvia. “The Role of Native Women in the Fur Trade Society of Western Canada, 1670-1830.” Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 7, no. 3 (1984):9-13. Bryce, George. The Remarkable History of the Hudson's Bay Company, Including That of the French Traders of North-Western Canada and of the North-West, XY, and Astor Fur Companies. New York: B. Franklin, 1968. Dillon, Richard H. Siskiyou Trail The Hudson's Bay Company Route to California. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975. ISBN 0070169802 MacKay, Douglas. The Honourable Company; A History of the Hudson's Bay Company. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1936. Murray, Alexander Hunter. Expedition to Build a Hudson's Bay Company Post on the Yukon. 1848. Newman, Peter Charles. Empire of the Bay An Illustrated History of the Hudson's Bay Company. Markham, Ont: Viking Studio, 1989. ISBN 0670829692 Simmons, Deidre. Keepers of the Record The History of the Hudson's Bay Company Archives. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2007. ISBN 9780773532915 Willson, Beckles. The Great Company (1667–1871): A History of the Honourable Company of Merchants-adventurers Trading Into Hudson's Bay. London:Smith, Elder and Company, 1900. Google Books External links Hudson's Bay Company North West Company – organized 1987 Hudson's Bay Company Archives – held by the Government of Manitoba Full text of the Charter and Supplemental Charter of the Hudson's Bay Company from Project Gutenberg Exploration, the Fur Trade and Hudson's Bay Company – designed for kids in grades 4 to 7; includes links to digitized primary sources York Factory National Historic Site of Canada Lower Fort Garry National Historic Site of Canada Prince of Wales Fort National Historic Site of Canada Fort Langley National Historic Site of Canada Fur Trade at Lachine National Historic Site Museum of the Siskiyou Trail Hudson's Bay Company papers at the University of Oregon The Other Side of the Ledger: An Indian View of the Hudson's Bay Company Employee photos: Hudson's Hope Pioneers in Pictures Fort William Historical Park | Hudson's_Bay_Company |@lemmatized hudson:48 bay:63 company:115 abbreviate:1 hbc:56 old:5 commercial:1 corporation:6 north:19 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2,483 | Enrico_Fermi | Enrico Fermi (29 September 1901 – 28 November 1954) was an Italian physicist most noted for his work on the development of the first nuclear reactor, and for his contributions to the development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics. Fermi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1938 for his work on induced radioactivity and is today regarded as one of the top scientists of the 20th century. He is acknowledged as a unique physicist who was highly accomplished in both theory and experiment. Fermium, a synthetic element created in 1952, and the Fermi National Accelerator Lab are named after him. Biography Early years Enrico Fermi was born on September 29, 1901 in Rome, Italy to Alberto Fermi, a Chief Inspector of the Ministry of Communications, and Ida de Gattis, an elementary school teacher. As a young boy he enjoyed learning physics and mathematics and shared his interests with his older brother, Giulio. When Giulio died unexpectedly of a throat abscess in 1915, Enrico was distraught, and immersed himself in scientific study to distract himself. According to his own account, each day he would walk in front of the hospital where Giulio died until he became inured to the pain. One of the first sources for the study of physics was a book found at the local market of Campo de' Fiori in Roma. The 900 page book, entitled Elementorum physicae mathematicae, was written in Latin by Father Andrea Caraffa, a professor at the Collegio Romano, covered subjects like mathematics, classical mechanics, astronomy, optics, and acoustics. Notes found in the book indicate Fermi studied it intensely. Later, Enrico befriended another scientifically inclined student named Enrico Persico, and the two worked together on scientific projects such as building gyroscopes, and measuring the Earth's magnetic field. Fermi's interest in physics was further encouraged by a friend of his father, Adolfo Amidei, who gave him several books on physics and mathematics, which he read and quickly assimilated. Scuola Normale Superiore in Pisa In 1918 Fermi enrolled at the Scuola Normale Superiore in Pisa, where he was later to receive his undergraduate and doctoral degree. In order to enter the Institute, candidates had to take an entrance exam which included an essay. For his essay on the given theme Characteristics of Sound, 17-year-old Fermi chose to derive and solve the Fourier analysis based partial differential equation for waves on a string. The examiner, Prof. Giulio Pittato, interviewed Fermi and concluded that his essay would have been commendable even for a doctoral degree. Enrico Fermi ended up at the first place in the classification of the entrance exam. During the years at the Scuola Normale Superiore, Fermi teamed up with a fellow student named Franco Rasetti with whom he used to indulge in light-hearted pranks. Later, Rasetti became Fermi's close friend and collaborator. Beside attending the classes, Enrico Fermi found the time to work on his extracurricular activities, particularly with the help of his friend Enrico Persico, who remained in Rome to attend the university. Between 1919 and 1923 Fermi studied general relativity, quantum mechanics and atomic physics. His knowledge of quantum mechanics reached such a high level that the head of the Physics Institute, Prof. Luigi Puccianti, asked him to organize seminars about that topic. During this time he learned tensor calculus, a mathematical instrument invented by Gregorio Ricci and Tullio Levi-Civita, and needed to demonstrate the principles of general relativity. In 1921, his third year at the university, he published his first scientific works in the Italian magazine Nuovo Cimento: the first was entitled: "On the dynamic of a solid system of electrical charges in transient conditions"; the second: "On the electrostatic of a uniform gravitational field of electromagnetic charges and on the weight of electromagnetic charges". At first glance, the first paper seemed to point out a contradiction between the electrodynamic theory and the relativistic one concerning the calculation of the electromagnetic masses. After one year with a work entitled "Correction of severe discrepancy between electrodynamic theory and the relativistic one of electromagnetic charges. Inertia and weight of electricity", Enrico Fermi showed the correctness of his paper. This last publication was so successful that was translated into German and published in the famous German scientific magazine "Physikalische Zeitschrift". In 1922 he published his first important scientific work in the Italian magazine I Rendiconti dell'Accademia dei Lincei entitled "On the phenomena that happen close to the line of time", where he introduces for the first time the so-called "Fermi's coordinates", and proves that when close to the time line, space behaves as a euclidean one. In 1922 Fermi graduated from Scuola Normale Superiore. In 1923, while writing the appendix for the Italian edition of the book "The Mathematical Theory of Relativity" written by A. Kopff, Enrico Fermi pointed out, for the first time, the fact that hidden inside the famous Einstein equation (), there was a enormous amount of energy (nuclear energy) to be exploited. Fermi's Ph.D advisor was Luigi Puccianti. In 1924 Fermi spent a semester in Göttingen, and then stayed for a few months in Leiden with Paul Ehrenfest. From January 1925 to the autumn of 1926, he stayed at the University of Florence. In this period he wrote his work on the Fermi-Dirac statistics. Professor in Rome Aged 24, Fermi took a professorship at the University of Rome (first in atomic physics in Italy) which he won in a competition held by Professor Orso Mario Corbino, director of the Institute of Physics. Corbino helped Fermi in selecting his team, which soon was joined by notable minds like Edoardo Amaldi, Bruno Pontecorvo, Franco Rasetti and Emilio Segrè. For the theoretical studies only, Ettore Majorana also took part in what was soon nicknamed "the Via Panisperna boys" (after the name of the road in which the Institute had its labs). The group went on with its now famous experiments, but in 1933 Rasetti left Italy for Canada and the United States, Pontecorvo went to France and Segrè left to teach in Palermo. During their time in Rome, Fermi and his group made important contributions to many practical and theoretical aspects of physics. These include the theory of beta decay, and the discovery of slow neutrons, which was to prove pivotal for the working of nuclear reactors. His group systematically bombarded elements with slow neutrons, and during their experiments with uranium, narrowly missed observing nuclear fission. At that time, fission was thought to be improbable if not impossible, mostly on theoretical grounds. While people expected elements with higher atomic number to form from neutron bombardment of lighter elements, nobody expected neutrons to have enough energy to actually split a heavier atom into two light element fragments. However, the chemist Ida Noddack had criticised Fermi's work and had suggested that some of his experiments could have produced lighter elements. At the time, Fermi dismissed this possibility on the basis of calculations. Fermi was well-known for his simplicity in solving problems . He began his inquiries with the simplest lines of mathematical reasoning, then later produced complete solutions to the problems he deemed worth pursuing. His abilities as a great scientist, combining theoretical and applied nuclear physics, were acknowledged by all. He influenced many physicists who worked with him, such as Hans Bethe, who spent two semesters working with Fermi in the early 1930s. From the time he was a boy, Fermi meticulously recorded his calculations in notebooks, and later used to solve many new problems that he encountered based on these earlier known problems. When Fermi submitted his famous paper on beta decay to the prestigious journal Nature, the journal's editor turned it down because "it contained speculations which were too remote from reality". Thus Fermi saw the theory published in Italian and in German before it was published in English. Nature eventually did publish Fermi's report on beta decay on January 16, 1939. Fermi remained in Rome until 1938. The Manhattan Project In 1938, Fermi won the Nobel Prize in Physics at the age of 37 for his "demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons". Fermi (bottom left), Szilárd (second from right on bottom), and the rest of the pile team. After Fermi received the Nobel Prize in Stockholm, he, his wife Laura, and their children emigrated to New York. This was mainly because of the anti-Semitic laws promulgated by the fascist regime of Benito Mussolini which threatened Laura, who was Jewish. Also, the new laws put most of Fermi's research assistants out of work. Soon after his arrival in New York, Fermi began working at Columbia University. In December 1938, the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann sent a manuscript to Naturwissenschaften reporting they had detected the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons; O. Hahn and F. Strassmann Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle (On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons), Naturwissenschaften Volume 27, Number 1, 11-15 (1939). The authors were identified as being at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Chemie, Berlin-Dahlem. Received 22 December 1938. simultaneously, they communicated these results to Lise Meitner. Meitner, and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch, correctly interpreted these results as being nuclear fission. Lise Meitner and O. R. Frisch Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: a New Type of Nuclear Reaction, Nature, Volume 143, Number 3615, 239-240 (11 February 1939). The paper is dated 16 January 1939. Meitner is identified as being at the Physical Institute, Academy of Sciences, Stockholm. Frisch is identified as being at the Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Copenhagen. Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13 January 1939. O. R. Frisch Physical Evidence for the Division of Heavy Nuclei under Neutron Bombardment, Nature, Volume 143, Number 3616, 276-276 (18 February 1939). The paper is dated 17 January 1939. [The experiment for this letter to the editor was conducted on 13 January 1939; see Richard Rhodes The Making of the Atomic Bomb 263 and 268 (Simon and Schuster, 1986).] In 1944, Hahn received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for the discovery of nuclear fission. Some historians have documented the history of the discovery of nuclear fission and believe Meitner should have been awarded the Nobel Prize with Hahn. Ruth Lewin Sime From Exceptional Prominence to Prominent Exception: Lise Meitner at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry Ergebnisse 24 Forschungsprogramm Geschichte der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft im Nationalsozialismus (2005). Elisabeth Crawford, Ruth Lewin Sime, and Mark Walker A Nobel Tale of Postwar Injustice, Physics Today Volume 50, Issue 9, 26-32 (1997). Meitner’s and Frisch’s interpretation of the work of Hahn and Strassmann crossed the Atlantic Ocean with Niels Bohr, who was to lecture at Princeton University. Isidor Isaac Rabi and Willis Lamb, two Columbia University physicists working at Princeton, heard the news and carried it back to Columbia. Rabi said he told Enrico Fermi; Fermi gave credit to Lamb. Bohr soon thereafter went from Princeton to Columbia to see Fermi. Not finding Fermi in his office, Bohr went down to the cyclotron area and found Herbert L. Anderson. Bohr grabbed him by the shoulder and said: “Young man, let me explain to you about something new and exciting in physics.” It was clear to a number of scientists at Columbia that they should try to detect the energy released in the nuclear fission of uranium from neutron bombardment. On 25 January 1939, a Columbia University team conducted the first nuclear fission experiment in the United States, H. L. Anderson, E. T. Booth, J. R. Dunning, E. Fermi, G. N. Glasoe, and F. G. Slack The Fission of Uranium, Phys. Rev. Volume 55, Number 5, 511 - 512 (1939). Institutional citation: Pupin Physics Laboratories, Columbia University, New York, New York. Received 16 February 1939. which was done in the basement of Pupin Hall; the members of the team were Herbert L. Anderson, Eugene T. Booth, John R. Dunning, Enrico Fermi, G. Norris Glasoe, and Francis G. Slack. The next day, the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics began in Washington, D.C. under the joint auspices of The George Washington University and the Carnegie Institution of Washington. There, the news on nuclear fission was spread even further, which fostered many more experimental demonstrations. Fermi then went to the University of Chicago and began studies that led to the construction of the first nuclear pile Chicago Pile-1. Fermi recalled the beginning of the project in a speech given in 1954 when he retired as President of the American Physical Society: Fermi's ID badge photo from Los Alamos. "I remember very vividly the first month, January, 1939, that I started working at the Pupin Laboratories because things began happening very fast. In that period, Niels Bohr was on a lecture engagement at the Princeton University and I remember one afternoon Willis Lamb came back very excited and said that Bohr had leaked out great news. The great news that had leaked out was the discovery of fission and at least the outline of its interpretation. Then, somewhat later that same month, there was a meeting in Washington where the possible importance of the newly discovered phenomenon of fission was first discussed in semi-jocular earnest as a possible source of nuclear power." An image from the Fermi-Szilárd "neutronic reactor" patent. In August 1939 Leó Szilárd prepared and Albert Einstein signed the famous letter warning President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the probability that the Nazis were planning to build an atomic bomb. Because of Hitler's September 1 invasion of Poland, it was October before they could arrange for the letter to be personally delivered. Roosevelt was concerned enough that the Uranium Committee was assembled, and awarded Columbia University the first atomic energy funding of US$6,000. However, due to bureaucratic fears of foreigners doing secret research, the money was not actually issued until Szilárd implored Einstein to send a second letter to the president in the spring of 1940. The money was used in studies which led to the first nuclear reactor — Chicago Pile-1, a massive "atomic pile" of graphite bricks and uranium fuel which went critical on December 2, 1942, built in a hard racquets court under Stagg Field, the football stadium at the University of Chicago. Due to a mistranslation, Soviet reports on Enrico Fermi claimed that his work was performed in a converted "pumpkin field" instead of a "squash court", squash being an offshoot of hard racquets The "Last Universal Scientist" Takes Charge . This experiment was a landmark in the quest for energy, and it was typical of Fermi's brilliance. Every step had been carefully planned, every calculation meticulously done by him. When the first self-sustained nuclear chain reaction was achieved, a coded phone call was made by one of the physicists, Arthur Compton, to James Conant, chairman of the National Defense Research Committee. The conversation was in impromptu code: Compton: The Italian navigator has landed in the New World. Conant: How were the natives? Compton: Very friendly. This successful initiation of a chain-reacting pile was important not only for its help in assessing the properties of fission — needed for understanding the internal workings of an atomic bomb — but also because it would serve as a pilot plant for the massive reactors which would be created in Hanford, Washington, which would then be used to produce the plutonium needed for the bombs used at the Trinity site and Nagasaki. Eventually Fermi and Szilárd's reactor work was folded into the Manhattan Project. Fermi moved to Los Alamos in the later stages of the Manhattan Project to serve as a general consultant. He was sitting in the control room of the Hanford B Reactor when it first went critical in 1944. His broad knowledge of many fields of physics was useful in solving problems that were of an interdisciplinary nature. He became a naturalized citizen of the United States of America in 1944. Fermi was present as an observer of the Trinity test on July 16, 1945. Engineer Jack Aeby saw Fermi at work: Fermi's strips-of-paper estimate was ten kilotons of TNT; the actual yield was about 19 kilotons Enrico Fermi's Observations at Trinity Nuclear weapon yield#Milestone nuclear explosions Post-war work In Fermi's 1954 address to the APS he also said, "Well, this brings us to Pearl Harbor. That is the time when I left Columbia University, and after a few months of commuting between Chicago and New York, eventually moved to Chicago to keep up the work there, and from then on, with a few notable exceptions, the work at Columbia was concentrated on the isotope separation phase of the atomic energy project, initiated by Booth, Dunning and Urey about 1940". Fermi was widely regarded as the only physicist of the twentieth century who excelled both theoretically and experimentally. The well-known historian of physics, C. P. Snow, says about him, "If Fermi had been born a few years earlier, one could well imagine him discovering Rutherford's atomic nucleus, and then developing Bohr's theory of the hydrogen atom. If this sounds like hyperbole, anything about Fermi is likely to sound like hyperbole". Fermi's ability and success stemmed as much from his appraisal of the art of the possible, as from his innate skill and intelligence. He disliked complicated theories, and while he had great mathematical ability, he would never use it when the job could be done much more simply. He was famous for getting quick and accurate answers to problems which would stump other people. An instance of this was seen during the first atomic bomb test in New Mexico on July 16 1945. As the blast wave reached him, Fermi dropped bits of paper. By measuring the distance they were blown, he could compare to a previously computed table and thus estimate the bomb energy yield. He estimated that the blast was greater than 10 kilotons of TNT, the measured result was 18.6. (Rhodes, page 674). Later on, this method of getting approximate and quick answers through back-of-the-envelope calculations became informally known as the 'Fermi method'. The Enrico Fermi street in Rome Fermi's most disarming trait was his great modesty, and his ability to do any kind of work, whether creative or routine. It was this quality that made him popular and liked among people of all strata, from other Nobel Laureates to technicians. Henry DeWolf Smyth, who was Chairman of the Princeton Physics department, had once invited Fermi over to do some experiments with the Princeton cyclotron. Walking into the lab one day, Smyth saw the distinguished scientist helping a graduate student move a table, under another student's directions. Another time, a Du Pont executive made a visit to see him at Columbia. Not finding him either in his lab or his office, the executive was surprised to find the Nobel Laureate in the machine shop, cutting sheets of tin with a big pair of shears. After the war, Fermi served for a short time on the General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission, a scientific committee chaired by J. Robert Oppenheimer which advised the commission on nuclear matters and policy. After the detonation of the first Soviet fission bomb in August 1949, he, along with Isidor Rabi, wrote a strongly-worded report for the committee which opposed the development of a hydrogen bomb on moral and technical grounds. But Fermi also participated in preliminary work on the hydrogen bomb at Los Alamos as a consultant, and along with Stanislaw Ulam, calculated that the amount of tritium needed for Edward Teller's model of a thermonuclear weapon would be prohibitive, and a fusion reaction could not be assured to propagate even with this large quantity of tritium. In his later years, Fermi did important work in particle physics, especially related to pions and muons. He was also known to be an inspiring teacher at the University of Chicago, and was known for his attention to detail, simplicity, and careful preparation for a lecture. Later, his lecture notes, especially those for quantum mechanics, nuclear physics, and thermodynamics, were transcribed into books which are still in print. Also in these later years he mused about a proposition which is now referred to as the "Fermi Paradox". This contradiction or proposition is this: that with the billions and billions of star systems in the universe, one would think that intelligent life would have contacted our civilization by now. Fermi died at age 53 of stomach cancer and was interred at Oak Woods Cemetery in Chicago, Illinois. Two of his graduate students who assisted him in working on or near the nuclear pile also died of cancer. Fermi and his team knew that such work carried considerable risk but they considered the outcome so vital that they forged ahead with little regard for their own personal safety. As Eugene Wigner wrote: "Ten days before Fermi had died he told me, 'I hope it won't take long.' He had reconciled himself perfectly to his fate". A recent poll by Time magazine listed Fermi among the top twenty scientists of the century. The Fermilab particle accelerator and physics lab in Batavia, Illinois, is named after him in loving memory from the physics community. Three nuclear reactor installations have been named after Fermi: Fermi 1 & Fermi 2 nuclear power plants in Newport, Michigan Enrico Fermi Nuclear Power Plant (Italy). RA-1 Enrico Fermi, a research reactor in Argentina. Many schools are also named after him, such as Enrico Fermi High School in Enfield, Connecticut. Fermi Court in Deep River, Ontario is named in his honour. In 1952, element 100 on the periodic table of elements was isolated from the debris of a nuclear test. In honor of Fermi's contributions to the scientific community, it was named fermium after him. Since the 1950s, the United States Atomic Energy Commission has named its highest honour, the Fermi Award, after him. Recipients of the award include well-known scientists like Otto Hahn, J. Robert Oppenheimer, Freeman Dyson, John Wheeler and Hans Bethe. Legacy Enrico Fermi's mother built her own pressure cooker and perhaps this inspired Enrico to build the first nuclear reactor in 1942. (A pressure cooker is a vessel which confines steam pressure, allowing a higher temperature to be reached.) Enrico's pile was graphite containing uranium from exploding (copyright Olivia Fermi 2001-2008, unpublished manuscript). In 1928, Fermi married Laura Capon. They had two children while living in Rome, Italy: a daughter Nella Fermi Weiner, PhD (1931–1995), artist and feminist; and a son Giulio ("Judd") Fermi, PhD (1936–1997). Laura and Enrico's son Giulio worked with the Nobel laureate Max Perutz on the structure of hemoglobin. Toward the end of his life, Fermi questioned his faith in society at large to make wise choices about nuclear technology . He said Fermi, The Future of Nuclear Physics, unpublished address, Rochester, NY, January 10, 1953, EFP, box 53. : "Some of you may ask, what is the good of working so hard merely to collect a few facts which will bring no pleasure except to a few long-haired professors who love to collect such things and will be of no use to anybody because only few specialists at best will be able to understand them? In answer to such question[s] I may venture a fairly safe prediction. History of science and technology has consistently taught us that scientific advances in basic understanding have sooner or later led to technical and industrial applications that have revolutionized our way of life. It seems to me improbable that this effort to get at the structure of matter should be an exception to this rule. What is less certain, and what we all fervently hope, is that man will soon grow sufficiently adult to make good use of the powers that he acquires over nature." His wife, Laura Fermi (1907–1977), early environmentalist, systems thinker, prolific writer and New York Times bestselling author of "Atoms in the Family: Life with Enrico Fermi, Architect of the Atomic Age" said, of our nuclear dilemma : "But above all, there were the moral questions. I knew scientists had hoped that the bomb would not be possible, but there it was and it had already killed and destroyed so much. Was war or was science to be blamed? Should the scientists have stopped the work once they realized that a bomb was feasible? Would there always be war in the future? To these kinds of questions there is no simple answer." Rachel Fermi (1964–), photographer and teacher, Laura and Enrico Fermi's 3rd grandchild, continued to question the sanity of nuclear weapons in her book, "Picturing the Bomb" . The authors juxtapose photos from the top secret world of the Manhattan Project with family photos from Los Alamos and Hanford. Olivia Fermi (1957–), formerly Alice Caton, M.A. A.B.S. - Leadership in Human Systems, ConRes Cert, photoartist, writer and business consultant, Laura and Enrico's first grandchild, is currently researching the legacy of her grandparents for a series of books she plans to publish. On September 29, 2001, shortly after the destruction of the World Trade Center in New York City, Olivia flew to Rome, Italy to deliver a speech to the International Conference: Enrico Fermi and the Universe of Physics. She had been invited to speak to this gathering of physicists as a representative of the Laura and Enrico Fermi family. Olivia said Olivia Fermi (formerly Alice Caton), "Enrico Fermi in the Family", Speech presented at: Proceedings of the International 'Enrico Fermi and the Universe of Physics' Rome, Sept 29 – Oct 2, 2001" Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei Istitutio Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, 2003). Her speech was translated into Italian and published by Promoteo, the Italian journal of arts and letters in the December 2001 issue. ("Fermi in Famiglia", Alice Caton (now Olivia Fermi), Promoteo Anno 19, Numero 76, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Dicembre 2001) : "All of us alive today, and all who will come after us, are heirs to Enrico Fermi’s scientific legacy. We all have a stake in it. Since the end of World War II, humanity has had knowledge of nuclear energy and its incredible potential for benefit as well as harm. "Enrico Fermi gave us a lot. And there is more to be done. Enrico Fermi’s work, and the work of other scientists, exists in a world full of people who, in a certain way, are like Enrico... [funny anecdotes about occasional Enrico errors]... He, like all of us, was both brilliant and fallible. "We have a collective, developmental task. We must learn to integrate our scientific knowledge and our human experience to find the answers to the nuclear dilemma, and to the many other dilemmas facing us today. ... Our world has yet to find the right nuclear recipe – how to harness nuclear power for the benefit of all living things. "We will need all of our human gifts to survive and flourish on this planet. From here, it looks to me like Enrico contributed all of his gifts. Now it’s up to us to contribute ours. We can look back to Enrico for inspiration, if we look to ourselves for the future." The two male grandchildren of Laura and Enrico are Olivia's brother, Paul Weiner, PhD (1959–), mathematician and professor; and Rachel's brother, Daniel Fermi (1971–). Between Paul and Rachel, there are four great-grandchildren. Patents See also Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope Fermi acceleration Fermi hole Fermi level Fermi linux Fermi paradox Fermi problem Fermi's golden rule Fermion Fermion field Scuola Normale Superiore Bibliography Beckerley, J.G. "Neutron Physics. A revision of I. Halpern's notes on E. Fermi's lectures in 1945", United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), (October 1951). Compton, A. H. "Establishing Site X: Letter, Arthur H. Compton to Enrico Fermi, September 14, 1942", United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission, (September 1942). Fermi, E. "Summary of the activities of the experimental section of the Nuclear Physics Division in the past month", Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), (June 1943). Fermi, E. "Taylor instability of incompressible liquids", Los Alamos National Laboratory (through predecessor agency Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, (September 1951). Fermi, E. "The Future of Atomic Energy", United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission, (May 1946). Fermi, E., Pasta, J. & S. Ulam. "Studies of Nonlinear Problems. I", Los Alamos National Laboratory (through predecessor agency Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, (May 1955). Fermi's audio biography on University of Chicago website Jones, E.M. "Where is everybody?" An account of Fermi's question", Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), United States Department of Energy, (March 1, 1985). Myers, W.D. & W.J. Swiatecki. "The nuclear Thomas-Fermi model", Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), United States Department of Energy, (August 1, 1994). "The First Reactor: 40th Anniversary Commemorative Edition", United States Department of Energy, (December 1982). Notes External links Biography and Bibliographic Resources, from the Office of Scientific and Technical Information, United States Department of Energy Obituary, NY Times, November 29, 1954, Enrico Fermi Dead at 53; Architect of Atomic Bomb Nobel prize page for the 1938 physics' prize About Enrico Fermi Life and works of Enrico Fermi (in Italian) Annotated bibliography on Enrico Fermi from the Alsos Digital Library The Story of the First Pile E-Book Enrico Fermi: The Master Scientist Samuel Abraham Goudsmit on the discovery of electron spin Fermi Commemorative Events Enrico Fermi's Case File at The Franklin Institute with info about his contributions to theoretical and experimental physics. Enrico Fermi in America by Valentine L. 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2,484 | Epicurus | Epicurus (, "ally, comrade"; Samos, 341 BCE – Athens, 270 BCE; 72 years) was an ancient Greek philosopher and the founder of the school of philosophy called Epicureanism. Only a few fragments and letters remain of Epicurus's 300 written works. Much of what is known about Epicurean philosophy derives from later followers and commentators. For Epicurus, the purpose of philosophy was to attain the happy, tranquil life, characterized by ataraxia, peace and freedom from fear, and "aponia", the absence of pain, and by living a self-sufficient life surrounded by friends. He taught that pleasure and pain are the measures of what is good and bad, that death is the end of the body and the soul and should therefore not be feared, that the gods do not reward or punish humans, that the universe is infinite and eternal, and that events in the world are ultimately based on the motions and interactions of atoms moving in empty space. Biography His parents, Neocles and Chaerestrate, both Athenian citizens, had immigrated to the Athenian settlement on the Aegean island of Samos about ten years before Epicurus' birth in February 341 BCE.Apollodorus (reported by Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, 10.14-15) gives his birth on the fourth day of the month February in the third year of the 109th Olympiad, in the archonship of Sosigenes As a boy he studied philosophy for four years under the Platonist teacher Pamphilus. At the age of 18 he went to Athens for his two-year term of military service. The playwright Menander served in the same age-class of the ephebes as Epicurus. After the death of Alexander the Great, Perdiccas expelled the Athenian settlers on Samos to Colophon. After the completion of his military service, Epicurus joined his family there. He studied under Nausiphanes, who followed the teachings of Democritus. In 311/310 BCE Epicurus taught in Mytilene but caused strife and was forced to leave. He then founded a school in Lampsacus before returning to Athens in 306 BCE. There he founded The Garden, a school named for the garden he owned about halfway between the Stoa and the Academy that served as the school's meeting place. Even though many of his teachings were heavily influenced by earlier thinkers, especially by Democritus, he differed in a significant way with Democritus on determinism. Epicurus would often deny this influence, denounce other philosophers as confused, and claim to be "self-taught". Epicurus never married and had no known children. He suffered from kidney stones, to which he finally succumbed in 270 BCE In the second year of the 127th Olympiad, in the archonship of Pytharatus, according to Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, 10.15 at the age of 72, and despite the prolonged pain involved, he wrote to Idomeneus: I have written this letter to you on a happy day to me, which is also the last day of my life. For I have been attacked by a painful inability to urinate, and also dysentery, so violent that nothing can be added to the violence of my sufferings. But the cheerfulness of my mind, which comes from the recollection of all my philosophical contemplation, counterbalances all these afflictions. And I beg you to take care of the children of Metrodorus, in a manner worthy of the devotion shown by the young man to me, and to philosophy. Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, 10.22 (trans. C.D. Yonge). The School Epicurus' school had a small but devoted following in his lifetime. The primary members were Hermarchus, the financier Idomeneus, Leonteus and his wife Themista, the satirist Colotes, the mathematician Polyaenus of Lampsacus, and Metrodorus of Lampsacus, the most famous popularizer of Epicureanism. His school was the first of the ancient Greek philosophical schools to admit women as a rule rather than an exception. Two women, Axiothea and Lastheneia, where known to have been admitted by Plato. See Hadot, Pierre. Qu'est-ce que la philosophie antique?, page 99, Gillimard 1995. Pythagoras is also believed to have inducted one woman, Theano, into his order. The original school was based in Epicurus' home and garden. An inscription on the gate to the garden is recorded by Seneca in his Epistle XXI: Stranger, here you will do well to tarry; here our highest good is pleasure. Epicurus emphasized friendship as an important ingredient of happiness, and the school resembled in many ways a community of friends living together. However, he also instituted a hierarchical system of levels among his followers, and had them swear an oath on his core tenets. Teachings Epicurus is a key figure in the development of science and the scientific method because of his insistence that nothing should be believed except that which was tested through direct observation and logical deduction. Many of his ideas about nature and physics presaged important scientific concepts of our time. He was a key figure in the Axial Age, the period from 800 BCE to 200 BCE, during which similarly revolutionary thinking appeared in China, India, Iran, the Near East, and Ancient Greece. His statement of the Ethic of Reciprocity as the foundation of ethics is the earliest in Ancient Greece, and differs from the Stuart Mill's formulation by emphasizing the minimization of harm to oneself and others as the way to maximize happiness. Epicurus's teachings represented a departure from the other major Greek thinkers of his period, and before, but was nevertheless founded on many of the same principles as Democritus. Like Democritus, he was an atomist, believing that the fundamental constituents of the world were indivisible little bits of matter (atoms, Greek atomos, indivisible) flying through empty space (khaos). Everything that occurs is the result of the atoms colliding, rebounding, and becoming entangled with one another, with no purpose or plan behind their motions. (Compare this with the modern study of particle physics.) His theory differs from the earlier atomism of Democritus because he admits that atoms do not always follow straight lines but their direction of motion may occasionally exhibit a 'swerve' (clinamen). This allowed him to avoid the determinism implicit in the earlier atomism and to affirm free will. The only fragment in Greek about this central notion is from the Oenoanda inscription (fr.54 in Smith's edition). The best known reference is in Lucretius' On the nature of things, 2.216-224, 284-293. (Compare this with the modern theory of quantum physics, which postulates a non-deterministic random motion of fundamental particles.) He regularly admitted women and slaves into his school, introducing the new concept of fundamental human egalitarianism into Greek thought, and was one of the first Greeks to break from the god-fearing and god-worshiping tradition common at the time, even while affirming that religious activities are useful as a way to contemplate the gods and to use them as an example of the pleasant life. Epicurus participated in the activities of traditional Greek religion, but taught that one should avoid holding false opinions about the gods. The gods are immortal and blessed and men who ascribe any additional qualities that are alien to immortality and blessedness are, according to Epicurus, impious. The gods do not punish the bad and reward the good as the common man believes. The opinion of the crowd is, Epicurus claims, that the gods "send great evils to the wicked and great blessings to the righteous who model themselves after the gods," when in reality Epicurus believes the gods do not concern themselves at all with human beings. Pleasure as absence of suffering Epicurus' philosophy is based on the theory that all good and bad derive from the sensations of pleasure and pain. What is good is what is pleasurable, and what is bad is what is painful. Pleasure and pain were ultimately, for Epicurus, the basis for the moral distinction between good and bad. If pain is chosen over pleasure in some cases it is only because it leads to a greater pleasure. Although Epicurus has been commonly misunderstood to advocate the rampant pursuit of pleasure, (primarily through the influence of Christian polemics) what he was really after was the absence of pain (both physical and mental, i.e., suffering) - a state of satiation and tranquility that was free of the fear of death and the retribution of the gods. When we do not suffer pain, we are no longer in need of pleasure, and we enter a state of 'perfect mental peace' (ataraxia). Epicurus explicitly warned against overindulgence because it often leads to pain. For instance, in what might be described as a "hangover" theory, Epicurus warned against pursuing love too ardently. However, having a circle of friends you can trust is one of the most important means for securing a tranquil life. Epicurus also believed (contra Aristotle) that death was not to be feared. When a man dies, he does not feel the pain of death because he no longer is and he therefore feels nothing. Therefore, as Epicurus famously said, "death is nothing to us." When we exist death is not, and when death exists we are not. All sensation and consciousness ends with death and therefore in death there is neither pleasure nor pain. The fear of death arises from the false belief that in death there is awareness. In connection with this argument, Epicurus formulated a version of the problem of evil. Though often referred to as the "Epicurean paradox," the argument is more accurately described as a reductio ad absurdum of the notion that an omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent god could exist in a world that manifestly contains evil. Tattersall, Nicholas (1998). "The Evidential Argument from Evil." Secular Web Library. Internet Infidels. Retrieved on 2008-02-12. This doctrine, however, is not aimed at promoting atheism. Instead, it is part of an overarching philosophy meant to convince us that what gods there may be do not concern themselves with us, and thus would not seek to punish us either in this or any other life. O'Keefe, Tim. "Epicurus." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved on 2008-02-12. Epicurus emphasized the senses in his epistemology, and his Principle of Multiple Explanations ("if several theories are consistent with the observed data, retain them all") is an early contribution to the philosophy of science. There are also some things for which it is not enough to state a single cause, but several, of which one, however, is the case. Just as if you were to see the lifeless corpse of a man lying far away, it would be fitting to list all the causes of death in order to make sure that the single cause of this death may be stated. For you would not be able to establish conclusively that he died by the sword or of cold or of illness or perhaps by poison, but we know that there is something of this kind that happened to him. Lucretius. In contrast to the Stoics, Epicureans showed little interest in participating in the politics of the day, since doing so leads to trouble. He instead advocated seclusion. His garden can be compared to present-day communes. This principle is epitomized by the phrase lathe biōsas λάθε βιώσας (Plutarchus De latenter vivendo 1128c; Flavius Philostratus Vita Apollonii 8.28.12), meaning "live secretly", "get through life without drawing attention to yourself", i. e. live without pursuing glory or wealth or power, but anonymously, enjoying little things like food, the company of friends, etc. As an ethical guideline, Epicurus emphasized minimizing harm and maximizing happiness of oneself and others: It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and justly (agreeing "neither to harm nor be harmed" Tim O'Keefe, Epicurus on Freedom, Cambridge University Press, 2005, p.134 ), and it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly without living a pleasant life. Epicurus Principal Doctrines tranls. by Robert Drew Hicks (1925) Legacy Bust of Epicurus leaning against his disciple Metrodorus in the Louvre Museum Elements of Epicurean philosophy have resonated and resurfaced in various diverse thinkers and movements throughout Western intellectual history. His emphasis minimizing harm and maximizing happiness in his formulation of the Ethic of Reciprocity was later picked up by the democratic thinkers of the French Revolution, and others, like John Locke, who wrote that people had a right to "life, liberty, and property." To Locke, one's own body was part of their property, and thus one's right to property would theoretically guarantee safety for their persons, as well as their possessions. This triad, as well as the egalitarianism of Epicurus, was carried forward into the American freedom movement and Declaration of Independence, by the American founding father, Thomas Jefferson, as "all men are created equal" and endowed with certain "inalienable rights such as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." Jefferson considered himself an Epicurean. In An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, David Hume uses Epicurus as a character for explaining the impossibility of our knowing God to be any greater or better than his creation proves him to be. Karl Marx's doctoral thesis was on "The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature." Epicurus was first to assert human freedom as coming from a fundamental indeterminism in the motion of atoms. Epicurus was also a significant source of inspiration and interest for both Arthur Schopenhauer, having particular influence on the famous pessimist's views on suffering and death, as well as one of Schopenhauer's successors: Friedrich Nietzsche. Nietzsche cites his affinities to Epicurus in a number of his works, including The Gay Science, Beyond Good and Evil, and his private letters to Peter Gast. Nietzsche was attracted to, among other things, Epicurus' ability to maintain a cheerful philosophical outlook in the face of painful physical ailments. Nietzsche also suffered from a number of sicknesses during his lifetime. However, he thought that Epicurus' conception of happiness as freedom from anxiety was too passive and negative. I was not; I have been; I am not; I do not mind. – written on the gravestones of followers, seen on many ancient gravestones of the Roman Empire, and often used today at humanist funerals. Epicurus (c 341-270 BCE) British Humanist Association Works The only surviving complete works by Epicurus are three letters, which are to be found in book X of Diogenes Laertius' Lives of Eminent Philosophers, and two groups of quotes: the Principal Doctrines, reported as well in Diogenes' book X, and the Vatican Sayings, preserved in a manuscript from the Vatican Library. Numerous fragments of his thirty-seven volume treatise On Nature have been found among the charred papyrus fragments at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum. In addition, other Epicurean writings found at Herculaneum contain important quotations from his other works. In Literature In Canto X Circle 6 ("Where the heretics lie") of Dante's Inferno, Epicurus and his followers are criticized for supporting a materialistic ideal. Epicurus the Sage was a comic book by William Messner-Loebs and Sam Kieth, portraying Epicurus as "the only sane philosopher." Notes Further reading Bailey C. (1928) The Greek Atomists and Epicurus, Oxford. Bakalis Nikolaos (2005) Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, ISBN 1-4120-4843-5 Digireads.com The Works of Epicurus, January 2004. Eugene O’ Connor The Essential Epicurus, Prometheus Books, New York 1993. Edelstein Epicureanism, Two Collections of Fragments and Studies Garland Publ. March 1987 Farrington, Benjamin. Science and Politics in the Ancient World, 2nd ed. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1965. A Marxist interpretation of Epicurus, the Epicurean movement, and its opponents. John Martin Fischer (1993) "The Metaphysics of Death", Stanford University Press, ISBN: 0804721041 Gordon, Pamela. "Epicurus in Lycia: The Second-Century World of Diogenes of Oenoanda." 1997 Gottlieb, Anthony. The Dream of Reason: A History of Western Philosophy from the Greeks to the Renaissance. London: Penguin, 2001. ISBN 0-14-025274-6 Inwood, Brad, tr. The Epicurus Reader, Hackett Publishing Co, March 1994. Oates Whitney Jenning, The Stoic and Epicurean philosophers, The Complete Extant Writings of Epicurus, Epictetus, Lucretius and Marcus Aurelius, Random House, 9th printing 1940. Panicha, George A. Epicurus, Twayne Publishers, 1967 Prometheus Books, Epicurus Fragments, August 1992. Russel M. Geer Letters, Principal Doctrines, Vatican Sayings, Bobbs-Merrill Co, January 1964. Diogenes of Oinoanda. The Epicurean Inscription, edited with Introduction, Translation and Notes by Martin Ferguson Smith, Bibliopolis, Naples 1993. External links Epicurus.info - Epicurean Philosophy Online: features classical e-texts & photos of Epicurean artifacts. Epicurus.net - Epicurus and Epicurean Philosophy Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Entry for "Epicurus" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Entry for "Epicurus" Epicurus & Lucretius - Small article by "P. Dionysius Mus" The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature - Karl Marx’s doctoral thesis. "Epicurus on Happiness" - A documentary on the philosophy of Epicurus, first 11:25 of below, Greek subtitles. Epicurus' Guide to Happiness - 24 minute documentary, Alain de Botton, UK Channel 4, no subtitles. Epicurus on Free Will Principal Doctrines Vatican Sayings The Garden of Epicurus - useful summary of the teachings of Epicurus Epicurus quotes Letters Letter to Herodotus Letter to Pythocles Letter to Menoeceus | Epicurus |@lemmatized epicurus:66 ally:1 comrade:1 samos:3 bce:9 athens:3 year:6 ancient:6 greek:12 philosopher:8 founder:1 school:11 philosophy:19 call:1 epicureanism:3 fragment:7 letter:9 remain:1 write:5 work:6 much:1 know:5 epicurean:14 derives:1 late:1 follower:4 commentator:1 purpose:2 attain:1 happy:2 tranquil:2 life:15 characterize:1 ataraxia:2 peace:2 freedom:5 fear:5 aponia:1 absence:3 pain:11 live:8 self:2 sufficient:1 surround:1 friend:4 teach:2 pleasure:10 measure:1 good:8 bad:5 death:16 end:2 body:2 soul:1 therefore:4 god:14 reward:2 punish:3 human:5 universe:1 infinite:1 eternal:1 event:1 world:5 ultimately:2 base:3 motion:5 interaction:1 atom:5 move:1 empty:2 space:2 biography:1 parent:1 neocles:1 chaerestrate:1 athenian:3 citizen:1 immigrate:1 settlement:1 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2,485 | Oxymoron | An oxymoron (plural oxymora (greek plural) or, more often, oxymorons) is a figure of speech that combines two normally contradictory terms. Oxymoron is a loanword from Greek oxy ("sharp" or "pointed") and moros ("dull"). Thus the word oxymoron is itself an oxymoron. Oxymorons are a proper subset of the expressions called contradictions in terms. What distinguishes oxymorons from other paradoxes and contradictions is that they are used intentionally, for rhetorical effect, and the contradiction is only apparent, as the combination of terms provides a novel expression of some concept, such as “cruel to be kind”, “team of mavericks”, or “simply complicated”. The most common form of oxymoron involves an adjective-noun combination. For example, the following line from Tennyson's Idylls of the King contains two oxymorons: And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true Oxymorons can also be wooden irons in that they are in violation of the Principle of contradiction which asserts that nothing can be thought if it contains contradictory characteristics, predicates, attributes, or qualities. Oxymorons Richard Lederer assembled a taxonomy of oxymorons in an article in Word Ways in 1990, Richard Lederer, "Oxymoronology" Word Ways: The Journal of Recreational Linguistics, 1990, reprinted on fun-with-words.com running from single-word oxymorons such as "pianoforte" (literally, "soft-loud") through "doublespeak oxymora" (deliberately intended to confuse) and "opinion oxymora" (editorial opinions designed to provoke a laugh). In general, oxymorons can be divided into expression that were deliberately crafted to be contradictory, such as the Tennyson quote above, and those phrases that inadvertently or incidentally contain a contradiction (often as a result of a punning use of one or both words). Slang terms might be combined with oxymoronic effect; for example "hot ice" implies stolen diamonds in criminal argot, "hot" referring to stolen goods, and "ice" referring to diamonds. Deliberate oxymorons Often a writer will use an oxymoron in order to deliberately call attention to a contradiction. For example Wilfred Owen, in his poem The Send-off refers to soldiers leaving for the front line, who "lined the train with faces grimly gay." In this case the oxymoron grimly gay highlights the contradiction between how the soldiers feel and how they act: though putting on a brave face and acting gay, they actually feel grim. Some examples of deliberate oxymorons include: Deafening silence Sweet sorrow Forward retreat Accidentally on Purpose according to phrasefinder, the phrase is first used in the Memoires of Lady Morgan (Sydney Owenson), 1861; but it is also a 2005 short film and the title of an album by Deep Purple's Ian Gillan and Roger Glover. Oxymorons are most tellingly employed in injecting a sense of ironic, ostensibly unintended, humor. The effect is to confront the reader or the listener with a sense of ludicrousness so as to render the whole sentence and the idea absurd and funny. It should be remembered that this is a purely subjective line of thinking and presupposes that the reader or listener is already familiar with the intended humor. Examples of such thought-provoking oxymorons include: Orphans of the Living - children in the foster-parent system. "Poet in residence in absentia" - a title granted to a poet, at his own request, by a university. Oxymorons can also be used to construct names of fictional items and places, for instance Hill Valley, California is used as a fictional location as the name is an inherent contradiction. Popular oxymorons In popular usage, the term oxymoron is sometimes used more loosely, in the sense of a simple contradiction in terms. Often, it is then applied to expressions which, unlike real oxymorons, are used in full earnest and without any sense of paradox by many speakers in everyday language. Comedian George Carlin brought many of these to popular attention in his album "Toledo Window Box", in his live comedy routines, and his books. Bittersweet Controlled chaos Icy Hot Same difference Living dead (i.e. the undead) Open secret Organized mess Plastic glass Jumbo shrimp Very often the labeling of an expression as a perceived oxymoron is made on the basis of substituting an alternative, non-intended meaning for the meaning normally intended in the context of the expression in question. For instance, in the expression Civil war, the term civil is normally intended to mean "between citizens of the same state". In this sense, the expression is neither paradox nor self-contradictory. However, if civil is construed as 'non-military' or 'reasonable and polite', the expression is a contradiction in terms (as per satirist Richard Armour in It All Started with Columbus, who said the American Civil War was fought politely). Such designations of alleged oxymorons are often made with a humorous purpose. Alternatively, an oxymoron may occur when a word or phrase changes meaning. Few people today pay attention to the inherent contradiction in eating with "plastic silverware" or drinking from "a plastic glass," because the word "silverware" has come to mean eating utensils of any composition, and "glass" is commonly used to refer to any cup from which one can drink. Oxymoron used as an opinion Calling such an expression an oxymoron is sometimes done in order to disparage its use, by drawing attention to a perceived inherent contradiction and thus claiming it to be nonsensical. Often this kind of argument is used in domains of political or ideological dispute, or in order to criticize a perceived nonsensical use of technical terms by lay people who fail to understand their true meanings. A more subtle rhetorical maneuver in designating an expression XY as an "oxymoron", often used for either humorous or polemical purposes, is to pick out a perceived or alleged property of objects of type Y, re-construe that property as if it were a defining criterion of Y, and then demonstrate that it is contradicted by X. For instance, to claim "honest politician" is an oxymoron implies politicians are inherently dishonest. Both the above strategies can be seen combined in an example like military intelligence, one of the many humorous oxymorons popularized by George Carlin; it carries and implies a political judgment, that the military by its nature cannot be intelligent. The term "intelligence" is re-construed as meaning not "information gathering" but "intellectual power." Some further examples of oxymorons used in this manner to disparage or arouse humour include: Creation science Thieves' Honour Uniquely Similar See also Colorless green ideas sleep furiously Contradictio in terminis Demagoguery Figure of speech Inconsistency Juxtaposition Law of thought Logic Paradox Performative contradiction Pleonasm Principle of contradiction Rhetoric Self refuting idea Sideroxylon (oxymoron) Wooden iron References | Oxymoron |@lemmatized oxymoron:37 plural:2 greek:2 often:8 figure:2 speech:2 combine:3 two:2 normally:3 contradictory:4 term:10 loanword:1 oxy:1 sharp:1 point:1 moro:1 dull:1 thus:2 word:8 proper:1 subset:1 expression:11 call:3 contradiction:14 distinguish:1 paradox:4 use:15 intentionally:1 rhetorical:2 effect:3 apparent:1 combination:2 provide:1 novel:1 concept:1 cruel:1 kind:2 team:1 maverick:1 simply:1 complicate:1 common:1 form:1 involve:1 adjective:1 noun:1 example:7 following:1 line:4 tennyson:2 idyll:1 king:1 contain:3 faith:1 unfaithful:1 keep:1 falsely:1 true:2 also:4 wooden:2 iron:2 violation:1 principle:2 assert:1 nothing:1 think:2 characteristic:1 predicate:1 attribute:1 quality:1 richard:3 lederer:2 assemble:1 taxonomy:1 article:1 way:2 oxymoronology:1 journal:1 recreational:1 linguistics:1 reprint:1 fun:1 com:1 run:1 single:1 pianoforte:1 literally:1 soft:1 loud:1 doublespeak:1 deliberately:3 intend:4 confuse:1 opinion:3 editorial:1 design:1 provoke:1 laugh:1 general:1 divide:1 craft:1 quote:1 phrase:3 inadvertently:1 incidentally:1 result:1 punning:1 one:3 slang:1 might:1 oxymoronic:1 hot:3 ice:2 imply:2 steal:2 diamond:2 criminal:1 argot:1 refer:3 good:1 deliberate:2 writer:1 order:3 attention:4 wilfred:1 owen:1 poem:1 send:1 refers:1 soldier:2 leave:1 front:1 train:1 face:2 grimly:2 gay:3 case:1 highlight:1 feel:2 act:2 though:1 put:1 brave:1 actually:1 grim:1 include:3 deafening:1 silence:1 sweet:1 sorrow:1 forward:1 retreat:1 accidentally:1 purpose:3 accord:1 phrasefinder:1 first:1 memoires:1 lady:1 morgan:1 sydney:1 owenson:1 short:1 film:1 title:2 album:2 deep:1 purple:1 ian:1 gillan:1 roger:1 glover:1 tellingly:1 employ:1 inject:1 sense:5 ironic:1 ostensibly:1 unintended:1 humor:2 confront:1 reader:2 listener:2 ludicrousness:1 render:1 whole:1 sentence:1 idea:3 absurd:1 funny:1 remember:1 purely:1 subjective:1 thinking:1 presuppose:1 already:1 familiar:1 intended:1 provoking:1 orphan:1 living:2 child:1 foster:1 parent:1 system:1 poet:2 residence:1 absentia:1 grant:1 request:1 university:1 construct:1 name:2 fictional:2 item:1 place:1 instance:3 hill:1 valley:1 california:1 location:1 inherent:3 popular:3 usage:1 sometimes:2 loosely:1 simple:1 apply:1 unlike:1 real:1 full:1 earnest:1 without:1 many:3 speaker:1 everyday:1 language:1 comedian:1 george:2 carlin:2 bring:1 toledo:1 window:1 box:1 live:1 comedy:1 routine:1 book:1 bittersweet:1 control:1 chaos:1 icy:1 difference:1 dead:1 e:1 undead:1 open:1 secret:1 organize:1 mess:1 plastic:3 glass:3 jumbo:1 shrimp:1 labeling:1 perceived:3 make:2 basis:1 substitute:1 alternative:1 non:2 meaning:3 context:1 question:1 civil:4 war:2 mean:4 citizen:1 state:1 neither:1 self:2 however:1 construe:3 military:3 reasonable:1 polite:1 per:1 satirist:1 armour:1 start:1 columbus:1 say:1 american:1 fight:1 politely:1 designation:1 alleged:1 humorous:3 alternatively:1 may:1 occur:1 change:1 people:2 today:1 pay:1 eat:2 silverware:2 drinking:1 come:1 utensil:1 composition:1 commonly:1 cup:1 drink:1 disparage:2 draw:1 perceive:1 claim:2 nonsensical:2 argument:1 domain:1 political:2 ideological:1 dispute:1 criticize:1 technical:1 lay:1 fail:1 understand:1 subtle:1 maneuver:1 designate:1 xy:1 either:1 polemical:1 pick:1 allege:1 property:2 object:1 type:1 define:1 criterion:1 demonstrate:1 contradict:1 x:1 honest:1 politician:2 implies:1 inherently:1 dishonest:1 strategy:1 see:2 like:1 intelligence:2 popularize:1 carry:1 judgment:1 nature:1 cannot:1 intelligent:1 information:1 gathering:1 intellectual:1 power:1 manner:1 arouse:1 humour:1 creation:1 science:1 thief:1 honour:1 uniquely:1 similar:1 colorless:1 green:1 sleep:1 furiously:1 contradictio:1 terminis:1 demagoguery:1 inconsistency:1 juxtaposition:1 law:1 thought:1 logic:1 performative:1 pleonasm:1 rhetoric:1 refute:1 sideroxylon:1 reference:1 |@bigram richard_lederer:2 wilfred_owen:1 ian_gillan:1 inherent_contradiction:3 george_carlin:2 |
2,486 | Proportional_representation | Proportional representation (PR), sometimes referred to as full representation, is a category of electoral formulas aimed at a close match between the percentage of votes that groups of candidates (grouped by a certain measure) obtain in elections and the percentage of seats they receive (usually in legislative assemblies). PR is a democratic principle rather than an electoral system in itself. It is often contrasted to plurality voting systems, where disproportional seat distribution results from the division of voters into multiple electoral districts, especially "winner takes all" plurality ("first past the post" or FPTP) districts. Various forms of proportional representation exist, such as party-list proportional representation, where the above-mentioned groups correspond directly with candidate lists as usually given by political parties. Within this form a further distinction can be made depending on whether or not a voter can influence the election of candidates within a party list (open list and closed list respectively). Another kind of electoral system covered with the term proportional representation is the single transferable vote (STV), which, in turn, does not depend on the existence of political parties (and where the above-mentioned "measure of grouping" is entirely left up to the voters themselves). Elections for the Australian Senate use what is referred to as above-the-line voting where candidates belonging to registered political parties are grouped together on the ballot paper with the voter provided with the option of "group voting" a semi-open party list/individual candidate system. There are also electoral systems, single non-transferable vote (SNTV) and cumulative voting, all of which offer a variant form of proportional representation. These systems are not true proportional representation. They are minority representation systems where a different party could theoretically be elected for every seat, but the people often split their votes amongst several party candidates, giving a result similar to PR. Coalition governments More parties exist in nations with full representation, making it less likely for a single party to obtain the majority of votes and seats. Coalitions therefore occur, often between two parties, sometimes based on the cooperation of three or more parties. On occasion, a minority government can be formed. The party or parties comprising such a government hold half the number of seats or less, but are allowed to govern as long as the majority agrees to their actions. The particular system in place matters, as for instance in New Zealand, where two especially large parties result, leaving them with no other options than to form a government together or to form a government of one of the two large parties with several small parties. The system found in most Scandinavian countries delivers many parties, but these include three or four larger parties who can often create a government with just two parties. History The schoolmaster Thomas Wright Hill is credited as inventor of the single transferable vote, whose use he described in 1821 for application in elections at his school. The method, which guarantees proportional representation, was introduced in 1840 by his son Rowland Hill into the public election for the Adelaide City Council. Unlike several later systems, this did not allow for party-list proportional representation. A party-list proportional representation system was first devised and described in 1878 by Victor D'Hondt of Belgium. The procedure, known as the D'Hondt method, is still widely used. Victor Considérant, a utopian socialist, devised a similar system and described it in an 1892 book. After some Swiss cantons (beginning with Ticino in 1890), Belgium was the first country to adopt list-PR for the 1900 elections to its national parliament. Similar systems were implemented in many European countries during or after World War I. Single Transferable Vote was first used in Denmark in 1857, making STV the oldest PR system, but the system used there never really spread. STV was re-invented (apparently independently) in Britain, but the British parliament rejected it. It was, however, then used in Tasmania in 1907, and has spread from there. STV has been used in the Republic of Ireland since 1919. Proportional representation is actually used by more nations than the plurality voting system, and it is the dominant electoral system in Europe. It is in place in Germany, most of northern and eastern Europe, and is also used for European Parliament elections: all of the members of the European Parliament, or MEPs, including those elected from constituencies in Britain, are elected by proportional representation. Proportional representation is also used in many European countries. In France, proportional representation was adopted at the end of World War II, discarded in 1958, then used once more for parliament elections in 1986 and terminated immediately afterwards. While first-past-the-post is commonly found in countries based on the British parliamentary system, and in the Westminster Elections in the United Kingdom, a form of proportional representation known as the mixed member system is now being used in the United Kingdom to elect the members of the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh National Assembly. Although once an unknown system, proportional representation is now gaining popularity in Canada with five provinces—British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec, Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick—currently debating whether to abolish the first past the post system, and at the federal level, a Parliamentary Committee explored the issue in 2005. Proportional representation does have some history in the United States. Many cities, including New York City, once used it for their city councils as a way to break up the Democratic Party monopolies on elective office. In Cincinnati, Ohio, proportional representation was adopted in 1925 to get rid of a Republican Party party machine, but the Republicans successfully overturned proportional representation in 1957. With proportional representation, otherwise marginalized social, political and racial minorities were able to attain elected office, and this fact was ironically a key argument opponents of proportional representation used in their campaigns — "undesirables" were gaining a voice in electoral politics. From 1870 to 1980, the State of Illinois used a semi-proportional system of cumulative voting to elect its State House of Representatives. Each district across the state elected both Republicans and Democrats year-after-year. While most jurisdictions no longer use proportional representation, it is still used in Cambridge, Massachusetts and Peoria, Illinois. San Francisco did not have proportional elections; rather it had city-wide elections where people would cast votes for five or six candidates simultaneously, delivering some of the benefits of proportional representation, but not all. A comparison http://www.localparty.org/sanfrancisco/sflp.html between San Francisco and Rotterdam shows how emancipation and access are more entrenched in district elections. Some electoral systems incorporate additional features to ensure absolutely accurate or more comprehensive representation, based on gender or minority status (like ethnicity or race). Note that features such as this are not strictly part of proportional representation; depending on what kind of PR is used, people tend to be already represented proportionally according to these standards without such additional rules. In Ireland, proportional representation has resulted in a situation whereby a mainly centrist party with a large support base, Fianna Fáil, typically receives 30%-50% of the vote but the opposition parties, traditionally the centre-right Fine Gael and the centre-left Labour Party, are comparatively weak. This has led to a series of coalition governments in power, including coalitions between Fianna Fáil and Labour, Fine Gael and Labour, the current coalition between Fianna Fáil and the left-wing Green Party and a rainbow coalition featuring every non Fianna Fáil member of the dáil. The lack of a unified opposition in Ireland has resulted in a series of centre-right led governments since the state's creation in 1921. Since 1932 Fianna Fáil is the only party in the Republic of Ireland to form a government on its own. In his essay, Overcoming Practical Difficulties in Creating a World Parliamentary Assembly, Joseph E. Schwartzberg proposes the use of proportional representation in the United Nations Parliamentary Assembly in order to prevent, for instance, lower castes of Indians from being excluded. http://www.uno-komitee.de/en/documents/unpa-reader-2003.pdf There are certain other advantages to proportional representation. Methods of proportional representation There are different methods of proportional representation, which achieve either a greater degree of proportionality or a greater degree of determinate outcome. Party list system in a multi-member constituency The parties each list their candidates according to that party's determination of priorities. In a closed list, voters vote for a list, not a candidate. Each party is allocated seats in proportion to the number of votes, using the ranking order on its list. In an open list, voters may vote, depending on the model, for one person, or for two, or indicate their order of preference within the list. This system is used in Israel (where the whole country is one closed list constituency), Brazil (open list), the Netherlands (open list), South Africa (closed list), Democratic Republic of the Congo (open list) and for elections to the European Parliament in all European Union countries (closed list, with the only exception of Italy) as well as in Finland using multi-member districts and open lists. Additional-member system, mixed-member system Main articles: Additional Member Systems - mixed member proportional representation and parallel voting; alternative vote and alternative vote top-up Mixed election systems combine a proportional system and a single seat district system, attempting to achieve some of the positive features of both of these. Mixed systems are often helpful in countries with large populations, since they balance the mechanisms of elections focusing on local or national issues. They are used in nations with widely varying voting populations in terms of geographic, social, cultural and economic realities, including Bolivia, Germany, Lesotho, Mexico and the United Kingdom. Such systems, or variations of them, are used in Germany, Lesotho, Mexico, Bolivia, New Zealand, the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh Assembly. Italy has changed between sub-systems. Single transferable vote in a multi-member constituency This method of proportional representation uses a system of preferential voting to determine the results of the election A constituency elects two or more representatives per electorate. Consequently the constituency is proportionally larger than a single member constituency. Parties tend to offer as many candidates as they most optimistically could expect to win: the major parties may nominate almost as many candidates as there are seats, while the minor parties and independents rather fewer. Voters mark their ballot, allocating preferences to their preferred ranking for some or all candidates. A successful candidate must achieve a quota, being the total number of votes received divided by the number of candidates to be elected plus one; i.e. in a nine member constituency the quota would be (the number of votes divided by 9) +1. Only in a few cases is this achieved at the first count. For the second count, if a candidate wins election his surplus vote (in excess of the quota) is transferred to his voters' second choices; otherwise, the least popular candidate is eliminated and his votes redistributed according to the second preference shown on them. If there are more than one candidate who can not get enough votes after the transfer of votes of least popular candidate, he will be eliminated too (as he could not avoid it on the next round under any circumstance). This process continues for as many counts as are needed until all seats are filled either by the required number of candidates achieving a quota and being deemed to be elected or until there are only the number of candidates remaining as there are number of seats. Although the counting process is complicated, voting is clear and most voters get at least one of their preferences elected. All deputies are answerable directly to their local constituents. Some political scientists argue that STV is more properly classified as 'semi-proportional' as there is no assurance of a proportional result at a nationwide level. Indeed, many advocates of STV would argue that preventing nationwide proportionality is one of the primary goals of the system, to avoid the perceived risks of a very highly fragmented legislature. This system is used in Australia (Senate, Tasmanian and Australian Capital Territory Houses of Assembly and the Legislative Councils in New South Wales, South Australia, Western Australia and Victoria), the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland (assembly and local government elections), Malta, local government elections in Scotland and selected (optional) local governments in New Zealand. Proportional Representation of the Views of the Electorate PR-V is a conjectured voting system that aims to achieve a representational match between the 'views' of the electorate and the number of elected candidates that represent those views. As with PR this requires multi-member electorates, but it differs from PR by requiring mutual independence between the representatives. Candidates can either represent a political party or be independent, but within each electorate the number of candidates that each political party can nominate a strictly limited, for instance to a single candidate. Alternative Calculating method for Single Transferable Vote in a multi-member constituency From the sources above, it seems that this alternative method summarized below is not yet used anywhere, even though it may result in even greater proportionality of representation. Just as with current Single Transferable Vote (STV), in the alternative method (ASTV), a constituency elects two or more representatives per electorate. Same as in STV, voters in ASTV rank the candidates in preference order. Unlike STV, with ASTV, the quota a successful candidate must achieve is the number of voters divided by the number of seats, V/n, instead of the current V/(n+1)+1 formula used for STV. Example: in a 1,000,000 voter constituency with 4 seats, the quote would be 250,000 votes, not 200,001. Same as with STV, in ASTV any candidates who meet this quota of votes in the first round are elected. Same as with STV, on the round before votes are transfered, with ASTV if any candidates win with a surplus, their surplus is proportionately transfered by voter rank species, same as with STV. Unlike STV, with ASTV, if no candidate meets the quota, the candidate with the fewest votes is only provisionally eliminated until another candidate is elected, rather than eliminated from the entire race. Unlike STV, with ASTV, once a candidate is elected, all forced transfered votes not included in that elected candidate's quota are transfered back to their provisionally eliminated first choice candidates, bringing them back into the race, instead of being forced to stay with their current runoff candidate. Unlike STV, with ASTV, if a candidate is elected with votes transfered from other candidates, only the most recently transfered votes, which rank that candidate the lowest, are counted as surplus, and are sent back to their first choice candidate; this is different from STV which treats all ranking species the same and proportionately transfers back surplus votes to remaining candidates, giving some voters that elected their first choice a chance to also elect a second choice while voters who only elected their second choice are stuck in the quota for that elected official. ASTV continues the runoff reset cycle until there is one seat left. At that point, it could either continue to use a runoff like STV to elect the final candidate, or could use a condorcet method to elect the final candidate. Most likely there would be no voter strategy in this final election since voters could not have predicted the remaining candidates. Just as with STV, in ASTV if there are more than one candidate who can not get enough votes after the transfer of votes of least popular candidate, all such candidates will be provisionally eliminated too to save time, since they could not avoid elimination on the next round under anyway. Unlike STV, in the example of the 1,000,000 voters with 4 seats, ASTV would have all votes used, whereas STV would leave the remaining 199,996 voters silenced. Partial proportionality Some nations with proportional elections, like Israel and the Netherlands, have one electoral district only: the entire nation, and the entire pie is cut up according to the entire outcome. Most nations have district systems in place where more than one person is elected per district. The constituency or district magnitude (DM) of a system is therefore measured by the number of seats in a constituency, and plays a vital role in determining how proportional an electoral system can be. The greater the number of seats in a constituency, the more proportional the outcome will be. PR applied to a single-member district (SMD) is by necessity majoritarian. If the constituency is in a jurisdiction using list PR in its multi-member districts (MMDs) the winning candidate simply needs a plurality, otherwise called a simple or relative majority, of the vote to win, so that the election in the SMD is by first-past-the-post. If the constituency is in a jurisdiction using PR-STV in its MMDs, an absolute majority of 50% plus 1 will likely be the minimum required for victory (depending on which quota is used) so that the election in the SMD is by the alternative vote. Four elected officials per district delivers a threshold of 20% (1/M+1) to gain a single seat. However, constituency borders can still be gerrymandered to reduce the overall proportionality. This may be achieved by creating "majority-minority" constituencies - constituencies in which the majority is formed by a group of voters that are in the minority at a higher level. Proportional representation with the entire nation electing the single body cannot be gerrymandered. Multiple-member districts do not necessarily ensure that an electoral system will be proportional. The bloc vote can result in "super-majoritarian" results in which geographical variations can create majority-minority districts that become subsumed into the larger districts. Also, in theory, a party, who does not provide a list with enough people to fill all the seats won by it, may be given those unfilled seats. This is termed an underhang. Some nations, with either exclusively proportional representation or — as is the case with Germany — additional member systems, require a party list to achieve an election threshold — a certain minimum percentage of votes to receive any seats. Typically, this lower limit is set at between two and five percent of the total number of votes cast. Parties who do not reach that margin will not be represented in parliament, making majorities, coalitions and thus governments easier to achieve. Proponents of election thresholds argue that they discourage excessive fragmentation, disproportionate power, or extremist parties. Opponents of thresholds argue that they cause unfair redirection of support from minor parties, thus giving the parties which cross the threshold disproportionally high percentages of the seats and creating the possibility that a party or group of parties will assume control of the legislature without gaining a majority of votes. There are several ways of measuring proportionality, the most common being, among others, the Gallagher Index. Center based proportional and multi-party systems Election systems based on proportional representation tend to favor a multi-party result which demands a coalition to form a government supported by a majority of the voters or elected candidates. If the election system as well as the mechanisms for forming a governing coalition also tend to support the existence of a centrist party, the resulting over-all system is often defined as a "center-based proportional representation multi-party system". Election systems which tend to result in so-called two-block (many parties forming coalitions, blocks, but with no party, or "block", in the "center") systems are not seen as "center-based" but multi-party variations of two-party (two-block) systems. The undesirable "extreme" of a "Center Based" system (like in Condorcet method) might be seen as a party system where the "center" has an unproportional and undesirable strong position in the formation of any governing coalition. List of countries using proportional representation This is a list of countries using proportional representation. http://ed.labonte.com/pr.html Country Type Party list Party list (Senate) Preference voting (Single Transferable Vote) Party list Party list Party list Mixed Member Proportional Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Mixed member proportional Party list Party list Party list Mixed Member Proportional Party list Party list Preference voting (Single Transferable Vote) Party list Mixed Member Proportional Mixed Member Proportional Party list Mixed Member Proportional Party list Party list Party list Preference voting (Single Transferable Vote) Mixed Member Proportional Party list Mixed Member Proportional Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Mixed Member Proportional Party list Party list Mixed Member Proportional Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Party list Mixed Member Proportional Party list Further reading Bernard Owen, "Le système électoral et son effet sur la représentation parlementaire des partis: le cas européen.", LGDJ, 2002. Denis Pilon, "The Politics of Voting", Edmond Montgomery Publications, 2007 Josep M. Colomer. Political Institutions. Oxford University Press, 2003. Josep M. Colomer ed. Handbook of Electoral System Choice. Palgrave-Macmillan, 2004. John Hickman and Chris Little. "Seat/Vote Proportionality in Romanian and Spanish Parliamentary Elections" Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans'' Vol. 2, No. 2, November 2000 Martin Linton and Mary Southcott. "Making Votes Count: The Case for Electoral Reform", Profile Books Ltd, London, 1998. Amy, Douglas J. "Real Choices/New Voices: The Case for Proportional Representation Elections in the United States". Columbia University Press, 1993. Roland Nicholson, Jr., "Proportional Representation Elections in Hong Kong", New York Times, September, 1992 See also Plurality voting system D'Hondt method Sainte-Laguë method List of politics-related topics Wealth primary Apportionment Notes External links Handbook of Electoral System Choice Atlas of Electoral Systems of the World Colour-coded world maps showing the electoral systems used by every democratic country in the world, also available with more details as tables of text. Part of the information on Electoral Systems offered by the World Policy Institute (WPI)'s Project for Global Democracy & Human Rights Proportional Representation Library Quantifying Representativity Article by Philip Kestelman FairVote: The Center for Voting and Democracy PR page from old CVD web site. PR page from new CVD web site. LocalParty.Org (United States) The De Borda Institute A Northern Ireland-based organisation promoting inclusive voting procedures Electoral Reform Society Founded in England in 1884, the ERS is the longest running PR organization. This site contains particularly good information about Single Transferable Vote -- the Society's preferred form of PR. Electoral Reform Australia Proportional Representation Society of Australia PR page at Center for Range Voting Fair Vote Canada Voting methods survey Describes 19 multi-winner systems PR Simulator A web-based application that converts historical or theoretical voting data into proportional results Why Not Proportional Representation? Vote Dilution means Voters have Less Voice Law is Cool site PR Simulator Results (US Election 2004) An example of how the above PR Simulator can be used - in this case following the failed Colorado proposal to assign Electoral College votes proportionally | Proportional_representation |@lemmatized proportional:64 representation:47 pr:21 sometimes:2 refer:2 full:2 category:1 electoral:20 formula:2 aim:2 close:2 match:2 percentage:4 vote:54 group:8 candidate:48 certain:3 measure:4 obtain:2 election:32 seat:22 receive:4 usually:2 legislative:2 assembly:7 democratic:4 principle:1 rather:4 system:60 often:6 contrast:1 plurality:5 disproportional:1 distribution:1 result:15 division:1 voter:22 multiple:2 district:16 especially:2 winner:2 take:1 first:12 past:4 post:4 fptp:1 various:1 form:13 exist:2 party:114 list:87 mention:2 correspond:1 directly:2 give:5 political:8 within:4 distinction:1 make:5 depend:5 whether:2 influence:1 open:7 respectively:1 another:2 kind:2 cover:1 term:3 single:18 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2,487 | Amdahl's_law | The speedup of a program using multiple processors in parallel computing is limited by the sequential fraction of the program. For example, if 95% of the program can be parallelized, the theoretical maximum speedup using parallel computing would be 20x as shown in the diagram, no matter how many processors are used. Amdahl's law, also known as Amdahl's argument, Rodgers 85, p.226 is named after computer architect Gene Amdahl, and is used to find the maximum expected improvement to an overall system when only part of the system is improved. It is often used in parallel computing to predict the theoretical maximum speedup using multiple processors. The speedup of a program using multiple processors in parallel computing is limited by the time needed for the sequential fraction of the program. For example, if a program needs 20 hours using a single processor core, and a particular portion of 1 hour cannot be parallelized, while the remaining promising portion of 19 hours (95%) can be parallelized, then regardless of how many processors we devote to a parallelized execution of this program, the minimal execution time cannot be less than that critical 1 hour. Hence the speed up is limited up to 20x, as the diagram illustrates. Description Amdahl's law is a model for the relationship between the expected speedup of parallelized implementations of an algorithm relative to the serial algorithm, under the assumption that the problem size remains the same when parallelized. For example, if for a given problem size a parallelized implementation of an algorithm can run 12% of the algorithm's operations arbitrarily quick (while the remaining 88% of the operations are not parallelizable), Amdahl's law states that the maximum speedup of the parallelized version is 1/(1 - 0.12) = 1.136 times faster than the non-parallelized implementation. More technically, the law is concerned with the speedup achievable from an improvement to a computation that affects a proportion P of that computation where the improvement has a speedup of S. (For example, if an improvement can speed up 30% of the computation, P will be 0.3; if the improvement makes the portion affected twice as fast, S will be 2.) Amdahl's law states that the overall speedup of applying the improvement will be . To see how this formula was derived, assume that the running time of the old computation was 1, for some unit of time. The running time of the new computation will be the length of time the unimproved fraction takes, (which is 1 − P), plus the length of time the improved fraction takes. The length of time for the improved part of the computation is the length of the improved part's former running time divided by the speedup, making the length of time of the improved part P/S. The final speedup is computed by dividing the old running time by the new running time, which is what the above formula does. Here's another example. We are given a task which is split up into four parts: P1 = 11%, P2 = 18%, P3 = 23%, P4 = 48%, which add up to 100%. Then we say P1 is not sped up, so S1 = 1 or 100%, P2 is sped up 5x, so S2 = 500%, P3 is sped up 20x, so S3 = 2000%, and P4 is sped up 1.6x, so S4 = 160%. By using the formula P1/S1 + P2/S2 + P3/S3 + P4/S4, we find the running time is 0.11/1 + 0.18/5 + 0.23/20 + 0.48/1.6 = 0.4575 or a little less than ½ the original running time which we know is 1. Therefore the overall speed boost is 1/0.4575 = 2.186 or a little more than double the original speed using the formula (P1/S1 + P2/S2 + P3/S3 + P4/S4)−1. Notice how the 20x and 5x speedup don't have much effect on the overall speed boost and running time when 11% is not sped up, and 48% is sped up by 1.6x. Parallelization In the case of parallelization, Amdahl's law states that if P is the proportion of a program that can be made parallel (i.e. benefit from parallelization), and (1 − P) is the proportion that cannot be parallelized (remains serial), then the maximum speedup that can be achieved by using N processors is In the limit, as N tends to infinity, the maximum speedup tends to 1 / (1-P). In practice, performance/price falls rapidly as N is increased once there is even a small component of (1 − P). As an example, if P is 90%, then (1 − P) is 10%, and the problem can be speed up by a maximum of a factor of 10, no matter how large the value of N used. For this reason, parallel computing is only useful for either small numbers of processors, or problems with very high values of P: so-called embarrassingly parallel problems. A great part of the craft of parallel programming consists of attempting to reduce (1-P) to the smallest possible value. Relation to law of diminishing returns Amdahl's law is often conflated with the law of diminishing returns, whereas only a special case of applying Amdahl's law demonstrates 'law of diminishing returns'. If one picks optimally (in terms of the achieved speed-up) what to improve, then one will see monotonically decreasing improvements as one improves. If, however, one picks non-optimally, after improving a sub-optimal component and moving on to improve a more optimal component, one can see an increase in return. Consider, for instance, the illustration. If one picks to work on B then A, one finds an increase in return. If, instead, one works on improving A then B, one will find a diminishing return. Thus, strictly speaking, only one (optimal case) can appropriately be said to demonstrate the 'law of diminishing returns'. Note that it is often rational to improve a system in an order that is "non-optimal" in this sense, given that some improvements are more difficult or consuming of development time than others. Amdahl's law does represent the law of diminishing returns if you are considering what sort of return you get by adding more processors to a machine, if you are running a fixed-size computation that will use all available processors to their capacity. Each new processor you add to the system will add less usable power than the previous one. Each time you double the number of processors the speedup ratio will diminish, as the total throughput heads toward the limit of This analysis neglects other potential bottlenecks such as memory bandwidth and I/O bandwidth, if they do not scale with the number of processors; however, taking into account such bottlenecks would tend to further demonstrate the diminishing returns of only adding processors. Speedup in a sequential program Assume that a task has two independent parts, A and B. B takes roughly 25% of the time of the whole computation. By working very hard, one may be able to make this part 5 times faster, but this only reduces the time for the whole computation by a little. In contrast, one may need to perform less work to make part A be twice as fast. This will make the computation much faster than by optimizing part B, even though B got a bigger speed-up, (5x versus 2x). The maximum speedup in an improved sequential program, where some part was sped up by times is Max. Speedup where () is the fraction of time (before the improvement) spent in the part that was not improved. For example, If part B (blue) is made five times faster, p = 5.0, (red) = 3 seconds, (blue) = 1 second and Max. Speedup If part A (red) is made to run twice as fast, p = 2.0, (blue) = 1 second, (red) = 3 seconds and Max. Speedup (better!) Therefore, making A twice as fast is better than making B five times faster. Improving part A by a factor of two will result in a +60% increase in overall program speed. However, improving part B by a factor of 5 (which presumably requires more effort) will only achieve an overall speedup of +25%. See also Speedup Amdahl Corporation Ninety-ninety rule Gustafson's Law Karp-Flatt Metric Brooks's law Moore's Law Notes References Gene Amdahl, " Validity of the Single Processor Approach to Achieving Large-Scale Computing Capabilities", AFIPS Conference Proceedings, (30), pp. 483-485, 1967. Note: Gene Amdahl has approved the use of his complete text in the Usenet comp.sys.super news group FAQ which goes out on the 20th of each month. Rodgers, David P. (1985) Improvements in multiprocessor system design ACM SIGARCH Computer Architecture News archive Volume 13, Issue 3 (June 1985) table of contents Special Issue: Proceedings of the 12th annual International Symposium on Computer Architecture (ISCA '85) Pages: 225 - 231 Year of Publication: 1985 ISSN:0163-5964. Also published in International Symposium on Computer Architecture, Proceedings of the 12th annual international symposium on Computer architecture, 1985, Boston, Massachusetts, United States External links Gene Amdahl. Oral history interview. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Reevaluating Amdahl's Law Reevaluating Amdahl's Law and Gustafson's Law A simple interactive Amdahl's Law calculator "Amdahl's Law" by Joel F. Klein, Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007. Amdahl's Law in the Multicore Era Blog Post: "What the $#@! is Parallelism, Anyhow?" | Amdahl's_law |@lemmatized speedup:22 program:12 use:14 multiple:3 processor:15 parallel:8 computing:3 limit:5 sequential:4 fraction:5 example:7 parallelize:5 theoretical:2 maximum:8 compute:4 would:2 show:1 diagram:2 matter:2 many:2 amdahl:19 law:23 also:3 know:2 argument:1 rodgers:2 p:16 name:1 computer:5 architect:1 gene:4 find:4 expected:2 improvement:10 overall:6 system:5 part:16 improve:10 often:3 predict:1 time:25 need:3 hour:4 single:2 core:1 particular:1 portion:3 cannot:3 remain:4 promising:1 regardless:1 devote:1 parallelized:5 execution:2 minimal:1 less:4 critical:1 hence:1 speed:16 illustrate:1 description:1 model:1 relationship:1 implementation:3 algorithm:4 relative:1 serial:2 assumption:1 problem:5 size:3 give:3 run:3 operation:2 arbitrarily:1 quick:1 parallelizable:1 state:4 version:1 faster:5 non:3 technically:1 concern:1 achievable:1 computation:10 affect:2 proportion:3 make:10 twice:4 fast:4 apply:2 see:4 formula:4 derive:1 assume:2 running:8 old:2 unit:1 new:3 length:5 unimproved:1 take:4 plus:1 improved:5 former:1 divide:2 final:1 another:1 task:2 split:1 four:1 add:5 say:2 little:3 original:2 therefore:2 boost:2 double:2 notice:1 much:2 effect:1 parallelization:3 case:3 e:1 benefit:1 achieve:4 n:4 tends:2 infinity:1 practice:1 performance:1 price:1 fall:1 rapidly:1 increase:4 even:2 small:3 component:3 factor:3 large:2 value:3 reason:1 useful:1 either:1 number:3 high:1 call:1 embarrassingly:1 great:1 craft:1 consists:1 attempt:1 reduce:2 possible:1 relation:1 diminish:7 return:10 conflate:1 whereas:1 special:2 demonstrate:3 one:13 pick:3 optimally:2 term:1 monotonically:1 decrease:1 however:3 sub:1 optimal:4 move:1 consider:2 instance:1 illustration:1 work:4 b:9 instead:1 diminishing:1 thus:1 strictly:1 speak:1 appropriately:1 note:3 rational:1 order:1 sense:1 difficult:1 consume:1 development:1 others:1 represent:1 sort:1 get:2 machine:1 fix:1 available:1 capacity:1 usable:1 power:1 previous:1 ratio:1 total:1 throughput:1 head:1 toward:1 analysis:1 neglect:1 potential:1 bottleneck:2 memory:1 bandwidth:2 scale:2 account:1 tend:1 two:2 independent:1 roughly:1 whole:2 hard:1 may:2 able:1 contrast:1 perform:1 optimize:1 though:1 big:1 versus:1 max:3 spent:1 blue:3 five:2 red:3 second:4 well:1 good:1 result:1 presumably:1 require:1 effort:1 corporation:1 ninety:2 rule:1 gustafson:2 karp:1 flatt:1 metric:1 brook:1 moore:1 reference:1 validity:1 approach:1 capability:1 afips:1 conference:1 proceeding:3 pp:1 approve:1 complete:1 text:1 usenet:1 comp:1 sys:1 super:1 news:2 group:1 faq:1 go:1 month:1 david:1 multiprocessor:1 design:1 acm:1 sigarch:1 architecture:4 archive:1 volume:1 issue:2 june:1 table:1 content:1 annual:2 international:3 symposium:3 isca:1 page:1 year:1 publication:1 issn:1 publish:1 boston:1 massachusetts:1 united:1 external:1 link:1 oral:1 history:1 interview:1 charles:1 babbage:1 institute:1 university:1 minnesota:1 minneapolis:1 reevaluate:2 simple:1 interactive:1 calculator:1 joel:1 f:1 klein:1 wolfram:1 demonstration:1 project:1 multicore:1 era:1 blog:1 post:1 parallelism:1 anyhow:1 |@bigram maximum_speedup:6 amdahl_law:13 gene_amdahl:4 tends_infinity:1 comp_sys:1 boston_massachusetts:1 external_link:1 charles_babbage:1 minnesota_minneapolis:1 wolfram_demonstration:1 |
2,488 | Brazil | Brazil (), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil () , is a country in South America. It is the fifth largest country by geographical area, occupying nearly half of South America, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Brazil.html the fifth most populous country, and the fourth most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of over . It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas department of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos are part of the Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz. Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until its independence in 1822. Initially independent as the Brazilian Empire, the country has been a republic since 1889, although the bicameral legislature; now called Congress, dates back to 1824, when the first constitution was ratified. Its current Constitution defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities. Brazil is the world's tenth largest economy at market exchange rates and the ninth largest by purchasing power parity. Economic reforms have given the country new international projection. It is a founding member of the United Nations and the Union of South American Nations. A predominantly Roman Catholic, Portuguese-speaking, and multiethnic society, Brazil is also home to a diversity of wildlife, natural environments, and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats. Geography Topography map of Brazil. Brazil occupies an immense area along the eastern coast of South America and includes much of the continent's interior region, sharing land borders with Uruguay to the south; Argentina and Paraguay to the southwest; Bolivia and Peru to the west; Colombia to the northwest; Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the French overseas department of French Guiana to the north. Brazil shares a border with every country in South America, except for Ecuador and Chile. The factors of size, relief, climate, and natural resources make Brazil geographically diverse. Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world—after Russia, Canada, China and the United States—and third largest in the Americas; with a total area of , including of water. It spans three time zones; from UTC-4, in the western states; to UTC-3, in the eastern states, the official time of Brazil, and UTC-2, in the Atlantic islands. Brazilian topography is also diverse, including hills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Much of Brazil lies between and in elevation. The main upland area occupies most of the southern half of the country. The northwestern parts of the plateau consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills. The southeastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to . These ranges include the Mantiqueira Mountains, the Espinhaço Mountains, and the Serra do Mar. In north, the Guiana Highlands form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty into the Orinoco River system, in Venezuela, to the north. The highest point in Brazil is the Pico da Neblina at , and the lowest point is the Atlantic Ocean. Brazil has a dense and complex system of rivers, one of the world's most extensive, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic Ocean. Major rivers include the Amazon, the largest river in terms of volume of water, and the second-longest in the world; the Paraná and its major tributary, the Iguaçu River, where the Iguaçu Falls are located; the Negro, São Francisco, Xingu, Madeira and the Tapajós rivers. Climate The climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large geographic scale and varied topography, but the largest part of the country is tropical. Analysed according to the Köppen system, Brazil hosts five major climatic subtypes: equatorial, tropical, semiarid, highland tropical, and temperate; ranging from equatorial rainforests in the north and semiarid deserts in the northeast, to temperate coniferous forests in the south and tropical savannas in central Brazil. Many regions have starkly different microclimates. Cyclone Catarina, the first tropical cyclone in the South Atlantic Ocean, formed in 2004 An equatorial climate characterizes much of northern Brazil. There is no real dry season, but there are some variations in the period of the year when most rain falls. Temperatures average , with more significant temperature variations between night and day than between seasons. Over central Brazil rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savanna climate. This region is as large and extensive as the Amazon basin but, lying farther south and being at a moderate altitude, it has a very different climate. In the interior northeast, seasonal rainfall is even more extreme. The semiarid climate region generally receives less than of rain, most of which falls in a period of three to five months http://botany.si.edu/projects/cpd/sa/sa19.htm and occasionally even more insufficiently, creating long periods of drought. From south of Bahia, near São Paulo, the distribution of rainfall changes, where some appreciable rainfall occurs in all months. The south has temperate conditions, with average temperatures below and cool winters; frosts are quite common, with occasional snowfalls in the higher areas. Wildlife The Macaw is a typical animal of Brazil. The country has one of the world's most diverse populations of birds and amphibians. Brazil's large territory comprises different ecosystems, such as the Amazon Rainforest, recognized as having the greatest biological diversity in the world; the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado, which together sustain some of the world's greatest biodiversity. In the south, the Araucaria pine forest grows under temperate conditions. The rich wildlife of Brazil reflects the variety of natural habitats; however, remains largely unknown, and new species are found on nearly a daily basis. Scientists estimate that the total number of plant and animal species in Brazil could approach four million. Larger mammals include pumas, jaguars, ocelots, rare bush dogs, and foxes. Peccaries, tapirs, anteaters, sloths, opossums, and armadillos are abundant. Deer are plentiful in the south, and monkeys of many species abound in the northern rain forests. Concern for the environment in Brazil has grown in response to global interest in environmental issues. Its natural heritage is extremely threatened by cattle ranching and agriculture, logging, mining, resettlement, oil and gas extraction, over-fishing, expansion of urban centres, wildlife trade, fire, climate change, dams and infrastructure, water contamination, and invasive species. In many areas of the country, the natural environment is threatened by development. Construction of highways has opened up previously remote areas for agriculture and settlement; dams have flooded valleys and inundated wildlife habitats; and mines have scarred and polluted the landscape. History Origins Brazilian natives, by Jean-Baptiste Debret Most native peoples who live and lived within Brazil's current borders are thought to descend from the first wave of migrants from North Asia (Siberia) that crossed the Bering Land Bridge at the end of the last Ice Age around 9000 BC. In 1500 AD, the territory of modern Brazil had an estimated total population of nearly 3 million Amerindians divided in 2,000 nations and tribes. A not-updated linguistic survey found 188 living indigenous languages with 155,000 total speakers. In 2007, Fundação Nacional do Índio () reported the presence of 67 different tribes yet living without contact with civilization, up from 40 in 2005. With this figure, now Brazil has the largest number of uncontacted peoples in the world, even more than the island of New Guinea. When the Portuguese explorers arrived in 1500, the Amerindians were mostly semi-nomadic tribes, with the largest population living on the coast and along the banks of major rivers. Unlike Christopher Columbus who thought he had reached India, the Portuguese sailor Vasco da Gama had already reached India sailing around Africa two years before Pedro Álvares Cabral reached Brazil. Nevertheless, the word índios ("Indians") was by then established to designate the peoples of the New World and stuck being used today in the Portuguese language, while the people of India are called indianos. Initially, the Europeans saw the natives as noble savages, and miscegenation of the population began right away. Tribal warfare and cannibalism convinced the Portuguese that they should "civilize" the Amerindians. Megan Mylan, Indians of the Amazon, Jewel of the Amazon, FRONTLINE/World, Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), (24 January 2006) Colonization Map of Brazil issued by the Portuguese explorers in 1519 Portugal had little interest in Brazil, mainly because of the high profits to be gained from its commerce with India, Indochina, China and Japan. Brazil's only economic exploitation was the pursuit of brazilwood for its treasured red dye. From 1530 the Portuguese Crown devised the Hereditary Captaincies system to effectively occupy its new colony, and later took direct control of the failed captaincies. Although temporary trading posts were established earlier to collect brazilwood, with permanent settlement came the establishment of the sugar cane industry and its intensive labor. Several early settlements were founded along the coast, among them the colonial capital, Salvador, established in 1549 at the Bay of All Saints in the north, and the city of Rio de Janeiro on March 1567, in the south. The Portuguese colonists adopted an economy based on the production of agricultural goods for export to Europe. Sugar became by far the most important Brazilian colonial product until the early 18th century. JSTOR: Anglo-Portuguese Trade, 1700-1770. JSTOR. Retrieved on 16 August 2007. Janick, Jules. Lecture 34. Retrieved on 16 August 2007 Even though Brazilian sugar was reputed to be of high quality, the industry faced a crisis during the 17th and 18th centuries when the Dutch and the French started to produce sugar in the Antilles, located much closer to Europe, causing sugar prices to fall. During the 17th century, private explorers from São Paulo Captaincy, now called Bandeirantes, explored and expanded Brazil's borders, mainly while raiding the hinterland tribes to enslave native Brazilians. In the 18th century, the Bandeirantes found gold and diamond deposits in the modern-day state of Minas Gerais. Profits from the development of these deposits were mostly used to finance the Portuguese Royal Court's expenditure on the preservation of its Global Empire and the support of its luxurious lifestyle. The way in which such deposits were exploited by the Portuguese Crown and the powerful local elites burdened colonial Brazil with excessive taxation, giving rise to some popular independence movements such as the Tiradentes in 1789; however, the secessionist movements were often dismissed by the colonial authorities. Gold production declined towards the end of the 18th century, beginning a period of relative stagnation in Brazil's hinterland. Maxwell, Kenneth R. Conflicts and Conspiracies: Brazil and Portugal 1750-1808. Cambridge University Press: 1973. Both Amerindian and African slaves' man power were largely used in Brazil's colonial economy. Slavery in Brazil retrieved on 19 August 2007. In contrast to the neighboring Spanish possessions in South America, the Portuguese colony of Brazil kept its territorial, political and linguistic integrity, through the efforts of the colonial Portuguese administration. Although the colony was threatened by other nations during the era of Portuguese rule, in particular by the Dutch and the French, the authorities and the people ultimately managed to protect its borders from foreign attacks. Portugal even sent bullion to Brazil, a spectacular reversal of the colonial trend, in order to protect the integrity of the colony. Kenneth R. Maxwell, Conflicts and Conspiracies: Brazil and Portugal 1750-1808 (p. 216), JSTOR Empire Emperor Dom Pedro II of Brazil in 1873 In 1808, the Portuguese court, fleeing from Napoleon’s troops who were invading Portugal and most of Central Europe, established themselves in the city of Rio de Janeiro, which thus became the seat of government of Portugal and the entire Portuguese Empire, even though it was located outside of Europe. Rio de Janeiro was the capital of the Portuguese empire from 1808 to 1815, while Portugal repelled the French invasion in the Peninsular War. After that, the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (1815–1825) was created with Lisbon as its capital. After João VI returned to Portugal in 1821, his heir-apparent Pedro became regent of the Kingdom of Brazil, within the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Following a series of political incidents and disputes, Brazil achieved its independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822. On 12 October 1822, Dom Pedro became the first Emperor of Brazil, being crowned on 1 December 1822. Portugal recognized Brazil as an independent country in 1825. In 1824, Pedro closed the Constituent Assembly, stating that the body was "endangering liberty". Pedro then produced a constitution modeled on that of Portugal (1822) and France (1814). It specified indirect elections and created the legislative, executive and judicial branches of government; however, it also added a fourth branch, the "moderating power", to be held by the Emperor. Pedro's government was considered economically and administratively inefficient. Political pressures eventually made the Emperor step down on 7 April 1831. He returned to Portugal leaving behind his five-year-old son Pedro II. Until Pedro II reached maturity, Brazil was governed by regents from 1831 to 1840. The regency period was turbulent and marked by numerous local revolts including the Male Revolt, the largest urban slave rebellion in the Americas, which took place in Bahia in 1835. Reis, João José. Slave Rebellion in Brazil — The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia. Translated by Arthur Brakel. Johns Hopkins University Press. On 23 July 1840, Pedro II was crowned Emperor. His government was marked by a substantial rise in coffee exports, the War of the Triple Alliance, and the end of slave trade from Africa in 1850, although slavery in Brazilian territory would only be abolished in 1888. By the Eusébio de Queirós law, Leslie Bethell, The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade: Britain, Brazil, and the Slave Trade Question, 1807-1969, JSTOR Brazil stopped trading slaves from Africa in 1850. Slavery was abandoned altogether in 1888, thus making Brazil the last country of the Americas to ban slavery. Brazil's Prized Exports Rely on Slaves and Scorched Land Larry Rohter (2002) New York Times, 25 March Anstey, Roger: The Atlantic Slave Trade and British abolition, 1760-1810. London: Macmillan, 1975. When slavery was finally abolished, a large influx of European immigrants took place. By the 1870s, the Emperor's control of domestic politics had started to deteriorate in the face of crises with the Catholic Church, the Army and the slaveholders. The Republican movement slowly gained strength. The dominant classes no longer needed the empire to protect their interests and deeply resented the abolition of slavery. Indeed, imperial centralization ran counter to their desire for local autonomy. By 1889 Pedro II had stepped down and the Republican system had been adopted in Brazil. In the end, the empire really fell because of a coup d'état. Republic The Chamber of Deputies of Brazil, the lower house of the National Congress Pedro II was deposed on 15 November 1889 by a Republican military coup led by general Deodoro da Fonseca, U.S. Library of Congress, Federal Research Division, Country Studies: Brazil, "The Republican Era, 1889-1985". Library of Congress. Retrieved on 16 August 2007. who became the country’s first de facto president through military ascension. The country’s name became the Republic of the United States of Brazil. From 1889 to 1930, the dominant states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais alternated control of the presidency. U.S. Library of Congress, Federal Research Division, Country Studies: Brazil, "The Era of Getúlio Vargas, 1930-54" A military junta took control in 1930. Getúlio Vargas took office soon after and remained as dictatorial ruler until 1945. He was re-elected in 1951 and stayed in office until his suicide in 1954. During this period Brazil also took part on World War I and Word War II. After 1930, successive governments continued industrial and agricultural growth and the development of the vast interior of Brazil. Valença, Márcio M. "Patron-Client Relations and Politics in Brazil: A Historical Overview". Retrieved June 16, 2007 Juscelino Kubitschek's office years (1956-1961) were marked by the political campaign motto of plunging "50 anos em 5" (). The military took office in Brazil in a coup d'état in 1964 and remained in power until March 1985, when it fell from grace because of political struggles between the regime and the Brazilian elites. In 1967 the name of the country was changed to Federative Republic of Brazil. Just as the Brazilian regime changes of 1889, 1930, and 1945 unleashed competing political forces and caused divisions within the military, so too did the 1964 regime change. CasaHistória website, "Military Rule", retrieved June 12, 2007 Democracy was re-established in 1988 when the current Federal Constitution was enacted. Fernando Collor de Mello was the first president truly elected by popular vote after the military regime. Collor took office in March 1990. In September 1992, the National Congress voted for Collor's impeachment after a sequence of scandals were uncovered by the media. The vice-president, Itamar Franco, assumed the presidency. Assisted by the Minister of Finance at that time, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Itamar Franco's administration implemented the Plano Real economic package, which included a new currency temporarily pegged to the U.S. dollar, the real. In the elections held on 3 October 1994, Fernando Henrique Cardoso ran for president and won, being reelected in 1998. Brazil's current president is Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, elected in 2002 and reelected in 2006. Government and politics The National Congress in Brasília, the capital of Brazil The Brazilian Federation is based on the union of three autonomous political entities: the States, the Municipalities and the Federal District. A fourth entity originated in the aforementioned association: the Union. There is no hierarchy among the political entities. The Federation is set on six fundamental principles: sovereignty, citizenship, dignity of the people, social value of labor, freedom of enterprise, and political pluralism. The classic tripartite branches of government (executive, legislative, and judicial under the checks and balances system), is formally established by the Constitution. The executive and legislative are organized independently in all four political entities, while the judiciary is organized only in the federal and state levels. All members of the executive and legislative branches are directly elected. Judges and other judicial officials are appointed after passing entry exams. Voting is compulsory for those between 18 and 65 years old. Four political parties stand out among several small ones: Workers' Party (PT), Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB), Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB), and Democrats (formerly Liberal Front Party - PFL). Almost all governmental and administrative functions are exercised by authorities and agencies affiliated to the Executive. The form of government is that of a democratic republic, with a presidential system. The president is both head of state and head of government of the Union and is elected for a four-year term, with the possibility of re-election for a second successive term. The current president is Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva. He was elected on October 27, 2002, "Leftist Lula wins Brazil election" BBC News. Accessed 17 May 2007 and re-elected on October 29, 2006. "Brazil re-elects President Lula" BBC News. Accessed 17 May 2007 The President appoints the Ministers of State, who assist in governing. Legislative houses in each political entity are the main source of laws in Brazil. The National Congress is the Federation’s bicameral legislature, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate. Judiciary authorities exercise jurisdictional duties almost exclusively. Law The eleven members of the Supreme Federal Court of Brazil and the attorney general. Brazilian law is based on Roman-Germanic traditions. "The Brazilian Legal System", Organization of American States. Accessed 17 May 2007. Thus, civil law concepts prevail over common law practices. Most of Brazilian law is codified, although non-codified statutes also represent a substantial part of the system, playing a complementary role. Court decisions set out interpretive guidelines; however, they are not binding on other specific cases except in a few situations. Doctrinal works and the works of academic jurists have strong influence in law creation and in law cases. The legal system is based on the Federal Constitution, which was promulgated on 5 October 1988, and is the fundamental law of Brazil. All other legislation and court decisions must conform to its rules. Silva, José Afonso da; Curso de Direito Constitucional Positivo; Malheiros, 2004, p. 46, ISBN 85-7420-559-1 As of April 2007, there have been 53 amendments. States have their own constitutions, which must not contradict the Federal Constitution. Silva, José Afonso da; Curso de Direito Constitucional Positivo; Malheiros, 2004, p. 592, ISBN 85-7420-559-1 Municipalities and the Federal District do not have their own constitutions; instead, they have "organic laws" (). "Government structure" Brazilian Government. Accessed 17 May 2007. Legislative entities are the main source of statutes, although in certain matters judiciary and executive bodies may enact legal norms. Jurisdiction is administered by the judiciary entities, although in rare situations the Federal Constitution allows the Federal Senate to pass on legal judgments. There are also specialized military, labor, and electoral courts. The highest court is the Supreme Federal Tribunal. This system has been criticised over the last decades due to the slow pace at which final decisions are issued. Lawsuits on appeal may take several years to resolve, and in some cases more than a decade elapses before definitive rulings are made. Glugoski, Miguel; Medauar, Odete. "Nossos direitos nas suas mãos", USP Journal, 24–30 November 2003. Retrieved 17 May 2007. Foreign relations States hosting a diplomatic mission of Brazil Brazil is a political and economic leader in Latin America. Lima, Maria Regina Soares; Hirst, Mônica. "Brazil as a regional power" Blackwell Synergy Journal. Accessed June 22, 2007. Bandeira, Luiz Alberto Moniz. "Brazil as a regional power" Sage Journals Online. Accessed June 22, 2007. However, social and economic problems prevent it from becoming an effective global power. Zibechi, Raúl "Difficult Path" Funder's Network on Trade and Globalization. Accessed June 22, 2007. Between World War II and 1990, both democratic and military governments sought to expand Brazil's influence in the world by pursuing a state-led industrial policy and an independent foreign policy. More recently, the country has aimed to strengthen ties with other South American countries, engage in multilateral diplomacy through the United Nations and the Organization of American States. Universia Knowledge at Wharton website, "Can Brazil Play a Leadership Role in the Current Round of Global Trade Talks?". Wharton School, Pennsylvania. Accessed June 22, 2007. Brazil's current foreign policy is based on the country's position as a regional power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries, and an emerging world power. Ribando, ClareUS-Brazil relations. Congressional Research Service. Retrieved on August 16, 2007. Brazilian foreign policy has generally reflected multilateralism, peaceful dispute settlement, and nonintervention in the affairs of other countries. Georges D. Landau, "The Decisionmaking Process in Foreign Policy: The Case of Brazil," Center for Strategic and International Studies: Washington DC: March 2003 The Brazilian Constitution also determines the country shall seek the economic, political, social and cultural integration of the nations of Latin America. Zibechi, Raul. Brazil and the Difficult Path to Multilateralism. IRC Americas. Retrieved on August 16, 2007. De Lima, Maria Regina Soares. Hirst, Monica. Brazil as an intermediate state and regional power: action, choice and responsibilities. International Affairs 82 (1), 21–40. Retrieved on August 16, 2007. Bandeira, Luiz Alberto Moniz.Brazil as a Regional Power and Its Relations with the United States University of Brasília. Retrieved on August 16, 2007. Military Fighter aircraft A-4 Skyhawk of Brazilian Navy. The Armed forces of Brazil comprise the Brazilian Army, the Brazilian Navy, and the Brazilian Air Force. The Military Police (States' Military Police) is described as an ancillary force of the Army by constitution but under the control of each state's governor. The Brazilian armed forces are the largest in Latin America. The Brazilian Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the Brazilian armed forces, the largest air force in Latin America, with about 700 manned aircraft in service. The Brazilian Navy is responsible for naval operations and for guarding Brazilian territorial waters. It is the oldest of the Brazilian Armed forces and the only navy in Latin America to operate an aircraft carrier, the NAe São Paulo (formerly FS Foch of the French Navy). FAQ. Brazilian Navy Website. Retrieved on August 16,2007. The Brazilian Army is responsible for land-based military operations, with a strength of approximately 190,000 soldiers. Subdivisions According to the Brazilian Constitution of 1988, Brazil is a federation of 26 states, one federal district and also the municipalities. None of these units have the right to secede from the Federation. States States (estados) are based on historical, conventional borders and have developed throughout the centuries, though some boundaries are arbitrary. The states can be split or joined together in new states if their people express a desire to do so in a plebiscite. States have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Federal government. They have a governor and a unicameral legislative body (Assembleia Legislativa) elected directly by their voters. They also have independent Courts of Law for common justice. Despite that, in Brazil states have much less autonomy to create their own laws than in the United States. For example, criminal and civil laws can only be voted by the federal bicameral Congress and are uniform throughout the country. In 1977, Mato Grosso state was split into two. The northern new state retained the name Mato Grosso and the old capital, Cuiabá, while the southern area became the new state of Mato Grosso do Sul, with Campo Grande as its capital. In 1988, the northern portion of Goiás state became the new state of Tocantins. Initially, the capital of Tocantins was the small city of Miracema do Norte (now called Miracema do Tocantins), but it was later moved to the new city of Palmas. The equator cuts through the states of Amapá, Pará, Roraima and Amazonas in the North, and the Tropic of Capricorn cuts through the states of São Paulo, northern Paraná and southern Mato Grosso do Sul. Acre is in the far west side of the country, covered by the Amazonian forest. Paraíba is the easternmost state of Brazil; Ponta do Seixas, in the city of João Pessoa, is the easternmost point of continental Brazil and of the Americas. In contrast to the tropical climate of most of Brazil, the southern states of Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul, and Santa Catarina all have a temperate subtropical climate. The state of Amazonas is the largest in area, comparable in size to Alaska. The state of São Paulo has the largest population and is the economic center of Brazil. Its agriculture, industry, commerce, and services are the most diversified in the nation. Although a large part of its production is exported to other states and other countries, the consumer market of the state is also the biggest in the Brazil. In contrast to most of the Brazilian states, the economy of São Paulo is strong even in noncoastal cities. Today the city of Rio de Janeiro is the capital of the homonymous state, but it has not always been so. Until 1960, the city was the national capital, and its territory was Brazil's Federal District. This led to the strange and confusing situation that the city of Rio de Janeiro was not located in the surrounding state with the same name (whose capital was then Niterói). In 1960, Brasília became the new national capital, and a new Federal District was carved out of Goiás state to contain it. Then the city of Rio de Janeiro became a new state, named Guanabara (after the large bay on which the city sits), as one can still find in old books. Comprising only one city, Guanabara was the only Brazilian state that had no municipalities: the city was directly administered by the state government. All these anomalies disappeared in 1975, when the states of Guanabara and Rio de Janeiro merged, retaining the name of Rio de Janeiro. The city of Rio de Janeiro then became a new municipality and the capital of the new combined state. Municipalities Municipalities (municípios) can be split or joined together in new municipalities if their people express a desire to do so in a plebiscite, following some rules of the Federal Constitution and keeping their borders within the former state; forming exclaves is also expressly forbidden. Municipalities have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Union and state government. They have a mayor and a legislative body elected directly by their people, but they have no separate Courts of Law. Indeed, a Court of Law organized by the state can encompass many municipalities in a single justice administrative division called comarca. The Federal District Brasília, capital of Brazil. The Federal District (Distrito Federal) contains the national capital city, Brasília. The Federal District is not a state in its own right, but shares some characteristics of a state and some of a municipality, while also having some special provisions of its own, intended for the local administration not to conflict with the federal government seat that it hosts. It cannot be divided into municipalities, and its Courts of Law are part of the Federal Judiciary System. Former territories The Brazilian Constitution allows for the existence of incorporated territories (territórios), ruled directly by the federal government and with less autonomy than states, but no territory currently exists. The first territory to be created was Acre, in 1904, when that former Bolivian region became Brazilian. In 1943, when Brazil went to the Second World War, for strategic reasons the Getúlio Vargas regime detached six further territories from border and outlying areas of the country, in order to administer them directly: Amapá, Rio Branco, Guaporé, Ponta Porã, Iguaçu, and the archipelago of Fernando de Noronha. In 1946, two of the seven territories became extinct, reverting to the original states they had been split from: Mato Grosso state incorporated the territory of Ponta Porã and the northern part of Iguaçu, while central Iguaçu went to the state of Paraná, and southern Iguaçu went to the state of Santa Catarina. As for the other territories (Acre, Amapá, Guaporé, Rio Branco, and Fernando de Noronha), they remained as such for many years more. In 1956, the name of Guaporé territory was changed to Rondônia, and in 1962 Rio Branco territory was renamed Roraima. Also in 1962, Acre became a state. In 1988, with the new Constitution, Amapá, Rondônia and Roraima became states as well, while Fernando de Noronha became part of the state of Pernambuco, thus leaving no more territories remaining in Brazil. Regions Brazilian regions The Brazilian regions are merely geographical, not political or administrative divisions, and do not have any specific form of government. Although defined by law, Brazilian regions are useful mainly for statistical purposes, and sometimes to define the application of federal funds in development projects. The national territory was divided in 1969 by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), for demographic and statistical purposes, into five main regions: North, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast and South. The North region covers 45.27% of the land area of Brazil, but has the lowest number of inhabitants. With the exception of Manaus, which hosts a tax-free industrial zone, and Belém, the biggest metropolitan area of the region, it is fairly unindustrialized and undeveloped. It accommodates most of the Amazon rainforest and many indigenous tribes. The Northeast region is inhabited by about 30% of Brazil's population. It is culturally diverse, with roots set in the Portuguese colonial period and in Amerindian and Afro-Brazilian elements. It is also the poorest region of Brazil, See also, List of Brazilian states by GDP per capita and suffers from long periods of drought. INPE. Retrieved 16 August 2007 The largest cities are Salvador, Recife, and Fortaleza. The Central-West region has low demographic density when compared to the other regions, being only more densely populated than the North region See List of Brazilian states by population density . Part of its territory is covered by the world's largest wetland area, the Pantanal as well as a small part of the Amazon Rainforest in the northwest. However, most of the region is covered by the Cerrado, the world's largest savanna. The Central-West region contributes significantly towards the nation's agricultural output. The Southeast region is by far the richest in terms of total economic output, and also the most densely populated region. It has a larger population than any South American country except Brazil itself, and hosts one of the largest megalopolises of the world, extending between the country's two largest cities: São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. The region is very diverse, including the major business center of São Paulo, the historical cities of Minas Gerais and its capital Belo Horizonte, the third-largest metropolitan area in Brazil, the beaches of Rio de Janeiro, and the coast of Espírito Santo. The South region is the wealthiest by GDP per capita and has the highest standard of living among the country's regions. It is also the coldest region of Brazil, with occasional frost and snow in some of the higher-altitude areas. It has been settled mainly by European immigrants, mostly of Italian, German and Portuguese ancestry, being clearly influenced by these cultures. Economy São Paulo, the wealthiest city of Brazil and the largest financial center in Latin America Brazil is the largest national economy in Latin America, the world's tenth largest economy at market exchange rates and the ninth largest in purchasing power parity (PPP), according to the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank; with large and developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing and service sectors, as well as a large labor pool. Brazilian exports are booming, creating a new generation of tycoons. Major export products include aircraft, coffee, automobiles, soybean, iron ore, orange juice, steel, ethanol, textiles, footwear, corned beef and electrical equipment. The country has been expanding its presence in international financial and commodities markets, and is regarded as one of the group of four emerging economies called BRIC. The biggest investment boom in history is under way; in 2007, Brazil launched a four-year plan to spend $300 billion to modernise its road network, power plants and ports. Brazil had pegged its currency, the real, to the U.S. dollar in 1994. However, after the East Asian financial crisis, the Russian default in 1998 and the series of adverse financial events that followed it, the Brazilian central bank temporarily changed its monetary policy to a managed-float scheme while undergoing a currency crisis, until definitively changing the exchange regime to free-float in January 1999. Brazil received an International Monetary Fund rescue package in mid-2002 in the amount of $30.4 billion, a record sum at that time. The IMF loan was paid off early by Brazil's central bank in 2005 (the due date was scheduled for 2006). One of the issues the Brazilian central bank is currently dealing with is the excess of speculative short-term capital inflows to the country in the past few months, which might explain in part the recent downfall of the U.S. dollar against the real in the period. Nonetheless, foreign direct investment (FDI), related to long-term, less speculative investment in production, is estimated to be $193.8 billion for 2007. Inflation monitoring and control currently plays a major role in Brazil's Central Bank activity in setting out short-term interest rates as a monetary policy measure. Components and energy Itaipu Dam, the world's second largest hydroelectric plant by energy generation. Brazil's "investment grade" economy is diverse, encompassing agriculture, industry, and a multitude of services. Brazil is finally punching its weight with a booming economy and stronger global leadership. The recent economic strength has been due in part to a global boom in commodities prices with exports from beef to soybeans soaring. Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 5.1% of the gross domestic product in 2007. A performance that puts agribusiness in a position of distinction in terms of Brazil's trade balance, in spite of trade barriers and subsidizing policies adopted by the developed countries. The industry; from automobiles, steel and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft, and consumer durables; accounted for 30.8% of the gross domestic product. Industry is highly concentrated geographically, with the leading concentrations in metropolitan São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Campinas, Porto Alegre, and Belo Horizonte. Technologically advanced industries are also highly concentrated in these locations. Brazil is the world's tenth largest energy consumer. Its energy comes from renewable sources, particularly hydroelectricity and ethanol; and nonrenewable sources, mainly oil and natural gas. A global power in agriculture and natural resources, Brazil unleashed the greatest burst of prosperity that it has witnessed in three decades. Brazil will become an oil superpower, with massive oil discoveries in recent times. The governmental agencies responsible for the energy policy are the Ministry of Mines and Energy, the National Council for Energy Policy, the National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels, and the National Agency of Electricity. Science and technology An Embraer ERJ-135 regional jet. Airplanes are one of the sophisticated products exported by Brazil. Brazilian science effectively began in the first decades of the 19th century, when the Portuguese Royal Family, headed by John VI, arrived in Rio de Janeiro, escaping from the Napoleon's army invasion of Portugal in 1807. Until then, Brazil was a Portuguese colony, without universities, and a lack of cultural and scientific organizations, in stark contrast to the former American colonies of the Spanish Empire, which although having a largely illiterate population like Brazil and Portugal, had, however, a number of universities since the 16th century. Technological research in Brazil is largely carried out in public universities and research institutes. Nonetheless, more than 73% of funding for basic research still comes from government sources. Some of Brazil's most notables technological hubs are the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, the Butantan Institute, the Air Force's Aerospace Technical Center, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation and the INPE. Brazil has the most advanced space program in Latin America, with significant capabilities to launch vehicles, launch sites and satellite manufacturing. On 14 October 1997, the Brazilian Space Agency signed an agreement with NASA to provide parts for the ISS. Uranium is enriched at the Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory to fuel the country's energy demands. Plans are on the way to build the country's first nuclear submarine. Brazil is one of the three countries in Latin America Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität with an operational Synchrotron Laboratory, a research facility on physics, chemistry, material science and life sciences. Demographics Boa Viagem beach in Recife. Much of Brazil's population is concentrated along the coastline. Population of Brazil is made up of many racial and ethnic groups. The last National Research for Sample of Domiciles (PNAD) census revealed the following: 49.4% of the population are White, about 93 million; 42.3% are Pardo (brown), about 80 million; 7.4% are Black, about 13 million; 0.5% are Asian, about 1 million; and 0.4% are Amerindian, about 519,000. Most Brazilians can trace their ancestry to the country's Indigenous peoples, Portuguese colonists, and African slaves. Since 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese, miscegenation between these three groups took place. Over three centuries of Portuguese colonization, Brazil received more than 700,000 Portuguese settlers and 4 million African slaves. The country has the largest population of African descent outside of Africa. BBC Analysis: Brazil's 'racial democracy' Beginning in the late 19th century, Brazil opened its borders to immigration: people from over 60 nations migrated to Brazil. About 5 million European and Asian immigrants arrived between 1870 and 1953, most of them from Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Germany. In the early 20th century, people from Japan and the Middle-East also arrived. The immigrants and their descendants had an important impact in the ethnic make-up of the Brazilian population, and many diasporas are present in the country. Brazil has the largest population of Italian origin outside Italy, with over 25 million Italian Brazilians, the largest population of Japanese origin outside Japan, with 1.6 million Japanese Brazilians, as well the second largest population of German origin outside of Germany (after only the United States), with 12 million German Brazilians. A characteristic of Brazil is the race mixing. Genetically, most Brazilians have some degree of European, African, and Amerindian ancestry. The entire population has highly varied racial types and backgrounds, but without clear ethnic sub-divisions. The largest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte, with 19.7, 11.4, and 5.4 million inhabitants respectively. Almost all the capitals are the largest city in their corresponding state, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, the capital of Santa Catarina. There are also non-capital metropolitan areas in the states of São Paulo (Campinas, Santos and the Paraíba Valley), Minas Gerais (Steel Valley), Rio Grande do Sul (Sinos Valley), and Santa Catarina (Itajaí Valley). Education and health Federal University of Paraná, in Curitiba, is regarded as the oldest Brazilian university. The Federal Constitution and the 1996 General Law of Education in Brazil (LDB) determine how the Federal Government, States, Federal District, and Municipalities will manage and organize their respective education systems. Each of these public educational systems is responsible for their own maintenance, which manage funds as well as mechanisms and sources for financial resources. The new Constitution reserves 25% of state and municipal taxes and 18% of federal taxes for education. Private school programs are available to complement the public school system. In 2003, the literacy rate was 88% of the population, and the youth literacy rate (ages 15–19) was 93.2%. Illiteracy is highest in the Northeast, around 27%, which has a high proportion of rural poor. Although at same year, Brazil's education had low levels of efficiency by 15-year-old students, particularly in the public school network. Higher education starts with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different specialist choices such as academic or vocational paths. Depending on choice, students may improve their educational background with Stricto Sensu or Lato Sensu postgraduate courses. The public health system is managed and provided by all levels of government, whilst private healthcare fulfils a complementary role. There are several problems in the Brazilian health system. In 2006, these were infant mortality, child mortality, maternal mortality, mortality by non-transmissible illness and mortality caused by external causes: transportation, violence and suicide. Language Museum of the Portuguese Language in São Paulo, the first language museum in the world. Portuguese is the official language of Brazil. It is spoken by almost all of the population and is virtually the only language used in newspapers, radio, television, and for all business and administrative purposes, with the exception of Nheengatu, an indigenous language of South America which was granted co-official status alongside Portuguese in the municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira. Language Born of Colonialism Thrives Again in Amazon New York Times. Retrieved 2008-07-14 Moreover, Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas, making the language an important part of Brazilian national identity and giving it a national culture distinct from its Spanish-speaking neighbors. Brazilian Portuguese has had its own development, influenced by the Amerindian and African languages. Due to this, the language is somewhat different from that spoken in Portugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries, mainly for phonological and orthographic differences. These differences are somewhat greater than those of American and British English. As of 2008, Portugal is considering reforming its own spelling rules to accommodate linguistic developments in the Brazilian Portuguese since the two languages diverged. Minority languages are spoken throughout the vast national territory. Some of these are spoken by indigenous peoples: 180 Amerindian languages are spoken in remote areas. Others are spoken by immigrants and their descendants. There are important communities of speakers of German (mostly the Hunsrückisch, part of the High German languages) and Italian (mostly the Talian dialect, of Venetian origin) in the south of the country, both largely influenced by the Portuguese language. Culture Brazilian Carnival parade in Rio de Janeiro, considered one of the greatest shows on Earth. A wide variety of elements create a society with considerable ethnic complexity. Brazilian culture has historically been influenced by European, African, and Indigenous cultures and traditions. Its major early influence derived from Portuguese culture, because of strong colonial ties with the Portuguese empire. Among other inheritances, the Portuguese introduced the Portuguese language, the Catholic religion and the colonial architectural styles. Other aspects of Brazilian culture are contributions of Italian, German and other European immigrants; came in large numbers and their influences are felt closer to the South and Southeast of Brazil. Amerindian peoples influenced Brazil's language and cuisine; and the Africans, brought to Brazil as slaves, influenced language, cuisine, music, dance and religion. Literature in Brazil dates back to the 16th century, to the writings of the first Portuguese explorers in Brazil, such as Pêro Vaz de Caminha, writer of the fleet of navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral. Cuisine varies greatly by region. This diversity reflects the country's mix of native and immigrants. This has created a national cooking style marked by the preservation of regional differences. Brazil's cultural tradition extends to its music styles which include samba, bossa nova, forró, frevo, pagode and many others. Brazil has also contributed to classical music, which can be seen in the works of many composers. In arts, important modern artists Anita Malfatti and Tarsila do Amaral were both early pioneers in Brazilian art. The Cinema has a long tradition, reaching back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th century, and gained a new level of international acclaim in recent years. The festival of Carnival (), with its spectacular street parades and vibrant music, has become one of the most potent images of Brazil; an annual celebration held forty days before Easter and marks the beginning of Lent. Carnival is celebrated throughout Brazil, with distinct regional characteristics, but the most spectacular celebrations outside Rio de Janeiro take place in Salvador, Recife, and Olinda, although the nature of the events varies. Other regional festivals include the Boi Bumbá and Festa Junina (June Festivals). Religion Christ the Redeemer, selected as one of the " New Seven Wonders of the World and symbol of Brazilian Christianity. Religion is very diversified in Brazil, the constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right in practice. The Roman Catholic Church is dominant, making Brazil the largest Catholic nation in the world. The formal link between the state and the Roman Catholicism was severed in the late 19th century; however, the Catholic Church has continued to exert an influence on national affairs. The number of Protestants is rising. Until 1970, the majority of Brazilian Protestants were members of "traditional churches", mostly Lutherans, Presbyterians and Baptists. Since then, numbers of Pentecostal and Neopentecostal members have increased significantly. Traditional African beliefs, brought by slaves, have blended with Catholicism to create Afro-Brazilian religions such as Macumba, Candomblé, and Umbanda. Amerindians practice a wide variety of indigenous religions that vary from group to group. According to the 2000 Demographic Census: 73.89% of the population follow Roman Catholicism; 15.41% Protestantism; 0.907% other Christian denominations; 1.332% Kardecist spiritism; 0.309% traditional African religions; 0.010% Amerindian religions; 7.354% Agnosticism, Atheism or without a religion; and 0.806% other religions. Some of the latter are 0.126% Buddhism; 0.051% Judaism and 0.016% Islam. Sport Maracanã Stadium, at the Brazilian Championship, highest division of Brazilian football. Football () is the most popular sport in Brazil. The Brazilian national football team (Seleção) is currently ranked fourth in the world according to the FIFA World Rankings. They have been victorious in the World Cup tournament a record five times, in 1958, 1962, 1970, 1994 and 2002. Basketball, volleyball, auto racing, and martial arts also attract large audiences. Though not as regularly followed or practiced as the previously mentioned sports, tennis, team handball, swimming, and gymnastics have found a growing number of enthusiasts over the last decades. Some sport variations have their origins in Brazil. Beach football, futsal (official version of indoor football) and footvolley emerged in the country as variations of football. In martial arts, Brazilians have developed Capoeira, Vale tudo, and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu. In auto racing, Brazilian drivers have won the Formula 1 world championship eight times: Emerson Fittipaldi in 1972 and 1974; Nelson Piquet in 1981, 1983 and 1987; and Ayrton Senna in 1988, 1990 and 1991. Brazil has undertaken the organization of large-scale sporting events: the country organized and hosted the 1950 FIFA World Cup and is chosen to host the 2014 FIFA World Cup event. The circuit located in São Paulo, Autódromo José Carlos Pace, hosts the annual Grand Prix of Brazil. São Paulo organized the IV Pan American Games in 1963, and Rio de Janeiro hosted the XV Pan American Games in 2007. Brazil also tried for the fourth time to host the Summer Olympics with Rio de Janeiro candidature in 2016. See also References Further reading External links Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics Brazil at UCB Libraries GovPubs Institute of Applied Economics Research National Bank for Social and Economical Development Country Profile from the U.S. Library of Congress (1997) Government and administration Brazilian Federal Government Chamber of Deputies Federal Senate Presidency of Brazil Chief of State and Cabinet Members Economy and business Brazilian Central Bank Brazilian-American Chamber of Commerce Britcham in Brazil São Paulo Stock Exchange Travel and sport Accommodation in Brazil Sport in Brazil Tourism in Brazil Non-Governmental Organizations Assistance to Rio de Janeiro Favelas </tr> be-x-old:Бразылія | Brazil |@lemmatized brazil:158 officially:1 federative:2 republic:7 country:46 south:24 america:22 fifth:3 large:46 geographical:2 area:18 occupy:4 nearly:3 half:2 http:2 www:1 encyclopedia:1 com:1 doc:1 html:1 populous:2 fourth:5 democracy:4 world:32 bound:1 atlantic:7 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2,489 | Kuiper_belt | Known objects in the Kuiper belt, derived from data from the Minor Planet Center. Objects in the main belt are coloured green, while scattered objects are coloured orange. The four outer planets are blue. Neptune's few known Trojan asteroids are yellow, while Jupiter's are pink. The scattered objects between the Sun and the Kuiper belt are known as centaurs. The scale is in astronomical units. The pronounced gap at the bottom is due to obscuration by the band of the Milky Way. The Kuiper belt (, rhyming with "viper"), sometimes called the Edgeworth-Kuiper belt, is a region of the Solar System beyond the planets extending from the orbit of Neptune (at 30 AU) to approximately 55 AU from the Sun. It is similar to the asteroid belt, although it is far larger—20 times as wide and 20–200 times as massive. Like the asteroid belt, it consists mainly of small bodies (remnants from the Solar System's formation). It is home to at least three dwarf planets – Pluto, Haumea and Makemake. But while the asteroid belt is composed primarily of rock and metal, the Kuiper belt objects are composed largely of frozen volatiles (termed "ices"), such as methane, ammonia and water. Since the first discovery in 1992, the number of known Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) has increased to over a thousand, and more than 70 000 KBOs over 100 km in diameter are believed to reside there. The Kuiper belt was initially believed to be the main repository for periodic comets, those with orbits lasting less than 200 years. However, studies since the mid-1990s have shown that the Kuiper belt is dynamically stable, and that it is the farther scattered disc, a dynamically active region created by the outward motion of Neptune 4.5 billion years ago, that is their true place of origin. Scattered disc objects such as Eris are KBO-like bodies with extremely large orbits that take them as far as 100 AU from the Sun. The centaurs, comet-like bodies that orbit among the gas giants, are believed to originate there. Neptune's moon Triton is believed to be a captured KBO. Pluto, a dwarf planet, is the largest known member of the Kuiper belt. Originally considered a planet, it is similar to many other objects of the Kuiper belt, and its orbital period is identical to that of the KBOs known as "Plutinos". The Kuiper belt should not be confused with the hypothesized Oort cloud, which is a thousand times more distant. The objects within the Kuiper belt, together with the members of the scattered disc and any potential Hills cloud or Oort cloud objects, are collectively referred to as trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs). History Since the discovery of Pluto, many have speculated that it might not be alone. The region now called the Kuiper belt had been hypothesized in various forms for decades. It was only in 1992 that the first direct evidence for its existence was found. The number and variety of prior speculations on the nature of the Kuiper belt have led to continued uncertainty as to who deserves credit for first proposing it. Hypotheses The first astronomer to suggest the existence of a trans-Neptunian population was Frederick C. Leonard. In 1930, soon after Pluto's discovery, he pondered whether it was "not likely that in Pluto there has come to light the first of a series of ultra-Neptunian bodies, the remaining members of which still await discovery but which are destined eventually to be detected". Astronomer Gerard Kuiper, after whom the Kuiper belt is named In 1943, in the Journal of the British Astronomical Association, Kenneth Edgeworth hypothesised that, in the region beyond Neptune, the material within the primordial solar nebula was too widely spaced to condense into planets, and so rather condensed into a myriad of smaller bodies. From this he concluded that “the outer region of the solar system, beyond the orbits of the planets, is occupied by a very large number of comparatively small bodies" and that, from time to time, one of their number "wanders from its own sphere and appears as an occasional visitor to the inner solar system,” Davies, p. 2 becoming a comet. In 1951, in an article for the journal Astrophysics, Gerard Kuiper speculated on a similar disc having formed early in the Solar System's evolution, however, he did not believe that such a belt still existed today. Kuiper was operating on the assumption common in his time, that Pluto was the size of the Earth, and had therefore scattered these bodies out toward the Oort cloud or out of the Solar System. Were Kuiper's hypothesis correct, there would not be a Kuiper belt where we now see it. The hypothesis took many other forms in the following decades: in 1962, physicist Al G.W. Cameron postulated the existence of “a tremendous mass of small material on the outskirts of the solar system,” Davies, p. 14 while in 1964, Fred Whipple, who popularised the famous "dirty snowball" hypothesis for cometary structure, thought that a "comet belt" might be massive enough to cause the purported discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus that had sparked the search for Planet X, or at the very least, to affect the orbits of known comets. Observation, however, ruled out this hypothesis. In 1977, Charles Kowal discovered 2060 Chiron, an icy planetoid with an orbit between Saturn and Uranus. He used a blink comparator; the same device that had allowed Clyde Tombaugh to discover Pluto nearly 50 years before. In 1992, another object 5145 Pholus, was discovered in a similar orbit. Today, an entire population of comet-like bodies, the centaurs, is known to exist in the region between Jupiter and Neptune. The centaurs' orbits are unstable and have dynamical lifetimes of a few million years. From the time of Chiron's discovery, astronomers speculated that they therefore must be frequently replenished by some outer reservoir. Davies p. 38 Further evidence for the belt's existence later emerged from the study of comets. That comets have finite lifespans has been known for some time. As they approach the Sun, its heat causes their volatile surfaces to sublimate into space, eating them gradually away. In order to still be visible over the age of the Solar System, they must be frequently replenished. One such area of replenishment is the Oort cloud; the spherical swarm of comets extending beyond 50 000 AU from the Sun first hypothesised by astronomer Jan Oort in 1950. Oort, J. H., The structure of the cloud of comets surrounding the Solar System and a hypothesis concerning its origin, Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth., 11, p. 91–110 (1950) Text at Harvard server (PDF) It is believed to be the point of origin for long period comets, those, like Hale-Bopp, with orbits lasting thousands of years. There is however another comet population, known as short period or periodic comets; those with orbits lasting less than 200 years. By the 1970s, the rate at which short-period comets were being discovered was becoming increasingly inconsistent with them having emerged solely from the Oort cloud. Davies p. 39 For an Oort cloud object to become a short-period comet, it would first have to be captured by the giant planets. In 1980, in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Julio Fernandez stated that for every short period comet to be sent into the inner solar system from the Oort cloud, 600 would have to be ejected into interstellar space. He speculated that a comet belt from between 35 and 50 AU would be required to account for the observed number of comets. Following up on Fernandez's work, in 1988 the Canadian team of Martin Duncan, Tom Quinn and Scott Tremaine ran a number of computer simulations to determine if all observed comets could have arrived from the Oort cloud. They found that the Oort cloud could not account for short-period comets, particularly as short-period comets are clustered near the plane of the Solar System, whereas Oort cloud comets tend to arrive from any point in the sky. With a belt as Fernandez described it added to the formulations, the simulations matched observations. Reportedly because the words "Kuiper" and "comet belt" appeared in the opening sentence of Fernandez's paper, Tremaine named this region the "Kuiper belt." Davies p. 191 Discovery The array of telescopes atop Mauna Kea, with which the Kuiper belt was discovered In 1987, astronomer David Jewitt, then at MIT, became increasingly puzzled by "the apparent emptiness of the outer Solar System." He encouraged then-graduate student Jane Luu to aid him in his endeavour to locate another object beyond Pluto's orbit, because, as he told her, "If we don't, nobody will." Davies p. 50 Using telescopes at the Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona and the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile, Jewitt and Luu conducted their search in much the same way as Clyde Tombaugh and Charles Kowal had, with a blink comparator. Initially, examination of each pair of plates took about eight hours, Davies p. 51 but the process was sped up with the arrival of electronic Charge-coupled devices or CCDs, which, though their field of view was narrower, were not only more efficient at collecting light (they retained 90 percent of the light that hit them, rather than the ten percent achieved by photographs) but allowed the blinking process to be done virtually, on a computer screen. Today, CCDs form the basis for most astronomical detectors. Davies pp. 52, 54, 56 In 1988, Jewitt moved to the Institute of Astronomy at the University of Hawaii. Luu later joined him to work at the University of Hawaii’s 2.24 m telescope at Mauna Kea. Davies pp. 57, 62 Eventually, the field of view for CCDs had increased to 1024 by 1024 pixels, which allowed searches to be conducted far more rapidly. Davies p. 65 Finally, after five years of searching, on August 30, 1992, Jewitt and Luu announced the "Discovery of the candidate Kuiper belt object" ; Six months later, they discovered a second object in the region, 1993 FW. Studies since the trans-Neptunian region was first charted have shown that in fact, the region now called the Kuiper belt is not the point of origin for short-period comets, but that they instead derive from a separate but linked population called the scattered disc. The scattered disc was created when Neptune migrated outward into the proto-Kuiper belt, which at the time was much closer to the Sun, and left in its wake a population of dynamically stable objects which could never be affected by its orbit (the Kuiper belt proper), and a separate population whose perihelia are close enough that Neptune can still disturb them as it travels around the Sun (the scattered disc). Because the scattered disc is dynamically active and the Kuiper belt relatively dynamically stable, the scattered disc is now seen as the most likely point of origin for periodic comets. Name Astronomers will sometimes use alternative name Edgeworth-Kuiper belt to credit Edgeworth, and KBOs are occasionally referred to as EKOs. However, Brian Marsden claims neither deserve true credit; "Neither Edgeworth or Kuiper wrote about anything remotely like what we are now seeing, but Fred Whipple did." Davies p. 199 Conversely, David Jewitt comments that, "If anything . . . Fernandez most nearly deserves the credit for predicting the Kuiper Belt." The term trans-Neptunian object (TNO) is recommended for objects in the belt by several scientific groups because the term is less controversial than all others — it is not a synonym though, as TNOs, include all objects orbiting the Sun past the orbit of Neptune, not just those in the Kuiper belt. Origins Simulation showing Outer Planets and Kuiper Belt: a)Before Jupiter/Saturn 2:1 resonance b)Scattering of Kuiper Belt objects into the solar system after the orbital shift of Neptune c)After ejection of Kuiper Belt bodies by Jupiter The precise origins of the Kuiper belt and its complex structure are still unclear, and astronomers are awaiting the completion of several wide-field survey telescopes such as Pan-STARRS and the future LSST, which should reveal many currently unknown KBOs. These surveys will provide data that will help determine answers to these questions. The Kuiper belt is believed to consist of planetesimals; fragments from the original protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into planets and instead formed into smaller bodies, the largest less than 3000 km in diameter. Modern computer simulations show the Kuiper belt to have been strongly influenced by Jupiter and Neptune, and also suggest that neither Uranus nor Neptune could have formed in situ beyond Saturn, as too little primordial matter existed at that range to produce objects of such high mass. Instead, these planets are believed to have formed closer to Jupiter, and migrated outwards during the course of the Solar System's early evolution. Eventually, the orbits shifted to the point where Jupiter and Saturn existed in an exact 2:1 resonance; Jupiter orbited the Sun twice for every one Saturn orbit. The gravitational pull from such a resonance ultimately disrupted the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, causing Neptune's orbit to move outward into the primordial planetesimal disk, which sent the disk into temporary chaos. As Neptune traveled along this modified orbit, it excited and scattered many TNO planetesimals into higher and more eccentric orbits, depleting the primordial population. (arXiv:astro-ph/0111290v1) However, the present most popular model still fails to account for many of the characteristics of the distribution and, quoting one of the scientific articles, the problems "continue to challenge analytical techniques and the fastest numerical modeling hardware and software". Structure At its fullest extent, including its outlying regions, the Kuiper belt stretches from roughly 30 to 55 AU. However, the main body of the belt is generally accepted to extend from the 2:3 resonance (see below) at 39.5 AU to the 1:2 resonance at roughly 48 AU. The Kuiper belt is quite thick, with the main concentration extending as much as ten degrees outside the ecliptic plane and a more diffuse distribution of objects extending several times farther. Overall it more resembles a torus or doughnut than a belt. Its mean position is inclined to the ecliptic by 1.86 degrees. Orbit classification (schematic of semi-major axes) The presence of Neptune has a profound effect on the Kuiper belt's structure due to orbital resonances. Over a timescale comparable to the age of the Solar System, Neptune's gravity destabilises the orbits of any objects which happen to lie in certain regions, and either sends them into the inner Solar System or out into the Scattered disc or interstellar space. This causes the Kuiper belt to possess pronounced gaps in its current layout, similar to the Kirkwood gaps in the Asteroid belt. In the region between 40 and 42 AU, for instance, no objects can retain a stable orbit over such times, and any observed in that region must have migrated there relatively recently. Classical belt Between approximately 42–48 AU, however, the gravitational influence of Neptune is negligible, and objects can exist with their orbits pretty much unmolested. This region is known as the classical Kuiper belt, and its members comprise roughly two thirds of KBOs observed to date. Because the first modern KBO discovered, 1992 QB1, is considered the prototype of this group, classical KBOs are often referred to as cubewanos ("Q-B-1-os"). The classical Kuiper belt appears to be a composite of two separate populations. The first, known as "dynamically cold" population, has orbits much like the planets; nearly circular, with an orbital eccentricity of less than 0.1, and with relatively low inclinations up to about 10° (they lie close to the plane of the Solar System rather than at an angle). The second, the "dynamically hot" population, has orbits much more inclined to the ecliptic, by up to 30°. The two populations have been named this way not because of any major difference in temperature, but from analogy to particles in a gas, which increase their relative velocity as they become heated up. The two populations not only possess different orbits, but different compositions; the cold population is markedly redder than the hot, suggesting it formed in a different region. The hot population is believed to have formed near Jupiter, and to have been ejected out by movements among the gas giants. The cold population, on the other hand, is believed to have formed more or less in its current position although it may also have been later swept outwards by Neptune during its migration. Resonances Distribution of cubewanos, plutinos and near scattered objects When an object's orbital period is an exact ratio of Neptune's (a situation called a mean motion resonance), then it can become locked in a synchronised motion with Neptune and avoid being perturbed away if their relative alignments are appropriate. If, for instance, an object is in just the right kind of orbit so that it orbits the Sun two times for every three Neptune orbits, then whenever it returns to its original position, Neptune will always be half an orbit away from it, or in the same position as it began to it, since it will have completed 1½ orbits in the same time. This is known as the 2:3 (or 3:2) resonance, and it corresponds to a characteristic semi-major axis of about 39.4 AU. This 2:3 resonance is populated by about 200 known objects, including Pluto together with its moons. In recognition of this, the other members of this family are known as Plutinos. Many Plutinos, including Pluto, often have orbits which cross that of Neptune, though their resonance means they can never collide. Many others, such as 90482 Orcus and 28978 Ixion, are large enough to likely qualify as plutoids when more is known about them. Plutinos have high orbital eccentricities, suggesting that they are not native to their current positions but were instead thrown haphazardly into their orbits by the migrating Neptune. The 1:2 resonance (whose objects complete half an orbit for each of Neptune's) corresponds to semi-major axes of ~47.7AU, and is sparsely populated. Its residents are sometimes referred to as twotinos. Other resonances also exist at 3:4, 3:5, 4:7 and 2:5. Davies p. 104 Neptune possesses a number of trojan objects, which occupy its L4 and L5 points; gravitationally stable regions leading and trailing it in its orbit. Neptune trojans are often described as being in a 1:1 resonance with Neptune. Neptune trojans are remarkably stable in their orbits and are unlikely to have been captured by Neptune, but rather to have formed alongside it. Additionally, there is a relative absence of objects with semi-major axes below 39 AU which cannot apparently be explained by the present resonances. The currently accepted hypothesis for the cause of this is that as Neptune migrated outward, unstable orbital resonances moved gradually through this region, and thus any objects within it were swept up, or gravitationally ejected from it. Davies p. 107 "Kuiper cliff" Graph showing the numbers of KBOs for a given distance from the Sun. The Plutinos are the "spike" at 40 AU, while the classicals are between 42 and 47 AU, and the twotinos are at 48 AU. The 1:2 resonance appears to be an edge beyond which few objects are known. It is not clear whether it is actually the outer edge of the Classical belt or just the beginning of a broad gap. Objects have been detected at the 2:5 resonance at roughly 55 AU, well outside the classical belt; however, predictions of a large number of bodies in classical orbits between these resonances have not been verified through observation. Earlier models of the Kuiper belt had suggested that the number of large objects would increase by a factor of two beyond 50 AU; so this sudden drastic falloff, known as the "Kuiper cliff", was completely unexpected, and its cause, to date, is unknown. Bernstein and Trilling et al. have found evidence that the rapid decline in objects of 100 km or more in radius beyond 50 AU is real, and not due to observational bias. Possible explanations include that material at that distance is too scarce or too scattered to accrete into large objects, or that subsequent processes removed or destroyed those which did form. Patryk Lykawka of Kobe University has claimed that the gravitational attraction of an unseen large planetary object, perhaps the size of Earth or Mars, might be responsible. Composition Studies of the Kuiper belt since its discovery have generally indicated that its members are primarily composed of ices; a mixture of light hydrocarbons (such as methane), ammonia, and water ice, a composition they share with comets. The temperature of the belt is only about 50K, so many compounds that would remain gaseous closer to the Sun are solid. Due to their small size and extreme distance from Earth, the chemical makeup of KBOs is very difficult to determine. The principal method by which astronomers determine the composition of a celestial object is spectroscopy. When an object's light is broken into its component colours, an image akin to a rainbow is formed. This image is called a spectrum. Different substances absorb light at different wavelengths, and when the spectrum for a specific object is unravelled, dark lines (called absorption lines) appear where the substances within it have absorbed that particular wavelength of light. Every element or compound has its own unique spectroscopic signature, and by reading an object's full spectral "fingerprint", astronomers can determine what it is made of. Initially, such detailed analysis of KBOs was impossible, and so astronomers were only able to determine the most basic facts about their makeup, primarily their colour. These first data showed a broad range of colours among KBOs, ranging from neutral grey to deep red. This suggested that their surfaces were composed of a wide range of compounds, from dirty ices to hydrocarbons. This diversity was startling, as astronomers had expected KBOs to be uniformly dark, having lost most of their volatile ices to the effects of cosmic rays. Davies p. 118 Various solutions were suggested for this discrepancy, including resurfacing by impacts or outgassing. However, Jewitt and Luu's spectral analysis of the known Kuiper belt objects in 2001 found that the variation in colour was too extreme to be easily explained by random impacts. Although to date most KBOs still appear spectrally featureless due to their faintness, there have been a number of successes in determining their composition. In 1996, Robert H. Brown et al. obtained spectroscopic data on the KBO 1993 SC, revealing its surface composition to be markedly similar to that of Pluto, as well as Neptune's moon Triton, possessing large amounts of methane ice. Water ice has been detected in several KBOs, including 1996 TO66, 2000 EB173 and 2000 WR106. In 2004, Mike Brown et al. determined the existence of crystalline water ice and ammonia hydrate on one of the largest known KBOs, 50000 Quaoar. Both of these substances would have been destroyed over the age of the solar system, suggesting that Quaoar had been recently resurfaced, either by internal tectonic activity or by meteorite impacts. Mass and size distribution Illustration of the power law. Despite its vast extent, the collective mass of the Kuiper belt is relatively low. The upper limit to the total mass is estimated at roughly a tenth the mass of the Earth, with some estimates placing it at a thirtieth an Earth mass. Conversely, models of the Solar System's formation predict a collective mass for the Kuiper belt of 30 Earth masses. This missing >99% of the mass can hardly be dismissed, as it is required for the accretion of any KBOs larger than 100 km in diameter. At the current low density, these objects simply should not exist. Moreover, the eccentricity and inclination of current orbits makes the encounters quite "violent," resulting in destruction rather than accretion. It appears that either the current residents of the Kuiper belt have been created closer to the Sun or some mechanism dispersed the original mass. Neptune’s current influence is too weak to explain such a massive "vacuuming", though the Nice model proposes that it could have been the cause of mass removal in the past. While the question remains open, the conjectures vary from a passing star scenario to grinding of smaller objects, via collisions, into dust small enough to be affected by solar radiation. Morbidelli A. Origin and dynamical evolution of comets and their reservoirs. Preprint on arXiv (pdf) Bright objects are rare compared with the dominant dim population, as expected from accretion models of origin, given that only some objects of a given size would have grown further. This relationship N(D), the population expressed as a function of the diameter, referred to as brightness slope, has been confirmed by observations. The slope is inversely proportional to some power of the diameter D. where the current measures Bernstein G.M., Trilling D.E., Allen R.L., Brown K.E, Holman M., Malhotra R. The size Distribution of transneptunian bodies. The Astronomical Journal, 128, 1364–1390. preprint on arXiv (pdf) give q = 4 ±0.5. Less formally, there are for instance 8 (=2³) times more objects in 100–200 km range than objects in 200–400 km range. In other words, for every object with the diameter of 1000 km there should be around 1000 (=10³) objects with diameter of 100 km. The law is expressed in this differential form rather than as a cumulative cubic relationship, because only the middle part of the slope can be measured; the law must break at smaller sizes, beyond the current measure. Of course, only the magnitude is actually known, the size is inferred assuming albedo (not a safe assumption for larger objects). Largest KBOs Since the year 2000, a number of KBOs with diameters of between 500 and 1200 km (about half that of Pluto) have been discovered. 50000 Quaoar, a classical KBO discovered in 2002, is over 1200 km across. (originally , nicknamed "Easterbunny") and (originally , nicknamed "Santa"), both announced on July 29, 2005, are larger still. Other objects, such as 28978 Ixion (discovered in 2001) and 20000 Varuna (discovered in 2000) measure roughly 500 km across. Pluto The discovery of these large KBOs in similar orbits to Pluto led many to conclude that, bar its relative size, Pluto was not particularly different from other members of the Kuiper belt. Not only did these objects approach Pluto in size, but many also possessed satellites, and were of similar composition (methane and carbon monoxide have been found both on Pluto and on the largest KBOs). Thus, just as Ceres was considered a planet before the discovery of its fellow asteroids, some began to suggest that Pluto might also be reclassified. The issue was brought to a head by the discovery of Eris, an object in the scattered disc far beyond the Kuiper belt, that is now known to be 27 percent more massive than Pluto. In response, the International Astronomical Union (IAU), was forced to define a planet for the first time, and in so doing included in their definition that a planet must have "cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit." As Pluto shared its orbit with so many KBOs, it was deemed not to have cleared its orbit, and was thus reclassified from a planet to a member of the Kuiper belt. Though Pluto is the largest KBO, a number of objects outside the Kuiper belt which may have begun their lives as KBOs are larger. Eris is the most obvious example, but Neptune's moon Triton, which, as explained above, is probably a captured KBO, is also larger than Pluto. As of 2008, only five objects in the Solar System, Ceres, Pluto, Eris, Makemake and Haumea, are considered dwarf planets. However, a number of other Kuiper belt objects are also large enough to be spherical and could be classified as dwarf planets in the future. Satellites Of the four largest TNOs, three (Eris, Pluto, and Haumea) possess satellites, and two have more than one. A higher percentage of the largest KBOs possess satellites than the smaller objects in the Kuiper belt, suggesting that a different formation mechanism was responsible. There are also a high number of binaries (two objects close enough in mass to be orbiting "each other") in the Kuiper belt. The most notable example is the Pluto-Charon binary, but it is estimated that over 1 percent of KBOs (a high percentage) exist in binaries. Scattered objects The orbits of objects in the scattered disc; the classical KBOs are blue, while the 2:5 resonant objects are green. The scattered disc is a sparsely populated region beyond the Kuiper belt, extending as far as 100 AU and farther. Scattered disc objects (SDOs) travel in highly elliptical orbits, usually also highly inclined to the ecliptic. Most models of solar system formation show both KBOs and SDOs first forming in a primordial comet belt, while later gravitational interactions, particularly with Neptune, sent the objects spiraling outward; some into stable orbits (the KBOs) and some into unstable orbits, becoming the scattered disc. Due to its unstable nature, the scattered disc is believed to be the point of origin for many of the Solar System's short-period comets. According to the Minor Planet Center, which officially catalogues all trans-Neptunian objects, a KBO, strictly speaking, is any object that orbits exclusively within the defined Kuiper belt region regardless of origin or composition. Objects found outside the belt are classed as scattered objects. However, in some scientific circles the term "Kuiper belt object" has become synonymous with any icy planetoid native to the outer solar system believed to have been part of that initial class, even if its orbit during the bulk of solar system history has been beyond the Kuiper belt (e.g. in the scattered disk region). They often describe scattered disc objects as "scattered Kuiper belt objects." Eris, the recently discovered object now known to be larger than Pluto, is often referred to as a KBO, but is technically an SDO. A consensus among astronomers as to the precise definition of the Kuiper belt has yet to be reached, and this issue remains unresolved. The centaurs, which are not normally considered part of the Kuiper belt, are also believed to be scattered objects, the only difference being that they were scattered inward, rather than outward. The Minor Planet Center groups the centaurs and the SDOs together as scattered objects. Triton Neptune's moon Triton During its period of migration, Neptune is thought to have captured one of the larger KBOs and set it in orbit around itself. This is its moon Triton, which is the only large moon in the Solar System to have a retrograde orbit; it orbits in the opposite direction to Neptune's rotation. This suggests that, unlike the large moons of Jupiter and Saturn, which are thought to have coalesced from spinning discs of material encircling their young parent planets, Triton was a fully formed body that was captured from surrounding space. Gravitational capture of an object is not easy; it requires that some force act upon the object to slow it down enough to be snared by the larger object's gravity. How this happened to Triton is not well understood, though it does suggest that Triton formed as part of a large population of similar objects whose gravity could impede its motion enough to be captured. Triton is only slightly larger than Pluto, and spectral analysis of both worlds shows that they are largely composed of similar materials, such as methane and carbon monoxide. All this points to the conclusion that Triton was once a KBO that was captured by Neptune during its outward migration. Exploration Artist's conception of New Horizons at Pluto On January 19, 2006 the first spacecraft mission to explore the Kuiper belt, New Horizons, was launched. The mission, headed by Alan Stern of the Southwest Research Institute, will arrive at Pluto on July 14, 2015 and, circumstances permitting, will continue on to study another as-yet undetermined KBO. Any KBO chosen will be between 25 and 55 miles (40 to 90 km) in diameter and, ideally, white or grey, to contrast with Pluto's reddish colour. John Spencer, an astronomer on the New Horizons mission team, says that no target for a post-Pluto Kuiper belt encounter has yet been selected, as they are awaiting data from the Pan-STARRS survey project to ensure as wide a field of options as possible. The Pan-STARRS project, due to come fully online by 2009, will survey the entire sky with four 1.4 gigapixel digital cameras to detect any moving objects, from near-earth objects to KBOs. The debris disks around two stars (HD 139664 and HD 53143) Other Kuiper belts , astronomers have resolved dust disks believed to be Kuiper belt-like structures around nine stars other than the Sun. They appear to fall into two categories: wide belts, with radii of over 50 AU, and narrow belts (like our own Kuiper belt) with diameters of between 20 and 30 AU and relatively sharp boundaries. Most known debris discs around other stars are fairly young, but the two images on the left, taken by the Hubble Space Telescope in January, 2006, are old enough (roughly 300 million years) to have settled into stable configurations. The left image is a "top view" of a wide belt, and the right image is an "edge view" of a narrow belt. The black central circle is produced by the camera's coronagraph which hides the central star to allow the much fainter disks to be seen. P. Kalas, J. R. Graham, M. C. Clampin, M. P. Fitzgerald (01/2006). First Scattered Light Images of Debris Disks Around HD 53143 And HD 139 664. The Astrophysical Journal, 637, issue 1, pp. L57–L60. Article on ADS Article on Arxiv Beyond this, 15-20% of solar-type stars have observed infrared excess which is believed to indicate massive Kuiper Belt like structures. See also List of trans-Neptunian objects List of plutoid candidates References External links and data sources Dave Jewitt's page @ University of Hawaii The belt's name List of short period comets by family Kuiper Belt Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration The Kuiper Belt Electronic Newsletter Wm. Robert Johnston's TNO page Minor Planet Center: Plot of the Outer Solar System, illustrating Kuiper gap Website of the International Astronomical Union (debating the status of TNOs) XXVIth General Assembly 2006 nature.com article: diagram displaying inner solar system, Kuiper Belt, and Oort Cloud SPACE.com: Discovery Hints at a Quadrillion Space Rocks Beyond Neptune (Sara Goudarzi) 15 August 2006 06:13 a.m. ET The Outer Solar System Astronomy Cast episode #64, includes full transcript. be-x-old:Пояс Койпэра | Kuiper_belt |@lemmatized know:19 object:84 kuiper:76 belt:92 derive:2 data:6 minor:4 planet:24 center:4 main:4 colour:6 green:2 scattered:21 coloured:1 orange:1 four:3 outer:7 blue:2 neptune:41 trojan:4 asteroid:6 yellow:1 jupiter:10 pink:1 sun:15 centaur:6 scale:1 astronomical:7 unit:1 pronounced:2 gap:5 bottom:1 due:7 obscuration:1 band:1 milky:1 way:3 rhyme:1 viper:1 sometimes:3 call:7 edgeworth:5 region:21 solar:32 system:29 beyond:15 extend:6 orbit:55 au:21 approximately:2 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2,490 | Maroboduus | Maroboduus (born c. in 30 BC, died in A.D. 37), was king of the Marcomanni. The name "Maroboduus" can be broken down into two Gaulish elements, māro- meaning "great" (cf. Welsh mawr, Irish mór), and bodwos meaning "raven" (cf. Irish badhbh). As there was extensive mingling of Germans and Gauls in this period, a German or mixed German-Gaulish tribe led by a man with a Gaulish name would be nothing unusual. Maroboduus was born into a noble family of the Marcomanni. As a young man he lived in Italy and enjoyed the favour of the Emperor Augustus. Strabo 7, 1, 3, p. 290 The Marcomanni had been beaten utterly by the Romans in 10 BC. About 9 BC Marbod returned to Germany and became ruler of his people. To deal with the threat of Roman expansion into the Rhine-Danube basin he led the Marcomanni to the area later known as Bohemia to be outside the range of the Roman influence. There he took the title of a king and organized a confederation of several neighboring Germanic tribes. Strabo 7, 1, 3, p. 290; Marcus Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History 2, 108 He was the first historical ruler of Bohemia. Augustus planned in 6 A.D. to destroy the mighty kingdom of Maroboduus, which he considered to be too dangerous for the Romans. The later Emperor Tiberius commanded twelve legions to attack the Marcomanni. But the outbreak of the Great Illyrian revolt in the back of the Romans forced Tiberius to conclude a treaty with Marbod and to recognize him as king. Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History 2, 109, 5; Cassius Dio, Roman History 55, 28, 6-7 Rivalry between him and Arminius, the Cheruscan leader who inflicted the devastating defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest on the Romans under Publius Quinctilius Varus in 9 A.D., prevented a concerted attack on Roman territory across the Rhine in the north (by Arminius) and in the Danube basin in the south (by Maroboduus). However, according to the first century A.D. historian Marcus Velleius Paterculus Arminius sent Varus' head to Maroboduus. But the king of the Marcomanni sent it to Augustus. Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History 2, 119: "caput eius abscisum latumque ad Maroboduum et ab eo missum ad Caesarem" In the revenge war of Tiberius and Germanicus against the Cherusci Maroboduus stayed neutral. In 17 A.D., war broke out between Arminius and Maroboduus, and after an indecisive battle Maroboduus withdrew into the area now known as Bohemia in 18 A.D. Tacitus, Annals 2, 44-46 In the next year Catualda, a nobleman, who had been exiled by Maroboduus, returned - perhaps by a subversive Roman intervention - and defeated Maroboduus. The deposed king had to flee to Italy and Tiberius detained him 18 years in Ravenna. There Maroboduus died in 37 A.D. Tacitus, Annals 2, 62-63 Notes References Peter Kehne: Marbod. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde, vol. 19 (2001), p. 258-262. External links Gaulish English Dictionary | Maroboduus |@lemmatized maroboduus:12 born:1 c:1 bc:3 die:2 king:5 marcomanni:6 name:2 break:2 two:1 gaulish:4 element:1 māro:1 meaning:2 great:2 cf:2 welsh:1 mawr:1 irish:2 mór:1 bodwos:1 raven:1 badhbh:1 extensive:1 mingling:1 german:3 gaul:1 period:1 mixed:1 tribe:2 lead:2 man:2 would:1 nothing:1 unusual:1 bear:1 noble:1 family:1 young:1 live:1 italy:2 enjoy:1 favour:1 emperor:2 augustus:3 strabo:2 p:3 beat:1 utterly:1 roman:12 marbod:3 return:2 germany:1 become:1 ruler:2 people:1 deal:1 threat:1 expansion:1 rhine:2 danube:2 basin:2 area:2 later:1 know:2 bohemia:3 outside:1 range:1 influence:1 take:1 title:1 organize:1 confederation:1 several:1 neighbor:1 germanic:1 marcus:2 velleius:4 paterculus:4 compendium:3 history:4 first:2 historical:1 plan:1 destroy:1 mighty:1 kingdom:1 consider:1 dangerous:1 late:1 tiberius:4 command:1 twelve:1 legion:1 attack:2 outbreak:1 illyrian:1 revolt:1 back:1 force:1 conclude:1 treaty:1 recognize:1 cassius:1 dio:1 rivalry:1 arminius:4 cheruscan:1 leader:1 inflict:1 devastating:1 defeat:2 battle:2 teutoburg:1 forest:1 publius:1 quinctilius:1 varus:2 prevent:1 concerted:1 territory:1 across:1 north:1 south:1 however:1 accord:1 century:1 historian:1 send:2 head:1 caput:1 eius:1 abscisum:1 latumque:1 ad:2 maroboduum:1 et:1 ab:1 eo:1 missum:1 caesarem:1 revenge:1 war:2 germanicus:1 cherusci:1 stay:1 neutral:1 indecisive:1 withdraw:1 tacitus:2 annals:2 next:1 year:2 catualda:1 nobleman:1 exile:1 perhaps:1 subversive:1 intervention:1 deposed:1 flee:1 detain:1 ravenna:1 note:1 reference:1 peter:1 kehne:1 reallexikon:1 der:1 germanischen:1 altertumskunde:1 vol:1 external:1 link:1 english:1 dictionary:1 |@bigram rhine_danube:1 germanic_tribe:1 velleius_paterculus:4 cassius_dio:1 battle_teutoburg:1 teutoburg_forest:1 publius_quinctilius:1 quinctilius_varus:1 tacitus_annals:2 reallexikon_der:1 external_link:1 |
2,491 | History_of_Iraq | This article includes an overview from prehistory to the present in the region of the current state of Iraq in Mesopotamia. (See also Mesopotamia, Ancient Near East, and History of the Middle East.) Ancient Iraq The Tigris and Euphrates rivers (in Arabic, the Dijla and Furat, respectively), are part of the Fertile Crescent. Many dynasties and empires ruled the Mesopotamia region such as Sumer, Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia. Sumerians and Akkadians It was in southern Iraq about 5300 BC where the Sumerian culture began. The civilized life that emerged at Sumer was shaped by two conflicting factors: the unpredictability of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which at any time could unleash devastating floods that wiped out the entire populace, and the extreme richness of the river valleys, caused by centuries-old deposits of soil. Eventually, Sumerians battled with other peoples. Some of the earliest of these wars were with the Elamites living in what is now western Iran. This frontier has been fought over repeatedly ever since; it is arguably the most fought over frontier in this world. Sumerian dominance was challenged by the Akkadians, a Semitic people who migrated up from the Arabian Peninsula. In 2340 BC, the great Akkadian leader Sargon conquered Sumer and built the Akkadian Empire stretching over most of the Sumerian city-states and extending as far away as Lebanon. Sargon based his empire in the city of Akkad, from which his people derived their name. Sargon's ambitious empire lasted only a short time in the long span of Mesopotamian history. In 2125 BC, the Sumerian city of in southern Mesopotamia rose up in revolt, and the Akkadian empire fell before a renewal of Sumerian city-states. Babylonians, Mitanni, and Assyrians After the later collapse of the Sumerian civilization, the people were reunited in 1700 BC by King Hammurabi of Babylon (1792-1750 BC), and the country flourished under the name of Babylonia. Babylonian rule encompassed a huge area covering most of the Tigris-Euphrates river valley from Sumer and the Persian Gulf. He extended his empire northward through the Tigris and Euphrates River valleys and westward to the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. After consolidating his gains under a central government at Babylon, he devoted his energies to protecting of Kassite Babylonia. The Assyrians, after they finally broke free of the Mitanni, were the next major power to assert themselves on Mesopotamia. After defeating and virtually annexing Mitanni, the Assyrians challenged Babylonia. They weakened Babylonia so much that the Kassite Dynasty fell from power; the Assyrians virtually came to control Babylonia, until revolts in turn deposed them and set up a new dynasty, known as the Second Dynasty of Isin. Nebuchadnezzar I (Nabu-kudurri-usur; c. 1119 BC-c. 1098 BC) is the best known ruler from this dynasty. Chaldeans Eventually, during the 800s BC, one of the most powerful tribes outside Babylon, the Chaldeans (Latin Chaldaeus, Greek Khaldaios, Assyrian Kaldu), gained prominence. The Chaldeans rose to power in Babylonia and, by doing so, seem to have increased the stability and power of Babylonia. They fought off many revolts and aggressors. Chaldean influence was so strong that, during this period, Babylonia came to be known as Chaldea. In 626 BC, the Chaldeans helped Nabo-Polassar to take power in Babylonia. At that time, Assyria was under considerable pressure from an Iranian people, the Medes (from Media). Nabo-Polassar allied Babylonia with the Medes. Assyria could not withstand this added pressure, and in 612 BC, Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, fell. The entire city, once the capital of a great empire, was burned and sacked. Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon Later, Nebuchadnezzar II (Nabopolassar's son) inherited the empire of Babylonia. He added quite a bit of territory to Babylonia and rebuilt Babylon, still the capital of Babylonia. In the 6th century BC (586 BC), Nebuchadnezzar II conquered Judea (Judah), destroyed Jerusalem; Solomon's Temple was also destroyed; Nebuchadnezzar II carried away an estimated 15,000 captives, and sent most of its population into exile in Babylonia. Nebuchadnezzar II (604-562 BC) is credited for building the legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Persian domination Various invaders conquered the land after Nebuchadnezzar's death, including Cyrus the Great in 539 BC and Alexander the Great in 331 BC, who died there in 323 BC. In the 6th century BC, it became part of the Persian Empire, then was conquered by Alexander the Great and remained under Greek rule under the Seleucid dynasty for nearly two centuries. Babylon declined after the founding of Seleucia on the Tigris, the new Seleucid Empire capital. A Central Asian tribe of Iranian peoples called Parthians then annexed the region followed by the Sassanid Persians until the 7th century, when Arab Muslims captured it. The Arabic term "Iraq" was not yet in use at this time; in the mid-6th century the Persian Empire under Sassanid dynasty was divided by Khosrow I into four quarters, of which the western one, called Khvārvarān, included most of modern Iraq, and subdivided to provinces of Mishān, Asuristān, Ādiābene and Lower Media. The term Iraq is widely used in the medieval Arabic sources for the area in the centre and south of the modern republic as a geographic rather than a political term, implying no greater precision of boundaries than the term "Mesopotamia" or, indeed, many of the names of modern states before the twentieth century. The area of modern Iraq north of Tikrit was known in Muslim times as Al-Jazirah, which means "The Island" and refers to the "island" between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. To the south and west lay the Arabian deserts, inhabited largely by Arab tribesmen who occasionally acknowledged the overlordship of the Sassanian Emperors. Until 602, the desert frontier of the Persian Empire had been guarded by the Lakhmid kings of Al-Hirah, who were themselves Arabs but who ruled a settled buffer state. In that year Shahanshah Khosrow II Aparviz (Persian خسرو پرويز) rashly abolished the Lakhmid kingdom and laid the frontier open to nomad incursions. Farther north, the western quarter was bounded by the Byzantine Empire. The frontier more or less followed the modern Syria-Iraq border and continued northward into modern Turkey, leaving Nisibis (modern Nusaybin) as the Sassanian frontier fortress while the Byzantines held Dara and nearby Amida (modern Diyarbakır). Arab conquest and early Islamic period The Age of the Caliphs The first organised conflict between local Arab tribes and Persian forces seems to have been in 634, when the Arabs were defeated at the Battle of the Bridge. There was a force of some 5,000 Muslims under Abū `Ubayd ath-Thaqafī, which was routed by the Persians. Around 636, a much larger Arab Muslim force under Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās defeated the main Persian army at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah and moved on to sack the capital of the Persian Empire, Ctesiphon. By the end of 638, the Muslims had conquered almost all of Western Sassanid provinces (modern Iraq), and the last Sassanid Emperor, Yazdegerd III, had fled to central and then northern Persia, where he was killed in 651. The Islamic conquest was followed by mass immigration of Arabs from eastern Arabia and Mazun (Oman) to Khvarvārān. These new arrivals did not disperse and settle throughout the country; instead they established two new garrison cities, at al-Kūfah, near ancient Babylon, and at Basrah in the south. The intention was that the Muslims should be a separate community of fighting men and their families living off taxes paid by the local inhabitants. In the north of the North eastern Iran, Mosul began to emerge as the most important city and the base of a Muslim governor and garrison. Apart from the Persian elite and the Zoroastrian priests, who did not convert to Islam and thus lost their lives and property, most of the Mesopotamian peoples became Muslim and were allowed to keep their possessions. Khvarvārān, now became a province of the Muslim Caliphate, known as `Irāq. The city of Baghdad was built in the 8th century and became the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. During this period, Baghdad served as the intellectual center of the Muslim world for several centuries, up until the sack of Baghdad in 1258. Many famous Muslim scientists, philosophers, inventors, poets and writers were active in Iraq during the 8th to 13th centuries. Ottoman Iraq and Mamluk rule This earthenware dish was made in 9th century Iraq. It is housed in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the Black Sheep Turkmen ruled the area now known as Iraq. In 1466, the White Sheep Turkmen defeated the Black Sheep and took control. In the 16th century, most of the territory of present-day Iraq came under the control of Ottoman Empire as the pashalik of Baghdad. Throughout most of the period of Ottoman rule (1533-1918) the territory of present-day Iraq was a battle zone between the rival regional empires and tribal alliances. The Safavid dynasty of Iran briefly asserted their hegemony over Iraq in the periods of 1508-1533 and 1622-1638. During the years 1747-1831 Iraq was ruled by the Mamluk officers of Georgian origin who succeeded in obtaining autonomy from the Sublime Porte, suppressed tribal revolts, curbed the power of the Janissaries, restored order and introduced a program of modernization of economy and military. In 1831, the Ottomans managed to overthrow the Mamluk regime and imposed their direct control over Iraq. Iraq. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 15 October 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20th century British mandate Ottoman rule over Iraq lasted until the Great War (World War I) when the Ottomans sided with Germany and the Central Powers. British forces invaded the country and suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Turkish army during the Siege of Kut (1915–16). British forces regrouped and captured Baghdad in 1917. An armistice was signed in 1918. Image:LittleIraq.png Iraq was carved out of the Ottoman Empire by the French and British as agreed in the Sykes-Picot Agreement. The Sykes-Picot agreement was a secret agreement between UK and France with the assent of Imperial Russia, defining their respective sphere of influence and control in West Asia after the expected downfall of the Ottoman Empire during the World War I. The Agreement was conclude on 16 May 1916. http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/limitsinSeas/IBSo94.pdf. p.8 On 11 November 1920 it became a League of Nations mandate under British control with the name "State of Iraq". Britain imposed a Hāshimite monarchy on Iraq and defined the territorial limits of Iraq without taking into account the politics of the different ethnic and religious groups in the country, in particular those of the Kurds and the Assyrians to the north. During the British occupation, the Shi'ites and Kurds fought for independence. Faced with spiralling costs and influenced by the public protestations of war hero T. E. Lawrence in The Times, Britain replaced Arnold Wilson in October 1920 with new Civil Commissioner Sir Percy Cox. Cox managed to quell the rebellion, yet was also responsible for implementing the fateful policy of close cooperation with Iraq's Sunni minority. Ibid, page 79 "Sunni control over the levels of power and the distribution of the spoils of office has had predictable consequences- a simmering resentment on the part of the Shi'a..." Anderson & Stansfield “The Future of Iraq: Dictatorship, Democracy or Division?”, page 6. In the Mandate period and beyond, the British supported the traditional, Sunni leadership (such as the tribal shaykhs) over the growing, urban-based nationalist movement. The Land Settlement Act gave the tribal shaykhs the right to register the communal tribal lands in their own name. The Tribal Disputes Regulations gave them judiciary rights, whereas the Peasants' Rights and Duties Act of 1933 severely reduced the tenants', forbidding them to leave the land unless all their debts to the landlord had been settled. The British resorted to military force when their interests were threatened, as in the 1941 Rashīd `Alī al-Gaylānī coup. This coup led to a British invasion of Iraq using forces from the British Indian Army and the Arab Legion from Jordan. Iraqi monarchy Emir Faisal, leader of the Arab revolt against the Ottoman sultān during the Great War, and member of the Sunni Hashimite family from Mecca, became the first king of the new state. He obtained the throne partly by the influence of T. E. Lawrence. Although the monarch was legitimized and proclaimed King by a plebiscite in 1921, nominal independence was only achieved in 1932, when the British Mandate officially ended. In 1927, huge oil fields were discovered near Kirkuk and brought economic improvement. Exploration rights were granted to the Iraqi Petroleum Company, which despite the name, was a British oil company. King Faisal I was succeeded by his son Ghazi in December 1933. King Ghazi's reign lasted five and a half years. He claimed Iraqi sovereignty over Kuwait. An avid amateur racer, the king drove his car into a lamppost and died 3 April 1939. His son Faisal followed him to the throne. King Faisal II (1935 – 1958) was the only son of King Ghazi I and Queen `Aliyah. The new king was four when his father died. His uncle 'Abd al-Ilah became regent (April 1939 – May 1953). Abd al-llah's appointment changed the delicate balance between the palace, the officer corps, the civilian political elite and the British. Abd al-llah differed from his late brother-in-law in that he was more tolerant of the continued British presence in Iraq. Indeed, he was in some respect positively enthusiastic about the link with Great Britain, seeing it as one of the principal guarantors of the Hashemite dynasty. This meant that he had little in common with the Arab nationalist army officers whom he tended to regard as social upstarts, unworthy of his cultivation. Tripp, Charles. "A History of Iraq" Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007, p.96. In 1945, Iraq joined the United Nations and became a founding member of the Arab League. At the same time, the Kurdish leader Mustafā Barzānī led a rebellion against the central government in Baghdad. After the failure of the uprising Barzānī and his followers fled to the Soviet Union. In 1948, Iraq entered the 1948 Arab-Israeli War along with other members of the Arab League in order to defend Palestinian rights. Iraq was not a party to the cease-fire agreement signed in May 1949. The war had a negative impact on Iraq's economy. The government had to allocate 40 percent of available funds to the army and for the Palestinian refugees. Oil royalties paid to Iraq were halved when the pipeline to Haifa was cut. Iraq signed the Baghdad Pact in 1956. It allied Iraq, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, and the United Kingdom. Its headquarters were in Baghdad. The Pact constituted a direct challenge to Egyptian president Gamal Abdal Nasser. In response, Nasser launched a media campaign that challenged the legitimacy of the Iraqi monarchy. In February 1958, King Hussein of Jordan and `Abd al-Ilāh proposed a union of Hāshimite monarchies to counter the recently formed Egyptian-Syrian union. The prime minister Nuri as-Said wanted Kuwait to be part of the proposed Arab-Hāshimite Union. Shaykh `Abd-Allāh as-Salīm, the ruler of Kuwait, was invited to Baghdad to discuss Kuwait's future. This policy brought the government of Iraq into direct conflict with Britain, which did not want to grant independence to Kuwait. At that point, the monarchy found itself completely isolated. Nuri as-Said was able to contain the rising discontent only by resorting to ever greater political oppression. Iraqi republic Inspired by Nasser, officers from the Nineteenth Brigade known as "Free Officers", under the leadership of Brigadier Abd al-Karīm Qāsim (known as "az-Za`īm", 'the leader') and Colonel Abdul Salam Arif overthrew the Hashimite monarchy on 14 July 1958. King Faisal II and `Abd al-Ilāh were executed in the gardens of ar-Rihāb Palace. Their bodies (and those of many others in the royal family) were displayed in public. Nuri as-Said evaded capture for one day, but after attempting to escape disguised as a veiled woman, he was caught and shot. The new government proclaimed Iraq to be a republic and rejected the idea of a union with Jordan. Iraq's activity in the Baghdād Pact ceased. When Qāsim distanced himself from `Abd an-Nāsir, he faced growing opposition from pro-Egypt officers in the Iraqi army. `Arif, who wanted closer cooperation with Egypt, was stripped of his responsibilities and thrown in prison. When the garrison in Mosul rebelled against Qāsim's policies, he allowed the Kurdish leader Barzānī to return from exile in the Soviet Union to help suppress the pro-Nāsir rebels. In 1961, Kuwait gained independence from Britain and Iraq claimed sovereignty over Kuwait. As in the 1930s, Qasim based Iraq's claim on the assertion that Kuwait had been a district of the Ottoman province of Basra, unjustly severed by the British from the main body of Iraqi state when it had been created in the 1920s. Tripp, Charles. "A History of Iraq" Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2002, p.165 Britain reacted strongly to Iraq's claim and sent troops to Kuwait to deter Iraq. Qāsim was forced to back down and in October 1963, Iraq recognized the sovereignty of Kuwait. A period of considerable instability followed. Qāsim was assassinated in February 1963, when the Ba'ath Party took power under the leadership of General Ahmed Hasan al-Bakr (prime minister) and Colonel Abdul Salam Arif (president). Nine months later `Abd as-Salam Muhammad `Arif led a successful coup against the Ba'ath government. On 13 April 1966, President Abdul Salam Arif died in a helicopter crash and was succeeded by his brother, General Abdul Rahman Arif. Following the Six Day War of 1967, the Ba'ath Party felt strong enough to retake power (17 July 1968). Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr became president and chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC). In 1967-1968 Iraqi communists launched an insurgency in southern Iraq. Barzānī and the Kurds who had begun a rebellion in 1961 were still causing problems in 1969. The secretary-general of the Ba`th party, Saddam Hussein, was given responsibility to find a solution. It was clear that it was impossible to defeat the Kurds by military means and in 1970 a political agreement was reached between the rebels and the Iraqi government. Iraq's economy recovered sharply after the 1968 revolution. The Arif brothers had spent close to 90% of the national budget on the army but the Ba'ath government gave priority to agriculture and industry. The British Iraq Petroleum Company monopoly was broken when a new contract was signed with ERAP, a major French oil company. Later the IPC was nationalized. As a result of these policies Iraq experienced rapid economic growth. During the 1970s, border disputes with Iran and Kuwait caused many problems. Kuwait's refusal to allow Iraq to build a harbor in the Shatt al-Arab delta strengthened Iraq's belief that conservative powers in the region were trying to control the Persian Gulf. Iran's occupation of numerous islands in the Strait of Hormuz didn't help alter Iraq's fears. The border disputes between Iraq and Iran were temporarily resolved with the signing of the Algiers Accord on 6 March 1975. In 1972 an Iraqi delegation visited Moscow. The same year diplomatic relations with the US were restored. Relations with Jordan and Syria were good. Iraqi troops were stationed in both countries. During the 1973 October War, Iraqi divisions engaged Israeli forces. In retrospect, the 1970s can be seen as a high point in Iraq's modern history. A new, young, technocratic elite was governing the country and the fast-growing economy brought prosperity and stability. Many Arabs outside Iraq considered it an example. However, the following decades would not be as favorable for the fledgling country. Under Saddam In July 1979, President Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr resigned, and his chosen successor, Saddam Hussein, assumed the offices of both President and Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council. He was the de facto ruler of Iraq for some years before he formally came to power. The Baath Party was now a country wide organisation, reaching down to the smallest village and most modest neighbourhood in an unprecedented way. In addition, the Popular army and the youth organisation brought ever larger numbers into the paramilitary formations established by the regime. Finally, Sadam Husain established a National Assembly in March 1980, setting up the first parliament since the overthrow of the Monarchy in 1958. It was meant to create the impression of national unity and to give Saddam Hussain another forum for presenting himself as the national leader. Baram, A. "Culture, History and Ideology i the formation of Bathist Iraq 1968-1989" London, 1991, pp. 97-116. The new regime modernized the countryside and rural areas of Iraq, mechanizing agriculture and establishing farm cooperatives. Saddam's organizational prowess was credited with Iraq's rapid pace of development in the 1970s; development went forward at such a fevered pitch that two million persons from other Arab countries and even Yugoslavia worked in Iraq to meet the growing demand for labor. However, Hussein's ambition soon led him to be involved in various conflicts, with disastrous results to the infrastructure of Iraq. Iran-Iraq war Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive and costly eight-year war, the Iran–Iraq War (1980 – 1988, termed Qādisiyyat-Saddām – 'Saddam's Qādisiyyah'), which devastated the economy. Iraq declared victory in 1988 but actually achieved a weary return to the status quo ante bellum. The war left Iraq with the largest military establishment in the Persian Gulf region but with huge debts and an ongoing rebellion by Kurdish elements in the northern mountains. The government suppressed the rebellion using chemical weapons on the rebels. Eight years of war had taken a terrible toll of the Iraqi population: the war had cost Iraq an estimated quarter of those had been victims of the Iraqi Kurds; over 60,000 Iraqis remained prisoners of the Iranians; nearly one milion Iraqis now served in the armed forces. Tripp, Charles. "A History of Iraq" Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2002, p.248 Between 1986 and 1989, Hussein's Al-Anfal Campaign is alleged to have killed an estimated 100,000 to 200,000 Kurdish civilians. David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds, 504 pp., I.B. Tauris, 2004, ISBN 1850434166, pp. 359 William Ochsenwald & Sydney N. Fisher, The Middle East: A History, 768 pp., McGraw Hill, 2004, ISBN 0072442336, pg 659 A mass chemical weapons attack on the city of Halabja in March 1988 during the Iran–Iraq War is usually attributed to Saddam's regime, although responsibility for the attack is a matter of some dispute The US Defense Intelligence Agency reported that the attack was carried out by Iran, a version of events supported by the CIA during the early 1990s . See also an opinion piece by CIA analyst Stephen C Pelletiere, in which he concludes that there is no basis for a judgement as to whether Iran or Iraq was responsible for the attack . . Saddam maintained his innocence in this matter up to his execution in December 2006. Almost all current accounts, influenced by special interests, of the incident regard the Iraqi regime as the party responsible for the gas attack (as opposed to Iran), and the event has become iconic in depictions of Saddam's cruelty. Estimates of casualties range from several hundred to at least 7,000 people. The Iraqi government continued to be supported by a broad international community including most of the West, the Soviet Union, and the People's Republic of China, which continued sending arms shipments to combat Iran. Indeed, shipments from the US (though always a minority) increased after this date, and the UK awarded £400 million in trade credits to Iraq ten days after condemning the massacre . In the late 1970s, Iraq purchased a French nuclear reactor, dubbed Osirak or Tammuz 1. Construction began in 1979. In 1980, the reactor site suffered minor damage due to an Iranian air strike, and in 1981, before the reactor could be completed, it was, in violation of International Laws, destroyed by the Israeli Air Force (see Operation Opera). Invasion of Kuwait and the Gulf War A long-standing territorial dispute led to the invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Iraq accused Kuwait of violating the Iraqi border to secure oil resources, and demanded that its debt repayments should be waived. Direct negotiations began in July 1990, but they soon failed. Saddam Hussein had an emergency meeting with April Glaspie, the United States Ambassador to Iraq, on 25 July 1990, airing his concerns but stating his intention to continue talks. April Glaspie informed Saddām that the United States had no interest in border disputes between Iraq and Kuwait, as was the U.S. government's official tone on the subject at the time. Subsequent events would prove otherwise, however this was said to Saddam in hopes that it would prevent him from attacking. Arab mediators convinced Iraq and Kuwait to negotiate their differences in Jiddah, Saudi Arabia, on 1 August 1990, but that session resulted only in charges and counter-charges. A second session was scheduled to take place in Baghdad, but Iraq invaded Kuwait the following day. Iraqi troops overran the country shortly after midnight on 2 August 1990. The United Nations Security Council and the Arab League immediately condemned the Iraqi invasion. Four days later, the Security Council imposed an economic embargo on Iraq that prohibited nearly all trade with Iraq. Iraq responded to the sanctions by annexing Kuwait as the "19th Province" of Iraq on 8 August, prompting the exiled Sabah family to call for a stronger international response. Over the ensuing months, the United Nations Security Council passed a series of resolutions that condemned the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait and implemented total mandatory economic sanctions against Iraq. Other countries subsequently provided support for "Operation Desert Shield". Acting on the policy of the Carter Doctrine, and out of fear the Iraqi Army cauld launch an invasion of Saudi Arabia, U.S. President George H. W. Bush quickly announced that the U.S. would launch a "wholly defensive" mission to prevent Iraq from invading Saudi Arabia. Operation Desert Shield was when U.S. troops were moved into Saudi Arabia on 7 August 1990. "The Operation Desert Sheild/Desert Storm Timeline" Retrieved on 20/03/09. In November 1990, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 678, permitting member states to use all necessary means, authorizing military action against the Iraqi forces occupying Kuwait and demanded a complete withdrawal by 15 January 1991. When Saddam Hussein failed to comply with this demand, the Gulf War (Operation "Desert Storm") ensued on 17 January 1991 (3am Iraqi time), with allied troops of 28 countries, led by the US launching an aerial bombardment on Baghdad. The war, which proved disastrous for Iraq, lasted only six weeks. One hundred and forty-thousand tons of munitions had showered down on the country, the equivalent of seven Hiroshima bombs. Probably as many as 100,000 Iraqi soldiers and tens of thousands of civilians were killed. Allied air raids destroyed roads, bridges, factories, and oil-industry facilities (shutting down the national refining and distribution system) and disrupted electric, telephone, and water service. Conference centres and shopping and residential areas were hit. Hundreds of Iraqis were killed in the attack on the Al-Amiriyah bomb shelter. Diseases spread through contaminated drinking water because water purification and sewage treatment facilities could not operate without electricity. A cease-fire was announced by the US on 28 February 1991. UN Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar met with Saddam Hussein to discuss the Security Council timetable for the withdraw of troops from Kuwait. Iraq agreed to UN terms for a permanent cease-fire in April 1991, and strict conditions were imposed, demanding the disclosure and destruction of all stockpiles of weapons. Iraq under UN Sanction On 6 August 1990, after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, the U.N. Security Council adopted Resolution 661 which imposed economic sanctions on Iraq, providing for a full trade embargo, excluding medical supplies, food and other items of humanitarian necessity, these to be determined by the Security Council sanctions committee. After the end of the Gulf War and after the Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait, the sanctions were linked to removal of weapons of mass destruction by Resolution 687 . From 1991 until 2003 the effects of government policy and sanctions regime led to hyperinflation, widespread poverty and malnutrition. The historically generous state welfare provision that had been central to the regime's governing strategy disappeared overnight. The large and well-educated middle class that had grown in the years of plenty to form the bedrock of Iraqi society was impoverished. The story of Iraq from 1991 until 2003 is of a country suffering a profound macroeconomic shock. Fawn, Rick. and Hinnebusch, Raymond. "The Iraq War: Causes and Consequences" Lynne Rienner Publishers, London, 2006, p.212. The United States, citing a need to prevent the genocide of the Marsh Arabs in southern Iraq and the Kurds to the north, declared "air exclusion zones" north of the 36th parallel and south of the 32nd parallel. The Clinton administration judged an alleged assassination attempt on former President George H. W. Bush by Iraqi secret agents to be worthy of a military response on 27 June 1993. The Iraqi Intelligence Headquarters in Baghdad was targeted by Tomahawk cruise missiles. During the time of the UN sanctions, internal and external opposition to the Ba'ath government was weak and divided. In May 1995, Saddam sacked his half-brother, Wathban, as Interior Minister and in July demoted his Defense Minister, Ali Hassan al-Majid. These personnel changes were the result of the growth in power of Saddām Hussein's two sons, Uday Hussein and Qusay Hussein, who were given effective vice-presidential authority in May 1995. In August Major General Husayn Kāmil Hasan al-Majīd, Minister of Military Industries and a political ally of Saddam, defected to Jordan, together with his wife (one of Saddam's daughters) and his brother, Saddam, who was married to another of the president's daughters; both called for the overthrow of the Iraqi government. After a few weeks in Jordan, being given promises for their safety, the two brothers returned to Iraq where they were killed. During the latter part of the 1990s the UN considered relaxing the sanctions imposed because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. According to UN estimates, between 500,000 and 1.2 million children died during the years of the sanctions. The United States used its veto in the UN Security Council to block the proposal to lift the sanctions because of the continued failure of Iraq to verify disarmament. However, an oil for food program was established in 1996 to ease the effects of sanctions. Iraqi cooperation with UN weapons inspection teams was questioned on several occasions during the 1990s. UNSCOM chief weapons inspector Richard Butler withdrew his team from Iraq in November 1998 because of Iraq's lack of cooperation. The team returned in December. Richard BUTLER, Saddam Defiant, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 2000, p. 224 Butler prepared a report for the UN Security Council afterwards in which he expressed dissatisfaction with the level of compliance . The same month, US President Bill Clinton authorized air strikes on government targets and military facilities. Air strikes against military facilities and alleged WMD sites continued into 2002. Recent history 2003 invasion of Iraq After the terrorist attacks by the group formed by the multi-millionaire Saudi Osama bin Laden on New York and Washington in the United States in 2001, American foreign policy began to call for the removal of the Ba'ath government in Iraq. Conservative think-tanks in Washington had for years been urging regime change in Baghdad, but until the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998, official US policy was to simply keep Iraq complying with UN sanctions. The Iraq Liberation Act, fully three years prior to the 9-11 terrorist attacks, codified regime change in Iraq as the official policy of the United States government. It was passed 99-0 by the United States Senate. The US urged the United Nations to take military action against Iraq. The American president George Bush stated that Saddām had repeatedly violated 16 UN Security Council resolutions. The Iraqi government rejected Bush's assertions. A team of U.N. inspectors, led by Swedish diplomat Hans Blix was admitted, into the country; their final report stated that Iraqis capability in producing "weapons of mass destruction" was not significantly different from 1992 when the country dismantled the bulk of their remaining arsenals under terms of the ceasefire agreement with U.N. forces, but did not completely rule out the possibility that Saddam still had Weapons of Mass Destruction. The United States and the United Kingdom charged that Iraq was hiding Weapons and opposed the team's requests for more time to further investigate the matter. Resolution 1441 was passed unanimously by the UN Security Council on 8 November 2002, offering Iraq "a final opportunity to comply with its disarmament obligations" that had been set out in several previous UN resolutions, threatening "serious consequences" if the obligations were not fulfilled. The UN Security Council did not issue a resolution authorizing the use of force against Iraq. In March 2003 the United States and the United Kingdom, with military aid from other nations, invaded Iraq. Coalition occupation of Iraq Occupation zones in Iraq as of September 2003. In 2003, after the American and British invasion, Iraq was occupied by Coalition forces. On 23 May 2003, the UN Security Council unanimously approved a resolution lifting all economic sanctions against Iraq. As the country struggled to rebuild after three wars and a decade of sanctions, it was racked by violence between a growing Iraqi insurgency and occupation forces. Saddam Hussein, who vanished in April, was captured on 13 December 2003. The initial US interim civil administrator, Jay Garner, was replaced in May 2003 by L. Paul Bremer, who was himself replaced by John Negroponte in 19 April 2004 who left Iraq in 2005. Negroponte was the last US interim administrator. Terrorism emerged as a threat to Iraq's people not long after the invasion of 2003. Al Qaeda now has a presence in the country, in the form of several terrorist groups formerly led by Abu Musab Al Zarqawi. Al-Zarqawi was a Jordanian militant Islamist who ran a militant training camp in Afghanistan. He became known after going to Iraq and being responsible for a series of bombing, beheadings and attacks during the Iraq war. Al-zarqawi was killed on 7 June 2006. Many foreign fighters and former Ba'ath Party officials have also joined the insurgency, which is mainly aimed at attacking American forces and Iraqis who work with them. The most dangerous insurgent area is the Sunni Triangle, a mostly Sunni-Muslim area just north of Baghdad. Coalition withdrawal A few days after the 11 March 2004 Madrid attacks, the conservative government of Spain was voted out of office. The War had been deeply unpopular and the incoming Socialist government followed through on its manifesto commitment to withdraw troops from Iraq. Following on the heels of this, several other nations that once formed the Coalition of the Willing began to reconsider their role. The Dutch refused a US offer to commit their troops to Iraq past 30 June. South Korea kept its troops deployed. Soon after the decisions to withdrawal in the Spring of 2004, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Guatemala, Kazakhstan, Singapore, Thailand, Portugal, Philippines, Bulgaria, Nicaragua and Italy left or planned to leave as well. Other nations (such as Australia, Denmark and Poland) continued their commitment in Iraq. On 28 June 2004, the occupation was formally ended by the U.S.-led coalition, which transferred power to an interim Iraqi government led by Prime Minister Iyad Allawi. On 16 July 2004, the Philippines ordered the withdrawal of all of its troops in Iraq in order to comply with the demands of insurgents holding Filipino citizen Angelo de la Cruz as a hostage. Many nations that have announced withdrawal plans or are considering them have stated that they may reconsider if there is a new UN resolution that grants the UN more authority in Iraq. The American financed and armed Iraqi government has officially requested the assistance of (at least) American troops until further notice. On 30 January 2005. the legally disputed transitional parliamentary elections took place. Post-invasion history By the end of 2006 violence continued as the new Iraqi Government struggled to extend complete security within Iraq. U.S. forces, as well as lesser amounts of "coalition" forces remained in Iraq. An increasingly disturbing trend had arisen - sectarian fighting. As the country attempted to move from occupation by western forces to a new entity within the Middle East, a new phase of conflict seemed to have erupted within Iraq. This new phase of conflict was waged predominately along the religious sectarian lines that the Americans had used to divide the population. Fighting was primarily between the majority Shia and the minority Sunni. But there were reports of infighting as well. To outside observers, as well as people in Iraq who supported the American military presence, the cause of violence was obscure - as developments came faster than could be easily analyzed. Reported acts of violence conducted by an uneasy tapestry of independence activists and opponents of foreign domination steadily increased by the end of 2006. These attacks become predominately aimed at Iraqi collaborators rather than foreign occupation forces. Violence was conducted by Sunni groups, nationalists and others who sought an Iraq freed from foreign rule that include the Iraq Insurgency, which has been fighting since the initial U.S. invasion of 2003. Also, criminal elements within Iraq's society seemed to perpetuate violence for their own means and ambitions. Iraqi nationalist and Ba'athist elements (part of the insurgency) remained committed to expelling U.S. forces and also seemed to attack Shia populations, presumably, due to the Shia parties' collaboration with Iran and the United States in making war against their own nation. Further, Islamic Jihadist - of which Al Qaeda in Iraq is a member - continued to use terror and extreme acts of violence against collaborationist populations to advance their religious and political agenda(s). The aims of these attacks were not completely clear, but it was argued in 2006/7 that these attacks were aimed at fomenting civil conflict within Iraq to destroy the legitimacy of the newly created collaborationist Iraqi government (which many of its nationalist critics saw as illegitimate and a product of the U.S. government) and create an unsustainable position for the U.S. forces within Iraq. The most widely reported evidence of this argument stemmed from the 23 February 2006 attack on the Al Askari Mosque in Samarra, one of Shi'ite Islam's holiest sites. Analysis of the attack suggested that the Mujahideen Shura Council and Al-Qaeda in Iraq were responsible, and that the motivation was to provoke further violence by outraging the Shia population. The Mujahideen Shura Council was said to have been headed by Abdullah Rashid al-Baghdadi. The Herald Article In mid-October 2006, a statement was released, stating that the Mujahideen Shura Council had been disbanded and was replaced by the "Islamic State of Iraq". It was formed to resist efforts by the U.S. and Iraqi authorities to win over Sunni supporters of the insurgency. In response to attacks like the one against the Askari Mosque, violent reprisals escalated. Shia terror organizations associated with the American occupation forces within Iraq gained increasing power and influence in the collaborationist Iraqi government. Additionally, the militias, it appeared in late 2006, had the capability to act outside the scope of government. As a result these powerful militias, it seemed as of late 2006, were leading reprisal acts of violence against the Sunni minority. A cycle of violence thus ensued whereby Sunni insurgent or nationalist attacks followed with government and American backed reprisals - often in the form of Shi'ite death squads that sought out and killed Sunnis. Many commentators on the Iraq War began, by the end of 2006, to refer to this violent escalation as a civil war. Kurdish region in northern Iraq Nouri al-Maliki was at loggerheads with the leader of ethnic Kurds, who brandished the threat of secession in a growing row over the symbolic issue of flying the Iraqi national flag at government buildings in the autonomous Kurdish north. Maliki's Arab Shi'ite-led government was locked in a dispute with the autonomous Kurdish regional government, which has banned the use of the Iraqi state flag on public buildings. The prime minister issued a statement saying: "The Iraqi flag is the only flag that should be raised over any square inch of Iraq." But Mesud Barzani, president of the Kurdistan region, told the Kurdish parliament the national leadership were "failures" and that the Iraqi flag was a symbol of his people's past oppression by Baghdad: "If at any moment we, the Kurdish people and parliament, consider that it is in our interests to declare independence, we will do so and we will fear no one." The dispute exposes a widening rift between Arabs and Kurds, the second great threat to Iraq's survival as a state after the growing sectarian conflict between Arab Sunnis and Shi'ites. The dispute was resolved by removing the three stars from the Iraqi flag, and now the Iraqi flag is officially flying over government buildings in the autonomous Kurdish region in northern Iraq. References See also Iraq Reconstruction of Iraq President of Iraq Prime Minister of Iraq Mesopotamia Mesopotamian mythology Babylonia Assyria External links history of Iraq Iraq History and Culture from the cradle of civilization and Noah to the present age and time | History_of_Iraq |@lemmatized article:2 include:5 overview:1 prehistory:1 present:5 region:8 current:2 state:27 iraq:141 mesopotamia:7 see:6 also:8 ancient:3 near:3 east:4 history:13 middle:4 tigris:6 euphrates:5 river:6 arabic:3 dijla:1 furat:1 respectively:1 part:6 fertile:1 crescent:1 many:12 dynasty:9 empire:18 rule:11 sumer:4 akkad:2 assyria:5 babylonia:16 sumerian:8 akkadian:5 southern:4 bc:17 culture:3 begin:8 civilized:1 life:2 emerge:3 shape:1 two:6 conflict:8 factor:1 unpredictability:1 time:12 could:5 unleash:1 devastate:2 flood:1 wipe:1 entire:2 populace:1 extreme:2 richness:1 valley:3 cause:5 century:14 old:1 deposit:1 soil:1 eventually:2 battle:4 people:13 early:4 war:28 elamite:1 live:2 western:5 iran:16 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2,492 | European_Centre_for_Medium-Range_Weather_Forecasts | The European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) is an international organisation based at Reading, England that was founded in 1975. Objectives The objectives of the ECMWF are: Development of numerical methods for medium-range weather forecasting Preparation of medium-range weather forecasts for distribution to the member states Scientific and technical research directed to the improvement of these forecasts Collection and storage of appropriate meteorological data. Work and Projects The ECMWF has been producing operational medium-range weather forecasts since 1979-08-01. It has run two "re-analysis" projects, the first ECMWF re-analysis (ERA-15) project generated reanalyses from December 1978 to February 1994. The ERA-40 project generated reanalyses from September 1957 to August 2002. The history of ECMWF is recorded in the book: "Medium-Range Weather Prediction - the European Approach" by Austin Woods, published Springer 2005. Members The ECMWF members are of 18 European countries: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Republic of Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom The ECMWF has co-operation agreements with other states: Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Iceland, Lithuania, Hungary, Morocco, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia. Site ECMWF is based at Shinfield Park, Reading, England. It shared grounds with the UK Met. Office College until Summer 2002, before the college was relocated to Exeter ahead of the move of the Met. Office Headquarters from Bracknell in 2003. The land the Met Office College was on is now used by residential housing. See Also EUMETNET EUMETSAT External links Official Website ERA-15 reanalysis ERA-40 reanalysis | European_Centre_for_Medium-Range_Weather_Forecasts |@lemmatized european:3 centre:1 medium:5 range:5 weather:5 forecast:5 ecmwf:8 international:1 organisation:1 base:2 reading:2 england:2 found:1 objectives:1 objective:1 development:1 numerical:1 method:1 preparation:1 distribution:1 member:3 state:2 scientific:1 technical:1 research:1 direct:1 improvement:1 collection:1 storage:1 appropriate:1 meteorological:1 data:1 work:1 project:4 produce:1 operational:1 since:1 run:1 two:1 analysis:2 first:1 era:4 generate:2 reanalyses:2 december:1 february:1 september:1 august:1 history:1 record:1 book:1 prediction:1 approach:1 austin:1 wood:1 publish:1 springer:1 country:1 austria:1 belgium:1 denmark:1 finland:1 france:1 germany:1 greece:1 republic:2 ireland:1 italy:1 luxembourg:1 netherlands:1 norway:1 portugal:1 spain:1 sweden:1 switzerland:1 turkey:1 united:1 kingdom:1 co:1 operation:1 agreement:1 croatia:1 czech:1 estonia:1 iceland:1 lithuania:1 hungary:1 morocco:1 romania:1 serbia:1 slovenia:1 site:1 shinfield:1 park:1 share:1 ground:1 uk:1 met:3 office:3 college:3 summer:1 relocate:1 exeter:1 ahead:1 move:1 headquarters:1 bracknell:1 land:1 use:1 residential:1 housing:1 see:1 also:1 eumetnet:1 eumetsat:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 reanalysis:2 |@bigram weather_forecast:4 czech_republic:1 external_link:1 |
2,493 | Futurians | The Futurians were an influential group of science fiction fans, many of whom became editors and writers as well. The Futurians were based in New York City and were a major force in the development of science fiction writing and science fiction fandom in the years 1937-1945. Origins of the group As described in Isaac Asimov's autobiography In Memory Yet Green, the Futurians spun off from the Greater New York Science Fiction Club (headed by Sam Moskowitz, later an influential SF editor and historian) over ideological differences, with the Futurians wishing to take a more overt political stance. Other sources indicate that Donald A. Wollheim was pushing for a more left-wing direction with a goal of leading fandom toward a political ideal, all of which Moskowitz resisted. As a result, Wollheim broke off from the Greater New York group and founded the Futurians. The fans following Moskowitz reorganized into the Queens Science Fiction Club. Frederik Pohl, in his autobiography The Way the Future Was, said that the origins of the Futurians started with the Science Fiction League founded by Hugo Gernsback in 1934, the New York City local chapter of which was called the "Brooklyn Science Fiction League" or BSFL, and headed by G. G. Clark. Wollheim, John Michel, and Robert A. W. Lowndes were also members of the BSFL. Along with Pohl, the four started calling themselves the "Quadrumvirate". Pohl, commenting about that time, said "we four marched from Brooklyn to the sea, leaving a wide scar of burned out clubs behind us. We changed clubs the way Detroit changes tailfins, every year had a new one, and last year's was junk". There were several club names during that period of time, before finally the founding of the Futurians. In 1935 there was the "East New York Science Fiction League" (ENYSFL), later the "Independent League for Science Fiction" (ILSF). In 1936 came the International Cosmos Science Club (ICSC), which also involved Will Sykora. Pohl then says that "on reflection 'Cosmos' seemed to take in a bit more territory than was justified, so we changed it to the International Scientific Association (it wasn't International either, but then it also wasn't scientific)". The ISA then was renamed New York Branch-International Scientific Association (NYB-ISA). In 1937, after the falling out with Will Sykora and others, the "Quadrumvirate" went on to found the Futurians. Will Sykora then founded the Queens Science Fiction League with Sam Moskowitz and James V. Taurasi. Later, the QSFL changed into New Fandom. Pohl said as the conflicts between New Fandom and the Futurians were "Addicted to Feuds" and that "No CIA nor KGB ever wrestled so valiantly for the soul of an emerging nation as New Fandom and the Futurians did for science fiction". Most of the group's members also had professional ambitions within science fiction and related fields, and collectively were very effective at achieving this goal, as the roster of members below suggests. At one point in the earliest 1940s, approximately half of all the pulp sf and fantasy magazines in the U.S. were being edited by Futurians: Frederik Pohl at the Popular Publications offshoot Fictioneers, Inc. (Astonishing Stories and Super-Science Stories); Robert Lowndes at Columbia Publications, most notably with Science Fiction and Future Fiction (though through the decade to come, Lowndes's responsibilities would expand to other types of fiction magazine in the chain), and Donald Wollheim at the very marginal Albing Publications with the short-lived, micro-budgeted Cosmic Stories and Stirring Science Stories (Wollheim soon moved on to Avon Books; Doë "Leslie Perri" Baumgardt also worked on a romance fiction title for Albing). Most of these projects had small editorial budgets, and relied in part, or occasionally entirely, on contributions from fellow Futurians for their contents. Political tendencies At the time the Futurians were formed, Donald Wollheim was strongly attracted by communism and believed that followers of science fiction "should actively work for the realization of the scientific world-state as the only genuine justification for their activities and existence". p. 430 It was to this end that Wollheim formed the Futurians, and many of its members were in some degree interested in the political applications of science fiction. Hence the group included supporters of Trotskyism, like Merril, and others who would have been deemed far left for the era (Frederik Pohl became a member of the Communist Party in 1936, but later quit in 1939). On the other hand several members were political moderates or apolitical, and in the case of James Blish arguably right-wing. Damon Knight in The Futurians indicates that Blish at that time felt Fascism was interesting in theory, if repellent as it was then being practiced. More solid evidence is that Blish admired the work of Oswald Spengler. Pohl, in his autobiography, The Way the Future Was, said Wollheim voted for Republican Presidential Candidate Alfred Landon in 1936. Members included Isaac Asimov Elise Balter (also known as Elsie Wollheim) James Blish Hannes Bok Daniel Burford Chester Cohen Rosalind Cohen Harry Dockweiler (also known as Dirk Wylie) Jack Gillespie Virginia Kidd Damon Knight Cyril Kornbluth Mary Byers (also known as Mary Kornbluth) Walter Kubilius David Kyle Herman Leventman Robert A. W. Lowndes Judith Merril John Michel Frederik Pohl Leslie Perri, a pseudonym of Doris "Doë" Baumgardt Jack Rubinson Arthur W. Saha Larry Shaw Richard Wilson Donald A. Wollheim Notes See also Science fiction fandom 1st World Science Fiction Convention References In Memory Yet Green by Isaac Asimov (1979) The Futurians by Damon Knight (1977) The Way The Future Was by Frederik Pohl (1978) All Our Yesterdays by Harry Warner, Jr. (1969) External links http://ebbs.english.vt.edu/20th/etudes/anderson/futurians.html Frederik Pohl profile with several paragraphs on the Futurians Fancyclopedia II: F (see the entries under FUTURIANS, and FUTURIAN HOUSES) Articles about the Futurians and old Fandom by David Kyle Moskowitz, the Futurians and the Great Exclusion Act of 1939 by David Kyle Caravan to the Stars by David Kyle | Futurians |@lemmatized futurians:21 influential:2 group:5 science:20 fiction:20 fan:2 many:2 become:2 editor:2 writer:1 well:1 base:1 new:10 york:6 city:2 major:1 force:1 development:1 writing:1 fandom:7 year:3 origin:2 describe:1 isaac:3 asimov:3 autobiography:3 memory:2 yet:2 green:2 spin:1 great:3 club:6 head:2 sam:2 moskowitz:5 later:4 sf:2 historian:1 ideological:1 difference:1 wish:1 take:2 overt:1 political:5 stance:1 source:1 indicate:2 donald:4 wollheim:10 push:1 left:2 wing:2 direction:1 goal:2 lead:1 toward:1 ideal:1 resist:1 result:1 break:1 found:3 follow:1 reorganize:1 queen:2 frederik:6 pohl:11 way:4 future:4 say:5 start:2 league:5 hugo:1 gernsback:1 local:1 chapter:1 call:2 brooklyn:2 bsfl:2 g:2 clark:1 john:2 michel:2 robert:3 w:3 lowndes:4 also:9 member:7 along:1 four:2 quadrumvirate:2 comment:1 time:4 march:1 sea:1 leave:1 wide:1 scar:1 burn:1 behind:1 u:2 change:4 detroit:1 tailfin:1 every:1 one:2 last:1 junk:1 several:3 name:1 period:1 finally:1 founding:1 east:1 enysfl:1 independent:1 ilsf:1 come:2 international:4 cosmos:2 icsc:1 involve:1 sykora:3 reflection:1 seem:1 bit:1 territory:1 justify:1 scientific:4 association:2 either:1 isa:2 rename:1 branch:1 nyb:1 fall:1 others:2 go:1 find:1 james:2 v:1 taurasi:1 qsfl:1 conflict:1 addict:1 feud:1 cia:1 kgb:1 ever:1 wrestle:1 valiantly:1 soul:1 emerge:1 nation:1 professional:1 ambition:1 within:1 related:1 field:1 collectively:1 effective:1 achieve:1 roster:1 suggests:1 point:1 early:1 approximately:1 half:1 pulp:1 fantasy:1 magazine:2 edit:1 popular:1 publication:3 offshoot:1 fictioneers:1 inc:1 astonish:1 story:4 super:1 columbia:1 notably:1 though:1 decade:1 responsibility:1 would:2 expand:1 type:1 chain:1 marginal:1 albing:2 short:1 live:1 micro:1 budget:2 cosmic:1 stir:1 soon:1 move:1 avon:1 book:1 doë:2 leslie:2 perri:2 baumgardt:2 work:3 romance:1 title:1 project:1 small:1 editorial:1 rely:1 part:1 occasionally:1 entirely:1 contribution:1 fellow:1 content:1 tendency:1 form:2 strongly:1 attract:1 communism:1 believe:1 follower:1 actively:1 realization:1 world:2 state:1 genuine:1 justification:1 activity:1 existence:1 p:1 end:1 degree:1 interested:1 application:1 hence:1 include:2 supporter:1 trotskyism:1 like:1 merril:2 deem:1 far:1 era:1 communist:1 party:1 quit:1 hand:1 moderate:1 apolitical:1 case:1 blish:4 arguably:1 right:1 damon:3 knight:3 felt:1 fascism:1 interest:1 theory:1 repellent:1 practice:1 solid:1 evidence:1 admire:1 oswald:1 spengler:1 vote:1 republican:1 presidential:1 candidate:1 alfred:1 landon:1 elise:1 balter:1 know:3 elsie:1 jam:1 hannes:1 bok:1 daniel:1 burford:1 chester:1 cohen:2 rosalind:1 harry:2 dockweiler:1 dirk:1 wylie:1 jack:2 gillespie:1 virginia:1 kidd:1 cyril:1 kornbluth:2 mary:2 byers:1 walter:1 kubilius:1 david:4 kyle:4 herman:1 leventman:1 judith:1 pseudonym:1 doris:1 rubinson:1 arthur:1 saha:1 larry:1 shaw:1 richard:1 wilson:1 note:1 see:2 convention:1 reference:1 yesterday:1 warner:1 jr:1 external:1 link:1 http:1 ebb:1 english:1 vt:1 edu:1 etude:1 anderson:1 html:1 profile:1 paragraph:1 fancyclopedia:1 ii:1 f:1 entry:1 futurian:1 house:1 article:1 old:1 exclusion:1 act:1 caravan:1 star:1 |@bigram science_fiction:17 fiction_fandom:2 isaac_asimov:3 sam_moskowitz:2 donald_wollheim:4 frederik_pohl:6 hugo_gernsback:1 w_lowndes:2 james_blish:1 damon_knight:3 oswald_spengler:1 presidential_candidate:1 cyril_kornbluth:1 judith_merril:1 external_link:1 |
2,494 | Huns | The Western Hunnic Empire stretched from the steppes of Central Asia into modern Germany, and from the Black Sea to the Baltic Sea The Huns were a group of nomadic pastoral people who, appearing from beyond the Volga, migrated into Europe c.AD 370 and built up an enormous empire in Europe. Their main military technique was mounted archery. The Huns may have stimulated the Great Migration, a contributing factor in the collapse of the Roman Empire. They formed a unified empire under Attila the Hun, who died in 453; their empire broke up the next year. Their descendants, or successors with similar names, are recorded by neighbouring populations to the south, east, and west as having occupied parts of Eastern Europe and Central Asia roughly from the 4th century to the 6th century. Variants of the Hun name are recorded in the Caucasus until the early 8th century. They were possibly the descendants of the Xiongnu who had been northern neighbours of China three hundred years before and may be the first expansion of Turkic people across Eurasia Transylvania through the age of migrations Calise, J.M.P. (2002). 'Pictish Sourcebook: Documents of Medieval Legend and Dark Age History'. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p279, ISBN 0313322953 Peckham, D. Paulston, C. B. (1998). Linguistic Minorities in Central and Eastern Europe. Clevedon, UK : Multilingual Matters. p100, ISBN 1853594164 Canfield, R.L. (1991). Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p49, ISBN 0521522919 Frazee, C.A. (2002). Two Thousand Years Ago: The World at the Time of Jesus. Wm. B. Eerdmans . The origin and language of the Huns has been the subject of debate for centuries. The leading current theory is that their leaders at least may have spoken a Turkic language. Origin Hunnic cauldron from the 5th century, found in Hungary Hunnic age sacrificial cauldron has been found 2006, Hungary . Traditionally historians have associated the Huns who appeared on the borders of Europe in the 4th century with the Xiongnu who migrated out of the Mongolia region in the 1st century AD. However the evidence for this has not been definitive (see below), and the debates have continued ever since Joseph de Guignes first suggested it in the 18th century. Due to the lack of definitive evidence, a school of modern scholarship in the West instead uses an ethnogenesis approach in explaining the Huns' origin. Modern ethnogenesis interpretation There are no historical records that definitively answer where the European Huns of the 4th century came from. Modern understanding suggests that the large steppe confederations of history were not ethnically homogeneous , but rather unions of multiple ethnicities such as Turkic, Yeniseian, Tungusic, Ugric, Iranic, History of Russia, Central Asia, and Mongolia, David Christian, Wiley-Blackwell, 1998, ISBN 0631208143, p. 227. Mongolic, among others. This likely suggests the same was true for the Huns. Many clans may have claimed to be Huns simply based on the prestige and fame of the name or it was attributed to them by outsiders describing their common characteristics, believed place of origin, or reputation. Walter Pohl (1999), "Huns" in Late Antiquity, editor Peter Brown, p.501-502 .. further references to F.H Bauml and M. Birnbaum, eds., Attila: The Man and His Image (1993). Peter Heather, "The Huns and the End of the Roman Empire in Western Europe," English Historical Review 90 (1995):4-41. Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire (2005). Otto Maenchen-Helfen, The World of the Huns (1973). E. de la Vaissière, "Huns et Xiongnu", Central Asiatic Journal 2005-1 pp. 3-26 Similarly, Greek or Latin chroniclers may have used "Huns" in a more general sense, similar to the use of "barbarian". Because of these factors – no ethnic homogeneity among comparable groups; and association with the Hunnic name by outside chroniclers – many modern historians have turned to an ethnogenetic approach in explaining the origins of the Huns. An ethnogenetic approach does not assume that a group is an linguistically or genetically homogeneous tribe, that has a single place of origin or a single tribal history. Rather, small groups of aristocratic warriors may have carried ethnic traditions from place to place and generation to generation. Followers would coalesce or disband around these nuclei of tradition. Hunnic ethnicity would then require acceptance into these groups but no requirement to have been born into a "tribe". "All we can say safely," says Walter Pohl, "is that the name Huns, in late antiquity (4th century), described prestigious ruling groups of steppe warriors." Traditional Xiongnu theory Debate about the Asian origin of the Huns has been ongoing since the 18th century when Joseph de Guignes first suggested that the Huns should be identified as the Xiongnu of Chinese sources. De Guignes focused on the genealogy of political entities and gave little attention to whether the Huns were the physical descendants of the Xiongnu. Yet his idea, which comes in the context of the ethnocentric and nationalistic scholarship of the late 18th and 19th centuries Michael Kulikowski (2005). Rome's Gothic Wars. Cambridge University Press. Page 52-54 , gained traction and was modified over time to encompass the ideals of the Romantics. Some evidence does suggest a political and cultural link between the Huns and the Xiongnu. The Central Asian Bactrian ancient Sogdian letters from the 4th century mention Huns, while the Chinese sources write Xiongnu, in contact with the sacking of Luoyang The Xiongnu and the Huns: Three Archaeological Links, Miklós Érdy (independent scholar), CESS Conference 2000 Sogdian Ancient Letters . However there is a historical gap of 300 years between the Chinese and later sources. As Peter Heather writes "The ancestors of our [4th Century European] Huns could even have been a part of the [1st century] Xiongnu confederation, without being the 'real' Xiongnu. Even if we do make some sort of connection between the fourth-century Huns and the first century Xiongnu, an awful lot of water has passed under an awful lot of bridges in the three hundred years worth of lost history." Peter Heather. The Fall of the Roman Empire. Pg 149 In other words, we simply have no idea what happened to the Xiongnu for three hundred years and thus associating them with the 4th century Huns is speculative. Steppe peoples left few written records. Historians have traditionally relied upon indirect evidence such as Chinese records, ethnography, archaeology and linguistics. A certain passage in the Chinese Book of Wei (Wei-shu) is often cited as definitive proof in the identity of the Huns as the Xiongnu. It appears to say that the Xiongnu conquered the Alans (Su-Te 粟特) around the same time as recorded by Western sources. This theory hinged upon the identity of the Su-Te as the Yen-Ts'ai (奄蔡), as claimed by the Wei-shu. Similar passages are also found in the Pei-shih and the Chou-shu. Critical analysis of these Chinese texts reveals that certain chapters in the Book of Wei had been copied from the Pei-shih by Song editors, the chapter on the Xiongnu included. The Pei-shih author assembled his text by cherry-picking from earlier sources, the Chou-shu among them. The Chou-shu does not mention the Xiongnu in its version of the chapter in question. Additionally, the Book of the Later Han (Hou-han-shu) treats the Su-Te and the Yen-Ts'ai as distinct nations. Lastly, the Su-Te have been positively identified as Sogdiana and the Yen-Ts'ai with the Hephthalites. Other indirect evidence includes the transmission of grip laths for composite bows from Central Asia to the west Coulston J.C., 'Roman Archery Equipment', in M.C. Bishop (ed.), The Production and Distribution of Roman Military Equipment. Proceedings of the Second Roman Military Equipment Seminar, BAR International Series 275, Oxford, 1985, 220-366. and the similarity of Xiongnu and Hunnic cauldrons, which were buried on river banks both in Hungary and in the Ordos. E. de la Vaissière, Huns et Xiongnu "Central Asiatic Journal" 2005-1 pp. 3-26 . The Huns practiced cranial deformation, while there is no evidence of such practice amongst the Xiongnu. Western sources mention the Huns as having no beards; the Chinese recorded General Ran Min having led a military campaign against a faction of the Xiongnu Confederation called the Jie, who were described as having full beards, around Ye in 349 AD. Skeletal remains from Kazakhstan (Central Asia), excavated from different sites dating between the 15th century BC to the 5th century AD, have been analyzed for the hypervariable control region and haplogroup diagnostic single nucleotide polymorphisms of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genome. The distribution of east and west Eurasian lineages through time in the region is concordant with the available archaeological information: prior to the 13th - 7th century BC; all samples belong to European lineages. Later an arrival of East Asian sequences that coexisted with the previous genetic substratum was detected. "Unraveling migrations in the steppe: mitochondrial DNA sequences from ancient Central Asians", Unitat d'Antropologia, Departimenti Biologia Animal, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Avinguda Diagonal 645, 08028 Barcelona, Spain Language The literary sources, Priscus and Jordanes, preserve only a few names and three words of the language of the Huns, which have been studied for more than a century and a half. Our sources do not give the meaning of any of the names, only of the three words. These words (medos, kamos, strava) do not seem to be Turkic. Otto Maenchen-Helfen, Language of Huns, Ch. 9. The standard discussion remains Pritsak 1982, "The Hunnic Language of the Attila Clan." Pritsak, Omeljan. 1982 "The Hunnic Language of the Attila Clan." Harvard Ukrainian Studies, vol. 6, pp. 428-476. . On the basis of the existing sparse name records, a number of scholars suggest that the Huns spoke a Turkic language of the Oghur branch, which also includes Bulgar, Avar, Khazar and Chuvash languages. Johanson, Lars & Éva Agnes Csató (ed.). 1998. The Turkic languages. London: Routledge. English scholar Peter Heather called the Huns "the first group of Turkic, as opposed to Iranian, nomads to have intruded into Europe". Peter Heather, "The Huns and the End of Roman Empire in Western Europe", The English Historical Review, Vol. 110, No. 435, February 1995, p. 5. The inscription on the Khan Diggiz plate is interpreted by Mukhamadiev as giving the name of a known Hunnic king, son of Attila, in a form of Turkish. PROBLEMS OF LINGUOETHNOHISTORY OF THE TATAR PEOPLE. KAZAN 1995. Azgar Mukhamadiev. The KHAN DIGGIZ DISH INSCRIPTION. Excerpts from the article “Turanian Writing”, published in the book “Problems Of Linguoethnohistory Of The Tatar People” (Kazan, 1995. pages 36-83). Other schools of thought came to the conclusion that "To judge by the tribal names, a great part of the Huns must have spoken a Turkish language." - Otto Maenchen-Helfen Otto Maenchen-Helfen, Language of Huns Ch. XI. . A variety of languages were spoken by the subjects of the Huns. "For the subjects of the Huns, swept together from various lands, speak, besides their own barbarous tongues, either Hunnic or Gothic, or - as many as have commercial dealings with the western Romans--Latin." Priscus fr. 8 Society and culture The Huns kept herds of cattle, horses, goats, and sheep. Their other sources of food consisted of wild game and the roots of wild plants. For clothes they had round caps, pants or leggings made from goat skin, and either linen or rodent skin tunics. Ammianus reports that they wore these clothes until the clothes fell to pieces. In warfare they utilized the bow and javelin. The arrowheads and javelin tips were made from bone. They also fought using iron swords and lassos in close combat. The Hun sword was a long, straight, double-edged sword of early Sassanian style. These swords were hung from a belt using the scabbard-slide method, which kept the weapon vertical. The Huns also employed a smaller short sword or large dagger which was hung horizontally across the belly. A symbol of status among the Huns was a gilded bow. Sword and dagger grips also were decorated with gold. Ammianus mentions that the Huns had no kings but were instead led by nobles. For serious matters they formed councils and deliberated from horseback. They practiced scarification, slashing the faces of their male infants with swords. History A suggested path of Hunnic movement westwards A 14th century chivalric-romanticized painting of "the Huns" laying siege to a city. Note anachronistic details in weapons, armor and city type. Hungarian Chronicon Pictum, 1360. Pre-Attila The European geographer Ptolemy writes that the "Chuni" (Χοῦνοι or Χουνοἰ) are between the Bastarnae and the Roxolani in the Pontic area. He lists the beginning of the second century, although it is not known for certain if these people were the Huns. It is possible that the similarity between the names "Chuni" (Χοῦνοι) and "Hunnoi" (Ουννοι) is only a coincidence considering that while the West Romans often wrote Chunni or Chuni, the East Romans never used the guttural Χ at the beginning of the name. The 5th century Armenian historian Moses of Khorene, in his "History of Armenia," introduces the Hunni near the Sarmatians and describes their capture of the city of Balkh ("Kush" in Armenian) sometime between 194 and 214, which explains why the Greeks call that city Hunuk. The Huns first appeared in Europe in the 4th century. They show up north of the Black Sea around 370. The Huns crossed the Volga river and attacked the Alans, who were then subjugated. Jordanes reports that the Huns were led at this time by Balamber while modern historians question his existence, seeing instead an invention by the Goths to explain who defeated them. The Huns and Alans start plundering Ostrogothic settlements. The Ostrogothic king, Ermanaric, commits suicide and his great-nephew, Vithimiris, takes over. Vithimiris is killed during a battle against the Alans and Huns in 376. This results in the subjugation of most of the Ostrogoths. Vithimiris' son, Viderichus, was only a child so command of the remaining Ostrogothic refugee army fell to Alatheus and Saphrax. The refugees stream into Visigoths territory, west of the Dniester, and then into Roman territory. With a part of the Ostrogoths on the run, the Huns next came to the territory of the Visigoths, led by Athanaric. Athanaric, not to be caught off guard, sent an expeditionary force beyond the Dniester. The Huns avoided this small force and attacked Athanaric directly. The Goths retreated into the Carpathians. Support for the Gothic chieftains diminished as refugees headed into Thrace and towards the safety of the Roman garrisons. In 395 the Huns began their first largescale assault on the East Roman Empire. Huns attacked in Thrace, overran Armenia, and pillaged Cappadocia. They entered parts of Syria, threatened Antioch, and swarmed through the province of Euphratesia. Emperor Theodosius left his armies in the West so the Huns stood unopposed until the end of 398 when the eunuch Eutropius gathered together a force composed of Romans and Goths and succeeded in restoring peace. Hunnish Camp, as imagined in the 19th century Young Folks' History of Rome by Charlotte Mary Yonge. During their momentary diversion from the East Roman Empire, the Huns appear to have moved further west as evidenced by Radagaisus' entering Italy at the end of 405 and the crossing of the Rhine into Gaul by Vandals, Sueves, and Alans in 406. The Huns do not then appear to have been a single force with a single ruler. Many Huns were employed as mercenaries by both East and West Romans and by the Goths. Uldin, the first Hun known by name, headed a group of Huns and Alans fighting against Radagaisus in defense of Italy. Uldin was also known for defeating Gothic rebels giving trouble to the East Romans around the Danube and beheading the Goth Gainas around 400-401. Gainas' head was given to the East Romans for display in Constantinople in an apparent exchange of gifts. The East Romans began to feel the pressure again in 408 by Uldin's Huns. Uldin crossed the Danube and captured a fortress in Moesia named Castra Martis. The fortress was betrayed from within. Uldin then proceeded to ravage Thrace. The East Romans tried to buy Uldin off, but his sum was too high so they instead bought off Uldin's subordinates. This resulted in many desertions from Uldin's group of Huns. Alaric's brother-in-law, Athaulf, appears to have had Hun mercenaries in his employ south of the Julian Alps in 409. These were countered by another small band of Huns hired by Honorius' minister Olympius. Later in 409, the West Romans stationed ten thousand Huns in Italy and Dalmatia to fend off Alaric, who then abandoned plans to march on Rome. The Huns, led by Attila, invade Italy, as visualized in a 19th century painting by V. Checa. The Barbarian invasions of the fifth century were triggered by the destruction of the Gothic kingdoms by the Huns in 372-375. The city of Rome was captured and looted by the Visigoths in 410 and by the Vandals in 455. A unified Empire under Attila Under the leadership of Attila the Hun, the Huns achieved hegemony over several rivals using the composite bow and their horsemanship in traditional mounted archery tactics. Supplementing their wealth by plundering and raising tribute from Roman cities to the south, the Huns maintained the loyalties of a number of tributary tribes including elements of the Gepids, Scirii, Rugians, Sarmatians, and Ostrogoths. The only lengthy first-hand report of conditions among the Huns is by Priscus, who formed part of an embassy to Attila. After Attila After Attila's death, his son Ellac overcame his brothers Dengizich and Ernak to become king of the Huns. However, former subjects soon united under Ardaric against the Huns at the Battle of Nedao in 454. This defeat and Ellac's death ended the European supremacy of the Huns, and soon afterwards they disappear from contemporary records. Later historians provide glimpses of the dispersal and renaming of Attila's people. After Ellac's loss and death, his brothers may have ruled two hordes on the steppes north of the Black Sea. Dengizich may have been king of the Kutrigur Bulgars and Ernakh of the Utigur Bulgars. Therefore, after the dissolution of their empire, the Huns, under the leadership of Attila's sons, took on various tribal names such as Kutrigur, Utigur, Onogur, etc., and the more general name of Bulgars. Later records including those of Procopius and Jordanes mention Huns as still-existing or recent peoples. Chroniclers writing centuries later often mentioned or alluded to Huns or their purported descendants. These include: Theophylact Simocatta Annales Fuldenses Annales Alemannici Annals of Salzburg Liutprand of Cremona's Antapodosis Regino of Prüm's chronicle Widukind of Corvey's Saxon Chronicle Nestor the Chronicler's Primary Chronicle Legends of Saints Cyril and Methodius Aventinus's Chronicon Bavaria, Constantine VII's De Administrando Imperio, and Leo VI the Wise's Tactica. Mediaeval Hungarians continued this tradition (see Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum, Chronicon Pictum, Gesta Hungarorum). Legends The King of the Huns transfixing Saint Ursula with an arrow after she refused to marry him, in Caravaggio's 1610 "The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula". Memory of the Hunnic conquest was transmitted orally among Germanic peoples and is an important component in the Old Norse Völsunga saga and Hervarar saga and in the Middle High German Nibelungenlied. These stories all portray Migration Period events from a millennium earlier. In the Hervarar saga, the Goths make first contact with the bow-wielding Huns and meet them in an epic battle on the plains of the Danube. In the Nibelungenlied, Kriemhild marries Attila (Etzel in German) after her first husband Siegfried was murdered by Hagen with the complicity of her brother, King Gunther. She then uses her power as Etzel's wife to take a bloody revenge in which not only Hagen and Gunther but all Burgundian knights find their death at festivities to which she and Etzel had invited them. In the Völsunga saga, Attila (Atli in Norse) defeats the Frankish king Sigebert I (Sigurðr or Siegfried) and the Burgundian King Guntram (Gunnar or Gunther), but is later assassinated by Queen Fredegund (Gudrun or Kriemhild), the sister of the latter and wife of the former. During a 16th-century peasant revolt in southern Norway, the rebels claimed, during their trial, that they expected the "Hun king Atle" to come from the north with a great host. Successor nations Locations of Hun successor states in 500 AD. Many nations have tried to assert themselves as ethnic, or cultural successors to the Huns. For instance, the Nominalia of the Bulgarian Khans may indicate that they have descended from Attila, through his sons. Atilla and his sons, Ernach (Irnik) and Dengizich, are explicitly mentioned as founders of the first royal dynasty of Bulgar Khans. The Bulgars were certainly a major element of the Hunnic tribal alliance. Some scholars have hypothesized that the Chuvash language, (which is believed to have descended from the Bulgar language), is the closest surviving relative of the Hunnic language. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1997: Turkic languages."Formerly, scholars considered Chuvash probably spoken by the Huns." The Magyars (Hungarians) in particular lay claim to Hunnic heritage. Hungarian prehistory includes Magyar origin stories, which may preserve some elements of historical truth. The Huns who invaded Europe represented a loose coalition of various peoples, so some Magyars may well have been part of it, or may later have joined descendants of Attila's men, who still claimed the name of Huns. The national anthem of Hungary describes the Hungarians as "blood of Bendeguz'" (the medieval and modern Hungarian version of Mundzuk, Attila's father). Attila's brother Bleda is Buda in modern Hungarian. The city of Buda may derive its name from him. Until the early 20th century, many Hungarian historians believed that the Székely people were the descendants of the Huns, but that is no longer the consensus. In 2005, a group of about 2,500 Hungarians petitioned the government for recognition of minority status as direct descendants of Attila. The bid failed, but gained some publicity for the group, which formed in the early 1990s and appears to represent a special Hun(garian)-centric brand of mysticism. The self-proclaimed Huns are not known to possess any distinctly Hunnic culture or language beyond what would be available from historical and modern-mystical Hungarian sources. Nick Thorpe, "Hungary blocks Hun minority bid", BBC News, April 12, 2005 While the Huns left descendants all over Eastern Europe, after the disintegration of the Hun Empire, they never regained their lost glory. One reason was that the Huns never fully established the mechanisms of a state, such as bureaucracy and taxes, unlike Bulgars, Magyars or the Golden Horde. Once disorganized, the Huns were absorbed by more organized polities. The Hun Empire included, at least nominally, a great host of diverse peoples, each of whom may be considered 'descendants' of the Huns. However, given that the Huns were a political creation, and not a consolidated people, or nation, their defeat in 454 marked the end of the that political creation. Newer polities which later arose might have consisted of people formerly in the Hun confederacy, and carrying the same steppe cultures, but they were new political creations. Hunnic Cavalry, 1870s engraving after a drawing by Johann Nepomuk Geiger (1805-1880). 20th-century use in reference to Germans The term "Hun" has been also used to describe peoples with no historical connection to those scholars consider to be "Huns", in particular Germans. On July 27, 1900, during the Boxer Rebellion in China, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany gave the order to act ruthlessly towards the rebels: "Mercy will not be shown, prisoners will not be taken. Just as a thousand years ago, the Huns under Attila won a reputation of might that lives on in legends, so too may you assert the name of the Germans in China in such a way that no Chinaman will ever again dare so much as to pull a face at a German." Weser-Zeitung, July 28, 1900, second morning edition, p. 1: 'Wie vor tausend Jahren die Hunnen unter ihrem König Etzel sich einen Namen gemacht, der sie noch jetzt in der Überlieferung gewaltig erscheinen läßt, so möge der Name Deutschland in China in einer solchen Weise bekannt werden, daß niemals wieder ein Chinese es wagt, etwa einen Deutschen auch nur schiel anzusehen'. This speech gave rise to later use of the term for the German enemy during World War I. The comparison was helped by the Pickelhaube or spiked helmet worn by German forces until 1916, which was reminiscent of images depicting ancient Hun helmets. An alternative reason sometimes given for the use of the term was the motto Gott mit uns (God with us) on German soldiers' belt buckles during World War I. It is suggested that the word uns was mistaken for Huns. This usage, emphasising the idea that the Germans were barbarians, was reinforced by Allied propaganda throughout the war. The French songwriter Theodore Botrel described the Kaiser as "an Attila, without remorse", launching "cannibal hordes". "Quand un Attila, sans remords, / Lance ses hordes cannibales, / Tout est bon qui meurtrit et mord: / Les chansons, aussi, sont des balles!", from Theodore Botrel, by Edgar Preston T.P.'s Journal of Great Deeds of the Great War, February 27, 1915 The usage resurfaced during World War II. For example Winston Churchill referred in 1941 to the invasion of the Soviet Union by describing "dandified" Prussian officers followed by "the dull, drilled, docile brutish masses of the Hun soldiery, plodding on like a swarm of crawling locusts." "WINSTON CHURCHILL'S BROADCAST ON THE SOVIET-GERMAN WAR", London, June 22, 1941 . Nevertheless, its use was less widespread than in the previous war. Rather, WWII troops often used the more facetious and less clearly pejorative "Jerry" with regard to their German opponents. See also Hunnic Empire Turkic Khaganate Nomadic empire Oghur Uar Bulgars Avars Xionites Hephthalites Indo-Sassanids List of Hunnic Rulers Cavalry Horse archery Hungarians References Bibliography Classics Otto J. Mänchen-Helfen (ed. Max Knight): The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1973) ISBN 0-520-01596-7 E. A. Thompson: A History of Attila and the Huns (London, Oxford University Press, 1948) Other de la Vaissière, E. "Huns et Xiongnu", Central Asiatic Journal, 2005-1, p. 3-26. Lindner, Rudi Paul. "Nomadism, Horses and Huns", Past and Present, No. 92. (Aug., 1981), pp. 3–19. J. Webster: The Huns and Existentialist Thought (Loudonville, Siena College Press, 2006) Notes External links Historical maps of Huns Maps to be combined and compared | Huns |@lemmatized western:6 hunnic:19 empire:17 stretch:1 steppe:7 central:11 asia:5 modern:9 germany:2 black:3 sea:4 baltic:1 hun:104 group:11 nomadic:2 pastoral:1 people:15 appear:8 beyond:3 volga:2 migrate:2 europe:11 c:5 ad:5 build:1 enormous:1 main:1 military:4 technique:1 mount:1 archery:4 may:15 stimulate:1 great:7 migration:4 contribute:1 factor:2 collapse:1 roman:23 form:5 unified:2 attila:25 die:2 break:1 next:2 year:7 descendant:9 successor:4 similar:3 name:20 record:10 neighbour:2 population:1 south:3 east:11 west:10 occupy:1 part:7 eastern:3 roughly:1 century:33 variant:1 caucasus:1 early:5 possibly:1 xiongnu:22 northern:1 china:4 three:6 hundred:3 first:12 expansion:1 turkic:9 across:2 eurasia:1 transylvania:1 age:3 calise:1 j:4 p:7 pictish:1 sourcebook:1 document:1 medieval:2 legend:3 dark:1 history:10 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2,495 | Feminist_film_theory | Feminist film theory is theoretical film criticism derived from feminist politics and feminist theory. Feminists have many approaches to cinema analysis, regarding the film elements analysed and their theoretical underpinnings. History The development of feminist film theory was influenced by second wave feminism and the development of women's studies within the academy. Feminist scholars began applying the new theories arising from these movements to analyzing film. Initial attempts in the United States in the early 1970’s were generally based on sociological theory and focused on the function of women characters in particular film narratives or genres and of stereotypes as a reflection of a society's view of women. Works such as Marjorie Rosen’s Popcorn Venus: Women, Movies, and the American Dream (1973) and Molly Haskell’s From Reverence to Rape: The Treatment of Women in Movies (1974) analyzed how the women portrayed in film related to the broader historical context, the stereotypes depicted, the extent to which the women were shown as active or passive, and the amount of screen time given to women. Erens, Patricia. “Introduction” Issues in Feminist Film Criticism. Patricia Erens, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. pp. xvi. In contrast, film theoreticians in England began integrating perspectives drawn from psychoanalysis, semiotics, and Marxism, and eventually these ideas gained hold within the American scholarly community in the later 1970’s and 1980’s. Analysis generally focused on "the production of meaning in a film text, the way a text constructs a viewing subject, and the ways in which the very mechanisms of cinematic production affect the representation of women and reinforce sexism". Erens, Patricia. "Introduction", Issues in Feminist Film Criticism. Patricia Erens, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. pp. xvii. In his article, "From the Imaginary Signifier: Identification, Mirror," Christian Metz argues that viewing film is only possible through scopophilia (pleasure from looking, related to voyeurism), which is best exemplified in silent film. Braudy and Cohen, Film Theory and Criticism, Sixth Edition, Oxford University Press, 2004, page 827 According to Cynthia A. Freeland in "Feminist Frameworks for Horror Films," feminist studies of horror films have focused on psychodynamics where the chief interest is "on viewers' motives and interests in watching horror films". Braudy and Cohen, Film Theory and Criticism, Sixth Edition, Oxford University Press, 2004 More recently, scholars have expanded their work to include analysis of television and digital media. Additionally, they have begun to explore notions of difference, engaging in dialogue about the differences among women (part of movement away from essentialism in feminist work more generally), the various methodologies and perspectives contained under the umbrella of feminist film theory, and the multiplicity of methods and intended effects that influence the development of films. Scholars are also taking increasingly global perspectives, responding to postcolonialist criticisms of Anglo- and Eurocentrism in the academy more generally. Increased focus has been given to, "disparate feminisms, nationalisms, and media in various locations and across class, racial, and ethnic groups throughout the world". McHugh, Kathleen and Vivian Sobchack. “Introduction: Recent Approaches to Film Feminisms.” Signs 30(1):1205-1207. Key themes The gaze and the female spectator In considering the way that films are put together, many feminist film critics have pointed to the "male gaze" that predominates in classical Hollywood filmmaking. Budd Boetticher summarises the view thus: "What counts is what the heroine provokes, or rather what she represents. She is the one, or rather the love or fear she inspires in the hero, or else the concern he feels for her, who makes him act the way he does. In herself the woman has not the slightest importance." Laura Mulvey's seminal essay "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema" (written in 1973 and published in 1975) expands on this conception of the passive role of women in cinema to argue that film provides visual pleasure through scopophilia, and identification with the on-screen male actor. She asserts: "In their traditional exhibitionist role women are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness," and as a result contends that in film a woman is the "bearer of meaning, not maker of meaning." Mulvey argues that Freud's psychoanalytic theory is the key to understanding how film creates such a space for female sexual objectification and exploitation through the combination of the patriarchal order of society, and 'looking' in itself as a pleasurable act of voyeurism, as "the cinema satisfies a primordial wish for pleasurable looking." Mulvey identifies three "looks" or perspectives that occur in film which serve to sexually objectify women. The first is the perspective of the male character on screen and how he perceives the female character. The second is the perspective of the spectator as they see the female character on screen. The third "look" joins the first two looks together: it is the male audience member's perspective of the male character in the film. This third perspective allows the male audience to take the female character as his own personal sex object because he can relate himself, through looking, to the male character in the film. In the paper, Mulvey calls for a destruction of modern film structure as the only way to free women from their sexual objectification in film, arguing for a removal of the voyeurism encoded into film by creating distance between the male spectator and the female character. The only way to do so, Mulvey argues, is by destroying the element of voyeurism and "the invisible guest". Mulvey also asserts that the dominance that men embody is only so because women exist, as without a woman for comparison, a man and his supremacy as the controller of visual pleasure are insignificant. For Mulvey, it is the presence of the female that defines the patriarchal order of society as well as the male psychology of thought. Mulvey's argument comes as a product of the time period in which she was writing. "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema" was composed during the period of second-wave feminism, which was concerned with achieving equality for women in the workplace, and with exploring the psychological implications of sexual stereotypes. Mulvey calls for an eradication of female sexual objectivity in order to align herself with second-wave feminism. She argues that in order for women to be equally represented in the workplace, women must be portrayed as men are: as lacking sexual objectification. Mulvey posits in her notes to the Criterion Collection DVD of Powell's film that the homosexual male spectator is actively disinterested in the female onscreen as "sex object", implying that he reads films through a far clearer lens (again, in reference to Peeping Tom). B. Ruby Rich argues that women’s relationships with film is instead dialectical, consciously filtering the images and messages they receive through cinema, and reprocessing them to elicit their own meanings. Rich, B. Ruby. “In the Name of Feminist Film Criticism. Issues in Feminist Film Criticism. Patricia Erens, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990, pp.268-287. Coming from a black feminist perspective, bell hooks put forth the notion of the “oppositional gaze,” encouraging black women not to accept stereotypical representations in film, but rather actively critique them. hooks, bell. “The Oppositional Gaze: Black Female Spectators.” The Feminism and Visual Culture Reader. Amelia Jones, ed. London: Routledge, 2003, pp. 94-105. Janet Bergstrom’s article “Enunciation and Sexual Difference” (1979) uses Sigmund Freud’s ideas of bisexual responses, arguing that women are capable of identifying with male characters and men with women characters, either successively or simultaneously. Erens, Patricia. “Introduction” Issues in Feminist Film Criticism. Patricia Erens, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. pp. xxi. Miriam Hanson, in “Pleasure, Ambivalence, Identification: Valentino and Female Spectatorship” (1984) put forth the idea that women are also able to view male characters as erotic objects of desire. Erens, Patricia. “Introduction” Issues in Feminist Film Criticism. Patricia Erens, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. pp. xxi. In "The Master's Dollhouse: Rear Window," Tania Modleski argues that Hitchock's film, Rear Window, is an example of the power of male gazer and the position of the female as a prisoner of the "master's dollhouse". Braudy and Cohen, Film Theory and Criticism, Sixth Edition, Oxford University Press, 2004, page 861. Carol Clover, in her popular and influential book "Men Women and Chainsaws: Gender in the Modern Horror Film" (Princeton University Press, 1992) argues that young male viewers of the Horror Genre (young males being the primary demographic) are quite prepared to identify with the female-in-jeopardy, a key component of Horror narrative, and to identify on an unexpectedly profound level. Clover further argues that the "Final Girl" in the psychosexual sub-genre of Exploitation Horror invariable triumphs through her own resourcefulness, and is not by any means a passive, or inevitable, victim. Laura Mulvey, in response to these and other criticisms revisited the topic in “Afterthoughts on ‘Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema’ inspired by Duel in the Sun” (1981). In addressing the heterosexual female spectator, she revised her stance to argue that women can take two possible roles in relation to film: a masochistic identification with the female object of desire that is ultimately self-defeating or a transsexual identification with men as the active viewers of the text. Erens, Patricia. “Introduction” Issues in Feminist Film Criticism. Patricia Erens, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. pp. xxi. . A new version of the gaze was offered in the early 1990s by Bracha Ettinger, who proposed the notion of the "matrixial gaze". Realism and counter cinema The early work of Marjorie Rosen and Molly Haskell on representation of women in film was part of a movement to make depictions of women more realistic both in documentaries and narrative cinema. The growing female presence in the film industry was seen as a positive step toward realizing this goal, by drawing attention to feminist issues and putting forth alternative, more true-to-life views of women. However, these images are still mediated by the same factors as traditional film, such as the “moving camera, composition, editing, lighting, and all varieties of sound.” While acknowledging the value in inserting positive representations of women in film, some critics asserted that real change would only come about from reconsidering the role of film in society, often from a semiotic point of view. Erens, Patricia. “Introduction” Issues in Feminist Film Criticism. Patricia Erens, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. pp. xviii. Claire Johnston put forth the idea that women’s cinema can function as "counter cinema". Through consciousness of the means of production and opposition of sexist ideologies, films made by women have the potential to posit an alternative to traditional Hollywood films. Johnston, Claire. "Women’s Cinema as Counter Cinema." Sexual Strategems: The World of Women in Film. Patricia Erens, ed. New York: Horizon Press, 1979, pp 133-143. In reaction to this article, many women filmmakers have integrated "alternative forms and experimental techniques" to "encourage audiences to critique the seemingly transparent images on the screen and to question the manipulative techniques of filming and editing". Erens, Patricia. “Introduction” Issues in Feminist Film Criticism. Patricia Erens, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. pp. xix. References Further reading Sue Thornham (ed.), Feminist Film Theory. A Reader, Edinburgh University Press 1999 Multiple Voices in Feminist Film Criticism, edited by Diane Carson, Janice R. Welsch, Linda Dittmar, University of Minnesota Press 1994 Kjell R. Soleim (ed.), Fatal Women. Journal of the Center for Women's and Gender Research, Bergen Univ., Vol. 11: 115-128, 1999. Bracha L. Ettinger (1999), "Matrixial Gaze and Screen: Other than Phallic and Beyond the Late Lacan." In: Laura Doyle (ed.) Bodies of Resistance. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 2001. Beyond the Gaze: Recent Approaches to Film Feminisms. Signs Vol. 30, no. 1 (Autumn 2004). Griselda Pollock, Differencing the Canon. Routledge, London & N.Y., 1999. Griselda Pollock (ed.), Psychoanalysis and the Image. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006. See also Laura Mulvey Carol J. 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2,496 | League_of_Nations | The League of Nations (LoN) was an inter-governmental organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The League's goals included upholding the new found Rights of Man such as right of non whites, rights of women, rights of soldiers, disarmament, preventing through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving global quality of life. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift in thought from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and so depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to economic sanctions which the League ordered, or provide an army, when needed, for the League to use. However, they were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could also hurt the League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. When during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, the League accused Benito Mussolini's soldiers of targeting Red Cross medical tents, Mussolini responded that Ethiopians were not fully human, therefore the human rights laws did not apply. Benito Mussolini stated that "The League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out." After a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. In May 1933 the League was powerless to convince Hitler that Franz Bernheim, a Jew, was protected under the minority clauses established by the League in 1919 (that all minorities were fully human and held equal rights among all men). Hitler claimed these clauses violated Germany's sovereignty. Germany withdrew from the League soon to be followed by many other totalitarian and militaristic nations. The onset of World War II showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to avoid any future world war. The United Nations replaced it after the end of the war and inherited a number of agencies and organizations founded by the League. Origins A commemorative card depicting President of the United States Woodrow Wilson and the "Origin of the League of Nations" The concept of a peaceful community of nations had been outlined as far back as 1795, when Immanuel Kant’s Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch outlined the idea of a league of nations that would control conflict and promote peace between states. Skirbekk and Gilje 2001, p. 288 There, Kant argues for establishment of a peaceful world community not in a sense that there be a global government but in the hope that each state would declare itself as a free state that respects its citizens and welcomes foreign visitors as fellow rational beings. It is in this rationalization that a union of free states would promote peaceful society worldwide, therefore there can be a perpetual peace binded by the international community. http://www.constitution.org/kant/perpeace.htm International co-operation to promote collective security originated in the Concert of Europe that developed after the Napoleonic Wars in the nineteenth century in an attempt to maintain the status quo between European states and so avoid war. Reichard 2006, p. 9 Rapoport 1995, pp. 498-500 This period also saw the development of international law with the first Geneva conventions establishing laws about humanitarian relief during war and the international Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 governing rules of war and the peaceful settlement of international disputes. Bouchet-Saulnier, Brav, and Olivier 2007, pp. 14-134 Northedge 1986, p. 10 The forerunner of the League of Nations, the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), was formed by peace activists William Randal Cremer and Frederic Passy in 1889. The organization was international in scope with a third of the members of parliament, in the 24 countries with parliaments, serving as members of the IPU by 1913. Its aims were to encourage governments to solve international disputes by peaceful means and arbitration and annual conferences were held to help governments refine the process of international arbitration. The IPU's structure consisted of a Council headed by a President which would later be reflected in the structure of the League. At the start of the twentieth century two power blocs emerged through alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that came into effect at the start of the First World War in 1914, drawing all the major European powers into the war. This was the first major war in Europe between industrialized countries and the first time in Western Europe the results of industrialization (for example mass production) had been dedicated to war. The result of this industrial warfare was an unprecedented casualty level with eight and a half million members of armed services dead, an estimated 21 million wounded, and approximately 10 million civilian deaths. Bell 2007, pp. 15-17 Northedge 1986, pp. 1-2 By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had a profound impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe and inflicting psychological and physical damage on the continent. Bell 2007, p. 16 Anti-war sentiment rose across the world; the First World War was described as "the war to end all wars", Archer 2001, p. 14 Northedge 1986, p. 1 and its possible causes were vigorously investigated. The causes identified included arms races, alliances, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. The perceived remedies to these were seen as the creation of an international organisation whose aim was to prevent future war through disarmament, open diplomacy, international co-operation, restrictions on the right to wage wars, and penalties that made war unattractive to nations. Bell 2007, p. 8 While the First World War was still underway, a number of governments and groups had already started developing plans to change the way international relations were carried out in order to prevent a repetition of the war. United States President Woodrow Wilson and his advisor Colonel Edward M. House enthusiastically promoted the idea of the League as a means of avoiding any repetition of the bloodshed seen in World War I, and the creation of the League was a centerpiece of Wilson's Fourteen Points for Peace. Kawamura 2000, p. 135 Specifically the final point provided: "A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike." Before drafting the specific terms of his peace deal, Wilson recruited a team led by Colonel House to compile whatever information deemed pertinent in assessing Europe’s geo-political situation. In early January, 1918, Wilson summoned House to Washington and the two began hammering out, in complete secrecy, the President’s first address on the League of Nations which was delivered to an unsuspecting Congress on January 8, 1918. Woodrow Wilson / Auguste Heckscher / p. 470 On July 8, 1919, Woodrow Wilson returned to the United States and embarked on a nation-wide campaign to secure the support of the American people for their country’s entry into the League. On July 10, Wilson addressed the Senate declaring that “a new role and a new responsibility have come to this great nation that we honour and which we would all wish to lift to yet higher levels of service and achievement.” Positive reception, particularly from Republicans, was scarce at best. The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson / Kendrick A. Clements / 189 The Paris Peace Conference, convened to build a lasting peace after World War I, approved the proposal to create the League of Nations (, ) on 25 January 1919. Magliveras 1999, p. 8 The Covenant of the League of Nations was drafted by a special commission, and the League was established by Part I of the Treaty of Versailles. On 28 June 1919, Magliveras 1999, pp. 8–12 Northedge 1986, pp. 35–36 44 states signed the Covenant, including 31 states which had taken part in the war on the side of the Triple Entente or joined it during the conflict. Despite Wilson's efforts to establish and promote the League, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in October 1919, Levinovitz and Ringertz 2001, p. 170 the United States did not join the League. Opposition in the U.S. Senate, particularly from Republican politicians Henry Cabot Lodge and William E. Borah, together with Wilson's refusal to compromise, ensured that the United States would not ratify the Covenant. The League held its first council meeting in Paris on 16 January 1920, six days after the Versailles Treaty came into force. Scott 1973, p. 51 In November, the headquarters of the League moved to Geneva, where the first General Assembly was held on 15 November 1920 Scott 1973, p. 67 with representatives from 41 nations in attendance. Languages and symbols The official languages of the League of Nations were French, English Burkman 1995 and Spanish (from 1920). The League considered adopting Esperanto as their working language and actively encouraging its use but neither option was ever adopted. Kontra et al. 1999, p. 32 In 1921, there was a proposal by Lord Robert Cecil to introduce Esperanto into state schools of member nations and a report was commissioned to investigate this. Forster 1982, p. 173 When the report was presented two years later it recommended the teaching of Esperanto in schools, a proposal that 11 delegates accepted. The strongest opposition came from the French delegate, Gabriel Hanotaux, partially in order to protect the French Language which he argued was already the international language. Forster 1982, pp. 171–76 This opposition meant the report was accepted apart from the section that approved Esperanto in schools. Forster 1982, p. 175 The League of Nations had neither an official flag nor logo. Proposals for adopting an official symbol were made during the League's beginning in 1920, but the member states never reached agreement. However, League of Nations organizations used varying logos and flags (or none at all) in their own operations. An international contest was held in 1929 to find a design, which again failed to produce a symbol. One of the reasons for this failure may have been the fear by the member states that the power of the supranational organization might supersede their own. Finally, in 1939, a semi-official emblem emerged: two five-pointed stars within a blue pentagon. The pentagon and the five-pointed stars were supposed to symbolize the five continents and the five races of mankind. In a bow on top and at the bottom, the flag had the names in English (League of Nations) and French (Société des Nations). This flag was used on the building of the New York World's Fair in 1939 and 1940. Principal organs Palace of Nations, Geneva, the League's headquarters since 1938 The League had four principal organs, a secretariat (headed by the General Secretary and based in Geneva), a Council, an Assembly and a Permanent Court of International Justice. Meyer and Prugl 1999, p. 20 The League also had numerous agencies and commissions. Authorization for any action required both a unanimous vote by the Council and a majority vote in the Assembly. Secretariat and Assembly The staff of the League's secretariat was responsible for preparing the agenda for the Council and Assembly and publishing reports of the meetings and other routine matters, effectively acting as the civil service for the League. The secretariat was often considered to be too small to handle all of the league administrative affairs. The League of Nations' Assembly was a meeting of all the member states, with each state allowed up to three representatives and one vote. The Assembly met in Geneva and, after its initial sessions in 1920, Northedge 1986, pp. 72 sessions were held once a year in September. Council The League Council acted as a type of executive body directing the Assembly's business. Northedge 1986, p. 48 The Council began with four permanent members (Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan) and four non-permanent members which were elected by the Assembly for a three year period. Northedge 1986, pp. 42–48 The first four non-permanent members were Belgium, Brazil, Greece and Spain. The United States was meant to be the fifth permanent member, but the US Senate voted on 19 March 1920 against the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles, thus preventing American participation in the League. The composition of the Council was subsequently changed a number of times. The number of non-permanent members was first increased to six on 22 September 1922, and then to nine on 8 September 1926. Werner Dankwort of Germany pushed for his home country to join the league which they eventually did in 1926. Germany became the fifth permanent member of the Council, giving the Council a total of fifteen members. Later, after Germany and Japan both left the League, the number of non-permanent seats was increased from nine to eleven. The Council met, on average, five times a year and in extraordinary sessions when required. In total, 107 public sessions were held between 1920 and 1939. Other bodies The League oversaw the Permanent Court of International Justice and several other agencies and commissions created to deal with pressing international problems. These included the Disarmament Commission, the Health Organization, the International Labour Organization, the Mandates Commission, the International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation (precursor to UNESCO), the Permanent Central Opium Board, the Commission for Refugees, and the Slavery Commission. Several of these institutions were transferred to the United Nations after the Second World War; the International Labour Organization, the Permanent Court of International Justice (as the International Court of Justice), and the Health Organization (restructured as the World Health Organization) all became UN institutions. Health Organization The League's health organization had three bodies, a Health Bureau, containing permanent officials of the League, an executive section the General Advisory Council or Conference consisting of medical experts, and a Health Committee. The Committee's purpose was to conduct inquiries, oversee the operation of the League's health work, and get work ready to be presented to the Council. Northedge 1986, p. 182 This body focused on ending leprosy, malaria and yellow fever, the latter two by starting an international campaign to exterminate mosquitoes. The Health Organization also worked successfully with the government of the Soviet Union to prevent typhus epidemics including organising a large education campaign about the disease. Baumslag 2005, p. 8 Child Labour in Kamerun during 1919 International Labour Organization In 1919, the International Labour Organization (ILO) was created as part of the Versailles Treaty and became part of the League's operations. Northedge 1986, pp. 179–80 Its first director was Albert Thomas. Scott 1973, p. 53 The ILO successfully restricted the addition of lead to paint, Frowein and Rüdiger 2000, p. 167 and convinced several countries to adopt an eight-hour work day and forty-eight hour working week. It also worked to end child labour, increase the rights of women in the workplace, and make shipowners liable for accidents involving seamen. The organization continued to exist after the end of the League, becoming an agency of the United Nations in 1946. Permanent Central Opium Board The League wanted to regulate the drug trade and established the Permanent Central Opium Board to supervise the statistical control system introduced by the second International Opium Convention that mediated the production, manufacture, trade and retail of opium and its by-products. The Board also established a system of import certificates and export authorizations for the legal international trade in narcotics. McAllister 1999, pp. 76–77 A sample Nansen passport Slavery Commission The Slavery Commission sought to eradicate slavery and slave trading across the world, and fought forced prostitution. Northedge 1986, pp. 185–86 Its main success was through pressing the governments who administered mandated countries to end slavery in those countries. The League secured a commitment from Ethiopia to end slavery as a condition of membership in 1926, and worked with Liberia to abolish forced labour and inter-tribal slavery. It succeeded in gaining the emancipation of 200,000 slaves in Sierra Leone and organized raids against slave traders in its efforts to stop the practice of forced labour in Africa. It also succeeded in reducing the death rate of workers constructing the Tanganyika railway from 55% to 4%. Records were kept to control slavery, prostitution, and the trafficking of women and children. Northedge 1986, p. 166 Commission for Refugees Led by Fridtjof Nansen, the Commission for Refugees looked after the interests of refugees including overseeing their repatriation and, when necessary resettlement. Northedge 1986, p. 77 At the end of the First World War there were two to three million ex-prisoners of war dispersed throughout Russia, within two years of the commission's foundation, in 1920, it had helped 425,000 of them return home. Scott 1973, p. 59 It established camps in Turkey in 1922 to aid the country with a refugee crisis it was dealing with, helping to prevent disease and hunger. It also established the Nansen passport as a means of identification for stateless peoples. Torpey 2000, p. 129 Committee for the Study of the Legal Status of Women The Committee for the Study of the Legal Status of Women sought to make an inquiry into the status of women all over the world. It was formed in April 1938, and dissolved in early 1939. Committee members included Mme. P. Bastid (France), M. de Ruelle (Belgium), Mme. Anka Godjevac (Yugoslavia), Mr. H. C. Gutteridge (Great Britain), Mlle. Kerstin Hesselgren (Sweden), For a full biography, see :sv:Kerstin Hesselgren (in Swedish). Ms. Dorothy Kenyon (United States), M. Paul Sebastyen (Hungary) and Secretariat Mr. Hugh McKinnon Wood (Great Britain). Members An anachronous map of the world in the years 1920–1945, which shows the League of Nations and the world. Of the League's 42 founding members, 23 (or 24, counting Free France) remained members until it was dissolved in 1946. In the founding year, six other states joined, only two of which remained members throughout the League's existence. An additional 15 countries joined in later years. The largest number of member states was 58, between 28 September 1934 (when Ecuador joined) and 23 February 1935 (when Paraguay withdrew). At this time, only Costa Rica (22 January 1925), Brazil (14 June 1926), the Empire of Japan (27 March 1933), and Germany (19 September 1933) had withdrawn citing a diplomatic disadvantage due to inferior powers.Egypt joined the league(on 26 May 1937). The Soviet Union only became a member on 18 September 1934, Scott 1973, pp. 312, 398 when it joined to antagonise Germany (which had left the year before), and was expelled from the League on 14 December 1939 for aggression against Finland. In expelling the Soviet Union, the League broke its own norms; only 7 of 15 members of the Council voted for the expulsion (Great Britain, France, Belgium, Bolivia, Egypt, South Africa, and the Dominican Republic), which was not the majority of votes required by the Covenant to do so. Three of these members were chosen as members of the Council the day before the voting (South Africa, Bolivia, and Egypt). Igor Pychalov. Velikaja obolgannaja vojna This was one of the League's final acts before it practically ceased functioning. Лига наций Лига наций owing to the Second World War. Egypt was the last state to join the League (26 May 1937). The first member to withdraw from the League after its founding was Costa Rica on 22 January 1925; having joined on 16 December 1920, this also makes it the member to have most quickly withdrawn from the League after joining. The last member to withdraw from the League before its dissolution was Luxembourg on 30 August 1942. Brazil was the first founding member to leave (14 June 1926) and Haiti was the last (April 1942). Iraq, which joined in 1932, was the first member of the league that had previously been a League of Nations Mandate. Tripp 2002, p. 75 Mandates League of Nations Mandates were established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. These territories were former colonies of the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire that were placed under the supervision of the League following World War I. The Permanent Mandates Commission supervised League of Nations mandates, and also organised plebiscites in disputed territories so that residents could decide which country they would join. There were three Mandate classifications. "A" Mandates The "A" Mandates (applied to parts of the old Ottoman Empire) were 'certain communities' that had "B" Mandates The "B" Mandates were applied to the former German Colonies that the League took responsibility for after the First World War. These were described as 'peoples' that the League said were "C" Mandates Areas in South-West Africa and certain of the South Pacific Islands were administrated by League members under a C Mandate. These were classified as 'territories' Mandatory Powers The territories were governed by "Mandatory Powers", such as the United Kingdom in the case of the Mandate of Palestine and the Union of South Africa in the case of South-West Africa, until the territories were deemed capable of self-government. There were fourteen mandate territories divided up among the six Mandatory Powers of the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, New Zealand, Australia and Japan. With the exception of Iraq, which joined the League on 3 October 1932, these territories did not begin to gain their independence until after the Second World War, a process that did not end until 1990. Following the demise of the League, most of the remaining mandates became United Nations Trust Territories. In addition to the Mandates, the League itself governed the Saarland for 15 years, before it was returned to Germany following a plebiscite, and the free city of Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland) from 15 November 1920 to 1 September 1939. Resolving territorial disputes The aftermath of World War I left many issues to be settled between nations, including the exact position of national boundaries and which country particular regions would join. Most of these questions were handled by the victorious Allied Powers in bodies such as the Allied Supreme Council. The Allies tended to refer only particularly difficult matters to the League. This meant that, during the first three years of the 1920s, the League played little part in resolving the turmoil that resulted from the war. The questions the League considered in its early years included those designated by the Paris Peace treaties. Northedge 1986, pp. 70–72 As the League developed, its role expanded, and by the middle of the 1920s, it became the centre of international activity. This change can be seen in the relationship between the League and non-members. The United States and Russia, for example, increasingly worked with the League. During the second half of the 1920s, France, Britain and Germany were all using the League of Nations as the focus of their diplomatic activity and each of their foreign secretaries attended League meetings at Geneva during this period. They also used the League's machinery to try to improve relations and settle their differences. Henig 1973, p. 170. Upper Silesia Polish poster from the plebiscite in Upper Silesia in 1921 The Allied Powers referred the problem of Upper Silesia to the League after they had been unable to resolve the territorial dispute. Scott 1973, pp. 82–83 After the First World War, Poland laid claim to Upper Silesia, which had been part of Prussia. The Treaty of Versailles had recommended a plebiscite in Upper Silesia to determine whether the territory should be part of Germany or Poland. Complaints about the attitude of the German authorities led to rioting and eventually to the first two Silesian Uprisings (1919 and 1920). A plebiscite took place on 20 March 1921 with 59.6% (around 500,000) of the votes cast in favour of joining Germany, but Poland claimed the conditions surrounding it had been unfair. This result led to the Third Silesian Uprising in 1921. Osmanczyk and Mango 2002, p. 2568 On 12 August 1921, the League was asked to settle the matter, and the Council created a commission with representatives from Belgium, Brazil, China and Spain to study the situation. Northedge 1986, p. 88 The committee recommended that Upper Silesia should be divided between Poland and Germany according to the preferences shown in the plebiscite and that the two sides should decide the details of the interaction between the two areas. For example, whether goods should pass freely over the border due to the economic and industrial interdependency of the two areas. Scott 1973, pp. 83 In November 1921 a conference was held in Geneva to negotiate a convention between Germany and Poland. A final settlement was reached, after five meetings, in which most of the area was given to Germany but with the Polish section containing the majority of the region's mineral resources and much of its industry. When this agreement became public in May 1922, bitter resentment was expressed in Germany, but the treaty was still ratified by both countries. The settlement produced peace in the area lasting until the run up to the Second World War. Albania The frontiers of Albania had not been set during the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, being left to the League to be decided, but had not yet been determined by September 1921. This created an unstable situation with Greek troops repeatedly crossing into Albanian territory on military operations in the south and Yugoslavian forces engaged, after clashes with Albanian tribesmen, far into the northern part of the country. The League sent a commission of representatives from various powers to the region and in November 1921, the League decided that the frontiers of Albania should be the same as they had been in 1913 with three minor changes that favoured Yugoslavia. Yugoslav forces withdrew a few weeks later, albeit under protest. Northedge 1986, pp. 103–105 The borders of Albania again become the cause of international conflict when Italian General Enrico Tellini and four of his assistants were ambushed and killed on 24 August 1923 while marking out the new newly decided border between Greece and Albania. Italian leader Benito Mussolini was incensed, and demanded that a commission should be set up to investigate the incident and that its enquires should be completed within five days. Whatever the results of the enquiry, Mussolini insisted that the Greek government should pay Italy fifty million lira reparations. The Greeks said they would not pay unless it was proved that the crime was committed by Greeks. Scott 1973, p. 86 Mussolini sent a warship to shell the Greek island of Corfu and Italian forces occupied Corfu on 31 August 1923. This contravened the League's covenant so Greece appealed to the League to deal with the situation. The Allies, however, agreed (under Mussolini's insistence) that the Conference of Ambassadors should be responsible for resolving the dispute because it was the conference that had appointed General Tellini. The League Council examined the dispute but then passed their findings to the Council of Ambassadors to make the final decision. The conference accepted most of the League's recommendations forcing Greece to pay fifty million lira to Italy even though those who committed the crime were never discovered. Scott 1973, p. 87 Mussolini was able to leave Corfu in triumph. Åland Islands Åland is a collection of around 6,500 islands midway between Sweden and Finland. The islands are exclusively Swedish speaking, but in 1809, Sweden had lost both Finland and the Åland Islands to Imperial Russia. In December 1917, during the turmoil of the Russian October Revolution, Finland declared independence, and most of the Ålanders wished the islands to become part of Sweden again; Scott 1973, p. 60 the Finnish government, however, felt that the islands were part of their new nation, as the Russians had included Åland in the Grand Duchy of Finland formed in 1809. By 1920, the dispute had escalated to such a level that there was a danger of war. The British government referred the problem to the League's Council, but Finland did not let the League intervene as they considered it an internal matter. The League created a small panel to decide if the League should investigate the matter and, with an affirmative response, a neutral commission was created. In June 1921, the League announced its decision; the islands should remain a part of Finland but with guaranteed protection of the islanders, including demilitarization. With Sweden's reluctant agreement, this became the first European international agreement concluded directly through the League. Northedge 1986, pp. 77–78 Memel The port city of Memel (now Klaipėda) and the surrounding area, with a predominantly German population, were under Allied control after the end of the World War I. The area had been awarded to Lithuania by Article 99 of the Treaty of Versailles but the French and Polish governments favoured turning Memel into an international city. By 1923, control of the area had still not been transferred to Lithuania, prompting Lithuanian forces to invade in January 1923 and seize the port. After the Allies failed to reach an agreement with Lithuania, they referred the matter to the League of Nations. In December 1923, the League Council appointed a Commission of Inquiry to investigate. The Commission chose to cede Memel to Lithuania and give the area autonomous rights. This decision was approved by the League Council on 14 March 1924 and then by the Allied Powers and Lithuania. Northedge 1986, p. 107 Mosul The League resolved a dispute between Iraq and Turkey over the control of the former Ottoman province of Mosul in 1926. According to the British, who were awarded a League of Nations A-mandate over Iraq in 1920 and therefore represented Iraq in its foreign affairs, Mosul belonged to Iraq; on the other hand, the new Turkish republic claimed the province as part of its historic heartland. A League of Nations' Commission of Inquiry with Belgian, Hungarian and Swedish members was sent to the region in 1924 to study the case and found that the people of Mosul did not want to be part of Turkey or Iraq but if they had to choose would pick Iraq. Scott 1973, p. 133 In 1925, the commission recommended that the region stay part of Iraq, under the condition that the British would hold the mandate over Iraq for another 25 years, to assure the autonomous rights of the Kurdish population. The League Council adopted the recommendation and it decided on 16 December 1925 to award Mosul to Iraq. Although Turkey had accepted the League of Nations' arbitration in the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, it rejected the League's decision questioning the Council's authority. The matter was referred to the Permanent Court of International Justice which ruled that when the Council made a unanimous decision it must be accepted. Nonetheless, Britain, Iraq and Turkey ratified a separate treaty on 5 June 1926, that mostly followed the decision of the League Council and also assigned Mosul to Iraq. It was agreed, however, that Iraq could still apply for League membership within 25 years and that the mandate would end upon its admittance. Northedge 1986, pp. 107-108 Scott 1973, p. 131-135 Vilnius After World War I, Poland and Lithuania both regained their independence but there was disagreement about the frontiers between the countries. Northedge 1986, p. 78 During the Polish-Soviet War, Lithuania signed a peace treaty with the Soviet Union that laid out Lithuania's frontiers. This agreement gave control of the city of Vilnius (, ), the old Lithuanian capital, to Lithuania which became the country's seat of government. Scott 1973, p. 61 This heightened tension between Lithuania and Poland led to fears that they would go to war, and on 7 October 1920 the League negotiated a short-lived armistice The majority of the population of the city of Vilnius during the inter-war era were Polish and on 9 October 1920 General Zeligowski with a Polish military force took the city and claimed that the Government of Central Lithuania was now under their protection. Lithuania requested the League's assistance and in response, the League Council called for Poland's withdrawal from the area. The Polish Government indicated they would comply with the League, but rather than leaving, it reinforced the city with more Polish troops. Scott 1973, p. 62 This prompted the League to decide that the future of Vilnius should be determined by its residents in a plebiscite and that the Polish forces should withdraw and be replaced by an international force organised by the League. Several League nations, included France and Britain, started preparing troops to be sent to the area as part of the international force. At the end of 1920, hostilities between Poland and Lithuania increased again but early in 1921, the Polish government began to seek a peaceful settlement. It agreed to support the League's plan for the area, withdraw Polish troops and co-operate with the plebiscite. The League, however, now faced opposition from Lithuania and the Soviet Union, who opposed of any international force in Lithuania. In March 1921, the League abandoned plans for the plebiscite and the international force, and returned to attempting to facilitate a negotiated settlement between the two sides. Scott 1973, p. 63 Vilnius and the surrounding area were formally annexed by Poland in March 1922, and on 14 March 1923, the Allied Conference set the frontier between Lithuania and Poland leaving Vilnius within Poland. Northedge 1986, pp. 78-79 Lithuanian authorities refused to accept the decision, and officially remained in a state of war with Poland until 1927. Bell 2007, p. 29 It was not until the 1938 Polish ultimatum that Lithuania was forced to establish diplomatic relations with Poland and thus de facto accepted the borders of its neighbour. Crampton 1996, p. 93 Colombia and Peru The Colombian Army countering a Peruvian attack There were several border conflicts between Colombia and Peru in the early part of the 20th century, and in 1922, their governments signed the Salomón-Lozano Treaty to try and resolve these conflicts. Osmanczyk and Mango 2002, p. 1314 As part of this treaty, the border town Leticia and its surrounding area were ceded from Peru to Colombia, giving Colombia access to the Amazon River. Scott 1973, p. 249 On 1 September 1932, business leaders from the Peruvian rubber and sugar industries who had lost land when the area was given to Colombia organised an armed takeover of Leticia. Bethell 1991, pp. 414-415 At first, the Peruvian government did not recognise the military takeover but Peru's President Luis Sánchez Cerro decided to resist a Colombian re-occupation. The Peruvian army occupied Leticia, resulting in an armed conflict between the two nations. Scott 1973, p. 250 After months of diplomatic wrangling, the governments accepted mediation by the League of Nations, and their representatives presented their cases before the League's Council. A provisional peace agreement, signed by both parties in May 1933, provided for the League to assume control of the disputed territory while bilateral negotiations proceeded. Scott 1973, p. 251 In May 1934, a final peace agreement was signed, resulting in the return of Leticia to Colombia, a formal apology from Peru for the 1932 invasion, demilitarization of the area around Leticia, free navigation on the Amazon and Putumayo Rivers, and a pledge of non-aggression. Saar Saar was a province, formed from parts of Prussia and the Rhenish Palatinate, that was established and placed under League control by the Treaty of Versailles. A plebiscite was to be held after fifteen years of League rule to determine whether the region should belong to Germany or France. When the referendum was held in 1935, 90.3% of votes supported becoming part of Germany Northedge 1986, p. 72-73 Churchill 1986, p. 98 On 17 January 1935, the territory's re-integration with Germany was approved by the League Council. Peace and security In addition to territorial disputes, the League also tried to intervene in other conflicts between (and even within) nations. Among its successes were its attempts to combat the international trade in opium and sexual slavery, and its work to alleviate the plight of refugees, particularly in Turkey in the period to 1926. One of its innovations in this latter area was the 1922 introduction of the Nansen passport, which was the first internationally recognized identity card for stateless refugees. Many of the League's successes were accomplished by its various agencies and commissions. Greece and Bulgaria After an incident between sentries on the border between Greece and Bulgaria in October 1925, fighting began between the two countries. Northedge 1986, pp. 112 Three days after the initial incident, Greek troops invaded Bulgaria. The Bulgarian government ordered its troops to provide only token resistance, and evacuated between ten thousand and fifteen thousand people from the border region, trusting the League to settle the dispute. Scott 1973, pp. 126-127 The League did indeed condemn the Greek invasion, and called for both Greek withdrawal and compensation to Bulgaria. Greece complied, but complained about the disparity between their treatment and that of Italy after the Corfu incident. Liberia Following accusations of forced labor on the massive American-owned Firestone rubber plantation and American accusations of slave trading, the Liberian government asked the League to launch an investigation. Miers 2003, pp. 140-141 The commission created to investigate was jointly appointed by the League, the United States of America, and Liberia. Miers 2003, p. 188 In 1930, a report by the League confirmed slavery and forced labor was taking place. The report implicated many government officials in the selling of contract labor and recommended that they be replaced by Europeans or Americans. The Liberian government outlawed forced labor and slavery and asked for American help, this created anger within Liberia and led to the resignation of President Charles D.B. King and his vice-president. The League then threatened to establish a trusteeship over Liberia unless reforms were carried out, enacting these reforms then became the central focus of President Edwin Barclay. Mukden Incident Japanese troops entering Shenyang 18 September 1931 The Mukden Incident, also known as the "Manchurian Incident" or the "Far Eastern Crisis", was one of the League's major setbacks and acted as the catalyst for Japan's withdrawal from the organization. Under the terms of an agreed lease, the Japanese government had the right to station its troops in the area around the South Manchurian Railway, a major trade route between the two countries, in the Chinese region of Manchuria. Northedge 1986, p. 138 In September 1931, a section of the railway was lightly damaged by officers and troops of the Japanese Kwantung Army Iriye 1987, p.8 Scott 1973, p. 208 as a pretext for an invasion of Manchuria. Nish 1977, p.176-178 The Japanese army, however, claimed that Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the railway and in apparent retaliation (acting contrary to the civilian government's orders) occupied the entire region of Manchuria. They renamed the area Manchukuo, and on 9 March 1932 set up a puppet government with Pu Yi, the former emperor of China, as its executive head. Northedge 1986, p.139 Internationally, this new country was recognised only by the governments of Italy and Germany; the rest of the world still considered Manchuria legally part of China. In 1932, Japanese air and sea forces bombarded the Chinese city of Shanghai, sparking the January 28 Incident. The League of Nations agreed to a request for help from the Chinese government, but the long voyage by ship delayed League officials from investigating the matter. When they arrived, the officials were confronted with Chinese assertions that the Japanese had invaded unlawfully, while the Japanese claimed they were acting to keep peace in the area. Despite Japan's high standing in the League, the subsequent Lytton Report declared Japan to be the aggressor and demanded Manchuria be returned to the Chinese. Before the report could be voted on by the Assembly, Japan announced its intention to push further into China. The report passed 42-1 in the Assembly in 1933 (only Japan voted against), but instead of withdrawing its troops from China, Japan withdrew its membership from the League. According to the Covenant, the League should have responded by placing economic sanctions on Japan, or gathered an army and declared war. Neither of these actions was undertaken, however. The threat of economic sanctions would have been almost useless because the United States was not a League member. Any economic sanctions the League had placed on its member states would have been ineffective, as a country barred from trading with other member states could simply turn and trade with the United States. The League could have assembled an army, but major powers like Britain and France were too preoccupied with their own affairs, such as keeping control of their extensive colonies, especially after the turmoil of World War I. Japan was therefore left in control of Manchuria, until the Soviet Union's Red Army took over the area and returned it to China at the end of World War II. Chaco War The League failed to prevent the 1932 war between Bolivia and Paraguay over the arid Gran Chaco region of South America. Although the region was sparsely populated, it contained the Paraguay River which would have given one of the two landlocked countries access to the Atlantic Ocean, Scott 1973, p. 242-243 and there was also speculation, later proved incorrect, that the Chaco would be a rich source of petroleum. Levy 2001, pp. 21-22 Border skirmishes throughout the late 1920s culminated in an all-out war in 1932, when the Bolivian army attacked the Paraguayans at Fort Carlos Antonio López at Lake Pitiantuta. Bethell 1991, p.495 Paraguay appealed to the League of Nations, but the League did not take action when the Pan-American conference offered to mediate instead. The war was a disaster for both sides, causing 57,000 casualties for Bolivia, whose population was around three million, and 36,000 dead for Paraguay, whose population was approximately one million. Scott 1973, p. 248 It also brought both countries to the brink of economic disaster. By the time a ceasefire was negotiated on 12 June 1935, Paraguay had seized control over most of the region. Scheina 2003, p. 103 This was recognized in a 1938 truce by which Paraguay was awarded three-quarters of the Chaco Boreal. Italian invasion of Abyssinia In October 1935, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini sent 400,000 troops to invade Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Northedge 1986, pp. 222–25 Marshal Pietro Badoglio led the campaign from November 1935, ordering bombing, the use of chemical weapons like mustard gas, and the poisoning of water supplies, against targets which included undefended villages and medical facilities. Hill and Garvey 1995, p. 629 The modern Italian Army defeated the poorly armed Abyssinians, and captured Addis Ababa in May 1936, forcing Emperor Haile Selassie to flee. Northedge 1986, pp. 221 The League of Nations condemned Italy's aggression and imposed economic sanctions in November 1935, but the sanctions were largely ineffective since they did not ban the sale of oil or close the Suez Canal (controlled by Britain). Baer 1976, p. 245 As Stanley Baldwin, the British Prime Minister, later observed, this was ultimately because no one had the military forces on hand to withstand an Italian attack. In October 1935, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt invoked the recently-passed Neutrality Act and placed an embargo on arms and ammunition with both sides, but extended a further "moral embargo" to the belligerent Italians, including other trade items. On 5 October and later on 29 February 1936 the United States endeavoured, with uncertain success, to limit its exports of oil and other materials to normal peacetime levels. Baer 1976, p. 71 The League sanctions were lifted on 4 July 1936, but by that point Italy had already gained control of the urban areas of Abyssinia. Baer 1976, p. 298 In December 1935, the Hoare-Laval Pact was an attempt by British Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare and French Prime Minister Pierre Laval to end the conflict in Abyssinia by drawing up a plan to partition the country into two parts, an Italian sector and an Abyssinian sector. Mussolini was prepared to agree to the Pact, but news of the deal was leaked and both the British and French public venomously protested against it, describing it as a sell-out of Abyssinia. Hoare and Laval were forced to resign their positions, and both the British and French governments dissociated themselves from their respective men. Baer 1976, pp. 121-55 In June 1936, although there was no precedent for a head of state addressing the Assembly of the League of Nations in person, the Emperor of Ethiopia Haile Selassie I spoke to the Assembly to appeal for its help in protecting his country. As was the case with Japan, the vigour of the major powers in responding to the crisis in Abyssinia was tempered by their perception that the fate of this poor and far-off country, inhabited by non-Europeans, was not a central interest of theirs. In addition, it showed how the League could be influenced by the self-interest of its members; Baer 1976, p. 303 one of the reasons why the sanctions were not very harsh was that both Britain and France feared the prospect of driving Mussolini and German dictator Adolf Hitler into an alliance. Baer 1976, p. 77 Spanish Civil War On 17 July 1936, the Spanish Army launched a coup d'état, leading to a prolonged armed conflict between Spanish Republicans (the leftist government of Spain) and the Nationalists (conservative, anti-communist rebels who included most officers of the Spanish Army). Lannon 2002, pp. 25-29 Alvarez del Vayo, the Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs, appealed to the League in September 1936 for arms to defend its territorial integrity and political independence. The League members, however, would not intervene in the Spanish Civil War nor prevent foreign intervention in the conflict. Hitler and Mussolini continued to aid General Francisco Franco’s Nationalist insurrectionists, and the Soviet Union aided the Spanish Republic. In February 1937, the League did launch a ban on the intervention of foreign national volunteers. Second Sino-Japanese War Following a long record of instigating localised conflicts throughout the 1930s, Japan began a full scale invasion of China on 7 July, 1937. On 12 September, the Chinese representative, Wellington Koo, appealed to the League for an international intervention. Western countries were sympathetic to the Chinese in their struggle against Japan, particularly in their stubborn defence of Shanghai, a city with a substantial number of foreigners. However, the League was unable to provide any practical measure other than a final statement that gave China "spiritual support." On 4 October, the League adjourned and turned the case over to the Nine Power Treaty Conference. Disarmament and failures en route to World War II Article eight of the League's covenant gave the League the task of reducing armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations" A significant amount of the League's time and energy was devoted to disarmament even though many member governments were uncertain that such extensive disarmament could be achieved or was even desirable. Northedge 1986, pp. 113 and 123 The Allied Powers were also under obligation from the Treaty of Versailles to attempt to disarm and the armament restrictions imposed on the defeated countries had been described as the first step toward world wide disarmament. The League Covenant assigned the League the task of creating a disarmament plan for each state but the Council devolved this responsibility to a special commission set-up in 1926 to prepare for the 1932-34 World Disarmament Conference. Northedge 1986, pp. 114 Members of the League held different views towards disarmament. The French were reluctant to reduce their armaments without a guarantee of military help if they were attacked, Poland and Czechoslovakia felt vulnerable to attack from the east and wanted the League's response to aggression against its members to be strengthened before they disarmed. Henig 1973, p. 173 Without this guarantee they would not reduce armaments because they felt the risk of attack from Germany was too great. Fear of attack increased as Germany regained strength after the First World War especially after Hitler gained power and became German Chancellor in 1933. In particular Germany's attempts to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and the reconstruction of the German military made France increasingly unwilling to disarm. The World Disarmament Conference was convened by the League of Nations in Geneva in 1932 with representatives from 60 states. A one year truce on the expansion of armaments, later extended by a few months, was proposed at the start of the conference. Goldblat 2002, p. 24 The Disarmament Commission obtained initial agreement from France, Italy, Japan, and Britain to limit the size of their navies. The Kellogg-Briand Pact, facilitated by the commission in 1928, failed in its objective of outlawing war. Ultimately, the Commission failed to halt the military build-up by Germany, Italy and Japan during the 1930s. The League was mostly silent in the face of major events leading to World War II such as Hitler's re-militarisation of the Rhineland, occupation of the Sudetenland and Anschluss of Austria, which had been forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. In fact, League members themselves re-armed. In 1933, Japan simply withdrew from the League rather than submit to its judgement, as did Germany in 1933 (using the failure of the World Disarmament Conference to agree to arms parity between France and Germany as a pretext), and Italy in 1937. The League commissioner in Danzig was unable to deal with German claims on the city, a significant contributing factor in the outbreak of World War II in 1939. The final significant act of the League was to expel the Soviet Union in December 1939 after it invaded Finland. General weaknesses The Gap in the Bridge the sign reads "This League of Nations Bridge was designed by the President of the U.S.A" Cartoon from Punch magazine, 10 December 1920, satirising the gap left by the U.S.A when they did not join the League of Nations. The onset of the Second World War demonstrated that the League had failed in its primary purpose, which was to avoid any future world war. There were a variety of reasons for this failure, many connected to general weaknesses within the organization. Origins and structure The origins of the League as an organization created by the Allied Powers as part of the peace settlement to end the First World War led to it being viewed as a "League of Victors". For example Georgy Chicherin cited in Gorodetsky 1994, p.26 Raffo 1974, p. 1 It also tied the League to the Treaty of Versailles, so that when the Treaty became discredited and unpopular, this reflected on the League of Nations. The League's supposed neutrality tended to manifest itself as indecision. It required a unanimous vote of its nine-, later fifteen-, member Council to enact a resolution; hence, conclusive and effective action was difficult, if not impossible. It was also slow in coming to its decisions as certain decisions required the unanimous consent of the entire Assembly. This problem mainly stemmed from the fact that the main members of the League of Nations were not willing to accept the possibility that their fate would be decided by other countries and had therefore, in effect, by enforcing unanimous voting given themselves the power of veto. Global representation Representation at the League was often a problem. Though it was intended to encompass all nations, many never joined, or their time as part of the League was short. Most notably missing was the position that the United States of America was supposed to play in the League, not only in terms of helping to ensure world peace and security but also in financing the League. The U.S. President Woodrow Wilson had been a driving force behind the League's formation and strongly influenced the form it took but the United States Senate voted not to join on 19 November 1919. Knock 1995, p. 263 Ruth Henig has suggested that, had the United States been a member of the League, it would have also provided backup to France and Britain, possibly making France feel more secure and so encouraging France and Britain to co-operate more regarding Germany and so made the rise to power of the Nazi party less likely. Henig 1973, p. 175 On the contrary, Henig acknowledges that if America had been a member of the League, its reluctance to engage in war with European states and to enact economic sanctions may have hampered the ability of the League to deal with international incidents. The structure of government in America may also have made its membership problematic as its representatives at the League could not have made decisions on behalf of the United States executive branch without this having already been approved by the legislative branches. Henig 1973, p. 176 In January 1920, when the League began, Germany was not permitted to join because it was seen as the aggressor in World War I. The Soviet Union was also initially excluded from the League, as communist views were not welcomed by the victors of World War I. The League was further weakened when critical powers left in the 1930s. Japan began as a permanent member of the Council, but withdrew in 1933 after the League voiced opposition to its invasion of the Chinese territory of Manchuria. McDonough 1997, p. 62 Italy also began as a permanent member of the Council but withdrew in 1937. The League had accepted Germany as a member in 1926, deeming it a "peace-loving country", but Adolf Hitler pulled Germany out when he came to power in 1933. McDonough 1997, p. 69 Collective security Another important weakness grew from the contradiction between the idea of collective security, that formed the basis of the League, and international relations between individual states. Northedge 1986, p. 253 The collective security system the League used meant that nations were required to act against states they considered friends, and in a way that might endanger their national interests, to support states that they had no normal affinity with. This weakness was exposed during the Abyssinia Crisis when Britain and France had to balance attempts to maintain the security they had attempted to create for themselves in Europe "in order to defend against the enemies of internal order", Northedge 1986, p. 254 in which Italy's support played a pivotal role, with their obligations to Abyssinia as a member of the League. Northedge 1986, pp. 253-254 On 23 June 1936, in the wake of the collapse of League efforts to restrain Italy's war of conquest against Abyssinia, British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin told the House of Commons that collective security had Ultimately, Britain and France both abandoned the concept of collective security in favour of appeasement in the face of growing German militarism under Adolf Hitler. McDonough 1997, p. 74 Pacifism and disarmament |Moral Suasion.The Rabbit. "My offensive equipment being practically nil, it remains for me to fascinate him with the power of my eye." Cartoon from Punch magazine, 28 July 1920, satirising the perceived weakness of the League. The League of Nations, lacked an armed force of its own and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, which they were very reluctant to do. McDonough 1997, pp. 54-5 The League's two most important members, Britain and France, were reluctant to use sanctions and even more reluctant to resort to military action on behalf of the League. Immediately after World War I, pacifism was a strong force both in the populations and the governments of the two countries. The British Conservatives were especially tepid on the League and preferred, when in government, to negotiate treaties without the involvement of the organization. Moreover, the League's advocacy of disarmament for Britain, France and its other members while at the same time advocating collective security meant that the League was unwittingly depriving itself of the only forceful means by which its authority would be upheld. If the League was to force countries to abide by international law, it would require the Royal Navy and the French Army to do the enforcing. When the British Cabinet discussed the concept of the League during the First World War, Maurice Hankey, the Cabinet Secretary, circulated a memorandum on the subject. He started by saying: "Generally it appears to me that any such scheme is dangerous to us, because it will create a sense of security which is wholly fictitious". Barnett 1972, p. 245. He attacked the British pre-war faith in the sanctity of treaties as delusional and concluded by claiming: The Foreign Office minister Sir Eyre Crowe also wrote a memorandum to the British Cabinet claiming that "a solemn league and covenant" would just be "a treaty, like other treaties": "What is there to ensure that it will not, like other treaties, be broken?". Crowe went on to express scepticism of the planned "pledge of common action" against aggressors because he believed the actions of individual states would still be determined by national interests and the balance of power. He also criticised the proposal for League economic sanctions because it would ineffectual and that "It is all a question of real military preponderance". Universal disarmament was a practical impossibility, Crowe warned. Demise and legacy The League of Nations' Assembly building in Geneva As the situation in Europe deteriorated into war, the Assembly transferred enough power to the Secretary General on 30 September 1938 and 14 December 1939 to allow the League to continue to legally exist and to carry on reduced operations. Magliveras 1999, p. 31 The headquarters of the League, the Palace of Peace, remained unoccupied for nearly six years until the Second World War ended. Scott 1973, p. 399 At the 1943 Tehran Conference, the Allied Powers agreed to create a new body to replace the League: the United Nations. Many League bodies, such as the International Labour Organization, continued to function and eventually became affiliated with the UN. The structure of the United Nations was intended to make it more effective than the League. The final meeting of the League of Nations was held in April 1946 in Geneva. Delegates from 34 nations attended the assembly. Scott 1973, p. 404 This session concerned itself with liquidating the League: assets worth approximately $22,000,000 in 1946, including the Palace of Peace and the League's archives, were given to the UN, reserve funds were returned to the nations that had supplied them, and the debts of the League were settled. Robert Cecil is said to have summed up the feeling of the gathering during a speech to the final assembly when he said: The motion that dissolved the League passed unanimously: "The League of Nations shall cease to exist except for the purpose of the liquidation of its affairs." Motion of the League of Nations, quoted in Scott 1973, p. 404 The motion also set the date for the end of the League as the day after the session was closed. On 19 April 1946, the President of the Assembly, Carl J. Hambro of Norway, declared "the twenty-first and last session of the General Assembly of the League of Nations closed." "League of Nations Ends, Gives Way to New U.N.", Syracuse Herald-American, 20 April 1946, p. 12 As a result, the League of Nations ceased to exist on 20 April 1946. Professor David Kennedy has suggested that the League is a unique moment when international affairs were "institutionalized" as opposed to the pre-World War I methods of law and politics. Kennedy 1987 The principal Allies in World War II (the UK, the USSR, France, the U.S., and Republic of China) became permanent members of the UN Security Council; these new "Great Powers" gained significant international influence, mirroring the League Council. Decisions of the UN Security Council are binding on all members of the UN; however, unanimous decisions are not required, unlike the League Council. Permanent members of the UN Security Council are also given a shield to protect their vital interests, which has prevented the UN acting decisively in many cases. Similarly, the UN does not have its own standing armed forces, but the UN has been more successful than the League in calling for its members to contribute to armed interventions, such as during the Korean War and the peacekeeping mission in the former Yugoslavia. The UN has in some cases been forced to rely on economic sanctions. The UN has also been more successful than the League in attracting members from the nations of the world, making it more representative. See also Article X of the Covenant of the League of Nations Atlantic Charter Interwar period Minority Treaties Neutrality Acts Palais des Nations, built as the League's headquarters. Ligue internationale de la paix Notes References Further reading Bassett, John Spencer. The League of Nations: A Chapter in World Politics 1930 Egerton, George W. ; Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations: Strategy, Politics, and International Organization, 1914–1919 University of North Carolina Press, 1978 Gill, George, (1996) The League of Nations from 1929 to 1946: From 1929 to 1946 . Avery Publishing Group. ISBN 0-89529-637-3 Kelly, Nigel and Lacey, Greg (2001) "Modern World History" Heinemann Educational Publishers, Oxford Kennedy, Paul. The Parliament of Man: The Past, Present, and Future of the United Nations (2006) Kuehl, Warren F. and Lynne K. Dunn; Keeping the Covenant: American Internationalists and the League of Nations, 1920–1939 1997 Malin, James C. The United States after the World War 1930. pp 5–82. online Marbeau, M. (2001). "La Société des Nations". Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 2-13-051635-1 Pfeil, A (1976). "Der Völkerbund". Walters, F. P. , A History of the League of Nations 2 vol Oxford University Press. 1952 Walsh, Ben (1997). Modern World History. John Murray (Publishers) Ltd.. ISBN 0-7195-7231-2. Woodrow Wilson, compiled with his approval by Hamilton Foley; Woodrow Wilson's Case for the League of Nations, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1923 contemporary book review Zimmern, Alfred ; The League of Nations and the Rule of Law, 1918–1935 1936 External links Covenant of the League of Nations, yale.edu League of Nations Photo archive, Indiana.edu League of Nations chronology Proposed flags for the League, atlasgeo.span.ch Background of the League of Nations, revision-notes.co.uk League of Nations timeline, worldatwar.net Table of Assemblies Dates of each annual assembly, links to list of members of each country's delegation Wilson's Final Address in Support of the League of Nations Speech made 25 September 1919 Haile Selassie's 1936 speech to the conference after the Italian invasion of Ethiopia Senator Henry Cabot Lodge speaks out against the League of Nations August 1919 speech History (1919–1946) from the United Nations Office at Geneva League of Nations Archives from the United Nations Office at Geneva Definition league of nationsan association of countries established in 1919 by the Treaty of Versailles to promote international cooperation and achieve international peace and security. 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2,497 | Afghan_Hound | The Afghan Hound is a very old sighthound dog breed. Distinguished by its thick, fine, silky coat and its tail with a ring curl at the end, the breed acquired its unique features in the cold mountains of Afghanistan, where it was originally used to hunt hares, and gazelles by coursing them. Its local name is Tāzhī Spai () or Tāzī (). Other alternate names for this breed are Balkh Hound, Baluchi Hound, Barutzy Hound, Shalgar Hound, Kabul Hound, Galanday Hound, or sometimes incorrectly African Hound. Description Appearance This Afghan hound is black and brindle; however, the photo shows it with a reddish tinge to the coat, which can occur in a black-coated dog. The Afghan Hound is tall, standing 24 to 29 inches (63-74 cm) in height and weighing 45 to 60 pounds (20–30 kg). The coat may be any colour, but white markings, particularly on the head, are discouraged; many individuals have a black facial mask. Some specimens have facial hair that looks like a Manchu moustache that are called "mandarins." Some Afghan Hounds are almost white, but particolour hounds (white with islands of red or black) are not acceptable and may indicate impure breeding. The long, fine-textured coat requires considerable care and grooming. The long topknot and the shorter-haired saddle on the back in the mature dog are distinctive features of the Afghan Hound coat. The high hipbones and unique small ring on the end of the tail are also characteristics of the breed. Temperament An Afghan hound in the show ring, demonstrating the unique appearance of its high-maintenance coat. The temperament of the typical Afghan Hound can be aloof and dignified, but happy and clownish when playing. The breed has a reputation among dog trainers of having a relatively slow "obedience intelligence" as defined by author Stanley Coren. The Afghan Hound has many cat-like tendencies and is not slavish in its obedience as are some other breeds. The Afghan hound has a leaning towards independence. Owners should not be surprised if their Afghan hounds sometimes choose to ignore commands. Although seldom used today for hunting in Europe and America where they are popular, Afghan hounds are frequent participants in lure coursing events and are also popular in the sport of conformation showing. Health Mortality Afghan Hounds in UK surveys had a median lifespan of about 12 years, http://users.pullman.com/lostriver/breeddata.htm Dog Longevity Web Site, Breed Data page. Compiled by K. M. Cassidy. Retrieved July 5, 2007 which is similar to other breeds of their size. http://users.pullman.com/lostriver/weight_and_lifespan.htm Dog Longevity Web Site, Weight and Longevity page. Compiled by K. M. Cassidy. Retrieved July 5, 2007 In a 2004 UK Kennel Club survey, the most common causes of death were cancer (31%), old age (20%), cardiac (10.5%), and urologic (5%). http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/item/570 Kennel Club/British Small Animal Veterinary Association Scientific Committee. 2004. Purebred Dog Health Survey. Retrieved July 5, 2007 Morbidity and Health Concerns Major health issues are allergies, and cancer. Sensitivity to anesthesia is an issue the Afghan hound shares with the rest of the sighthound group, as sighthounds have relatively low levels of body fat. Afghan hounds are also among the dog breeds most likely to develop chylothorax, a rare condition which causes the thoracic ducts to leak, allowing large quantities of chyle fluid to enter the dog's chest cavity http://www.akcchf.org/pdfs/whitepapers/HoundGroup07.pdf . This condition commonly results in a lung torsion (in which the dog's lung twists within the chest cavity, requiring emergency surgery), due to the breed's typically deep, "barrel"-shaped chest. If not corrected through surgery, chylothorax can ultimately causing fibrosing pleuritis, or a hardening of the organs, due to scar tissue forming around the organs to protect them from the chyle fluid. Chylothorax is not necessarily, but often fatal. History Sighthounds are among the oldest recognisable types of dogs, and genetic testing has placed the Afghan Hound breed among those with the least genetic divergence from the wolf on some markers; this is taken to mean that such dogs are descended from the oldest dog types, not that the breeds tested had in antiquity their exact modern form. Today's modern purebred breed of Afghan Hound descends from dogs brought in the 1920s to Great Britain, and are a blending of types and varieties of long haired sighthounds from across Afghanistan and the surrounding areas. Afghan Hound: A History Some had been kept as hunting dogs, others as guardians. Afghan Hounds, by Beverly Pisano pg 12 TFH Publications (June 1988) ISBN 0876666829 ISBN 978-0876666821 Although demonstrably ancient, verifiable written or visual records that tie today's Afghan Hound breed to specific Afghan owners or places is absent, even though there is much speculation about possible connections with the ancient world among fanciers and in non-scientific breed books and breed websites. Connections with other types and breeds from the same area may provide clues to the history. A name for a desert coursing Afghan hound, Tazi (sag-e-tazi), suggests a shared ancestry with the very similar Tasy breed from the Caspian Sea area of Russia and Turkmenistan. East Russian Coursing Hounds, author unknown ) Other types or breeds of similar appearance are the Taigan from the mountainous Tian Shan region on the Chinese border of Afghanistan, and the Barakzai, or Kurram Valley Hound, from India/Pakistan. There are at least thirteen types known in Afghanistan, Historie afgánského chrta (History of the Afghan Hound, in Czech, with many historic photographs) and some are being developed (through breeding and recordkeeping) into modern purebred breeds. list of "rare" sighthounds As the lives of the peoples with whom these dogs developed change in the modern world, often these landrace types of dogs lose their use and disappear; there may have been many more types of longhaired sighthound in the past. Once out of Persia, India and Afghanistan, the history of the Afghan Hound breed becomes an important part of the history of the very earliest dog shows and The Kennel Club (UK). Various sighthounds were brought to England in the 1800s by army officers returning from India (which at the time included Packistan), Afghanistan, and Persia, and were exhibited at dog shows, which were then just becoming popular, under various names, such as Barukzy hounds. They were also called "Persian Greyhounds" by the English, in reference to their own indigenous sighthound. One dog in particular, Zardan, was brought in 1907 from India by Captain Bariff, and became the early ideal of breed type for what was still called the Persian Greyhound. Zardan was the basis of the writing of the first breed standard in 1912, but breeding of the dogs was stopped by World War I. Out of the longhaired sighthound types known in Afghanistan, two main strains make up the modern Afghan Hound breed. The first were a group of hounds brought to Scotland from Baluchistan by Major and Mrs. G. Bell-Murray and Miss Jean C. Manson in 1920, and are called the Bell-Murray strain. These dogs were of the lowland or steppe type, also called kalagh, and are less heavily coated. The second strain was a group of dogs from a kennel in Kabul owned by Mrs. Mary Amps, which she shipped to England in 1925. She and her husband came to Kabul after the Afghan war in 1919, and the foundation sire of her kennel (named Ghazni) in Kabul was a dog that closely resembled Zardin. Her Ghazni strain were the more heavily coated mountain type. Most of the Afghans in the United States were developed from the Ghazni strain from England. The first Afghans in Australia were imported from the United States in 1934, also of the Ghazni strain. Chien Magazine Afghan Hound history ) The French breed club was formed in 1939 (FALAPA). The mountain and steppe strains became mixed into the modern Afghan Hound breed, and a new standard was written in 1948, which is still used today. The spectacular beauty of Afghan Hound dogs caused them to become highly desirable showdogs and pets, and they are recognised by all of the major kennel clubs in the English-speaking world. One of the Amps Ghazni, Sirdar, won BIS at Crufts in 1928 and 1930. An Afghan hound was featured on the cover of Life Magazine, November 26, 1945. "Afghan Hounds were the most popular in Australia in the 1970’s...and won most of the major shows". An Afghan Hound won BIS (Best in Show) at the 1996 World Dog Show in Budapest. Afghan hounds were BIS at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in 1957 and again in 1983. Westminster Kennel Club web site, Best in Show Winners page. Retrieved August 30, 2007 That win also marked the most recent win at Westminster for an breeder-owner-handler, Chris Terrell. The Afghan Hound breed is no longer used for hunting, although it can be seen in the sport of lure coursing. Afghan Hound Lure Coursing In popular culture Because of its distinctive appearance, the Afghan hound has been represented in animated feature films, including Universal Pictures' Balto (Sylvie), Disney's Lady and the Tramp II (Ruby), an Afghan hound also appeared on 101 Dalmatians and the television series What-a-Mess (Prince Amir of Kinjan). Afghan hounds have also been featured in television advertisements and in fashion magazines. Afghan Hound Actors website . The Afghan hound is represented in books as well, including being featured in a series of mystery novels by Nina Wright (Abra), and a talking Afghan Hound in David Rothman's The Solomon Scandals (2008, Twilight Times Books). In the novel Between the Acts, Virginia Woolf uses an Afghan hound (named Sohrab) to represent aspects of one of the book's human characters. The Philosophy of Virginia Woolf: A Philosophical Reading of the Mature Novels By A. O. Frank Published by Akademiai Kiado, 2001 ISBN 9630578506, 9789630578509 165 pages, pg 151 On August 3, 2005, Korean scientist Hwang Woo-Suk announced that his team of researchers had become the first team to successfully clone a dog, an Afghan Hound named Snuppy. In 2006 Hwang Woo-Suk was dismissed from his university position for fabricating data in his research. Snuppy, nonetheless, was a genuine clone, and thus the first cloned dog in history. Meet Snuppy, the World's First Cloned Dog : NPR References External links - An active listing of Afghan Hound links. | Afghan_Hound |@lemmatized afghan:45 hound:53 old:4 sighthound:5 dog:30 breed:27 distinguish:1 thick:1 fine:2 silky:1 coat:9 tail:2 ring:3 curl:1 end:2 acquire:1 unique:3 feature:6 cold:1 mountain:3 afghanistan:7 originally:1 use:6 hunt:4 hare:1 gazelle:1 course:4 local:1 name:7 tāzhī:1 spai:1 tāzī:1 alternate:1 balkh:1 baluchi:1 barutzy:1 shalgar:1 kabul:4 galanday:1 sometimes:2 incorrectly:1 african:1 description:1 appearance:4 black:4 brindle:1 however:1 photo:1 show:10 reddish:1 tinge:1 occur:1 tall:1 stand:1 inch:1 cm:1 height:1 weigh:1 pound:1 kg:1 may:4 colour:1 white:3 marking:1 particularly:1 head:1 discourage:1 many:4 individual:1 facial:2 mask:1 specimen:1 hair:1 look:1 like:2 manchu:1 moustache:1 call:5 mandarin:1 almost:1 particolour:1 island:1 red:1 acceptable:1 indicate:1 impure:1 breeding:3 long:3 textured:1 require:2 considerable:1 care:1 grooming:1 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2,498 | Genetically_modified_organism | A genetically modified organism (GMO) or genetically engineered organism (GEO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. These techniques, generally known as recombinant DNA technology, use DNA molecules from different sources, which are combined into one molecule to create a new set of genes. This DNA is then transferred into an organism, giving it modified or novel genes. Transgenic organisms, a subset of GMOs, are organisms which have inserted DNA that originated in a different species. Some GMOs contain no DNA from other species and are therefore not transgenic but cisgenic. Production Genetic modification involves the insertion or deletion of genes. When genes are inserted, they usually come from a different species, which is a form of horizontal gene transfer. In nature this can occur when exogenous DNA penetrates the cell membrane for any reason. To do this artificially may require attaching the genes to a virus or just physically inserting the extra DNA into the nucleus of the intended host with a very small syringe, or with very small particles fired from a gene gun. However, other methods exploit natural forms of gene transfer, such as the ability of Agrobacterium to transfer genetic material to plants, or the ability of lentiviruses to transfer genes to animal cells. History The general principle of producing a GMO is to add new genetic material into an organism's genome. This is called genetic engineering and was made possible through the discovery of DNA and the creation of the first recombinant bacteria in 1973, i.e., E .coli expressing a salmonella gene. This led to concerns in the scientific community about potential risks from genetic engineering, which were thoroughly discussed at the Asilomar Conference. One of the main recommendations from this meeting was that government oversight of recombinant DNA research should be established until the technology was deemed safe. , also Science 188, p. 991 (1975). "Guidelines for research involving recombinant DNA molecules," Federal Register 41, no. 131, pp. 27911-27943 (1976). Herbert Boyer then founded the first company to use recombinant DNA technology, Genentech, and in 1978 the company announced creation of an E. coli strain producing the human protein insulin. In 1986, field tests of bacteria genetically engineered to protect plants from frost damage (ice-minus bacteria) at a small biotechnology company called Advanced Genetic Sciences of Oakland, California, were repeatedly delayed by opponents of biotechnology. In the same year, a proposed field test of a microbe genetically engineered for a pest resistance protein by Monsanto was dropped. Uses GMOs have widespread applications. They are used in biological and medical research, production of pharmaceutical drugs, experimental medicine (e.g. gene therapy), and agriculture (e.g. golden rice). The term "genetically modified organism" does not always imply, but can include, targeted insertions of genes from one species into another. For example, a gene from a jellyfish, encoding a fluorescent protein called GFP, can be physically linked and thus co-expressed with mammalian genes to identify the location of the protein encoded by the GFP-tagged gene in the mammalian cell. Such methods are useful tools for biologists in many areas of research, including those who study the mechanisms of human and other diseases or fundamental biological processes in eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells. To date the broadest application of GMO technology is patent-protected food crops which are resistant to commercial herbicides or are able to produce pesticidal proteins from within the plant, or stacked trait seeds, which do both. The largest share of the GMO crops planted globally are owned by Monsanto according to the company. In 2007, Monsanto’s trait technologies were planted on throughout the world, a growth of 13 percent from 2006. In the corn market, Monsanto’s triple-stack corn – which combines Roundup Ready 2 weed control technology with YieldGard Corn Borer and YieldGard Rootworm insect control – is the market leader in the United States. U.S. corn farmers planted more than of triple-stack corn in 2007, and it is estimated the product could be planted on 45 million to by 2010. In the cotton market, Bollgard II with Roundup Ready Flex was planted on nearly of U.S. cotton in 2007. Rapid growth in the total area planted is measurable by Monsanto's growing share. On January 3, 2008, Monsanto Company (MON.N) said its quarterly profit nearly tripled, helped by strength in its corn seed and herbicide businesses, and raised its 2008 forecast. http://www.monsanto.com According to the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA), of the approximately 8.5 million farmers who grew biotech crops in 2005, some 90% were resource-poor farmers in developing countries. These include some 6.4 million farmers in the cotton-growing areas of China, an estimated 1 million small farmers in India, subsistence farmers in the Makhathini flats in KwaZulu Natal province in South Africa, more than 50,000 in the Philippines and in seven other developing countries where biotech crops were planted in 2005. http://www.isaaa.org "The Global Diffusion of Plant Biotechnology: International Adoption and Research in 2004", a study by Dr. Ford Runge of the University of Minnesota, estimates the global commercial value of biotech crops grown in the 2003–2004 crop year at US$44 billion. http://www.thecampaign.org/globalbiotech04.pdf In the United States the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) reports on the total area of GMO varieties planted. According to National Agricultural Statistics Service, the States published in these tables represent 81-86 percent of all corn planted area, 88-90 percent of all soybean planted area, and 81-93 percent of all upland cotton planted area (depending on the year). See more on the extent of adoption at: http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/BiotechCrops/. USDA does not collect data for global area. Estimates are produced by the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) and can be found in the report, Global Status of Commercialized Transgenic Crops: 2007. http://www.isaaa.org/Resources/Publications/briefs/37/default.html Transgenic animals are also becoming useful commercially. On 6 February 2009 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved the first human biological drug produced from such an animal, a goat. The drug, ATryn, is an anticoagulant which reduces the probability of blood clots during surgery or childbirth. It is extracted from the goat's milk. Chemical & Engineering News, 16 February 2009, "Drug from Transgenic Goat Approved", p. 9 Detection Testing on GMOs in food and feed is routinely done by molecular techniques like DNA microarrays or qPCR. The test can be based on screening elements (like p35S, tNos, pat, or bar) or event-specific markers for the official GMOs (like Mon810, Bt11, or GT73). The array-based method combines multiplex PCR and array technology to screen samples for different potential GMOs Validation report of DualChip GMO microarray by the Joint Research Center , combining different approaches (screening elements, plant-specific markers, and event-specific markers). The qPCR is used to detect specific GMO events by usage of specific primers for screening elements or event-specific markers. To avoid any kind of false positive or false negative testing outcome, comprehensive controls for every step of the process is mandatory. A CaMV check is important to avoid false positive outcomes based on virus contamination of the sample. Transgenic microbes Bacteria were the first organisms to be modified in the laboratory, due to their simple genetics. These organisms are now used for several purposes, and are particularly important in producing large amounts of pure human proteins for use in medicine. Genetically modified bacteria are used to produce the protein insulin to treat diabetes. Similar bacteria have been used to produce clotting factors to treat haemophilia, and human growth hormone to treat various forms of dwarfism. These recombinant proteins are safer than the products they replaced, since the older products were purified from cadavers and could transmit diseases. Indeed the human-derived proteins caused many cases of AIDS and hepatitis C in haemophilliacs and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease from human growth hormone. For instance, the bacteria which cause tooth decay are called Streptococcus mutans. These bacteria consume leftover sugars in the mouth, producing lactic acid that corrodes tooth enamel and ultimately causes cavities. Scientists have recently modified Streptococcus mutans to produce no lactic acid. These transgenic bacteria, if properly colonized in a person's mouth, could reduce the formation of cavities. Transgenic microbes have also been used in recent research to kill or hinder tumors, and to fight Crohn's disease. Genetically modified bacteria are also used in some soils to facilitate crop growth, and can also produce chemicals which are toxic to crop pests. Transgenic animals Transgenic animals are used as experimental models to perform phenotypic tests with genes whose function is unknown. Genetic modification can also produce animals that are susceptible to certain compounds or stresses for testing in biomedical research. Other applications include the production of human hormones such as insulin. In biological research, transgenic fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) are model organisms used to study the effects of genetic changes on development. First Transgenic Mice and Fruit Flies Fruit flies are often preferred over other animals due to their short life cycle, low maintenance requirements, and relatively simple genome compared to many vertebrates. Transgenic mice are often used to study cellular and tissue-specific responses to disease. This is possible since mice can be created with the same mutations that occur in human genetic disorders, the production of the human disease in these mice then allows treatments to be tested. In 2009 scientists in Japan announced that they had successfully transferred a gene into a primate species (marmosets) and produced a stable line of breeding transgenic primates for the first time. It is hoped that this will aid research into human diseases that cannot be studied in mice, for example Huntingdon's disease and strokes. {{cite journal|doi=10.1038/459492a |title=Newly created transgenic primate may become an alternative disease model to rhesus macaques.|year=2009|last=Cyranoski }} Cnidarians such as Hydra have become attractive model organisms to study the evolution of immunity. For analytical purposes an important technical breakthrough was the development of a transgenic procedure for generation of stably transgenic hydras by embryo microinjection. Transgenesis in fish with promoters driving an over-production of "all fish" growth hormone has resulted in dramatic growth enhancement in several species, including salmonids, carps and tilapias. These fish have been created for use in the aquaculture industry to increase the speed of development and potentially, reduce fishing pressure on wild stocks. None of these GM fish have yet appeared on the market, mainly due to the concern expressed among the public of the fish's potential negative effect on the ecosystem should they escape from fish farms. Gene therapy Gene therapy, uses genetically modified viruses to deliver genes that can cure disease into human cells. Although gene therapy is still relatively new, it has had some successes. It has been used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency, and treatments are being developed for a range of other currently incurable diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and muscular dystrophy. . Current gene therapy technology only targets the non-reproductive cells meaning that any changes introduced by the treatment can not be transmitted to the next generation. Gene therapy targeting the reproductive cells - so called "Germ line Gene Therapy" - is very controversial and is unlikely to be developed in the near future. Transgenic plants thumb | Kenyans examining insect-resistant transgenic Bt corn Transgenic plants have been engineered to possess several desirable traits, including resistance to pests, herbicides or harsh environmental conditions, improved product shelflife, and increased nutritional value. Since the first commercial cultivation of genetically modified plants in 1996, they have been modified to be tolerant to the herbicides glufosinate and glyphosate, and to produce the Bt toxin, a potent insecticide. Bt-maize is a corn that has been genetically modified by splicing the toxin-producing gene from bacteria into the DNA sequence of the corn in order to sicken or kill insects that try to consume it. While some genetically modified crops are more nutritious because they contain these extra vitamins and minerals, they will not cure all of the malnutrition-related ailments in the world and should only be a supplement to a balanced diet. Cisgenic plants Genetically modified sweet potatoes have been enhanced with protein and other nutrients, while golden rice, developed by the International Rice Research Institute, has been discussed as a possible cure for Vitamin A deficiency. In reality, customers would have to eat twelve bowls of rice a day in order to meet the recommended levels of Vitamin A. In January 2008, scientists altered a carrot so that it would produce calcium and become a possible cure for osteoporosis; however, people would need to eat 1.5 kilograms of carrots per day to reach the required amount of calcium. The coexistence of GM plants with conventional and organic crops has raised significant concern in many European countries. Since there is separate legislation for GM crops and a high demand from consumers for the freedom of choice between GM and non-GM foods, measures are required to separate foods and feed produced from GMO plants from conventional and organic foods. European research programmes such as Co-Extra, Transcontainer and SIGMEA are investigating appropriate tools and rules. At the field level, biological containment methods include isolation distances and pollen barriers. Controversy The use of GMOs has sparked significant controversy in many areas. Some groups or individuals see the generation and use of GMO as intolerable meddling with biological states or processes that have naturally evolved over long periods of time, while others are concerned about the limitations of modern science to fully comprehend all of the potential negative ramifications of genetic manipulation. The safety of GMOs in the foodchain has been questioned, with concerns such as the possibilities that GMOs could introduce new allergens into foods, or contribute to the spread of antibiotic resistance. Although scientists have assured consumers of the safety of these types of crops, consumption has been discouraged in many countries by food and environmental activist groups who protest GM crops, claiming they are unnatural and therefore unsafe. This has led to the adoption of laws and regulations that require safety testing of any new organism produced for human consumption. In response to negative public opinion, Monsanto announced its decision to remove their seed cereal business from Europe, and environmentalists crashed a World Trade Organization conference in Cancun that promoted GM foods and was sponsored by Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow (CFACT). Some African nations have refused emergency food aid from developed countries, fearing that the food is unsafe. During a conference in the Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa, Kingsley Amoako, Executive Secretary of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), encouraged African nations to accept genetically modified food and expressed dissatisfaction in the public’s negative opinion of biotechnology. Patrick Mulvany, Chairman of the UK Food Group, accused some governments, especially the Bush administration, of using GM food aid as a way to dispose of unwanted agricultural surpluses. The UN blamed food companies and accused them of violating human rights, calling on governments to regulate these profit-driven firms. It is true that the acceptance of biotechnology and genetically modified foods will also benefit rich research companies and could possibly benefit them more than consumers in underdeveloped nations. While some groups advocate the complete prohibition of GMOs, others call for mandatory labeling of genetically modified food or other products. Other controversies include the definition of patent and property pertaining to products of genetic engineering. Some groups believe that underdeveloped nations will not reap the benefits of biotechnology because they do not have easy access to these developments, cannot afford modern agricultural equipment, and certain aspects of the system revolving around intellectual property rights are unfair to undeveloped countries. For example, The CGIAR (Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research) is an aid and research organization that has been working to achieve sustainable food security and decrease poverty in undeveloped countries since its formation in 1971. In an evaluation of CGIAR, the World Bank praised its efforts but suggested a shift to genetics research and productivity enhancement. This plan has several obstacles such as patents, commercial licenses, and the difficulty that third world countries have in accessing the international collection of genetic resources and other intellectual property rights that would educate them about modern technology. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture has attempted to remedy this problem, but results have been inconsistent. As a result, "orphan crops", such as tef, millets, cowpeas, and indigenous plants, are important in the countries where they are grown, but receive little investment. The development and implementation of policies designed to encourage private investments in research and marketing biotechnology that will meet the needs of poverty-stricken nations, increased research on other problems faced by poor nations, and joint efforts by the public and private sectors to ensure the efficient use of technology developed by industrialized nations have been suggested. In addition, industrialized nations have not tested GM technology on tropical plants, focusing on those that grow in temperate climates, even though undeveloped nations and the people that need the extra food live primarily in tropical climates. Another important controversy is the possibility of unforeseen local and global effects as a result of transgenic organisms proliferating. The basic ethical issues involved in genetic research are discussed in the article on genetic engineering. Governmental support and opposition United States In 2004, Mendocino County, California became the first county in the United States to ban the production of GMOs. The measure passed with a 57% majority. In California, Trinity and Marin counties have also imposed bans on GM crops, while ordinances to do so were unsuccessful in Butte, Lake, San Luis Obispo, Humboldt, and Sonoma counties. Supervisors in the agriculturally-rich counties of Fresno, Kern, Kings, Solano, Sutter, and Tulare have passed resolutions supporting the practice. http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2005/June/15/local/stories/07local.htm New Zealand In New Zealand, no genetically modified food is grown and no medicines containing live genetically-modified organisms have been approved for use. Genetically modified medicines and food New Zealand Ministry for the Environment However, medicines manufactured using genetically modified organisms that do not contain live organisms have been approved for sale. Canada In 2005, a standing committee of the government of Prince Edward Island (PEI) in Canada assessed a proposal to ban the production of GMOs in the province. The ban was not passed. As of January 2008, the use of genetically modified crops on PEI was rapidly increasing. Mainland Canada is one of the world's largest producers of GM canola. Australia Several states of Australia had placed bans on planting GM food crops, beginning in 2003. www.parliament.nsw.gov.au However, in late 2007 the states of New South Wales and Victoria lifted their bans. Australian Science Media Center - 27 November 2007 Western Australia lifted that state's ban in December 2008, Western Australia Minister for Agriculture and Food Media Statement, 23 December 2008 while South Australia continues its ban. Australian Science Media Center - 8 February 2008 Tasmania has extended its moratorium until November 2014. Statement Gene Technology.pdf Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries and Water - Policy Statement: Gene technology and Tasmanian Primary Industries 2009-2014 The state of Queensland has allowed the growing of GM crops since 1995 and has never had a GM ban. 10 Years of GM cotton - where to from here? Jeff Bidstrup, Convener, Producers’ Forum Outlook Conference, Canberra, 2006 Zambia The Zambian government has launched a campaign to educate and increase awareness of the benefits of biotechnology, including genetically modified crops, in order to change negative public opinion. Cross-pollination concerns Some critics have raised the concern that conventionally-bred crop plants can be cross-pollinated (bred) from the pollen of modified plants. Pollen can be dispersed over large areas by wind, animals and insects. In 2007, the U.S. Department of Agriculture fined Scotts Miracle-Gro $500,000 when modified genetic material from creeping bentgrass, a new golf-course grass Scotts had been testing, was found within close relatives of the same genus (Agrostis) as well as in native grasses up to 21 km (13 miles) away from the test sites, released when freshly cut grass was blown by the wind. GM proponents point out that outcrossing, as this process is known, is not new. The same thing happens with any new open-pollinated crop variety—newly introduced traits can potentially cross out into neighboring crop plants of the same species and, in some cases, to closely related wild relatives. Defenders of GM technology point out that each GM crop is assessed on a case-by-case basis to determine if there is any risk associated with the outcrossing of the GM trait into wild plant populations. The fact that a GM plant may outcross with a related wild relative is not, in itself, a risk unless such an occurrence has negative consequences. If, for example, a herbicide resistance trait was to cross into a wild relative of a crop plant it can be predicted that this would not have any consequences except in areas where herbicides are sprayed, such as a farm. In such a setting the farmer can manage this risk by rotating herbicides. The European Union funds research programmes such as Co-Extra, that investigate options and technologies on the co-existence of GM and conventional farming. This also includes research on biological containment strategies and other measures, to prevent outcrossing and enable the implementation of co-existence. If patented genes are outcrossed, even accidentally, to other commercial fields and a person deliberately selects the outcrossed plants for subsequent planting then the patent holder has the right to control the use of those crops. This was supported in Canadian law in the case of Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser. "Terminator" and "traitor" An often cited controversy is a "Technology Protection" technology dubbed 'Terminator'. This yet-to-be-commercialized technology would allow the production of first generation crops that would not generate seeds in the second generation because the plants yield sterile seeds. The patent for this so-called "terminator" gene technology is owned by Delta and Pine Land Company and the United States Department of Agriculture. Delta and Pine Land was bought by Monsanto in August 2006. Similarly, the hypothetical Trait-specific Genetic Use Restriction Technology, also known as 'Traitor' or 'T-gut', requires application of a chemical to genetically modified crops to reactivate engineered traits. This technology is intended both to limit the spread of genetically engineered plants, and to require farmers to pay yearly to reactivate the genetically engineered traits of their crops. Traitor is under development by companies including Monsanto and AstraZeneca. In addition to the commercial protection of proprietary technology in self-pollinating crops such as soybean (a generally contentious issue), another purpose of the terminator gene is to prevent the escape of genetically modified traits from cross-pollinating crops into wild-type species by sterilizing any resultant hybrids. The terminator gene technology created a backlash amongst those who felt the technology would prevent re-use of seed by farmers growing such terminator varieties in the developing world and was ostensibly a means to exercise patent claims. Use of the terminator technology would also prevent "volunteers", or crops that grow from unharvested seed, a major concern that arose during the Starlink debacle. There are technologies evolving which contain the transgene by biological means and still can provide fertile seeds using fertility restorer functions. Such methods are being developed by several EU research programmes, among them Transcontainer and Co-Extra. See also Horizontal Gene Transfer: The movement of genes between different species occurs often naturally. Genetically modified food LMO (Living Modified Organism) Transgene Gene flow Organic farming Permaculture Organic food GM food controversies GloFish Chimera (genetics) Dolly the sheep Herman the Bull Ice-minus bacteria BioSteel Gene pool Genetic pollution Genetic erosion Smart breeding Synthetic Biology References External links General Information on GM crops FAO-BiotechNews — News and events about GMOs from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Everything you wanted to know about GM organisms — Provided by New Scientist. Eppendorf Biochip Systems Detection method for GMO in food and feed by using GMO-microarray Food Security and Ag-Biotech News — for balanced news Devlin RH, Sundstrom LF, Muir WM. 2006. Interface of biotechnology and ecology for environmental risk assessments of transgenic fish. Trends in Biotechnology 24:89-97 - A scientific article on the advances and problems in making reliable risk-assessment of transgenic fish. Bernard Stiegler, "Take Care" — A philosophical approach to the question of GMOs and their relation to human agricultural history. GMO Safety - Information about research projects on the biological safety of genetically modified plants. International Conference on "GM Crops and Foods" (20/21 November in Frankfurt/Germany) Seeds of doubt: North American farmers' experiences of GM crops Seeds of doubt: North American farmers' experiences of GM crops The 8th International Transgenic Technology Conference (Toronto 2008) GM-Oh, no! Long-term study: GMOs lower fertility in mice GM-Oh, no! Long-term study: GMOs lower fertility in mice Transgenic animals Transgenic Fly Virtual Lab - Howard Hughes Medical Institute BioInteractive Mouse Genome Informatics (informatics.jax.org) ArkDB (theArkDB.org) The Rat Genome Database Mouse Embryo Banking System Mammalian Genetics Unit Harwell: Mouse models for human disease Disease Animal Models - BSRC Alexander Fleming Transgenic Animal Models - Biomedcode USDA Bets the Farm on Animal ID Program International Society for Transgenic Technologies (ISTT) Transgenic plants Information on GM crops and protein based rapid tests GMO-Compass: Information on genetically modified organisms Co-Extra: Research on co-existence and traceability of GM and non-GM supply chains Transcontainer: Research on biological containment systems for genetically modified plants ISAAA Knowledge Center: Information on genetically modified organisms | Genetically_modified_organism |@lemmatized genetically:30 modify:31 organism:20 gmo:13 engineer:6 geo:1 whose:2 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2,499 | Francis_of_Assisi | Saint Francis of Assisi (Giovanni Francesco Bernardone; born 1181/1182 – October 3, 1226) was a friar and the founder of the Order of Friars Minor, more commonly known as the Franciscans. He is known as the patron saint of animals, the environment and Italy, and it is customary for Catholic churches to hold ceremonies honoring animals around his feast day of 4 October. Childhood and early adulthood Francis was one of seven children born to Pietro di Bernardone, a rich cloth merchant, and his wife Pica Bourlemont, about whom little is known except that she was originally from France. Pietro was in France on business when Francis was born, and Pica had him baptised as Giovanni di Bernardone in honor of Saint John the Baptist, in the hope he would grow to be a great religious leader. When his father returned to Assisi, he was furious about this, as he did not want his son to be a man of the Church and decided to call him Francesco, in honor of his commercial success and enthusiasm for all things French. As a youth, Francesco—or Francis in English—became a troubadour and yearned to become a writer of French poetry. And although many biographers remark about his bright clothing, rich friends, street brawls, and love of pleasure, his displays of disillusionment toward the world that surrounded him came fairly early in his life, as is shown in the "story of the beggar." In this account, he was selling cloth and velvet in the marketplace on behalf of his father when a beggar came to him and asked for alms. At the conclusion of his business deal, Francis abandoned his wares and ran after the beggar. When he found him, Francis gave the man everything he had in his pockets. His friends quickly chided and mocked him for his act of charity. When he got home, his father scolded him in rage. Chesterton (1924), pp. 40–41 In 1201, he joined a military expedition against Perugia, he was taken as a prisoner at Collestrada, and spent a year as a captive. It is probable that his conversion to more serious thoughts was a gradual process relating to this experience. Upon his return to Assisi in 1203, Francis returned to his carefree life and in 1204, a serious illness led to a spiritual crisis. In 1205 Francis left for Puglia to enlist in the army of the Count of Brienne. In Spoleto, a strange vision made him return to Assisi, deepening his ecclesiastical awakening . Francis of Assisi by Francisco de Zurbarán It is said that thereafter he began to avoid the sports and the feasts of his former companions; in response, they asked him laughingly whether he was thinking of marrying, to which he answered "yes, a fairer bride than any of you have ever seen", meaning his "lady poverty". He spent much time in lonely places, asking God for enlightenment. By degrees he took to nursing lepers, the most repulsive victims in the lazar houses near Assisi. After a pilgrimage to Rome, where he begged at the church doors for the poor, he said he had had a mystical vision of Jesus Christ in the Church of San Damiano just outside of Assisi, in which the Icon of Christ Crucified came alive and said to him three times, "Francis, Francis, go and repair My house which, as you can see, is falling into ruins". He thought this to mean the ruined church in which he was presently praying, and so sold his horse and some cloth from his father's store, to assist the priest there for this purpose. Chesterton(1924), pp. 54–56 His father Pietro, highly indignant, attempted to change his mind, first with threats and then with corporal chastisement. After a final interview in the presence of the bishop, Francis renounced his father and his patrimony, laying aside even the garments he had received from him. For the next couple of months he lived as a beggar in the region of Assisi. Returning to the town for two years this time, he restored several ruined churches, among them the Porziuncola, little chapel of St Mary of the Angels, just outside the town, which later became his favorite abode. Founding of the Order of Friars Minor St. Francis of Assisi in Sacro Speco, Subiaco, Italy At the end of this period (according to Jordanus, on 24 February 1209), Francis heard a sermon that changed his life. The sermon was about Matthew 10:9, in which Christ tells his followers that they should go forth and proclaim that the Kingdom of Heaven was upon them, that they should take no money with them, nor even a walking stick or shoes for the road. Francis was inspired to devote himself to a life of poverty. Clad in a rough garment, barefoot, and, after the Evangelical precept, without staff or scrip, he began to preach repentance. He was soon joined by his first follower, a prominent fellow townsman, the jurist Bernardo di Quintavalle, who contributed all that he had to the work. Within a year Francis had eleven followers. Francis chose never to be ordained a priest and the community lived as "lesser brothers," fratres minores in Latin. The brothers lived a simple life in the deserted lazar house of Rivo Torto near Assisi; but they spent much of their time wandering through the mountainous districts of Umbria, always cheerful and full of songs, yet making a deep impression on their hearers by their earnest exhortations. In 1209 Francis led his first eleven followers to Rome to seek permission from Pope Innocent III to found a new religious order. Chesterton(1924), pp. 107–108 Upon entry to Rome, the brothers encountered Bishop Guido of Assisi, who had in his company Giovanni di San Paolo, the cardinal bishop of Sabina. The Cardinal, who was the confessor of Pope Innocent III, was immediately sympathetic to Francis and agreed to represent Francis to the pope. Reluctantly, Pope Innocent agreed to meet with Francis and the brothers the next day. After several days, the pope agreed to admit the group informally, adding that when God increased the group in grace and number, they could return for an official admittance. The group was tonsured and Francis was ordained as a deacon, allowing him to read Gospels in the church. Galli(2002), pp. 74–80 Later life From then on, his new order grew quickly with new vocations. Chesterton(1924), pp. 110–111 When hearing Francis preaching in the church of San Rufino in Assisi in 1209, Clare of Assisi became deeply touched by his message and she realized her calling. Her brother Rufino also joined the new order. The Porziuncola On Palm Sunday, 28 March 1211 Francis received Clare at the Porziuncola and hereby established the Order of Poor Dames, later called Poor Clares. In the same year, Francis left for Jerusalem, but he was shipwrecked by a storm on the Dalmatian coast, forcing him to return to Italy. On 8 May 1213 he received the mountain of La Verna (Alverna) as a gift from the count Orlando di Chiusi who described it as “eminently suitable for whoever wishes to do penance in a place remote from mankind.” Fioretti quoted in: St. Francis, The Little Flowers, Legends, and Lauds, trans. N. Wydenbruck, ed. Otto Karrer (London: Sheed and Ward, 1979) 244. Chesterton(1924), p.130 The mountain would become one of his favorite retreats for prayer. Chesterton(1924), p.130 In the same year, Francis sailed for Morocco, but this time an illness forced him to break off his journey in Spain. Back in Assisi, several noblemen (among them Tommaso da Celano, who would later write the biography of St. Francis) and some well-educated men joined his order. In 1215 Francis went again to Rome for the Fourth Lateran Council. During this time, he probably met Dominic de Guzman. Chesterton(1924), p.126 In 1216 Francis received from the new pope Honorius III the confirmation of the indulgence of the Porziuncola, now better known as the Pardon of Assisi, which the Pope decreed to be a complete remission of their sins for all those who prayed in the Porziuncola. In 1217 the growing congregation of friars was divided in provinces and groups were sent to France, Germany, Hungary, Spain and to the East. St. Francis before the Sultan — the trial by fire (fresco attributed to Giotto) In 1219 Francis left, together with a few companions, on a pilgrimage of non-violence to Egypt. Crossing the lines between the sultan and the Crusaders in Damietta, he was received by the sultan Melek-el-Kamel. Francis challenged the Muslim scholars to a test of true religion by fire; but they retreated. When Francis proposed to enter the fire first, under the condition that if he left the fire unharmed, the sultan would have to recognize Christ as the true God, the sultan was so impressed that he allowed Francis to preach to his subjects. Though Francis did not succeed in converting the sultan, the last words of the sultan to Francis of Assisi were, according to Jacques de Vitry, bishop of Acre, in his book "Historia occidentalis, De Ordine et praedicatione Fratrum Minorum (1221)" : “Pray for me that God may deign to reveal to me that law and faith which is most pleasing to him.”. Francis' visit to Egypt and attempted rapprochement with the Muslim World had far-reaching consequences, long past his own death - since after the fall of the Crusader Kingdom it would be the Franciscans, of all Catholics, who would be allowed to stay on in the Holy Land and be recognised as "Custodians of the Holy Land" on behalf of Christianity. Saint Francis of Assisi with the Sultan al-Kamil.15thCentury. At Acre, the capital of what remained of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, he rejoined the brothers Elia and Pietro Cattini. Francis then most probably visited the holy places in Palestine in 1220. Although nativity drawings and paintings existed earlier, St Francis of Assisi celebrated Christmas by setting up the first known three-dimensional presepio or crèche (Nativity scene) in the town of Greccio near Assisi, around 1220. Bonaventure (1867), p. 178 He used real animals to create a living scene so that the worshipers could contemplate the birth of the child Jesus in a direct way, making use of the senses, especially sight. Thomas of Celano, a biographer of Francis and Saint Bonaventure both tell how he only used a straw-filled manger (feeding trough) set between a real ox and donkey. According to Thomas, it was beautiful in its simplicity with the manger acting as the altar for the Christmas Mass. When receiving a report of the martyrdom of five brothers in Morocco, Francis returned to Italy via Venice. Bonaventure (1867), p. 162 Cardinal Ugolino di Conti was then nominated by the Pope as the protector of the order. When problems arose in the order, a detailed rule became necessary. On September 29, 1220 Francis handed over the governance of the order to brother Pietro Cattini at the Porziuncola. However, Brother Cattini died on March 10, 1221. He was buried in the Porziuncola. When numerous miracles were attributed to the late Pietro Cattini, people started to flock to the Porziuncola, disturbing the daily life of the Franciscans. Francis then prayed, asking Pietro to stop the miracles and obey in death as he had obeyed during his life. The report of miracles ceased. Brother Pietro was succeeded by brother Elia as vicar of Francis. During 1221 and 1222 Francis crossed Italy, first as far south as Catania in Sicily and afterwards as far north as Bologna. On November 29, 1223 the final rule of the order (in twelve chapters) was approved by Pope Honorius III. St. Francis receives the Stigmata (fresco attributed to Giotto) While he was praying on the mountain of Verna, during a forty day fast in preparation for Michaelmas (September 29), Francis is said to have had a vision on or about September 14, 1224, the Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross, as a result of which he received the stigmata. Brother Leo, who had been with Francis at the time, left a clear and simple account of the event, the first definite account of the phenomenon of stigmata. "Suddenly he saw a vision of a seraph, a six-winged angel on a cross. This angel gave him the gift of the five wounds of Christ." Chesterton(1924), p.131 Suffering from these Stigmata and from an eye disease, he received care in several cities (Siena, Cortona, Nocera) to no avail. In the end he was brought back to the Porziuncola. He was brought to the "transito," the hut for infirmed friars, next to the Porziuncola. Here, in the place where it all began, feeling the end approaching, he spent the last days of his life dictating his spiritual testament. He died on the evening of October 3, 1226 singing Psalm 141. On July 16, 1228 he was pronounced a saint by the next pope Gregory IX, the former cardinal Ugolino di Conti, friend and protector of St Francis. The next day, the pope laid the foundation stone for the Basilica of Saint Francis in Assisi. He was buried on May 25, 1230 under the Lower Basilica. His burial place remained inaccessible until it was rediscovered in 1818. Pasquale Belli then constructed for his remains a crypt in neo-classical style under the Lower Basilica. It was refashioned between 1927 and 1930 into its present form by Ugo Tarchi, stripping the wall of its marble decorations. In 1978 the remains of St. Francis were identified by a commission of scholars, appointed by Pope Paul VI and put in a glass urn in the ancient stone tomb. Saint Francis is considered the first Italian poet by literary critics. He believed commoners should be able to pray to God in their own language, and he wrote always in the dialect of Umbria instead of Latin. His writings are considered to have great literary value, as well as religious. Feast day Saint Francis' feast day is observed on October 4. In addition to this feast, a secondary feast is still observed amongst Traditional Roman Catholics and Franciscans worldwide in honor of the stigmata received by St Francis celebrated on September 17 called "The Impression of the Stigmata of St Francis, Confessor" (see the General Roman Calendar as in 1954, the General Roman Calendar of Pope Pius XII, and the General Roman Calendar of 1962). On 5 May 1940 Pope Pius XII named him a joint Patron Saint of Italy along with Saint Catherine of Siena. Nature and the environment A garden statue of Francis of Assisi with birds Many of the stories that surround the life of St. Francis deal with his love for animals. Bonaventure (1867), pp. 78–85 Perhaps the most famous incident that illustrates the Saint's humility towards nature is recounted in the "Fioretti" ("Little Flowers"), a collection of legends and folklore that sprang up after the Saint's death. It is said that, one day, while Francis was traveling with some companions, they happened upon a place in the road where birds filled the trees on either side. Francis told his companions to "wait for me while I go to preach to my sisters the birds". The birds surrounded him, drawn by the power of his voice, and not one of them flew away. Francis spoke to them: My sister birds, you owe much to God, and you must always and in everyplace give praise to Him; for He has given you freedom to wing through the sky and He has clothed you... you neither sow nor reap, and God feeds you and gives you rivers and fountains for your thirst, and mountains and valleys for shelter, and tall trees for your nests. And although you neither know how to spin or weave, God dresses you and your children, for the Creator loves you greatly and He blesses you abundantly. Therefore... always seek to praise God. Another legend from the Fioretti tells that in the city of Gubbio, where Francis lived for some time, was a wolf "terrifying and ferocious, who devoured men as well as animals". Francis had compassion upon the townsfolk, and went up into the hills to find the wolf. Soon, fear of the animal had caused all his companions to flee, though the saint pressed on. When he found the wolf, he made the sign of the cross and commanded the wolf to come to him and hurt no one. Miraculously the wolf closed his jaws and lay down at the feet of St. Francis. "Brother Wolf, you do much harm in these parts and you have done great evil...", said Francis. "All these people accuse you and curse you... But brother wolf, I would like to make peace between you and the people". Then Francis led the wolf into the town, and surrounded by startled citizens made a pact between them and the wolf. Because the wolf had “done evil out of hunger”, the townsfolk were to feed the wolf regularly, and in return, the wolf would no longer prey upon them or their flocks. In this manner Gubbio was freed from the menace of the predator. Francis, ever the lover of animals, even made a pact on behalf of the town dogs, that they would not bother the wolf again. It is also said that Francis, to show the townspeople that they would not be harmed baptised the wolf. These legends exemplify the Franciscan mode of charity and poverty as well as the saint's love of the natural world. Bonaventure (1867), pp. 67–68 Part of his appreciation of the environment is expressed in his Canticle of the Sun, a poem written in Umbrian Italian in perhaps 1224 which expresses a love and appreciation of Brother Sun, Sister Moon, Mother Earth, Brother Fire, etc. and all of God's creations personified in their fundamental forms. In "Canticle of the Creatures," he wrote: "All praise to you, Oh Lord, for all these brother and sister creatures." Francis's attitude towards the natural world, while poetically expressed, was conventionally Christian. He believed that the world was created good and beautiful by God but suffers a need for redemption because of the primordial sin of man. He preached to man and beast the universal ability and duty of all creatures to praise God (a common theme in the Psalms) and the duty of men to protect and enjoy nature as both the stewards of God's creation and as creatures ourselves. Legend has it that St. Francis on his deathbed thanked his donkey for carrying and helping him throughout his life, and his donkey wept. Media Franco Zeffirelli's film Brother Sun, Sister Moon Olivier Messiaen's opera Saint-François d'Assise Francesco (1990), a film by Liliana Cavani, somewhat slow moving film which follows Francis of Assisi's evolution from rich man's son to religious humanitarian and eventually to full-fledged self-tortured saint. This movie was inspired by Hermann Hesse's novel Peter Camenzind. St. Francis is played by Mickey Rourke, and the woman who later became Saint Clare, is played by Helena Bonham Carter Reluctant Saint: The Life of Francis of Assisi a book by Donald Spoto (2002) Flowers for St Francis (2005), a book by Raj Arumugam Saint Francis of Asisi (1923), a book by G.K.Chesterton Saint Francis et His Four Ladies (1970) a book by Joan Mowat Erikson Brother, Sister (2006), third full-length album by indie rock band MewithoutYou, featuring the song "The Sun and Moon" Sant Francesc (Saint Francis, 1895), a book of forty-three Saint Francis poems by Catalan poet-priest Jacint Verdaguer, three of which are included in English translation in Selected Poems of Jacint Verdaguer: A Bilingual Edition, edited and translated by Ronald Puppo, with an introduction by Ramon Pinyol i Torrents (University of Chicago, 2007). The three poems are "The Turtledoves", "Preaching to Birds" and "The Pilgrim". Frank McCourt's autobiography Angela's Ashes contains some references to St. Francis. In Fyodor Dostoevsky's 'The Brothers Karamazov,' Ivan Karamazov invokes the name of 'Pater Seraphicus,' an epithet applied to St. Francis, to describe Alyshosha's spiritual guide Zosima. The reference is also found in Goethe's "Faust," Part 2, Act 5, lines 11918–25. The song "Fifty Gallon Drum" from the album Talkin Honky Blues by Buck 65 contains the lyric "I've got a Francis of Assisi keychain, and a wallet made of Corinthian leather." Chasing Francis by Ian Cron. NavPress, 2006. St. Francis preaches to the birds (2005), chamber concerto for violin by composer Lewis Nielson Francis: The Knight of Assisi St. Francis' Folly is a fictional building in both the original Tomb Raider video game, and the remake, Tomb Raider: Anniversary, which somewhat resembles the Pantheon, Rome. Although St. Francis is an Italian saint, the fictional folly in the video game honors Greek gods, and consists of a mixture of ancient Greek and Roman architecture. Main writings Canticum Fratris Solis or Laudes Creaturarum, Canticle of the Sun. Prayer before the Crucifix, 1205 (extant in the original Umbrian dialect as well as in a contemporary Latin translation). Regula non bullata, the Earlier Rule, 1221. Regula bullata, the Later Rule, 1223. Testament, 1226. Admonitions. For a complete list, see . See also Fraticelli Saint Juniper, one of Francis' original followers. Saint David St. Bonaventure University, a school founded in the Franciscan tradition inspired by St. Francis of Assisi. Franciscan University of Steubenville, a school run by Franciscan TOR's in Southeastern Ohio. University of Saint Francis (Illinois), a school founded in the tradition of St. Francis of Assisi. Saint Francis University (Pennsylvania) List of people on stamps of Ireland Saint Margaret of Cortona Saint-François d'Assise, an opera by Olivier Messiaen Society of Saint Francis The Flowers of St. Francis (1950), a film by Roberto Rossellini Christian mystics Siena College Saint-François (places called for Francis of Assisi in French-speaking countries) Lynn Townsend White, Jr. San Francisco, California, a major city named for this saint References Further reading Basilica of St. Francis, Assisi Friar Elias, Epistola Encyclica de Transitu Sancti Francisci, 1226. Pope Gregory IX, Bulla "Mira circa nos" for the canonization of St. Francis, 19 July 1228. Friar Tommaso da Celano: Vita Prima Sancti Francisci, 1228; Vita Secunda Sancti Francisci, 1246 – 1247; Tractatus de Miraculis Sancti Francisci, 1252 – 1253. Friar Julian of Speyer, Vita Sancti Francisci, 1232 – 1239. St. Bonaventure of Bagnoregio, Legenda Maior Sancti Francisci, 1260 – 1263. Ugolino da Montegiorgio, Actus Beati Francisci et sociorum eius, 1327 – 1342. Fioretti di San Francesco, the "Little Flowers of St. Francis", end of the 14th century: an anonymous Italian version of the Actus; the most popular of the sources, but very late and therefore not the best authority by any means. The Little Flowers of Saint Francis (Translated by Raphael Brown), Doubleday, 1998. ISBN 978-0-385-07544-2 External links ORDO FRATRUM MINORUM — OFM — The homepage of the first order of Franciscans, Friars Minor. 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