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2,300 | Guru_Meditation | Guru Meditation is the name of the error that occurred on early versions of the Commodore Amiga computer when they crashed. It is analogous to the "Blue Screen Of Death" in Microsoft Windows operating systems. Guru Meditation Errors also occur on Nintendo DS Homebrew applications. Description When a Guru Meditation is displayed, the options are to reboot by pressing the left mouse button, or to invoke ROMWack by pressing the right mouse button. (ROMWack is a minimalist debugger built into the operating system which is accessible by connecting a 9600 bit/s terminal to the serial port.) A simulation of the Guru Meditation error message The alert itself appears as a black rectangular box located in the upper portion of the screen. Its border and text is red for a normal Guru Meditation, or green/yellow for a Recoverable Alert, another kind of Guru Meditation. The screen goes black, and the power and disk-activity LEDs may blink immediately before the alert appears. In AmigaOS 1.x, programmed in ROMs known as Kickstart 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3, the errors are always red. In AmigaOS 2.x and 3.x, recoverable alerts are yellow, except for some very early versions of 2.x where they were green. Dead-end alerts are red in all OS versions. This error is sometimes referred to colloquially as a "trip to India," or the "Unwelcome Visitor from the East", or just "alert". The alert occurred when there was a fatal problem with the system. If the system had no means of recovery, it could display the alert, even in systems with numerous critical flaws. In extreme cases, the alert could even be displayed if the system's memory was completely exhausted. The error is displayed as two fields, separated by a period. The format is #0000000x.yyyyyyyy in case of a CPU error, or #aabbcccc.dddddddd in case of a system software error. The first field is either the Motorola 68000 exception number that occurred (if a CPU error occurs) or an internal error identifier (such as an 'Out of Memory' code), in case of a system software error. The second can be the address of a Task structure, or the address of a memory block whose allocation or deallocation failed. It is never the address of the code that caused the error. If the cause of the crash is uncertain, this number is rendered as 48454C50, which stands for "HELP" in hexadecimal ASCII characters (48=H, 45=E, 4C=L, 50=P). The text of the alert messages was completely baffling to most users. Only highly technically adept Amiga users would know, for example, that exception 3 was an address error, and meant the program was accessing a word on an unaligned boundary. Users without this specialized knowledge would have no recourse but to look for a "Guru" or to simply reboot the machine and hope for the best. A Guru Meditation error is also known to occur in Winamp. The freeform skinning engine will generate a Guru meditation error when there is a problem with a MAKI script, which shows the same error box as the Commodore Amiga Guru meditation error, except the Winamp guru meditation error does not have a flashing red border, but a solid red border System software error codes The first byte specifies the particular area of the system affected. The top bit will be set if the error is a dead end alert. Area of system Value Specific part of system Libraries 01 Exec library 02 Graphics library 03 Layers library 04 Intuition library 05 Math library 06 CList library 07 AmigaDOS library 08 RAM Handler library 09 Icons library Devices 10 Audio device 11 Console device 12 Gameport device 13 Keyboard device 14 Trackdisk device 15 Timer device Resources 20 CIA resource 21 Disk resource 22 Misc resource Other areas 30 Bootstrap 31 Workbench 32 Diskcopy Origins The term "Guru Meditation Error" was an in-house joke from Amiga's early days. One of the company's products was the joyboard, a game controller much like a joystick but operated by one's feet, similar to the modern-day Wii Balance Board. Early in the development of the Amiga computer operating system, the company's developers became so frustrated with the system's frequent crashes that, as a relaxation technique, a game was developed where a person would sit cross-legged on the joyboard, resembling an Indian guru. The player was supposed to remain perfectly still with the goal of the game being to stay still the longest. If the player moved, a "guru meditation error" resulted. A similar game is the final unlockable balance activity in Wii Fit. The error was removed from subsequent versions of the Amiga ROM (Kickstart), but some users chose to patch it back in. Trivia A 503 error from the Varnish cache HTTP accelerator that includes the text "Guru Meditation". The blinking border of the original guru meditation number was created by writing the border in black 6,809 times and then writing it in red 6,809 times. This was in honor of the Motorola 6809, a popular CPU that was a favourite of the system designers. VirtualBox uses a "Guru Meditation" VM state. . Deliplayer (for Windows) also display a guru meditation if somethings goes wrong. The Varnish HTTP accelerator also adopted Guru Meditation errors, for example: "Error 503 Service Unavailable Backend did not respond. Guru Meditation: XID: 456452130" TechCrunch sometimes displays a text guru meditation error when its website is having technical issues. Prevue Channel ran on AmigaOS from 1988 to December 1999. In its early days, errors could be prevalent - Guru Meditation errors among them. Once the channel went to a blue grid in 1993, errors decreased, but still could occur. After TV Guide bought the channel, a new guide was brought in that ran on Windows NT-based equipment. The game Captive displays a fake "Guru Meditation" error from time to time. Fake Guru Meditation error in the game Captive Later versions of AmigaOS A visit from the Grim ReaperSince version 4.0 of the OS, many alerts are replaced by an error handler known as "The Grim Reaper". The Grim Reaper displays the task which caused an error and the nature of the error (illegal memory access etc.), whereupon it presents the user with several options such as suspending/killing the task, displaying more information such as a register dump or attaching a debugger (gdb). After selecting "More..." Although the Grim Reaper replaces many of the alerts, the error is still called a "Guru Meditation" as seen in the first screenshot. The program which caused the particular error used as an example here was the following: int main(void) { int *bad=0; *bad=0; return(0); } References External links Guru Meditation code explained Joyboard Controller Guru Meditation (the introduction page contains an image of the effect) CGI::GuruMeditation Perl die handler to catch abnormal CGI termination and visually mimicking Amiga behavior Guru Meditation (a simulation of the effect when a corrupted disk is inserted - there are minor changes to the images) | Guru_Meditation |@lemmatized guru:28 meditation:26 name:1 error:37 occur:7 early:5 version:6 commodore:2 amiga:7 computer:2 crash:3 analogous:1 blue:2 screen:3 death:1 microsoft:1 window:3 operate:3 system:15 also:4 nintendo:1 homebrew:1 application:1 description:1 display:9 option:2 reboot:2 press:2 left:1 mouse:2 button:2 invoke:1 romwack:2 right:1 minimalist:1 debugger:2 build:1 operating:1 accessible:1 connect:1 bit:2 terminal:1 serial:1 port:1 simulation:2 message:2 alert:13 appear:2 black:3 rectangular:1 box:2 locate:1 upper:1 portion:1 border:5 text:4 red:6 normal:1 green:2 yellow:2 recoverable:2 another:1 kind:1 go:3 power:1 disk:3 activity:2 led:1 may:1 blink:2 immediately:1 amigaos:4 x:4 program:3 rom:2 know:4 kickstart:2 always:1 except:2 dead:2 end:2 os:1 sometimes:2 refer:1 colloquially:1 trip:1 india:1 unwelcome:1 visitor:1 east:1 fatal:1 problem:2 mean:2 recovery:1 could:4 even:2 numerous:1 critical:1 flaw:1 extreme:1 case:4 memory:4 completely:2 exhaust:1 two:1 field:2 separate:1 period:1 format:1 yyyyyyyy:1 cpu:3 aabbcccc:1 dddddddd:1 software:3 first:3 either:1 motorola:2 exception:2 number:3 internal:1 identifier:1 code:3 second:1 address:4 task:3 structure:1 block:1 whose:1 allocation:1 deallocation:1 fail:1 never:1 cause:4 uncertain:1 render:1 stand:1 help:1 hexadecimal:1 ascii:1 character:1 h:1 e:1 l:1 p:1 baffle:1 user:5 highly:1 technically:1 adept:1 would:3 example:3 access:2 word:1 unaligned:1 boundary:1 without:1 specialized:1 knowledge:1 recourse:1 look:1 simply:1 machine:1 hope:1 best:1 winamp:2 freeform:1 skin:1 engine:1 generate:1 maki:1 script:1 show:1 flashing:1 solid:1 cod:1 byte:1 specify:1 particular:2 area:3 affect:1 top:1 set:1 value:1 specific:1 part:1 library:10 exec:1 graphic:1 layer:1 intuition:1 math:1 clist:1 amigados:1 ram:1 handler:3 icon:1 device:7 audio:1 console:1 gameport:1 keyboard:1 trackdisk:1 timer:1 resource:4 cia:1 misc:1 bootstrap:1 workbench:1 diskcopy:1 origins:1 term:1 house:1 joke:1 day:3 one:2 company:2 product:1 joyboard:3 game:6 controller:2 much:1 like:1 joystick:1 foot:1 similar:2 modern:1 wii:2 balance:2 board:1 development:1 developer:1 become:1 frustrated:1 frequent:1 relaxation:1 technique:1 develop:1 person:1 sit:1 cross:1 legged:1 resemble:1 indian:1 player:2 suppose:1 remain:1 perfectly:1 still:4 goal:1 stay:1 long:1 move:1 result:1 final:1 unlockable:1 fit:1 remove:1 subsequent:1 choose:1 patch:1 back:1 trivia:1 varnish:2 cache:1 http:2 accelerator:2 include:1 original:1 create:1 write:2 time:4 honor:1 popular:1 favourite:1 designer:1 virtualbox:1 use:2 vm:1 state:1 deliplayer:1 somethings:1 wrong:1 adopt:1 service:1 unavailable:1 backend:1 respond:1 xid:1 techcrunch:1 website:1 technical:1 issue:1 prevue:1 channel:3 run:1 december:1 prevalent:1 among:1 grid:1 decrease:1 tv:1 guide:2 buy:1 new:1 bring:1 ran:1 nt:1 base:1 equipment:1 captive:2 fake:2 late:1 visit:1 grim:4 reapersince:1 many:2 replace:2 reaper:3 nature:1 illegal:1 etc:1 whereupon:1 present:1 several:1 suspend:1 kill:1 information:1 register:1 dump:1 attach:1 gdb:1 select:1 although:1 call:1 see:1 screenshot:1 following:1 int:2 main:1 void:1 bad:2 return:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 explain:1 introduction:1 page:1 contain:1 image:2 effect:2 cgi:2 gurumeditation:1 perl:1 die:1 catch:1 abnormal:1 termination:1 visually:1 mimic:1 behavior:1 corrupted:1 insert:1 minor:1 change:1 |@bigram guru_meditation:26 commodore_amiga:2 microsoft_window:1 mouse_button:2 allocation_deallocation:1 window_nt:1 grim_reaper:3 external_link:1 |
2,301 | IPv4 | Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth revision in the development of the Internet Protocol (IP) and it is the first version of the protocol to be widely deployed. Together with IPv6, it is at the core of standards-based internetworking methods of the Internet, and is still by far the most widely deployed Internet Layer protocol. It is described in IETF publication RFC 791 (September 1981) which rendered obsolete RFC 760 (January 1980). The United States Department of Defense also standardized it as MIL-STD-1777. IPv4 is a data-oriented protocol to be used on a packet switched internetwork (e.g., Ethernet). It is a best effort delivery protocol in that it does not guarantee delivery, nor does it assure proper sequencing, or avoid duplicate delivery. These aspects are addressed by an upper layer protocol (e.g. TCP, and partly by UDP). IPv4 does, however, provide data integrity protection through the use of packet checksums. Addressing Internet addressing growth map. IPv4 uses 32-bit (four-byte) addresses, which limits the address space to 4,294,967,296 (232) possible unique addresses. However, some are reserved for special purposes such as private networks (~18 million addresses) or multicast addresses (~16 million addresses). This reduces the number of addresses that can be allocated as public Internet addresses. As the number of addresses available are consumed, an IPv4 address shortage appears to be inevitable, however network address translation (NAT) has significantly delayed this inevitability. This limitation has helped stimulate the push towards IPv6, which is currently in the early stages of deployment and the only contender to replace IPv4. Address representations IPv4 addresses are usually written in dot-decimal notation, which consists of the four octets of the address expressed in decimal and separated by periods. This is the base format used in the conversion in the following table: Notation Value Conversion from dot-decimal Dot-decimal notation 192.0.2.235 N/A Dotted Hexadecimal 0xC0.0x00.0x02.0xEB Each octet is individually converted to hexadecimal form Dotted Octal 0300.0000.0002.0353 Each octet is individually converted into octal Hexadecimal 0xC00002EB Concatenation of the octets from the dotted hexadecimal Decimal 3221226219 The 32-bit number expressed in decimal Octal 030000001353 The 32-bit number expressed in octal Most of these formats should work in all browsers. Additionally, in dotted format, each octet can be of any of the different bases. For example, 192.0x00.0002.235 is a valid (though unconventional) equivalent to the above addresses. A final form is not really a notation since it is rarely written in an ASCII string notation. That form is a binary form of the hexadecimal notation in binary. This difference is merely the representational difference between the string "0xCF8E83EB" and the 32-bit integer value 0xCF8E83EB. This form is used for assigning the source and destination fields in a software program. Allocation Originally, an IP address was divided into two parts: Network ID: first octet Host ID: last three octets This created an upper limit of 256 networks. As the networks began to be allocated, this was soon seen to be inadequate. To overcome this limit, different classes of network were defined, in a system which later became known as classful networking. Five classes were created (A, B, C, D, and E), three of which (A, B, and C) had different lengths for the network field. The rest of an address was used to identify a host within a network, which meant that each network class had a different maximum number of hosts. Thus there were a few networks with each having many host addresses and numerous networks with each only having a few host addresses. Class D was for multicast addresses and Class E was reserved. Around 1993, these classes were replaced with a Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) scheme, and the previous scheme was dubbed "classful", by contrast. CIDR's primary advantage is to allow re-division of Class-A, -B and -C networks so that smaller (or larger) blocks of addresses may be allocated to various entities (such as Internet service providers, or their customers) or local area networks. The actual assignment of an address is not arbitrary. The fundamental principle of routing is that the address of a device encodes information about the device's location within a network. This implies that an address assigned to one part of a network will not function in another part of the network. A hierarchical structure, created by CIDR and overseen by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and its Regional Internet Registries (RIRs), manages the assignment of Internet addresses worldwide. Each RIR maintains a publicly-searchable WHOIS database that provides information about IP address assignments; information from these databases plays a central role in numerous tools that attempt to locate IP addresses geographically. + Reserved address blocks CIDR address block Description Reference 0.0.0.0/8 Current network (only valid as source address) RFC 1700 10.0.0.0/8 Private network RFC 1918 14.0.0.0/8 Public data networks (per 2008-02-10, available for use ICANN Recovers Large Block of Internet Address Space ) RFC 1700 127.0.0.0/8 Loopback RFC 3330 128.0.0.0/16 Reserved (IANA) RFC 3330 169.254.0.0/16 Link-Local RFC 3927 172.16.0.0/12 Private network RFC 1918 191.255.0.0/16 Reserved (IANA) RFC 3330 192.0.0.0/24 Reserved (IANA) RFC 3330 192.0.2.0/24 Documentation and example code RFC 3330 192.88.99.0/24 IPv6 to IPv4 relay RFC 3068 192.168.0.0/16 Private network RFC 1918 198.18.0.0/15 Network benchmark tests RFC 2544 223.255.255.0/24 Reserved (IANA) RFC 3330 224.0.0.0/4 Multicasts (former Class D network) RFC 3171 240.0.0.0/4 Reserved (former Class E network) RFC 1700 255.255.255.255 Broadcast Private networks Of the approximately four billion addresses allowed in IPv4, three ranges of address are reserved for private networking use. These ranges are not routable outside of private networks and private machines cannot directly communicate with public networks. They can, however, do so through network address translation. The following are the three ranges reserved for private networks (RFC 1918): Name Address range Number of addresses Classful description Largest CIDR block 24-bit block 10.0.0.0–10.255.255.255 16,777,216 Single Class A 10.0.0.0/8 20-bit block 172.16.0.0–172.31.255.255 1,048,576 16 contiguous Class B blocks 172.16.0.0/12 16-bit block 192.168.0.0–192.168.255.255 65,536 Contiguous range of 256 class C blocks 192.168.0.0/16 Link-local addressing RFC 3330 defines an address block, 169.254.0.0/16, for the special use in link-local addressing. These addresses are only valid on the link, such as a local network segment or point-to-point connection, that a host is connected to. These addresses are not routable and like private addresses cannot be the source or destination of packets traversing the Internet. Link-local addresses are primarily used for address autoconfiguration (Zeroconf) when a host cannot obtain an IP address from a DHCP server or other internal configuration methods. When the address block was reserved, no standards existed for mechanisms of address autoconfiguration. Filling the void, Microsoft created an implementation called Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA). Due to Microsoft's market power, APIPA has been deployed on millions of machines and has, thus, become a de facto standard in the industry. Many years later, the IETF defined a formal standard for this functionality, RFC 3927, entitled Dynamic Configuration of IPv4 Link-Local Addresses. Localhost The address range 127.0.0.0–127.255.255.255 (127.0.0.0/8 in CIDR notation) is reserved for localhost communication. Addresses within this range should never appear outside a host computer and packets sent to this address are returned as incoming packets on the same virtual network device (known as loopback). Addresses ending in 0 or 255 It is a common misunderstanding that addresses ending in 255 or 0 can never be assigned to hosts. This is only true of networks with subnet masks of at least 24 bits — Class C networks in the old classful addressing scheme, or in CIDR, networks with masks of /24 to /32 (or 255.255.255.0–255.255.255.255). In classful addressing (now obsolete with the advent of CIDR), there are only three possible subnet masks: Class A, 255.0.0.0 or /8; Class B, 255.255.0.0 or /16; and Class C, 255.255.255.0 or /24. For example, in the subnet 192.168.5.0/255.255.255.0 (or 192.168.5.0/24) the identifier 192.168.5.0 refers to the entire subnet, so it cannot also refer to an individual device in that subnet. A broadcast address is an address that allows information to be sent to all machines on a given subnet, rather than a specific machine. Generally, the broadcast address is found by obtaining the bit complement of the subnet mask and performing a bitwise OR operation with the network identifier. In other words, the broadcast address is the last address in the range belonging to the subnet. In our example, the broadcast address would be 192.168.5.255, so to avoid confusion this address also cannot be assigned to a host. On a Class A, B, or C subnet, the broadcast address always ends in 255. However, this does not mean that every addresses ending in 255 cannot be used as a host address. For example, in the case of a Class B subnet 192.168.0.0/255.255.0.0 (or 192.168.0.0/16), equivalent to the address range 192.168.0.0–192.168.255.255, the broadcast address is 192.168.255.255. However, one can assign 192.168.1.255, 192.168.2.255, etc. (though this can cause confusion). Also, 192.168.0.0 is the network identifier and so cannot be assigned, but 192.168.1.0, 192.168.2.0, etc. can be assigned (though this can also cause confusion). With the advent of CIDR, broadcast addresses do not necessarily end with 255. In general, the first and last addresses in a subnet are used as the network identifier and broadcast address, respectively. All other addresses in the subnet can be assigned to hosts on that subnet. Address resolution Hosts on the Internet are usually known not by IP addresses, but by names (e.g., www.wikipedia.org, www.whitehouse.gov, www.freebsd.org, www.berkeley.edu). The routing of IP packets across the Internet is not directed by such names, but by the numeric IP addresses assigned to such domain names. This requires translating (or resolving) domain names to addresses. The Domain Name System (DNS) provides such a system for converting names to addresses and addresses to names. Much like CIDR addressing, the DNS naming is also hierarchical and allows for subdelegation of name spaces to other DNS servers. The domain name system is often described in analogy to the telephone system directory information systems in which subscriber names are translated to telephone numbers. Address space exhaustion Since the 1980s it has been apparent that the number of available IPv4 addresses is being exhausted at a rate that was not initially anticipated in the design of the network. This was the driving factor for the introduction of classful networks, for the creation of CIDR addressing, and finally for the redesign of the Internet Protocol, based on a larger address format (IPv6). Today, there are several driving forces for the acceleration of IPv4 address exhaustion: Mobile devices — laptop computers, PDAs, mobile phones Always-on devices — ADSL modems, cable modems Rapidly growing number of Internet users The accepted and standardized solution is the migration to IPv6. The address size jumps dramatically from 32 bits to 128 bits, providing a vastly increased address space that allows improved route aggregation across the Internet and offers large subnet allocations of a minimum of 264 host addresses to end-users. Migration to IPv6 is in progress but is expected to take considerable time. Methods to mitigate the IPv4 address exhaustion are: Network address translation (NAT) Use of private networks Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Name-based virtual hosting Tighter control by Regional Internet Registries on the allocation of addresses to Local Internet Registries Network renumbering to reclaim large blocks of address space allocated in the early days of the Internet As of April 2008, predictions of exhaustion date of the unallocated IANA pool seem to converge to between February 2010 and May 2011 Network address translation One method to increase both address utilization and security is to use network address translation (NAT). With NAT, assigning one address to a public machine as an internet gateway and using a private network for an organization's computers allows for considerable address savings. This also increases security by making the computers on a private network not directly accessible from the public network. Virtual private networks Since private address ranges are deliberately ignored by all public routers, it is not normally possible to connect two private networks (e.g., two branch offices) via the public Internet. Virtual private networks (VPNs) solve this problem. VPNs work by inserting an IP packet (encapsulated packet) directly into the data field of another IP packet (encapsulating packet) and using a publicly routable address in the encapsulating packet. Once the VPN packet is routed across the public network and reaches the endpoint, the encapsulated packet is extracted and then transmitted on the private network just as if the two private networks were directly connected. Optionally, the encapsulated packet can be encrypted to secure the data while it travels over the public network (see VPN article for more details). Packet structure An IP packet consists of a header section and a data section. Header The header consists of 13 fields, of which only 12 are required. The 13th field is optional (red background in table) and aptly named: options. The fields in the header are packed with the most significant byte first (big endian), and for the diagram and discussion, the most significant bits are considered to come first. The most significant bit is numbered 0, so the version field is actually found in the four most significant bits of the first byte, for example. + Bits 0–3 4–7 8–15 16–18 19–31 0 Version Header length Differentiated Services Total Length 32 Identification Flags Fragment Offset 64 Time to Live Protocol Header Checksum 96 Source Address 128 Destination Address 160 Options 160or192+ Data Version The first header field in an IP packet is the four-bit version field. For IPv4, this has a value of 4 (hence the name IPv4). Internet Header Length (IHL) The second field (4 bits) is the Internet Header Length (IHL) telling the number of 32-bit words in the header. Since an IPv4 header may contain a variable number of options, this field specifies the size of the header (this also coincides with the offset to the data). The minimum value for this field is 5 (RFC 791), which is a length of 5×32 = 160 bits. Being a 4-bit value, the maximum length is 15 words or 480 bits. Differentiated Services (DS) Originally defined as the TOS field, this field is now defined by RFC 2474 for Differentiated services (DiffServ) and by RFC 3168 for Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN), matching IPv6. New technologies are emerging that require real-time data streaming and therefore will make use of the DS field. An example is Voice over IP (VoIP) that is used for interactive data voice exchange. The original intention of the Type of Services (TOS) field was for a sending host to specify a preference for how the datagram would be handled as it made its way through an internet. For instance, one host could set its IPv4 datagrams' TOS field value to prefer low delay, while another might prefer high reliability. In practice, the TOS field was not widely implemented. However, a great deal of experimental, research and deployment work has focused on how to make use of these eight bits, resulting in the current DS field definition. The type of Service (TOS) field was defined in RFC 791, the following eight bits were allocated to a Type of Service (TOS) field: bits 0–2: Precedence (111 - Network Control, 110 - Internetwork Control, 101 - CRITIC/ECP, 100 - Flash Override, 011 - Flash, 010 - Immediate, 001 - Priority, 000 - Routine) bit 3: 0 = Normal Delay, 1 = Low Delay bit 4: 0 = Normal Throughput, 1 = High Throughput bit 5: 0 = Normal Reliability, 1 = High Reliability bit 6: 0 = Normal Cost, 1 = Minimize Monetary Cost (defined by RFC 1349) bit 7: never defined Total Length This 16-bit field defines the entire datagram size, including header and data, in bytes. The minimum-length datagram is 20 bytes (20-byte header + 0 bytes data) and the maximum is 65,535 — the maximum value of a 16-bit word. The minimum size datagram that any host is required to be able to handle is 576 bytes, but most modern hosts handle much larger packets. Sometimes subnetworks impose further restrictions on the size, in which case datagrams must be fragmented. Fragmentation is handled in either the host or packet switch in IPv4 (see Fragmentation and reassembly). Identification This field is an identification field and is primarily used for uniquely identifying fragments of an original IP datagram. Some experimental work has suggested using the ID field for other purposes, such as for adding packet-tracing information to datagrams in order to help trace back datagrams with spoofed source addresses. Flags A three-bit field follows and is used to control or identify fragments. They are (in order, from high order to low order): Reserved; must be zero. As an April Fools joke, proposed for use in RFC 3514 as the "Evil bit". Don't Fragment (DF) More Fragments (MF) If the DF flag is set and fragmentation is required to route the packet then the packet will be dropped. This can be used when sending packets to a host that does not have sufficient resources to handle fragmentation. When a packet is fragmented all fragments have the MF flag set except the last fragment, which does not have the MF flag set. The MF flag is also not set on packets that are not fragmented — an unfragmented packet is its own last fragment. Fragment Offset The fragment offset field, measured in units of eight-byte blocks, is 13 bits long and specifies the offset of a particular fragment relative to the beginning of the original unfragmented IP datagram. The first fragment has an offset of zero. This allows a maximum offset of (213 – 1) × 8 = 65,528 which would exceed the maximum IP packet length of 65,535 with the header length included. Time To Live (TTL) An eight-bit time to live (TTL) field helps prevent datagrams from persisting (e.g. going in circles) on an internet. This field limits a datagram's lifetime. It is specified in seconds, but time intervals less than 1 second are rounded up to 1. In latencies typical in practice, it has come to be a hop count field. Each packet switch (or router) that a datagram crosses decrements the TTL field by one. When the TTL field hits zero, the packet is no longer forwarded by a packet switch and is discarded. Typically, an ICMP message (specifically the time exceeded) is sent back to the sender that it has been discarded. The reception of these ICMP messages is at the heart of how traceroute works. Protocol This field defines the protocol used in the data portion of the IP datagram. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority maintains a list of Protocol numbers which was originally defined in RFC 790. Common protocols and their decimal values are shown below (see Data). Header Checksum The 16-bit checksum field is used for error-checking of the header. At each hop, the checksum of the header must be compared to the value of this field. If a header checksum is found to be mismatched, then the packet is discarded. Note that errors in the data field are up to the encapsulated protocol to handle — indeed, both UDP and TCP have checksum fields. Since the TTL field is decremented on each hop and fragmentation is possible at each hop then at each hop the checksum will have to be recomputed. The method used to compute the checksum is defined within RFC 791: The checksum field is the 16-bit one's complement of the one's complement sum of all 16-bit words in the header. For purposes of computing the checksum, the value of the checksum field is zero. In other words, all 16-bit words are summed together using one's complement (with the checksum field set to zero). The sum is then one's complemented and this final value is inserted as the checksum field. Source address An IPv4 address is a group of four eight-bit octets for a total of 32 bits. The value for this field is determined by taking the binary value of each octet and concatenating them together to make a single 32-bit value. For example, the address 10.9.8.7 would be 00001010000010010000100000000111. This address is the address of the sender of the packet. Note that this address may not be the "true" sender of the packet due to network address translation. Instead, the source address will be translated by the NATing machine to its own address. Thus, reply packets sent by the receiver are routed to the NATing machine, which translates the destination address to the original sender's address. Destination address Identical to the source address field but indicates the receiver of the packet. Options Additional header fields may follow the destination address field, but these are not often used. Note that the value in the IHL field must include enough extra 32-bit words to hold all the options (plus any padding needed to ensure that the header contains an integral number of 32-bit words). The list of options may be terminated with an EOL (End of Options List, 0x00) option; this is only necessary if the end of the options would not otherwise coincide with the end of the header. The possible options that can be put in the header are as follows: Field Size (bits) Description Copied 1 Set to 1 if the options need to be copied into all fragments of a fragmented packet. Option Class 2 A general options category. 0 is for "control" options, and 2 is for "debugging and measurement". 1, and 3 are reserved. Option Number 5 Specifies an option. Option Length 8 Indicates the size of the entire option (including this field). This field may not exist for simple options. Option Data Variable Option-specific data. This field may not exist for simple options. Note: the Copied, Option Class, and Option Number are sometimes referred to as a single eight-bit field - the Option Type. The use of the LSRR and SSRR options (Loose and Strict Source and Record Route) is discouraged because they create security concerns; many routers block packets containing these options. Data The last field is not a part of the header and, consequently, not included in the checksum field. The contents of the data field are specified in the protocol header field and can be any one of the transport layer protocols. Some of the most commonly used protocols are listed below including their value used in the protocol field: 1: Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) 2: Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) 6: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) 17: User Datagram Protocol (UDP) 89: Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) 132: Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) See List of IP protocol numbers for a complete list. Fragmentation and reassembly To make IPv4 more tolerant of different networks the concept of fragmentation was added so that, if necessary, a device could break up the data into smaller pieces. This is necessary when the maximum transmission unit (MTU) is smaller than the packet size. For example, the maximum size of an IP packet is 65,535 bytes while the typical MTU for Ethernet is 1,500 bytes. Since the IP header consumes 20 bytes (without options) of the 1,500 bytes, 1,480 bytes are left for IP data per Ethernet frame (this leads to an MTU for IP of 1,480 bytes). Therefore, a 65,535-byte data payload (including 20 bytes of header information) would require 45 packets (65535-20)/1480 = 44.27, rounded up to 45. The reason fragmentation was chosen to occur at the IP layer is that IP is the first layer that connects hosts instead of machines. If fragmentation were performed on higher layers (TCP, UDP, etc.) then this would make fragmentation/reassembly redundantly implemented (once per protocol); if fragmentation were performed on a lower layer (Ethernet, ATM, etc.) then this would require fragmentation/reassembly to be performed on each hop (could be quite costly) and redundantly implemented (once per link layer protocol). Therefore, the IP layer is the most efficient one for fragmentation. Fragmentation When a device receives an IP packet it examines the destination address and determines the outgoing interface to use. This interface has an associated MTU that dictates the maximum data size for its payload. If the MTU is smaller than the data size then the device must fragment the data. The device then segments the data into segments where each segment is less-than-or-equal-to the MTU less the IP header size (20 bytes minimum; 60 bytes maximum). Each segment is then put into its own IP packet with the following changes: The total length field is adjusted to the segment size The more fragments (MF) flag is set for all segments except the last one, which is set to 0 The fragment offset field is set accordingly based on the offset of the segment in the original data payload. This is measured in units of eight-byte blocks. For example, for an IP header of length 20 bytes and an Ethernet MTU of 1,500 bytes the fragment offsets would be: 0, (1480/8) = 185, (2960/8) = 370, (4440/8) = 555, (5920/8) = 740, etc. By some chance if a packet changes link layer protocols or the MTU reduces then these fragments would be fragmented again. For example, if a 4,500-byte data payload is inserted into an IP packet with no options (thus total length is 4,520 bytes) and is transmitted over a link with an MTU of 2,500 bytes then it will be broken up into two fragments: # Total length More fragments (MF)flag set? Fragment offset Header Data 1 2500 rowspan="2" 0 20 2480 2 2040 rowspan="2" 310 20 2020 Now, let's say the MTU drops to 1,500 bytes. Each fragment will individually be split up into two more fragments each: # Total length More fragments (MF)flag set? Fragment offset Header Data 1 1500 rowspan="2" 0 20 1480 2 1020 rowspan="2" 185 20 1000 3 1500 rowspan="2" 310 20 1480 4 560 rowspan="2" 495 20 540 Indeed, the amount of data has been preserved — 1480 + 1000 + 1480 + 540 = 4500 — and the last fragment offset plus data — 3960 + 540 = 4500 — is also the total length. Note that fragments 3 & 4 were derived from the original fragment 2. When a device must fragment the last fragment then it must set the flag for all but the last fragment it creates (fragment 4 in this case). Last fragment would be set to 0 value. Reassembly When a receiver detects an IP packet where either of the following is true: "more fragments" flag set "fragment offset" field is non-zero then the receiver knows the packet is a fragment. The receiver then stores the data with the identification field, fragment offset, and the more fragments flag. When the receiver receives a fragment with the more fragments flag set to 0 then it knows the length of the original data payload since the fragment offset plus the data length is equivalent to the original data payload size. Using the example above, when the receiver receives fragment 4 the fragment offset (495 or 3960 bytes) and the data length (540 bytes) added together yield 4500 — the original data length. Once it has all the fragments then it can reassemble the data in proper order (by using the fragment offsets) and pass it up the stack for further processing. Assistive protocols The Internet Protocol is the protocol that defines and enables internetworking at the Internet Layer and thus forms the Internet. It uses a logical addressing system. IP addresses are not tied in any permanent manner to hardware identifications and, indeed, a network interface can have multiple IP addresses. Hosts and routers need additional mechanisms to identify the relationship between device interfaces and IP addresses, in order to properly deliver an IP packet to the destination host on a link. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) perform this IP address to hardware address (MAC address) translation for IPv4. In addition the reverse correlation is often necessary, for example, when an IP host is booted or connected to a network it needs to determine its IP address, unless an address is preconfigured by an administrator. Protocols for such inverse correlations exist in the Internet Protocol Suite. Currently used methods are Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) and, infrequently, inverse ARP. See also Classful network Classless Inter-Domain Routing Internet Assigned Numbers Authority IPv6 List of assigned /8 IP address blocks List of IP protocol numbers Regional Internet Registry References External links RFC 791 — Internet Protocol http://www.iana.org — Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) http://www.networksorcery.com/enp/protocol/ip.htm — IP Header Breakdown, including specific options RFC 3344 — IPv4 Mobility Address exhaustion: RIPE report on address consumption as of October 2003 Official current state of IPv4 /8 allocations, as maintained by IANA Dynamically generated graphs of IPv4 address consumption with predictions of exhaustion dates — Geoff Huston IP addressing in China and the myth of address shortage | IPv4 |@lemmatized internet:37 protocol:38 version:6 fourth:1 revision:1 development:1 ip:44 first:10 widely:3 deploy:3 together:4 core:1 standard:4 base:6 internetworking:2 method:6 still:1 far:1 layer:11 describe:2 ietf:2 publication:1 rfc:31 september:1 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header_checksum:3 fragmentation_reassembly:4 ip_datagram:3 fragment_mf:6 mf_flag:6 switch_router:1 commonly_used:1 user_datagram:1 datagram_protocol:1 protocol_udp:1 tcp_udp:1 rowspan_rowspan:4 protocol_suite:1 external_link:1 http_www:2 |
2,302 | January_18 | Events 350 – Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor. 474 – Leo II briefly becomes Byzantine emperor. 532 – Nika riots in Constantinople fail. 1126 – Emperor Huizong abdicates the Chinese throne in favour of his son Emperor Qinzong. 1486 – King Henry VII of England marries Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV. 1520 – King Christian II of Denmark and Norway defeats the Swedes at Lake Åsunden. 1535 – Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro founded Lima, the capital of Peru. 1562 – Pope Pius IV reopens the Council of Trent for its third and final session. 1591 – King Naresuan of Siam kills Crown Prince Minchit Sra of Burma in single combat, for which this date is now observed marked as Royal Thai Armed Forces day. 1670 – Henry Morgan captures Panama. 1701 – Frederick I becomes King of Prussia. 1777 – Representatives of the New Hampshire Grants declare the independence of the Vermont Republic from Britain. 1778 – James Cook is the first known European to discover the Hawaiian Islands, which he names the "Sandwich Islands". 1788 – The first elements of the First Fleet carrying 736 convicts from England to Australia arrives at Botany Bay. 1861 – American Civil War – Georgia joins South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, and Alabama in seceding from the United States. 1871 – Wilhelm I of Germany is proclaimed the first German Emperor in the 'Hall of Mirrors' of the Palace of Versailles towards the end of the Franco-Prussian War. The empire was known as the Second Reich to Germans. 1884 – Dr. William Price attempts to cremate the body of his infant son, Jesus Christ Price, setting a legal precedent for cremation in the United Kingdom. 1886 – Modern field hockey is born with the formation of The Hockey Association in England. 1896 – The X-ray machine is exhibited for the first time. 1903 – President Theodore Roosevelt sends a radio message to King Edward VII: the first transatlantic radio transmission originating in the United States. 1911 – Eugene B. Ely lands on the deck of the USS Pennsylvania stationed in San Francisco harbor, marking the first time an aircraft landed on a ship. 1913 – A Greek flotilla defeats the Ottoman Navy in the Naval Battle of Lemnos during the First Balkan War, securing the islands of the Northern Aegean Sea for Greece. 1915 – Japan issues the "Twenty-One Demands" to the Republic of China in a bid to increase its power in East Asia. 1916 – A 611 gram chondrite type meteorite strikes a house near the village of Baxter in Stone County, Missouri. 1919 – World War I: The Paris Peace Conference opens in Versailles, France. 1919 – Ignacy Jan Paderewski becomes Prime Minister of the newly independent Poland. 1919 – Bentley Motors Limited is founded. 1941 – World War II: British troops launch a general counter-offensive against Italian East Africa. 1943 – Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: The first uprising of Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto. 1944 – The Metropolitan Opera House in New York City hosts a jazz concert for the first time. The performers are Louis Armstrong, Benny Goodman, Lionel Hampton, Artie Shaw, Roy Eldridge and Jack Teagarden. 1944 – Soviet forces liberate Leningrad, effectively ending a three year Nazi siege, known as the Siege of Leningrad. 1945 – Liberation of the Budapest ghetto by the Red Army. 1955 – Battle of Yijiangshan occurred. 1958 – Willie O'Ree, the first African Canadian National Hockey League player, makes his NHL debut. 1967 – Albert DeSalvo, the "Boston Strangler," is convicted of numerous crimes and is sentenced to life in prison. 1969 – United Airlines Flight 266 crashes into Santa Monica Bay resulting in the loss of all 32 passengers and six crew members. 1974 – A Disengagement of Forces agreement is signed between the Israeli and Egyptian governments, ending conflict on the Egyptian front of the Yom Kippur War. 1977 – Scientists identify a previously unknown bacterium as the cause of the mysterious Legionnaires' disease. 1977 – Australia's worst rail disaster occurs at Granville, Sydney killing 83. 1978 – The European Court of Human Rights finds the United Kingdom government guilty of mistreating prisoners in Northern Ireland, but not guilty of torture. 1983 – The International Olympic Committee restores Jim Thorpe's Olympic medals to his family. 1990 – Washington, D.C. Mayor Marion Barry is arrested for drug possession in an FBI sting. 1991 – Eastern Air Lines goes out of business after 62 years, citing financial problems. 1993 – For the first time, Martin Luther King, Jr. Day is officially observed in all 50 states. 1994 – The Cando event, a possible bolide impact in Cando, Spain. Witnesses claim to have seen a fireball in the sky lasting for almost one minute. 1997 – In north west Rwanda, Hutu militia members kill 3 Spanish aid workers, 3 soldiers and seriously wound one other. 1997 – Boerge Ousland of Norway becomes the first person to cross Antarctica alone and unaided. 1998 – Lewinsky scandal: Matt Drudge breaks the Bill Clinton-Monica Lewinsky affair story on his website The Drudge Report. 2000 – The Tagish Lake meteorite impacts the Earth. 2002 – Sierra Leone Civil War is finally declared over. 2003 – A bushfire kills 4 people and destroys more than 500 homes in Canberra, Australia. 2003 – The Airbus A380, the world's largest commercial jet, is unveiled at a ceremony in Toulouse, France 2007 – The strongest storm in the United Kingdom in 17 years kills 14 people, Germany sees the worst storm since 1999 with 13 deaths. Hurricane Kyrill, causes at least 44 deaths across 20 countries in Western Europe. Other losses include the Container Ship MSC Napoli destroyed by the storm off the coast of Devon, England. Births 885 – Daigo, Emperor of Japan (d. 930) 1519 – Isabella Jagiełło, queen of Hungary (d. 1559) 1543 – (baptised) Alfonso Ferrabosco (I), Italian composer (d. 1588) 1641 – François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois, French war minister (d. 1691) 1659 – Damaris Cudworth Masham, English philosopher (d. 1708) 1672 – Antoine Houdar de la Motte, French writer (d. 1731) 1688 – Lionel Sackville, 1st Duke of Dorset, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1765) 1689 – Montesquieu, French writer (d. 1755) 1779 – Peter Mark Roget, British lexicographer (d. 1869) 1782 – Daniel Webster, American statesman (d. 1852) 1795 – Anna Pavlovna of Russia, queen of The Netherlands (d. 1865) 1813 – Joseph Glidden, American farmer who patented barbed wire (d. 1906) 1815 – Constantin von Tischendorf, German biblical scholar (d. 1874) 1840 – Henry Austin Dobson, English poet (d. 1921) 1841 – Emmanuel Chabrier, French composer (d. 1894) 1842 – Albert Alonzo Ames, Mayor of Minneapolis (d. 1911) 1848 – Ioan Slavici, Transylvanian writer (d. 1925) 1849 – Sir Edmund Barton, 1st Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1920) 1850 – Seth Low, American politician (d. 1916) 1854 – Thomas Watson, American telephone pioneer (d. 1934) 1856 – Daniel Hale Williams, African-American surgeon (d. 1931) 1867 – Rubén Darío, Nicaraguan Journalist, Diplomat, Poet (d. 1916) 1877 – Samuel Zemurray, U.S. businessman (d. 1961) 1879 – Henri Giraud, French general (d. 1949) 1881 – Gaston Gallimard, French publisher (d. 1975) 1882 – A. A. Milne, English author (d. 1956) 1886 – Clara Nordström, German writer and translator (d. 1962) 1888 – Thomas Sopwith, British aviation pioneer (d. 1989) 1892 – Oliver Hardy, American comedian and actor (d. 1957) 1892 – Paul Rostock, German surgeon (d. 1956) 1896 – C. M. Eddy, Jr., American writer (d. 1967) 1901 – Ivan Petrovsky, Russian mathematician (d. 1973) 1904 – Cary Grant, English actor (d. 1986) 1904 – Anthony Galla-Rini, American accordionist (d. 2006) 1905 – Joseph Bonanno, Italian-born gangster (d. 2002) 1908 – Jacob Bronowski, Polish-born mathematician, poet, and physicist (d. 1974) 1908 – Princess Sibylla of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (d. 1972) 1910 – Kenneth E. Boulding, English economist (d. 1993) 1913 – Danny Kaye, American actor (d. 1987) 1914 – Arno Schmidt, German author (d. 1979) 1914 – Vitomil Zupan, Slovenian writer (d. 1987) 1915 – Vassilis Tsitsanis, Greek singer and songwriter (d. 1984) 1917 – Wang Yung-ching, Taiwanese businessman (d. 2008) 1918 – Gustave Gingras, French Canadian physician (d. 1996) 1922 – Bob Bell, American clown (d. 1997) 1925 – Gilles Deleuze, French philosopher (d. 1995) 1927 – Sundaram Balachander, Indian veena player (d. 1990) 1931 – Chun Doo-hwan, President of South Korea 1932 – Robert Anton Wilson, American author (d. 2007) 1933 – John Boorman, Irish film director 1933 – Ray Dolby, American inventor (Dolby noise reduction system) 1934 – Raymond Briggs, English writer and illustrator 1935 – Albert Millaire, Quebec actor and theatre director 1935 – Jon Stallworthy, English poet 1935 – Gad Yaacobi, Israeli minister (d. 2007) 1937 – John Hume, Northern Irish politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1998 1938 – Curt Flood, American baseball player (d. 1997) 1938 – Anthony Giddens, British sociologist 1940 – Pedro Rodriguez, Mexican racing driver (d. 1971) 1941 – Denise Bombardier, Quebec journalist, television host and novelist 1941 – Bobby Goldsboro, American country/pop singer 1941 – David Ruffin, American singer (The Temptations) (d. 1991) 1943 – Kay Granger, American politician 1944 – Paul Keating, twenty-fourth Prime Minister of Australia 1944 – Carl Morton, American baseball player (d. 1983) 1945 – José Luis Perales, Spanish singer 1946 – Joseph Deiss, Swiss Federal Councilor 1947 – Takeshi Kitano, Japanese actor and director 1947 – Sachio Kinugasa, Japanese baseball player 1949 – Philippe Starck, French designer 1949 – Bill Keller, American newspaper editor 1950 – Gilles Villeneuve, Canadian race car driver (d. 1982) 1951 – Bob Latchford, English footballer 1951 – Bram Behr, Surinamese journalist (d. 1982) 1952 – R. Stevie Moore, American singer, songwriter, and home recording pioneer 1952 – Michael Angelis, British actor 1952 – Michael Behe, American advocate of Intelligent Design 1953 – Brett Hudson, American musician 1954 – Ted DiBiase, Retired Professional Wrestler 1953 – Tom Bailey, English singer & musician (Thompson Twins) 1955 – Kevin Costner, American actor 1955 – Fergus Martin, Irish artist 1956 – Sharon Mitchell, American porn actress 1961 – Mark Messier, Canadian ice hockey player 1961 – Peter Beardsley, English footballer 1961 – Jeff Yagher, American actor 1962 – Alison Arngrim, American actress 1962 – David O'Connor, American equestrian rider 1963 – Maxime Bernier, French Canadian politician 1963 – Martin O'Malley, Governor of Maryland 1963 – Yury Zakharevich, Soviet weightlifter 1964 – Jane Horrocks, British actress 1964 – Brady Anderson, American baseball player 1964 – Enrico Lo Verso, Italian actor 1964 – Andrea Leand, American tennis player 1965 – Dave Attell, American writer and comedian 1966 – Alexander Khalifman, Russian chess player 1966 – André Ribeiro, Brazilian racing driver 1967 – Kim Perrot, American basketball player (d. 1999) 1967 – Iván Zamorano, Chilean footballer 1968 – Frank Quitely, Scottish comic book artist 1969 – Jesse L. Martin, American actor and singer 1969 – John Eder, American politician 1969 – Dave Bautista, American professional wrestler 1969 – Jim O'Rourke, American musician and producer (Loose Fur and Wilco) 1970 – DJ Quik, American rapper 1970 – Peter van Petegem, Belgian cyclist 1971 – Jonathan Davis, American singer (KoЯn) 1971 – Christian Fittipaldi, Brazilian race car driver 1971 – Fabian Ribauw, Nauruan politician 1971 – Josep Guardiola, Spanish footballer 1971 – Seamus O'Regan, Canadian broadcast journalist 1972 – Mike Lieberthal, American baseball player 1973 – Anthony Koutoufides, Australian rules footballer and Gladiator 1973 – Crispian Mills, British musician (The Jeevas and Kula Shaker) 1974 – Michael Tunn, Australian television and radio 1974 – Christian Burns, English musician (BBMak) 1974 – Devon Odessa, American actress 1974 – Maulik Pancholy, American actor 1974 – Princess Claire of Belgium 1976 – Laurence Courtois, Belgian tennis player 1976 – Damien Leith, Irish-born Australian singer, winner of Australian Idol 2006 1977 – Curtis Cregan, American actor 1977 – Alina Jidkova, Russian tennis player 1977 – Richard Archer, British singer (lead singer of Hard-Fi) 1978 – Brian Falkenborg, American baseball player 1978 – Bogdan Lobont, Romanian football player 1978 – Thor Hushovd, Norwegian cyclist 1979 – Jay Chou, Taiwanese singer, producer, actor and director 1979 – Ruslan Fedotenko, Ukrainian ice hockey player 1979 – Paulo Ferreira, Portuguese footballer 1979 – Brian Gionta, American ice hockey player 1979 – Kenyatta Jones, American football player 1980 – Robert Green, English footballer 1980 – Julius Peppers, American football player 1980 – Jason Segel, American actor 1980 – Estelle Swaray, English singer 1981 – Kang Dong-won, South Korean model and actor 1981 – Olivier Rochus, Belgian tennis player 1981 – Khari Stephenson, Jamaican footballer 1982 – Joanna Newsom, American harpist 1983 – Samantha Mumba, Irish singer and actress 1984 – Benji Schwimmer, American dancer 1984 – Michael Kearney, American child prodigy 1984 – Maarja Kivi, Estonian singer 1984 – Seung-Hui Cho, shooter at Virginia Tech (d. 2007) 1984 – Kristy Lee Cook, American Idol 7 cast member 1985 – Dale Begg-Smith, Australian freestyle skier 1985 – Riccardo Montolivo, Italian soccer player 1985 – Minissha Lamba, Indian Actress and Model 1987 – Johan Djourou, Swiss football player 1988 – Ronald Guglielmone Jr., American singer-songwriter 1993 – Morgan York, American actress Deaths 52 BC – Publius Clodius Pulcher (murdered) (b. 93 BC) 474 – Leo I, Byzantine Emperor (b. 401) 1213 – Queen Regnant Tamar of Georgia (b. c. 1160) 1367 – King Peter I of Portugal (b. 1320) 1425 – Edmund de Mortimer, 5th Earl of March, English politician (b. 1391) 1471 – Emperor Go-Hanazono of Japan (b. 1419) 1586 – Margaret of Austria, regent of The Netherlands (b. 1522) 1664 – Moses Amyraut, French theologian (b. 1596) 1677 – Jan van Riebeeck, Dutch merchant (b. 1619) 1803 – Ippolit Bogdanovich, Russian poet (b. 1743) 1862 – John Tyler, 10th President of the United States (b. 1790) 1873 – Edward George Bulwer-Lytton, English author (b. 1803) 1878 – Antoine César Becquerel, French physicist (b. 1788) 1886 – Baldassare Verazzi, Italian painter (b. 1819) 1892 – Anton Anderledy, Swiss Superior General of the Society of Jesus (b. 1819) 1896 – Charles Floquet, French statesman (b. 1828) 1923 – Wallace Reid, Actor (b. 1891) 1936 – Rudyard Kipling, British writer, Nobel laureate (b. 1865) 1940 – Kazimierz Tetmajer, Polish writer (b. 1865) 1951 – Amy Carmichael, Irish missionary (b. 1867) 1952 – Curly Howard, American actor and comedian (b. 1903) 1954 – Sydney Greenstreet, English actor (b. 1879) 1963 – Hugh Gaitskell, leader of the British Labour Party (b. 1906) 1966 – Kathleen Norris, American writer (b. 1880) 1967 – Goose Tatum, American basketball player (b. 1921) 1969 – Hans Freyer, German sociologist (b. 1887) 1970 – David O. McKay, president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1873) 1971 – Virgil Finlay, American horror illustrator (b. 1914) 1975 – Gertrude Olmstead, American actress (b. 1897) 1978 – Hasan Askari, Pakistani philosopher, critic and writer (b. 1919) 1978 – Carl Betz, American film and television actor (b. 1921) 1978 – Walter H. Thompson, English Scotland Yard detective, bodyguard of Winston Churchill (b. 1890) 1980 – Sir Cecil Beaton, English fashion designer (b. 1904) 1984 – Vassilis Tsitsanis, Greek singer and songwriter (b. 1915) 1985 – Wilfrid Brambell, Irish actor (b. 1912) 1989 – Bruce Chatwin, English novelist (b. 1940) 1990 – Rusty Hamer, American actor (b. 1947) 1993 – Eleanor Hibbert, English writer (d. 1993) 1995 – Adolf Butenandt, German chemist, Nobel laureate (b. 1903) 1995 – Ron Luciano, American baseball umpire (b. 1937) 1996 – Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao, Indian actor (b. 1923) 1997 – Paul Tsongas, U.S. Senator from Massachusetts (b. 1941) 2000 – Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky, Austrian architect (b. 1897) 2001 – Al Waxman, Canadian actor (b. 1935) 2003 – Edward "The Sheik" Farhat, American professional wrestler (b. 1926) 2005 – Lamont Bentley, American actor (b. 1973) 2006 – Jan Twardowski, Polish poet (b. 1915) 2007 – Brent Liles, American musician (Agent Orange/Social Distortion) (b. 1963) 2008 – Georgia Frontiere, American football team owner (b. 1927) 2008 – Frank Lewin, American composer and music theorist (b. 1925) 2008 – John Stroger, first African-American Cook County Board President (b. 1929) 2009 – Tony Hart, British artist and TV presenter (b. 1925) 2009 – Grigore Vieru, Romanian poet (b. 1935) 2009 – Bob May, Actor (b. 1939) Holidays and observances Chair of Saint Peter on the Pre Second Vatican Council calendar (February 22 on the new calendar). Feast day of Saint Athanasius (Eastern Orthodox) Feast day of Saint Cyril of Alexandria Feast day of Saint Margaret of Hungary Feast day of Saint Prisca Feast day of Saint Volusianus Feast days of January 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Feast of The Confession of Peter observed in Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and Lutheran churches. Feast of the Cross (Eastern Orthodox) Royal Thai Armed Forces Day (in observance of the victory of Naresuan in 1593. Week of Prayer for Christian Unity begins Winnie The Pooh Day (in observance of the birthday of Alan Alexander Milne, 1882.) 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2,303 | Himachal_Pradesh | Himachal Pradesh (Hindi: हिमाचल प्रदेश, Punjabi: ਹਿਮਾਚਲ ਪ੍ਰਦੇਸ਼, pronounced ) is a state in the Punjab region in north-west India. Himachal Pradesh is spread over 21,629 sq mi (56,019 km²), and is bordered by the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir on north, Punjab on west and south-west, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh on south, Uttarakhand on south-east and by Tibet on the east. The literal meaning of Himachal Pradesh is Region of snowy mountains. Himachal Pradesh was also known as Deva Bhoomi (the land of the gods). The Aryan influence in the region dates back to the period before the Rigveda. After the Anglo Gorkha war, the British colonial government came into power. It was initially in Punjab, except Siba State of Punjab Hills, under the rule of Maharaja Ranjit Singh till 1857 . In 1950 Himachal was declared as a union territory but after State of Himachal Pradesh Act 1971 Himachal emerged as the 18th state of Indian Union. Himachal Pradesh has one of the highest per capita incomes of any state in India. Due to the abundance of perennial rivers, Himachal also sells hydro electricity to other states such as Delhi, Punjab & Rajasthan. The economy of the state is highly dependent on three sources: hydroelectric power, tourism and agriculture. NEW ERA OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN HIMACHAL PRADESH OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES EXECUTIVE SUMMARY yesbank.in Retrieved on- April 2008 Hindus make up 95% of the state population. The major communities are of Brahmins, Rajputs, Kannets, Rathis and Kolis. According to a 2005 Transparency International survey, Himachal Pradesh is ranked the second-least corrupt state in the country after Kerala. History The history of the area that now constitutes Himachal Pradesh dates back to the time when the Indus valley civilisation flourished between 2250 and 1750 BCE. Tribes such as the Koilis, Halis, Dagis, Dhaugris, Dasa, Khasas, Kinnars and Kirats inhabited the region from pre-histotic era. During the Vedic period, several small republics known as "Janapada" existed which were later conquered by the Gupta Empire. After a brief period of supremacy by king Harshavardhana, the region was once again divided into several local powers headed by chieftains, including some Rajput prinicipalities. These kingdoms that enjoyed a large degree of independence were devastated by Muslim invaders a number of times. Mahmud Ghaznavi conquered Kangra at the beginning of the 10th century. Timur and Sikander Lodi also marched through the lower hills of the state and captured a number of forts and fought many battles. Several hill states acknowledged Mughal suzerainty and paid regular tribute to the Mughals. Sansar Chand (c.1765-1823) The Gorkhas, a martial tribe came to power in Nepal in the year 1768. They consolidated their military power and began to expand their territory. Gradually the Gorkhas annexed Sirmour and Shimla. With the leadership of Amar Singh Thapa, Gorkhas laid siege to Kangra. They managed to defeat Sansar Chand, the ruler of kangra, in 1806 with the help of many provincial chiefs. However Gorkhas could not capture Kangra fort which came under Maharaja Ranjeet Singh in 1809. After the defeat the Gorkhas began to expand towards the south of the state. However,Raja Ram Singh,Raja of Siba State re-captured the fort of Siba from the army of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in Samvat 1846. This led in the Anglo-Sikh war. They came into direct conflict with the British along the tarai belt after which the British expelled them from the provinces of the Satluj. Thus the British gradually emerged as the paramount powers. The revolt of 1857 or first Indian war of independence resulted due to the building up of political, social, economic, religious and military grievances against the British government. People of the hill states were not politically alive as the people in other parts of the country. They remained more or less inactive and so did their rulers with the exception of Bushahr. Some of them even rendered help to the British government during the revolt. Among them were the rulers of Chamba, Bilaspur, Bhagal and Dhami. The rulers of Bushars rather acted in a manner hostile to the interests of British. The British territories in the hill came under British Crown after Queen Victoria's proclamation of 1858. The states of Chamba, Mandi and Bilaspur made good progress in many fields during the British rule. During World War I, virtually all rulers of the hill states remained loyal and contributed to the British war effort both in the form of men and materials. Amongst these were the states of Kangra, Jaswan,Datarpur,Guler, Nurpur, Chamba, Suket, Mandi and Bilaspur. After independence the Chief Commissioner's province of H.P. came into being on 15 April, 1948. The province comprised the hill districts around Shimla and southern hill areas of the former Punjab region. Himachal became a part C state on 26 January, 1950 with the implementation of the Constitution of India. Himachal Pradesh became Union Territory on 1 November, 1956. On 18 December, 1970 the State of Himachal Pradesh Act was passed by Parliament and the new state came into being on 25 January, 1971. Thus Himachal emerged as the eighteenth state of Indian Union. Geography and climate Dal Lake A summer view of Khajjiar. Himachal is situated in the western Himalayas. Covering an area of , Himachal Pradesh is a mountainous state with elevation ranging from about to above the sea level. Lahaul, Himachal Pradesh. The drainage system of Himachal is composed both of rivers and glaciers. Himalayan rivers criss-cross the entire mountain chain. In fact the rivers are older than the mountain system. Himachal Pradesh provides water to both the Indus and Ganges basins. The drainage systems of the region are the Chandra Bhaga or the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, the Sutlej and the Yamuna. These rivers are perennial and are fed by snow and rainfall. They are protected by an extensive cover of natural vegetation. There is great variation in the climatic conditions of Himachal due to extreme variation in elevation. The climate varies from hot and sub-humid tropical in the southern tracts to cold, alpine and glacial in the northern and eastern mountain ranges with more elevation. The state has areas like Dharamsala that receive very heavy rainfall, as well as those like Lahaul and Spiti that are cold and almost rainless. Broadly Himachal experience three seasons; hot weather season, cold weather season and rainy season. Summer lasts from mid April till the end of June and most parts become very hot (except in alpine zone which experience mild summer) with the average temperature ranging from to . Winter lasts from late November till mid March. Snowfall is common in alpine tracts (generally above i.e. in the Higher and Trans-Himalayan region). Flora and fauna Muntjac or barking deer (HP wildlife) According to 2003 Forest Survey of India report, legally defined forest areas constitute 66.52% of the area of Himachal Pradesh, although area under tree cover is only 25.78%. Vegetation in the state is dictated by elevation and precipitation. The southern part of the state which is at lower elevation has both tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests and tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests. A part of the Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests, the vegetation is dominated by sal, sisham, chir pine, dry deciduous and moist broad-leafed forests. The temperate region grows oaks, deodar, blue pine, fir and spruce. In the uppermost region, trees are sturdy with a vast network of roots. Alders, birches, rhododendrons and moist alpine scrubs are there as the regional vegetation. The rhododendrons can be seen along the hillsides around Shimla from March to May. Himachal is also said to be the fruit bowl of the country with orchards scattered all over the place. Meadows and pastures are also seen clinging to steep slopes. After the winter season, the hillsides and orchards bloom with wild flowers, while gladiolas, carnations, marigolds, roses, chrysanthemums, tulips and lilies are carefully cultivated. The state government is gearing up to make Himachal Pradesh as the flower basket of the world. Himachal Pradesh is a well known habitat to a variety of animals. There are around 1200 bird and 359 animal species in the state. This includes the leopards, ghoral, snow leopard, musk deer (the state animal) and Western Tragopan (the state bird). It has 12 major national parks and sanctuaries – the largest number in the Himalayan region. The Great Himalayan National Park in Kullu district was created to conserve the flora and fauna of the main Himalayan range, while the Pin Valley National Park to conserve the flora and fauna of the cold desert. Subdivisions Districts of Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh is divided into 12 districts namely, Kangra, Hamirpur, Mandi, Bilaspur, Una, Chamba, Lahul and Spiti, Sirmaur, Kinnaur, Kullu, Solan and Shimla. The state capital is Shimla which was formerly British India's summer capital under the name Simla. A district of Himachal Pradesh is an administrative geographical unit, headed by a Deputy Commissioner or District Magistrate, an officer belonging to the Indian Administrative Service. The district magistrate or the deputy commissioner is assisted by a number of officers belonging to Himachal Administrative Service and other Himachal state services. Each district is subdivided into Sub-Divisions, governed by a sub-divisional magistrate, and again into Blocks. Blocks consists of panchayats (village councils) and town municipalities. A Superintendent of Police, an officer belonging to the Indian Police Service is entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining law and order and related issues of the district. He is assisted by the officers of the Himachal Police Service and other Himachal Police officials. Government Town Hall in Shimla. The Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly has no pre-Constitution history. The State itself is a post-Independence creation. It came into being as a centrally administered territory on 15 April 1948 from the integration of thirty erstwhile princely states. Himachal Pradesh is governed through a parliamentary system of representative democracy, a feature the state shares with other Indian states. Universal suffrage is granted to residents. The legislature consists of elected members and special office bearers such as the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker who are elected by the members. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker or the Deputy Speaker in the Speaker's absence. The judiciary is composed of the Himachal Pradesh High Court and a system of lower courts. Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister, although the titular head of government is the Governor. The Governor is the head of state appointed by the President of India. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the Governor, and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The Council of Ministers reports to the Legislative Assembly. The Assembly is unicameral with 68 Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLA). Terms of office run for 5 years, unless the Assembly is dissolved prior to the completion of the term. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs. Governments have seen alternates between Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) & Indian National Congress (INC), no third front ever has become significant. In 2003, the state legislative assembly was won by the Indian National Congress and Virbhadra Singh was elected as the chief minister of the state. In the assembly elections held in December 2007, the BJP secured a landslide victory. The BJP won 41 of the 68 seats while the Congress won only 23 of the 68 seats. BJP's Prem Kumar Dhumal was sworn in as Chief Minister of Himachal Pradesh on 30 December, 2007 Economy {| class="wikitable" border="1" align="right" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="1" width="260" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #F4F5F6; border: 1px #C6C7C8 solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%" | colspan="2" bgcolor="#C2D6E5" align="center" | Gross State Domestic Product at Current Prices figures in millions of Indian Rupees |- ! Year || Gross State Domestic Product |- | 1980 || 7,940 |- | 1985 || 13,720 |- | 1990 || 28,150 |- | 1995 || 66,980 |- | 2000 || 135,900 |- | 2005 || 230,240 |- | 2007 || 254,350 |} The era of planning started in Himachal in 1948 along with the rest of India. The first five year plan allocated Rs.5.27 crore to Himachal. More than 50% of this expenditure was incurred on road construction since it was felt that without proper transport facilities, the process of planning and development could not be carried to the people, who mostly lived an isolated existence in far away areas. Himachal now ranks fourth in respect of per capita income among the states of the Indian Union. Agriculture contributes over 45% to the net state domestic product. It is the main source of income and employment in Himachal. Over 93% of the population in Himachal depend directly upon agriculture which provides direct employment to 71% of its people. The main cereals grown are wheat, maize, rice and barley. Himachal has a rich heritage of handicrafts. These include woolen and pashmina shawls, carpets, silver and metal ware, embroidered chappals, grass shoes, Kangra and Gompa style paintings, wood work, horse-hair bangles, wooden and metal utensils and various other house hold items. These aesthetic and tasteful handicrafts declined under competition from machine made goods and also because of lack of marketing facilities. But now the demand for handicrafts has increased within and outside the country. Himachal is extremely rich in hydel resources. The state has about 25% of the national potential in this respect. It has been estimated that about 20,300MW of hydel power can be generated in the State by constructing various major, medium, small and mini/micro hydel projects on the five river basins. The state is also the first state in India to achieve the goal of having a bank account for every family. As per the current prices, the total GDP was estimated at Rs 25,435 crore (Rs 254,350,000,000), as against Rs 23,024 crore (Rs 230,240,000,000) in the year 2004-05, showing an increase of 10.5%. Transport Kalka-Shimla Railway Roads are the major mode of transport in the hilly terrains of Himachal Pradesh. The state has road network of , including eight national highways (NH) that constitute . Some roads get closed during winter and monsoon seasons due to snowfall and landslides. Regular bus services connect Shimla with Chandigarh, Kullu, Manali, Delhi, Mandi, Pathankot, Ambala, Chail and Dehradun. Local taxis are the major local transport here. District Hamirpur has got the highest road density in the country. Railway track is accessible only to a few places in Himachal Pradesh. The Pathankot–Jogindernagar line connectsPunjab with Himachal Pradesh. The other railway tracks pass through Shimla, Solan and Una. Shimla is connected with Kalka by a narrow gauge railway line, which in turn is connected with the major cities in India. Himachal has two narrow gauge rail tracks. The Kalka-Shimla Railway track has a length of 96 kilometers. It passes through 102 tunnels and crosses 864 bridges. Hughes, H., (1994) Indian Locomotives Part 3, Narrow Gauge, 1863-1940. The Continental Railway Circle, Harrow, UK. ISBN 0-9521655-0-3 There are three domestic airports in the state—Shimla Airport, Bhuntar Airport serving Kullu and Manali, and Gaggal Airport serving Kangra and Dharamsala. The air routes connect the state with Delhi and Chandigarh. There are no international airports in Himachal Pradesh. Deccan, Air India, MDLR has flights from Delhi, Chandigarh to Kullu & back. Jagson Airlines has flights from Delhi to Shimla. Demographics Bhima Kali temple in Mandi District. Majority of Himachal Pradesh's populace practices Hinduism. The population of Himachal in 2001 stood at 6,077,248 as per the provisional results of the Census of India 2001. The population of Himachal Pradesh includes estimated population of entire Kinnaur district, where the population enumeration of Census of India, 2001 could not be conducted due to natural calamity. In terms of population it holds the same position (twenty first) among States and Union territories as at the previous census. The population of the State rose by 17.53% between 1991-2001. The sex ratio (i.e., the number of females per thousand males) of population was recorded as 970, which has declined from 976 in the previous census. Total literacy of the State rose to 77.13% from 63.94% in 1991. Himachal Pradesh has a Total Fertility Rate of 1.9, one of the lowest in India, and below the TFR, of 2.1, required to maintain a stable population. (see Indian states ranking by fertility rate) The tribal population of the state comprise of the Gaddis, Kinnars, Gujjars, Pangawals, Lahaulis and Spitians. The Gaddis are the traditional shepherds who migrate from the alpine pastures to the lower regions during the winters. The Kinnars are the inhabitants of the Kinnaur region and have traditionally practiced polyandry and polygamy. The Gujjars are nomads who rear buffalo herds. Himachal also has a sizeable population of Tibetans The main communities are Brahmins, Rajputs, Kannets, Rathis and Kolis. Himachal Pradesh has the highest proportion of Hindu population in India (95%). Other religions that form a small percentage are Buddhism and Sikhism. The Lahaulis of Lahaul and Spiti region are mainly Buddhists. Sikhs mostly live in towns and cities, and are mostly descended from the refugees from West Punjab (now Pakistan), who settled in what became Himachal Pradesh. The major spoken languages include Hindi, Punjabi, Mahasui, Kulluyi, Lahauli, Kinnauri, Chambyali, Sirmauri, Bilaspuri, Pahari, Dogri, Kangri. The life expectancy at birth in Himachal Pradesh is 62.8 years (higher than the national average of 57.7 years) for the period 1986–1990. The Infant mortality rate stood at 62 in 1999 and crude birth rate has declined from 37.3 in 1971 to 22.6 in 1998, below the national average of 26.5 in 1998. The crude death rate was 7.7 in 1998. Himachal Pradesh's literacy rate grew by 34.65% between the period 1981 and 2001. Languages of the Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in Himachal Pradesh are the Sunam language 558 (1998), Gahri language 4,000 (1997), Jangshung language 1,990 (1998),Kanashi language 1,400 (2002 Chauhan), Kinnauri language 48,778, Kinnauri Bhoti language 6,000 (1998), Chitkuli language 1,060 (1998), Pattani language 11,000 (1997), Shumcho language 2,174 (1998) and the Tukpa language 723 (1998). Culture Himachal was one of the few states that had remained largely untouched by external customs, largely due to its difficult terrain. With the technological advancements the state has changed very rapidly. It is a multireligional, multicultural as well as multilingual state like other Indian states. Some of the most commonly spoken languages includes Hindi, Punjabi, Pahari, Dogri, Kangri and Kinnauri. The Hindu caste communities residing in Himachal include the Brahmins, Rajputs, Kannets, Rathis and Kolis. There are also tribal population in the state which mainly comprise Gaddis, Kinnars, Gujjars, Pangawals, Sulehri and Lahaulis. The state is well known for its handicrafts. The carpets, leather works, shawls, paintings, metalware, woodwork and paintings are worth appreciating. Pashmina shawl is one of the product which is highly in demand not only in Himachal but all over the country. Himachali caps are also famous art work of the people. Extreme cold winters of Himachal necessitated wool weaving. Nearly every household in Himachal owns a pit-loom. Wool is also considered as pure and is used as a ritual cloth. The well known woven object is the shawl, ranging from fine pashmina to the coarse desar. Kullu is famous for its shawls with striking patterns and vibrant colours. Local music and dance reflects the cultural identity of the state. Through their dance and music, they entreat their gods during local festivals and other special occasions. Apart from the fairs and festivals that are celebrated all over India, there are number of other fairs and festivals also that are of great significance to Himachal Pradesh. Shimla, the state capital is home to Asia's only natural Ice skating rink . The day to day food of Himachalis is very similar to the rest of the north India. They too have lentil, broth, rice, vegetables and bread. Some of the specialities of Himachal include Pateer, Chouck, Bhagjery, Patrode, Sidku, Beduan and chutney. Famous people associated with Himachal include English author Rudyard Kipling, Indian film personalities Dalip Singh Rana, Anupam Kher, Preity Zinta, Amrish Puri (who studied here), and Prem Chopra (brought up here), the third Supreme Court chief-justice and former prime minister of Kashmir in 1947 Mehr Chand Mahajan, economist and former vice-president of World Bank Shahid Javed Burki, Satyananda Stokes who introduced apple in the region, writer Idries Shah, ornithologist Allan Octavian Hume (had his home here), former general of Pakistan Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq and current President of Afghanistan Hamid Karzai who both studied here. Education Indira Gandhi Medical College and Hospital at Shimla. Himachal Pradesh has one of the highest literacy rates in India. Hamirpur District is among the top districts in the country for literacy. Education rates among women are quite encouraging in the state. The standard of education in the state has reached to a considerably high level as compared to other states in India. The state has several reputed educational institutes for higher studies. The Himachal Pradesh University (HPU), Shimla ,the NIT, Hamirpur,the Jaypee University of Information Technology,Waknaghat and newly coming up IIT, Mandi are some of the pioneer institutes located in the state. Himachal Pardesh Agriculture University (HPAU) (http://hillagric.ernet.in) is one of the most renowned hill Agriculture Institutes in world. Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry has earned a unique distinction in India for imparting teaching, research and extension education in horticulture, forestry and allied disciplines. The government is working constantly to prepare various plans and projects in order to strengthen the education system of the state. Recently, the State Government has decided to start three nursing colleges to develop the health system in the state. There are over 10,000 primary schools, 1,000 secondary schools and more than 1,300 high schools in Himachal. The state government has decided to start up with 3 major nursing colleges to develop the health system in the state. In meeting the constitutional obligation to make primary education compulsory, Himachal has now became the first state in India to make elementary education accessible to every child in the state. The State has got Indira Gandhi Medical College and Hospital. Besides that there is Himachal Dental College which is the first recognised Dental Institute in the State. Indira Gandhi Medical college Retrieved on- April 2008}} The state has got College of Teacher Education at Dharamsala Distt. Kangra H.P. It is the only CTE in the state of Himachal Pradesh training the students and the Teachers of the State. Govt. College of Teacher Education Dharamsala GCTE Friends Blogs' Media and communication Though situated in a remote part of the country, Himachal Pradesh has an active community of journalists and publishers. Several newspapers and magazines are published in more than one language, and their reach extends to almost all the Hindi speaking states. Radio and TV have permeated significantly. Judging by the number of people writing to these media, there is a very large media-aware population in the state.The Telegraph, The Statesman, Asian Age, Hindustan Times, Punjab Kesari and The Times of India'' are the newspapers published here. Vernacular newspapers such as those in Hindi, Punjabi and Nepali are also read by selected readership. Doordarshan is the state-owned television broadcaster. Multi system operators provide a mix of Nepali, Hindi, English, and international channels via cable. All India Radio is a public radio station. Private FM stations are also available in few cities like Shimla. BSNL, Reliance Infocomm, Tata Indicom, and Airtel are available cellular phone operators. Broadband internet is available in select towns and cities and is provided by the state-run BSNL and by other private companies. Dial-up access is provided throughout the state by BSNL and other providers. Also See Darjeeling Gurgaon Delhi Notes References Statistics and Data, Planning Department, Government of Himachal Pradesh External links Discovery Himachal With Indian Discovery Official website of Himachal Pradesh Government Himachal Pradesh Census 2001 Himachal Pradesh Development Report Himachal Tourism Website Himachal tourism department Co. 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2,304 | Design | All Saints Chapel in the Cathedral Basilica of St. Louis by Louis Comfort Tiffany. The building structure and decorations are both examples of design. All man made products are in some way designed. Above is Poul Henningsen's PH5 lamp, designed in 1958. Design, when applied to fashion, includes considering aesthetics as well as function in the final form. Design is used both as a noun and a verb. The term is often tied to the various applied arts and engineering (See design disciplines below). As a verb, "to design" refers to the process of originating and developing a plan for a product, structure, system, or component with intention See dictionary meanings in the Cambridge Dictionary of American English, at Dictionary.com (esp. meanings 1-5 and 7-8) and at AskOxford (esp. verbs). . As a noun, "a design" is used for either the final (solution) plan (e.g. proposal, drawing, model, description) or the result of implementing that plan in the form of the final product of a design process See dictionary meanings at Dictionary.com, esp. meanings 10-12. Note that meaning no. 9 in the same entry is the product of a design process. . This classification aside, in its broadest sense no other limitations exist and the final product can be anything from socks and jewellery to graphical user interfaces and charts. Even virtual concepts such as corporate identity and cultural traditions such as celebration of certain holidays This is sometimes seen in religion. In the Old Testament or Torah, God arranges how the Jewish Passover should be observed. Also consider Jehova's Witnesses' observance of The Memorial, they being a religious body that began in 1879. are sometimes designed. More recently, processes (in general) have also been treated as products of design, giving new meaning to the term "process design". The person designing is called a designer, which is also a term used for people who work professionally in one of the various design areas, usually also specifying which area is being dealt with (such as a fashion designer, concept designer or web designer). Designing often requires a designer to consider the aesthetic, functional, and many other aspects of an object or a process, which usually requires considerable research, thought, modeling, interactive adjustment, and re-design. Being defined so broadly, there is no universal language or unifying institution for designers of all disciplines. This allows for many differing philosophies and approaches toward the subject. However, serious study of design demands increased focus on the design process College of Design, Bachelor of Fine Arts, Graphic Design, Iowa State University. (Mission statement, 2nd paragraph, from "Analytical thought ..." ). Judith E. Sims-Knight, Richard L. Upchurch and Paul Fortier, A Simulation Task to Assess Students’ Design Process Skill (Introduction, 4th paragraph, line 4) . Design as a process Design as a process can take many forms depending on the object being designed and the individual or individuals participating. Defining a design process According to video game developer Dino Dini in a talk given at the 2005 Game Design and Technology Workshop held by Liverpool JM University, design underpins every form of creation from objects such as chairs to the way we plan and execute our lives. For this reason it is useful to seek out some common structure that can be applied to any kind of design, whether this be for video games, consumer products or one's own personal life. For such an important concept, the question "What is Design?" appears to yield answers with limited usefulness. Dino Dini states that the design process can be defined as "The management of constraints". He identifies two kinds of constraint, negotiable and non-negotiable. The first step in the design process is the identification, classification and selection of constraints. The process of design then proceeds from here by manipulating design variables so as to satisfy the non-negotiable constraints and optimizing those which are negotiable. It is possible for a set of non-negotiable constraints to be in conflict resulting in a design with no solution; in this case the non-negotiable constraints must be revised. For example, take the design of a chair. A chair must support a certain weight to be useful, and this is a non-negotiable constraint. The cost of producing the chair might be another. The choice of materials and the aesthetic qualities of the chair might be negotiable. Dino Dini theorizes that poor designs occur as a result of mismanaged constraints, something he claims can be seen in the way the video game industry makes "Must be Fun" a negotiable constraint where he believes it should be non-negotiable. It should be noted that "the management of constraints" may not include the whole of what is involved in "constraint management" as defined in the context of a broader Theory of Constraints, depending on the scope of a design or a designer's position. An architect at his drawing board, 1893. The Peter Arno phrase "Well, back to the old drawing board" makes light of the fact that designs sometimes fail and redesign is necessary. The phrase has meaning beyond structural designs and is an idiom when a drawing board is not used in a design. Redesign Something that is redesigned requires a different process than something that is designed for the first time. A redesign often includes an evaluation of the existent design and the findings of the redesign needs are often the ones that drive the redesign process. Typical steps A design process may include a series of steps followed by designers. Depending on the product or service, some of these stages may be irrelevant, ignored in real-world situations in order to save time, reduce cost, or because they may be redundant in the situation. Typical stages of the design process include: Pre-production design Design brief or Parti- an early often the beginning statement of design goals Analysis - analysis of current design goals Research - investigating similar design solutions in the field or related topics Specification - specifying requirements of a design solution for a product (product design specification Cross, N., 2006. T211 Design and Designing: Block 2, page 99. Milton Keynes: The Open University. ) or service. Problem solving - conceptualizing and documenting design solutions Presentation - presenting design solutions Design during production Development - continuation and improvement of a designed solution Testing - in-situ testing a designed solution Post-production design feedback for future designs Implementation - introducing the designed solution into the environment Evaluation and conclusion - summary of process and results, including constructive criticism and suggestions for future improvements Redesign - any or all stages in the design process repeated (with corrections made) at any time before, during, or after production. These stages are not universally accepted but do relate typical design process activities. For each activity there are many best practices for completing them. Ullman, David G. (2009) The Mechanical Design Process, Mc Graw Hill, 4th edition Philosophies and studies of design There are countless philosophies for guiding design as the design values and its accompanying aspects within modern design vary, both between different schools of thought and among practicing designers. Holm, Ivar (2006). Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations and underlying assumptions shape the built environment. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN 8254701741. Design philosophies are usually for determining design goals. A design goal may range from solving the least significant individual problem of the smallest element to the most holistic influential utopian goals. Design goals are usually for guiding design. However, conflicts over immediate and minor goals may lead to questioning the purpose of design, perhaps to set better long term or ultimate goals. A 1938 Bugatti Type 57SC Atlantic from the Ralph Lauren collection. "Form follows function" can be an aesthetic point of view that a design can heighten, as often seen in the work of the Bugattis, Ettore, Rembrandt, and Jean. Philosophies for guiding design A design philosophy is a guide to help make choices when designing such as ergonomics, costs, economics, functionality and methods of re-design. An example of a design philosophy is “dynamic change” to achieve the elegant or stylish look you need. Approaches to design A design approach is a general philosophy that may or may not include a guide for specific methods. Some are to guide the overall goal of the design. Other approaches are to guide the tendencies of the designer. A combination of approaches may be used if they don't conflict. Some popular approaches include: KISS principle, (Keep it Simple Stupid, etc.), which strives to eliminate unnecessary complications. There is more than one way to do it (TIMTOWTDI), a philosophy to allow multiple methods of doing the same thing. Use-centered design, which focuses on the goals and tasks associated with the use of the artifact, rather than focusing on the end user. User-centered design, which focuses on the needs, wants, and limitations of the end user of the designed artifact. Philosophies for methods of designing Design Methods is a broad area that focuses on: Exploring possibilities and constraints by focusing critical thinking skills to research and define problem spaces for existing products or services—or the creation of new categories; (see also Brainstorming) Redefining the specifications of design solutions which can lead to better guidelines for traditional design activities (graphic, industrial, architectural, etc.); Managing the process of exploring, defining, creating artifacts continually over time Prototyping possible scenarios, or solutions that incrementally or significantly improve the inherited situation Trendspotting; understanding the trend process. Philosophies for the purpose of designs In philosophy, the abstract noun "design" refers to a pattern with a purpose. Design is thus contrasted with purposelessness, randomness, or lack of complexity. To study the purpose of designs, beyond individual goals (e.g. marketing, technology, education, entertainment, hobbies), is to question the controversial politics, morals, ethics and needs such as Maslow's hierarchy of needs. "Purpose" may also lead to existential questions such as religious morals and teleology. These philosophies for the "purpose of" designs are in contrast to philosophies for guiding design or methodology. Often a designer (especially in commercial situations) is not in a position to define purpose. Whether a designer is, is not, or should be concerned with purpose or intended use beyond what they are expressly hired to influence, is debatable, depending on the situation. Not understanding or disinterest in the wider role of design in society might also be attributed to the commissioning agent or client, rather than the designer. In structuration theory, achieving consensus and fulfillment of purpose is as continuous as society. Raised levels of achievement often lead to raised expectations. design is both medium and outcome generating a Janus like face, with every ending marking a new beginning. Terminology The word "design" is often considered ambiguous depending on the application. The new terminal at Barajas airport in Madrid, Spain Design and art Design is often viewed as a more rigorous form of art, or art with a clearly defined purpose. The distinction is usually made when someone other than the artist is defining the purpose. In graphic arts the distinction is often made between fine art and commercial art. In the realm of the arts, design is more relevant to the "applied" arts, such as architecture and industrial design. In fact today the term design is widely associated to modern industrial product design as initiated by Raymond Loewy and teachings at the Bauhaus and Ulm School of Design (HfG Ulm) in Germany during the 20th Century. Design implies a conscious effort to create something that is both functional and aesthetically pleasing. For example, a graphic artist may design an advertisement poster. This person's job is to communicate the advertisement message (functional aspect) and to make it look good (aesthetically pleasing). The distinction between pure and applied arts is not completely clear, but one may consider Jackson Pollock's (often criticized as "splatter") paintings as an example of pure art. One may assume his art does not convey a message based on the obvious differences between an advertisement poster and the mere possibility of an abstract message of a Jackson Pollock painting. One may speculate that Pollock, when painting, worked more intuitively than would a graphic artist, when consciously designing a poster. However, Mark Getlein suggests the principles of design are "almost instinctive", "built-in", "natural", and part of "our sense of 'rightness'." Mark Getlein, Living With Art, 8th ed. (New York: 2008) 121. Pollock, as a trained artist, may have utilized design whether conscious or not. A drawing for a booster engine for steam locomotives. Engineering is applied to design, with emphasis on function and the utilization of mathematics and science. Design and engineering Engineering is often viewed as a more rigorous form of design. Contrary views suggest that design is a component of engineering aside from production and other operations which utilize engineering. A neutral view may suggest that both design and engineering simply overlap, depending on the discipline of design. The American Heritage Dictionary defines design as: "To conceive or fashion in the mind; invent," and "To formulate a plan", and defines engineering as: "The application of scientific and mathematical principles to practical ends such as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and economical structures, machines, processes, and systems.". American Psychological Association (APA): design. (n.d.). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved January 10, 2007, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/design American Psychological Association (APA): engineering. (n.d.). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved January 10, 2007, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/engineering Both are forms of problem-solving with a defined distinction being the application of "scientific and mathematical principles". How much science is applied in a design is a question of what is considered "science". Along with the question of what is considered science, there is social science versus natural science. Scientists at Xerox PARC made the distinction of design versus engineering at "moving minds" versus "moving atoms". Jonathan Ive has received several awards for his design of Apple Inc. products like this laptop. In some design fields, personal computers are also used for both design and production Design and production The relationship between design and production is one of planning and executing. In theory, the plan should anticipate and compensate for potential problems in the execution process. Design involves problem-solving and creativity. In contrast, production involves a routine or pre-planned process. A design may also be a mere plan that does not include a production or engineering process, although a working knowledge of such processes is usually expected of designers. In some cases, it may be unnecessary and/or impractical to expect a designer with a broad multidisciplinary knowledge required for such designs to also have a detailed knowledge of how to produce the product. Design and production are intertwined in many creative professional careers, meaning problem-solving is part of execution and the reverse. As the cost of rearrangement increases, the need for separating design from production increases as well. For example, a high-budget project, such as a skyscraper, requires separating (design) architecture from (production) construction. A Low-budget project, such as a locally printed office party invitation flyer, can be rearranged and printed dozens of times at the low cost of a few sheets of paper, a few drops of ink, and less than one hour's pay of a desktop publisher. This is not to say that production never involves problem-solving or creativity, nor that design always involves creativity. Designs are rarely perfect and are sometimes repetitive. The imperfection of a design may task a production position (e.g. production artist, construction worker) with utilizing creativity or problem-solving skills to compensate for what was overlooked in the design process. Likewise, a design may be a simple repetition (copy) of a known preexisting solution, requiring minimal, if any, creativity or problem-solving skills from the designer. An example of a business workflow process using Business Process Modeling Notation. Process design "Process design" (in contrast to "design process") refers to the planning of routine steps of a process aside from the expected result. Processes (in general) are treated as a product of design, not the method of design. The term originated with the industrial designing of chemical processes. With the increasing complexities of the information age, consultants and executives have found the term useful to describe the design of business processes as well as manufacturing processes. See also Design disciplines Commerce Business design New product development Packaging design Product design Service design Applications Experience design Game design Interaction design Examines the role of embedded behaviour in human environments. Software design Software development Software engineering System design User experience design User interface design Web accessibility Web designCommunications Book design Color design Communication design Content design Exhibition design Graphic design Information design Instructional design Motion graphic design News design Production design Sound design Theatrical design Typography Visual communication Scientific and mathematical Combinatorial design Concerns the existence and construction of mathematical set systems that have specified numerical properties. Design of experimentsGeometric design Physical Architectural design Architectural engineering Automotive design Cellular manufacturing Ceramic and glass design Design engineer Environmental design Fashion design Floral design Furniture design Garden design Industrial design Interior design/redesign Landscape architecture Mechanical engineering Sustainable design Urban design Design approaches and methods Co-Design Creative problem solving Creativity techniques Design for X Design leadership Design management Design-build Design patternsDesign strategy Design thinking Engineering design process Error-tolerant design Fault tolerant design Functional design Metadesign Mind mappingOpen design Participatory design Actively involving users in the design process. Reliable system design Transformation design TRIZ Universal design User innovation Other design related topics Design organizations Chartered Society of Designers European Design Awards The Design Association Design Exchange AIGA Design tools Computer-aided design Drafting and other forms of modelling. Graphic organizersDesign as intellectual property Design patent (US patent law) Industrial design rights Industrial design rights in the European Union Impact of design Creative industries Design classicStudying design Critical design Design education Design research Wicked problems Includes economic, environmental and political issues. Designs for the future Concept design Futurology External links Design Search Engine What is design? 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2,305 | Assyria | Assyria was a political state centered on the Upper Tigris river, in Mesopotamia (Iraq), that came to rule regional empires a number of times in history. It was named for its original capital, the ancient city of Assur (Akkadian: ; Arabic: ; Hebrew: , Aramaic: , ). The term Assyria can also refer to the geographic region or heartland where these empires were centered. During the Old Assyrian period (20th to 15th c. BC), Assur controlled much of Upper Mesopotamia. In the Middle Assyrian period (15th to 10th c. BC), its influence waned and was subsequently regained in a series of conquests. The Neo-Assyrian Empire of the Early Iron Age (911 – 612 BC) expanded further, and under Ashurbanipal (r. 668 – 627 BC) for a few decades controlled all of the Fertile Crescent, as well as Egypt, before succumbing to Neo-Babylonian and Persian expansion. Early history The earliest neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture. Of the early history of the kingdom of Assyria, little is positively known. According to some Judaeo-Christian traditions, the city of Ashur (also spelled Assur or Aššur) was founded by Ashur the son of Shem, who was deified by later generations as the city's patron god. The upper Tigris River valley seems to have been ruled by Sumer, Akkad, and northern Babylonia in its earliest stages; once a part of Sargon the Great's empire, it was destroyed by barbarians in the Gutian period, then rebuilt, and ended up being governed as part of the Empire of the 3rd dynasty of Ur. Old Assyrian city-states and kingdoms The first inscriptions of Assyrian rulers appear after 2000 BC. Assyria then consisted of a number of city states and small Semitic kingdoms. The foundation of the Assyrian monarchy was traditionally ascribed to Zulilu, who is said to have lived after Bel-kap-kapu (Bel-kapkapi or Belkabi, ca. 1900 BC), the ancestor of Shalmaneser I. City state of Ashur The city-state of Ashur had extensive contact with cities on the Anatolian plateau. The Assyrians established "merchant colonies" in Cappadocia, e.g., at Kanesh (modern Kültepe) circa 1920 BC – 1840 BC and 1798 BC – 1740 BC. These colonies, called karum, the Akkadian word for 'port', were attached to Anatolian cities, but physically separate, and had special tax status. They must have arisen from a long tradition of trade between Ashur and the Anatolian cities, but no archaeological or written records show this. The trade consisted of metal (perhaps lead or tin; the terminology here is not entirely clear) and textiles from Assyria, that were traded for precious metals in Anatolia. Like many commercial city-states in history, Assur was to a great extent an oligarchy rather than a monarchy. Authority was considered to lie with "the City", and the polity had three main centres of power — an assembly of elders, a hereditary ruler, and an eponym. The ruler presided over the assembly and carried out its decisions. He was not referred to with the usual Akkadian term for "king", šarrum; that was instead reserved for the city's patron deity Assur, of whom the ruler was the high priest. The ruler himself was only designated as "the steward of Assur" (iššiak Assur), where the term for steward is a borrowing from Sumerian ensi(k). The third centre of power was the eponym (limmum), who gave the year his name, similarly to the archons and consuls of Classical Antiquity. He was annually elected by lot and was responsible for the economic administration of the city, which included the power to detain people and confiscate property. The institution of the eponym as well as the formula iššiak Assur lingered on as ceremonial vestiges of this early system throughout the history of the Assyrian monarchy. Larsen, Mogens Trolle (2000): The old Assyrian city-state. In Hansen, Mogens Herman, A comparative study of thirty city-state cultures : an investigation / conducted by the Copenhagen Polis Centre. P.77-89 Kingdom of Shamshi-Adad I The city of Ashur was conquered by Shamshi-Adad I (1813 BC – 1791 BC) in the expansion of Amorite tribes from the Khabur river delta. He put his son Ishme-Dagan on the throne of a nearby city, Ekallatum, and allowed the former Anatolian trade to continue. Shamshi-Adad I also conquered the kingdom of Mari on the Euphrates putting another of his sons, Yasmah-Adad on the throne there. Shamshi-Adad's kingdom now encompassed the whole of northern Mesopotamia. He himself resided in a new capital city founded in the Khabur valley, called Shubat-Enlil. Ishme-Dagan inherited the kingdom, but Yasmah-Adad was overthrown, and Mari was lost. The new king of Mari allied himself with Hammurabi of Babylon. Assyria now faced the rising power of Babylon in the south. Ishme-Dagan responded by making an alliance with the enemies of Babylon, and the power struggle continued for decades. Assyria reduced to vassal states Hammurabi eventually prevailed over Ishme-Dagan, and conquered Ashur for Babylon. With Hammurabi, the various karum in Anatolia ceased trade activity — probably because the goods of Assyria were now being traded with the Babylonians' partners. Assyria was ruled by vassal kings dependent on the Babylonians for a century. After Babylon fell to the Kassites, the Hurrians dominated the northern region, including Assur. There are dozens of Mesopotamian cuneiform texts from this period, with precise observations of solar and lunar eclipses, that have been used as 'anchors' in the various attempts to define the chronology of Babylonia and Assyria for the early second millennium, i.e., the "high", "middle", and "low" chronologies. Middle Assyrian period Map of the Ancient Near East during the Amarna period, showing the great powers of the day: Egypt (green), Hatti (yellow), the Kassite kingdom of Babylon (purple), Assyria (grey), and Mitanni (red). Lighter areas show direct control, darker areas represent spheres of influence. The extent of the Achaean/Mycenaean civilization is shown in orange. (Scholars variously date the beginning of the "Middle Assyrian period" to either the fall of the Old Assyrian kingdom of Shamshi-Adad I, or to the ascension of Ashur-uballit I to the throne of Assyria.) Ashur-uballit I In the 15th century BC, Saushtatar, king of Hanilgalbat (Hurrians of Mitanni), sacked Ashur and made Assyria a vassal. Assyria paid tribute to Hanilgalbat until Mitanni power collapsed from Hittite pressure from the north-west and Assyrian pressure from the east, enabling Ashur-uballit I (1365 BC – 1330 BC) to again make Assyria an independent and conquering power at the expense of Babylonia; and a time came when the Kassite king in Babylon was glad to marry the daughter of Ashur-uballit, whose letters to Akhenaten of Egypt form part of the Amarna letters. This marriage led to disastrous results, as the Kassite faction at court murdered the Babylonian king and placed a pretender on the throne. Assur-uballit promptly marched into Babylonia and avenged his son-in-law, making Kurigalzu of the royal line king there. Assyrian expansion Hanilgalbat was finally conquered under Adad-nirari I, who described himself as a "Great-King" (Sharru rabû) in letters to the Hittite rulers. The successor of Adad-nirari I, Shalmaneser I (c. 1300 BC), threw off the pretense of Babylonian suzerainty, made Kalhu his capital, and continued expansion to the northwest, mainly at the expense of the Hittites, reaching Carchemish and beyond. Shalmaneser's son and successor, Tukulti-Ninurta I, deposed Kadashman-Buriash of Babylon and ruled there himself as king for seven years, taking on the old title "King of Sumer and Akkad". Another weak period for Assyria followed when Babylon revolted against Tukulti-Ninurta, and later even made Assyria tributary during the reigns of the Babylonian kings Melishipak II and Marduk-apal-iddin I. The correct chronology of these Assyrian kings is still is much debated. There are some crucial solar eclipse records. Wikipedia's Assyrian eclipse page refers to four such eclipses. For example, the Assyrian eclipse associated with June 15, 763 BC is widely accepted by the defenders of a middle chronology, but three ignored solar eclipses from the reign of Esarhaddon would affect the calculation drastically. Tiglath-Pileser I reaches the Mediterranean Sea As the Hittite empire collapsed from onslaught of the Phrygians (called Mushki in Assyrian annals), Babylon and Assyria began to vie for Amorite regions, formerly under firm Hittite control. When their forces encountered one another in this region, the Assyrian king Ashur-resh-ishi I met and defeated Nebuchadnezzar I of Babylon. The son of Ashur-resh-ishi's, Tiglath-Pileser I, may be regarded as the founder of the first Assyrian empire. In 1120 BC, he crossed the Euphrates, capturing Carchemish, and defeated the Mushki and the remnants of the Hittites — even claiming to reach the Black Sea. He advanced to the Mediterranean, subjugating Phoenicia, where he hunted wild bulls. He also marched into Babylon twice, assuming the old title "King of Sumer and Akkad", although he was unable to depose the actual king in Babylonia, where the old Kassite dynasty had now succumbed to an Elamite one. Society in the Middle Assyrian period Assyria had difficulties with keeping the trade routes open. Unlike the situation in the Old Assyrian period, the Anatolian metal trade was effectively dominated by the Hittites and the Hurrians. These peoples now controlled the Mediterranean ports, while the Kassites controlled the river route south to the Persian Gulf. The Middle Assyrian kingdom was well organized, and in the firm control of the king, who also functioned as the High Priest of Ashur, the state god. He had certain obligations to fulfill in the cult, and had to provide resources for the temples. The priesthood became a major power in Assyrian society. Conflicts with the priesthood are thought to have been behind the murder of king Tukulti-Ninurta I. The main Assyrian cities of the middle period were Ashur, Kalhu (Nimrud) and Nineveh, all situated in the Tigris River valley. At the end of the Bronze Age, Nineveh was much smaller than Babylon, but still one of the world's major cities (population ca. 33,000). By the end of the Neo-Assyrian period, it had grown to a population of some 120,000, and was possibly the largest city of that time. see historical urban community sizes. Estimates are those of Chandler (1987). All free male citizens were obliged to serve in the army for a time, a system which was called the ilku-service. The Assyrian law code, notable for its repressive attitude towards women in their society, was compiled during this period. Neo-Assyrian Empire Map of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and its expansions. The Neo-Assyrian Empire is usually considered to have begun with the accession of Adad-nirari II, in 911 BC, lasting until the fall of Nineveh at the hands of the Babylonians in 612 BC. Chart of World Kingdoms, Nations and Empires — All Empires In the Middle Assyrian period, Assyria had been a minor kingdom of northern Mesopotamia, competing for dominance with Babylonia to the south. Beginning with the campaigns of Adad-nirari II, Assyria became a great regional power, growing to be a serious threat to 25th dynasty Egypt. It began reaching the peak of its power with the reforms of Tiglath-Pileser III (ruled 745 – 727 BC) Assyrian Eponym List Tadmor, H. (1994). The Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III, King of Assyria.pp.29 . This period, which included the Sargonic dynasty, is well-referenced in several sources, including the Assyro-Babylonian Chronicles and the Hebrew Bible. Assyria finally succumbed to the rise of the neo-Babylonian Chaldean dynasty with the sack of Nineveh in 612 BC. Language The ancient people of Assyria spoke an Assyrian dialect of the Akkadian language, a branch of the Semitic languages. The first inscriptions, called Old Assyrian (OA), were made in the Old Assyrian period. In the Neo-Assyrian period the Aramaic language became increasingly common, more so than Akkadian — this was thought to be largely due to the mass deportations undertaken by Assyrian kings, in which large Aramaic-speaking populations, conquered by the Assyrians, were relocated to other parts of the empire. The ancient Assyrians also used the Sumerian language in their literature and liturgy, although to a more limited extent in the Middle- and Neo-Assyrian periods, when Akkadian became the main literary language. The utter and complete destruction of the Assyrian capitals of Nineveh and Assur by the Babylonians and Medes ensured that the bilingual elite, perhaps the few remaining still competent in Akkadian, were wiped out. By the 6th century B.C., much of the Assyrian population that survived used Aramaic and not the cuneiform Akkadian. In time, Akkadian would no longer be used by the Assyrians, although many aspects of the culture associated, such as naming with Assur, continued, and do so today. Arts and sciences Relief from Assyrian capital of Dur Sharrukin, showing transport of Lebanese cedar (8th century BC) Assyrian art preserved to the present day predominantly dates to the Neo-Assyrian period. Art depicting battle scenes, and occasionally the impaling of whole villages in gory detail, was intended to show the power of the emperor, and was generally made for propaganda purposes. These stone reliefs lined the walls in the royal palaces where foreigners were received by the king. Other stone reliefs depict the king with different deities and conducting religious ceremonies. Many stone reliefs were discovered in the royal palaces at Nimrud (Kalhu) and Khorsabad (Dur-Sharrukin). A rare discovery of metal plates belonging to wooden doors was made at Balawat (Imgur-Enlil). Assyrian sculpture reached a high level of refinement in the Neo-Assyrian period. One prominent example is the winged bull Lamassu, or shedu that guard the entrances to the king's court. These were apotropaic meaning they were intended to ward off evil. C. W. Ceram states in The March of Archaeology that lamassi were typically sculpted with five legs so that four legs were always visible, whether the image were viewed frontally or in profile. Since works of precious gems and metals usually do not survive the ravages of time, we are lucky to have some fine pieces of Assyrian jewelry. These were found in royal tombs at Nimrud. There is ongoing discussion among academics over the nature of the Nimrud lens, a piece of Quartz unearthed by Austen Henry Layard in 1850, in the Nimrud palace complex in northern Iraq. A small minority believe that it is evidence for the existence of ancient Assyrian telescopes, which could explain the great accuracy of Assyrian astronomy. Other suggestions include its use as a magnifying glass for jewellers, or as a decorative furniture inlay. The Nimrud Lens is held in the British Museum. Lens, Britiſh Muſeum. Legacy and rediscovery Achaemenid Assyria retained a separate identity for some time, official correspondence being in Imperial Aramaic, and there was even an attempted revolt of the two provinces of Mada and Athura in 520 BC. Under Seleucid rule, however, Aramaic gave way to Greek as the official language. Aramaic was marginalised, but remained spoken in Judea (Biblical Aramaic), the Syrian Desert (Nabataeans) and Khuzestan (Mandaic). Classical historiographers had only retained a very dim picture of Assyria. It was remembered that there had been an Assyrian empire predating the Persian one, but all particulars were lost. Thus Jerome's Chronicon lists 36 kings of the Assyrians, beginning with Ninus, son of Belus, down to Sardanapalus, the last king of the Assyrians before the empire fell to Arbaces the Median. Almost none of these have been substantiated as historical, with the exception of the Neo-Assyrian and Babylonian rulers listed in Ptolemy's Canon, beginning with Nabonassar. With the rise of Syriac Christianity, Aramaic enjoyed a renaissance as a classical language in the 2nd to 8th centuries AD, and the modern Assyrian people continue to speak Neo-Aramaic dialects. The modern discovery of Babylonia and Assyria begins with excavations in Nineveh in 1845, which revealed the Library of Ashurbanipal. Decipherment of cuneiform was a formidable task that took more than a decade, but by 1857, the Royal Asiatic Society was convinced that reliable reading of cuneiform texts was possible. Assyriology has since pieced together the formerly forgotten history of Mesopotamia. In the wake of the archaeological and philological rediscovery of ancient Assyria, Assyrian nationalism has come to strongly identify with ancient Assyria. Notes and references Literature Ascalone, Enrico. Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians (Dictionaries of Civilizations; 1). Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007 (paperback, ISBN 0520252667). Grayson, Albert Kirk: Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (ABC), Locust Valley, N.Y.; Augustin (1975), Winona Lake, In.; Eisenbrauns (2000). Leick, Gwendolyn. Mesopotamia. Lloyd, Seton. The Archaeology of Mesopotamia: From the Old Stone Age to the Persian Conquest. Nardo, Don. The Assyrian Empire. Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oppenheim, A. Leo. Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization. Roux, Georges. Ancient Iraq. Third edition. Penguin Books, 1992 (paperback, ISBN 014012523X). Saggs, H. W. F., The Might That Was Assyria, ISBN 0283989610 Spence, Lewis. Myths and Legends of Babylonia and Assyria. See also Assyrian eclipse Assyriology Ancient Near East Kings of Assyria Military history of the Assyrian Empire Assyria and Babylonia contrasted Chronology of Babylonia and Assyria Geography of Babylonia and Assyria Social life in Babylonia and Assyria Cuneiform script External links Assyrian administrative letters [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS71xJ39C/ Morris Jastrow, Jr., The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria: its remains, language, history, religion, commerce, law, art, and literature London, Lippincott (1915) (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries)]; also as layered PDF format "The Assyrian Empire", All Empires Online History "Assyrian Legacy", Prototype Productions (video) "Assyria", LookLex Encyclopedia Robert William Rogers, The History of Assyria in "btm" format Theophilus G. Pinches, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria in "btm" format "The Library at Ninevah", In our Time — BBC Radio 4 "Assyrians in Arzni-Armenia", Website of the Abovyan city | Assyria |@lemmatized assyria:41 political:1 state:11 center:3 upper:3 tigris:3 river:5 mesopotamia:10 iraq:3 come:3 rule:6 regional:2 empire:19 number:2 time:8 history:10 name:3 original:1 capital:5 ancient:11 city:23 assur:12 akkadian:9 arabic:1 hebrew:2 aramaic:10 term:3 also:8 refer:2 geographic:1 region:4 heartland:1 old:11 assyrian:66 period:20 c:5 bc:24 control:7 much:4 middle:10 influence:2 wan:1 subsequently:1 regain:1 series:1 conquest:2 neo:13 early:7 iron:1 age:3 expand:1 far:1 ashurbanipal:2 r:1 decade:3 fertile:1 crescent:1 well:4 egypt:4 succumb:3 babylonian:13 persian:4 expansion:5 neolithic:1 site:1 tell:1 hassuna:2 culture:3 kingdom:11 little:1 positively:1 know:1 accord:1 judaeo:1 christian:1 tradition:2 ashur:16 spell:1 aššur:1 found:2 son:7 shem:1 deify:1 late:1 generation:1 patron:2 god:2 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2,306 | Caribbean_cuisine | Caribbean cuisine is a fusion of African, Amerindian, British, Spanish, French, Dutch, Indian, Chinese and America. These traditions were brought from the many homelands of this region's population. In addition, the population has created styles that are unique to the region. A typical dish and one increasingly common outside of the area is "jerk" seasoned meats, commonly chicken. It is a unique, spicy flavor, reminiscent of Louisiana Creole cuisine, but still quite distinct from it. Curry goat and chicken are eaten throughout the Anglophone Caribbean islands, penetrating much further into the Caribbean than have the Indians who introduced them to the region over 150 years ago, most notably in Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana. Haitian, Guadeloupean and other French Caribbean cuisine, is very similar. Rice is a prime food eaten with various sauces and beans, which West Indians call peas. A local version of Caribbean Goat Water stew has been chosen as the official national dish of Montserrat and is also one of the signature dishes of St. Kitts and Nevis. It is a tomato-based stew, made with goat meat, breadfruit, green pawpaw (papaya), and dumplings (also known as "droppers"). Another popular dish in the Anglophone Caribbean is called "Cook-up", or Pelau, a dish which combines variations of meats like chicken, beef, pig-tail, saltfish and or pigeon peas or vegetables with rice. Callaloo is a soup-like dish containing leafy vegetables and okra amongst others, widely distributed in the Caribbean, with a distinctively mixed African and indigenous character. Meanwhile, the Spanish-speaking islands of the Caribbean tend to prefer more savory spices to these sharper flavors. Lime and garlic, for example, are more common on Puerto Rico and Cuba than pimento (or "allspice"). Other common flavors throughout the region include cinnamon, ginger, and nutmeg. Seafood is one of the most common cuisine types in the islands, and often each island will have its own specialty. Some prepare lobster or conch, while others prefer certain types of fish or sharks. The island of Barbados is known for its "flying fish," while Trinidad and Tobago is known for its cascadura fish and crab, also fried shark served as a sandwich called "bake and shark". Another Caribbean mainstay is rice, in various forms on different islands. Some season their rice, or add peas and other touches such as coconut. Sometimes the rice is yellow, other times it may be more brown but overall it tends to just act as part of a dish. Conch is a very popular food in The Bahamas and Belize as well, where fritters are made by creating a batter of the chopped meat, seasonings and dough, and then deep frying. See also Street food Ground provisions Floribbean Cuisine of Belize Cuban cuisine Jamaican cuisine Cuisine of Puerto Rico Cuisine of St. Kitts Cuisine of Trinidad and Tobago External links Barbadian 'Bajan' Recipes Jamaican Recipes Cuban Recipes The Rican Chef - Recipes from the cultural magazine El Boricua, Puerto Rico Puerto Rican Recipes Trinidad and Tobago Recipes | Caribbean_cuisine |@lemmatized caribbean:9 cuisine:10 fusion:1 african:2 amerindian:1 british:1 spanish:2 french:2 dutch:1 indian:3 chinese:1 america:1 tradition:1 bring:1 many:1 homeland:1 region:4 population:2 addition:1 create:2 style:1 unique:2 typical:1 dish:7 one:3 increasingly:1 common:4 outside:1 area:1 jerk:1 season:2 meat:4 commonly:1 chicken:3 spicy:1 flavor:3 reminiscent:1 louisiana:1 creole:1 still:1 quite:1 distinct:1 curry:1 goat:3 eat:2 throughout:2 anglophone:2 island:6 penetrate:1 much:1 far:1 introduce:1 year:1 ago:1 notably:1 trinidad:4 tobago:4 guyana:1 haitian:1 guadeloupean:1 similar:1 rice:5 prime:1 food:3 various:2 sauce:1 bean:1 west:1 call:3 pea:3 local:1 version:1 water:1 stew:2 choose:1 official:1 national:1 montserrat:1 also:4 signature:1 st:2 kitts:2 nevis:1 tomato:1 base:1 make:2 breadfruit:1 green:1 pawpaw:1 papaya:1 dumpling:1 know:3 dropper:1 another:2 popular:2 cook:1 pelau:1 combine:1 variation:1 like:2 beef:1 pig:1 tail:1 saltfish:1 pigeon:1 vegetable:2 callaloo:1 soup:1 contain:1 leafy:1 okra:1 amongst:1 others:2 widely:1 distribute:1 distinctively:1 mixed:1 indigenous:1 character:1 meanwhile:1 speak:1 tend:2 prefer:2 savory:1 spice:1 sharp:1 lime:1 garlic:1 example:1 puerto:4 rico:3 cuba:1 pimento:1 allspice:1 include:1 cinnamon:1 ginger:1 nutmeg:1 seafood:1 type:2 often:1 specialty:1 prepare:1 lobster:1 conch:2 certain:1 fish:3 shark:3 barbados:1 fly:1 cascadura:1 crab:1 fry:1 serve:1 sandwich:1 bake:1 mainstay:1 form:1 different:1 add:1 touch:1 coconut:1 sometimes:1 yellow:1 time:1 may:1 brown:1 overall:1 act:1 part:1 bahamas:1 belize:2 well:1 fritter:1 batter:1 chopped:1 seasoning:1 dough:1 deep:1 frying:1 see:1 street:1 ground:1 provision:1 floribbean:1 cuban:2 jamaican:2 external:1 link:1 barbadian:1 bajan:1 recipe:5 recipes:1 rican:2 chef:1 cultural:1 magazine:1 el:1 boricua:1 |@bigram louisiana_creole:1 creole_cuisine:1 anglophone_caribbean:2 trinidad_tobago:4 st_kitts:2 kitts_nevis:1 chicken_beef:1 leafy_vegetable:1 puerto_rico:3 deep_frying:1 external_link:1 puerto_rican:1 |
2,307 | Block_cipher | In cryptography, a block cipher is a symmetric key cipher which operates on fixed-length groups of bits, termed blocks, with an unvarying transformation. When encrypting, a block cipher might take (for example) a 128-bit block of plaintext as input, and output a corresponding 128-bit block of ciphertext. The exact transformation is controlled using a second input — the secret key. Decryption is similar: the decryption algorithm takes, in this example, a 128-bit block of ciphertext together with the secret key, and yields the original 128-bit block of plaintext. To encrypt messages longer than the block size (128 bits in the above example), a mode of operation is used. Block ciphers can be contrasted with stream ciphers; a stream cipher operates on individual digits one at a time, and the transformation varies during the encryption. The distinction between the two types is not always clear-cut: a block cipher, when used in certain modes of operation, acts effectively as a stream cipher. An early and highly influential block cipher design was the Data Encryption Standard (DES), developed at IBM and published as a standard in 1977. A successor to DES, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), was adopted in 2001. Generalities A block cipher consists of two paired algorithms, one for encryption, E, and another for decryption, E-1. Both algorithms accept two inputs: an input block of size n bits and a key of size k bits, yielding an n-bit output block. For any one fixed key, decryption is the inverse function of encryption, so that for any block M and key K. For each key K, EK is a permutation (a bijective mapping) over the set of input blocks. Each key selects one permutation from the possible set of . The block size, n, is typically 64 or 128 bits, although some ciphers have a variable block size. 64 bits was the most common length until the mid-1990s, when new designs began to switch to the longer 128-bit length. One of several modes of operation is generally used along with a padding scheme to allow plaintexts of arbitrary lengths to be encrypted. Each mode has different characteristics in regard to error propagation, ease of random access and vulnerability to certain types of attack. Typical key sizes (k) include 40, 56, 64, 80, 128, 192 and 256 bits. , 80 bits is normally taken as the minimum key length needed to prevent brute force attacks. Iterated block ciphers Most block ciphers are constructed by repeatedly applying a simpler function. This approach is known as iterated block cipher (see also product cipher). Each iteration is termed a round, and the repeated function is termed the round function; anywhere between 4 to 32 rounds are typical. Many block ciphers can be categorised as Feistel networks, or, as more general substitution-permutation networks. Arithmetic operations, logical operations (especially XOR), S-boxes and various permutations are all frequently used as components. History Lucifer is generally considered to be the first civilian block cipher, developed at IBM in the 1970s based on work done by Horst Feistel. A revised version of the algorithm was adopted as a US government FIPS standard, the Data Encryption Standard (DES). It was chosen by the US National Bureau of Standards (NBS) after a public invitation for submissions and some internal changes by NBS (and, potentially, the NSA). DES was publicly released in 1976 and has been widely used. DES was designed to, among other things, resist a certain cryptanalytic attack known to the NSA and rediscovered by IBM, though unknown publicly until rediscovered again and published by Eli Biham and Adi Shamir in the late 1980s. The technique is called differential cryptanalysis and remains one of the few general attacks against block ciphers; linear cryptanalysis is another, but may have been unknown even to the NSA, prior to its publication by Mitsuru Matsui. DES prompted a large amount of other work and publications in cryptography and cryptanalysis in the open community and it inspired many new cipher designs. DES has a block size of 64 bits and a key size of 56 bits. 64-bit blocks became common in block cipher designs after DES. Key length depended on several factors, including government regulation. Many observers in the 1970s commented that the 56-bit key length used for DES was too short. As time went on, its inadequacy became apparent, especially after a special purpose machine designed to break DES was demonstrated in 1998 by the Electronic Frontier Foundation. A variant of DES, Triple DES, triple-encrypts blocks with (usually) two different keys (2TDES), resulting in a 112-bit keys and 80-bit security. It was widely adopted as a replacement and is still (2009) considered secure. DES has been superseded as a United States Federal Standard by the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), adopted by National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2001 after a 5-year public competition. The cipher was developed by two Belgian cryptographers, Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen, and submitted under the name Rijndael. (See AES page for pronunciation.) AES has a block size of 128 bits and three possible key sizes, 128, 192 and 256 bits. The US Government permits the use of AES to protect classified information in systems approved by NSA. Cryptanalysis In addition to linear and differential cryptanalysis, there is a growing catalog of attacks: truncated differential cryptanalysis, partial differential cryptanalysis, integral cryptanalysis, which encompasses square and integral attacks, slide attacks, boomerang attacks, the XSL attack, impossible differential cryptanalysis and algebraic attacks. For a new block cipher design to have any credibility, it must demonstrate evidence of security against known attacks. Tweakable block ciphers M. Liskov, R. Rivest, and D. Wagner have described a generalized version of block ciphers called "tweakable" block ciphers. A tweakable block cipher accepts a second input called the tweak along with its usual plaintext or ciphertext input. The tweak, along with the key, selects the permutation computed by the cipher. If changing tweaks is sufficiently lightweight (compared with a usually-fairly-expensive key setup operation), then some interesting new operation modes become possible. The disk encryption theory article describes some of these modes. Block ciphers and other cryptographic primitives Block ciphers can be used to build other cryptographic primitives. For these other primitives to be cryptographically secure care has to be taken to build them the right way. Stream ciphers can be built using block ciphers. OFB-mode and CTR mode are block modes that turn a block cipher into a stream cipher. Cryptographic hash functions can be built using block ciphers. See one-way compression function for descriptions of several such methods. The methods resemble the block cipher modes of operation usually used for encryption. Just as block ciphers can be used to build hash functions, hash functions can be used to build block ciphers. Examples of such block ciphers are SHACAL, BEAR and LION. Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generators (CSPRNGs) can be built using block ciphers. Message authentication codes (MACs) are often built from block ciphers. CBC-MAC, OMAC and PMAC are such MACs. Authenticated encryption is also built from block ciphers. It means to both encrypt and MAC at the same time. That is to both provide confidentiality and authentication. CCM, EAX, GCM and OCB are such authenticated encryption modes. See also Cryptography Block cipher modes of operation Confusion and diffusion Pseudorandom permutation Advanced Encryption Standard process Topics in cryptography Disk encryption References M. Liskov, R. Rivest, and D. Wagner, "Tweakable Block Ciphers", Crypto 2002 PDF. External links A list of many symmetric algorithms, the majority of which are block ciphers. The block cipher lounge What is a block cipher? from RSA FAQ | Block_cipher |@lemmatized cryptography:4 block:52 cipher:46 symmetric:2 key:18 operate:2 fix:2 length:7 group:1 bit:22 term:3 unvarying:1 transformation:3 encrypt:4 might:1 take:4 example:4 plaintext:3 input:7 output:2 corresponding:1 ciphertext:3 exact:1 control:1 use:15 second:2 secret:2 decryption:4 similar:1 algorithm:4 together:1 yield:2 original:1 message:2 long:2 size:10 mode:11 operation:9 contrast:1 stream:5 individual:1 digit:1 one:7 time:3 varies:1 encryption:13 distinction:1 two:5 type:2 always:1 clear:1 cut:1 certain:3 act:1 effectively:1 early:1 highly:1 influential:1 design:7 data:2 standard:10 des:1 develop:3 ibm:3 publish:2 successor:1 de:12 advanced:2 aes:5 adopt:4 generality:1 consist:1 paired:1 e:2 another:2 algorithms:1 accept:2 n:3 k:4 inverse:1 function:8 ek:1 permutation:6 bijective:1 mapping:1 set:2 select:2 possible:3 typically:1 although:1 variable:1 common:2 mid:1 new:4 begin:1 switch:1 several:3 generally:2 along:3 pad:1 scheme:1 allow:1 plaintexts:1 arbitrary:1 different:2 characteristic:1 regard:1 error:1 propagation:1 ease:1 random:1 access:1 vulnerability:1 attack:11 typical:2 include:2 normally:1 minimum:1 need:1 prevent:1 brute:1 force:1 iterate:1 construct:1 repeatedly:1 apply:1 simpler:1 approach:1 know:3 iterated:1 see:4 also:3 product:1 iteration:1 round:3 repeated:1 anywhere:1 many:4 categorise:1 feistel:2 network:2 general:2 substitution:1 arithmetic:1 logical:1 especially:2 xor:1 box:1 various:1 frequently:1 component:1 history:1 lucifer:1 consider:2 first:1 civilian:1 base:1 work:2 horst:1 revised:1 version:2 u:3 government:3 fips:1 choose:1 national:2 bureau:1 nb:2 public:2 invitation:1 submission:1 internal:1 change:2 potentially:1 nsa:4 publicly:2 release:1 widely:2 among:1 thing:1 resist:1 cryptanalytic:1 rediscover:2 though:1 unknown:2 eli:1 biham:1 adi:1 shamir:1 late:1 technique:1 call:3 differential:5 cryptanalysis:9 remain:1 linear:2 may:1 even:1 prior:1 publication:2 mitsuru:1 matsui:1 prompt:1 large:1 amount:1 open:1 community:1 inspire:1 become:3 depend:1 factor:1 regulation:1 observer:1 comment:1 short:1 go:1 inadequacy:1 apparent:1 special:1 purpose:1 machine:1 break:1 demonstrate:2 electronic:1 frontier:1 foundation:1 variant:1 triple:2 encrypts:1 usually:3 result:1 security:2 replacement:1 still:1 secure:3 supersede:1 united:1 state:1 federal:1 institute:1 technology:1 nist:1 year:1 competition:1 belgian:1 cryptographer:1 joan:1 daemen:1 vincent:1 rijmen:1 submit:1 name:1 rijndael:1 page:1 pronunciation:1 three:1 permit:1 protect:1 classified:1 information:1 system:1 approve:1 addition:1 grow:1 catalog:1 truncate:1 partial:1 integral:2 encompass:1 square:1 slide:1 boomerang:1 xsl:1 impossible:1 algebraic:1 credibility:1 must:1 evidence:1 tweakable:4 liskov:2 r:2 rivest:2 wagner:2 describe:2 generalized:1 tweak:3 usual:1 compute:1 sufficiently:1 lightweight:1 compare:1 fairly:1 expensive:1 setup:1 interesting:1 modes:1 disk:2 theory:1 article:1 cryptographic:3 primitive:3 build:9 cryptographically:2 care:1 right:1 way:2 ofb:1 ctr:1 turn:1 hash:3 compression:1 description:1 method:2 resemble:1 shacal:1 bear:1 lion:1 pseudorandom:2 number:1 generator:1 csprngs:1 authentication:2 code:1 mac:4 often:1 cbc:1 omac:1 pmac:1 authenticate:1 mean:1 provide:1 confidentiality:1 ccm:1 eax:1 gcm:1 ocb:1 authenticated:1 confusion:1 diffusion:1 advance:1 process:1 topic:1 reference:1 crypto:1 pdf:1 external:1 link:1 list:1 majority:1 lounge:1 rsa:1 faq:1 |@bigram block_cipher:35 input_output:1 encrypt_message:1 stream_cipher:5 eli_biham:1 biham_adi:1 adi_shamir:1 differential_cryptanalysis:5 linear_cryptanalysis:1 cryptography_cryptanalysis:1 partial_differential:1 plaintext_ciphertext:1 cryptographically_secure:2 cryptographic_hash:1 external_link:1 |
2,308 | Sideroxylon_grandiflorum | Tambalacoque (Sideroxylon grandiflorum; formerly Calvaria major), also called the Dodo Tree, is a long-lived tree in the family Sapotaceae, endemic to Mauritius. The Dodo Tree is valued for its timber. Tambalacoque is analogous to Peach. Both have a hard endocarp surrounding the seed, but the endocarp naturally splits along a fracture line during germination. In 1973, it was thought that this species was dying out. There were supposedly only 13 specimens left, all estimated to be about 300 years old. The true age could not be determined because Tambalacoque has no growth rings. Stanley Temple hypothesized that the Dodo, which became extinct in the 17th century, ate tambalacoque fruits, and only by passing through the digestive tract of the Dodo could the seeds germinate. Temple (1977) force-fed seventeen tambalacoque fruits to Wild Turkeys and three germinated. Temple did not try to germinate any seeds from control fruits not fed to turkeys so the effect of feeding fruits to turkeys was unclear. Reports made on tambalacoque seed germination by Hill (1941) and King (1946) found the seeds germinated without abrading. Temple's hypothesis that the tree required the dodo has been contested. Others have suggested the decline of the tree was exaggerated, or that other extinct animals may also have been distributing the seeds, such as tortoises, fruit bats or the Broad-billed Parrot. Wendy Strahm and Anthony Cheke, two experts in Mascarene ecology, claim that while a rare tree, it has germinated since the demise of the Dodo and numbers a few hundreds, not 13. The difference in numbers is because young trees are not distinct in appearance and may easily be confused with similar species. The decline of the tree may possibly be due to introduced pigs and Crab-eating Macaques and competition with introduced plants. Catling (2001) in a summary cites Owadally and Temple (1979), and Witmer (1991). Hershey (2004) reviewed the flaws in Temple's dodo-tambalacoque hypothesis. To aid the seed in germination, botanists now use turkeys and gem polishers to erode the endocarp to allow germination. This tree is highly valued for its wood in Mauritius, which has led some foresters to scrape the pits by hand to make them sprout and grow. References and external links Catling, P. M. (2001): Extinction and the importance of history and dependence in conservation. Biodiversity 2(3): 2-13 pdf Helfferich, C. (1990): The Turkey and the Tambalacoque Tree Hershey, D. R. (2004): The widespread misconception that the tambalacoque absolutely required the dodo for its seeds to germinate. Plant Science Bulletin 50: 105-108. Hill, A. W. (1941): The genus Calvaria, with an account of the stony endocarp and germination of the seed, and description of the new species. Annals of Botany 5(4): 587-606. PDF fulltext (requires user account) King, H. C. (1946): Interim Report on Indigenous Species in Mauritius. Port Louis, Mauritius: Government Printer. Owadally, A. W. & Temple, Stanley A. (1979): The dodo and the tambalacoque tree. Science 203(4387): 1363-1364. Quammen, David (1996): The Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in an Age of Extinction. Touchstone, New York. ISBN 0684827123 Temple, Stanley A. (1977): Plant-animal mutualism: coevolution with Dodo leads to near extinction of plant. Science 197(4306): 885-886. HTML abstract Witmer, M. C. & Cheke, A. S. (1991): The dodo and the tambalacoque tree: an obligate mutualism reconsidered. Oikos 61(1): 133-137. 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2,309 | Video_game | A video game is an electronic game that involves interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a video device. The word video in video game traditionally referred to a raster display device. However, with the popular use of the term "video game", it now implies any type of display device. The electronic systems used to play video games are known as platforms; examples of these are personal computers and video game consoles. These platforms range from large computers to small handheld devices. Specialized video games such as arcade games, while previously common, have gradually declined in use. The input device used to manipulate video games is called a game controller, and varies across platforms. For example, a dedicated console controller might consist of only a button and a joystick. Another may feature a dozen buttons and one or more joysticks. Early personal computer games often needed a keyboard for gameplay, or more commonly, required the user to buy a separate joystick with at least one button. Many modern computer games allow, or even require, the player to use a keyboard and mouse simultaneously. Video games typically also use other ways of providing interaction and information to the player. Audio is almost universal, using sound reproduction devices, such as speakers and headphones. But other feedback may come via haptic peripherals, such as vibration force feedback. History Tennis for Two, an early analog computer game that used an oscilloscope for a display. Early games used interactive electronic devices with various display formats. The earliest example is from 1947—a "Cathode Ray Tube Amusement Device" was filed for a patent on January 25, 1947 by Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and Estle Ray Mann, and issued on December 14, 1948 as U.S. Patent 2455992. Inspired by radar displays, it consisted of an analog device that allowed a user to control a vector-drawn dot on the screen to simulate a missile being fired at targets, which were drawings fixed to the screen. Other early examples include: The NIMROD computer at the 1951 Festival of Britain OXO a tic-tac-toe Computer game by Alexander S. Douglas for the EDSAC in 1952 Tennis for Two, an interactive game engineered by William Higinbotham in 1958 Spacewar!, written by MIT students Martin Graetz, Steve Russell, and Wayne Wiitanen's on a DEC PDP-1 computer in 1961. Each game used different means of display: NIMROD used a panel of lights to play the game of Nim, OXO used a graphical display to play tic-tac-toe http://www.pong-story.com/1952.htm Tennis for Two used an oscilloscope to display a side view of a tennis court, and Spacewar! used the DEC PDP-1's vector display to have two spaceships battle each other. In 1971, Computer Space, created by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney, was the first commercially-sold, coin-operated video game. It used a black-and-white television for its display, and the computer system was made of 74 series TTL chips. The game was featured in the 1973 science fiction film Soylent Green. Computer Space was followed in 1972 by the Magnavox Odyssey, the first home console. Modeled after a late 1960s prototype console developed by Ralph H. Baer called the "Brown Box", it also used a standard television. These were followed by two versions of Atari's Pong; an arcade version in 1972 and a home version in 1975. The commercial success of Pong led numerous other companies to develop Pong clones and their own systems, spawning the video game industry. Overview Platforms The term "platform" refers to the specific combination of electronic or computer hardware which, in conjunction with low-level software, allows a video game to operate. The term "system" is also commonly used. In common use a "PC game" refers to a form of media that involves a player interacting with a personal computer connected to a high-resolution video monitor. A "console game" is played on a specialized electronic device that connects to a standard television set or composite video monitor. A "handheld" gaming device is a self contained electronic device that is portable and can be held in a user's hands. "Arcade game" generally refers to a game played on an even more specialized type of electronic device that is typically designed to play only one game and is encased in a special cabinet. These distinctions are not always clear and there may be games that bridge one or more platforms. Beyond this there are platforms that have non-video game variations such as in the case of electro-mechanically based arcade machines. There are also devices with screens which have the ability to play games but are not dedicated video game machines (examples are mobile phones, PDAs and graphing calculators). Genres A video game, like most other forms of media, may be categorized into genres based on many factors such as method of game play, types of goals, and more. Because genres are dependent on content for definition, genres have changed and evolved as newer styles of video games are created. As the production values of video games have increased over the years both in visual appearance and depth of story telling, the video game industry has been producing more life-like and complex games that push the boundaries of the traditional game genres. Some genres represent combinations of others, such as massively multiplayer online role-playing games. It is also common to see higher level genre terms that are collective in nature across all other genres such as with action or horror-themed video games. Types Video games are primarily meant for entertainment. However, some video games are made (at least in part) for other reasons. These include advergames, educational games, propaganda games (e.g. militainment), and others. Many of these fall under the category of serious games. Development Video game development and authorship, much like any other form of entertainment is frequently a cross disciplinary field. Video game developers, as employees within this industry are commonly referred, primarily include programmers and graphic designers. Although, over the years this has expanded to include almost every type of skill that one might see prevalent in any movie or television program including sound designers, musicians, and other technicians; all of which are managed by producers. In the early days of the industry, it was more common for a single person to manage all of the roles needed to create a video game. As platforms have become more complex and powerful in the type of material they can present, larger teams have been needed to generate all of the art, programming, cinematography, and more. This is not to say that the age of the "one-man shop" is gone as this still occurs in the casual gaming and handheld markets where single screen games are more prevalent due to technical limitations of the target platform (such as cellphones and PDAs). With the growth of the size of development teams in the industry the problem of cost has become more critical then ever. Development studios need to be able to pay their staff a competitive wage in order to attract and retain the best talent, while publishers are constantly on the look to keep costs down in order to maintain profitability on their investment. Typically, a video game console development team can range in sizes of anywhere from 5 to 50 people, with some teams exceeding 100. The growth of team size combined with greater pressures to get completed projects into the market to begin recouping production costs has led to a greater occurrence of missed deadlines and unfinished products; Duke Nukem Forever is the quintessential example of these problems. Modifications Games running on a PC are often designed with end-user modifications in mind, and this consequently allows modern computer games to be modified by gamers without much difficulty. These mods can add an extra dimension of replayability and interest. The Internet provides an inexpensive medium to promote and distribute mods, and they have become an increasingly important factor in the commercial success of some games. Developers such as id Software, Valve Software, Crytek, Epic Games and Blizzard Entertainment ship their games with the very development tools used to make the game in the first place, along with documentation to assist mod developers, which allows for the kind of success seen by popular mods such as the (previously) Half-Life mod Counter-Strike. Cheating Cheating in computer games may involve cheat codes implemented by the game developers, modification of game code by third parties, or players exploiting a software glitch. Modifications are facilitated by either cheat cartridge hardware or a software trainer. Cheats usually make the game easier by providing an unlimited amount of some resource; for example lives, weapons, health, or ammunition. Other cheats might provide an unusual or amusing feature, like altered game colors or graphical appearances. Glitches Software errors not detected by software testers during development can find their way into released versions of computer and video games. This may happen because the glitch only occurs under unusual circumstances in the game, was deemed too minor to correct, or because the game development was hurried to meet a publication deadline. Glitches can range from minor graphical errors to serious bugs that can delete saved data or cause the game to malfunction. In some cases publishers will release updates (referred to as patches) to repair glitches. Theory Although departments of computer science have been studying the technical aspects of video games for years, theories that examine games as an artistic medium are a relatively recent development in the humanities. The two most visible schools in this emerging field are ludology and narratology. Narrativists approach video games in the context of what Janet Murray calls "Cyberdrama". That is to say, their major concern is with video games as a storytelling medium, one that arises out of interactive fiction. Murray puts video games in the context of the Holodeck, a fictional piece of technology from Star Trek, arguing for the video game as a medium in which we get to become another person, and to act out in another world. This image of video games received early widespread popular support, and forms the basis of films such as Tron, eXistenZ, and The Last Starfighter. Ludologists break sharply and radically from this. They argue that a video game is first and foremost a game, which must be understood in terms of its rules, interface, and the concept of play that it deploys. Espen J. Aarseth argues that, although games certainly have plots, characters, and aspects of traditional narratives, these aspects are incidental to gameplay. For example, Aarseth is critical of the widespread attention that narrativists have given to the curvaceous heroine of the game Tomb Raider, saying that "the dimensions of Lara Croft's body, already analyzed to death by film theorists, are irrelevant to me as a player, because a different-looking body would not make me play differently... When I play, I don't even see her body, but see through it and past it." Simply put, ludologists reject traditional theories of art because they claim that the artistic and socially relevant qualities of a video game are primarily determined by the underlying set of rules, demands, and expectations imposed on the player. While many games rely on emergent principles, video games commonly present simulated story worlds where emergent behavior occurs within the context of the game. The term "emergent narrative" has been used to describe how, in a simulated environment, storyline can be created simply by "what happens to the player." IGN: GDC 2004: Warren Spector Talks Games Narrative However, emergent behavior is not limited to sophisticated games. In generally any place where event-driven instructions occur for AI in a game, emergent behavior will exist. For instance, take a racing game in which cars are programmed to avoid crashing, and they encounter an obstacle in the track: the cars might then maneuver to avoid the obstacle causing the cars behind them to slow and/or maneuver to accommodate the cars in front of them and the obstacle. The programmer never wrote code to specifically create a traffic jam, yet one now exists in the game. Social aspects Demographics Games such as Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon Advanced Warfighter 2 are regarded as male-oriented video games. The November 2005 Nielsen Active Gamer Study, taking a survey of 2,000 regular gamers, found that the U.S. games market is diversifying. The age group among male players has expanded significantly up into the 25-40 age group. For casual online puzzle-style and simple mobile cell phone games, the gender divide is more or less equal between males and females. Females have been shown to be significantly attracted to playing certain online multi-user video games that offer a more communal experience, and a small number of young females have been shown to play aggressive games that are sometimes thought of as being "traditionally male" games. According to the ESRB almost 41% of PC gamers are women. ] from PC World, Canada With such video game social networks as Miss Video Game and Guild Cafe having a large percentages of female gamers, the "traditionally male" games are now considered cross-gendered. When comparing today’s industry climate with that of 20 years ago, women and many adults are more inclined to be using products in the industry. While the market for teen and young adult men is still a strong market, it’s the other demographics which are posting significant growth. In 2008, the average American gamer has been playing for 12 years, and is now, on average, 35 years of age. [http://www.ibisworld.com/industry/retail.aspx?indid=2003&chid=1 US Video Games Industry Report"] IBISWorld, August 2008 Multiplayer Video gaming has traditionally been a social experience. From its early beginnings, video games have commonly been playable by more than a single player. Multiplayer video games are those that can be played either competitively or cooperatively by using either multiple input devices, or by hotseating. Tennis for Two, arguably the first video game, was a two-player game, as was its successor Pong. The first commercially available game console, the Magnavox Odyssey, had two controller inputs. Since then, most consoles have been shipped with two or four controller inputs. Some have had the ability to expand to four, eight or as many as twelve inputs with additional adapters, such as the Multitap. Multiplayer arcade games typically feature play for two to four players, sometimes tilting the monitor on its back for a top-down viewing experience allowing players to sit opposite one another. Many early computer games for non-PC descendant based platforms featured multiplayer support. Personal computer systems from Atari and Commodore both regularly featured at least two game ports. PC-based computer games started with a lower availability of multiplayer options because of technical limitations. PCs typically had either one or no game ports at all. Network games for these early personal computers were generally limited to only text based adventures or MUDs that were played remotely on a dedicated server. This was due both to the slow speed of modems (300-1200-bit/s), and the prohibitive cost involved with putting a computer online in such a way where multiple visitors could make use of it. However, with the advent of widespread local area networking technologies and Internet based online capabilities, the number of players in modern games can be 32 or higher, sometimes featuring integrated text and/or voice chat. MMOs can offer extremely high numbers of simultaneous players; Eve Online set a record with just under 36,000 players on a single server in 2006. MMORPG.com report EVE Online reaching 32955 Peak Concurrent Users Benefits It has been shown that action video game players have better visuomotor skills, such as their resistance to distraction, their sensitivity to information in peripheral vision, and their ability to count briefly presented objects than nonplayers. They found that such enhanced abilities could be acquired by training with an action game, involving challenges to switch attention to different locations, but not with a game requiring concentration on single objects. It has been suggested by a few studies that online/offline video gaming can be used as a therapeutic tool in the treatment of different mental health concerns. In Steven Johnson's book, Everything Bad Is Good For You, he argues that video games in fact demand far more from a player than traditional games like Monopoly. To experience the game, the player must first determine the objectives, as well as how to complete them. They must then learn the game controls and how the human-machine interface works, including menus and HUDs. Beyond such skills, which after some time become quite fundamental and are taken for granted by many gamers, video games are based upon the player navigating (and eventually mastering) a highly complex system with many variables. This requires a strong analytical ability, as well as flexibility and adaptability. He argues that the process of learning the boundaries, goals, and controls of a given game is often a highly demanding one that calls on many different areas of cognitive function. Indeed, most games require a great deal of patience and focus from the player, and, contrary to the popular perception that games provide instant gratification, games actually delay gratification far longer than other forms of entertainment such as film or even many books. Brain Candy: The New Yorker Some research suggests video games may even increase players' attention capacities. Learning principles found in video games have been identified as possible techniques with which to reform the U.S. education system. It has been noticed that gamers adopt an attitude while playing that is of such high concentration, they don't realize they're learning, and that if the same attitude could be adopted at school, education would enjoy significant benefits. Students are found to be "learning by doing" while playing video games while fostering creative thinking. The U.S. Army has deployed machines such as the PackBot which make use of a game-style hand controller to make it more familiar for young people. According to research discussed at the 2008 Convention of the American Psychological Association, certain types of video games can improve the gamers’ dexterity as well as their ability to problem-solve. A study of 33 laparoscopic surgeons found that those who played video games were 27 percent faster at advanced surgical procedures and made 37 percent fewer errors compared to those who did not play video games. A second study of 303 laparoscopic surgeons (82 percent men; 18 percent women) also showed that surgeons who played video games requiring spatial skills and hand dexterity and then performed a drill testing these skills were significantly faster at their first attempt and across all 10 trials than the surgeons who did not play the video games first. Playing Video Games Offers Learning Across Life Span Newswise, Retrieved on August 17, 2008. Whilst many studies have detected superior mental aptitudes amongst habitual gamers, research by Walter Boot at the University of Illinois found that non-gamers showed no improvement in memory or multitasking abilities after 20 hours of playing three different games. The researchers suggested that "individuals with superior abilities are more likely to choose video gaming as an activity in the first place". Controversy Like related forms of media, computer and video games have been the subject of frequent controversy and censorship, due to the depiction of graphic violence, sexual themes, advergaming (a form of advertising in games), consumption of drugs, consumption of alcohol or tobacco, propaganda, or profanity in some games. Among others, critics of video games sometimes include parents' groups, politicians, organized religious groups, and other special interest groups, even though all of these can be found in all forms of entertainment and media. Various games have been accused of causing addiction and even violent behavior. "Video game censorship" is defined as the use of state or group power to control the playing, distribution, purchase, or sale of video games or computer games. Video game controversy comes in many forms, and censorship is a controversial subject. Proponents and opponents of censorship are often very passionate about their individual views. Various national content rating organizations, such as the Entertainment Software Ratings Board or ESRB in North America, rate software for certain age groups and with certain content warnings. Some of these organizations are optional industry self-regulation (such as the ESRB), while others are part of national government censorship organizations. Also, parents are not always aware of the existence of these ratings. Commercial aspects Game sales A typical retail display (in Geneva, Switzerland) with a large selection of games for several major consoles The three largest producers of and markets for computer and video games (in order) are North America (US and Canada), Japan and the United Kingdom. Other significant markets include Australia, Spain, Germany, South Korea, Mexico, France and Italy. Computer And Video Games: A British Phenomena Around the World (PDF) Both India and China are considered emerging markets in the video game industry and sales are expected to rise significantly in the coming years. Sales of different types of games vary widely between these markets due to local preferences. Japanese consumers tend to purchase console games over computer games, with a strong preference for games catering to local tastes. In South Korea, computer games are preferred, especially MMORPG games and real-time strategy games. There are over 20,000 Internet cafés in South Korea where computer games can be played for an hourly charge. The NPD Group tracks computer and video game sales in the United States. It reported that: Console and portable software sales: $6.2 billion, up 8% from 2003 Console and portable hardware and accessory sales: $3.7 billion, down 35% from 2003 PC game sales: $1.1 billion, down 15% from 2006 PC games that are digitally distributed either directly or by networks such as Steam are not tracked by the NPD, and Steam does not list sales numbers for games downloaded through their service. Unauthorized distribution is also rampant on the PC. These figures are sales in dollars, not units, Unit shipments for each category were higher than the dollar sales numbers indicate, because more software and hardware was discounted than in 2003. But with the release of the next-generation consoles in 2006, these numbers increased dramatically. The game and film industries are also becoming increasingly intertwined, with companies like Sony having significant stakes in both. A large number of summer blockbuster films spawn a companion game, often launching at the same time to share the marketing costs. Criticism In Australia, the United Kingdom and other PAL regions, generally when compared to the US, PAL gamers pay 40% to 50% more for the same product. "Article on Regional Lockout Pricing" As English is the main language in Australia and the UK there is little impetus for translation (although regional differences naturally exist). The differences between PAL and NTSC are these days irrelevant; most video displays run at least 60Hz. But there is a legal problem of regional lockout in Australia, with most DVD players release coming region-free to meet local laws. "High Court of Australia enforcing region free" But video game consoles are still sold fully region-locked in Australia. Some effort to increase awareness of the issue, specifically to Nintendo of Australia, Nintendo Australia was in the form of a formal report outlining the issues, published by Aaron Rex Davies. "Research report into excessive delays in release of Wii software by Nintendo in Australia and New Zealand regions" by Aaron Rex Davies (PDF) The report has gone on to gain a lot of attention in the public media. "Australia to Nintendo: Knock It Off" See also Audio game :Category:Novels based on video games Computer Games Artist Gamers Outreach Foundation Gaming PC History of Games Nonviolent video game Personal computer game ROM Unlockable games Videogame art Video game collecting Video game console emulator Video game culture Video game industry Video game packaging Lists List of gaming topics List of home computers by video hardware Lists of video games References Williams, J. P., & Smith, J. H., eds. (2007). The players' realm: studies on the culture of video games and gaming. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co. ISBN 9780786428328 Additional reading External links Tom Chatfield writes on the culture and future of video games for Prospect Magazine CBC Digital Archives: The Arcade Age | Video_game |@lemmatized video:83 game:179 electronic:7 involve:5 interaction:2 user:7 interface:3 generate:2 visual:2 feedback:3 device:15 word:1 traditionally:4 refer:4 raster:1 display:12 however:4 popular:4 use:26 term:6 imply:1 type:8 system:7 play:26 know:1 platform:9 example:8 personal:6 computer:33 console:15 range:3 large:6 small:2 handheld:3 specialized:3 arcade:6 previously:2 common:4 gradually:1 decline:1 input:5 manipulate:1 call:4 controller:5 varies:1 across:4 dedicated:1 might:4 consist:2 button:3 joystick:3 another:4 may:7 feature:7 dozen:1 one:11 early:10 often:5 need:4 keyboard:2 gameplay:2 commonly:5 require:6 buy:1 separate:1 least:4 many:13 modern:3 allow:6 even:7 player:23 mouse:1 simultaneously:1 typically:5 also:10 way:3 provide:5 information:2 audio:2 almost:3 universal:1 sound:2 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2,310 | Hamburg | Hamburg (; , local pronunciation Low German/Low Saxon: Hamborg ) is the second-largest city in Germany (after Berlin). The city is home to approximately 1.8 million people, while the Hamburg metropolitan area (including parts of the neighboring Federal States of Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein) has more than 4.3 million inhabitants. The port of Hamburg is the second-largest port in Europe (after that of Rotterdam), and the ninth-largest in the world. Hamburg's official name is the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg (German: Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg). Constitution of Hamburg It makes reference to Hamburg's history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, as a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, and also to the fact that Hamburg is a city-state and one of the sixteen Federal States of Germany. Hamburg is a major transportation hub in northern Germany and became a media and industrial center with factories such as Blohm + Voss and Norddeutsche Affinerie. The radio and television broadcaster Norddeutscher Rundfunk and publishers such as Gruner + Jahr and Spiegel-Verlag represent the important media industry in Hamburg. In total there are more than 120,000 enterprises. The city is a major tourist destination both for domestic and overseas visitors, receiving about 7.4 million overnight stays in 2007. History The city takes its name from the first permanent building on the site, a castle ordered to be built by Emperor Charlemagne in 808 AD. The castle was built on rocky ground in a marsh between the River Alster and the River Elbe as a defence against Slavic incursion. The castle was named Hammaburg, where burg means castle. The Hamma element remains uncertain, as does the location of this castle. In 834, Hamburg was designated the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric, whose first bishop, Ansgar, became known as the Apostle of the North. Two years later, Hamburg was united with Bremen as the bishopric of Hamburg-Bremen. Verg, p.15 In 1529, the city embraced Lutheranism, and Hamburg subsequently received Protestant refugees from the Netherlands and France and, in the 17th century, Sephardi Jews from Portugal. Hamburg was destroyed and occupied several times. In 845, a fleet of 600 Viking ships came up the River Elbe and destroyed Hamburg, at that time a town of around 500 inhabitants. Verg, p.15 In 1030, the city was burned down by King Mieszko II Lambert of Poland. Valdemar II of Denmark raided and occupied Hamburg in 1201 and in 1214. The Black Death killed at least 60% of Hamburg's population in 1350. Hamburg had several great fires, the most notable ones in 1284 and 1842. In 1842, about a quarter of the inner city was destroyed in the "Great Fire". This fire started on the night of the 4 May, 1842 and was extinguished on May 8. It destroyed three churches, the town hall, and many other buildings, killed 51 people, and left an estimated 20,000 homeless. Reconstruction took more than 40 years. Hamburg was briefly annexed by Napoleon I (1810–14). Russian forces under General Bennigsen finally freed the city in 1814. During World War II Hamburg suffered a series of air raids, which killed 42,000 civilians. On February 16, 1962 a severe storm caused the Elbe to rise to an all-time high, inundating one-fifth of Hamburg and killing more than 300 people. The charter in 1189 by Frederick I "Barbarossa" granted Hamburg the status of an Imperial Free City and tax-free access up the Lower Elbe into the North Sea. In 1265, a putative forged letter was presented to or by the Rath of Hamburg. Verg, p. 26 This charter, along with Hamburg's proximity to the main trade routes of the North Sea and Baltic Sea, quickly made it a major port in Northern Europe. Its trade alliance with Lübeck in 1241 marks the origin and core of the powerful Hanseatic League of trading cities. On November 8, 1266 a contract between Henry III and Hamburg's traders allowed them to establish a hanse in London. This was the first time in history the word hanse was mentioned for the trading guild Hanseatic League. Verg, p. 30 The first description of civil, criminal and procedural law for a city in Germany in German language, the Ordeelbook (Ordeel: sentence) was written by the solicitor of the senate Jordan von Boitzenburg in 1270. On August 10, 1410 civil commotion caused a compromise (German:Rezeß, literally meaning: withdrawal). It is the considered as the first constitution of Hamburg. Verg, p. 39 In 1860, the state of Hamburg established a republican constitution. Hamburg was an independent state of the German Confederation (1815–66), the North German Confederation (1866–71), the German Empire (1871–1918) and during the period of the Weimar Republic (1919–33). In Nazi Germany Hamburg was a Gau from 1934 until 1945. After the Second World War, Hamburg was in the British Zone of Occupation and became a state of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949. During the first half of the 19th century, a patron goddess with Hamburg's Latin name Hammonia emerged, mostly in romantic and poetic references, and although she has no mythology to call her own, Hammonia became the symbol of the city's spirit during this time. Hamburg experienced its fastest growth during the second half of the 19th century, when its population more than quadrupled to 800,000 as the growth of the city's Atlantic trade helped make it Europe's third-largest port. With Albert Ballin as its director, the Hamburg-America Line became the world's largest transatlantic shipping company at the turn of the century, and Hamburg was also home to shipping companies to South America, Africa, India and East Asia. Hamburg was the port for most Germans and Eastern Europeans to leave for the New World and became home to trading communities from all over the world. Allied bombing during Second World War led to high civilian casualties, a devastated city as well as destroyed harbour areas. Hamburg surrendered without further casualties to British Forces on April, 3 1945. Almost 70,000 persons were murdered in the Neuengamme concentration camp. Hamburg in your pocket, September – October 2008, page 6: History The inner German border—only east of Hamburg—separated the city from most of its hinterland and further reduced Hamburg's global trade. After German reunification in 1990, and the accession of some Eastern European and Baltic States into the EU in 2004, Hamburg Harbour and Hamburg have ambitions for regaining their positions as the region's largest deep-sea port for container shipping and its major commercial and trading centre. Geography Hamburg is located on the southern point of the Jutland Peninsula, directly between Continental Europe to its south, Scandinavia to its north, the North Sea to its west, and the Baltic Sea to its east. Hamburg is located in the position where the River Elbe meets with the rivers Alster and Bille. The central city area is situated around the Binnenalster ("Inner Alster") and the Außenalster ("Outer Alster") both of which are originally the river Alster but retained as lakes. The island of Neuwerk and two other islands in the North Sea are also part of Hamburg, located in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park. Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park Act The Altes Land region (old land) is the biggest contiguous fruit orchard in Central Europe. It extends over . 76.8% of the trees are apples, 12.7% are cherries. It includes the quarters of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder and parts of the state of Lower Saxony. In the quarter Neugraben-Fischbek is the highest rise of Hamburg, the Hasselbrack is AMSL. Climate The warmest months in Hamburg are June, July, and August, with mean temperatures of 19.9 to 22.2 °C (67.8 to 72.0 °F). The coldest are December, January, and February, with mean temperatures of -1.4 to 0.0 °C (29.5 to 32 °F). Cityscape Architecture | |- | |- | |- | |} Hamburg has architecturally significant buildings in a wide range of styles. There are only a few skyscrapers. Churches like St. Nicholas's church, the world tallest building in the 19th century, are important landmarks. The skyline of Hamburg features the high spires of the principal churches (Hauptkirchen) Saint Michael's Church (nicknamed “Michel"), Saint Peter's Church, Saint James's Church and Saint Catherine's Church covered with copper plates. The many canals in Hamburg are crossed by over 2300 bridges, more than those of Amsterdam and Venice combined. Hamburg has more bridges inside its city limits than any other city in the world. The Köhlbrandbrücke, Freihafen Elbbrücken, and Lombardsbrücke and Kennedybrücke dividing Binnenalster from Aussenalster are important traffic structures. The townhall is a richly decorated Neo-Renaissance building finished in 1897. The tower is high. Its facade, long, depicts the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, since Hamburg was, as a Free Imperial City, only under the sovereignty of the emperor. The Chilehaus, a brick stone office building built in 1922 and designed by architect Fritz Höger is spectacularly shaped like an ocean liner. To be completed around 2015, Europe's largest inner city development as of 2008, the quarter HafenCity, will house about 10,000 inhabitants and 15,000 workers. Its ambitious planning and architecture (among other designs by Rem Kolhaas and Renzo Piano will be realized) are slowly coming into shape. By the end of 2010, the Elbe Philharmonic Hall (Elbphilharmonie) is scheduled to house its first concerts in a spectacular building designed by the Swiss firm Herzog & de Meuron on top of an old warehouse. The many parks of Hamburg are distributed over the whole city, which makes Hamburg a very green city. The biggest parks are the Stadtpark, the Ohlsdorf Cemetery and Planten un Blomen. The Stadtpark, Hamburg's "Central Park", has a great lawn and a huge watertower, which houses one of Europe's biggest Planetariums. The park and its buildings were also designed by Fritz Schumacher in the 1910s. Boroughs Hamburg is made up of 7 boroughs (German: Bezirke) and subdivided into 105 quarters (German: Stadtteile). There are also 180 localities (German: Ortsteile). As of 2008, the areal organization is regulated by the Constitution of Hamburg and several laws. In the constitution is determined that an area could be created by law for administrative purposes. Borough Administration Act Most of the quarters were former independent cities, towns or villages annexed into Hamburg proper. In 1938, the last large incorporation was done through the Greater Hamburg Act of 1937, when the cities Altona, Harburg and Wandsbek were merged into the state of Hamburg. Greater Hamburg Act The Reich Act of the Constitution and Administration of Hanseatic city of Hamburg established Hamburg as a state and a municipality. Reich Act of the Constitution and Administration of Hanseatic city of Hamburg Some of the boroughs and quarters have been rearranged several times over the years. Each borough is governed by a Borough Council (German: Bezirksamt), administrated by the Municipal Councilor (German: Bezirksamtsleiter). The boroughs of Hamburg are not independent municipalities. The power of borough governments is limited and subordinate to the Senate of Hamburg. The municipal councilors is elected by the Diet of the Borough and thereafter his admission needs to get appointed by Hamburgs's senate. The quarters have no government bodies of their own. In 2008 the boroughs of Hamburg were Altona, Bergedorf, Eimsbüttel, Hamburg-Mitte, Hamburg-Nord, Harburg and Wandsbek. Hamburg Act of Areal Organization Altona is the westernmost urban borough on the right bank of the Elbe river. From 1640 to 1864 Altona was under the administration of the Danish monarchy. Altona was an independent city until 1937. Politically, the following quarters are subject to the Altona borough: Altona-Altstadt, Altona-Nord, Bahrenfeld, Ottensen, Othmarschen, Groß Flottbek, Osdorf, Lurup, Nienstedten, Blankenese, Iserbrook, Sülldorf, Rissen, Sternschanze. In 2006 the population was 243,972. In 2006 Bergedorf was the largest of the seven boroughs and a quarter within this borough. As of 2006 the population was 118,942. The borough Bergedorf consists of the quarters Allermöhe, Altengamme, Bergedorf, Billwerder, Curslack, Kirchwerder, Lohbrügge, Moorfleet, Neuengamme, Ochsenwerder, Reitbrook, Spadenland and Tatenberg. In 2006 the population of Eimsbüttel was 246,087. The borough Eimsbüttel is split into nine quarters: Eidelstedt, Eimsbüttel, Harvestehude, Hoheluft-West, Lokstedt, Niendorf, Rotherbaum, Schnelsen and Stellingen. Located within this borough is former Jewish neighbourhood Grindel. Hamburg-Mitte (Rough translation: Hamburg center) covers mostly the urban center of the city of Hamburg. In 2006 the population was 233,144. It consits of the quarters Billbrook, Billstedt, Borgfelde, Finkenwerder, HafenCity, Hamm-Nord, Hamm-Mitte, Hamm-Süd, Hammerbrook, Horn, Kleiner Grasbrook, Neuwerk, Rothenburgsort, St. Georg, St. Pauli, Steinwerder, Veddel, Waltershof and Wilhelmsburg. The quarters Hamburg-Alstadt (Rough translation: Hamburg old city) and Neustadt (Rough translation: new city) are the historical origin of Hamburg. In 2006, the population of Hamburg-Nord (Rough translation: Hamburg north) was 280,229 in an area of . Hamburg-Nord consists of the quarters Alsterdorf, Barmbek-Nord, Barmbek-Süd, Dulsberg, Eppendorf, Fuhlsbüttel, Groß Borstel, Hoheluft-Ost, Hohenfelde, Langenhorn, Ohlsdorf, Uhlenhorst and Winterhude. Harburg is a borough of the city and a quarter in this borough. The borough Harburg lies on the southern shores of the river Elbe and covers parts of the port of Hamburg, residential and rural areas and some research institutes. In 2006 the population of the borough was 201,119, including the quarter with 21,193. In the borough Harburg are the quarters Altenwerder, Cranz, Eißendorf, Francop, Gut Moor, Harburg, Hausbruch, Heimfeld, Langenbek, Marmstorf, Moorburg, Neuenfelde, Neugraben-Fischbek, Neuland, Rönneburg, Sinstorf and Wilstorf. In 2006, Wandsbek was the second-largest of seven boroughs that make up the city of Hamburg. The quarter Wandsbek, which was the former independent city, is urban and, with the quarters Eilbek and Marienthal, part of the city's economic and cultural core. Like the other boroughs of Hamburg, Wandsbek is divided into quarters. They are Bergstedt, Bramfeld, Duvenstedt, Eilbek, Farmsen-Berne, Hummelsbüttel, Jenfeld, Lemsahl-Mellingstedt, Marienthal, Poppenbüttel, Rahlstedt, Sasel, Steilshoop, Tonndorf, Volksdorf, Wandsbek, Wellingsbüttel and Wohldorf-Ohlstedt. In 2006 the population was 409,771. Culture and contemporary life Hamburg offers more than 40 theatres, 60 museums and 100 music venues and clubs. In 2005, more than 18 million people visited concerts, exhibitions, theatres, cinemas, museums, and other performances of cultural achievement. More than 8,552 taxable companies – the average size was 3.16 employees – were engaged in culture like music, performing arts and literature. There are 5 companies in the creative sector per thousand residents (Berlin 3, London 37). Theaters | |- | |} The state-owned Deutsches Schauspielhaus, the Thalia Theater, and the Kampnagel are well-known theatres in Germany and abroad. The English Theatre near U2 Mundsburg station was established in 1976 and is the oldest professional English speaking theatre in Germany having exclusively English native speaking actors in its staff. Museums Art Gallery and Gallery of Contemporary Arts (Kunsthalle Hamburg) is located near central station. In 2008 the Internationales Maritimes Museum Hamburg opened in the HafenCity quarter. Two museum ships near Landungsbrücken bear witness to freight ship (Cap San Diego) and cargo sailing ship (Rickmer Rickmers) time. Museum BallinStadt Emigration City reminds of the vast streams of European people emigrating from those mass accommodation halls between 1850 and 1939 to North and South America. Those people from overseas stemming from emigrants may search in data banks for their ancestors. Music The Hamburg State Opera is one of the leading German opera houses. Its orchestra is the Philharmoniker Hamburg. Hamburg's other orchestra is the North German Radio Symphony Orchestra. The main concert venue is the Laeiszhalle Musikhalle Hamburg, pending the completion of the Elbphilharmonie Hamburg. The Laeiszhalle is the home of the Hamburger Symphoniker. Hamburg was one city to take part in the Complaints Choir project. Since the German premiere of Cats in 1985 there are always a number of musicals being played in the city. Among them have been Phantom of the Opera, The Lion King or Dirty Dancing (before there was Dance of the Vampires). This density, which is the highest in Germany, is partly due to Germany's major musical production company Stage Entertainment being located in Hamburg. One of the musical theatres is a large tent in the harbour, guests either arrive by boat or through the historic Old Elbe Tunnel. Music in Hamburg diversifies from classical music to hip hop, heavy metal, and psychedelic trance music. Hamburg and vicinity is a popular place of residence for famous contemporary classical composers. Hungarian composer György Ligeti (1923–2006) also known for his music in films by Stanley Kubrick lived in Hamburg for 30 years and taught at the local music academy. He was succeeded at the academy by the Russian-German composer Alfred Schnittke (1934–1998) who died in Hamburg. It is home to German hip hop acts, such as Fünf Sterne deluxe, Samy Deluxe, Beginner and Fettes Brot. There is also a quite big alternative and punk scene, which gathers around the Rote Flora, a squatted former theatre located in the quarter Sternschanze. Hamburg is also famous for an original kind of German alternative music called Hamburger Schule ("Hamburg School"), a term used for bands like Tocotronic, Blumfeld, and Tomte. Hamburg was one of the major centers of the heavy metal music world in the 1980s. Many bands such as Helloween, Running Wild and Grave Digger started their careers in Hamburg. The influences of these bands and other bands from the area were critical to establishing the subgenre of power metal. Hamburg is also one of the most important global centres for psychedelic trance music. It is home to record labels such as Spirit Zone, mushroom magazine, the world's best known and longest running psy-trance magazine, as well as parties and club nights. Tourism | |- | |- | |- | |} Tourists play a significant role in the city's economy. In 2007, Hamburg attracted more than 3,985,105 visitors (+3.7% to 2006) with 7,402,423 overnight accommodations (+3.1%). More than 700,000 people from abroad were visiting for an average duration of stay of 2.1 days. More than 175,000 full-time employees and a revenue of €9.3 billion make the tourism industry a major economic factor in the Hamburg Metropolitan Region. Hamburg has one of the fastest-growing tourism industries in Germany. From 2001 to 2007, the overnight stays in the city grew about 55.2% (Berlin +52.7%, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania +33%). A typical Hamburg visit includes a tour of the city hall and the grand church St. Michaelis (called the Michel), and visiting the old warehouse district (Speicherstadt) and the harbour promenade (Landungsbrücken). Sightseeing buses connect these points of interest. As Hamburg is one of the world's largest harbours many visitors take one of the harbour and/or canal boat tours (Große Hafenrundfahrt, Fleetfahrt) which start from the Landungsbrücken. Major destinations also include museums. Many visitors take a walk in the evening around the area of Reeperbahn in the quarter St. Pauli, considered Europe's largest red light district and home of strip clubs, brothels, bars and nightclubs. The singer and actor Hans Albers is strongly associated with St. Pauli, providing in the 1940s the neighborhood's unofficial anthem, "Auf der Reeperbahn Nachts um Halb Eins." The song explains in a polite way how a sailor enjoys his last day with a trollop before going aboard. It was in the Reeperbahn that The Beatles began their career with a 48-night residency at the Indra Club, and then another 58 nights at the Kaiserkeller, in 1960, the Top Ten Club (1961), and the Star-Club (1962). Others prefer the laidback neighborhood Schanze with its street cafés or a barbecue on one of the beaches along the river Elbe. Hamburg's famous zoo, the Tierpark Hagenbeck, was founded in 1907 by Carl Hagenbeck as the first zoo with moated, barless enclosures. People may visit Hamburg because of a specific interest, notably one of the musicals, a sports event, a congress or fair. In 2005 the average visitor spent two nights in Hamburg. The majority of visitors come from Germany (80%); most foreigners are European, especially from the United Kingdom and Switzerland, and the largest group from outside Europe comes from the United States. Festivals and regular events Hamburg is noted for several festivals and regular events. Some of them are street festivals, such as the gay pride Christopher Street Day festival or the Alster fair, held at the Binnenalster. The Hamburger Dom is a northern Germany's biggest fun fair held three times a year. Hafengeburtstag is a funfair to honour the birthday of the port of Hamburg with a party and a ship parade. The biker's divine service in Saint Michael's Church attracts tens of thousands biker. Christmas markets in December were held among other locations at the Hamburg Rathaus square. For art and culture the long night of museums offers one entrance fee for about 40 museums until midnight. In 2008 the 6th festival of cultures was held in September, to celebrate the multi cultural life. The Filmfest Hamburg—a film festival originated from the 1950s film days (German: Film Tage) and others—presents a wide range of films. The Hamburg Messe and Congress offers a location for several trade fairs, such hanseboot, an international boat show, or Du und deine Welt, a large consumer exhibition. Regular sports events—some open to pro and amateur participants—are the cycling competition Vattenfall Cyclassics, Hamburg Marathon, the biggest marathon in Germany after Berlin, the tennis tournament Hamburg Masters and equestrian events like Deutsches Derby. Cuisine Original Hamburg dishes are Bohnen, Birnen und Speck (Low Saxon Bohn, Peern un Speck, green runner beans cooked with pears and bacon), Aalsuppe (Low Saxon Oolsupp, often mistaken to be German for “eel soup“ (Aal/Ool translated ‘eel’), however the name probably comes from the Low Saxon allns [ʔaˑlns], meaning “all”, “everything and the kitchen sink”, not necessarily eel. Today eel is often included to meet the expectations of unsuspecting diners.), Bratkartoffeln (Low Saxon Brootkartüffeln, pan-fried potato slices), Finkenwerder Scholle (Low Saxon Finkwarder Scholl, pan-fried plaice), Pannfisch (pan-fried fish), Rote Grütze (Low Saxon Rode Grütt, related to Danish rødgrød, a type of summer pudding made mostly from berries and usually served with cream, like Danish rødgrød med fløde) and Labskaus (a mixture of corned beef, mashed potatoes and beetroot, a cousin of the Norwegian lapskaus and Liverpool's lobscouse, all offshoots off an old-time one-pot meal that used to be the main component of the common sailor's humdrum diet on the high seas). Munich is the birthplace of Radler, which is called Alsterwasser in Hamburg (a reference to the city's river Alster with two lake-like bodies in the city center thanks to damming), both a type of shandy, a concoction of equal parts of beer and carbonated lemonade (Zitronenlimonade), the lemonade being added to the beer. Hamburg is also home to a curious regional dessert pastry called Franzbrötchen. Looking rather like a flattened croissant, the Franzbrötchen is somewhat similar in preparation but includes a cinnamon and sugar filling, often with raisins or brown sugar streusel. The name may also reflect to the roll's croissant-like appearance – franz appears to be a shortening of französisch, meaning "French", which would make a Franzbrötchen a “French roll.” Being a Hamburg regional food, the Franzbrötchen becomes quite scarce outside the borders of the city; as near as Lunenburg (Lüneburg) it can only be found as a Hamburger and is not available in Bremen at all. Ordinary bread rolls tend to be oval-shaped and of the French bread variety. The local name is Rundstück (“round piece” rather than mainstream German Brötchen, diminutive form of Brot “bread”), a relative of Denmark's rundstykke. In fact, while by no means identical, the cuisines of Hamburg and Denmark, especially of Copenhagen have a lot in common. This also includes a predilection for open-faced sandwiches of all sorts, especially topped with cold-smoked or pickled fish. The American hamburger seems to have developed from Hamburg's Frikadelle (or Frikandelle): a pan-fried patty (usually larger and thicker than the American counterpart) made from a mixture of ground beef, soaked stale bread, egg, chopped onion, salt and pepper, usually served with potatoes and vegetables like any other piece of meat, not usually on a bun. Many Hamburgers consider their Frikadelle and the American hamburger different, virtually unrelated. The Oxford Dictionary defined a Hamburger steak in 1802: a sometimes-smoked and -salted piece of meat, that, according to some sources, came from Hamburg to America. Sport Hamburg is sometimes called Germany's capital of sport since no other city is home to more first league teams and international sports events. Hamburger SV, one of the most successful teams in Germany, is a football team in the Bundesliga. HSV is a six-time German champion, a three-time German cup winner and triumphed in the European Cup in 1983, and has played in the group stages of the Champions League twice: in 2000/2001 and in 2006/2007. They play at the HSH Nordbank Arena (average attendance in the 06/07 season was 56 100). In addition, FC St. Pauli is a second division football club. They play at the Millerntor-Stadion. The Hamburg Freezers represent Hamburg in the DEL, the highest ice hockey league in Germany. The HSV Handball represents Hamburg in the German handball league. In 2007, HSV Handball won the European Cupwinners Cup. Both teams play in the ultra-modern Color Line Arena. Hamburg is the nation's field hockey capital and dominates the men's as well as the women's Bundesliga. There are also several minority sports clubs; Hamburg has four cricket clubs and also the lacrosse team Hamburg Warriors at the Harvestehuder Tennis- und Hockey-Club e.V. (HTHC). Hamburg is also home to the Hamburg Dockers, an Australian rules football club. The FC St.Pauli dominates women's Rugby in Germany. Other first league teams include NA Hamburg (Volleyball), Hamburger Polo Club, Blue Devils (American Football). The Center Court of the Tennis Am Rothenbaum venue with a capacity of 13,200 people is the largest in Germany. In 2008 the German Tennis Federation and the ATP were divided about the status of the Hamburg Masters tournament as event of the ATP Masters Series. Hamburg also hosts equestrian events at Reitstadion Klein Flottbek (Deutsches Derby in jumping and dressage) and Horner Rennbahn (Deutsches Derby flat racing). The Hamburg Marathon is the biggest marathon in Germany after Berlin. In 2008 23,230 participants were registered. Worldcups in cycling, the UCI ProTour competition Vattenfall Cyclassics, and the triathlon ITU worldcup Hamburg City Man are also held in Hamburg. The HSH Nordbank Arena (formerly the AOL Arena and originally Volksparkstadion) was used a site for the 2006 World Cup. In 2010 UEFA will hold the final of the UEFA Cup in the arena. Language As elsewhere in Northern Germany, the original language of Hamburg is Low German, usually referred to as Hamborger Platt (German Hamburger Platt) or Hamborgsch. It is still in use, albeit by a minority and rarely in public, probably due to a hostile climate between World War II and the early 1980s. Since large-scale Germanization beginning in earnest within the 18th century, various Low German-colored dialects have developed (contact-varieties of German on Low Saxon substrates). Originally, there was a range of such Missingsch varieties, the best-known being the low-prestige ones of the working classes and the somewhat more bourgeois Hanseatendeutsch (Hanseatic German), although the term is used in appreciation. All of these are now moribund due to the influences of “proper” German propagated by education and media. However, the former importance of Low German is indicated by several songs, such as the famous sea shanty Hamborger Veermaster, written in the 19th century when Low German was used more frequently. In addition, immigration brought dialects from all over the German-speaking world used to Hamburg, also a large number of foreign language communities. Hamburg has a sizeable population of Sinti and Roma (“Gypsy”) people, some of them sedentary (mostly Sinti) and some of them nomadic or semi-nomadic (mostly Roma), camp grounds being set aside by the state and municipal governments. Hamburg is thus one of the few locations in the world in which both Sinti and Romany are spoken, and it is also one of the major headquarters of international Roma organizations. Memorials Memorial for successful English engineer William Lindley, who reorganized from 1842 on the drinking water and sewerage system of Hamburg and thus helped to fight against cholera is located near Baumwall train station in the street "Vorsetzen". In 2009, more than 2,500 stumbling blocks (Stolpersteine) were laid with the names of deported and murdered citizens. Inserted into the pavement in front of their former houses, the blocks are supposed to draw attention to the victims, who were persecuted by the Nazis. Government The city of Hamburg is one of 16 German states, therefore the First Mayor of Hamburg's office corresponds more to the role of a minister-president than to the one of a city mayor. In Hamburg, the government as a German state government is responsible for public education, correctional institutions and public safety, but also as a municipality for libraries, recreational facilities, sanitation, water supply and welfare services. Since 1897 seat of the government is the Hamburg Rathaus with the office for the First Mayor, the meeting room for the Senate and the floor for the Hamburg Parliament. As of 2008 the First Mayor of Hamburg was Ole von Beust, who governed in Germany's first state-wide "black-green" coalition, consisting of the conservative CDU and the alternative Green Party. Economy The gross domestic product (GDP) in Hamburg is total €88.9 billion. The city has the highest GDP in Germany – €50,000 per capita – and a relatively high employment rate, with 88 percent of the working-age population. The city is home to over 120,000 enterprises. In 2007, the average income of employees was €30,937. The most significant economic unit for Hamburg is the Port of Hamburg, which ranks 2nd only to Rotterdam in Europe and 9th worldwide with transshipments of of cargo and 134 million tons of goods in 2007. After German reunification, Hamburg recovered the eastern portion of its hinterland, becoming by far the fastest-growing port in Europe. International trade is also the reason for the large number of consulates in the city. Although situated up the Elbe, it is considered a sea port due to its ability to handle large ocean-going vessels. M. Ramesh: Making Hamburg Europe's preferred port December 25, 2000 http://www.hinduonnet.com Accessed August 11, 2008 Hamburg, along with Seattle and Toulouse, is an important location of the civil aerospace industry. Airbus, which has an assembly plant in Hamburg, employs over 13,000 people in the Finkenwerder quarter. Heavy industry includes the making of steel, aluminum, copper and a number of shipyards such as Blohm + Voss. Media Other important industries are media businesses with over 70,000 employees. The section Norddeutscher Rundfunk of the television and radio network ARD with its television station NDR Fernsehen is based in Hamburg; as well as the commercial television stations Hamburg 1 and Tide TV. Most of the commercial German television networks have offices for their local stations. There are some regional radio stations such as Radio Hamburg. Some of Germany's largest publishing companies, Axel Springer AG, Gruner + Jahr, Bauer Media Group are located in the city. Many national newspapers and magazines such as Der Spiegel and Die Zeit are produced in Hamburg, as well as some special-interest newspapers such as Financial Times Deutschland. The Hamburger Abendblatt is a daily regional newspaper with having a large circulation. There is also a number of music companies (the largest being Warner Bros. Records Germany) and Internet businesses (e.g., AOL, Adobe Systems and Google Germany, and also Web 2.0 companies like Qype and XING). Jimdo GmbH, a German web hosting provider, is headquartered in Hamburg. "United Internet AG acquires a minority stake in Jimdo GmbH." Thomson Reuters. July 8, 2008. Retrieved on May 1, 2009. Hamburg was one of the locations for the film Tomorrow Never Dies of the James Bond series. Filming the final leap of the car chase, and the exterior of Bond's hotel, the Atlantic Hotel Kempinski at the Binnenalster. The Reeperbahn street was location for many sets, among other the 1994 Beatles film Backbeat. Demographics On December 31, 2006 there were 1,754,182 registered people living in Hamburg (up from 1,652,363 in 1990) in an area of . The population density was . The metropolitan area of the Hamburg region (Hamburg Metropolitan Region) is home to about 4.3 million in an area of . There were 856,132 males and 898,050 females in Hamburg. For every 1,000 males there were 1,049 females. In 2006 there were 16,089 births in Hamburg, of which 33.1% were given by unmarried women, 6,921 marriages and 4,583 divorces. In the city, the population was spread out with 15.7% under the age of 18, and 18.8% were 65 years of age or older. 257,060 resident aliens were living in Hamburg (14.8% of the population). The largest group are people with only Turkish citizenship with 58,154 (22.6% of the resident aliens), followed by 20,743 with only Polish citizenship. 4,046 people were from the United Kingdom and 4,369 were from the United States. According to GTZ, 22,000 immigrants living in Hamburg are from Afghanistan, thus forming the largest Afghanistani community in Germany and Europe. GTZ – Migration and development: Afghans in Germany In 1999, there were 910,304 households, out of which 18.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, and 47.9% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 1.9. Selectable data base: Religion About 31.7% of Hamburg's population belongs to the Lutheran North Elbian Evangelical Church, and 10.2% to the Roman Catholic Church. There are more than 70,000 people of Muslim faith living in Hamburg, making Islam the next-largest religion in the city. The remainder of the population consists of members of smaller Christian churches, Buddhists, Sikhs, Hindus , Jews, and those unaffiliated with any faith. Hamburg is seat of one of the three bishops of the Lutheran North Elbian Evangelical Church and seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Hamburg. There are several mosques, including the Islamic Centre Hamburg and a growing Jewish community. Infrastructure Health systems Hamburg is home to 54 hospitals. The University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf with about 1300 beds is a large medical school. There are also smaller private hospitals with 40 beds. On December 31, 2007 there were about 12,600 hospital beds in Hamburg proper. In 2006 1,061 day-care centers for children, 3,841 physicians in private practice and 462 pharmacies were counted in Hamburg. Transport | |- | |- | |} Hamburg is a major transportation hub in Germany. Hamburg is connected to four Autobahnen (motorways) and is the most important railway junction on the route to Scandinavia. Bridges and tunnels connect the northern and southern parts of the city, such as the old Elbe Tunnel (Alter Elbtunnel) now a major tourist sight, and the Elbe Tunnel (Elbtunnel) the crossing of a motorway. Hamburg Airport is the oldest airport in Germany still in operation. There is also the smaller Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport, used only as a company airport for Airbus. Some airlines market Lübeck Airport in Lübeck as serving Hamburg. Hamburg's license plate prefix is HH (Hansestadt Hamburg, English: Hanseatic city of Hamburg), rather than just the single-letter normally used for large cities such as B for Berlin or M for Munich. The prefix "H" is used in Hanover instead. Public transportation Public transportation by rail, bus and ships is organized by a fare-collection joint venture between transportation companies. Tickets sold by one company in this Hamburger Verkehrsverbund (Hamburg traffic group) (HVV) are valid on all other HVV companies' services. The HVV was the first organization of this kind worldwide. Rail Nine mass transit rail lines across the city are the backbone of Hamburg public transportation. The Hamburg S-Bahn system comprises six lines and the Hamburg U-Bahn three lines. U-Bahn is short for Untergrundbahn (underground railway). Approximately of of the subway is underground; most of the tracks are on embankments, viaducts or at ground level. Older residents still speak of the system as Hochbahn (elevated railway), also due to the fact that the operating company of the subway is the Hamburger Hochbahn. A light rail system, the AKN railway, connects to satellite towns in Schleswig-Holstein to the city. Regional trains of Germany's major railway company Deutsche Bahn AG and the regional metronom trains may be used with a HVV public transport ticket, too. Except at the three bigger stations in the center of Hamburg, like Hamburg central station, Hamburg Dammtor station, or Hamburg-Altona station, the regional trains hardly stop inside the area of the city. The tram network was shut down in 1978. Bus Gaps in the rail network are filled by bus routes, plied by single-deck, two-, three- and four-axle diesel buses. Hamburg has no trams or trolley-buses, but has hydrogen-fueled buses operating pilot services. A 24-hour bus network operates as frequently as every 2 minutes on busy routes (30 minutes in suburban areas). Ferries There are six ferry lines along the river Elbe, operated by the HADAG company. While mainly used by Hamburg citizens and dock workers, they can also be used for sightseeing tours. Utilities Electricity for Hamburg and Northern Germany is provided by Vattenfall Europe, former state-owned Hamburgische Electricitäts-Werke. Vattenfall Europe owns nuclear power plants near Hamburg, Brokdorf Nuclear Power Plant, Brunsbüttel Nuclear Power Plant and Krümmel Nuclear Power Plant. All scheduled to be taken out of service. The Stade Nuclear Power Plant was the first nuclear plant shut down after Germany's nuclear phase out legislation and as of 2008 undergoing the decommissioning process. There are also the coal-fired Wedel Power Station and Moorburg Power Station and the fuel cell power plant in the HafenCity quarter. VERA Klärschlammverbrennung uses the biosolids of the Hamburg wastewater treatment plant, the Pumpspeicherwerk Geesthacht is a pump storage power plant and a biomass power station is Müllverwertung Borsigstraße. Education The school system is managed by the Ministry of Schools and Vocational Training (Behörde für Schule und Berufsbildung). In 2006 about 160,000 pupils were taught in 245 primary schools, 195 secondary schools. Selectable data base: There are 33 public libraries in Hamburg proper. 17 universities are located in Hamburg. There are about 70,000 university students, including 9,000 resident aliens. Six universities are public, like the largest, the University of Hamburg with the University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, the University of Music and Theatre, the Hamburg University of Applied Sciences and the Hamburg University of Technology. Seven universities are private, like the Bucerius Law School. The city has also smaller private colleges and universities, including many religious and special-purpose institutions, such as the Helmut Schmidt University (Former: University of the Federal Armed Forces Hamburg). Twin towns—Sister cities Hamburg is twinned with eight cities. In 1994 Chicago become the newest sister city of Hamburg. 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2,311 | Kevin_Bacon | Kevin Norwood Bacon (born July 8, 1958) is an American film and theater actor whose notable roles include Footloose, Flatliners, A Few Good Men, Apollo 13, Mystic River, The Woodsman, Friday the 13th and Tremors. Biography Early life and career Bacon, the youngest of six children, was born and raised in a close-knit family in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. A former Park Avenue debutante, his mother, Ruth Hilda (née Holmes; 1916–1991), taught elementary school and was a liberal activist, while his father, Edmund Bacon, was a well-respected architect. At 16, Bacon attended the Pennsylvania Governors School for the Arts, an invaluable state-funded 5 week arts program which helped solidify Bacon's passion for the arts. From there, Bacon left home at age 17 to pursue a theater career in New York, where he was one of the youngest students ever admitted, and the youngest student to appear in a production at the Circle in the Square Theater School. "I wanted life, man, the real thing", he later recalled to Nancy Mills of Cosmopolitan. "The message I got was 'The arts are it. Business is the devil's work. Art and creative expression are next to godliness.' Combine that with an immense ego and you wind up with an actor." Cosmopolitan. March 1991, p. 92. Bacon's decision to become an actor did not come without pressures. Describing his father to Mills as a "city-planning superstar", he set very high goals for himself because he "felt nothing less than stardom would be enough." However, his movie debut in the fraternity comedy Animal House in 1978 did not lead to the instant fame for which he had hoped, and Bacon returned to waiting tables and auditioning for small roles in theater. He did a couple of stints on television soap operas Search For Tomorrow (1979) and The Guiding Light (1980–81) in New York while waiting for larger roles to come along. He refused an offer of a television series based on Animal House to be filmed in California in order to remain close to the New York stage. Some of his early stage work included Getting Out performed at New York's Phoenix Theater, and Flux which he did at Second Stage Theatre during their 1981–1982 season. His motivation to remain in New York still has resonance for Bacon. "I think my decision had a lot to do with just being afraid" he explained to Chase in Cosmopolitan. "L.A. scared me. I call it the city of fear. I get scared when I land, and I live in fear there, and I think a lot of people do. I mean, I've had a hard time in New York City too, but aesthetically and spiritually, I'm an East Coast person." Cosmopolitan. September 1994, p. 178. With the support of his wife, actress Kyra Sedgwick, Bacon believes that he has come to terms with his qualms about Los Angeles, thus strengthening his commitment to acting. "Our lives are still crazy, we still spend a ton of time out [in L.A.], and I've finally admitted that the movie business means a lot to me", he told Chase. "I used to say, it's okay, I can do it, but it isn't that important, and then I realized I was out of my mind; this is what I do for a living." Acclaim and success Known for having what Entertainment Weekly called "bone-dry humor and [an] average-Joe ability to tell it like it is", Bacon has always been forthcoming about his lack of professional self-confidence, which has never stopped him from delivering powerful performances. In 1982, he won an Obie Award for his role in Forty-Deuce, a play about street hustlers, and soon after made his Broadway debut in Slab Boys, with then-unknowns Sean Penn and Val Kilmer. However, it was not until he portrayed Timothy Fenwick that same year in Barry Levinson's Diner costarring Steve Guttenberg, Daniel Stern, Mickey Rourke, Tim Daly and Ellen Barkin that he made an indelible impression on film critics and moviegoers alike. Set in Baltimore during Christmas week of 1959, Diner depicts the lives of nine young men in their early twenties who have been close friends since childhood but are gradually moving in different directions. By far the most aimless of the group, the surly, sarcastic Fenwick gets increasingly drunk as the story progresses, deriving great pleasure from playing practical jokes on his friends and outanswering contestants on the television quiz show College Bowl from the safety of his sofa. The New Yorker's Pauline Kael, who included Bacon's name on her list of the film's "amazing" performances, also noted that "with his pointed chin, and the look of a mad Mick, [he] keeps Fenwick morose and yet demonic." David Denby of New York found Fenwick "both attractive and creepily self-destructive", attributing much of Diner's success to the fact that it "offers a completed vision of life, ecstatic in its recovery of forgotten pleasures, melancholy in its knowledge of how small a chance these men ever had of reclaiming their freedom." Bolstered by the attention garnered by his performance in Diner, Bacon starred in the 1984 box-office smash Footloose. Directed by Herbert Ross and packed with energetic musical dance sequences, the film tells the story of Ren McCormick, a streetwise Chicago teenager (Bacon was actually 24 years old when filming began) who, after moving with his mother to a repressive small town in the Midwest, is determined to reverse the town minister's ban on rock-and-roll made years earlier. Richard Corliss of Time likened Footloose to the James Dean classic Rebel Without a Cause and the old Mickey Rooney/Judy Garland musicals, commenting that the film includes "motifs on book burning, mid-life crisis, AWOL parents, fatal car crashes, drug enforcement, and Bible Belt vigilantism." Part of the conflict centers around the relationship between the minister, played by John Lithgow, and his wild teenage daughter, played by Lori Singer, who falls in love with Bacon's character and joins forces with him to put on a dance in a neighboring town. To prepare for the role, Bacon enrolled at a high school as a transfer student named "Ren McCormick" and studied teenagers before leaving in the middle of the day. Sporting a punk haircut for the role and a rebellious James Dean-type attitude somewhat different than that of the Fenwick character in Diner, Bacon did earn strong reviews for Footloose, appearing on the cover of People magazine soon after its release. David Ansen of Newsweek noted that Footloose "works because Bacon [is] always a fine actor," while Corliss found his performance to be "smart and appealing". The film itself, wrote Ansen, "has a lively, sweet infectious spirit," providing a "jolt of disposable but pleasant energy that makes you want to roll back the rug and boogie." Career slump Bacon's long-awaited exposure from these two films proved a mixed blessing, however: he found himself typecast as the characters he portrayed in the films Diner and Footloose. Bacon would have difficulty shaking this on-screen image. His portrayal of Fenwick, Bacon explained to Mills in Cosmopolitan, "made enough of an impact that it was very difficult for me to get a lead in a movie. The perception was that I was incapable of being heroic, that I was offbeat, dark, nutty, and messed up." Nor did he welcome the teen-idol image that Footloose offered him, shunning other chances to play what he deemed "angst-ridden teenagers". For the next several years Bacon chose films that cast him against either type and experienced, by his own estimation, a career slump. In 1988 he portrayed a newlywed who, ambivalent about marriage, faces the added burden of impending fatherhood in John Hughes's comedy She's Having a Baby, costarring Elizabeth McGovern. The next year he starred in a Christopher Guest comedy called The Big Picture, playing a film student whose excessive pride leads to trouble after achieving instant Hollywood fame as a filmmaker. While The Nation found little else redeeming about the movie, it did comment on Bacon's "perfect face and unfailing charm as Nick", noting the actor's ability to "play just about anything". In 1990, Bacon had two successful roles. He played a character who saved his town from under-the-earth "graboid" monsters in the comedy/horror film Tremors a role that People found him "far too accomplished" to play and portrayed an earnest medical student experimenting with death in Joel Schumacher's Flatliners. Bacon's next project was to star, opposite Elizabeth Perkins, in the 1991 romantic comedy He Said, She Said, codirected by Ken Kwapis and Marisa Silver. As clashing newspaper reporters who are forced to write a column together, the two fall in love. The film's story is told in two parts: first from the viewpoint of Bacon's character, which Kwapis directed, and then from the viewpoint of Perkins's character, directed by Silver. Despite lukewarm reviews and low audience turnout, He Said, She Said was illuminating for Bacon. Required to play a character with sexist attitudes, he admitted that the role was not that large a stretch for him. "Until he meets Elizabeth, he sees women as sex objects...not people to respect or share your life with," he told Mills. "But he changes when he falls in love with the strongest woman he could possibly find. In some ways, this character is like me. What he's going through is maybe something I was going through ten or twelve years ago." After completion of He Said, She Said, Perkins had nothing but praise for her costar both on and off screen. "When Kevin first came on the set, I thought he was one of those actors who just breezes in and doesn't need to prepare for a scene. After a couple weeks, I realized that he does his homework, is extremely [focused], and never misses a beat," she remarked in Cosmopolitan. "What you assume is not always the truth about Kevin. He can come off as suave, and people may mistake it for arrogance. But underneath, he's very compassionate and kindhearted." Comeback By 1991, Bacon began to give up the idea of playing leading men in big-budget films and to remake himself as a character actor. "The only way I was going to be able to work on 'A' projects with really 'A' directors was if I wasn't the guy who was starring", he confided to The New York Times writer Trip Gabriel. "You can't afford to set up a $40 million movie if you don't have your star." His performance that year as gay prostitute Willie O'Keefe in Oliver Stone's JFK received tremendous critical acclaim, Premiere calling his work "flawless", while National Review described it as "stunning". Shining among an ensemble cast in a small but memorable role had its appeal for Bacon, whose career began to swing in a more positive direction. Encouraged by his JFK reviews, he went on to play another character role prosecuting attorney Jack Ross in the 1992 military courtroom drama A Few Good Men, starring Tom Cruise and Jack Nicholson. Michael Sragow of The New Yorker found Bacon's performance to be the strongest in the film: "Kevin Bacon, as the prosecutor, gives the most full-bodied performance. You find yourself believing he is a career serviceman not because of his flattop haircut but because he's marinated in Marine tradition. His boyish competitive streak emerges from a saltier place than Cruise's." Bacon's newfound career momentum did not stop with these two films; that same year he returned to the theater to play, opposite Saundra Santiago, in Spike Heels, directed by Michael Greif. Time, which praised the play's "tart wit, feminist insight, and quirky detours of plot", also pronounced Bacon, who portrays a wealthy cad, its "standout" for his ability to blend "ribaldry, rudeness, rapscallion reprehensibility, and believable redemption." It was not until his work on The River Wild in 1994, however, that Bacon began to feel more confident about the success of his professional comeback. He earned a Golden Globe Award nomination for his portrayal of a compulsive liar whose boyish charm turns diabolic when he overtakes the raft of a former river guide played by Meryl Streep and her family on a white-water rafting trip. As Wade, Bacon initially flirts with Streep's character and then befriends her young son until it becomes apparent that he only wants her knowledge of the river to secure freedom for himself and his cohorts who are on the lam after a violent robbery. Describing it to Chase in Cosmopolitan as a "grueling shoot," in which "every one of us fell out of the boat at one point or another and had to be saved," Bacon had the added stress of worrying about Sedgwick and their children, who had joined him on location. Like the actors and crew, they had to come up the river each day in a helicopter, which would land on a raft and allow them to trudge to shore. "I'd hear somebody say, 'The Bacons are in the chopper,' and I'd see them waving, and then they'd come down," Bacon recalled. "It was terrifying because everything I loved was in that whirlybird." Dispelling any lingering suggestions that Bacon might not be leading-man material, director Curtis Hanson told The New York Times: "Kevin in our movie is playing a movie-star part. In another era if we were making this movie in 1950 I would have wanted Robert Mitchum to play that part." Hanson, after reflecting on Bacon's earlier career, also ventured to make some predictions about his future. "Kevin was going through a period of his life, agewise, that is as fragile as being a child star....You can be hot for a year or two and then you can fade rapidly," he explained to Hanson. "Whereas what Kevin's doing now—-whether by design or by accident is he's building a very fruitful and long career...and he just keeps getting better." No matter how grueling the shoot of The River Wild was, it could not compare to the hardships Bacon experienced preparing for his next film, where he won the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award in 1995, Murder in the First . Based on a true story that occurred during the Depression, the film recounts the drama of Henri Young, a petty thief imprisoned in Alcatraz, who, after spending three years in solitary confinement, kills the inmate whose betrayal of him led to the punishment. Though Christian Slater, as his public defender, received top billing for the film, Bacon's character was the dramatic core. To transform himself into Henri Young, Bacon lost 20 pounds, shaved his head, and wore contact lenses that completely concealed his eyes and had to be removed every hour. He spent some time in a jail cell to get the feeling of being imprisoned. "In every scene, the character suffers a different level of pain," he explained to Chase. "Because he spent three years in that dungeon trying to keep warm, I picked this extreme physicality for him when he comes out. I'm all hunched over, and I walk with a limp, and I had to pull myself into that twisted condition every day." Helping Bacon through the physical and psychological wringer of the role was friend and fellow actor Gary Oldman, ironically playing a sadistic warden who routinely brutalizes Young. "You know, when somebody's thrown a bucket of cold water on you, and he's beating you with a blackjack, and the blood is flying, it helps if the person wielding the blackjack is someone you trust," Bacon told Cosmopolitan's Chase. "It lets you fly." For Bacon, the experience of being filmed naked for several weeks in a Los Angeles warehouse and encrusted with mud and live bugs was not one he will forget soon. Nor will director Marc Rocco, who told Premiere that working with Bacon was "the most rewarding experience I've ever had with an actor." The film did well at the box office, and Bacon was given good reviews for his performance. Continuing success The wave of success left Bacon with little time to rest between projects. His subsequent film, Apollo 13, released in the summer of 1995, was a blockbuster . Preparation for the film, which tells the true story of an aborted space mission (Bacon portrayed astronaut Jack Swigert), involved some difficult stunt work. To simulate space travel, Bacon and costars Tom Hanks and Bill Paxton took several trips on huge NASA KC-135 airplanes, which flies a series of parabolic curves in order to render passengers weightless for short periods of time. Bacon, who enjoyed this sensation no more than the daily exposure to icy wind and water on the set of The River Wild, joked to Entertainment Weekly, "I mean, I'm not a thrill seeker, but I keep getting into these situations." Bacon reverted to his trademark dark role once again, as a brutal and sadistic reform school warden in Sleepers in 1996. Like Murder in the First, Sleepers presents a gripping yet horrifying reality, in stark contrast to Bacon's ensuing appearance in the lighthearted romantic comedy, Picture Perfect the following year. Bacon again resurrected his oddball mystique that year as a retarded houseguest in Digging to China, and as a disc jockey corrupted by payola in Telling Lies in America. As the executive producer of 1998's Wild Things, Bacon reserved a supporting role for himself, and went on to star in Stir of Echoes (directed by David Koepp) in 1999, and in Paul Verhoeven's Hollow Man in 2000. Bacon, Colin Firth and Rachel Blanchard depict a ménage à trois in their film, Where the Truth Lies. Bacon and director Atom Egoyan have condemned the MPAA ratings board decision to give the film their "NC-17" rating over the preferable "R". Bacon decried the decision, commenting: "I don't get it, when I see films (that) are extremely violent, extremely objectionable sometimes in terms of the roles that women play, slide by with an R, no problem, because the people happen to have more of their clothes on." Bacon was again acclaimed for a dark starring role playing an offending pedophile on parole in the 2004 film The Woodsman; he was nominated best actor receiving the Independent Spirit Award. He appeared in the HBO Films production of Taking Chance, a film based on a story of the same name written by Lt Col. Michael Strobl, an American 'Desert Storm' war veteran. The film premiered on HBO on February 21, 2009. In January 2009, Bacon appeared in a video on funnyordie.com pranking people around Venice Beach and at the end of each prank exclaiming the person was just "Bacon'd". http://www.funnyordie.com/videos/7dabf82357/ Personal life Bacon has been married to actress Kyra Sedgwick since September 4, 1988; they met on the set of the PBS version of Lanford Wilson's play Lemon Sky. "The time I was hitting what I considered to be bottom was also the time I met my wife, our kids were born, good things were happening", he explained to Cosmopolitan's Chase. "And I was able to keep supporting myself; that always gave me strength." Bacon and Sedgwick have starred together in Pyrates, Murder in the First, and The Woodsman. They have two children, Travis Sedgwick Bacon (born June 23, 1989 in Los Angeles, California) and Sosie Ruth Bacon (born March 15, 1992). The family resides on the Upper West Side of Manhattan. Bacon and Sedgwick appeared in will.i.am's video "It's a New Day," which was released following Barack Obama's win. Bacon and Sedgwick lost an undisclosed amount of money in the Ponzi scheme of infamous investor Bernard Madoff. http://www.financialpost.com/news/story.html?id=1127558 Bacon opened up a restaurant in his home town of Philadelphia, named "Bring Home the Bacon". The restaurant is filled with memorabilia of Bacon and his film roles. The outside of the restaurant is adorned with a statue of Bacon in his role in Apollo 13. The restaurant gives the customer the option to put bacon on any sandwich or salad for no extra cost, many other food items are offered as well. Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon Bacon is the subject of the trivia game titled Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon, based on the idea that, due to his prolific screen career, any Hollywood actor can be "linked" to another in a handful of "steps" based on their associations with Bacon. Although it has been proven that there are "better" centers in the Hollywood universe, such as Sean Connery, Christopher Lee, Rod Steiger, Gene Hackman or Michael Caine, Bacon's name remained the focus because he was the first one selected by the game's creators, and because the name "Kevin Bacon" rhymes with the last word of the phrase "six degrees of separation". A person's number of degrees of separation from Kevin Bacon is known as one's "Bacon Number" which takes its name from Erdős number. Though he was initially dismayed by the game, the meme stuck, and Bacon eventually embraced it, forming the "charitable initiative" SixDegrees.org, a social networking site intended to link people to charities and each other. Bacon even eventually starred in a commercial for the Visa Check Card, playing on the 'six degrees of separation' to prove his identity. Music In 1995 Bacon formed a band called The Bacon Brothers with his brother, Michael. The duo has released six albums. Filmography FeaturesNational Lampoon's Animal House (1978) as Chip DillerStarting Over (1979) as HusbandThe Gift (1979) as TeddyHero at Large (1980) as 2nd TeenagerFriday the 13th (1980) as Jack Burrell/The BaconatorOnly When I Laugh (1981) as DonDiner (1982) as Timothy Fenwick Jr.Forty Deuce (1982) as RickyThe Demon Murder Case (1983) as Kenny MillerEnormous Changes at the Last Minute (1983) as DennisFootloose (1984) as Ren McCormickMister Roberts (1984) as Ens. Frank PulverThe Little Sister (1985) as Probation OfficerQuicksilver (1986) as Jack CaseyWhite Water Summer (1987) as VicEnd of the Line (1987) as EverettPlanes, Trains & Automobiles (1987) as Taxi RacerLemon Sky (1988) as AlanShe's Having a Baby (1988) as Jefferson 'Jake' Edward BriggsCriminal Law (1989) as Martin ThielThe Big Picture (1989) as Nick ChapmanTremors (1990) as Valentine McKeeFlatliners (1990) as David LabraccioPyrates (1991) as AriQueens Logic (1991) as DennisHe Said, She Said (1991) as Dan HansonJFK (1991) as Willie O'KeefeA Few Good Men (1992) as Capt. Jack RossThe Air Up There (1994) as Jimmy DolanThe River Wild (1994) as WadeMurder in the First (1995) as Henri YoungApollo 13 (1995) as Jack SwigertBalto (1995) (voice) as BaltoSleepers (1996) as Sean NokesPicture Perfect (1997) as Sam MayfairDestination Anywhere (1997) as MikeTelling Lies in America (1997) as Billy MagicDigging to China (1998) as Ricky SchrothWild Things (1998) as Sgt. Ray DuguetteStir of Echoes (1999) as Tom WitzkyMy Dog Skip (2000) as Jack MorrisWe Married Margo (2000) as HimselfHollow Man (2000) as Sebastian CaineNovocaine (2001) as Lance PhelpsTrapped (2002) as Joe HickeyMystic River (2003) as Sean DevineIn the Cut (2003) as John GrahamThe Woodsman (2004) as WalterCavedweller (2004) as Randall PritchardLoverboy (2005) as MartyBeauty Shop (2005) as JorgeWhere the Truth Lies (2005) as Lanny MorrisDeath Sentence (2007) as Nick HumeRails & Ties (2007) as Tom StarkThe Air I Breathe (2008) as LoveFrost/Nixon (2008) as Jack BrennanTaking Chance (2009) as Lt. Col. Michael StroblThe Magic 7 (2009) as HimselfNew York, I Love You (2009) as TomMy One and Only (2009) as Dan Short SubjectsA Little Vicious (1991) (narrator)New York Skyride (1994) (narrator)Imagine New York (2003) as HimselfNatural Disasters: Forces of Nature (2004) (narrator)Saving Angelo (2008) as Brent Awards Won 1996 BFCA Award for Best Actor – Murder in the First2001 Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Favorite Actor - Science Fiction – Hollow Man2003 BSFC Award for Best Cast – Mystic RiverNominated 1995 Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture – The River Wild1996 Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role - Motion Picture – Murder in the First2001 MTV Movie Award for Best Villain – Hollow Man2004 Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture – Mystic River2005 Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead – The Woodsman2009 Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture – Frost/Nixon'' References External links | Kevin_Bacon |@lemmatized kevin:11 norwood:1 bacon:85 bear:5 july:1 american:2 film:32 theater:6 actor:19 whose:5 notable:1 role:19 include:4 footloose:7 flatliners:2 good:5 men:6 apollo:3 mystic:3 river:10 woodsman:4 friday:1 tremor:2 biography:1 early:3 life:9 career:10 young:8 six:6 child:4 raise:1 close:3 knit:1 family:3 philadelphia:2 pennsylvania:2 former:2 park:1 avenue:1 debutante:1 mother:2 ruth:2 hilda:1 née:1 holmes:1 teach:1 elementary:1 school:5 liberal:1 activist:1 father:2 edmund:1 well:5 respect:2 architect:1 attend:1 governor:1 art:5 invaluable:1 state:1 fund:1 week:4 program:1 help:3 solidify:1 passion:1 leave:3 home:3 age:1 pursue:1 new:14 york:12 one:8 student:5 ever:3 admit:3 appear:5 production:2 circle:1 square:1 want:4 man:4 real:1 thing:4 later:1 recall:2 nancy:1 mill:4 cosmopolitan:9 message:1 get:9 business:2 devil:1 work:8 creative:1 expression:1 next:5 godliness:1 combine:1 immense:1 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2,312 | Mania | Mania (from Greek μανία Mania, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus and that from μαίνομαι - mainomai, "to rage, to be furious") is a severe medical condition characterized by extremely elevated mood, energy, unusual thought patterns and sometimes psychosis. There are several possible causes for mania including drug abuse and brain tumours, but it is most often associated with bipolar disorder, where episodes of mania alternate with episodes of major depression. These cycles may relate to diurnal rhythms and environmental stressors. Mania varies in intensity, from mild mania (known as hypomania) to full-blown mania with psychotic features (hallucinations and delusions). Manic patients may need to be hospitalized to protect themselves and others. Mania and hypomania have also been associated with creativity and artistic talent. Jamison, Kay R. (1996), Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament, New York: Free Press, ISBN 0-684-83183-X Symptoms Symptoms of mania include rapid speech, racing thoughts, decreased need for sleep, hypersexuality, euphoria, impulsiveness, grandiosity, and increased interest in goal-directed activities. DSM-IV Mild forms of mania, known as hypomania, cause little or no impairment, but some people who suffer from prolonged hypomania may develop full mania. AJ Giannini. Biological Foundations of Clinical Psychiatry, NY Medical Examination Publishing Company, 1986. Another symptom of mania is racing thoughts during which the sufferer is excessively distracted by unimportant stimuli. Lakshmi N. Ytham, Vivek Kusumakar, Stanley P. Kutchar. (2002). Bipolar Disorder: A Clinician's Guide to Biological Treatments, page 3. This negative experience creates an inability to function and an absentmindedness where the manic individual's thoughts totally preoccupy him or her, making him or her unable to keep track of time or be aware of anything besides the neurological pattern of thoughts. Manic symptoms include irritability, anger or rage, delusions, hypersensitivity, hypersexuality, hyper-religiosity, hyperactivity, impulsiveness, racing thoughts, talkativeness, pressure to keep talking or rapid speech, and grandiose ideas and plans, decreased need for sleep (e.g. feels rested after 3 or 4 hours of sleep). In manic and hypomanic cases, the afflicted person may engage in out of character behavior such as questionable business transactions, wasteful expenditures of money, risky sexual activity, abnormal social interaction, or highly vocal arguments uncharacteristic of previous behaviors. These behaviors increase stress in personal relationships, problems at work and increases the risk of altercations with law enforcement as well as being at high risk of impulsively taking part in activities potentially harmful to self and others. Although "severely elevated mood" sounds somewhat desirable and enjoyable, the experience of mania is often quite unpleasant and sometimes disturbing, if not frightening, for the person involved (and those close to them), and may lead to impulsive behavior that may later be regretted. It can also often be complicated by the sufferer's lack of judgment and insight regarding periods of exacerbation of symptoms. Manic patients are frequently grandiose, obsessive, impulsive, irritable, belligerent, and frequently deny anything is wrong with them. Because mania frequently encourages high energy and decreased perception of need or ability to sleep, within a few days of a manic cycle, sleep-deprived psychosis may appear, further complicating the ability to think clearly. Racing thoughts and misperceptions lead to frustration and decreased ability to communicate with others. There are different "stages" or "states" of mania. For example, a minor state may involve increased creativity, wit, gregariousness, and ambition. However, a more serious state of mania may involve lack of good judgment, lack of ability to focus, and even psychosis. The victim of mania may feel elated; however, he/she may also feel irritable, frustrated, and may experience derealization. Mixed states Mania can be experienced at the same time as depression, in a mixed episode. Dysphoric mania is primarily manic and agitated depression is primarily depressed. This has caused speculation amongst doctors that mania and depression are two independent axes in a bipolar spectrum, rather than opposites. There is an increased probability of suicide in the mixed state, as depressed individuals who are also manic have the energy needed to commit the act and the thoughts of depression that would lead them initially to suicide. Hypomania Hypomania is a lowered state of mania that does little to impair function or decrease quality of life . In hypomania there is less need for sleep, and both goal-motivated behavior and metabolism increase. Though the elevated mood and energy level typical of hypomania could be seen as a benefit, mania itself generally has many undesirable consequences including suicidal tendencies. Associated disorders A single manic episode is sufficient to diagnose Bipolar I Disorder. Hypomania may be indicative of Bipolar II Disorder or Cyclothymia. However, if prominent psychotic symptoms are present for a duration significantly longer than the mood episode, a diagnosis of Schizoaffective Disorder is more appropriate. B12 deficiency can also cause symptoms of mania and psychosis. Prominent hypomaniacs likely include Endymion (a mythological figure, probably describing the real person/s), Rudyard Kipling, Vincent Van Gogh, John Keats, Andy Warhol. Medical treatment Before beginning treatment for mania, careful differential diagnosis must be performed to rule out non-psychiatric causes. Acute mania in bipolar disorder is typically treated with mood stabilizers and/or antipsychotic medication. Note that these treatments need to be prescribed and monitored carefully to avoid harmful side-effects such as neuroleptic malignant syndrome with the antipsychotic medications. It may be necessary to temporarily admit the patient involuntarily until the patient is stabilized. Antipsychotics and mood stabilizers help stabilize mood of those with mania or depression. They work by blocking the receptor for the neurotransmitter dopamine and allowing serotonin to still work, but in diminished capacity. When the symptoms of mania have gone, long-term treatment then focuses on prophylactic treatment to try to stabilize the patient's mood, typically through a combination of pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy. Lithium is the classic mood stabilizer to prevent further manic and depressive episodes. Anticonvulsants such as valproic acid and carbamazepine are also used for prophylaxis. More recent drug solutions include lamotrigine. Clonazepam (Rivotril, Ravotril or Rivatril) is also used. The calcium-channel blocker, verapamil is useful in the treatment of hypomania and in those cases where lithium and mood stabilizers are contraindicated or ineffective. AJ Giannini, WA Price. Antimanic effects of verapamil . American Journal of Psychiatry. 141:160-1604,1984. . Verapamil is effective for both short-term and long-term treatment. AJ Giannini, RS Taraszewski, RH Loiselle. Verapamil and lithium in maintenance therapy of manic patients. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 27:980-985,1987. Psychopharmacology The biological mechanism by which mania occurs is not yet known. One hypothesised cause of mania (among others), is that the amount of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the temporal lobe may be excessively high. This is likely to be only part of the puzzle. Dopamine, norepinephrine, glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid also appear to play important roles. The temporal lobe is involved in speech, listening, reading, word association and contains the amygdala, the almond shaped emotional center for the brain. The left amygdala is more active in women who are manic and the orbitofrontal cortex is less active (2005). Emotional stimulation creates the ability for life events to be stored more vividly in the memory. In women, the amygdala becomes similar to one of a woman during sex combined with menstruation. Bipolar disorder is different for men than it is for women. Mania affects the hypothalamus and the pituitary-adrenal-axis by causing it to secrete hormones in different amounts, that accounts for hypersexuality, changes in metabolism, and misdiagnosis as hormonal imbalance. Because the hormone problem stems from a neurological problem hormone therapy isn't the best solution. If serotonin levels are stable, hormones secreted by the pituitary gland will stabilize. Bipolar disorder is similar to a thought disorder combined with hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. In the study done by Brentwood VA Medical Center in Los Angeles, California, patients with bipolar II took antidepressants to measure their effect on mania. One third of bipolar patients developed antidepressant induced mania from their healthy state and one fourth developed antidepressant induced rapid cycling from their healthy state. For those with type II bipolar disorder, antidepressants decrease the gaps between the depression and mania (1995). Mania and over the counter drugs Phenylpropanolamine (PPA) is a sympathomimetic drug similar in structure to amphetamine which was formerly present in over 130 medications, primarily decongestants, cough/cold remedies, and anorectic agents. A report on PPA, from the Dept. of Psychiatry, F. Edward Hebert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland. Pharmacopsychiatry 1988 stated: We have reviewed 37 cases (published in North America and Europe since 1960) that received diagnoses of acute mania, paranoid schizophrenia, and organic psychosis and that were attributed to PPA product ingestion. Of the 27 North American case reports, more reactions followed the ingestion of combination products than preparations containing PPA alone; more occurred after ingestion of over-the-counter products than those obtained by prescription or on-the-street; and more of the cases followed ingestion of recommended doses rather than overdoses. Failure to recognize PPA as an etiological agent in the onset of symptoms usually led to a diagnosis of schizophrenia or mania, lengthy hospitalization, and treatment with substantial doses of neuroleptics or lithium. PPA is no longer available in any medication in the United States as of the year 2000. Personal accounts In Electroboy: A Memoir of Mania by Andy Behrman, he describes his experience of mania as "the most perfect prescription glasses with which to see the world...life appears in front of you like an oversized movie screen" (2002). Behrman indicates early in his memoir that he sees himself not as a person suffering from an uncontrollable disabling illness, but as a director of the movie that is his vivid and emotionally alive life. "When I'm manic, I'm so awake and alert, that my eyelashes fluttering on the pillow sound like thunder" (2002). See also -mania (suffix) abnormal psychology Bipolar disorder Clinical depression Cyclothymia Hypomania International Society for Bipolar Disorders: a non-profit organization aimed at promoting research and advocacy in the field of bipolar disorders. Monomania Pyromania Social mania Trichotillomania Young Mania Rating Scale Caveat: See "Symptoms" above. References Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2001 December;2(12):1963–73. Schizoaffective Dissorder. 2007 September Mayo Clinic. Retrieved October 1, 2007. Schizoaffective Dissorder. 2004 May. All Psych Online: Virtual Psychology Classroom. Retrieved October 2, 2007. Increased Amygdala Activation During Mania: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study. 2005 June. The American Journal of Psychiatry. Retrieved October 2, 2007. Psychotic Disorders. 2004 May. All Psych Online: Virtual Psychology Classroom. Retrieved October 2, 2007. Increased concentrations and lateral asymmetry of amygdala dopamine in schizophrenia. 1983 October Nature. Retrieved October 2, 2007. Antidepressant-induced mania and cycle acceleration: a controversy revisited. 1995 August American Journal of Psychiatry. Retrieved October 2, 2007. Risperidone therapy in treatment refractory acute bipolar and schizoaffective mania. 1996 January Psychopharmacology Bulletin. Retrieved October 2, 2007. Behrman, Andy. Electroboy: A Memoir of Mania, "Preface: Flying High", 2002. External links Bipolar Mania Symptoms Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance Manic Episode Symptoms | Mania |@lemmatized mania:46 greek:2 μανία:1 henry:1 george:1 liddell:1 robert:1 scott:1 english:1 lexicon:1 perseus:1 μαίνομαι:1 mainomai:1 rage:2 furious:1 severe:1 medical:4 condition:1 characterize:1 extremely:1 elevate:2 mood:10 energy:4 unusual:1 thought:8 pattern:2 sometimes:2 psychosis:5 several:1 possible:1 cause:7 include:6 drug:4 abuse:1 brain:2 tumour:1 often:3 associate:3 bipolar:17 disorder:15 episode:7 alternate:1 major:1 depression:9 cycle:4 may:17 relate:1 diurnal:1 rhythm:1 environmental:1 stressor:1 varies:1 intensity:1 mild:2 know:3 hypomania:11 full:2 blow:1 psychotic:3 feature:1 hallucination:1 delusion:2 manic:15 patient:8 need:7 hospitalize:1 protect:1 others:4 also:9 creativity:2 artistic:2 talent:1 jamison:1 kay:1 r:2 touch:1 fire:1 depressive:2 illness:2 temperament:1 new:1 york:1 free:1 press:1 isbn:1 x:1 symptom:12 rapid:3 speech:3 race:4 decrease:4 sleep:6 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2,313 | Operation_Deadlight | Operation Deadlight was the code name for the scuttling of U-boats surrendered to the Allies after the defeat of Germany near the end of World War II. Of the 154 U-boats surrendered, 121 were scuttled in deep water off Lisahally, Northern Ireland or Loch Ryan, Scotland in late 1945 and early 1946. On February 12, 1946 at 10:04 a.m., U 3514 received the dubious honor of being the last U-boat sunk by Operation Deadlight. The other 33 were used for various tasks and then sunk. An example is U 1105, which sunk on explosives trial in the Potomac in 1948. In the late nineties an approach was made to the British Ministry of Defence for salvage rights on the Operation Deadlight U-boats by a firm who planned to raise up to a hundred of them. Because the wrecks were constructed in the pre-atomic age, they contain metals which are not radioactively tainted and which are therefore valuable for certain research purposes. No salvage award was made due to objections from Russia and the USA, and it is now probable that the U-boats will remain under the sea. Several U-boats escaped Operation Deadlight. Some were claimed as prizes by Britain, France, Norway and the Soviet Union. Four were in the far east when Germany surrendered and were commandeered by Japan (U-181 was rechristened I-501, U-195 - I-506, U-219 - I-505, U-862 - I-502, and a fifth boat, U-511 was sold to Japan in 1943 and renamed RO-500). Two U-boats that survived Operation Deadlight are today museum ships. U-505 was slated for scuttling but Rear Admiral Daniel V. Gallery argued successfully that she did not fall under Operation Deadlight. United States Navy Task Group 22.3, under then-Captain Gallery, had captured U-505 in battle on 4 June 1944. Having been captured, not surrendered at the end of the war, she survived to become a war memorial at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago. U-995 was transferred to Norway by Britain in October 1948 and became the Norwegian Kaura. She was returned to Germany in 1965 to become a museum ship in 1971. References | Operation_Deadlight |@lemmatized operation:6 deadlight:6 code:1 name:1 scuttling:1 u:17 boat:8 surrender:4 ally:1 defeat:1 germany:3 near:1 end:2 world:1 war:3 ii:1 scuttle:2 deep:1 water:1 lisahally:1 northern:1 ireland:1 loch:1 ryan:1 scotland:1 late:2 early:1 february:1 receive:1 dubious:1 honor:1 last:1 sunk:2 use:1 various:1 task:2 example:1 sink:1 explosive:1 trial:1 potomac:1 ninety:1 approach:1 make:2 british:1 ministry:1 defence:1 salvage:2 right:1 firm:1 plan:1 raise:1 hundred:1 wreck:1 construct:1 pre:1 atomic:1 age:1 contain:1 metal:1 radioactively:1 taint:1 therefore:1 valuable:1 certain:1 research:1 purpose:1 award:1 due:1 objection:1 russia:1 usa:1 probable:1 remain:1 sea:1 several:1 escape:1 claim:1 prize:1 britain:2 france:1 norway:2 soviet:1 union:1 four:1 far:1 east:1 commandeer:1 japan:2 rechristened:1 fifth:1 sell:1 rename:1 ro:1 two:1 survive:2 today:1 museum:3 ship:2 slat:1 rear:1 admiral:1 daniel:1 v:1 gallery:2 argue:1 successfully:1 fall:1 united:1 state:1 navy:1 group:1 captain:1 capture:2 battle:1 june:1 become:3 memorial:1 science:1 industry:1 chicago:1 transfer:1 october:1 norwegian:1 kaura:1 return:1 reference:1 |@bigram operation_deadlight:6 soviet_union:1 rear_admiral:1 |
2,314 | The_Downward_Spiral | The Downward Spiral is the second full length studio album by American industrial rock act Nine Inch Nails, released in 1994 on Reznor's own Nothing Records (a vanity label of Interscope Records). "Halo 8" of the official Nine Inch Nails halo releases, it is a concept album detailing the destruction of a man, from the beginning to his climactic suicide. The album was a major commercial success that secured Nine Inch Nails as a force in the 1990s music scene, in particular following the release of the single "Closer" and its controversial video. Recording To record the album, Reznor rented the house located at 10050 Cielo Drive in Beverly Hills, California where actress Sharon Tate was murdered by members of the Manson Family in 1969. Reznor built a studio space in the house which he named Le Pig, after the message that was scrawled on the front door with Tate's blood by her murderers. Reznor told Entertainment Weekly that despite the notoriety attached to the house, he chose to record there because, "I looked at a lot of places, and this just happened to be the one I liked most." Reznor moved out of the house in December 1993, after he said "there was too much history in that house for me to handle." After the album's recording, Reznor consulted with the landlords and had the house demolished shortly after. Reznor made a statement about working in the Tate house during a 1997 interview with Rolling Stone: Reznor set out to make an album that was a departure from the 1992 Broken EP, emphasizing "mood, texture, restraint and subtlety." He brought in a number of guest performers to record, including former Jane's Addiction and Porno for Pyros drummer Stephen Perkins and progressive rock guitarist Adrian Belew. Perkins played a number of drum parts that were recorded live in the studio; these tracks were subsequently rendered into looped samples which were manipulated electronically. Reznor took a similar approach to recording guitar parts. Reznor would record 20 to 25-minute long sessions of himself playing guitar on a hard disc recorder with a Studio Vision sequencer, then would cut out parts of the recording he found interesting for later use. Reznor said, "99 percent of the stuff we do–even vocals–is recorded into the computer first. We get an arrangement together and then dump it to tape." di Perna, Alan. "Machine Head". Guitar World. April 1994. As Reznor said in 1995, "There was another song that I didn't put on there called `Just Do It.' It was a very dangerously self-destructive, silly little snippet. You know, `If you're going to kill yourself, just do it, nobody cares at all.' But [Downward Spiral coproducer] Flood freaked out and said, `No, you've gone too far. I don't want to be involved in that.' : Track information The opening sounds of "Mr Self Destruct" are a sample from the film THX 1138 in which a man is being beaten by a prison guard. The frantic drumming on the end of "Piggy" is courtesy of Reznor himself. This is currently his first and only attempt at live drumming on a record, and one of the few "live" drum performances on the album. Reznor stated that the recording was from him testing the microphone setup in studio, but he liked the sound too much not to include it. The drum track for "Closer" features a heavily modified bass drum sample from the Iggy Pop song "Nightclubbing" from his album The Idiot. The loop of screaming voices heard at the beginning of "The Becoming" is a sample from the film Robot Jox. The sample at the beginning of "Big Man With A Gun" comes from studio-altered recording of a porn star having an orgasm. According to the album booklet, this "sample" is titled "Steakhouse" and is credited to Tommy Lee. The sampled clanks at the beginning of "Reptile" can be heard in the film Leviathan. The strange sobbing sound in "Reptile" (at 5:06) originates from the 1974 movie the Texas Chain Saw Massacre. Artwork Artwork and sketches for The Downward Spiral and "March of the Pigs" by Russell Mills were displayed at the Glasgow School of Art. Reception The Downward Spiral was released March 1994. The album debuted the following week at number two on the Billboard album charts. "Changing of the Garden". Entertainment Weekly. March 25, 1994. Retrieved October 26, 2007. The album was well-received by critics. Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote, "Every instrument, acoustic or synthetic, seems tuned to create the maximum aural abrasion," Pareles asserted that unlike other industrial groups like Ministry and Nitzer Ebb, "Reznor writes full-fledged tunes; he knows his way around melodic hooks, not just riffs. And while purists accuse him of selling out their insular genres, he actually trumps them; the music is no less transgressive, and possibly more so, because it sticks in the ear." Pareles, Jon. "A Noise Sculptor Reveals An Ear for the Commercial". The New York Times. May 8, 1994. Retrieved October 26, 2007. Robert Christgau said that, musically, the album was comparable to "Heironymus Bosch as postindustrial atheist", but lyrically, more closely resembled "Transformers as kiddie porn." "Nine Inch Nails". Robert Christgau. Retrieved February 20, 2009. Rolling Stone awarded the album four out of five stars; reviewer Jonathan Gold praised the album as "music that pins playback levels far into the red", and concluded, "The Downward Spiral is music the blade runner might throw down to: low-tech futurism that rocks." Gold, Jonathan. "The Downward Spiral" [review]. Rolling Stone. March 24, 1994. Retrieved October 30, 2007. Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B+; reviewer Tom Sinclair wrote, "Reznor's pet topics (sex, power, S&M, hatred, transcendence) are all here, wrapped in hooks that hit your psyche with the force of a blowtorch." Sinclair, Tom. "The Downward Spiral" [review]. Entertainment Weekly. March 18, 1994. Retrieved October 26, 2007. The album was ranked at number 25 in Spin's "100 Greatest Albums, 1985-2005", Spin also ranked it 11th on their "Top 90 Albums of the 90's ". Blender named it the 80th Greatest American Album. It was ranked #488 in the book The Top 500 Heavy Metal Albums of All Time by Martin Popoff. In 2001 Q named The Downward Spiral as one of the 50 Heaviest Albums Of All Time. Q 50 Heaviest Albums Of All Time-A selection of lists from Q Magazine. Last accessed April 15, 2007. In 2003, the album was ranked number 200 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. Rolling Stone : 198) The Downward Spiral-Rolling Stone. Last accessed April 15, 2007. In 2009, Apple rejected the Nine Inch Nails application for the iPhone due to objectionable content in The Downward Spiral. Lyrics The album relays many Nihilistic concepts, such as the chorus line in Heresy, which exclaims: "Your god is dead/And no one cares. If there is a hell/I'll see you there." It is a concept album in which the overarching plot follows the character along his life's "Downward Spiral". While this character can be understood as a representation of Reznor himself. (Metal Edge July 2005) Re-releases Tenth anniversary re-releases The Downward Spiral was re-released in 2004 to celebrate its tenth anniversary. It is available in two versions: as a 2-disc SACD hybrid set and in DualDisc format (DVD-A on one side and CD on the reverse). The SACD version is known as The Downward Spiral: Deluxe Edition and the DualDisc version as The Downward Spiral: DualDisc. Deluxe Edition The SACD version consists of two discs. Disc one is a CD/SACD hybrid. It has the original album, digitally remastered, in SACD 5.1 surround and SACD stereo on one layer (only playable in SACD players), and regular CD stereo on the other layer (playable in normal CD players). Disc two consists of b-sides, soundtrack contributions, and previously-unreleased demos presented in regular CD stereo. This version is labeled Halo Eight DE. DualDisc The CD-compatible side contains the digitally remastered original album, which is playable on regular CD players. The DVD side contains: 5.1 surround and stereo version of the original tracks, digitally remastered The Downward Spiral artwork (plays with the music in DVD-A players, viewable as a slideshow on DVD-Video players) Music videos "Closer" (available in 5.1 surround and stereo) "March of the Pigs" (stereo) "Hurt" (stereo) Discography, including selected bits of music from each album (starting with Broken) that run about a minute each This is a North American release (DVD Region 1) and is labeled Halo Eight DVD-A. Unmastered instrumental versions On the free streaming site remix.nin.com, Reznor posted unmastered instrumental versions of the entire album (with the exceptions of "Ruiner" and "Big Man with a Gun"). Track listing Original version Japanese pressings contain a bonus track, the Joy Division cover "Dead Souls", originally released on The Crow original soundtrack. Deluxe edition Disc 1 Identical to the original version, although 1 dB louder mix overall, track anomalies fixed (sounds from previous tracks creeping up on start of tracks) Includes SACD layer Disc 2 Collection of remixes and b-sides. The last three tracks are previously unreleased demo recordings from the original album. allmusic ((( The Downward Spiral [Deluxe Edition] > Overview ))) Personnel Trent Reznor – vocals, all instruments, arranger, producer Adrian Belew – ring mod and texture generating guitars Danny Lohner – guitar Andy Kubiszewski – drums Chris Vrenna – drums, Programming, Sampling Stephen Perkins – drum loops Charlie Clouser – programming, Continuity Mark "Flood" Ellis – producer John Aguto – engineer Brian Pollack – engineer Sean Beavan – mixing Bill Kennedy – mixing Alan Moulder – mixing Tom Baker – mastering Bob Ludwig – high-resolution mastering (reissue) James Brown – 5.1 mix (reissue) Neal Ferrazzani – assistance (reissue) Russell Mills – paintings David Buckland – photography Gary Talpas – package Rob Sheridan – package, additional photography (reissue) Chart positions Album Chart Peakposition Billboard 200 2 UK Albums Chart Note: User must define search parameters, i.e. "Nine Inch Nails." 9 Australian Album chart 12 New Zealand 23 Singles Year Song Chart peak positionsUS Billboard Hot 100 US Modern RockUS MainstreamUS Dance Club PlayUK Singles AUS ARIA 1994"March of the Pigs"59 — — —45 —"Closer"41113529253"Piggy" "Piggy" and "Hurt" were released only as promotional singles, not as commercial singles. —20 — — — —1995"Hurt" —810 — — — "—" denotes releases that did not chart. References External links The Downward Spiral at AbsolutePunk.net Review at Blender Emeritus review at Sputnikmusic Halo 8 at NIN Collector Halo 8 at NinWiki.com The Downward Spiral (US CD) at discogs.com US LP EU CD US Deluxe Edition | The_Downward_Spiral |@lemmatized downward:18 spiral:18 second:1 full:2 length:1 studio:6 album:35 american:3 industrial:2 rock:3 act:1 nine:6 inch:6 nail:6 release:11 reznor:19 nothing:1 record:11 vanity:1 label:3 interscope:1 halo:6 official:1 concept:3 detail:1 destruction:1 man:4 beginning:4 climactic:1 suicide:1 major:1 commercial:3 success:1 secure:1 force:2 music:7 scene:1 particular:1 follow:2 single:5 closer:3 controversial:1 video:3 rent:1 house:7 locate:1 cielo:1 drive:1 beverly:1 hill:1 california:1 actress:1 sharon:1 tate:3 murder:1 member:1 manson:1 family:1 build:1 space:1 name:3 le:1 pig:4 message:1 scrawl:1 front:1 door:1 blood:1 murderer:1 tell:1 entertainment:4 weekly:4 despite:1 notoriety:1 attach:1 choose:1 look:1 lot:1 place:1 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2,315 | Politics_of_Chad | Politics of Chad takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President of Chad is both head of state and head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. Chad is one of the most corrupt countries in the world. Executive branch |President |Idriss Déby |MPS |2 December 1990 |- |Prime Minister |Youssouf Saleh Abbas | |16 April 2008 |} A strong executive branch headed by President Idriss Déby dominates the Chadian political system. Following his military overthrow of Hissène Habré in December 1990, Déby won presidential elections in 1996 and 2001. The constitutional basis for the government is the 1996 constitution, under which the president was limited to two terms of office until Déby had that provision repealed in 2005. The president has the power to appoint the prime minister and the Council of State (or cabinet), and exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges, generals, provincial officials and heads of Chad’s parastatal firms. In cases of grave and immediate threat, the president, in consultation with the National Assembly President and Council of State, may declare a state of emergency. Most of the Déby's key advisors are members of the Zaghawa clan, although some southern and opposition personalities are represented in his government. Legislative branch According to the 1996 constitution, the National Assembly deputies are elected by universal suffrage for 4-year terms. Parliamentary elections are scheduled for spring 2002. The Assembly holds regular sessions twice a year, starting in March and October, and can hold special sessions as necessary and called by the prime minister. Deputies elect a president of the National Assembly every 2 years. Assembly deputies or members of the executive branch may introduce legislation; once passed by the Assembly, the president must take action to either sign or reject the law within 15 days. The National Assembly must approve the prime minister’s plan of government and may force the prime minister to resign through a majority vote of no-confidence. However, if the National Assembly rejects the executive branch’s program twice in one year, the president may disband the Assembly and call for new legislative elections. In practice, the president exercises considerable influence over the National Assembly through the MPS party structure. Judicial branch Despite the constitution’s guarantee of judicial independence from the executive branch, the president names most key judicial officials. The Supreme Court is made up of a chief justice, named by the president, and 15 councilors chosen by the president and National Assembly; appointments are for life. The Constitutional Council, with nine judges elected to 9-year terms, has the power to review all legislation, treaties and international agreements prior to their adoption. The constitution recognizes customary and traditional law in locales where it is recognized and to the extent it does not interfere with public order or constitutional guarantees of equality for all citizens. Political parties and elections International organization participation ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AU, BDEAC, CEMAC, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Interpol, IOC, ITU, MIGA, NAM, OIC, ONUB, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOCI, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO | Politics_of_Chad |@lemmatized politics:1 chad:4 take:2 place:1 framework:1 presidential:2 republic:1 whereby:1 president:14 head:4 state:4 government:6 executive:6 power:4 exercise:3 legislative:3 vest:1 parliament:1 one:2 corrupt:1 country:1 world:1 branch:7 idriss:2 déby:5 mps:1 december:2 prime:5 minister:5 youssouf:1 saleh:1 abbas:1 april:1 strong:1 dominate:1 chadian:1 political:2 system:1 follow:1 military:1 overthrow:1 hissène:1 habré:1 win:1 election:4 constitutional:3 basis:1 constitution:4 limit:1 two:1 term:3 office:1 provision:1 repeal:1 appoint:1 council:3 cabinet:1 considerable:2 influence:2 appointment:2 judge:2 general:1 provincial:1 official:2 parastatal:1 firm:1 case:1 grave:1 immediate:1 threat:1 consultation:1 national:7 assembly:11 may:4 declare:1 emergency:1 key:2 advisor:1 member:2 zaghawa:1 clan:1 although:1 southern:1 opposition:1 personality:1 represent:1 accord:1 deputy:3 elect:3 universal:1 suffrage:1 year:5 parliamentary:1 schedule:1 spring:1 hold:2 regular:1 session:2 twice:2 start:1 march:1 october:1 special:1 necessary:1 call:2 every:1 introduce:1 legislation:2 pass:1 must:2 action:1 either:1 sign:1 reject:2 law:2 within:1 day:1 approve:1 plan:1 force:1 resign:1 majority:1 vote:1 confidence:1 however:1 program:1 disband:1 new:1 practice:1 mp:1 party:2 structure:1 judicial:3 despite:1 guarantee:2 independence:1 name:2 supreme:1 court:1 make:1 chief:1 justice:1 councilors:1 choose:1 life:1 nine:1 review:1 treaty:1 international:2 agreement:1 prior:1 adoption:1 recognize:2 customary:1 traditional:1 locale:1 extent:1 interfere:1 public:1 order:1 equality:1 citizen:1 organization:1 participation:1 acct:1 acp:1 afdb:1 au:1 bdeac:1 cemac:1 fao:1 fz:1 g:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icct:1 icftu:1 icrm:1 ida:1 idb:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 itu:1 miga:1 nam:1 oic:1 onub:1 opcw:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 unoci:1 upu:1 wcl:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 |@bigram president_idriss:2 idriss_déby:2 prime_minister:5 hissène_habré:1 presidential_election:1 legislative_branch:1 universal_suffrage:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 participation_acct:1 acct_acp:1 acp_afdb:1 fao_fz:1 fz_g:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icct:1 icct_icftu:1 icftu_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_idb:1 idb_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_itu:1 nam_oic:1 opcw_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 upu_wcl:1 wcl_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 |
2,316 | Le_Corbusier | Charles-Édouard Jeanneret-Gris, who chose to be known as Le Corbusier (October 6, 1887 – August 27, 1965), was a Swiss-French architect, designer, urbanist, writer and also painter, who is famous for being one of the pioneers of what now is called Modern architecture or the International Style. He was born in Switzerland, but became a French citizen in his 30s. He was a pioneer in studies of modern high design and was dedicated to providing better living conditions for the residents of crowded cities. His career spanned five decades, with his buildings constructed throughout central Europe, India, Russia, and one each in North and South America. He was also an urban planner, painter, sculptor, writer, and modern furniture designer. Life Early life and education, 1887-1913 He was born as Charles-Édouard Jeanneret-Gris in La Chaux-de-Fonds, a small city in Neuchâtel canton in north-western Switzerland, in the Jura mountains, which is just five kilometres across the border from France. He attended a kindergarten that used Fröbelian methods. Le Corbusier was attracted to the visual arts and studied at the La-Chaux-de-Fonds Art School under Charles L'Eplattenier, who had studied in Budapest and Paris. His architecture teacher in the Art School was the architect René Chapallaz, who had a large influence on Le Corbusier's earliest houses. In his early years he would frequently escape the somewhat provincial atmosphere of his hometown by travelling around Europe. About 1907, he travelled to Paris, where he found work in the office of Auguste Perret, the French pioneer of reinforced concrete. Between October 1910 and March 1911, he worked near Berlin for the renowned architect Peter Behrens, where he might have met Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius. He became fluent in German. Both of these experiences proved influential in his later career. Later in 1911, he journeyed to the Balkans and visited Greece and Turkey, filling sketchbooks with renderings of what he saw, including many famous sketches of the Parthenon, whose forms he would later praise in his work Vers une architecture (1923) (towards an architecture). Early career: the villas, 1914-1930 Le Corbusier taught at his old school in La-Chaux-de-Fonds during World War I, not returning to Paris until the war was over. During these four years in Switzerland, he worked on theoretical architectural studies using modern techniques. Choay, Françoise, le corbusier (1960), pp. 10-11. George Braziller, Inc. ISBN 0-8076-0104-7. Among these was his project for the "Dom-ino" House (1914-1915). This model proposed an open floor plan consisting of concrete slabs supported by a minimal number of thin, reinforced concrete columns around the edges, with a stairway providing access to each level on one side of the floor plan. This design became the foundation for most of his architecture for the next ten years. Soon he would begin his own architectural practice with his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret (1896-1967), a partnership that would last until 1940. In 1918, Le Corbusier met the disillusioned Cubist painter, Amédée Ozenfant, in whom he recognised a kindred spirit. Ozenfant encouraged him to paint, and the two began a period of collaboration. Rejecting Cubism as irrational and "romantic," the pair jointly published their manifesto, Après le Cubisme and established a new artistic movement, Purism. Ozenfant and Jeanneret established the Purist journal L'Esprit Nouveau. He was good friends with the Cubist artist Fernand Léger. Pseudonym Adopted, 1920 In the first issue of the journal, in 1920, Charles-Edouard Jeanneret adopted Le Corbusier, an altered form of his maternal grandfather's name, "Lecorbésier", as a pseudonym, reflecting his belief that anyone could reinvent himself. Some architectural historians claim that this pseudonym translates as "the crow-like one." Gans, Deborah, The Le Corbusier Guide (2006), p. 31. Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 1-56898-539-8. Adopting a single name to identify oneself was in vogue by artists in many fields during that era, especially among those in Paris. Between 1918 and 1922, Le Corbusier built nothing, concentrating his efforts on Purist theory and painting. In 1922, Le Corbusier and Jeanneret opened a studio in Paris at 35 rue de Sèvres. His theoretical studies soon advanced into several different single-family house models. Among these was the Maison "Citrohan", a pun on the name of the French Citroën automaker, for the modern industrial methods and materials Le Corbusier advocated using for the house. Here, Le Corbusier proposed a three-floor structure, with a double-height living room, bedrooms on the second floor, and a kitchen on the third floor. The roof would be occupied by a sun terrace. On the exterior Le Corbusier installed a stairway to provide second-floor access from ground level. Here, as in other projects from this period, he also designed the façades to include large expanses of uninterrupted banks of windows. The house used a rectangular plan, with exterior walls that were not filled by windows, left as white, stuccoed spaces. Le Corbusier and Jeanneret left the interior aesthetically spare, with any movable furniture made of tubular metal frames. Light fixtures usually comprised single, bare bulbs. Interior walls also were left white. Between 1922 and 1927, Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret designed many of these private houses for clients around Paris. In Boulogne-sur-Seine and the 16th arrondissement of Paris, Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret designed and built the Villa Lipschitz, Maison Cook (see William Edwards Cook), Maison Planeix, and the Maison La Roche/Albert Jeanneret, which now houses the Fondation Le Corbusier. Le Corbusier took French citizenship in 1930. |Portrait on Swiss ten francs banknote Forays into urbanism For a number of years French officials had been unsuccessful in dealing with the squalor of the growing Parisian slums, and Le Corbusier sought efficient ways to house large numbers of people in response to the urban housing crisis. He believed that his new, modern architectural forms would provide a new organisational solution that would raise the quality of life of the lower classes. His Immeubles Villas (1922) was such a project that called for large blocks of cell-like individual apartments stacked one on top of the other, with plans that included a living room, bedrooms, and kitchen, as well as a garden terrace. Not merely content with designs for a few housing blocks, soon Le Corbusier moved into studies for entire cities. In 1922, he also presented his scheme for a "Contemporary City" for three million inhabitants (Ville Contemporaine). The centrepiece of this plan was the group of sixty-storey, cruciform skyscrapers, steel-framed office buildings encased in huge curtain walls of glass. These skyscrapers were set within large, rectangular park-like green spaces. At the very middle was a huge transportation centre, that on different levels included depots for buses and trains, as well as highway intersections, and at the top, an airport. He had the fanciful notion that commercial airliners would land between the huge skyscrapers. Le Corbusier segregated pedestrian circulation paths from the roadways and glorified the use of the automobile as a means of transportation. As one moved out from the central skyscrapers, smaller low-storey, zigzag apartment blocks set far back from the street amid green space, housed the inhabitants. Le Corbusier hoped that politically-minded industrialists in France would lead the way with their efficient Taylorist and Fordist strategies adopted from American industrial models to reorganise society. In this new industrial spirit, Le Corbusier contributed to a new journal called L'Esprit Nouveau that advocated the use of modern industrial techniques and strategies to transform society into a more efficient environment with a higher standard of living on all socioeconomic levels. He forcefully argued that this transformation was necessary to avoid the spectre of revolution, that would otherwise shake society. His dictum "Architecture or Revolution", developed in his articles in this journal, became his rallying cry for the book Vers une architecture (Toward an Architecture, previously mistranslated into English as Towards a New Architecture), which comprised selected articles he contributed to L'Esprit Nouveau between 1920 and 1923. Theoretical urban schemes continued to occupy Le Corbusier. He exhibited his Plan Voisin, sponsored by another famous automobile manufacturer, in 1925. In it, he proposed to bulldoze most of central Paris, north of the Seine, and replace it with his sixty-story cruciform towers from the Contemporary City, placed in an orthogonal street grid and park-like green space. His scheme was met with only criticism and scorn from French politicians and industrialists, although they were favourable to the ideas of Taylorism and Fordism underlying Le Corbusier designs. Nonetheless, it did provoke discussion concerning how to deal with the cramped, dirty conditions that enveloped much of the city. In the 1930s, Le Corbusier expanded and reformulated his ideas on urbanism, eventually publishing them in La Ville radieuse (The Radiant City) of 1935. Perhaps the most significant difference between the Contemporary City and the Radiant City is that the latter abandons the class-based stratification of the former; housing is now assigned according to family size, not economic position. Robert Fishman, Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982), 231. La Ville radieuse also marks Le Corbusier's increasing dissatisfaction with capitalism and his turn to the right-wing syndicalism of Hubert Lagardelle. During the Vichy regime, Le Corbusier received a position on a planning committee and made designs for Algiers and other cities. The central government ultimately rejected his plans, and after 1942 Le Corbusier withdrew from political activity. Fishman, 244-246 After World War II, Le Corbusier attempted to realize his urban planning schemes on a small scale by constructing a series of "unités" (the housing block unit of the Radiant City) around France. The most famous of these was the Unité d'Habitation of Marseilles (1946-1952). In the 1950s, a unique opportunity to translate the Radiant City on a grand scale presented itself in the construction of Chandigarh, the new capital for the Indian states of Punjab and Haryana. Le Corbusier was brought on to develop the plan of Albert Mayer. Death Against his doctor's orders, on August 27, 1965, Le Corbusier went for a swim in the Mediterranean Sea at Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, France. His body was found by bathers and he was pronounced dead at 11 a.m. It was assumed that he suffered a heart attack, at the age of seventy-seven. His death rites took place at the courtyard of the Louvre Palace on September 1, 1965 under the direction of writer and thinker André Malraux, who was at the time France's Minister of Culture. Le Corbusier's death had a strong impact on the cultural and political world. Homages were paid worldwide and even some of Le Corbusier's worst artistic enemies, such as the painter Salvador Dalí, recognised his importance (Dalí sent a floral tribute). Then-President of the United States Lyndon B. Johnson said: "His influence was universal and his works are invested with a permanent quality possessed by those of very few artists in our history". The Soviet Union added, "Modern architecture has lost its greatest master". Japanese TV channels decided to broadcast, simultaneously to the ceremony, his Museum in Tokyo, in what was at the time a unique media homage. Visitors may find his grave site in the cemetery above Roquebrune-Cap-Martin in between Menton and Monaco in southern France. The Fondation Le Corbusier (or FLC) functions as his official Estate. http://www.fondationlecorbusier.asso.fr/fondationlc_us.htm | Fondation Le Corbusier's English Version Website . The U.S. copyright representative for the Fondation Le Corbusier is the Artists Rights Society http://arsny.com/requested.html | Most frequently requested artists list of the Artists Rights Society . Ideas Five points of architecture It was Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye (1929-1931) that most succinctly summed up his five points of architecture that he had elucidated in the journal L'Esprit Nouveau and his book Vers une architecture, which he had been developing throughout the 1920s. First, Le Corbusier lifted the bulk of the structure off the ground, supporting it by pilotis – reinforced concrete stilts. These pilotis, in providing the structural support for the house, allowed him to elucidate his next two points: a free façade, meaning non-supporting walls that could be designed as the architect wished, and an open floor plan, meaning that the floor space was free to be configured into rooms without concern for supporting walls. The second floor of the Villa Savoye includes long strips of ribbon windows that allow unencumbered views of the large surrounding yard, and which constitute the fourth point of his system. The fifth point was the Roof garden to compensate the green area consumed by the building and replacing it on the roof. A ramp rising from the ground level to the third floor roof terrace, allows for an architectural promenade through the structure. The white tubular railing recalls the industrial "ocean-liner" aesthetic that Le Corbusier much admired. As if to put an exclamation point on Le Corbusier's homage to modern industry, the driveway around the ground floor, with its semicircular path, measures the exact turning radius of a 1927 Citroën automobile. The Modulor Cover of Modulor and Modulor 2 Le Corbusier explicitly used the golden ratio in his Modulor system for the scale of architectural proportion. He saw this system as a continuation of the long tradition of Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci's "Vitruvian Man", the work of Leon Battista Alberti, and others who used the proportions of the human body to improve the appearance and function of architecture. In addition to the golden ratio, Le Corbusier based the system on human measurements, Fibonacci numbers, and the double unit. He took Leonardo's suggestion of the golden ratio in human proportions to an extreme: he sectioned his model human body's height at the navel with the two sections in golden ratio, then subdivided those sections in golden ratio at the knees and throat; he used these golden ratio proportions in the Modulor system. Le Corbusier's 1927 Villa Stein in Garches exemplified the Modulor system's application. The villa's rectangular ground plan, elevation, and inner structure closely approximate golden rectangles. Le Corbusier, The Modulor, p. 35, as cited in Padovan, Richard, Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture (1999), p. 320. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-419-22780-6: "Both the paintings and the architectural designs make use of the golden section". Le Corbusier placed systems of harmony and proportion at the centre of his design philosophy, and his faith in the mathematical order of the universe was closely bound to the golden section and the Fibonacci series, which he described as "[...] rhythms apparent to the eye and clear in their relations with one another. And these rhythms are at the very root of human activities. They resound in Man by an organic inevitability, the same fine inevitability which causes the tracing out of the Golden Section by children, old men, savages, and the learned." Ibid. The Modulor pp.25, as cited in Padovan's Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture pp.316 Furniture Corbusier said: "Chairs are architecture, sofas are bourgeois." Le Corbusier began experimenting with furniture design in 1928 after inviting the architect, Charlotte Perriand, to join his studio. His cousin, Pierre Jeanneret, also collaborated on many of the designs. Before the arrival of Perriand, Le Corbusier relied on ready-made furniture to furnish his projects, such as the simple pieces manufactured by Thonet, the company that manufactured his designs in the 1930s. In 1928, Le Corbusier and Perriand began to put the expectations for furniture Le Corbusier outlined in his 1925 book L'Art Décoratif d'aujourd'hui into practice. In the book he defined three different furniture types: type-needs, type-furniture, and human-limb objects. He defined human-limb objects as: "Extensions of our limbs and adapted to human functions that are. Type-needs, type-functions, therefore type-objects and type-furniture. The human-limb object is a docile servant. A good servant is discreet and self-effacing in order to leave his master free. Certainly, works of art are tools, beautiful tools. And long live the good taste manifested by choice, subtlety, proportion, and harmony". The first results of the collaboration were three chrome-plated tubular steel chairs designed for two of his projects, The Maison la Roche in Paris and a pavilion for Barbara and Henry Church. The line of furniture was expanded for Le Corbusier's 1929 Salon d'Automne installation, Equipment for the Home. In the year 1964, while Le Corbusier was still alive, Cassina S.p.A. of Milan acquired the exclusive worldwide rights to manufacture his furniture designs. Today many copies exist, but Cassina is still the only manufacturer authorised by the Fondation Le Corbusier. " View images of Le Corbusier's design work " Politics Le Corbusier moved increasingly to the far right of French politics in the 1930s. He associated with Georges Valois and Hubert Lagardelle and briefly edited the syndicalist journal Prélude. In 1934, he lectured on architecture in Rome by invitation of Benito Mussolini. He sought out a position in urban planning in the Vichy regime and received an appointment on a committee studying urbanism. He drew up plans for the redesign of Algiers in which he criticised the perceived differences in living standards between Europeans and Africans in the city, describing a situation in which "the 'civilised' live like rats in holes" yet "the 'barbarians' live in solitude, in well-being." Celik, Zeynep, Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations: Algiers under French Rule, University of California Press, 1997, p. 4. These and plans for the redesign of other cities were ultimately ignored. After this defeat, Le Corbusier largely eschewed politics. Although the politics of Lagardelle and Valois included elements of fascism, anti-semitism, and ultra-nationalism, Le Corbusier's own affiliation with these movements remains uncertain. In La Ville radieuse, he conceives an essentially apolitical society, in which the bureaucracy of economic administration effectively replaces the state. Fishman, 228 Le Corbusier was heavily indebted to the thought of the nineteenth-century French utopians Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier. There is a noteworthy resemblance between the concept of the unité and Fourier's phalanstery. Peter Serenyi, “Le Corbusier, Fourier, and the Monastery of Ema.” The Art Bulletin 49, no. 4 (1967): 282. From Fourier, Le Corbusier adopted at least in part his notion of administrative, rather than political, government. Criticisms Since his death, Le Corbusier's contribution has been hotly contested, as the architecture values and its accompanying aspects within modern architecture vary, both between different schools of thought and among practising architects. Holm, Ivar (2006). Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orentations, and underlying assumptions shape the build environment. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN 8254701741. At the level of building, his later works expressed a complex understanding of modernity's impact, yet his urban designs have drawn scorn from critics. Technological historian and architecture critic Lewis Mumford wrote in Yesterday's City of Tomorrow, James Howard Kunstler, a member of the New Urbanism movement, has criticised Le Corbusier's approach to urban planning as destructive and wasteful: The public housing projects influenced by his ideas are seen by some as having had the effect of isolating poor communities in monolithic high-rises and breaking the social ties integral to a community's development. One of his most influential detractors has been Jane Jacobs, who delivered a scathing critique of Le Corbusier's urban design theories in her seminal work The Death and Life of Great American Cities. Influence Le Corbusier was at his most influential in the sphere of urban planning, and was a founding member of the Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM). One of the first to realise how the automobile would change human agglomerations, Le Corbusier described the city of the future as consisting of large apartment buildings isolated in a park-like setting on pilotis. Le Corbusier's theories were adopted by the builders of public housing in Western Europe and the United States. For the design of the buildings themselves, Le Corbusier criticised any effort at ornamentation. The large spartan structures, in cities, but not of cities, have been widely criticised for being boring and unfriendly to pedestrians. Throughout the years, many architects worked for Le Corbusier in his studio, and a number of them became notable in their own right, including painter-architect Nadir Afonso, who absorbed Le Corbusier's ideas into his own aesthetics theory. Lúcio Costa's city plan of Brasília and the industrial city of Zlín planned by František Lydie Gahura in the Czech Republic are notable plans based on his ideas, while the architect himself produced the plan for Chandigarh in India. Le Corbusier's thinking also had profound effects on the philosophy of city planning and architecture in the Soviet Union, particularly in the Constructivist era. Le Corbusier was heavily influenced by the problems he saw in the industrial city of the turn of the century. He thought that industrial housing techniques led to crowding, dirtiness, and a lack of a moral landscape. He was a leader of the modernist movement to create better living conditions and a better society through housing concepts. Ebenezer Howard's Garden Cities of Tomorrow heavily influenced Le Corbusier and his contemporaries. Le Corbusier also harmonized and lent credence to the idea of space as a set of destinations which mankind moved between, more or less continuously. He was therefore able to give credence and credibility to the automobile (as a transporter); and most importantly to freeways in urban spaces. His philosophies were useful to urban real estate development interests in the American Post World War II period because they justified and lent architectural and intellectual support to the desire to destroy traditional urban space for high density high profit urban concentration; both commercial and residential. Le Corbusier’s ideas also sanctioned the further destruction of traditional urban spaces for the freeways that connected this new urbanism to the low density; low cost (and highly profitable), suburban and rural locales; which were free to be developed as middle class single family (dormitory) housing. Notably missing from this scheme of movement were connectivity between the isolated urban villages created for the lower middle and working classes and the other destination points in the Le Corbusier plan; the suburban and rural areas, and the urban commercial centers. This was because as designed, the freeways traveled over, at, or beneath the grade levels of the urban working and lower middle class living spaces, such as the Cabrini Green housing project. Such projects and their areas, having no freeway exit ramps, and being cut-off by the freeways rights-of-way, became isolated from jobs and the services that came to be concentrated at Le Corbusier’s nodal transportation end points. And as jobs increasingly moved to the suburban end points of the freeways; urban village dwellers found themselves without convenient freeway access points in their communities; and without public mass transit connectivity that could economically reach suburban job centers. Very late in the Post War period suburban job centers found this to be such a critical problem (labor shortages) that they on their own, began sponsoring urban to suburban shuttle bus services, between the urban villages and the suburban job centers, to fill the working class and lower-middle class jobs which had gone wanting; and which did not normally pay the wages that car ownership required. The gradually increasing costs of transportation (of which fuel in only one element), and the decline in middle and upper class taste for the suburban and rural lifestyle has resulted in the repudiation of Le Corbusier’s ideas. Urban centers are now the most desirable real estate areas. Condominium living is being rediscovered as the preferred form of living in urban spaces from Nashville, TN and Columbus, IN to South Miami Beach, FL and Atlanta, GA. Most central business districts of cities now hum with residential activity after working hours, or are on the way to doing so. Le Corbusier deliberately created a myth about himself and was revered in his lifetime, and after death, by a generation of followers who believed Le Corbusier was a prophet who could do no wrong. But in the 1950s the first doubts began to appear, notably in some essays by his greatest admirers such as James Stirling and Colin Rowe, who denounced as catastrophic his ideas on the city. Later critics revealed his technical incompetence as an architect, such as Brian Brace Taylor, whose book Armée du Salut went into great detail about Le Corbusier's Machiavellian activities to create this commission for himself, his many ill-judged design decisions about the building's technologies, and the sometimes absurd solutions he then proposed. Major buildings and projects 1905: Villa Fallet, La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland 1912: Villa Jeanneret-Perret, La Chaux-de-Fonds 1916: Villa Schwob, La Chaux-de-Fonds 1923: Villa La Roche/Villa Jeanneret, Paris 1924: Pavillon de L'Esprit Nouveau, Paris (destroyed) 1924: Quartiers Modernes Frugès, Pessac, France 1925: Villa Jeanneret, Paris 1926: Villa Cook, Boulogne-sur-Seine, France 1927: Villas at Weissenhof Estate, Stuttgart, Germany 1928: Villa Savoye, Poissy-sur-Seine, France View on the map 1929: Armée du Salut, Cité de Refuge, Paris 1930: Pavillon Suisse, Cité Universitaire, Paris 1930: Maison Errazuriz, Chile 1931: Palace of the Soviets, Moscow, USSR (project) 1931: Immeuble Clarté, Geneva, Switzerland View on the map 1933: Tsentrosoyuz, Moscow, USSR 1936: Palace of Ministry of National Education and Public Health, Rio de Janeiro (as a consultant to Lucio Costa, Oscar Niemeyer and others) 1938: The "Cartesian" sky-scraper (project) 1945: Usine Claude et Duval, Saint-Dié-des-Vosges, France 1947–1952: Unité d'Habitation, Marseille, France View on the map 1948: Curutchet House, La Plata, Argentina 1949–1952: United Nations headquarters, New York City (Consultant) 1950–1954: Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp, France View on the map 1951: Cabanon de vacances, Roquebrune-Cap-Martin 1951: Maisons Jaoul, Neuilly-sur-Seine, France 1951: Mill Owners' Association Building, villa Sarabhai and villa Schodan, Ahmedabad, India 1952: Unité d'Habitation of Nantes-Rezé, Nantes, France View on the map 1952–1959: Buildings in Chandigarh, India 1952: Palace of Justice (Chandigarh) 1952: Museum and Gallery of Art (Chandigarh) 1953: Secretariat Building (Chandigarh) 1953: Governor's Palace (Chandigarh) 1955: Palace of Assembly (Chandigarh) 1959: Government College of Arts (GCA) and the Chandigarh College of Architecture(CCA) (Chandigarh) 1956: Museum at Ahmedabad, Ahmedabad, India 1956: Saddam Hussein Gymnasium, Baghdad, Iraq 1957: Unité d'Habitation of Briey en Forêt, France 1957: National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo 1957: Maison du Brésil, Cité Universitaire, Paris 1957–1960: Sainte Marie de La Tourette, near Lyon, France (with Iannis Xenakis) 1957: Unité d'Habitation of Berlin-Charlottenburg, Flatowallee 16, Berlin View on the map 1957: Unité d'Habitation of Meaux, France 1958: Philips Pavilion, Brussels, Belgium (with Iannis Xenakis) (destroyed) at the 1958 World Expositon 1961: Center for Electronic Calculus, Olivetti, Milan, Italy 1961: Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States 1964–1969: Firminy-Vert 1964: Unité d'Habitation of Firminy, France 1966: Stadium Firminy-Vert 1965: Maison de la culture de Firminy-Vert 1969: Church of Saint-Pierre, Firminy, France (built posthumously and completed under José Oubrerie's guidance in 2006) 1967: Heidi Weber House, Zurich Major written works 1918: Après le cubisme (After Cubism), with Amédée Ozenfant 1923: Vers une architecture (Towards a New Architecture) 1925: Urbanisme (Urbanism) 1925: La Peinture moderne (Modern Painting), with Amédée Ozenfant 1925: L'Art décoratif d'aujourd'hui (The Decorative Arts of Today) 1931: Premier clavier de couleurs (First Color Keyboard) 1935: Aircraft 1935: La Ville radieuse (The Radiant City) 1942: Charte d'Athènes (Athens Charter) 1943: Entretien avec les étudiants des écoles d'architecture (A Conversation with Architecture Students) 1948: Le Modulor (The Modulor) 1953: Le Poeme de l'Angle Droit (The Poem of the Right Angle) 1955: Le Modulor 2 (The Modulor 2) 1959: Deuxième clavier de couleurs (Second Colour Keyboard) 1966: Le Voyage d'Orient (The Voyage to the East) Quotations "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: "This is beautiful. That is Architecture. Art enters in..." (Vers une architecture, 1923) "Architecture is the masterly, correct, and magnificent play of form in light." "Space and light and order. Those are the things that men need just as much as they need bread or a place to sleep." "The house is a machine for living in." (Vers une architecture, 1923) "It is a question of building which is at the root of the social unrest of today: architecture or revolution." (Vers une architecture, 1923) "Modern life demands, and is waiting for, a new kind of plan, both for the house and the city." (Vers une architecture, 1923) "The 'Styles' are a lie." (Vers une architecture, 1923) Memorials Le Corbusier's portrait was featured on the 10 Swiss francs banknote, pictured with his distinctive eyeglasses. The following place-names carry his name: Place Le Corbusier, Paris, near the site of his atelier on the Rue de Sèvres. Le Corbusier Boulevard, Laval, Quebec, Canada. Place Le Corbusier in his hometown of La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland. Le Corbusier Street in the partido of Malvinas Argentinas, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. Le Corbusier Street in Le Village Parisien of Brossard, Quebec, Canada. See also :Category:Le Corbusier buildings – thumbnail images of buildings and articles Modernism References Further reading Weber, Nicholas Fox, Le Corbusier: A Life, Alfred A. Knopf, 2008, ISBN 0375410430 Marco Venturi, Le Corbusier Algiers Plans, research available on planum.net Behrens, Roy R. (2005). COOK BOOK: Gertrude Stein, William Cook and Le Corbusier. Dysart, Iowa: Bobolink Books. ISBN 0-9713244-1-7. Naïma Jornod and Jean-Pierre Jornod, Le Corbusier (Charles Edouard Jeanneret), catalogue raisonné de l’oeuvre peint, Skira, 2005, ISBN 8876242031 Eliel, Carol S. (2002). L'Esprit Nouveau: Purism in Paris, 1918 - 1925. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0-8109-6727-8 H. Allen Brooks: Le Corbusier's Formative Years: Charles-Edouard Jeanneret at La Chaux-de-Fonds, Paperback Edition, University of Chicago Press, 1999, ISBN 0226075826 External links Fondation Le Corbusier - Official website Resource site for furniture designs Images of the Ministry of National Education and Public Health, Rio de Janeiro Le Corbusier's projects in a map Le Corbusier in Artfacts.Net Corbusier's Working Lifestyle: 'Working with Corbusier' Video: Sector 1 Chandigarh, India Artists Rights Society, Le Corbusier's U.S. Copyright Representatives be-x-old:Ле Карбузье | Le_Corbusier |@lemmatized charles:7 édouard:2 jeanneret:16 gris:2 choose:1 know:1 le:104 corbusier:100 october:2 august:2 swiss:3 french:10 architect:10 designer:2 urbanist:1 writer:3 also:11 painter:5 famous:4 one:10 pioneer:3 call:3 modern:12 architecture:38 international:2 style:2 bear:2 switzerland:6 become:6 citizen:1 study:7 high:5 design:25 dedicate:1 provide:5 well:4 living:10 condition:3 resident:1 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2,317 | Device_driver | In computing, a device driver or software driver is a computer program allowing higher-level computer programs to interact with a hardware device. A driver typically communicates with the device through the computer bus or communications subsystem to which the hardware is connected. When a calling program invokes a routine in the driver, the driver issues commands to the device. Once the device sends data back to the driver, the driver may invoke routines in the original calling program. Drivers are hardware-dependent and operating-system-specific. They usually provide the interrupt handling required for any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interface. Purpose A device driver simplifies programming by acting as an abstraction layer between a hardware device and the applications or operating systems that use it. The higher-level application code can be written independently of whatever specific hardware device it will ultimately control, as it can interface with it in a standard way, regardless of the underlying hardware. Every version of a device, such as a printer, requires its own hardware-specific specialized commands. In contrast, most applications utilize devices (such as sending a file to a printer) by means of high-level device-generic commands such as PRINTLN (print a line). The device-driver accepts these generic high-level commands and breaks them into a series of low-level device-specific commands as required by the device being driven. Furthermore, drivers can provide a level of security as they can run in kernel-mode, thereby protecting the operating system from applications running in user-mode. Design Device drivers can be abstracted into logical and physical layers. Logical layers process data for a class of devices such as ethernet ports or disk drives. Physical layers communicate with specific device instances. For example, a serial port needs to handle standard communication protocols such as XON/XOFF that are common for all serial port hardware. This would be managed by a serial port logical layer. However, the logical layer needs to communicate with a particular serial port chip. 16550 UART hardware differs from PL-011. The physical layer addresses these chip-specific variations. Conventionally, OS requests go to the logical layer first. In turn, the logical layer calls upon the physical layer to implement OS requests in terms understandable by the hardware. Inversely, when a hardware device needs to respond to the OS, it uses the physical layer to speak to the logical layer. In Linux, device drivers can be built either as parts of the kernel or separately as loadable modules. Makedev includes a list of the devices in Linux: ttyS (terminal), lp (parallel port), hd (disk), loop (loopback disk device), sound (these include mixer, sequencer, dsp, and audio)... MAKEDEV - Linux Command - Unix Command The Windows .sys files and Linux .ko modules are loadable device drivers. The advantage of loadable device drivers is that they can be loaded only when necessary and then unloaded, thus saving kernel memory. Development Writing a device driver requires an in-depth understanding of how the hardware and the software of a given platform function. Drivers operate in a highly privileged environment and can cause disaster if they get things wrong. In contrast, most user-level software on modern operating systems can be stopped without greatly affecting the rest of the system. Even drivers executing in user mode can crash a system if the device is erroneously programmed. These factors make it more difficult and dangerous to diagnose problems. Thus drivers are usually written by software engineers who come from the companies that develop the hardware. This is because they have better information than most outsiders about the design of their hardware. Moreover, it was traditionally considered in the hardware manufacturer's interest to guarantee that their clients can use their hardware in an optimum way. Typically, the logical device driver (LDD) is written by the operating system vendor, while the physical device driver (PDD) is implemented by the device vendor. But in recent years non-vendors have written numerous device drivers, mainly for use with free operating systems. In such cases, it is important that the hardware manufacturer provides information on how the device communicates. Although this information can instead be learned by reverse engineering, this is much more difficult with hardware than it is with software. Microsoft has attempted to reduce system instability due to poorly written device drivers by creating a new framework for driver development, called Windows Driver Foundation (WDF). This includes User-Mode Driver Framework (UMDF) that encourages development of certain types of drivers - primarily those that implement a message-based protocol for communicating with their devices - as user mode drivers. If such drivers malfunction, they do not cause system instability. The Kernel-Mode Driver Framework (KMDF) model continues to allow development of kernel-mode device drivers, but attempts to provide standard implementations of functions that are well known to cause problems, including cancellation of I/O operations, power management, and plug and play device support. Apple has an open-source framework for developing drivers on Mac OS X called the I/O Kit. Kernel-mode vs User-mode Device drivers, particularly on modern Windows platforms, can run in kernel-mode (Ring 0) or in user-mode (Ring 3). The primary benefit of running a driver in user mode is improved stability, since a poorly written user mode device driver cannot crash the system by overwriting kernel memory. On the other hand, user/kernel-mode transitions usually impose a considerable performance overhead, thereby prohibiting user mode-drivers for low latency and high throughput requirements. Device driver applications Because of the diversity of modern hardware and operating systems, many ways exist in which drivers can be used. Drivers are used for interfacing with: Printers Video adapters Network cards Sound cards Local buses of various sorts - in particular, for bus mastering on modern systems Low-bandwidth I/O buses of various sorts (for pointing devices such as mice, keyboards, USB, etc.) computer storage devices such as hard disk, CD-ROM and floppy disk buses (ATA, SATA, SCSI) Implementing support for different file systems Implementing support for image scanners and digital cameras Common levels of abstraction for device drivers are For hardware: Interfacing directly Writing to or reading from a Device Control Register Using some higher-level interface (e.g. Video BIOS) Using another lower-level device driver (e.g. file system drivers using disk drivers) Simulating work with hardware, while doing something entirely different For software: Allowing the operating system direct access to hardware resources Implementing only primitives Implementing an interface for non-driver software (e.g. TWAIN) Implementing a language, sometimes quite high-level (e.g. PostScript) Choosing and installing the correct device drivers for given hardware is often a key component of computer system configuration. Virtual device drivers A particular variant of device drivers are virtual device drivers. They are used to emulate a hardware device, particularly in virtualization environments, for example when a DOS program is run on a Microsoft Windows computer or when a guest operating system is run on, for example, a Xen host. Instead of enabling the guest operating system to dialog with hardware, virtual device drivers take the opposite role and emulate a piece of hardware, so that the guest operating system and its drivers running inside a virtual machine can have the illusion of accessing real hardware. Attempts by the guest operating system to access the hardware are routed to the virtual device driver in the host operating system as e.g. function calls. The virtual device driver can also send simulated processor-level events like interrupts into the virtual machine. Virtual devices are also used in a non-virtualized environment. For example a virtual network adapter is used with a virtual private network, while a virtual disk device is used with iSCSI. Open drivers Printers: CUPS. Scanners: SANE. Video: Vidix, Direct Rendering Infrastructure Solaris descriptions of commonly used device drivers fas: Fast/wide SCSI controller hme: Fast (10/100 Mbit/s) Ethernet isp: Differential SCSI controllers and the SunSwift card glm: UltraSCSI controllers scsi: Small Computer Serial Interface (SCSI) devices sf: soc+ or socal Fiber Channel Arbitrated Loop (FCAL) soc: SPARC Storage Array (SSA) controllers socal: Serial optical controllers for FCAL (soc+) Driver APIs Advanced Linux Sound Architecture (ALSA) - The standard modern Linux sound driver interface I/O Kit - an open-source framework from Apple for developing Mac OS X device drivers Installable File System (IFS) - a filesystem API for IBM OS/2 and Microsoft Windows NT Network Driver Interface Specification (NDIS) - a standard network card driver API Open Data-Link Interface (ODI) - a network card API similar to NDIS Scanner Access Now Easy (SANE) - a public domain interface to raster image scanner hardware Uniform Driver Interface (UDI) - a cross platform driver interface project Windows Display Driver Model (WDDM) - the graphic display driver architecture for Windows Vista Windows Driver Foundation (WDF) Windows Driver Model (WDM) Identifiers Device id is the device identifier and Vendor id is the vendor identifier. See also Class driver Firmware Interrupt Loadable kernel module Makedev Open source hardware Printer driver udev References External links Microsoft Windows Hardware Developer Central Linux Hardware Compatibility Lists and Linux Drivers Writing Device Drivers: A Tutorial If you wish to have Linux drivers written for your device Free Linux Driver Development Questions and Answers Linux hardware | Device_driver |@lemmatized compute:1 device:59 driver:71 software:7 computer:7 program:7 allow:3 high:7 level:12 interact:1 hardware:34 typically:2 communicate:4 bus:5 communication:2 subsystem:1 connect:1 call:6 invokes:1 routine:2 issue:1 command:7 send:3 data:3 back:1 may:1 invoke:1 original:1 dependent:2 operate:6 system:23 specific:6 usually:3 provide:4 interrupt:3 handling:1 require:4 necessary:2 asynchronous:1 time:1 interface:11 purpose:1 simplifies:1 act:1 abstraction:2 layer:12 application:5 use:14 code:1 write:10 independently:1 whatever:1 ultimately:1 control:2 standard:5 way:3 regardless:1 underlie:1 every:1 version:1 printer:5 specialized:1 contrast:2 utilize:1 file:5 mean:1 generic:2 println:1 print:1 line:1 accept:1 break:1 series:1 low:4 drive:2 furthermore:1 security:1 run:7 kernel:10 mode:15 thereby:2 protect:1 operating:8 user:11 design:2 abstract:1 logical:8 physical:6 process:1 class:2 ethernet:2 port:6 disk:7 instance:1 example:4 serial:6 need:3 handle:1 protocol:2 xon:1 xoff:1 common:2 would:1 manage:1 however:1 particular:3 chip:2 uart:1 differs:1 pl:1 address:1 variation:1 conventionally:1 request:2 go:1 first:1 turn:1 upon:1 implement:8 os:1 term:1 understandable:1 inversely:1 respond:1 speak:1 linux:11 build:1 either:1 part:1 separately:1 loadable:4 module:3 makedev:3 include:4 list:2 ttys:1 terminal:1 lp:1 parallel:1 hd:1 loop:2 loopback:1 sound:4 mixer:1 sequencer:1 dsp:1 audio:1 unix:1 window:8 sys:1 ko:1 advantage:1 load:1 unload:1 thus:2 save:1 memory:2 development:5 depth:1 understanding:1 give:2 platform:3 function:3 highly:1 privileged:1 environment:3 cause:3 disaster:1 get:1 thing:1 wrong:1 modern:5 stop:1 without:1 greatly:1 affect:1 rest:1 even:1 execute:1 crash:2 erroneously:1 factor:1 make:1 difficult:2 dangerous:1 diagnose:1 problem:2 engineer:1 come:1 company:1 develop:3 good:1 information:3 outsider:1 moreover:1 traditionally:1 consider:1 manufacturer:2 interest:1 guarantee:1 client:1 optimum:1 ldd:1 vendor:5 pdd:1 recent:1 year:1 non:3 numerous:1 mainly:1 free:2 case:1 important:1 communicates:1 although:1 instead:2 learn:1 reverse:1 engineering:1 much:1 microsoft:4 attempt:3 reduce:1 instability:2 due:1 poorly:2 create:1 new:1 framework:5 foundation:2 wdf:2 umdf:1 encourage:1 certain:1 type:1 primarily:1 message:1 base:1 malfunction:1 kmdf:1 model:3 continue:1 implementation:1 well:1 know:1 cancellation:1 operation:1 power:1 management:1 plug:1 play:1 support:3 apple:2 open:5 source:3 mac:2 x:2 kit:2 v:1 particularly:2 ring:2 primary:1 benefit:1 improve:1 stability:1 since:1 cannot:1 overwrite:1 hand:1 transition:1 impose:1 considerable:1 performance:1 overhead:1 prohibit:1 latency:1 throughput:1 requirement:1 diversity:1 many:1 exist:1 interfacing:2 video:3 adapter:2 network:6 card:5 local:1 various:2 sort:2 master:1 bandwidth:1 point:1 mouse:1 keyboard:1 usb:1 etc:1 storage:2 hard:1 cd:1 rom:1 floppy:1 ata:1 sata:1 scsi:5 different:2 image:2 scanner:4 digital:1 camera:1 directly:1 read:1 register:1 e:5 g:5 bios:1 another:1 simulate:2 work:1 something:1 entirely:1 direct:2 access:4 resource:1 primitives:1 twain:1 language:1 sometimes:1 quite:1 postscript:1 choosing:1 instal:1 correct:1 often:1 key:1 component:1 configuration:1 virtual:11 variant:1 emulate:2 virtualization:1 dos:1 guest:4 xen:1 host:2 enable:1 dialog:1 take:1 opposite:1 role:1 piece:1 inside:1 machine:2 illusion:1 real:1 rout:1 also:3 processor:1 event:1 like:1 virtualized:1 private:1 iscsi:1 cup:1 sane:2 vidix:1 rendering:1 infrastructure:1 solaris:1 description:1 commonly:1 fas:1 fast:2 wide:1 controller:5 hme:1 mbit:1 isp:1 differential:1 sunswift:1 glm:1 ultrascsi:1 small:1 sf:1 soc:3 socal:2 fiber:1 channel:1 arbitrate:1 fcal:2 sparc:1 array:1 ssa:1 optical:1 apis:1 advance:1 architecture:2 alsa:1 installable:1 ifs:1 filesystem:1 api:3 ibm:1 nt:1 specification:1 ndis:2 link:2 odi:1 similar:1 easy:1 public:1 domain:1 raster:1 uniform:1 udi:1 cross:1 project:1 windows:2 display:2 wddm:1 graphic:1 vista:1 wdm:1 identifier:3 id:2 see:1 firmware:1 udev:1 reference:1 external:1 developer:1 central:1 compatibility:1 tutorial:1 wish:1 question:1 answer:1 |@bigram cd_rom:1 floppy_disk:1 ata_sata:1 microsoft_window:3 scsi_controller:2 window_nt:1 window_vista:1 loadable_kernel:1 external_link:1 |
2,318 | Chemical_affinity | In chemical physics and physical chemistry, chemical affinity can be defined as electronic properties by which dissimilar chemical species are capable of forming chemical compounds. Chemical Affinity - Britannica 1911 Chemical affinity can also refer to the tendency of an atom or compound to combine by chemical reaction with atoms or compounds of unlike composition. According to chemistry historian Henry Leicester, the influential 1923 textbook Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Reactions by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall led to the replacement of the term “affinity” by the term “free energy” in much of the English-speaking world. Modern conceptions In modern terms, we relate affinity to the phenomenon whereby certain atoms or molecules have the tendency to aggregate or bond. For example, in the 1919 book Chemistry of Human Life physician George W. Carey states: “Health depends on a proper amount of iron phosphate Fe3(PO4)2 in the blood, for the molecules of this salt have chemical affinity for oxygen and carry it to all parts of the organism.” In this antiquated context, chemical affinity is sometimes found synonymous with the term "magnetic attraction". Many writings, up until about 1925, also refer to a “law of chemical affinity”. Thermodynamics In 1923, the Belgian mathematician and physicist Théophile de Donder derived a relation between affinity and the Gibbs free energy of a chemical reaction. Through a series of derivations, de Donder showed that if we consider a mixture of chemical species with the possibility of chemical reaction, it can be proved that the following relation holds: With the writings of Théophile de Donder as precedent, Ilya Prigogine and Defay in Chemical Thermodynamics (1954) defined chemical affinity (denoted by ) as a function of the increments in uncompensated heat of reaction and reaction progress variable (denoted by and , respectively): (1). This definition is useful for quantifying the factors responsible both for the state of equilibrium systems (where ), and for changes of state of non-equilibrium systems (where ). The present IUPAC definition of chemical affinity is: Negative partial derivative of Gibbs energy with respect to extent of reaction at constant pressure and temperature. It is positive for spontaneous reactions. IUPAC Green Book and Gold Book in .pdf History "Chemical affinity", historically, refers to the "force" that causes chemical reactions. Thomas Thomson. (1831). A System of Chemistry, vol. 1. p.31 (chemical affinity is described as an "unknown force"). 7th ed., 2 vols. A broad definition, used generally throughout history, is that chemical affinity is that whereby substances enter into or resist decomposition. In current use, it The following statement, made by Ilya Prigogine, summarizes the concept of affinity: The term affinity has been used figuratively since c.1600 in discussions of structural relationships in chemistry, philology, etc., and reference to "natural attraction" is from 1616. The idea of affinity is extremely old. Many attempts have been made at identifying its origins. The majority of such attempts, however, except in a general manner, end in futility since ‘affinities’ lie at the basis of all magic, thereby pre-dating science. Malthauf, R. P. (1966). The Origins of Chemistry. Pg. 299. London. Physical chemistry, however, was one of the first branches of science to study and formulate a "theory of affinity". The name affinitas was first used in the sense of chemical relation by German philosopher Albertus Magnus near the year 1250. Later, those as Robert Boyle, John Mayow, Johann Glauber, Isaac Newton, and Georg Stahl put forward ideas on elective affinity in attempts to explain how heat is evolved during combustion reactions. Partington, J.R. (1937). A Short History of Chemistry. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-65977-1 The modern term chemical affinity is a somewhat modified variation of its eighteenth-century precursor "elective affinity" or elective attractions, a coinage of the Swedish chemist Torbern Olof Bergman from his book De attractionibus electivis (1775). Antoine Lavoisier, in his famed 1790 Elements of Chemistry, refers to Bergmann’s work and discusses the concept of elective affinities or attractions. Goethe used the concept in his novel Elective Affinities, (1809) Geoffroy's 1718 affinity table The first-ever affinity table, which was based on displacement reactions, was published in 1718 by the French chemist Étienne François Geoffroy. Geoffroy's name is best known in connection with these tables of "affinities" (tables des rapports), which were first presented to the French Academy in 1718 and 1720, as shown below: Geoffroy's Affinity Table (1718): At the head of the column is a substance with which all the substances below can combine, where each column below the header is ranked by degrees of "affinity". These were lists, prepared by collating observations on the actions of substances one upon another, showing the varying degrees of affinity exhibited by analogous bodies for different reagents, and they retained their vogue for the rest of the century, until displaced by the profounder conceptions introduced by Claude Berthollet. See also Chemistry Chemical reaction Chemical bond Electronegativity Electron affinity Étienne François Geoffroy — Geoffroy's 1718 Affinity Table Valency Affinity chromatography Affinity electrophoresis References Further reading Important books on Newton's alchemy, as he was one of the main proponents of the theory of chemical affinity, are: Dobbs, Betty Jo Teeter. The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy: or, "The Hunting of the Greene Lyon". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975. ISBN 0-521-20786-X Dobbs, Betty Jo Teeter. The Janus Faces of Genius: the Role of Alchemy in Newton's Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-521-38084-7 Notes The excerpt from Janus Faces at includes a discussion of the historiographical issue of Newton's alchemy and footnotes that provide a starting bibliography on Newton's alchemy. External links Chemical Affinity and Absolute Zero - 1920 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Presentation Speech by Gerard de Geer Elements, Principles and the Narrative of Affinity – Essay Review | Chemical_affinity |@lemmatized chemical:27 physic:1 physical:2 chemistry:11 affinity:37 define:2 electronic:1 property:1 dissimilar:1 specie:2 capable:1 form:1 compound:3 britannica:1 also:3 refer:2 tendency:2 atom:3 combine:2 reaction:12 unlike:1 composition:1 accord:1 historian:1 henry:1 leicester:1 influential:1 textbook:1 thermodynamics:3 free:3 energy:4 gilbert:1 n:1 lewis:1 merle:1 randall:1 lead:1 replacement:1 term:6 much:1 english:1 speaking:1 world:1 modern:3 conception:2 relate:1 phenomenon:1 whereby:2 certain:1 molecule:2 aggregate:1 bond:2 example:1 book:5 human:1 life:1 physician:1 george:1 w:1 carey:1 state:3 health:1 depend:1 proper:1 amount:1 iron:1 phosphate:1 blood:1 salt:1 oxygen:1 carry:1 part:1 organism:1 antiquated:1 context:1 sometimes:1 find:1 synonymous:1 magnetic:1 attraction:4 many:2 writing:2 law:1 belgian:1 mathematician:1 physicist:1 théophile:2 de:5 donder:3 derive:1 relation:3 gibbs:2 series:1 derivation:1 show:3 consider:1 mixture:1 possibility:1 prove:1 following:2 hold:1 precedent:1 ilya:2 prigogine:2 defay:1 denote:2 function:1 increment:1 uncompensated:1 heat:2 progress:1 variable:1 respectively:1 definition:3 useful:1 quantify:1 factor:1 responsible:1 equilibrium:2 system:3 change:1 non:1 present:2 iupac:2 negative:1 partial:1 derivative:1 respect:1 extent:1 constant:1 pressure:1 temperature:1 positive:1 spontaneous:1 green:1 gold:1 pdf:1 history:3 historically:1 refers:2 force:2 cause:1 thomas:1 thomson:1 vol:1 p:2 describe:1 unknown:1 ed:1 vols:1 broad:1 use:5 generally:1 throughout:1 substance:4 enter:1 resist:1 decomposition:1 current:1 statement:1 make:2 summarize:1 concept:3 figuratively:1 since:2 c:1 discussion:2 structural:1 relationship:1 philology:1 etc:1 reference:2 natural:1 idea:2 extremely:1 old:1 attempt:3 identify:1 origin:2 majority:1 however:2 except:1 general:1 manner:1 end:1 futility:1 lie:1 basis:1 magic:1 thereby:1 pre:1 date:1 science:2 malthauf:1 r:2 pg:1 london:1 one:3 first:4 branch:1 study:1 formulate:1 theory:2 name:2 affinitas:1 sense:1 german:1 philosopher:1 albertus:1 magnus:1 near:1 year:1 later:1 robert:1 boyle:1 john:1 mayow:1 johann:1 glauber:1 isaac:1 newton:6 georg:1 stahl:1 put:1 forward:1 elective:5 explain:1 evolve:1 combustion:1 partington:1 j:1 short:1 new:1 york:1 dover:1 publication:1 inc:1 isbn:3 somewhat:1 modified:1 variation:1 eighteenth:1 century:2 precursor:1 coinage:1 swedish:1 chemist:2 torbern:1 olof:1 bergman:1 attractionibus:1 electivis:1 antoine:1 lavoisier:1 famed:1 element:2 bergmann:1 work:1 discuss:1 goethe:1 novel:1 geoffroy:6 table:6 ever:1 base:1 displacement:1 publish:1 french:2 étienne:2 françois:2 best:1 know:1 connection:1 des:1 rapport:1 academy:1 head:1 column:2 header:1 rank:1 degree:2 list:1 prepare:1 collate:1 observation:1 action:1 upon:1 another:1 vary:1 exhibit:1 analogous:1 body:1 different:1 reagent:1 retain:1 vogue:1 rest:1 displace:1 profounder:1 introduce:1 claude:1 berthollet:1 see:1 electronegativity:1 electron:1 valency:1 chromatography:1 electrophoresis:1 far:1 read:1 important:1 alchemy:5 main:1 proponent:1 dobbs:2 betty:2 jo:2 teeter:2 foundation:1 hunting:1 greene:1 lyon:1 cambridge:4 university:2 press:2 x:1 janus:2 face:2 genius:1 role:1 thought:1 note:1 excerpt:1 include:1 historiographical:1 issue:1 footnote:1 provide:1 starting:1 bibliography:1 external:1 link:1 absolute:1 zero:1 nobel:1 prize:1 presentation:1 speech:1 gerard:1 geer:1 principle:1 narrative:1 essay:1 review:1 |@bigram de_donder:3 albertus_magnus:1 robert_boyle:1 isaac_newton:1 dover_publication:1 antoine_lavoisier:1 affinity_chromatography:1 external_link:1 nobel_prize:1 |
2,319 | Belarus | Belarus (Belorussia, Byelorussia) (, or Белоруссия) is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the north. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno (Hrodna), Gomel (Homiel), Mahilyow (Mahiloŭ) and Vitebsk (Viciebsk). Forty percent of the country is forested, and its strongest economic sectors are agriculture and manufacturing. Until the 20th century, the Belarusians lacked the opportunity to create a distinctive national identity because for centuries the lands of modern-day Belarus belonged to several ethnically different countries, including the Duchy of Polatsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. After the short-lived Belarusian People's Republic (1918–19), Belarus became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, the Byelorussian SSR. The final unification of Belarusian lands within its modern borders took place in 1939, when the ethnically Belarusian-Russian lands (though with a very substantial Polish population) that were part of interwar Poland were annexed by the USSR and attached to the Soviet Belarus. The territory and its nation were devastated in World War II, during which Belarus lost about a third of its population and more than half of its economic resources; the republic recovered in the post-war years. The parliament of the republic declared the sovereignty of Belarus on July 27, 1990, and following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Belarus declared independence on August 25, 1991. Alexander Lukashenko has been the country's president since 1994. During his presidency, Lukashenko has implemented Soviet-era policies, such as state ownership of the economy, despite objections from Western governments. Since 1996, Belarus has been negotiating with Russia to unify into a single state called the Union of Russia and Belarus. Most of Belarus's population of 9.85 million reside in the urban areas surrounding Minsk and other oblast (regional) capitals. More than 80% of the population are native Belarusians, with sizable minorities of Russians, Poles and Ukrainians. Since a referendum in 1995, the country has had two official languages: Belarusian and Russian. The Constitution of Belarus does not declare an official religion, although the primary religion in the country is Russian Orthodox Christianity, the second most important is Roman Catholicism. Both Orthodox and Catholic Christmas and Easter are officially respected as national holidays. Etymology The name Belarus derives from the term White Rus, which first appeared in German and Latin medieval literature. The Latin term for the area was Alba Ruthenia. Historically, the country was referred to in English as White Ruthenia. It is also claimed by some people that the describes the area of Eastern Europe populated by Slavic people or the states that occupied the area. The first known use of White Russia to refer to Belarus was in the late-16th century by Englishman Sir Jerome Horsey. During the 17th century, Russian tsars used White Rus', asserting that they were trying to recapture their heritage from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Belarus was named Belorussia () in the days of Imperial Russia, and the Russian tsar was usually styled Tsar of All the Russias—Great, Little, and White. Belorussia was the only Russian language name of the country (its names in other languages such as English being based on the Russian form) until 1991, when the Supreme Soviet of the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic decreed by law that the new independent republic should be called Belarus (Беларусь) in Russian and in all other language transcriptions of its name. The change was made to reflect adequately the Belarusian language form of the name. Accordingly, the name Belorussia was replaced by Belarus in English, and, to some extent, in Russian (although the traditional name still persists in that language as well); likewise, the adjective Belorussian or Byelorussian was replaced by Belarusian in English (though Russian has not developed a new adjective). Some Belarusians object to the name Belorussia as an unwelcome reminder of the days under Russian and Soviet rule. However, most residents of the country do not mind the use of Byelorussiya in Russian (which is, actually, the most widely spoken language there) – as evidenced by the fact that several popular newspapers published locally still retain the traditional name of the country in Russian in their names, for example Komsomolskaya Pravda v Byelorussii, which is the localised publication of a popular Russian tabloid. Officially, the full name of the country is Republic of Belarus (Рэспубліка Беларусь, Республика Беларусь, Respublika Byelarus'). History The region that is now modern-day Belarus was first settled by Slavic tribes in the 6th century. They gradually came into contact with the Varangians, a band of warriors consisting of Scandinavians and Slavs from the Baltics. Though defeated and briefly exiled by the local population, the Varangians were later asked to return and helped to form a polity—commonly referred to as the Kievan Rus'—in exchange for tribute. The Kievan Rus' state began in about 862 at the present-day city of Novgorod, or alternatively at Kiev. Upon the death of Kievan Rus' ruler, Prince Yaroslav the Wise, the state split into independent principalities. These Ruthenian principalities were badly affected by a Mongol invasion in the 13th century, and many were later incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Of the principalities held by the Duchy, nine were settled by ancestors of the Belarusian people. During this time, the Duchy was involved in several military campaigns, including fighting on the side of Poland against the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410; the joint victory allowed the Duchy to control the northwestern border lands of Eastern Europe. On February 2, 1386, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland were joined in a personal union through a marriage of their rulers. This union set in motion the developments that eventually resulted in the formation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, created in 1569. The Russians, led by Tsar Ivan the III, began military conquests in 1486 in an attempt to reunite the Kievan Rus' lands, specifically the missing Belarus and Ukraine. The union between Poland and Lithuania ended in 1795, and the commonwealth was partitioned by Imperial Russia, Prussia, and Austria, dividing Belarus. Belarusian territories were acquired by the Russian Empire during the reign of Catherine II and held until their occupation by Germany during World War I. During the negotiations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Belarus first declared independence on March 25, 1918, forming the Belarusian People's Republic. The Germans supported the BPR, which lasted for about ten months.<ref name="birgerson">(Birgerson 2002:105–106)</ref> Soon after the Germans were defeated, the BPR fell under the influence of the Bolsheviks and the Red Army and became the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1919. After Russian occupation of eastern and northern Lithuania, it was merged into the Lithuanian-Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. Byelorussian lands were then split between Poland and the Soviets after the Polish-Soviet War ended in 1921, and the recreated Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922. In September 1939, as a result of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union invaded Poland and annexed its eastern lands, including most Polish-held Byelorussian land. (Olson 1994:95) Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. Byelorussia was the hardest hit Soviet Republic in the war and remained in Nazi hands until 1944. During that time, Germany destroyed 209 out of 290 cities in the republic, 85% of the republic's industry, and more than one million buildings, while causing human losses estimated between two and three million (about a quarter to one-third of the total population). The Jewish population of Byelorussia was devastated during The Holocaust and never recovered. The population of Belarus did not regain its pre-war level until 1971. After the war ended, Byelorussia was among the 51 founding countries of the United Nations Charter in 1945 and began rebuilding the Soviet Republic. During this time, the Byelorussian SSR became a major center of manufacturing in the western region of the USSR, increasing jobs and bringing an influx of ethnic Russians into the republic. The borders of Byelorussian SSR and Poland were redrawn to a point known as the Curzon Line. Joseph Stalin implemented a policy of Sovietization to isolate the Byelorussian SSR from Western influences. This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Byelorussian SSR government. The official use of the Belarusian language and other cultural aspects were limited by Moscow. After Stalin died in 1953, successor Nikita Khrushchev continued this program, stating, "The sooner we all start speaking Russian, the faster we shall build communism." When Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev began pushing through his reform plan, the Belarusian people delivered a petition to him in December 1986 explaining the loss of their culture. Earlier that year, Byelorussian SSR was exposed to nuclear fallout from the explosion at the Chernobyl power plant in neighboring Ukrainian SSR. In June 1988 at the rural site of Kurapaty near Minsk, archaeologist Zianon Pazniak, the leader of Christian Conservative Party of the BPF, discovered mass graves which contained about 250,000 bodies of victims executed in 1937-1941. Some nationalists contend that this discovery is proof that the Soviet government was trying to erase the Belarusian people, causing Belarusian nationalists to seek independence. {Birgerson 2002:99) Two years later, in March 1990, elections for seats in the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian SSR took place. Though the pro-independence Belarusian Popular Front took only 10% of the seats, the populace was content with the selection of the delegates. Belarus declared itself sovereign on July 27, 1990, by issuing the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic. With the support of the Communist Party, the country's name was changed to the Republic of Belarus on August 25, 1991. Country Studies Belarus - Prelude to Independence. Library of Congress. Retrieved March 21, 2007. Stanislav Shushkevich, the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, met with Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine on December 8, 1991, in Belavezhskaya Pushcha to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States. A national constitution was adopted in March 1994, in which the functions of prime minister were given to the president. Two-round elections for the presidency (June 24, 1994 and July 10, 1994) resulted in the politically unknown Alexander Lukashenko winning more than 45% of the vote in the first round and 80% in the second round, beating Vyacheslav Kebich who got 14%. Lukashenko was reelected in 2001 and in 2006. Politics Belarus is a presidential republic, governed by a president and the National Assembly. In accordance with the constitution, the president is elected once every five years. The National Assembly is a bicameral parliament comprising the 110-member House of Representatives (the lower house) and the 64-member Council of the Republic (the upper house). The House of Representatives has the power to appoint the prime minister, make constitutional amendments, call for a vote of confidence on the prime minister, and make suggestions on foreign and domestic policy. The Council of the Republic has the power to select various government officials, conduct an impeachment trial of the president, and accept or reject the bills passed by the House of Representatives. Each chamber has the ability to veto any law passed by local officials if it is contrary to the Constitution of Belarus. Since 1994, Alexander Lukashenko has been the president of Belarus. The government includes a Council of Ministers, headed by the prime minister. The members of this council need not be members of the legislature and are appointed by the president. The judiciary comprises the Supreme Court and specialized courts such as the Constitutional Court, which deals with specific issues related to constitutional and business law. The judges of national courts are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Council of the Republic. For criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the Supreme Court. The Belarusian Constitution forbids the use of special extrajudicial courts. As of 2007, 98 of the 110 members of the House of Representatives are not affiliated with any political party and of the remaining twelve members, eight belong to the Communist Party of Belarus, three to the Agrarian Party of Belarus, and one to the Liberal Democratic Party of Belarus. Most of the non-partisans represent a wide scope of social organizations such as workers' collectives, public associations and civil society organizations. Neither the pro-Lukashenko parties, such as the Belarusian Socialist Sporting Party and the Republican Party of Labor and Justice, nor the People's Coalition 5 Plus opposition parties, such as the Belarusian People's Front and the United Civil Party of Belarus, won any seats in the 2004 elections. Groups such as the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) declared the election "un-free" because of the opposition parties' poor results and media bias in favor of the government. In the country's 2006 presidential election, Lukashenko was opposed by Alaksandar Milinkievič, a candidate representing a coalition of opposition parties, and by Alaksandar Kazulin of the Social Democrats. Kazulin was detained and beaten by police during protests surrounding the All Belarusian People's Assembly. Lukashenko won the election with 80% of the vote, but the OSCE and other organizations called the election unfair. Lukashenko has described himself as having an "authoritarian ruling style." Western countries have described Belarus under Lukashenko as a dictatorship; the government has accused the same Western powers of trying to oust Lukashenko. The Council of Europe has barred Belarus from membership since 1997 for undemocratic voting and election irregularities in the November 1996 constitutional referendum and parliament by-elections. The Belarusian government is also criticized for human rights violations and its actions against non-governmental organizations, independent journalists, national minorities, and opposition politicians. Belarus is the only nation in Europe that retains the death penalty for certain crimes during times of peace and war. As noted, Lukashenko has even gone as far as changing the country's constitution to allow him to remain in office for an unlimited amount of time after each election. In testimony to the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice labeled Belarus among the six nations of the "outposts of tyranny." In response, the Belarusian government called the assessment "quite far from reality." Foreign relations and military Belarus and Russia have been close trading partners and diplomatic allies since the breakup of the Soviet Union. Belarus is dependent on Russia for imports of raw materials and for its export market. The Union of Russia and Belarus, a supranational confederation, was established in a 1996–99 series of treaties that called for monetary union, equal rights, single citizenship, and a common foreign and defense policy. Although the future of the Union was in doubt because of Belarus's repeated delays of monetary union, the lack of a referendum date for the draft constitution, and a 2006–07 dispute about petroleum trade. On December 11, 2007, reports emerged that a framework for the new state was discussed between both countries. On May 27, 2008, Belarusian President Lukashenko said that he had named Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin the "prime minister" of the Russia-Belarus alliance. The meaning of the move was not immediately clear; however, there was speculation that Putin might become President of a unified state of Russia and Belarus after stepping down as Russian president in May 2008, although this has not happened. Belarus was a founding member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS); however, recently other CIS members have questioned the effectiveness of the organization. Belarus has trade agreements with several European Union member states (despite other member states' travel ban on Lukashenko and top officials), ) as well as with its neighbors Lithuania, Poland and Latvia (all of whom are EU members). Bilateral relations with the United States are strained because the U.S. Department of State supports various pro-democracy NGOs and because the Belarusian government has made it harder for US-based organizations to operate within the country. The 2004 US Belarus Democracy Act continued this trend, authorizing funding for pro-democracy Belarusian NGOs and forbidding loans to the Belarusian government except for humanitarian purposes. Despite this, the two nations cooperate on intellectual property protection, prevention of human trafficking and technology crime, and disaster relief. Belarus has increased cooperation with China, strengthened by the visit of President Lukashenko to China in October 2005. Belarus has strong ties with Syria, which President Lukashenko considers a key partner in the Middle East. In addition to the CIS, Belarus has membership in the Eurasian Economic Community and the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Belarus has been a member of the international Non-Aligned Movement since 1998 and a member of the United Nations since its founding in 1945. The Armed Forces of Belarus have three branches: the Army, the Air Force, and the Ministry of Defense joint staff. Colonel-General Leonid Maltsev heads the Ministry of Defense, and Alexander Lukashenko (as president) serves as Commander-in-Chief. The Armed Forces were formed in 1992 using parts of the former Soviet Armed Forces on the new republic's territory. The transformation of the ex-Soviet forces into the Armed Forces of Belarus, which was completed in 1997, reduced the number of its soldiers by 30,000 and restructured its leadership and military formations. Most of Belarus's service members are conscripts, who serve for 12 months if they have higher education or 18 months if they do not. Routledge, IISS Military Balance 2007, p.158–159 However, demographic decreases in the Belarusians of conscription age have increased the importance of contract soldiers, who numbered 12,000 as of 2001. In 2005, about 1.4% of Belarus's gross domestic product was devoted to military expenditures. Belarus has not expressed a desire to join NATO but has participated in the Individual Partnership Program since 1997. Provinces and districts Belarus is divided into six voblasts (vobłaść), or provinces, which are named after the cities that serve as their administrative centers. Each voblast has a provincial legislative authority, called an oblsovet, which is elected by the voblast's residents, and a provincial executive authority called a voblast administration, whose leader is appointed by the president. Voblasts are further subdivided into raions (commonly translated as districts or regions). As with voblasts, each raion has its own legislative authority (raisovet, or raion council) elected by its residents, and an executive authority (raion administration) appointed by higher executive powers. As of 2002, there are six voblasts, 118 raions, 102 towns and 108 urbanized settlements. Minsk is given a special status, due to the city serving as the national capital. Minsk City is run by an executive committee and granted a charter of self-rule by the national government. Voblasts (with administrative centers): Brest Voblast (Brest) Gomel Voblast (Gomel) Grodno Voblast (Grodno) Mogilev Voblast (Mogilev) Minsk Voblast (Minsk) Vitebsk Voblast (Vitebsk) Special administrative district: Minsk City Geography Belarus is landlocked, relatively flat, and contains large tracts of marshy land. According to a 2005 estimate by the United Nations, 40% of Belarus is covered by forests. Many streams and 11,000 lakes are found in Belarus. Three major rivers run through the country: the Neman, the Pripyat, and the Dnepr. The Neman flows westward towards the Baltic sea and the Pripyat flows eastward to the Dnepr; the Dnepr flows southward towards the Black Sea. Belarus's highest point is Dzyarzhynskaya Hara (Dzyarzhynsk Hill) at , and its lowest point is on the Neman River at . The average elevation of Belarus is above sea level. (Zaprudnik, xix) The climate ranges from harsh winters, with average January temperatures at , to cool and moist summers with an average temperature of . Belarus has an average annual rainfall of 550 to 700 millimeters (21.7 to 27.5 inches). The country experiences a yearly transition from a continental climate to a maritime climate. Belarus's natural resources include peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas, granite, dolomite (limestone), marl, chalk, sand, gravel, and clay. About 70% of the radiation from neighboring Ukraine's 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster entered Belarusian territory, and as of 2005 about a fifth of Belarusian land (principally farmland and forests in the southeastern provinces) continues to be affected by radiation fallout. The United Nations and other agencies have aimed to reduce the level of radiation in affected areas, especially through the use of caesium binders and rapeseed cultivation, which are meant to decrease soil levels of caesium-137. Belarus is bordered by Latvia on the north, Lithuania to the northwest, Poland to the west, Russia to the north and east and Ukraine to the south. Treaties in 1995 and 1996 demarcated Belarus's borders with Latvia and Lithuania, but Belarus failed to ratify a 1997 treaty establishing the Belarus-Ukraine border. Belarus and Lithuania ratified final border demarcation documents in February 2007. Economy Most of the Belarusian economy remains state-controlled, and has been described as "Soviet-style." Thus, 51.2% of Belarusians are employed by state-controlled companies, 47.4% are employed by private Belarusian companies (of which 5.7% are partially foreign-owned), and 1.4% are employed by foreign companies. The country relies on imports such as oil from Russia. Important agricultural products include potatoes and cattle byproducts, including meat. As of 1994, the biggest exports from Belarus were heavy machinery (especially tractors), agricultural products, and energy products. Historically important branches of industry include textiles and wood processing. As of the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, Belarus was one of the world's most industrially developed states by percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) as well as the richest CIS state. World Bank. "Belarus: Prices, Markets, and Enterprise Reform," pp. 1. World Bank, 1997. ISBN 0821339761 Economically, Belarus involved itself in the CIS, Eurasian Economic Community, and Union with Russia. During the 1990s, however, industrial production plunged because of decreases in imported inputs, in investment, and in demand for exports from traditional trading partners. It took until 1996 for the gross domestic product to rise; this coincided with the government putting more emphasis on using the GDP for social welfare and state subsidies. The GDP for 2006 was US$83.1 billion in purchasing power parity (PPP) dollars (estimate), or about $8,100 per capita. In 2005, the gross domestic product increased by about 9.9%, with the inflation rate averaging about 9.5%. Belarus's largest trading partner is Russia, accounting for nearly half of total trade in 2006. Council of Ministers Foreign trade in goods and services in Belarus up by 11.5% in January-October. Published 2006. Retrieved October 6, 2007. As of 2006, the European Union is Belarus's next largest trading partner, with nearly a third of foreign trade. Because of its failure to protect labor rights, however, Belarus lost its E.U. Generalized System of Preferences status on June 21, 2007, which raised tariff rates to their prior most-favored nation levels. European Union The EU's Relationship With Belarus - Trade (PDF). Published November 2006. Retrieved October 6, 2007. Belarus applied to become a member of the World Trade Organization in 1993. World Trade Organization Accessions - Belarus. Retrieved October 6, 2007. The labor force consists of more than four million people, among whom women hold slightly more jobs than men. Ministry of Statistics and Analysis Labor Statistics in Belarus. Published 2005. Retrieved March 18, 2007. In 2005, nearly a quarter of the population was employed by industrial factories. Employment is also high in agriculture, manufacturing sales, trading goods, and education. The unemployment rate, according to Belarusian government statistics, was about 1.5% in 2005. The number of unemployed persons totaled 679,000 of whom about two-thirds are women. The rate of unemployment has been decreasing since 2003, and the overall rate is the highest since statistics were first compiled in 1995. The currency of Belarus is the Belarusian ruble (BYR). The currency was introduced in May 1992, replacing the Soviet ruble. The ruble was reintroduced with new values in 2000 and has been in use ever since. National Bank of the Republic of Belarus History of the Belarusian Ruble. Retrieved March 18, 2007. As part of the Union of Russia and Belarus, both states have discussed using a single currency along the same lines as the Euro. This has led to the proposal that the Belarusian ruble be discontinued in favor of the Russian ruble (RUB), starting as early as January 1, 2008. As of August 2007, the National Bank of Belarus is no longer pegging the Belarusian ruble to the Russian ruble. Pravda.ru Belarus abandons pegging its currency to Russian ruble. Published August 23, 2007. Retrieved October 6, 2007. The banking system of Belarus is composed of 30 state-owned banks and one privatized bank. Demographics Ethnic Belarusians constitute 81.2% of Belarus's total population. The next largest ethnic groups are Russians (11.4%), Poles (3.9%), and Ukrainians (2.4%). Belarus's two official languages are Belarusian and Russian, "Languages across Europe." BBC Education at bbc.co.uk. Accessed November 6, 2007. spoken at home by 36.7% and 62.8% of Belarusians, respectively. Data of the 1999 Belarus Census In English. Reviewed October 6, 2007. Minorities also speak Polish, Ukrainian and Eastern Yiddish. Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com/. Belarus has a population density of about 50 people per square kilometre (127 per sq mi); 71.7% of its total population is concentrated in urban areas. Minsk, the nation's capital and largest city, is home to 1,741,400 of Belarus's 9,724,700 residents. Gomel, with 481,000 people, is the second largest city and serves as the capital of the Homel Oblast. Other large cities are Mogilev (365,100), Vitebsk (342,400), Hrodna (314,800) and Brest (298,300). World Gazette Largest Cities of Belarus (2007). Published in 2007. Retrieved March 19, 2007. Like many other European countries, Belarus has a negative population growth rate and a negative natural growth rate. In 2007, Belarus's population declined by 0.41% and its fertility rate was 1.22, well below the replacement rate. Its net migration rate is +0.38 per 1,000, indicating that Belarus experiences slightly more immigration than emigration. As of 2007, 69.7% of Belarus's population is aged 14 to 64; 16% is under 14, and 14.6% is 65 or older. Its population is also aging: while the current median age is 37, it is estimated that Belarusians' median age will be 51 in 2050. There are about 0.88 males per female in Belarus. The average life expectancy is 68.7 years (63.0 years for males and 74.9 years for females). Over 99% of Belarusians are literate. The literacy rate is defined as the percentage of people aged 15 and older who can read and write. Belarus has historically leaned to different religions, mostly Russian Orthodox (in eastern regions), Catholicism (in western regions), different denominations of Protestantism (especially during the time of union with Protestant Sweden). Sizable minorities practice Judaism and other religions. Many Belarusians converted to the Russian Orthodox Church after Belarus was annexed by Russia after the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. As a consequence, now Russian Orthodox church has more members than other denominations. Belarus's Roman Catholic minority, which makes up perhaps 10% of the country's population and is concentrated in the western part of the country, especially around Hrodna, is made up of a mixture of Belarusians and the country's Polish and Lithuanian minorities. About 1% belong to the Belarusian Greek Catholic Church. Library of Congress Country Studies Belarus - Religion. Retrieved July 9, 2007. Belarus was a major center of the European Jewish population, with 10% being Jewish, but the population of Jews has been reduced by war, starvation, and the Holocaust to a tiny minority of about 1% or less. Emigration from Belarus is a cause for the shrinking number of Jewish residents. Minsk Jewish Campus Jewish Belarus. Retrieved July 9, 2007. The Lipka Tatars numbering over 15,000 are Muslims. According to Article 16 of the Constitution, Belarus has no official religion. While the freedom of worship is granted in the same article, religious organizations that are deemed harmful to the government or social order of the country can be prohibited. Webportal of the President of the Republic of Belarus Section One of the Constitution. Published 1994, amended in 1996. Retrieved June 6, 2007. Culture Literature Belarusian literature began with 11th- to 13th century religious writing; the 12th century poetry of Cyril of Turaw is representative. By the 16th century, Polotsk resident Francysk Skaryna translated the Bible into Belarusian. It was published in Prague and Vilnius between 1517 and 1525, making it the first book printed in Belarus or anywhere in Eastern Europe. "Belarus." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-33482>. The modern period of Belarusian literature began in the late 19th century; one important writer was Yanka Kupala. Many notable Belarusian writers of the time, such as Uładzimir Žyłka, Kazimir Svayak, Yakub Kolas, Źmitrok Biadula and Maksim Haretski, wrote for a Belarusian language paper called Nasha Niva, published in Vilnius. After Belarus was incorporated into the Soviet Union, the Soviet government took control of the Republic's cultural affairs. The free development of literature occurred only in Polish-held territory until Soviet occupation in 1939. Several poets and authors went into exile after the Nazi occupation of Belarus, not to return until the 1960s. The last major revival of Belarusian literature occurred in the 1960s with novels published by Vasil Bykaŭ and Uładzimir Karatkievič. Music In the 17th century, Polish composer Stanislaw Moniuszko composed operas and chamber music pieces while living in Minsk. During his stay, he worked with Belarusian poet Vincent Dunin-Marcinkevich and created the opera Sielanka (Peasant Woman). At the end of the 19th century, major Belarusian cities formed their own opera and ballet companies. The ballet Nightingale by M. Kroshner was composed during the Soviet era and became the first Belarusian ballet showcased at the National Academic Bolshoi Ballet Theatre in Minsk. After the Great Patriotic War, music focused on the hardships of the Belarusian people or on those who took up arms in defense of the homeland. During this period, A. Bogatyryov, creator of the opera In Polesye Virgin Forest, served as the "tutor" of Belarusian composers. Virtual Guide to Belarus - Classical Music of Belarus. Retrieved March 21, 2007. The National Academic Theatre of Ballet, in Minsk, was awarded the Benois de la Dance Prize in 1996 as the top ballet company in the world. Although rock music has risen in popularity in recent years, the Belarusian government has suppressed the development of popular music through various legal and economic mechanisms. Freemuse Blacklisted bands play in Poland. Published on March 17, 2006. Retrieved March 18, 2007. Since 2004, Belarus has been sending artists to the Eurovision Song Contest. National State TeleradiocompanyPage on the 2004 Belarusian entry to the Eurovision Song Contest. Published 2004. Retrieved March 18, 2007. Performances The Belarusian government sponsors annual cultural festivals such as the Slavianski Bazaar in Vitebsk, which showcases Belarusian performers, artists, writers, musicians, and actors. Several state holidays, such as Independence Day and Victory Day, draw big crowds and often include displays such as fireworks and military parades, especially in Vitebsk and Minsk. The government's Ministry of Culture finances events promoting Belarusian arts and culture both inside and outside the country. Dress The traditional Belarusian dress originates from the Kievan Rus' period. Because of the cool climate, clothes, usually composed of flax or wool, were designed to keep the body warm. They are decorated with ornate patterns influenced by the neighboring cultures: Poles, Lithuanians, Latvians, Russians, and other European nations. Each region of Belarus has developed specific design patterns. Virtual Guide to Belarus Belarusian traditional clothing. Retrieved on March 21, 2007. An ornamental pattern used on some early dresses is currently used to decorate the hoist of the Belarusian national flag, adopted in a disputed referendum in 1995. Flags of the World Belarus - Ornament. Published November 26, 2006. Retrieved March 21, 2007. Cuisine Belarusian cuisine consists mainly of vegetables, meat (especially pork), and breads. Foods are usually either slowly cooked or stewed. A typical Belarusian eats a very light breakfast and two hearty meals, with dinner being the largest meal of the day. Wheat and rye breads are consumed in Belarus, but rye is more plentiful because conditions are too harsh for growing wheat. To show hospitality, a host traditionally presents an offering of bread and salt when greeting a guest or visitor. Canadian Citizenship and Immigration - Cultures Profile Project - Eating the Belarusian Way. Published in 1998. Retrieved March 21, 2007. Popular drinks in Belarus include Russian wheat vodka and kvass, a soft drink made from malted brown bread or rye flour. Kvass may also be combined with sliced vegetables to create a cold soup called okroshka. University of Nebraska-Lincoln - Institute of Agriculture and National Resources. Situation and Outlook - People and Their Diets. Published in April 2000. Retrieved March 21, 2007. Heritage Sights Belarus has four World Heritage Sites: the Mir Castle Complex, the Niasvizh Castle, the Belovezhskaya Pushcha (shared with Poland), and the Struve Geodetic Arc (shared with nine other countries). TV and Broadcasting The largest media holding group in Belarus is the state-owned National State Teleradiocompany. It operates several television and radio stations that broadcast content domestically and internationally, either through traditional signals or the Internet. National State Teleradiocompany About us. Retrieved October 5, 2007. The Television Broadcasting Network is one of the major independent television stations in Belarus, mostly showing regional programming. Several newspapers, printed either in Belarusian or Russian, provide general information or special interest content, such as business, politics or sports. In 1998, there were fewer than 100 radio stations in Belarus: 28 AM, 37 FM and 11 shortwave stations. All media companies are regulated by the Law On Press and Other Mass Media, passed on January 13, 1995. Law of the Republic of Belarus Law On Press and Other Mass Media. Retrieved October 5, 2007. This grants the freedom of press; however, Article 5 states that slander cannot be made against the president of Belarus or other officials outlined in the national constitution. The Belarusian Government has since been criticized for acting against media outlets. Newspapers such as Nasa Niva and the Belaruskaya Delovaya Gazeta have been targeted for closure by the authorities after they published reports critical of President Lukashenko or other government officials. Eurozine Independent Belarusian newspaper "Nasha Niva" to close. Published April 19, 2006. United States Department of States Media Freedom in Belarus. Press release by Philip T. Reeker. Published May 30, 2003. The OSCE and Freedom House have commented regarding the loss of press freedom in Belarus. In 2005, Freedom House gave Belarus a score of 6.75 (not free) when it came to dealing with press freedom. Another issue for the Belarusian press is the unresolved disappearance of several journalists. Freedom House Country Report - Belarus. Published 2005. Reviewed October 6, 2007. See also References Further reading Zaprudnik, Jan, Belarus: At a Crossroads in History, Westview Press, 1993 (ISBN 0813317940) External links News and media Belarus News and Analysis Media in Belarus News of Belarus Politics and News from Belarus Government E-Government in Belarus Embassy of Belarus in the United States Global Integrity Report: Belarus has information on Belarus anti-corruption efforts. Government of Belarus Ministry of Foreign Affairs President's official site General information Belarus at UCB Libraries GovPubs'' Belarus Miscellany The 1st Belarusian Art Gallery The Virtual Guide of Belarus The World Bank in Belarus Maps Belarus, topographic map General detail, downloadable PDF map of Belarus be-x-old:Беларусь | Belarus |@lemmatized belarus:144 belorussia:5 byelorussia:4 белоруссия:1 landlocked:2 country:31 eastern:8 europe:8 border:8 russia:18 north:4 east:3 ukraine:6 south:2 poland:12 west:2 lithuania:10 latvia:4 capital:5 minsk:14 major:7 city:12 include:11 brest:5 grodno:3 hrodna:3 gomel:4 homiel:1 mahilyow:1 mahiloŭ:1 vitebsk:6 viciebsk:1 forty:1 percent:1 forest:4 strong:2 economic:5 sector:1 agriculture:3 manufacturing:2 century:12 belarusian:74 lack:2 opportunity:1 create:4 distinctive:1 national:19 identity:1 land:10 modern:4 day:8 belong:3 several:9 ethnically:2 different:3 duchy:7 polatsk:1 grand:3 polish:11 lithuanian:7 commonwealth:7 short:1 lived:1 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2,320 | Cell_wall | Plant cells separated by transparent cell walls. A cell wall is a tough, flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is located outside the cell membrane and provides these cells with structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mechanism. A major function of the cell wall is to act as a pressure vessel, preventing over-expansion when water enters the cell. They are found in plants, bacteria, fungi, algae, and some archaea. Animals and protozoa do not have cell walls. The materials in a cell wall vary between species, and in plants and fungi also differ between cell types and developmental stages. In plants, the strongest component of the complex cell wall is a carbohydrate called cellulose, which is a polymer of glucose. In bacteria, peptidoglycan forms the cell wall. Archaean cell walls have various compositions, and may be formed of glycoprotein S-layers, pseudopeptidoglycan, or polysaccharides. Fungi possess cell walls made of the glucosamine polymer chitin, and algae typically possess walls made of glycoproteins and polysaccharides. Unusually, diatoms have a cell wall composed of silicic acid. Often, other accessory molecules are found anchored to the cell wall. Properties Diagram of the plant cell, with the cell wall in green. The cell wall serves a similar purpose in those organisms that possess them. The wall gives cells rigidity and strength, offering protection against mechanical stress. In multicellular organisms, it permits the organism to build and hold its shape (morphogenesis). The cell wall also limits the entry of large molecules that may be toxic to the cell. It further permits the creation of a stable osmotic environment by preventing osmotic lysis and helping to retain water. The composition, properties, and form of the cell wall may change during the cell cycle and depend on growth conditions. Rigidity The rigidity of cell walls is often over-estimated. In most cells, the cell wall is flexible, meaning that it will bend rather than holding a fixed shape, but has considerable tensile strength. The apparent rigidity of primary plant tissues is a function of hydraulic turgor pressure of the cells and not due to rigid cell walls. This flexibility is seen when plants wilt, so that the stems and leaves begin to droop, or in seaweeds that bend in water currents. The rigidity of healthy plants results from a combination of the wall construction and turgor pressure. As John Howland states it: The rigidity of the cell wall thus results in part from inflation of the cell contained. This inflation is a result of the passive uptake of water. In plants, a secondary cell wall is a thicker additional layer of cellulose which increases wall rigidity. Additional layers may be formed containing lignin in xylem cell walls, or containing suberin in cork cell walls. These compounds are rigid and waterproof, making the secondary wall stiff. Both wood and bark cells of trees have secondary walls. Other parts of plants such as the leaf stalk may acquire similar reinforcement to resist the strain of physical forces. Certain single-cell protists and algae also produce a rigid wall. Diatoms build a frustule from silica extracted from the surrounding water; radiolarians also produce a test from minerals. Many green algae, such as the Dasycladales encase their cells in a secreted skeleton of calcium carbonate. In each case, the wall is rigid and essentially inorganic. Permeability The primary cell wall of most plant cells is semi-permeable and permit the passage of small molecules and small proteins, with size exclusion estimated to be 30-60 kDa. Key nutrients, especially water and carbon dioxide, are distributed throughout the plant from cell wall to cell wall in apoplastic flow. Plant cell walls Composition Molecular structure of the primary cell wall in plants. The major carbohydrates making up the primary (growing) plant cell wall are cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin. The cellulose microfibrils are linked via hemicellulosic tethers to form the cellulose-hemicellulose network, which is embedded in the pectin matrix. The most common hemicellulose in the primary cell wall is xyloglucan. In grass cell walls, xyloglucan and pectin are reduced in abundance and partially replaced by glucuronarabinoxylan, a hemicellulose. Primary cell walls characteristically extend (grow) by a mechanism called acid growth, which involves turgor-driven movement of the strong cellulose microfibrils within the weaker hemicellulose/pectin matrix, catalyzed by expansin proteins. The outer part of the primary cell wall of the plant epidermis is usually impregnated with cutin and wax, forming a permeability barrier known as the plant cuticle. Secondary cell walls contain a wide range of additional compounds that modify their mechanical properties and permeability. The major polymers that make up wood (largely secondary cell walls) include cellulose (35 to 50%), xylan, a type of hemicellulose, (20 to 35%) and a complex phenolic polymer called lignin (10 to 25%). Lignin penetrates the spaces in the cell wall between cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin components, driving out water and strengthening the wall. The walls of cork cells in the bark of trees are impregnated with suberin, and suberin also forms the permeability barrier in primary roots known as the Casparian strip. Secondary walls - especially in grasses - may also contain microscopic silica crystals, which may strengthen the wall and protect it from herbivores. Plant cells walls also contain numerous enzymes, such as hydrolases, esterases, peroxidases, and transglycosylases, that cut, trim and cross link wall polymers. Small amounts (1-5%) of structural proteins are found in most plant cell walls; they are classified as hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (HRGP), arabinogalactan proteins (AGP), glycine-rich proteins (GRPs), and proline-rich proteins (PRPs). Each class of glycoprotein is defined by a characteristic, highly repetitive protein sequence. Most are glycosylated, contain hydroxyproline (Hyp) and become cross-linked in the cell wall. These proteins are often concentrated in specialized cells and in cell corners. Cell walls of the epidermis and endodermis may also contain suberin or cutin, two polyester-like polymers that protect the cell from herbivores. Laurence Moire, Alain Schmutz, Antony Buchala, Bin Yan, Ruth E. Stark, and Ulrich Ryser (1999). "Glycerol Is a Suberin Monomer. New Experimental Evidence for an Old Hypothesis". Plant Physiol. 119: 1137-1146 The relative composition of carbohydrates, secondary compounds and protein varies between plants and between the cell type and age. Up to three strata or layers may be found in plant cell walls: The middle lamella, a layer rich in pectins. This outermost layer forming the interface between adjacent plant cells and glues them together. The primary cell wall, generally a thin, flexible and extensible layer formed while the cell is growing. The secondary cell wall, a thick layer formed inside the primary cell wall after the cell is fully grown. It is not found in all cell types. In some cells, such as found xylem, the secondary wall contains lignin, which strengthens and waterpoofs the wall. Cell walls in some plant tissues also function as storage depots for carbohydrates that can be broken down and resorbed to supply the metabolic and growth needs of the plant. For example, endosperm cell walls in the seeds of cereal grasses, nasturtium, and other species, are rich in glucans and other polysaccharides that are readily digested by enzymes during seed germination to form simple sugars that nourish the growing embryo. Cellulose microfibrils are not readily digested by plants, however. Formation The middle lamella is laid down first, formed from the cell plate during cytokinesis, and the primary cell wall is then deposited inside the middle lamella. The actual structure of the cell wall is not clearly defined and several models exist - the covalently linked cross model, the tether model, the diffuse layer model and the stratified layer model. However, the primary cell wall, can be defined as composed of cellulose microfibrils aligned at all angles. Microfibrils are held together by hydrogen bonds to provide a high tensile strength. The cells are held together and share the gelatinous membrane called the middle lamella, which contains magnesium and calcium pectates (salts of pectic acid). Cells interact though plasmodesma(ta), which are inter-connecting channels of cytoplasm that connect to the protoplasts of adjacent cells across the cell wall. In some plants and cell types, after a maximum size or point in development has been reached, a secondary wall is constructed between the plant cell and primary wall. Unlike the primary wall, the microfibrils are aligned mostly in the same direction, and with each additional layer the orientation changes slightly. Cells with secondary cell walls are rigid. Cell to cell communication is possible through pits in the secondary cell wall that allow plasmodesma to connect cells through the secondary cell walls. Algal cell walls Scanning electron micrographs of diatoms showing the external appearance of the cell wall Like plants, algae have cell walls. Sendbusch, Peter V. (2003-07-31). "Cell Walls of Algae". Botany Online. Retrieved on 2007-10-29. Algal cell walls contain cellulose and a variety of glycoproteins. The inclusion of additional polysaccharides in algal cells walls is used as a feature for algal taxonomy. Manosyl form microfibrils in the cell walls of a number of marine green algae including those from the genera, Codium, Dasycladus, and Acetabularia as well as in the walls of some red algae, like Porphyra and Bangia. Xylanes Alginic acid is a common polysaccharide in the cell walls of brown algae Sulfonated polysaccharides occur in the cell walls of most algae; those common in red algae include agarose, carrageenan, porphyran, furcelleran and funoran. Other compounds that may accumulate in algal cell walls include sporopollenin and calcium ions. The group of algae known as the diatoms synthesize their cell walls (also known as frustules or valves) from silicic acid (specifically orthosilicic acid, H4SiO4). The acid is polymerised intra-cellularly, then the wall is extruded to protect the cell. Significantly, relative to the organic cell walls produced by other groups, silica frustules require less energy to synthesize (approximately 8%), potentially a major saving on the overall cell energy budget Raven, J. A. (1983). The transport and function of silicon in plants. Biol. Rev. 58, 179-207. and possibly an explanation for higher growth rates in diatoms. Furnas, M. J. (1990). "In situ growth rates of marine phytoplankton : Approaches to measurement, community and species growth rates". J. Plankton Res. 12, 1117-1151. Fungal cell walls Chemical structure of a unit from a chitin polymer chain. There are several groups of organisms that may be called "fungi". Some of these groups have been transferred out of the Kingdom Fungi, in part because of fundamental biochemical differences in the composition of the cell wall. Most true fungi have a cell wall consisting largely of chitin and other polysaccharides. Hudler, George W. (1998). Magical Mushrooms, Mischievous Molds. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 7. ISBN 0-691-02873-7. True fungi do not have cellulose in their cell walls, but some fungus-like organisms do. True fungi Not all species of fungi have cell walls but in those that do, the plasma membrane is followed by three layers of cell wall material. From inside out these are: a chitin layer (polymer consisting mainly of unbranched chains of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine) a layer of β-1,3-glucan a layer of mannoproteins (mannose-containing glycoproteins) which are heavily glycosylated at the outside of the cell. Fungus-like protists The group Oomycetes, also known as water molds, are saprotrophic plant pathogens like fungi. Until recently they were widely believed to be fungi, but structural and molecular evidence Sengbusch, Peter V. (2003-07-31). "Interactions between Plants and Fungi: the Evolution of their Parasitic and Symbiotic Relations". biologie.uni-hamburg.de. Retrieved on 2007-10-29. has led to their reclassification as heterokonts, related to autotrophic brown algae and diatoms. Unlike fungi, oomycetes typically possess cell walls of cellulose and glucans rather than chitin, although some genera (such as Achlya and Saprolegnia) do have chitin in their walls. Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, & M. Blackwell (1996). Introductory Mycology 4. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 687-688. ISBN 0-471-52229-5. The fraction of cellulose in the walls is no more than 4 to 20%, far less than the fraction comprised by glucans. Oomycete cell walls also contain the amino acid hydroxyproline, which is not found in fungal cell walls. The dictyostelids are another group formerly classified among the fungi. They are slime moulds that feed as unicellular amoebae, but aggregate into a reproductive stalk and sporangium under certain conditions. Cells of the reproductive stalk, as well as the spores formed at the apex, possess a cellulose wall. Raper, Kenneth B. (1984). The Dictyostelids. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 99-100. ISBN 0-691-08345-2. The spore wall has been shown to possess three layers, the middle of which is composed primarily of cellulose, and the innermost is sensitive to cellulase and pronase. Prokaryotic cell walls Bacterial cell walls Diagram of a typical gram-negative bacterium, with the thin cell wall sandwiched between the red outer membrane and the thin green plasma membrane Schematic of typical gram-positive cell wall showing arrangement of N-Acetylglucosamine and N-Acetlymuramic acid Around the outside of the cell membrane is the bacterial cell wall. Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan (also called murein), which is made from polysaccharide chains cross-linked by unusual peptides containing D-amino acids. Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and fungi which are made of cellulose and chitin, respectively. The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan. The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria, although L-form bacteria can be produced in the laboratory that lack a cell wall. The antibiotic penicillin is able to kill bacteria by inhibiting a step in the synthesis of peptidoglycan. There are broadly speaking two different types of cell wall in bacteria, called Gram-positive and Gram-negative. The names originate from the reaction of cells to the Gram stain, a test long-employed for the classification of bacterial species. Gram-positive bacteria possess a thick cell wall containing many layers of peptidoglycan and teichoic acids. In contrast, Gram-negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall consisting of a few layers of peptidoglycan surrounded by a second lipid membrane containing lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins. Most bacteria have the Gram-negative cell wall and only the Firmicutes and Actinobacteria (previously known as the low G+C and high G+C Gram-positive bacteria, respectively) have the alternative Gram-positive arrangement. These differences in structure can produce differences in antibiotic susceptibility, for instance vancomycin can kill only Gram-positive bacteria and is ineffective against Gram-negative pathogens, such as Haemophilus influenzae or Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Archæal cell walls Although not truly unique, the cell walls of Archaea are unusual. Whereas peptidoglycan is a standard component of all bacterial cell walls, all archaeal cell walls lack peptidoglycan, White, David. (1995) The Physiology and Biochemistry of Prokaryotes, pages 6, 12-21. (Oxford: Oxford University Press). ISBN 0-19-508439-X. with the exception of one group of methanogens. In that group, the peptidoglycan is a modified form very different from the kind found in bacteria. There are four types of cell wall currently known among the Archaea. One type of archaeal cell wall is that composed of pseudopeptidoglycan (also called pseudomurein). This type of wall is found in some methanogens, such as Methanobacterium and Methanothermus. Brock, Thomas D., Michael T. Madigan, John M. Martinko, & Jack Parker. (1994) Biology of Microorganisms, 7th ed., pages 818-819, 824 (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall). ISBN 0-13-042169-3. While the overall structure of archaeal pseudopeptidoglycan superficially resembles that of bacterial peptidoglycan, there are a number of significant chemical differences. Like the peptidoglycan found in bacterial cell walls, pseudopeptidoglycan consists of polymer chains of glycan cross-linked by short peptide connections. However, unlike peptidoglycan, the sugar N-acetylmuramic acid is replaced by N-acetyltalosaminuronic acid, and the two sugars are bonded with a β,1-3 glycosidic linkage instead of β,1-4. Additionally, the cross-linking peptides are L-amino acids rather than D-amino acids as they are in bacteria. A second type of archaeal cell wall is found in Methanosarcina and Halococcus. This type of cell wall is composed entirely of a thick layer of polysaccharides, which may be sulfated in the case of Halococcus. Structure in this type of wall is complex and as yet is not fully investigated. A third type of wall among the Archaea consists of glycoprotein, and occurs in the hyperthermophiles, Halobacterium, and some methanogens. In Halobacterium, the proteins in the wall have a high content of acidic amino acids, giving the wall an overall negative charge. The result is an unstable structure that is stabilized by the presence of large quantities of positive sodium ions that neutralize the charge. Consequently, Halobacterium thrives only under conditions with high salinity. In other Archaea, such as Methanomicrobium and Desulfurococcus, the wall may be composed only of surface-layer proteins, Howland, John L. (2000) The Surprising Archaea: Discovering Another Domain of Life, pages 69-71. (Oxford: Oxford University Press). ISBN 0-19-511183-4. known as an S-layer. S-layers are common in bacteria, where they serve as either the sole cell-wall component or an outer layer in conjunction with polysaccharides. Most Archaea are Gram-negative, though at least one Gram-positive member is known. See also Bacterial cell structure Plant cell References External links Cell wall ultrastructure The Cell Wall | Cell_wall |@lemmatized plant:34 cell:145 separate:1 transparent:1 wall:130 tough:1 flexible:3 sometimes:1 fairly:1 rigid:6 layer:24 surround:2 type:14 locate:1 outside:3 membrane:7 provide:2 structural:3 support:1 protection:2 also:17 act:2 filtering:1 mechanism:2 major:4 function:4 pressure:3 vessel:1 prevent:2 expansion:1 water:8 enter:1 find:9 bacteria:15 fungi:15 algae:13 archaea:8 animal:1 protozoa:1 material:2 vary:1 specie:4 differ:1 developmental:1 stage:1 strong:2 component:4 complex:3 carbohydrate:4 call:8 cellulose:17 polymer:9 glucose:1 peptidoglycan:12 form:16 archaean:1 various:1 composition:5 may:13 glycoprotein:7 pseudopeptidoglycan:4 polysaccharide:10 posse:1 make:8 glucosamine:2 chitin:7 typically:2 possess:6 unusually:1 diatom:6 compose:6 silicic:2 acid:16 often:3 accessory:1 molecule:3 anchored:1 property:3 diagram:2 green:4 serve:2 similar:2 purpose:1 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2,321 | Ferdinand_de_Saussure | Ferdinand de Saussure () (26 November 1857 – 22 February 1913) was a Swiss linguist whose ideas laid a foundation for many significant developments in linguistics in the 20th century. Saussure is widely considered to be one of the fathers of 20th-century linguistics Justin Wintle, Makers of modern culture, Routledge, 2002, p. 467. David Lodge, Nigel Wood, Modern Criticism and Theory: A Reader, Pearson Education, 2008, p. 42. , and his ideas have had a monumental impact on literary and cultural theory and interpretation. Biography Ferdinand Mongin de Saussure, born in Geneva in 1857, showed early signs of considerable talent and intellectual ability. After a year of studying Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and a variety of courses at the University of Geneva, he commenced graduate work at the University of Leipzig in 1876. Two years later at 21 years Saussure studied for a year at Berlin, where he wrote his only full-length work, Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européenes (Thesis on the Primitive Vowel System in Indo-European Languages). He returned to Leipzig and was awarded his doctorate in 1880. Soon afterwards he relocated to Paris, where he would lecture on ancient and modern languages. He taught in Paris for 11 years before returning to Geneva in 1891. Saussure lectured on Sanskrit and Indo-European at the University of Geneva for the remainder of his life. It was not until 1906 that Saussure began teaching the Course of General Linguistics that would consume the greater part of his attention until his death in 1913. Course in General Linguistics Saussure's most influential work, Course in General Linguistics (Cours de linguistique générale), was published posthumously in 1916 by former students Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye on the basis of notes taken from Saussure's lectures at the University of Geneva. The Course became one of the seminal linguistics works of the 20th century, not primarily for the content (many of the ideas had been anticipated in the works of other 19th century linguists), but rather for the innovative approach that Saussure applied in discussing linguistic phenomena. Its central notion is that language may be analyzed as a formal system of differential elements, apart from the messy dialectics of real-time production and comprehension. Examples of these elements include the notion of the linguistic sign, the signifier, the signified, and the referent. In 1996, a manuscript of Saussure's was discovered in his house in Geneva. This text was published as Writings in General Linguistics, and offers significant clarifications of the Course. Laryngeal theory While a student, Saussure published an important work in Indo-European philology that proposed the existence of a class of sounds in Proto-Indo-European called sonant coefficients. The Danish scholar Hermann Möller suggested that these might actually be laryngeal consonants, leading to what is now known as the laryngeal theory. It has been argued that the problem Saussure encountered, of trying to explain how he was able to make systematic and predictive hypotheses from known linguistic data to unknown linguistic data, stimulated his development of structuralism. Saussure's predictions about the existence of sonant coefficients/laryngeals and their evolution proved a resounding success when the Hittite texts were discovered and deciphered, some 20 years later. Legacy The impact of Saussure's ideas on the development of linguistic theory in the first half of the 20th century cannot be overstated. Two currents of thought emerged independently of each other, one in Europe, the other in America. The results of each incorporated the basic notions of Saussurian thought in forming the central tenets of structural linguistics. In Europe, the most important work was being done by the Prague School. Most notably, Nikolay Trubetzkoy and Roman Jakobson headed the efforts of the Prague School in setting the course of phonological theory in the decades following 1940. Jakobson's universalizing structural-functional theory of phonology, based on a markedness hierarchy of distinctive features, was the first successful solution of a plane of linguistic analysis according to the Saussurean hypotheses. Elsewhere, Louis Hjelmslev and the Copenhagen School proposed new interpretations of linguistics from structuralist theoretical frameworks. In America, Saussure's ideas informed the distributionalism of Leonard Bloomfield and the post-Bloomfieldian Structuralism of those scholars guided by and furthering the practices established in Bloomfield's investigations and analyses of language, such as Eugene Nida, Bernard Bloch, George L. Trager, Rulon S. Wells III, Charles Hockett, and through Zellig Harris, the young Noam Chomsky. In addition to Chomsky's theory of Transformational grammar, other contemporary developments of structuralism include Kenneth Pike's theory of tagmemics, Sidney Lamb's theory of stratificational grammar, and Michael Silverstein's work. Outside linguistics, the principles and methods employed by structuralism were soon adopted by scholars and literary critics, such as Roland Barthes, Jacques Lacan, and Claude Lévi-Strauss, and implemented in their areas of study (literary studies/philosophy, psychoanalysis, and anthropology respectively). However, their expansive interpretations of Saussure's theories, which contained ambiguities to begin with, and their application of those theories to non-linguistic fields of study such as sociology or anthropology, led to theoretical difficulties and proclamations of the end of structuralism in those disciplines. Ferdinand de Saussure was the subject of a song by indie pop band The Magnetic Fields. Lyrics to the song "the Death of Ferdinand de Saussure by Magnetic Fields Quotations "A sign is the basic unit of language (a given language at a given time). Every language is a complete system of signs. Parole (the speech of an individual) is an external manifestation of language." "A linguistic system is a series of differences of sounds combined with a series of differences of ideas." "The connection between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary." "In language there are only differences, and no positive terms" "Speaking of linguistic law in general is like trying to pin down a ghost" Works Saussure, Ferdinand de. (2002) Écrits de linguistique générale (edition prepared by Simon Bouquet and Rudolf Engler), Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 2-07-076116-9. English translation: Writings in General Linguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press. (2006) ISBN 0-19-926144-X. This volume is based on the manuscript of Saussure's "book on general linguistics", found in 1996 in Geneva. Saussure often mentioned the existence of such a manuscript, but it was thought to have been lost for a long time. With this new textual source, new light is shed on the work of Saussure. In particular, new elements appear that call for a revision of the legacy of Saussure, and call into question the reconstruction of his thought by his students in the Course in General Linguistics (1916). (1878) Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européenes (Memoir on the Primitive System of Vowels in Indo-European Languages), Leipzig: Teubner. (online version in Gallica Program, Bibliothèque nationale de France). (1916) Cours de linguistique générale, ed. C. Bally and A. Sechehaye, with the collaboration of A. Riedlinger, Lausanne and Paris: Payot; trans. W. Baskin, Course in General Linguistics, Glasgow: Fontana/Collins, 1977. (1993) Saussure’s Third Course of Lectures in General Linguistics (1910–1911): Emile Constantin ders notlarından, Language and Communication series, volume. 12, trans. and ed. E. Komatsu and R. Harris, Oxford: Pergamon. References In-line General Culler, J. (1976). Saussure. Glasgow: Fontana/Collins. Ducrot, O. and Todorov, T. (1981). Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Sciences of Language, trans. C. Porter. Oxford: Blackwell. Harris, R. (1987). Reading Saussure. London: Duckworth. Holdcroft, D. (1991). Saussure: Signs, System, and Arbitrariness. Cambridge University Press. Lyons, J. (1968). An Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. Sanders, C., ed.(2004). The Cambridge Companion to Saussure. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80486-8. Wittmann, Henri (1974). "New tools for the study of Saussure's contribution to linguistic thought." Historiographia Linguistica 1.255-64. See also Leonard Bloomfield Linguistics Neogrammarians Roman Jakobson Structuralism External links The poet who could smell vowels: an article in the The Times Literary Supplement by John E. Joseph, November 14, 2007 Original texts and resources, published by Texto, . Hearing Heidegger and Saussure by Elmer G. 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2,322 | Los_Angeles | Los Angeles ( ; ) is the largest city in the state of California and the second largest in the United States. Often abbreviated as L.A. and nicknamed The City of Angels, Los Angeles has an estimated population of 3.8 million and spans over in Southern California. Additionally, the Los Angeles metropolitan area is home to nearly 12.9 million residents. Metropolitan statistical area | Population Estimates | July 1, 2007 Los Angeles is the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated and one of the most diverse counties The most ethnically diverse counties in the United States - Aug. 9, 2007 in the United States. Its inhabitants are known as "Angelenos" (), or "Angelinos" when using the proper Spanish language spelling. Los Angeles was founded September 4, 1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve as El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Angeles del Río de Porciúncula (The Village of Our Lady, the Queen of the Angels of the river of Porziuncola). There is some question about the legitimacy of this name, which may have, through a series of misinterpretations and inflations, been corrupted from the actual name authorized in writing in 1781, "La Reina de Los Angeles". Cf. Theodore E. Treutlein, "Los Angeles, California: The Question of the City's Original Spanish Name", Southern California Quarterly 55, no. 1 (Spring 1973): 1-7. Historian Doyce B. Nunis, Jr., has traced the longer name to the histories written by the Franciscan missionaries, especially Francisco Palóu, who wished to play up the region's connections to their order. Pool, Bob, "City of Angels' First Name Still Bedevils Historians". Los Angeles Times (March 26, 2005), Sec. A-1. It became a part of Mexico in 1821, following its independence from Spain. In 1848, at the end of the Mexican-American War, Los Angeles and California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States; Mexico retained the territory of Baja California. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4, 1850, five months before California achieved statehood. Los Angeles is one of the world's centers of business, international trade, entertainment, culture, media, fashion, science, technology, and education. It is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. As the home base of Hollywood, it is known as the "Entertainment Capital of the World", leading the world in the creation of motion pictures, television production and recorded music. The importance of the entertainment business to the city results in many celebrities calling Los Angeles and its surrounding suburbs home. History The old city plaza, 1869 The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva (or Gabrieleños) and Chumash Native American tribes thousands of years ago. The first Europeans arrived in 1542 under Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, a Portuguese-born explorer who claimed the area as the City of God for the Spanish Empire. However, he continued with his voyage and did not establish a settlement. Willard, C. D., The Herald's History of Los Angeles (Los Angeles: Kingsley-Barnes, 1901): 22. The next contact would not come until 227 years later, when Gaspar de Portola, along with Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2, 1769. Crespí noted that the site had the potential to be developed into a large settlement. In 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra built the Mission San Gabriel Arcangel near Whittier Narrows, in what is now called San Gabriel Valley. After a 1776 flood, the mission was moved to its present site in San Gabriel In 1777, the new governor of California, Felipe de Neve, recommended to Antonio María de Bucareli y Ursúa, viceroy of New Spain that the site noted by Juan Crespí be developed into a pueblo. The town was officially founded on September 4, 1781, by a group of forty-four settlers known as "Los Pobladores". Tradition has it that on this day they were escorted by four Spanish colonial soldiers, two priests from the Mission and Governor de Neve. The town was named El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles del Río de Porciúncula (The Town of Our Lady the Queen of the Angels on the Porciúncula River). The History of Los Angeles County at LAAvenue.com These pueblo settlers came from the common Hispanic culture that had emerged in northern Mexico among a racially mixed society. Two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto, and therefore, had African and Indian ancestry. More importantly, they were intermarrying. "Of the first forty-six pobladores (settlers), twenty-six were African or part-African. The remainder further demonstrates the city's multiracial beginnings: one was a Chinese from Manila, two were español, and the rest were Indian or part-Indian. […] The families settling Los Angeles were racially mixed, revealing that intermarriage was already absorbing the African stock". Forbes, Jack D. "The Early African Heritage in California" in Lawrence Brooks de Graaf, Kevin Mulroy, and Quintard Taylor, eds., Seeking El Dorado: African Americans in California (Los Angeles: Autry Museum of Western Heritage, 2001), 79. ISBN 9780295980836 The settlement remained a small ranch town for decades, but by 1820 the population had increased to about 650 residents. Los Angeles Historical Chronology Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the historic district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street, the oldest part of Los Angeles. Acuna, Rodolfo, Anything But Mexican: Chicanos in Contemporary Los Angeles (New York: Version, 1996): 22. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, and the pueblo continued as a part of Mexico. During Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico, made Los Angeles Alta California's regional capital. Mexican rule ended during the Mexican–American War: Americans took control from the Californios after a series of battles, culminating with the signing of the Treaty of Cahuenga on January 13, 1847. Los Angeles City Hall, shown here in 1931, was built in 1928 and was the tallest structure in the city until 1964, when height restrictions were removed. Railroads arrived when the Southern Pacific completed its line to Los Angeles in 1876. Mulholland, Catherine, William Mulholland and the Rise of Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000): 15. Oil was discovered in 1892, and by 1923 Los Angeles was producing one-quarter of the world's petroleum. The Story of Oil in California By 1900, the population had grown to more than 102,000 people, Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places: 1900 putting pressure on the city's water supply. The Los roches Aqueduct and the Owens and Mono Lakes (MONO Case) 1913's completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct, under the supervision of William Mulholland, assured the continued growth of the city. In the 1920s, the motion picture and aviation industries flocked to Los Angeles. In 1932, with population surpassing one million, Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places: 1930 the city hosted the Summer Olympics. The post-war years saw an even greater boom, as urban sprawl expanded the city into the San Fernando Valley. Bruegmann, Robert, Sprawl: A Compact History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005): 133. In 1969, Los Angeles became one of the birthplaces of the Internet, as the first ARPANET transmission was sent from UCLA to SRI in Menlo Park. Was L.A. really Internet's ground zero? Also in the 1980s, Los Angeles became the center of the heavy metal music scene, especially glam metal bands. In 1984, the city hosted the Summer Olympic Games for the second time. Despite being boycotted by 14 Communist countries, the 1984 Olympics became the most financially successful in history, and only the second Olympics to turn a profit – the other being the 1932 Summer Olympics, also held in Los Angeles. Downtown Los Angeles saw heavy development from the 1980s to 1990s, including the construction of some of the city's tallest skyscrapers. During the remaining decades of the 20th century, the city was plagued by increasing gang warfare, drug trades, and police corruption. Racial tensions erupted again in 1992 with the Rodney King controversy and the large-scale riots that followed the acquittal of his police attackers. In 1994, the 6.7 Northridge earthquake shook the city, causing $12.5 billion in damage and 72 deaths.<ref>Reich, Kenneth, "Study Raises Northridge Quake Death Toll to 72", Los Angeles Times 20 December 1995: B1.</ref> Voters defeated efforts by the San Fernando Valley and Hollywood to secede from the city in 2002. City of Los Angeles Secession Votes – 2002 Gentrification and urban redevelopment have occurred in many parts of the city, most notably Hollywood, Koreatown, Silver Lake, Echo Park and Downtown. Welcome to Gentrification City Geography Los Angeles is irregularly shaped and covers a total area of , comprising 469.1 square miles (1,214.9 km2) of land and 29.2 square miles (75.7 km2) of water. The city extends for 44 miles (71 km) longitudinally and for 29 miles (47 km) latitudinally. The perimeter of the city is 342 miles (550 km). It is the only major city in the United States bisected by a mountain range. The highest point in Los Angeles is Mount Lukens, also called Sister Elsie Peak. Located at the far reaches of the northeastern San Fernando Valley, it reaches a height of 5,080 ft (1,548 m). The major river is the Los Angeles River, which begins in the Canoga Park district of the city and is largely seasonal. The river is lined in concrete for almost its entire length as it flows through the city into nearby Vernon on its way to the Pacific Ocean. Geology Los Angeles is subject to earthquakes due to its location in the Pacific Ring of Fire. The geologic instability produces numerous fault lines both above and below ground, which altogether cause approximately 10,000 earthquakes every year. Earthquake Facts One of the major fault lines is the San Andreas Fault. Located at the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, it is predicted to be the source of Southern California's next big earthquake. San Andreas Fault Set for the Big One Major earthquakes to have hit the Los Angeles area include the 2008 Chino Hills earthquake, 1994 Northridge earthquake, the 1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake, the 1971 San Fernando earthquake near Sylmar, and the 1933 Long Beach earthquake. Nevertheless, all but a few quakes are of low intensity and are not felt. The most recent earthquake felt was the 5.4 Chino Hills earthquake on July 29 2008. Parts of the city are also vulnerable to Pacific Ocean tsunamis; harbor areas were damaged by waves from the Valdivia earthquake in 1960. The Los Angeles basin and metropolitan area are also at risk from blind thrust earthquakes. Climate Los Angeles has a Mediterranean climate or Dry-Summer Subtropical (Köppen climate classification Csb on the coast, Csa inland). Los Angeles enjoys plenty of sunshine throughout the year, with an average of 263 sunshine days and only 35 days with measurable precipitation annually. Echo Park as seen with Palm Trees The period of May through October is warm to hot and dry with average high temperatures of 74 - 84°F (24 - 29°C) and lows of 58 - 66°F (14 - 19°C), however temperatures frequently exceed 90°F (32°C) and occasionally reach 100°F (38°C) in inland areas (away from the moderating effect of the ocean). The period of November through April is mild and somewhat rainy with average high temperatures of 68 - 73°F (20 - 23°C) and lows of 48 - 53°F (9 - 12°C), but temperatures could occasionally drop to low 40s (~5°C) or be as high as 80°F (26°C) for few days during winter. www.weather.com The Los Angeles area is also subject to the phenomenon typical of a microclimate. As such, the temperatures can vary as much as 18°F (10°C) between inland areas and the coast, with a temperature gradient of over one degree per mile (1.6 km) from the coast inland. California has also a weather phenomenon called "June Gloom or May Grey", which sometimes gives overcast or foggy skies in the morning at the coast, but usually gives sunny skies by noon, during late spring and early summer. Los Angeles averages 15 inches (385 mm) of precipitation annually, which mainly occurs during the winter and spring (November thru April) with generally light rain showers, but sometimes as heavy rainfall and thunderstorms. The coast gets slightly less rainfall, while the mountains get slightly more. Years of average rainfall are rare; the usual pattern is bimodal, with a short string of dry years (perhaps 7-8 inches/175-200 mm) followed by one or two wet years that make up the average. Snowfall is extremely rare in the city basin, but the mountains within city limits slopes typically receive snowfall every winter. The greatest snowfall recorded in downtown Los Angeles was 2 inches (5 cm) in 1932. Burt, Christopher. Extreme Weather: A Guide and Record Book. New York: Norton, 2004: 100. Flora The Los Angeles area is rich in native plant species due in part to a diversity in habitats, including beaches, wetlands, and mountains. The most prevalent botanical environment is coastal sage scrub, which covers the hillsides in combustible chaparral. Native plants include: California poppy, matilija poppy, toyon, Coast Live Oak, and giant wild rye grass. Many of these native species, such as the Los Angeles sunflower, have become so rare as to be considered endangered. Though they are not native to the area, the official tree of Los Angeles is the tropical Coral Tree and the official flower of Los Angeles is the Bird of Paradise, Strelitzia reginae. San Diego Zoo Environmental issues A view of Los Angeles covered in smog The name given by the Chumash tribe of Native Americans for the area now known as Los Angeles translates to "the valley of smoke". According to Gordon J. MacDonald, geophysicist and professor formerly with the University of California, San Diego, quoted by Chris Bowman in "Smoke is Normal - for 1800" in the The Sacramento Bee (July 8, 2008) because of the smog from native campfires. Owing to geography, heavy reliance on automobiles, and the Los Angeles/Long Beach port complex, Los Angeles suffers from air pollution in the form of smog. The Los Angeles Basin and the San Fernando Valley are susceptible to atmospheric inversion, which holds in the exhausts from road vehicles, airplanes, locomotives, shipping, manufacturing, and other sources. How Smog Forms in Los Angeles Unlike other large cities that rely on rain to clear smog, Los Angeles gets only 15 inches (381 mm) of rain each year: pollution accumulates over many consecutive days. Issues of air quality in Los Angeles and other major cities led to the passage of early national environmental legislation, including the Clean Air Act. More recently, the state of California has led the nation in working to limit pollution by mandating low emission vehicles. Driveclean from the California Government web site As a result, pollution levels have dropped in recent decades. The number of Stage 1 smog alerts has declined from over 100 per year in the 1970s to almost zero in the new millennium. Despite improvement, the 2006 and 2007 annual reports of the American Lung Association ranked the city as the most polluted in the country with short-term particle pollution and year-round particle pollution. People at Risk In 25 U.S. Cities Most Polluted by Short-Term Particle Pollution. American Lung Association. Retrieved on January 5, 2007. People at Risk In 25 U.S. Cities Most Polluted by Year-Round Particle Pollution. American Lung Association. Retrieved on January 5, 2007. In 2008, the city was ranked the second most polluted and again had the highest year-round particulate pollution. In addition, the groundwater is increasingly threatened by MTBE from gas stations and perchlorate from rocket fuel. With pollution still a significant problem, the city continues to take aggressive steps to improve air and water conditions. Lopez, Theresa Adams. "". Port of Los Angeles (News Release). February 17, 2006. Staff Writer. "Air Quality Protections Take Off". Environmental Defense. December 6, 2004. Cityscape Hollywood, a well-known district of Los Angeles, is often mistaken as an independent city (as West Hollywood is). The city is divided into many neighborhoods, many of which were incorporated places or communities that were annexed by the city. There are also several independent cities around Los Angeles, but they are popularly grouped with the city of Los Angeles, either due to being completely engulfed as enclaves by Los Angeles, or lying within its immediate vicinity. Generally, the city is divided into the following areas: Downtown Los Angeles, Northeast - including Highland Park and Eagle Rock areas, the Eastside, South Los Angeles (still often colloquially referred to as South Central by locals), the Harbor Area, Hollywood, Wilshire, the Westside and the San Fernando and Crescenta Valleys. Some well-known communities within Los Angeles include West Adams, Watts, Leimert Park, Baldwin Hills, Venice Beach, the Downtown Financial District, Los Feliz, Silver Lake, Hollywood, Koreatown, Westwood and the more affluent areas of Bel Air, Benedict Canyon, Hollywood Hills, Hancock Park, Pacific Palisades, Century City, and Brentwood. Landmarks Important landmarks in Los Angeles include Chinatown, Koreatown, Little Tokyo, Walt Disney Concert Hall, Kodak Theatre, Griffith Observatory, Getty Center, Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Grauman's Chinese Theatre, Hollywood Sign, Hollywood Boulevard, Capitol Records Tower, Los Angeles City Hall, Hollywood Bowl, Watts Towers, Staples Center, Dodger Stadium and La Placita Olvera/Olvera Street. Notable locations Demographics At the 2005-2007 American Community Survey Estimates the city's population was 51.0% White (29.3% non-Hispanic White alone), 10.6% Black or African American, 1.0% American Indian and Alaska Native, 11.4% Asian, 0.3% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 28.6% from some other race and 2.8% from two or more races. 48.5% of the total population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. The 2000 census recorded 3,694,820 people, 1,275,412 households, and 798,407 families residing in the city, with a population density of 7,876.8 people per square mile (3,041.3/km2). There were 1,337,706 housing units at an average density of 2,851.8 per square mile (1,101.1/km2). Los Angeles has become a multiethnic/diverse city, with major new groups of Latino and Asian immigrants in recent decades. As of the 2000 US Census, the racial distribution in Los Angeles was 46.9% White American, 11.2% African American, 10.5% Asian American, 0.8% Native American, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 25.7% from other races, and 5.2% from two or more races. 46.5% of the population was Hispanic or Latino (of any race). 42.2% spoke English, 41.7% Spanish, 2.4% Korean, 2.3% Filipino, 1.7% Armenian, 1.5% Chinese (including Cantonese and Mandarin) and 1.3% Persian as their first language. Modern Language Association Data Center Results of Los Angeles, California Modern Language Association According to the census, 33.5% of households had children under 18, 41.9% were married couples, 14.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.4% were non-families. 28.5% of households were made up of individuals and 7.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.83 and the average family size 3.56. The age distribution was: 26.6% under 18, 11.1% from 18 to 24, 34.1% from 25 to 44, 18.6% from 45 to 64, and 9.7% who were 65 or older. The median age was 32. For every 100 females there were 99.4 males. For every 100 females aged 18 and over, there were 97.5 males. The median income for a household was $36,687, and for a family was $39,942. Males had a median income of $31,880, females $30,197. The per capita income was $20,671. 22.1% of the population and 18.3% of families were below the poverty line. 30.3% of those under the age of 18 and 12.6% of those aged 65 or older were below the poverty line. Los Angeles is home to people from more than 140 countries speaking 224 different identified languages. City basics, lacity.org Ethnic enclaves like Chinatown, Historic Filipinotown, Koreatown, Little Armenia, Little Ethiopia, Tehrangeles, Little Tokyo, and Thai Town provide examples of the polyglot character of Los Angeles. Economy Companies such as US Bancorp, Ernst & Young, Aon, Manulife Financial, City National Bank, Wells Fargo, Bank of America, Deloitte, KPMG and the Union Bank of California have offices in the Downtown Financial District The economy of Los Angeles is driven by international trade, entertainment (television, motion pictures, interactive games, recorded music), aerospace, technology, petroleum, fashion, apparel, and tourism. Los Angeles is also the largest manufacturing center in the western United States. City-data.com The contiguous ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach together comprise the fifth busiest port in the world and the most significant port in the Western Hemisphere and is vital to trade within the Pacific Rim. Other significant industries include media production, finance, telecommunications, law, healthcare, and transportation. The Los Angeles combined statistical area (CSA) has a gross metropolitan product (GMP) of $697.9 billion (as of 2007), making it the second largest economic center in the Western Hemisphere, after New York City. If the Los Angeles CSA were a country, its economy would rank 17th in the world in terms of nominal GDP. The United States Conference of Mayors and The National Association of Counties, 2007; Standard & Poor's DRI, June, 2008. International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, October 2008: Nominal GDP list of countries. Data for the year 2007, October, 2008. Until the mid-1990s, Los Angeles was home to many major financial institutions in the western United States. Mergers meant reporting to headquarters in other cities. For instance, First Interstate Bancorp merged with Wells Fargo in 1996, Great Western Bank merged with Washington Mutual in 1998, and Security Pacific Bank merged with Bank of America in 1992. Los Angeles was also home to the Pacific Exchange, until it closed in 2001. The city has six major Fortune 500 companies, including aerospace contractor Northrop Grumman, energy company Occidental Petroleum, healthcare provider Health Net, homebuilder KB Home, and real estate group CB Richard Ellis. Other companies headquartered in Los Angeles include 20th Century Fox, Latham & Watkins, Univision, Metro Interactive, LLC, Premier America, Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher, DeviantArt, "DeviantArt, Inc." Businessweek Investing. Accessed November 9, 2008. Guess?, O’Melveny & Myers; Paul, Hastings, Janofsky & Walker, Tokyopop, The Jim Henson Company, Paramount Pictures, Robinsons-May, Sunkist Growers, Incorporated, Fox Sports Net, Capital Group, 21st century Insurance and The Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf. Korean Air's US passenger and cargo operations headquarters are located in two separate offices in Los Angeles. "Contact Info". Korean Air. Retrieved September 20, 2008. The metropolitan area contains the headquarters of companies who moved outside of the city to escape its taxes but keep the benefits of proximity. UT Strategies, et al. Competitiveness of City Taxes and Fees. 1997. For example, Los Angeles charges a gross receipts tax based on a percentage of business revenue, while many neighboring cities charge only small flat fees. Competitiveness 22. The companies below benefit from their proximity to Los Angeles, while at the same time avoiding the city's taxes (and other problems). Some of the major companies headquartered in the cities of Los Angeles county are Shakey's Pizza (Alhambra), Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (Beverly Hills), City National Bank (Beverly Hills), Hilton Hotels (Beverly Hills), DIC Entertainment (Burbank), The Walt Disney Company (Fortune 500 – Burbank), Warner Bros. (Burbank), Countrywide Financial (Fortune 500 – Calabasas), THQ (Calabasas), Belkin (Compton), Sony Pictures Entertainment (parent of Columbia Pictures, located in Culver City), DirecTV (El Segundo), Mattel (Fortune 500 – El Segundo), Unocal Corporation (Fortune 500 – El Segundo), DreamWorks (Glendale), Sea Launch (Long Beach), ICANN (Marina del Rey), Cunard Line (Santa Clarita), Princess Cruises (Santa Clarita), Activision (Santa Monica), and RAND (Santa Monica). The University of Southern California (USC) is the city's largest private sector employer and contributes $4 billion annually to the local economy. Evan George, Trojan Dollars: Study Finds USC Worth $4 Billion Annually to L.A. County, Los Angeles Downtown News, December 11, 2006. Los Angeles is classified as a "beta+ world city" in a 2008 study by a research group at Loughborough University in England. Culture The people of Los Angeles are known as Angelenos. Nighttime hot spots include places such as Downtown Los Angeles, Silver Lake, Hollywood, and West Hollywood, which is the home of the world-famous Sunset Strip. Some well-known shopping areas are the Hollywood and Highland complex, the Beverly Center, Melrose Avenue, Robertson Boulevard, Rodeo Drive, Third Street Promenade in Santa Monica, The Grove, Westside Pavilion, Westfield Century City, The Promenade at Howard Hughes Center and Venice Boardwalk. Religion Built in 1956, the Los Angeles California Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is the second largest Mormon temple in the world The Roman Catholic Archbishop of Los Angeles leads the largest archdiocese in the country. Pomfret, John. Cardinal Puts Church in Fight for Immigration Rights. Washington Post. April 2, 2006. Retrieved May 28, 2007 Cardinal Roger Mahony oversaw construction of the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels, completed in 2002 at the north end of downtown. Construction of the cathedral marked a coming of age of the Catholic, heavily Latino community. There are numerous Catholic churches and parishes throughout the city. The Los Angeles California Temple, the second largest temple operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, is on Santa Monica Boulevard in the Westwood district of Los Angeles. Dedicated in 1956, it was the first Mormon temple built in California and it was the largest in the world when completed. LDS - Los Angeles California Temple The grounds includes a visitors' center open to the public, the Los Angeles Regional Family History Center, also open to the public, and the headquarters for the Los Angeles mission. With 621,000 Jews in the metropolitan area (490,000 in city proper), the region has second largest population of Jews in the United States. World Jewish Population from SimpleToRemember.com Many synagogues of the Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist movements can be found throughout the city. Most are located in the San Fernando Valley and West Los Angeles. The area in West Los Angeles around Fairfax and Pico Boulevards contains a large number of Orthodox Jews. The Breed Street Shul in East Los Angeles, built in 1923, was the largest synagogue west of Chicago in its early decades. "Washington Symposium and Exhibition Highlight Restoration and Adaptive Reuse of American Synagogues" Jewish Heritage Report Issue No. 1 / March 1997 (It is no longer a sacred space and is being converted to a museum and community center.) "Los Angeles’s Breed Street Shul Saved by Politicians" Jewish Heritage Report Vol. II, Nos. 1-2 / Spring-Summer 1998) The Kabbalah Centre, devoted to one line of Jewish mysticism, is also in the city. Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels Because of Los Angeles' large multi-ethnic population, a wide variety of faiths are practiced, including Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Sikhism, Bahá'í, various Eastern Orthodox Churches, Sufism and others. Immigrants from Asia for example, have formed a number of significant Buddhist congregations making the city home to the greatest variety of Buddhists in the world. Media The Fox Plaza in Century City, headquarters for 20th Century Fox, is a major financial district for West Los Angeles The major daily newspaper in the area is the Los Angeles Times; La Opinión is the city's major Spanish-language paper. Investor's Business Daily is distributed from its L.A. corporate offices, which are headquartered in Playa Del Rey. There are also a number of smaller regional newspapers, alternative weeklies and magazines, including the Daily News (which focuses coverage on the San Fernando Valley), LA Weekly, Los Angeles CityBeat, L.A. Record (which focuses coverage on the music scene in the Greater Los Angeles area), Los Angeles magazine, Los Angeles Business Journal, Los Angeles Daily Journal (legal industry paper), The Hollywood Reporter and Variety (entertainment industry papers), and Los Angeles Downtown News. In addition to the English- and Spanish-language papers, numerous local periodicals serve immigrant communities in their native languages, including Armenian, Korean, Persian, Russian, Chinese and Japanese. Many cities adjacent to Los Angeles also have their own daily newspapers whose coverage and availability overlaps into certain Los Angeles neighborhoods. Examples include The Daily Breeze (serving the South Bay), and The Long Beach Press-Telegram.Los Angeles and New York City are the only two media markets to have all seven VHF allocations possible assigned to them. Allocation information, The Museum of Broadcast Communications Los Angeles Times Headquarters The city's first television station (and the first in California) was KTLA, which began broadcasting on January 22, 1947. The major network-affiliated television stations in this city are KABC-TV 7 (ABC), KCBS 2 (CBS), KNBC 4 (NBC), KTTV 11 (FOX), KTLA 5 (The CW), and KCOP-TV 13 (MyNetworkTV), and KPXN 30 (i). There are also three PBS stations in the area, including KCET 28, KOCE-TV 50, and KLCS 58. World TV operates on two channels, KNET-LP 25 and KSFV-LP 6. There are also several Spanish-language television networks, including KMEX-TV 34 (Univision), KFTR 46 (TeleFutura), KVEA 52 (Telemundo), and KAZA 54 (Azteca América). KTBN 40 (Trinity Broadcasting Network), is a religious station in the area. Several independent television stations also operate in the area, including KCAL-TV 9 (owned by CBS Corporation), KSCI 18 (focuses primarily on Asian language programming), KWHY-TV 22 (Spanish-language), KNLA-LP 27 (Spanish-language), KSMV-LP 33 (variety)—a low power relay of Ventura-based KJLA 57—KPAL-LP 38, KXLA 44, KDOC-TV 56 (classic programming and local sports), KJLA 57 (variety), and KRCA 62 (Spanish-language). Sports Los Angeles is the home of the Los Angeles Dodgers of Major League Baseball, the Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League, the Los Angeles Clippers and Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association, the Los Angeles D-Fenders an NBA Development team owned by the Los Angeles Lakers, the Los Angeles Sparks of the WNBA, the Los Angeles Riptide of Major League Lacrosse, and the Los Angeles Avengers of the Arena Football League. Los Angeles is also home to the USC Trojans and the UCLA Bruins in the NCAA, both of which are Division I teams in the Pacific-10 Conference. Several more teams are in the greater Los Angeles media market: the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim of Major League Baseball and the Anaheim Ducks of the National Hockey League are both based in nearby Anaheim; and the Los Angeles Galaxy and Club Deportivo Chivas USA of Major League Soccer are both based in neighboring Carson. The city is the largest in the U.S. without an NFL team. Dodger Stadium is the home of the Los Angeles Dodgers There was a time when Los Angeles boasted two NFL teams, the Rams and the Raiders. Both left the city in 1995, with the Rams moving to St. Louis and the Raiders heading back to Oakland. Los Angeles is the second-largest city and television market in the United States, but has no NFL team (see List of television stations in North America by media market). Prior to 1995, the Rams called Memorial Coliseum (1946-1979) and Anaheim Stadium (1980-1994) home; St. Louis Rams and the Raiders played their home games at Memorial Coliseum from 1982 to 1994. Hong, Peter. "Few Tears Here". Los Angeles Times 29 June 1995: B1. Since the franchise's departures the NFL as an organization, and individual NFL owners, have attempted to relocate a team to the city. Immediately following the 1995 NFL season, Seattle Seahawks owner Ken Behring went as far as packing up moving vans to start play in the Rose Bowl under a new team name and logo for the 1996 season. The State of Washington filed a law suit to successfully prevent the move. Business Wire. "Seattle Seahawks owner Ken Behring announces move of NFL franchise" 2 Feb 1996. (Accessed 3 September 2007) In 2003, then NFL Commissioner Paul Tagliabue indicated L.A. would get a new expansion team, a thirty-third franchise, after the choice of Houston over L.A. in the 2002 league expansion round. Satzman, Darrell. Los Angeles Business Journal. "NFL's interest in returning to L.A. long on desire, far from reality - Up Front". 27 Jan 2003. (Accessed 3 September 2007) When the New Orleans Saints were displaced from the Superdome by Hurricane Katrina media outlets reported the NFL was planning to move the team to Los Angeles permanently. Joyner, James. Outside the Beltway. "NFL May Move Saints to Los Angeles". 27 Oct 2005. (Accessed 3 September 2007) Despite these efforts, and the failure to build a new stadium for an NFL team, L.A. is still expected to return to the league through expansion or relocation. Los Angeles has twice played host to the summer Olympic Games, in 1932 and in 1984. When the tenth Olympic Games were hosted in 1932, the former 10th Street was renamed Olympic Blvd. Super Bowls I and VII were also held in the city as well as soccer's international World Cup in 1994. Staples Center, a premier venue for sports and entertainment, is home to five professional sports teams Los Angeles also boasts a number of sports venues, including Staples Center, a sports and entertainment complex that also hosts concerts and awards shows such as the Grammys. Staples Center also serves as the home arena for the Los Angeles Clippers and Los Angeles Lakers of the NBA, the Los Angeles Sparks of the WNBA, the Los Angeles Kings of the NHL and the Avengers of the AFL. Government The city is governed by a mayor-council system. The current mayor is Antonio Villaraigosa. There are 15 city council districts. Other elected city officials include the City Attorney Rocky Delgadillo and the City Controller Laura N. Chick. The city attorney prosecutes misdemeanors within the city limits. The district attorney, elected by county voters, prosecutes misdemeanors in unincorporated areas and in 78 of the 88 cities in the county, as well as felonies throughout the county. The Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) polices the city of Los Angeles, but the city also maintains four specialized police agencies; The Office of Public Safety, within the General Services Department (which is responsible for security and law enforcement services at city facilities, including City Hall, city parks and libraries, the Los Angeles Zoo, and the Convention Center), the Port Police, within the Harbor Department (which is responsible for land, air and sea law enforcement services at the Port of Los Angeles), the Los Angeles City Schools Police department which handles law enforcement for all city schools, and the Airport Police, within the Los Angeles World Airports Department (which is responsible for law enforcement services at all four city-owned airports, including Los Angeles International Airport (LAX), LA/Ontario International Airport (ONT), LA/Palmdale Regional Airport (PMD), and Van Nuys Airport (VNY). Neighborhood councils Voters created Neighborhood Councils in the Charter Reform of 1999. First proposed by City Council member Joel Wachs in 1996, they were designed to promote public participation in government and make it more responsive to local needs. The councils cover districts which are not necessarily identical to the traditional neighborhoods of Los Angeles. Almost ninety neighborhood councils (NCs) are certified and all "stakeholders" — meaning anyone who lives, works or owns property in a neighborhood — may vote for members of the councils' governing bodies. Some council bylaws allow other people with a stake in the community to cast ballots as well. The councils are official government bodies and so their governing bodies and committees must abide by California's Brown Act, which governs the meetings of deliberative assemblies. The first notable concern of the neighborhood councils collectively was the opposition by some of them in March 2004 to an 18% increase in water rates by the city's Department of Water and Power. This led the City Council to approve only a limited increase pending independent review. More recently, some of the councils petitioned the City Council in summer 2006 to allow them to introduce ideas for legislative action, but the City Council put off a decision. The neighborhood councils have been allocated $50,000 each for administration, outreach and approved neighborhood projects. Crime and safety The LAPD during May Day 2006 in front of the new Caltrans District 7 Headquarters Los Angeles has been experiencing significant decline in crime since the mid-1990s, and hit a record low in 2007, with 392 homicides. LAPD live crime statistics and e-police web site Antonio Villaraigosa is a member of the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition. According to a May 2001 Drug Threat Assessment by the National Drug Intelligence Center, Los Angeles County is home to 152,000 gang members organized into 1,350 gangs. "California Central District Drug Threat Assessment : Overview". National Drug Intelligence Center. May, 2001. Among the most infamous are the Sureños, 18th Street, Mara Salvatrucha, Crips, Bloods street gangs. This has led to the city being referred to as the "Gang Capital of America". "Police target 11 worst Los Angeles street gangs" - Reuters AlertNet Federal representation The United States Postal Service operates post offices in Los Angeles. The main Los Angeles Post Office is located at 7001 South Central Avenue. "Post Office™ Location - LOS ANGELES". United States Postal Service. Retrieved on April 17, 2009. "Post Office™ Location - MAIN OFFICE LA". United States Postal Service. Retrieved on April 17, 2009. Education Colleges and universities Occidental College There are three public universities located within the city limits: California State University, Los Angeles (CSULA), California State University, Northridge (CSUN) and University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). Private colleges in the city include the American Film Institute Conservatory, Alliant International University, American InterContinental University, American Jewish University, The American Musical and Dramatic Academy - Los Angeles campus, Antioch University's Los Angeles campus, Art Center College of Design (Art Center), Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science, Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising's Los Angeles campus (FIDM), Los Angeles Film School, Loyola Marymount University (LMU is also the parent university of Loyola Law School located in Los Angeles), Mount St. Mary's College, National University of California, New York Film Academy in Universal City, CA, Occidental College ("Oxy"), Otis College of Art and Design (Otis), Southern California Institute of Architecture (SCI-Arc), Southwestern Law School, and University of Southern California (USC). The community college system consists of nine campuses governed by the trustees of the Los Angeles Community College District: East Los Angeles College (ELAC), Los Angeles City College (LACC), Los Angeles Harbor College, Los Angeles Mission College, Los Angeles Pierce College, Los Angeles Valley College (LAVC), Los Angeles Southwest College, Los Angeles Trade-Technical College and West Los Angeles College. Schools and libraries The Los Angeles Central Library in Downtown Los Angeles Los Angeles Unified School District serves almost all of the city of Los Angeles, as well as several surrounding communities, with a student population over 800,000. US Census, District information After Proposition 13 was approved in 1978, urban school districts had considerable trouble with funding. LAUSD has become known for its underfunded, overcrowded and poorly maintained campuses, although its 162 Magnet schools help compete with local private schools. Magnet schools just as competitive as private schools Several small sections of Los Angeles are in the Las Virgenes Unified School District. Los Angeles County Office of Education operates the Los Angeles County High School for the Arts. The Los Angeles Public Library system operates 72 public libraries in the city. LA Public Library Transportation Public transportation MTA buses are the prime means of public transportation in L.A. Union Station is the prime railway station in the city The Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority and other agencies operate an extensive system of bus lines, as well as subway and light rail lines across Los Angeles County, with a combined daily ridership of 1.7 million. The majority of this (1.4 million) is taken up by the city's bus system, the second busiest in the country. The subway and light rail combined average the remaining roughly 319,000 boardings per weekday. LACMTA ridership, June 2008 Altogether, public transit ridership is much lower than many other large cities, with 12% of Los Angeles commuters riding public transportation. US Census press release: "Nearly One-Third of Nation’s Public Transportation Commuters Live In New York City", March 2, 2004 The city's subway system is the ninth busiest in the United States and its light rail system is the country's third busiest. American Public Transportation Association, Heavy Rail Transit Ridership Report, First Quarter 2008. The rail system includes the Red and Purple subway lines, as well as the Gold, Blue, and Green light rail lines. The Metro Rapid buses are a bus rapid transit program with stops and frequency similar those of a light rail. The city is also central to the commuter rail system Metrolink which links Los Angeles to all neighboring counties as well as many suburbs. Air transportation LAX, the fifth busiest airport in the world The main Los Angeles airport is Los Angeles International Airport . The fifth busiest commercial airport in the world and the third busiest in the United States, LAX handled over 61 million passengers and 2 million tons of cargo in 2006. LAX Volume of air traffic Other major nearby commercial airports include: LA/Ontario International Airport, owned by the city of Los Angeles; serves the Inland Empire. Bob Hope Airport, formerly known as Burbank Airport; serves the San Fernando and San Gabriel Valleys Long Beach Airport, serves the Long Beach/Harbor area John Wayne Airport of Orange County. LA/Palmdale Regional Airport is owned by the city of Los Angeles and serves the northern outlying communities of the Santa Clarita and Antelope Valleys. The world's third busiest general-aviation airport is also located in Los Angeles, Van Nuys Airport . Los Angeles World Airports Harbors A view of the Vincent Thomas Bridge reaching Terminal Island The Port of Los Angeles is located in San Pedro Bay in the San Pedro neighborhood, approximately 20 miles (30 km) south of Downtown. Also called Los Angeles Harbor and WORLDPORT LA, the port complex occupies 7,500 acres (30 km2) of land and water along 43 miles (69 km) of waterfront. It adjoins the separate Port of Long Beach. The sea ports of the Port of Los Angeles and Port of Long Beach together make up the Los Angeles – Long Beach Harbor. There are also smaller, non-industrial harbors along L.A.'s coastline. Safety is provided at the only beach controlled by Los Angeles City by the highly trained Los Angeles City Lifeguards. Los Angeles City Lifeguards The port includes four bridges: the Vincent Thomas Bridge, Henry Ford Bridge, Gerald Desmond Bridge, and Commodore Schuyler F. Heim Bridge. Sister cities A sign near City Hall points to the sister cities of Los Angeles Los Angeles has 25 sister cities, "Sister Cities of Los Angeles". Retrieved on March 26, 2008. listed chronologically by year joined: Eilat, Israel (1959) Nagoya, Japan (1959) Salvador, Brazil (1962) Bordeaux, France (1964) Berlin, Germany (1967) Lusaka, Zambia (1968) Mexico City, Mexico (1969) Auckland City, New Zealand (1971) Busan, South Korea (1971) Mumbai, India (1972) Tehran, Iran (1972) Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China (1979) Guangzhou, People's Republic of China (1981) Athens, Greece (1984) Saint Petersburg, Russia (1984) Vancouver, Canada (1986) Giza, Egypt (1989) Jakarta, Indonesia (1990) Kaunas, Lithuania (1991) Makati, Philippines (1992) Split, Croatia (1993) San Salvador, El Salvador (2005) Beirut, Lebanon (2006) Ischia, Italy (2006) Yerevan, Armenia (2007) Podgorica, Montenegro http://www.montenegro-info.net/GRAD%20Podgorica.htm In 2007, Los Angeles Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa also recognized a cultural exchange partnership with Tel Aviv, Israel. See also Greater Los Angeles Los Angeles County References Further reading Reyner Banham, Los Angeles: The Architecture of the Four Ecologies, University of California Press, 1971. Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles, Vintage Books, 1992 Robert M. Fogelson, The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles 1850-1930, University of California Press, 1967 Lynell George, No Crystal Stair: African Americans in the City of Angels, Verso, 1992 Paul Glover, "Los Angeles: A History of the Future", Eco-Home Press, 1989 Norman M. Klein, The History of Forgetting: Los Angeles and the Erasure of Memory, Verso, 1997 Torin Monahan, , City & Society XIV (2): 155-184, 2002 Leonard Pitt & Dale Pitt, Los Angeles A to Z: An Encyclopedia of the City and County, University of California Press, 2000 Marc Reisner, Cadillac Desert: The American West and its Disappearing Water, Penguin Books, 1986. Peter Theroux, Translating LA: A Tour of the Rainbow City, Norton, 1994 David L. Ulin (ed), Writing Los Angeles: A Literary Anthology, Library of America, 2002 Richard White, It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own: A New History of the American West'', University of Oklahoma Press, 1991 California History, Bancroft External links City of Los Angeles Official Website ExperienceLA.com Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce Los Angeles Convention & Visitors Bureau Los Angeles magazine Los Angeles Neighborhood Councils Los Angeles Online Magazine LA2day Historic Bridges of Los Angeles County be-x-old:Лос-Анджэлес | Los_Angeles |@lemmatized los:225 angeles:221 large:21 city:132 state:21 california:39 second:10 united:16 often:3 abbreviate:1 l:12 nickname:1 angel:8 estimate:3 population:16 million:7 span:1 southern:7 additionally:1 metropolitan:7 area:30 home:19 nearly:2 resident:2 statistical:2 july:3 seat:1 county:21 populated:1 one:13 diverse:3 ethnically:1 aug:1 inhabitant:1 know:10 angelenos:2 angelinos:1 use:1 proper:2 spanish:13 language:13 spelling:1 found:2 september:6 governor:4 felipe:2 de:13 neve:3 el:7 pueblo:7 nuestra:2 señora:2 la:15 reina:3 del:4 río:2 porciúncula:3 village:1 lady:4 queen:2 river:5 porziuncola:1 question:2 legitimacy:1 name:8 may:10 series:2 misinterpretation:1 inflation:1 corrupt:1 actual:1 authorize:1 write:3 cf:1 theodore:1 e:2 treutlein:1 original:1 quarterly:1 spring:4 historian:2 doyce:1 b:1 nunis:1 jr:1 trace:1 longer:2 history:11 franciscan:3 missionary:2 especially:2 francisco:1 palóu:1 wish:1 play:4 region:2 connection:1 order:1 pool:1 bob:2 first:13 still:4 bedevil:1 time:8 march:5 sec:1 become:8 part:10 mexico:6 follow:4 independence:2 spain:3 end:3 mexican:5 american:26 war:3 purchase:1 treaty:2 guadalupe:1 hidalgo:1 thereby:1 retain:1 territory:1 baja:1 incorporate:3 municipality:1 april:6 five:2 month:1 achieve:2 statehood:1 world:20 center:20 business:7 international:9 trade:5 entertainment:9 culture:3 medium:7 fashion:3 science:3 technology:2 education:3 renowned:1 institution:2 cover:5 broad:1 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2,323 | Enhanced_Data_Rates_for_GSM_Evolution | Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) (also known as Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), or IMT Single Carrier (IMT-SC)) is a backward-compatible digital mobile phone technology that allows improved data transmission rates, as an extension on top of standard GSM. EDGE is considered a 3G radio technology and is part of ITU's 3G definition, http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/imt-2000/DocumentsIMT2000/IMT-2000.pdf . EDGE was deployed on GSM networks beginning in 2003— initially by Cingular (now AT&T) in the United States. http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/imt-2000/MiscDocuments/IMT-Deployments-Rev3.pdf EDGE is standardized by 3GPP as part of the GSM family, and it is an upgrade that provides more than three-fold increase in both the capacity and performance of GSM/GPRS networks. It does this by introducing sophisticated methods of coding and transmitting data, delivering higher bit-rates per radio channel. EDGE can be used for any packet switched application, such as an Internet connection. EDGE-delivered data services create a broadband internet-like experience for the mobile phone user. High-speed data applications such as video services and other multimedia benefit from EGPRS' increased data capacity. Evolved EDGE continues in Release 7 of the 3GPP standard providing reduced latency and more than doubled performance e.g. to complement High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA). Peak bit-rates of up to 1Mbit/s and typical bit-rates of 400kbit/s can be expected. Technology EDGE/EGPRS is implemented as a bolt-on enhancement for 2G and 2.5G GSM and GPRS networks, making it easier for existing GSM carriers to upgrade to it. EDGE/EGPRS is a superset to GPRS and can function on any network with GPRS deployed on it, provided the carrier implements the necessary upgrade. EDGE requires no hardware or software changes to be made in GSM core networks. EDGE compatible transceiver units must be installed and the base station subsystem needs to be upgraded to support EDGE. If the operator already has this in place, which is often the case today, the network can be upgraded to EDGE by activating an optional software feature. Today EDGE is supported by all major chip vendors for both GSM and WCDMA/HSPA. Transmission techniques In addition to Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), EDGE uses higher-order PSK/8 phase shift keying (8PSK) for the upper five of its nine modulation and coding schemes. EDGE produces a 3-bit word for every change in carrier phase. This effectively triples the gross data rate offered by GSM. EDGE, like GPRS, uses a rate adaptation algorithm that adapts the modulation and coding scheme (MCS) according to the quality of the radio channel, and thus the bit rate and robustness of data transmission. It introduces a new technology not found in GPRS, Incremental Redundancy, which, instead of retransmitting disturbed packets, sends more redundancy information to be combined in the receiver. This increases the probability of correct decoding. EDGE can carry data speeds up to 236.8 kbit/s (with end-to-end latency of less than 150 ms) for 4 timeslots (theoretical maximum is 473.6 kbit/s for 8 timeslots) in packet mode. This means it can handle four times as much traffic as standard GPRS. EDGE meets the International Telecommunications Union's requirement for a 3G network, and has been accepted by the ITU as part of the IMT-2000 family of 3G standards. It also enhances the circuit data mode called HSCSD, increasing the data rate of this service. EDGE is part of ITU's 3G definition and is considered a 3G radio technology. EGPRS modulation and coding scheme (MCS) EDGE is four times as efficient as GPRS. GPRS uses four coding schemes (CS-1 to 4) while EDGE uses nine Modulation and Coding Schemes (MCS-1 to 9). {| class="wikitable" align=center ! Coding and modulation scheme (MCS) ! Speed (kbit/s/slot) ! Modulation |- align=center | MCS-1 | 8.80 | GMSK |- align=center | MCS-2 | 11.2 | GMSK |- align=center | MCS-3 | 14.8 | GMSK |- align=center | MCS-4 | 17.6 | GMSK |- align=center | MCS-5 | 22.4 | 8-PSK |- align=center | MCS-6 | 29.6 | 8-PSK |- align=center | MCS-7 | 44.8 | 8-PSK |- align=center | MCS-8 | 54.4 | 8-PSK |- align=center | MCS-9 | 59.2 | 8-PSK |} EDGE Evolution EDGE Evolution improves on EDGE in a number of ways. Latencies are reduced by lowering the Transmission Time Interval by half (from 20 ms to 10 ms). Bit rates are increased up to 1 MBit/s peak speed and latencies down to 800 ms using dual carriers, higher symbol rate and higher-order modulation (32QAM and 16QAM instead of 8-PSK), and turbo codes to improve error correction. And finally signal quality is improved using dual antennas improving average bit-rates and spectrum efficiency. EDGE Evolution can be gradually introduced as software upgrades, taking advantage of the installed base. With EDGE Evolution, end-users will be able to experience mobile internet connections corresponding to a 500 kbit/s ADSL service. Networks The Global mobile Suppliers Association (GSA) states that, as of January 2009, there were 413 GSM/EDGE networks in 177 countries, from a total of 441 mobile network operator commitments in 184 countries. See also UMTS WiFi Spectral efficiency comparison table Novatel Wireless Option N.V. List of device bandwidths References External links GSM World: EDGE Platform The Evolution of EDGE - White Paper Moldcell: brief comparison of EDGE vs GPRS and other benefits. 3GPP Vocabulary Teledict:EDGE The Global mobile Suppliers Association EDGE and Evolution EDGE Technologies | Enhanced_Data_Rates_for_GSM_Evolution |@lemmatized enhance:2 data:11 rate:12 gsm:12 evolution:7 edge:34 also:3 know:1 enhanced:1 gprs:11 egprs:5 imt:7 single:1 carrier:5 sc:1 backward:1 compatible:2 digital:1 mobile:6 phone:2 technology:6 allow:1 improve:5 transmission:4 extension:1 top:1 standard:4 consider:2 radio:4 part:4 itu:7 definition:2 http:2 www:2 int:2 pdf:2 deploy:2 network:10 begin:1 initially:1 cingular:1 united:1 state:2 miscdocuments:1 deployment:1 standardize:1 family:2 upgrade:6 provide:2 three:1 fold:1 increase:5 capacity:2 performance:2 introduce:3 sophisticated:1 method:1 cod:5 transmit:1 deliver:2 high:6 bit:7 per:1 channel:2 use:7 packet:4 switch:1 application:2 internet:3 connection:2 service:4 create:1 broadband:1 like:2 experience:2 user:2 speed:5 video:1 multimedia:1 benefit:2 evolve:1 continue:1 release:1 providing:1 reduced:1 latency:3 double:1 e:1 g:1 complement:1 access:1 hspa:2 peak:2 typical:1 expect:1 implement:2 bolt:1 enhancement:1 make:2 easy:1 exist:1 superset:1 function:1 necessary:1 require:1 hardware:1 software:3 change:2 core:1 transceiver:1 unit:1 must:1 instal:1 base:2 station:1 subsystem:1 need:1 support:2 operator:2 already:1 place:1 often:1 case:1 today:2 activate:1 optional:1 feature:1 major:1 chip:1 vendor:1 wcdma:1 technique:1 addition:1 gaussian:1 minimum:1 shift:2 keying:2 gmsk:5 order:2 psk:7 phase:2 upper:1 five:1 nine:2 modulation:7 scheme:6 produce:1 word:1 every:1 effectively:1 triple:1 gross:1 offer:1 adaptation:1 algorithm:1 adapt:1 mc:4 accord:1 quality:2 thus:1 robustness:1 new:1 find:1 incremental:1 redundancy:2 instead:2 retransmit:1 disturbed:1 send:1 information:1 combine:1 receiver:1 probability:1 correct:1 decoding:1 carry:1 kbit:4 end:3 less:1 timeslots:2 theoretical:1 maximum:1 mode:2 mean:1 handle:1 four:3 time:3 much:1 traffic:1 meet:1 international:1 telecommunication:1 union:1 requirement:1 accept:1 circuit:1 call:1 hscsd:1 efficient:1 coding:2 c:1 class:1 wikitable:1 align:10 center:10 slot:1 mcs:9 number:1 way:1 reduce:1 lower:1 interval:1 half:1 mbit:1 latencies:1 dual:2 symbol:1 turbo:1 code:1 error:1 correction:1 finally:1 signal:1 antenna:1 average:1 spectrum:1 efficiency:2 gradually:1 take:1 advantage:1 installed:1 able:1 correspond:1 adsl:1 global:2 supplier:2 association:2 gsa:1 january:1 country:2 total:1 commitment:1 see:1 umts:1 wifi:1 spectral:1 comparison:2 table:1 novatel:1 wireless:1 option:1 n:1 v:2 list:1 device:1 bandwidth:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 world:1 platform:1 white:1 paper:1 moldcell:1 brief:1 vocabulary:1 teledict:1 |@bigram backward_compatible:1 mobile_phone:2 http_www:2 itu_int:2 int_itu:2 gsm_gprs:2 packet_switch:1 broadband_internet:1 shift_keying:2 gprs_edge:1 class_wikitable:1 wikitable_align:1 align_center:10 modulation_scheme:1 center_mcs:9 mcs_psk:5 error_correction:1 spectral_efficiency:1 external_link:1 |
2,324 | Sporting_Kansas_City | The Kansas City Wizards are an American, professional soccer club based in Kansas City, that participates in Major League Soccer. The Wizards won the MLS Cup in 2000, the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup in 2004, and the MLS Supporters Shield in 2000. The team colors have been cobalt blue, dark indigo, yellow and white since 2008. "Wizards unveil new look for '08 season," Kansas City Wizards Media Relations, January 20, 2008. History The Wizards were known as the Kansas City Wiz during the 1996 season but changed names due to a copyright dispute. From 1995 until 2006, they were owned by Lamar Hunt, who also owned the Kansas City Chiefs, FC Dallas and the Columbus Crew. In the 2000 season, the Wizards captured both the MLS Supporters' Shield and the MLS Cup. In the previous two seasons, they had failed to make the playoffs. On July 19, 2006, head coach Bob Gansler resigned and general manager Curt Johnson selected assistant coach Brian Bliss as the new interim head coach Luder, Bob (July 19, 2006). Gansler out as Wizards head coach. Kansas City Star . Curt Onalfo was announced the new permanent head coach after the end of the 2006 season. On December 9, 2004, Lamar Hunt announced that he was looking to sell the team after the 2005 MLS season. On August 31, 2006, the Wizards held a press conference to announce the sale of the team to a local ownership group consisting of Cerner co-founders Neal Patterson and Cliff Illig, Rock Island Capital’s Robb Heineman, Greg Maday and David French, and Pat Curran, founder of C3 Holdings. Luder, Bob (August 31, 2006). Wizards sold to local group, will remain in area. Kansas City Star Crest Home stadiums Arrowhead Stadium (1996-2007) The Wizards used to play their home games in Arrowhead Stadium, the American football stadium mainly used by the Kansas City Chiefs. Wizards management kept the west end of Arrowhead tarped off for the first 10 years of play, limiting seating near the field. In 2006, fans could sit all the way around the field, but in 2007 seating was only available along the sidelines. In 2008, the Wizards moved their home game against the Los Angeles Galaxy to Arrowhead Stadium to accommodate the larger crowd that was expected to be in attendance for David Beckham's Kansas City debut. CommunityAmerica Ballpark (2008-2009) The Wizards entered an agreement with the Kansas City T-Bones to use their home stadium, CommunityAmerica Ballpark, during the 2008 and 2009 seasons. The stadium, located across the state line in Kansas City, Kansas, built a new bleacher section financed by the Wizards to increase its capacity to 10,385. This move will make the Wizards the third MLS team to share their home ground with a baseball team. D.C. United had been sharing RFK Stadium with Major League Baseball's Washington Nationals in Washington, D.C., before the latter's move into Nationals Park. The San Jose Earthquakes also use a baseball stadium, as they have used Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum in Oakland, home of the Oakland A's for certain games during the 2008 season. Hillcrest Road (2011-) On July 27, 2007, the Kansas City Star reported that Lane4 Property Group, a developer hired by the Wizards, was moving closer to making plans final for a massive redevelopment of now-vacant Bannister Mall that will include a new stadium for the Wizards and 12 to 18 tournament soccer fields. Under Lane4’s plan, the Bannister Mall and Benjamin Plaza shopping centers and the adjoining Benjamin Ranch property would be demolished and replaced with a mixed-use project with retail, office and residential components in addition to a possible Wizards stadium. According to MLS.net on December 14, 2007, the Wizards plans for a new stadium were approved by the Kansas City council. The current target date for completion of construction for the stadium is 2011. Team owners are currently collaborating with architecture firm 360 Architecture on the design of the new stadium, with the final design likely to be unveiled during the 2009 season. "Bannister Mall Developement Plans Are Slowed" NBC Action News, 20 August 2008. Final government hurdles for the new stadium were cleared on November 20, 2008, when the state legislature of Missouri approved a $30-million tax credit package to help build the complex. http://www.kansascity.com/news/breaking_news/story/900599.html The Stadium is currently referred to as "Hillcrest Road" being the name of the street on which the project will be built, the area has also rebranded itself as it is now known as The Trails in reference to the Santa Fe Trail, California Trail, and Oregon Trail that all run through the area. Television and Radio Wizards matches are broadcast on Metro Sports (except for nationally broadcast matches), with Sean Wheelock doing play-by-play. Local Radio coverage is broadcasted live in English using the Metro Sports Television feed on KCZZ 1480AM, Spanish broadcasting can be found on KDTD 1340AM. Official Anthem In 2007, Kansas City based rock band Blackpool Lights song “Ain’t Nobody Gonna Stop Us Now” was chosen as the official team anthem. Received by fans in a luke warm response the song has not drawn much identity to the club although it continues to be played at the stadium before matches. Honors Domestic MLS Cup: Winners (1): 2000 Runners-up (1): 2004 MLS Supporters' Shield: Winners (1): 2000 Runners-up (2): 1997, 2004 US Open Cup: Winners (1): 2004 Minor Trophies MLS Reserve Division: Runners-up (2): 2006, 2008 Players Current roster As of May 9, 2009. http://web.mlsnet.com/players/index.jsp?club=t105 Notable former players This list of former players includes those who received international caps while playing for the team, made significant contributions to the team in terms of appearances or goals while playing for the team, or who made significant contributions to the sport either before they played for the team, or after they left. It is clearly not yet complete and all inclusive, and additions and refinements will continue to be made over time. José Burciaga, Jr. (2001-2007) Mark Chung (1996–1998) Nick Garcia (2000-2007) Richard Gough (1997) Diego Gutiérrez (1996-1997, 2002-2005) Chris Henderson (1998–2000) Eddie Johnson (2006—2007) Mo Johnston (1996–2001) Chris Klein (1998–2005) Frank Klopas (1996–1997) Alexi Lalas (1999) Tony Meola (1999–2004) Miklos Molnar (2000) Uche Okafor (1996-2000) Preki (1996–2000, 2002–2005) Paul Rideout (1998) Vuk Rašović (2004) Refik Šabanadžović (1997-1999) Igor Simutenkov (2002-2004) Scott Sealy (2005-2008) Mike Sorber (1996) Vitalis Takawira (1996-1999) Shavar Thomas (2004-2006) Peter Vermes (2000–2002) Sasha Victorine (2005–2008) Kerry Zavagnin (2000–2008) See also All-time Kansas City Wizards roster Head coaches Ron Newman (1996–1999) Ken Fogarty (1999; interim) Bob Gansler (1999–2006) Brian Bliss (2006; interim) Curt Onalfo (2006-) General managers Tim Latta Doug Newman (1997–1999) Curt Johnson (1999–2006) Peter Vermes (2006–Present) -- Technical Director Greg Cotton (2006–Present) -- Director of Business Operations Presidents Robb Heineman (2006 - Present) Team records Games: Kerry Zavagnin, 225 Goals: Preki, 71 Assists: Preki, 98 Shutouts: Tony Meola, 37 MLS regular season only All-Time regular season record: 154-155-65 (Through April 20, 2008) Year-by-year Kansas City Wizards Seasons YearReg. SeasonPlayoffsOpen CupCONCACAFChampions' CupSuperLiga19963rd, WestSemifinalsQuarterfinalsDid not qualifyStarted in 200719971st, WestQuarterfinalsRound of 16Did not qualify19986th, WestDid not qualifyRound of 16Did not qualify19996th, WestDid not qualifyDid not qualifyDid not qualify20001st, West*ChampionsRound of 32Did not qualify20013rd, WestQuarterfinalsRound of 16Not held20025th, WestQuarterfinalsSemifinalsSemifinals20032nd, WestSemifinalsRound of 16Did not qualify20041st, WestRunners-UpChampionsDid not qualify20055th, EastDid not qualifyQuarterfinalsQuarterfinals20065th, EastDid not qualifyRound of 16Did not qualify20075th, EastSemifinals**Did not qualifyDid not qualifyDid not participate20084th, EastQuarterfinalsQuarterfinalsDid not qualifyDid not qualify2009†††Did not qualify† † In Progress * Won MLS Supporters' Shield ** Qualified in the Western Conference Playoff Bracket International competition 2001 Copa Merconorte 3rd place in Group C 2002 CONCACAF Champions Cup First Round v. W Connection – 1:0, 2:0 (Wizards win 3:0 on aggregate) Quarterfinals v. Santos Laguna – 1:2, 2:0 (Wizards win 3:2 on aggregate) Semifinals v. Monarcas Morelia – 1:6, 1:1 (Morelia advances 7:2 on aggregate) 2005 CONCACAF Champions Cup First Round v. Deportivo Saprissa – 0:0, 2:1 (Saprissa advances 2:1 on aggregate after added extra time)2009 SuperLiga''' Average attendance YearReg. SeasonPlayoffs199612,87819979,05819988,07319998,18320009,112200110,954200212,255200315,57310,712200414,81910,97720059,691200611,083200711,58612,442200810,68610,3852009 References External links Official Homepage Official Website of Supporters Section: The Cauldron Official Blog Wizards message board on Big Soccer Downthebyline Unofficial blog (general news and youth news) BackPost Unofficial blog (photos interviews) | Sporting_Kansas_City |@lemmatized kansas:11 city:16 wizard:25 american:2 professional:1 soccer:4 club:3 base:2 participate:1 major:2 league:2 win:4 mls:5 cup:7 lamar:3 hunt:3 u:3 open:2 ml:7 supporter:5 shield:4 team:12 color:1 cobalt:1 blue:1 dark:1 indigo:1 yellow:1 white:1 since:1 unveil:2 new:8 look:2 season:12 kansa:6 medium:1 relation:1 january:1 history:1 know:2 wiz:1 change:1 name:2 due:1 copyright:1 dispute:1 also:4 chief:2 fc:1 dallas:1 columbus:1 crew:1 capture:1 previous:1 two:1 fail:1 make:6 playoff:2 july:3 head:5 coach:6 bob:4 gansler:3 resign:1 general:3 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2,325 | Isaac_Ambrose | Isaac Ambrose. Isaac Ambrose (1604 - January 20 1663/1664) was an English Puritan divine, the son of Richard Ambrose, vicar of Ormskirk, and was probably descended from the Ambroses of Lowick in Furness, a well-known Roman Catholic family. He entered Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1621, in his seventeenth year. Having graduated B.A. in 1624 and been ordained, he received in 1627 the little cure of Castleton in Derbyshire. By the influence of William Russell, earl of Bedford, he was appointed one of the king's itinerant preachers in Lancashire, and after living for a time in Garstang, he was selected by the Lady Margaret Hoghton as vicar of Preston. He associated himself with Presbyterianism, and was on the celebrated committee for the ejection of "scandalous and ignorant ministers and schoolmasters" during the Commonwealth. So long as Ambrose continued at Preston he was favoured with the warm friendship of the Hoghton family, their ancestral woods and the tower near Blackburn affording him sequestered places for those devout meditations and "experiences" that give such a charm to his diary, portions of which are quoted in his Prima Media and Ultima (1650, 1659). The immense auditory of his sermon (Redeeming the Time) at the funeral of Lady Hoghton was long a living tradition all over the county. On account of the feeling engendered by the civil war Ambrose left his great church of Preston in 1654, and became minister of Garstang, whence, however, in 1662 he was ejected with the two thousand ministers who refused to conform. His after years were passed among old friends and in quiet meditation at Preston. He died of apoplexy about 20 January 1663/4. As a religious writer Ambrose has a vividness and freshness of imagination possessed by scarcely any of the Puritan Nonconformists. Many who have no love for Puritan doctrine, nor sympathy with Puritan experience, have appreciated the pathos and beauty of his writings, and his Looking to Jesus long held its own in popular appreciation with the writings of John Bunyan. References | Isaac_Ambrose |@lemmatized isaac:2 ambrose:7 january:2 english:1 puritan:4 divine:1 son:1 richard:1 vicar:2 ormskirk:1 probably:1 descend:1 lowick:1 furness:1 well:1 know:1 roman:1 catholic:1 family:2 enter:1 brasenose:1 college:1 oxford:1 seventeenth:1 year:2 graduate:1 b:1 ordain:1 receive:1 little:1 cure:1 castleton:1 derbyshire:1 influence:1 william:1 russell:1 earl:1 bedford:1 appoint:1 one:1 king:1 itinerant:1 preacher:1 lancashire:1 live:1 time:2 garstang:2 select:1 lady:2 margaret:1 hoghton:3 preston:4 associate:1 presbyterianism:1 celebrated:1 committee:1 ejection:1 scandalous:1 ignorant:1 minister:3 schoolmaster:1 commonwealth:1 long:3 continue:1 favour:1 warm:1 friendship:1 ancestral:1 wood:1 tower:1 near:1 blackburn:1 afford:1 sequestered:1 place:1 devout:1 meditation:2 experience:2 give:1 charm:1 diary:1 portion:1 quote:1 prima:1 medium:1 ultima:1 immense:1 auditory:1 sermon:1 redeem:1 funeral:1 living:1 tradition:1 county:1 account:1 feeling:1 engender:1 civil:1 war:1 leave:1 great:1 church:1 become:1 whence:1 however:1 eject:1 two:1 thousand:1 refuse:1 conform:1 pass:1 among:1 old:1 friend:1 quiet:1 die:1 apoplexy:1 religious:1 writer:1 vividness:1 freshness:1 imagination:1 possess:1 scarcely:1 nonconformist:1 many:1 love:1 doctrine:1 sympathy:1 appreciate:1 pathos:1 beauty:1 writing:2 look:1 jesus:1 hold:1 popular:1 appreciation:1 john:1 bunyan:1 reference:1 |@bigram brasenose_college:1 |
2,326 | Frankie_Goes_to_Hollywood | Frankie Goes to Hollywood (FGTH) was an English dance-pop band that was extremely popular in the mid-1980s. The Liverpool group was fronted by Holly Johnson (vocals), supported by Paul Rutherford (vocals, keyboards), Peter Gill (drums, percussion), Mark O'Toole (bass guitar) and Brian Nash (guitar). The group's debut single "Relax" was famously banned by the BBC while at number six in the charts and subsequently topped the UK singles chart for five consecutive weeks, going on to enjoy prolonged chart success throughout 1984 and ultimately becoming the seventh best-selling UK single of all time (as of May 2006). After the follow-up success of "Two Tribes" and "The Power of Love", FGTH became only the second act in the history of the UK charts to reach number one with their first three singles; the first being Gerry & the Pacemakers in 1964. Career Formation On the B-side to the group's first single, Johnson explained that the group's name derived from a page from the The New Yorker magazine, featuring the headline "Frankie Goes to Hollywood" and a picture of Frank Sinatra. Allegedly the original group named "Frankie Goes to Hollywood" dates from 1980. The nucleus of the group emerged from the late 1970s Liverpool punk scene. Lead singer Holly Johnson had played bass with Big in Japan, and had also released two solo singles. Local musicians Peter Gill (drums), Jed O'Toole (bass) and Jed's cousin Brian Nash (guitar) initially joined Johnson, calling themselves Sons of Egypt. This line-up secured a number of small local gigs before disbanding. The group was reprised when Johnson joined Mark O'Toole (bass) and Ped to form FGTH. During a particularly fluid period of personnel changes, Jed O'Toole joined FGTH on guitar and a female vocalist, Sonya Mazunda, was also a band member for the first Frankie gig at the Leeds nightclub "The Warehouse", supporting Hambi & The Dance. Paul Rutherford – a member of the headline act who had also sung in seminal Liverpool punk band The Spitfire Boys – apparently got so caught up in Frankie's performance that he effectively replaced Mazunda that very night. The new all-male musical line-up subsequently toured locally with a leather-clad female duo known as "The Leatherpets", and managed to fund promotional videos and demos, despite being eventually turned down by both Arista Records and Phonogram. In October 1982, the group recorded a John Peel session for BBC Radio One, comprising the originals "Krisco Kisses", "Two Tribes", "Disneyland" and "The World is My Oyster". Around this time Jed O'Toole left the group, to be replaced by the returning Brian Nash. In February 1983, the group were invited to record a video for "Relax" by the Channel Four show The Tube at the Liverpool State Ballroom. After the broadcast, the Peel session was repeated on radio, and a new session recorded for the BBC, comprising "Welcome to the Pleasuredome", "The Only Star In Heaven" and "Relax". These performances, along with a repeat of the Tube video, convinced Trevor Horn to sign the group for his new label, ZTT Records, in May 1983. "Relax" Frankie Goes to Hollywood's biggest selling single, "Relax". "Relax" was released by ZTT in October 1983 and got a modicum of airplay, allowing it steady progress into the UK Top 40. Following a debut appearance on the BBC's Top Of The Pops on 5 January 1984 while at number 35, the single rose to number six in the charts the following week. On 11 January 1984, BBC Radio 1 disc jockey Mike Read was playing the record on his show when he noticed the front cover design (by Yvonne Gilbert). Read apparently became outraged by the "overtly sexual" nature of both the record sleeve and the printed lyrics, which prompted him to remove the disc from the turntable live on air, branding it "obscene". BBC News Magazine: Banned on the run Two days later – almost three months after the single's initial release, and just eight days after the group's Top Of The Pops appearance – the BBC banned the record from all its TV and radio outlets, with the exception of its Top 40 show. "Relax" immediately shot to Number One in the UK charts and stayed there for five weeks, during which time the BBC could not feature the nation's best-selling single on their flagship TV chart show. The original video directed by Bernard Rose depicted a gay S&M den (filmed in the unused East London theatre Wilton's Music Hall), which was promptly banned by both the BBC and MTV, resulting in the production of a substitute video directed by filmmaker Brian De Palma to coincide with the release of his film Body Double. The BBC lifted its ban on "Relax" at the end of 1984 to allow the band to perform it on the Christmas edition of Top of the Pops (it had been, aside from Band Aid, the biggest-selling single of the year). "Two Tribes" Twelve inch picture disk of "Two Tribes" with video image"Relax" remained in the charts when the follow-up, "Two Tribes", was released in May 1984. The anti-conflict song was given an aggressively topical nuclear war slant. Featuring sirens, the unmistakable voice of Patrick Allen (who had voiced the British Government's actual nuclear warning ads, Protect and Survive, two years earlier) and another innovative electronic backing, it went straight into the UK charts at Number One and stayed there for nine weeks (the first single to do so since Wings' "Mull of Kintyre" during 1977–78), with total sales exceeding 1.5 million copies and becoming one of the top 30 best-selling records in the UK ever. Directed by Kevin Godley and Lol Crème, the video featured lookalikes of Cold War leaders Ronald Reagan and Konstantin Chernenko wrestling in a marquee while band members and others laid bets on the outcome. Ultimately, the audience — consisting of other world leaders — were brought into the fight, and eventually Earth was seen to explode. "Two Tribes" was a successful single in its own right, but its reign at the top of the charts was made even more notable by the continuing success of its predecessor. "Relax" had made a natural decline down the charts by May 1984, but on the release of "Two Tribes" its sales began to increase again, to the extent that FGTH held the top two spots in the UK charts during July 1984, the first active group to do so since the early 1960s. "Frankie Say War! Hide Yourself" t-shirt.The release of "Two Tribes" also coincided with an extensive and iconic T-shirt marketing campaign during the British summer of 1984, featuring such slogans as "Frankie Say War! Hide Yourself" and "Frankie Say Relax Don't Do It!". "The Power of Love" FGTH released a third single, "The Power of Love", at the end of 1984. Unlike the earlier singles, this song was a slower-paced ballad, but it also went to Number One in December and making the band the first act for two decades (since Gerry & the Pacemakers, a fellow Liverpool band, in 1963) to achieve chart-toppers with its first three releases. The video was not banned on this occasion but still caused trouble for the group — in depicted a nativity scene (and on its first showing did not feature any members of the band, but they were added as picture framing), it was incorrectly grouped in the category of Christmas-only records. As a result, to this day radio stations seem to give it airplay only during the festive period. The song's release was preceded by an advertising campaign that, cheekily, declared it to be the band's third number one single, as if this was a fait accompli. The Band Aid project, for which Johnson recorded a message for the B-side, meant that FGTH managed only one week at the top this time before it was replaced by "Do They Know It's Christmas?". "Welcome to the Pleasuredome" The title track from FGTH's album, "Welcome to the Pleasuredome", was released as a fourth single in March 1985. Early promotional posters for the single cockily proclaimed it as "their fourth number one", even prior to the single's release. Embarrassingly, the single peaked at Number 2, leading to preemptive claims that the band was now on the decline. The snipers would eventually prove correct, but not for the alleged 'failure' of a Number 2 hit. The band's demise was, in the final analysis, attributable to increasing internal tensions and general disillusionment, suspected by some during 1985, but only becoming truly apparent during the group's 1986 public and much-heralded "return". The twelve inches were noted for their long Greek mythology/Samuel Taylor Coleridge spoken introduction by Geoffrey Palmer. Only one sole new track appeared in the next eighteen months; "Disneyland", was released on the ZTT Records "Zang Tuum Tumb Sampled" album in late 1985. Return and decline In 1986, FGTH appeared at the Montreux Rock Festival which was broadcast on UK television. This performance saw the first airings of two future singles, namely "Rage Hard" and "Warriors of the Wasteland". Both versions were different from the versions eventually released. In August 1986, the long-awaited new Frankie Goes to Hollywood single, "Rage Hard", was released, reaching number 4 in the UK. Initially showcased promotionally with songs like "Warriors of the Wasteland", the group's sound had developed a significantly harder edge with a less flamboyant, more nitty-gritty lyrical side. Whilst the single was inevitably promoted as a flagship ZTT product, Frankie's self-importance seemed somewhat forced and verging almost on self-parody by 1986. The corresponding album, Liverpool (originally rumoured to be titled "Liverpool ... let's make it a double"), released in October and reaching UK No. 5 was generally panned by the music press, and chart returns declined rapidly with the follow-up singles "Warriors of the Wasteland" (#19) and "Watching the Wildlife" (#28). The group meanwhile threatened to implode of its own accord, in the course of a sometimes poorly attended tour promoting the new album. Johnson kept himself markedly separate from the rest of the band when offstage at this period, tensions becoming exacerbated during a backstage altercation between Johnson and O'Toole at Wembley Arena in January 1987, reflecting the generally collapsing relationship between lead singer and the rest of the band. Things were so bad that fellow Liverpudlian singer Pete Wylie was approached to replace Johnson but declined the offer. FGTH would complete the tour, but Johnson ultimately left the group thereafter, citing musical estrangement. Aftermath In the aftermath of the group split, Johnson was offered a solo recording agreement with MCA Records. However, ZTT, which maintained they had invested heavily in Liverpool (to the extent that the digital recording system used to record the album was very nearly treated as a sixth member of the band on the sleeve of the "Warriors of the Wasteland" single), had other ideas, and promptly sued Johnson in an attempt to hold him to his original contract with the label. Among other things, ZTT believed that as a departing member of FGTH, Johnson was required to release all solo material through the label until the band's original multiple-album agreement was fulfilled. The suit was bitterly fought, exposing the inner workings of the ZTT/Frankie machine to a giddy UK music press. After two weeks, the High Court found in Johnson's favour, holding that the highly restrictive terms of the contract constituted an unreasonable restraint of trade. The result of the court case, which also effectively freed the remaining members of FGTH from their ZTT contract, became famous as an unprecedented victory for the artist over their corporate paymasters. Later years Johnson's solo career at MCA commenced in 1989, with a succession of high-placed singles and the number one album Blast. The remix collection Hollelujah followed, trailed by a second studio album Dreams That Money Can't Buy. However, Johnson's relations with MCA cooled with this release, and he would ultimately become a reclusive but successful painter, after announcing in 1993 that he was infected with HIV. The following year, Johnson recounted his version of Frankie's history in his autobiography A Bone in My Flute. His self-issued 1999 album Soulstream included a re-recording of "The Power of Love", which was also released as a single. Paul Rutherford, the other openly gay member of the band, released the partially ABC produced album Oh World and a handful of singles before retiring with his New Zealander partner to Waiheke Island. The 'other three', as Smash Hits labelled them, continued to work together in what turned out to be a vain attempt to resurrect "Frankie" with various singers. As "Nasher", Nash released a 2002 solo album entitled Ripe. Ped worked behind the scenes and scored a top ten hit with the group "Lovestation." Mark O'Toole moved to Florida and played with Punk outfit "Trapped By Mormons." The band's name lived on to the extent that re-issues of "Relax" and "The Power of Love" both returned to the UK Top 10 in 1993. Remixes of "The Power of Love" (which became a dance anthem from its original ballad format) and "Two Tribes" were Top 20 hits again in 1997, while "Welcome to the Pleasuredome" also got commercially successful remix treatment, to the extent of a Top 20 placing four years earlier. ZTT continues in its endeavours to keep the FGTH back-catalogue alive into the new century, with periodic reconfigurations, remasters, and further remixes by an ever-growing pool of dance producers, in an attempt to maintain a perceived tradition that began with the multiple variations of the "Relax" 12-inch issued in 1983. ZTT has tended to date (May 2006) to keep all images of the band absent from their remix artwork, and this absence has tended on the whole to extend to the content and spirit of their reissued product. The group's first two singles appeared sixth and 22nd respectively in the official all-time UK best-selling singles list issued in 2002. A band called "The New Frankie Goes to Hollywood" appeared, fronted by Davey Johnson, who claimed to be Holly Johnson's brother. The band plays a few Frankie tracks, but actually has nothing to do with FGTH. Likewise, "Davey Johnson" is no relative of Holly's. The band is also not to be confused with the FGTH conventions related to The Rocky Horror Picture Show. Reunion and comeback In 2003, the VH-1 program Bands Reunited brought Johnson, Rutherford, Gill, Nash, and Mark O'Toole together from the far corners of the world, in the hope of their agreeing to perform impromptu on the show. By all appearances, the bandmates got on well enough and enjoyed seeing each other again, but reunion performance did not eventually transpire. Both Johnson and Nash had reservations about performing at short notice in the contrived manner dictated by the TV show format. Nevertheless, in celebration of the 25th anniversary of Trevor Horn's involvement in the music industry, in 2004 a special concert took place at Wembley Arena in November, featuring three of the original FGTH line-up, Mark O'Toole, Peter (Ped) Gill and Paul Rutherford and another former member, Jed O'Toole. Original vocalist Johnson, who announced via the Internet that he would not be appearing, and guitarist Nash, who declined to appear for his own reasons, did not take part. Jed O'Toole took over guitar duties for the event, whilst an open audition was held for a new singer for the concert. Ryan Molloy was recruited as a result. The same lineup (with Molloy and Jed O'Toole, but without Johnson or Nash) reunited for a tour in 2005 playing festivals in Europe. They headlined at Faceparty's Big Gay Out festival at Hyde Park in London. After some confusion with ensuing tour dates, the band posted a warning on their website that many of the tour dates listed by ticket promoters were inaccurate. The band became increasingly focused on the release of a new album during 2007. However, in early April 2007 came the news that Gill, Rutherford, J. O'Toole and Molloy had formed Forbidden Hollywood to play their new songs alongside old FGTH material. This was to avoid legal issues with Holly Johnson over use of the Frankie Goes to Hollywood name. Former Frankie Goes to Hollywood members start new band: Forbidden Hollywood ibdbooking.de » Forbidden Hollywood Live dates were announced, but in June 2007, these were cancelled and the band collapsed with the departure of Molloy. ibdbooking.de » CANCELED: Forbidden Hollywood - Summer 2007 dates Forbidden Hollywood's management stated in mid-October 2007 that the band will be continuing, with an announcement expected in the near future. Band members Holly Johnson - lead vocals (1980–1987) Mark O'Toole - bass (1980–1987, 2004–2007) Jed O'Toole - bass, guitar (1980–1982, 2005–2007) Peter Gill - drums (1980–1987, 2004–2007) Brian Nash - guitar (1980–1987) Paul Rutherford - backing vocals, dancing (1980–1987, 2004–2007) Ryan Molloy - lead vocals (2004–2007) Discography Albums Original material Welcome to the Pleasuredome (1984) Liverpool (1986) Compilations Bang! (Japanese import) (1985) Bang!… The Greatest Hits of Frankie Goes to Hollywood (1994) Reload - The Whole 12 Inches (1994) Maximum Joy (2000) The Club Mixes 2000 (2000) Twelve Inches (2001) Rage Hard - The Sonic Collection (SACD Hybrid) (2003) DVD Compilation "Frankie Goes to Hollywood - Hard On!" (2001) featuring all their videos and exclusive interviews. Singles The original singles released during the time the band was together: "Relax" (three 12 versions, US Mix, 8 minute sex mix, 16 minute sex mix) (1983) "Two Tribes" (featuring four 12 inch versions, Carnage, Annihilation, War (Hidden) and Hibakusha) (1984) "The Power of Love" (plus an alternative Pleasurefix/StarFix 12 inch versions) (1984) "Welcome to the Pleasuredome" (twelve inches, Alternative to Reality and The Alternative) (1985) "Rage Hard" (three 12 inches, +, ++ and ultra-rare Freddie Bastone Remix) (1986) "Warriors of the Wasteland" (three twelve inches, Twelve Wild Deciples Mix, Turn of the Knife Mix and Attack) (1986) "Watching the Wildlife" (three twelve inches, Hotter, Movement 2 and Die Letzten Tage Der Menschheit Mix) (1987) Alternative Remixes To coincide with the release of Bang!… The Greatest Hits of Frankie Goes to Hollywood, the tracks "Welcome to the Pleasuredome" (1993) and "Two Tribes" (1994) were re-released in the UK as singles in remixed form. The tracks "Relax" (1994) and "The Power of Love" (1993) were also re-released, but this time in their original form (the CD singles both featured at least one of the original 1984 12 inch remixes). To coincide with the release of Maximum Joy in 2000, new remixes of "The Power of Love", "Two Tribes" and "Welcome to the Pleasuredome" all entered the UK charts. Lost tracks There are four tracks that were performed on demo tapes and on radio sessions that never made it to albums: "Junk Funk" (Peel Sessions 1983) "All Climb Up To Heaven" (1986 Liverpool demo) "Purple Haze" (1986 Liverpool demo) "Invade My Heart" (BBC Session 1983) Chart positions YearSingleChartsAlbumUKU.S.DEUAUTCHEFRASWENORPOLITANLDAUSNZL1983"Relax"11014121421815535Welcome to the Pleasuredome1984"Two Tribes"143191615141"The Power of Love"1452691985"Welcome to the Pleasuredome"291121986"Rage Hard"4112532198947Liverpool"Warriors of the Wasteland"1971313361987"Watching the Wildlife"282338 Computer game In 1985, a computer game entitled Frankie Goes to Hollywood was developed by Denton Designs and published by Ocean Software. Based on the band's music, imagery and slogans, the objective of the game was to explore the town of Mundanesville to find the Pleasuredome. References External links Frankie Goes to Hollywood Official Site Zang Tuum Tumb and all that FGTH and Alternate ZTT Board | Frankie_Goes_to_Hollywood |@lemmatized frankie:23 go:16 hollywood:18 fgth:18 english:1 dance:5 pop:4 band:32 extremely:1 popular:1 mid:2 liverpool:11 group:22 front:3 holly:6 johnson:26 vocal:5 support:2 paul:5 rutherford:7 keyboard:1 peter:4 gill:6 drum:2 percussion:1 mark:6 toole:15 bass:6 guitar:7 brian:5 nash:9 debut:2 single:34 relax:16 famously:1 ban:6 bbc:11 number:14 six:2 chart:16 subsequently:2 top:14 uk:16 five:2 consecutive:1 week:6 enjoy:2 prolonged:1 success:3 throughout:1 ultimately:4 become:10 seventh:1 best:4 selling:3 time:7 may:5 follow:5 two:21 tribe:13 power:10 love:10 second:2 act:3 history:2 reach:3 one:12 first:11 three:9 gerry:2 pacemaker:2 career:2 formation:1 b:2 side:3 explain:1 name:4 derive:1 page:1 new:15 yorker:1 magazine:2 feature:10 headline:3 picture:4 frank:1 sinatra:1 allegedly:1 original:12 date:6 nucleus:1 emerge:1 late:2 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town:1 mundanesville:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 site:1 alternate:1 board:1 |@bigram holly_johnson:5 drum_percussion:1 toole_bass:5 bass_guitar:2 best_selling:3 gerry_pacemaker:2 frank_sinatra:1 jed_toole:7 jed_cousin:1 arista_record:1 welcome_pleasuredome:9 trevor_horn:2 disc_jockey:1 bbc_news:1 ronald_reagan:1 konstantin_chernenko:1 nativity_scene:1 fait_accompli:1 promotional_poster:1 taylor_coleridge:1 rage_hard:5 warrior_wasteland:6 nitty_gritty:1 wembley_arena:2 infect_hiv:1 openly_gay:1 commercially_successful:1 davey_johnson:2 rocky_horror:1 hyde_park:1 backing_vocal:1 demo_tape:1 external_link:1 |
2,327 | Clive_Anderson | Clive Anderson (born 10 December 1952) is a former barrister, now famous for being a successful comedy writer as well as a radio and television presenter in the United Kingdom. Winner of a British Comedy Award in 1991, Clive Andersonawards at IMDB retrieved August 27 2007 Anderson began his success during his 15-year law career with stand-up comedy and comedic script writing, before starring in Whose Line Is It Anyway? on BBC Radio 4, then later, Channel 4. He was also successful with a number of radio programmes, television interviews and guest appearances on Have I Got News For You, Mock the Week and QI. Clive Anderson at BBC Radio 4 retrieved August 27 2007 Early life Anderson was educated at Stanburn Primary School and Harrow County School for Boys in Middlesex, where his group of friends included Michael Portillo. Anderson attended Selwyn College, Cambridge where, from 1974 to 1975, he was President of Footlights. He was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1976 and became a practising barrister, specialising in criminal law. Career Television Anderson was involved in the fledgling alternative comedy scene in the early 1980s and was the first act to come on stage at The Comedy Store when it opened in 1979. He made his name as host of the improvised television comedy show Whose Line Is It Anyway?, which was full of his rapid-fire wit as well as the show-ending catchphrase "This is me, Clive Anderson, saying good night. Good night." Anderson hosted his own chat-show, Clive Anderson Talks Back, on Channel 4, which ran for 10 series. Anderson moved to the BBC in 1996 and the show's name changed to Clive Anderson All Talk and was aired on BBC One. In one famous incident in 1997, Anderson interviewed the Bee Gees, and throughout the interview he repeatedly joked about their life and career, ultimately prompting them to walk out. Anderson once had a glass of water poured over his head by a perturbed Richard Branson. He also famously asked Jeffrey Archer, "Is there no beginning to your talents?" Archer retorted that "The old jokes are always the best," for Anderson to reply "Yes, I've read your books!" The last series of Clive Anderson All Talk aired in 2001. He has been a frequent participant on Have I Got News for You, notching up seven appearances in total. He has also frequently appeared on QI. In 2007, he featured as a regular panelist on the ITV comedy show News Knight. One of his most memorable exchanges on HIGNFY occurred when he scathingly joked to fellow guest Piers Morgan that the Daily Mirror was now, thanks to Morgan (then its editor), almost as good as The Sun. When asked by Morgan, "What do you know about editing newspapers?", he swiftly replied, "About as much as you do." As a journalist for the BBC, he travelled around the world looking at problems "in out-of-the-way places," though mostly arguing about whether they could film there. Our Man in... featured episodes on monkeywrenching in American logging and 419 scams in Nigeria. In 2005 he presented the short-lived Celador panel game, Back in the Day for Channel 4. In January 2008, he appeared on the second episode of Thank God You're Here and won. On February 25, 2008, he started presenting Brainbox Challenge, a new game show, for BBC Two. In 2008 he presented a reality TV talent show-themed television series produced by the BBC entitled Maestro, starring eight celebrities who are "famous amateurs with a passion for classical music." TV presenting Shows he has presented include: Clive Anderson Talks Back Our Man in… Whose Line Is It Anyway? Discovery Mastermind Back in the Day Clive Anderson All Talk Brainbox Challenge Maestro Radio Currently, he combines his continuing interest in the law with his role as a radio presenter in the regular series Unreliable Evidence on Radio 4. He also covered the Sunday morning 11 a.m.-1 p.m. show on BBC Radio 2 through the end of January 2008. He presented a Radio 4 programme, The Wikipedia Story, about Wikipedia and other encyclopedias, which featured Anderson making this correcting edit to Wikipedia's article on the UK politician Michael Portillo. It was announced in April 2008 that Anderson, who had previously filled in for host Ned Sherrin from 2006 until his death from throat cancer in 2007, would be taking over as permanent host of Loose Ends. He also hosts Clive Anderson's Chat Room on BBC Radio 2. Clive Anderson has appeared on BBC Radio 4's The Unbelievable Truth hosted by David Mitchell. He currently is presenting the 6th series of Clive Anderson's Chatroom. Comedy and newspaper writing Anderson is a comedy sketch writer who has written for Frankie Howerd, Not the Nine O'Clock News, and Griff Rhys Jones/Mel Smith. One of his early comedy writing projects was Black Cinderella Two Goes East with Rory McGrath for BBC Radio 4 in 1978. He is famous for his fast, nervous delivery and close-to-the-knuckle witticisms. As well as writing comedy, Anderson is also a frequent contributor to newspapers, and was a regular columnist in the Sunday Correspondent. Personal life Anderson lives in Highbury, north London, with his wife and three children; Isabella, Flora and Edmund. He supports Rangers and Arsenal, and is President of the Woodland Trust. Awards The show Whose Line is it Anyway? won a BAFTA award in 1990. Later, Clive Anderson won both the "Top Entertainment Presenter" and "Top Radio Comedy Personality" at the British Comedy Awards in 1991. References External links Video of Bee Gees interview on YouTube | Clive_Anderson |@lemmatized clive:13 anderson:26 born:1 december:1 former:1 barrister:2 famous:4 successful:2 comedy:13 writer:2 well:3 radio:13 television:5 presenter:3 united:1 kingdom:1 winner:1 british:2 award:4 andersonawards:1 imdb:1 retrieve:2 august:2 begin:2 success:1 year:1 law:3 career:3 stand:1 comedic:1 script:1 writing:1 star:2 whose:4 line:4 anyway:4 bbc:11 later:2 channel:3 also:6 number:1 programme:2 interview:4 guest:2 appearance:2 get:2 news:4 mock:1 week:1 qi:2 early:3 life:3 educate:1 stanburn:1 primary:1 school:2 harrow:1 county:1 boy:1 middlesex:1 group:1 friend:1 include:2 michael:2 portillo:2 attend:1 selwyn:1 college:1 cambridge:1 president:2 footlights:1 call:1 bar:1 middle:1 temple:1 become:1 practising:1 specialise:1 criminal:1 involve:1 fledgling:1 alternative:1 scene:1 first:1 act:1 come:1 stage:1 store:1 open:1 make:2 name:2 host:6 improvised:1 show:10 full:1 rapid:1 fire:1 wit:1 end:3 catchphrase:1 say:1 good:3 night:2 chat:2 talk:5 back:4 run:1 series:5 move:1 change:1 air:2 one:4 incident:1 bee:2 gee:2 throughout:1 repeatedly:1 joke:3 ultimately:1 prompt:1 walk:1 glass:1 water:1 pour:1 head:1 perturbed:1 richard:1 branson:1 famously:1 ask:2 jeffrey:1 archer:2 talent:2 retort:1 old:1 always:1 best:1 reply:2 yes:1 read:1 book:1 last:1 frequent:2 participant:1 notch:1 seven:1 total:1 frequently:1 appear:3 feature:2 regular:3 panelist:1 itv:1 knight:1 memorable:1 exchange:1 hignfy:1 occur:1 scathingly:1 fellow:1 pier:1 morgan:3 daily:1 mirror:1 thanks:1 editor:1 almost:1 sun:1 know:1 edit:2 newspaper:3 swiftly:1 much:1 journalist:1 travel:1 around:1 world:1 look:1 problem:1 way:1 place:1 though:1 mostly:1 argue:1 whether:1 could:1 film:1 man:2 featured:1 episode:2 monkeywrenching:1 american:1 logging:1 scam:1 nigeria:1 present:6 short:1 live:2 celador:1 panel:1 game:2 day:2 january:2 second:1 thank:1 god:1 win:3 february:1 start:1 brainbox:2 challenge:2 new:1 two:2 reality:1 tv:2 theme:1 produce:1 entitle:1 maestro:2 eight:1 celebrity:1 amateur:1 passion:1 classical:1 music:1 presenting:1 discovery:1 mastermind:1 currently:2 combine:1 continue:1 interest:1 role:1 unreliable:1 evidence:1 cover:1 sunday:2 morning:1 p:1 wikipedia:3 story:1 encyclopedia:1 correct:1 article:1 uk:1 politician:1 announce:1 april:1 previously:1 fill:1 ned:1 sherrin:1 death:1 throat:1 cancer:1 would:1 take:1 permanent:1 loose:1 room:1 unbelievable:1 truth:1 david:1 mitchell:1 chatroom:1 write:4 sketch:1 frankie:1 howerd:1 nine:1 clock:1 griff:1 rhys:1 jones:1 mel:1 smith:1 project:1 black:1 cinderella:1 go:1 east:1 rory:1 mcgrath:1 fast:1 nervous:1 delivery:1 close:1 knuckle:1 witticism:1 contributor:1 columnist:1 correspondent:1 personal:1 highbury:1 north:1 london:1 wife:1 three:1 child:1 isabella:1 flora:1 edmund:1 support:1 ranger:1 arsenal:1 woodland:1 trust:1 bafta:1 top:2 entertainment:1 personality:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 video:1 youtube:1 |@bigram clive_anderson:12 michael_portillo:2 bee_gee:2 richard_branson:1 jeffrey_archer:1 throat_cancer:1 chat_room:1 frankie_howerd:1 griff_rhys:1 rhys_jones:1 bafta_award:1 external_link:1 |
2,328 | Young_and_Innocent | Young and Innocent (U.S. title: The Girl Was Young) is a British film directed by Alfred Hitchcock and starring Nova Pilbeam, Derrick De Marney and John Longden. It is very loosely based on Josephine Tey's novel A Shilling for Candles (1936). Plot Pilbeam as Erica Burgoyne Christine Clay (Pamela Carme), an actress who owes her career to her husband, is severely criticized by him for playing around with other men. He makes particular reference to Robert Tisdall, a young man staying with (or at least near) them at their country retreat somewhere on the English coast. One night, Christine smacks her husband in the face. He keeps calm except for his eyes, which twitch uncontrollably, then proceeds to strangle her with the belt from a trenchcoat he has stolen. For some reason, he is not suspected by the police. Robert Tisdall (Derrick De Marney) happens to be walking along the seaside cliffs when Christine's body washes ashore. A belt is found next to the body. He runs to get help or call the police and is seen doing so by two young female swimmers. He is arrested and becomes the main suspect. His motive seems to be a large sum left to him in her will. Saddled with a hopelessly inadequate barrister, Tisdall doubts if his innocence will ever be established. He makes his escape in the crowded courthouse corridor. Tisdall gets a lift from Erica Burgoyne (Nova Pilbeam), daughter of the local police Chief Constable, in her dilapidated Morris car. They are spotted together, so the police suspect she is his accomplice. Tisdall tries to prove his innocence by tracking down the stolen coat. During their flight, they briefly stop at the home of Erica's aunt, where her seven year old daughter Felicity is having a birthday party (playing, among other games, Blind Man's Buff). Finally, in a lodging house frequented by tramps, Tisdall finds the man he has been searching for: Old Will (Edward Rigby), a sociable china-mender who is wearing Tisdall's coat. He agrees to help them find the man who gave him the coat, and thus clear Tisdall. Unfortunately, the twitching eyes are all that Old Will can remember about the man. In a pocket of the coat, they find a box of matches from the Grand Hotel, a place Tisdall has never been to. They go there in hopes of finding the murderer. In a memorably long, continuous sequence, the camera moves forward through the hotel ballroom to finally focus on the drummer in a dance band performing in blackface. Recognizing Old Will in the audience, and seeing policemen nearby (unaware that they are there to arrest Tisdall), the man performs poorly due to fear and is berated by the musical conductor. Then he has a nervous breakdown, exacerbated by a drug he has been taking to try to control the twitching, and passes out. Immediately after being revived, he confesses his crime and laughs. In the end, Robert Tisdall and Erica Burgoyne are united, with Erica's father smiling benevolently. Changes from the novel There were significant changes made in adapting the book for the film. The team of screenwriters took the main suspect of the novel, Robert Tisdall, and his unexpected, initially reluctant supporter, Erica Burgoyne, and left out all the other characters, including Tey's Inspector Alan Grant and even the original murderer (who is not the same character as in the film). In other words, the episode focusing on Tisdall as a fugitive from justice was elaborated and blown up into a full-length film, whereas the subplots and distractions of Tey's novel—which make it a whodunit—were omitted. Hitchcock's cameo Alfred Hitchcock cameo is a signature occurrence in almost all of Hitchcock's films. He can be seen outside the courthouse, holding a camera, at about 15 minutes into the film. References External links | Young_and_Innocent |@lemmatized young:4 innocent:1 u:1 title:1 girl:1 british:1 film:6 direct:1 alfred:2 hitchcock:4 star:1 nova:2 pilbeam:3 derrick:2 de:2 marney:2 john:1 longden:1 loosely:1 base:1 josephine:1 tey:3 novel:4 shilling:1 candle:1 plot:1 erica:6 burgoyne:4 christine:3 clay:1 pamela:1 carme:1 actress:1 owe:1 career:1 husband:2 severely:1 criticize:1 play:1 around:1 men:1 make:4 particular:1 reference:2 robert:4 tisdall:13 man:6 stay:1 least:1 near:1 country:1 retreat:1 somewhere:1 english:1 coast:1 one:1 night:1 smack:1 face:1 keep:1 calm:1 except:1 eye:2 twitch:1 uncontrollably:1 proceed:1 strangle:1 belt:2 trenchcoat:1 steal:2 reason:1 suspect:4 police:4 happen:1 walk:1 along:1 seaside:1 cliff:1 body:2 wash:1 ashore:1 find:5 next:1 run:1 get:2 help:2 call:1 see:3 two:1 female:1 swimmer:1 arrest:2 become:1 main:2 motive:1 seem:1 large:1 sum:1 leave:2 saddle:1 hopelessly:1 inadequate:1 barrister:1 doubt:1 innocence:2 ever:1 establish:1 escape:1 crowded:1 courthouse:2 corridor:1 lift:1 daughter:2 local:1 chief:1 constable:1 dilapidated:1 morris:1 car:1 spot:1 together:1 accomplice:1 try:2 prove:1 track:1 coat:4 flight:1 briefly:1 stop:1 home:1 aunt:1 seven:1 year:1 old:4 felicity:1 birthday:1 party:1 playing:1 among:1 game:1 blind:1 buff:1 finally:2 lodging:1 house:1 frequent:1 tramp:1 search:1 edward:1 rigby:1 sociable:1 china:1 mender:1 wear:1 agree:1 give:1 thus:1 clear:1 unfortunately:1 twitching:2 remember:1 pocket:1 box:1 match:1 grand:1 hotel:2 place:1 never:1 go:1 hope:1 murderer:2 memorably:1 long:1 continuous:1 sequence:1 camera:2 move:1 forward:1 ballroom:1 focus:2 drummer:1 dance:1 band:1 perform:2 blackface:1 recognize:1 audience:1 policeman:1 nearby:1 unaware:1 poorly:1 due:1 fear:1 berate:1 musical:1 conductor:1 nervous:1 breakdown:1 exacerbate:1 drug:1 take:2 control:1 pass:1 immediately:1 revive:1 confess:1 crime:1 laugh:1 end:1 unite:1 father:1 smile:1 benevolently:1 change:2 significant:1 adapt:1 book:1 team:1 screenwriter:1 unexpected:1 initially:1 reluctant:1 supporter:1 character:2 include:1 inspector:1 alan:1 grant:1 even:1 original:1 word:1 episode:1 fugitive:1 justice:1 elaborate:1 blow:1 full:1 length:1 whereas:1 subplots:1 distraction:1 whodunit:1 omit:1 cameo:2 signature:1 occurrence:1 almost:1 outside:1 hold:1 minute:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram alfred_hitchcock:2 nervous_breakdown:1 external_link:1 |
2,329 | Charybdis | In Greek mythology, Charybdis or Kharybdis (; in Greek, Χάρυβδις) was a sea monster, once a beautiful naiad and the daughter of Poseidon and Gaia. She takes form as a huge bladder of a creature whose face was all mouth and whose arms and legs were flippers and swallows huge amounts of water three times a day before belching them back out again, creating whirlpools. Charybdis was very loyal to her father in his endless feud with Zeus; it was she who rode the hungry tides after Poseidon had stirred up a storm, and led them onto the beaches, gobbling up whole villages, submerging fields, drowning forests, claiming them for the sea. She won so much land for her father's kingdom that Zeus became enraged and changed her into a monster. The myth has Charybdis lying on one side of a blue, narrow channel of water. On the other side of the strait was Scylla, another sea-monster. The two sides of the strait are within an arrow's range of each other, so close that sailors attempting to avoid Charybdis will pass too close to Scylla and vice versa. The phrase "between Scylla and Charybdis" has come to mean being in a state where one is between two dangers and moving away from one will cause you to be in danger of the other. "Between Scylla and Charybdis" is the origin of the phrase "between the rock and the whirlpool" (the rock upon which Scylla dwelt and the whirlpool of Charybdis) and may also be the genesis of the phrase "between a rock and a hard place". According to Thomas Bulfinch, based on writings of Homer, Charybdis stole the oxen of Geryon from Hermes, in whose possession they had been at the time, and was transformed into a sea monster as a punishment. In literature The Argonauts were able watch to avoid both dangers because they were guided by Thetis, one of the Nereids. Odysseus was not so fortunate; he chose to risk Scylla at the cost of some of his crew rather than lose the whole ship to Charybdis. (Homer's Odyssey, Book XII). Odysseus successfully navigated the strait, losing only six men to Scylla, but his men offended Helios by killing the god's sacred cattle. Zeus retaliated, at the behest of Helios, by destroying ship and crew (except Odysseus) with a thunderbolt. Stranded on a makeshift raft, Odysseus was swept back through the strait to face Scylla and Charybdis again. This time, Odysseus passed near Charybdis. His raft was sucked into Charybdis' maw, but Odysseus survived by clinging to a fig tree grown on the rock overhanging her lair. On the next outflow of water, his raft exploded and sank and was expelled, and Odysseus was able to recover it and paddle away. Torn Between Scylla and Charybdis is the name of a song performed by the Metal band Trivium. The phrase is also referenced in Sting's lyrics to Wrapped Around Your Finger by The Police. Charybis is referenced in Commentary! The Musical featured on the DVD version of Joss Whedon's Dr. Horrible's Sing-a-long Blog, in the song Heart Broken. Location Traditionally, the location of Charybdis has been associated with the Strait of Messina off the coast of Sicily, opposite the rock called Scylla. Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War, 4.24.5. The whirlpool there is caused by the meeting of currents but is seldom dangerous. Recently, Tim Severin looked again at the location and suggested this association was a misidentification and that a more likely origin for the story could be found close by Cape Skilla in northwestern Greece. References | Charybdis |@lemmatized greek:2 mythology:1 charybdis:14 kharybdis:1 χάρυβδις:1 sea:4 monster:4 beautiful:1 naiad:1 daughter:1 poseidon:2 gaia:1 take:1 form:1 huge:2 bladder:1 creature:1 whose:3 face:2 mouth:1 arm:1 leg:1 flipper:1 swallow:1 amount:1 water:3 three:1 time:3 day:1 belch:1 back:2 create:1 whirlpool:4 loyal:1 father:2 endless:1 feud:1 zeus:3 ride:1 hungry:1 tide:1 stir:1 storm:1 lead:1 onto:1 beach:1 gobble:1 whole:2 village:1 submerge:1 field:1 drown:1 forest:1 claim:1 win:1 much:1 land:1 kingdom:1 become:1 enraged:1 change:1 myth:1 lie:1 one:4 side:3 blue:1 narrow:1 channel:1 strait:5 scylla:10 another:1 two:2 within:1 arrow:1 range:1 close:3 sailor:1 attempt:1 avoid:2 pass:2 vice:1 versa:1 phrase:4 come:1 mean:1 state:1 danger:3 move:1 away:2 cause:2 origin:2 rock:5 upon:1 dwelt:1 may:1 also:2 genesis:1 hard:1 place:1 accord:1 thomas:1 bulfinch:1 base:1 writing:1 homer:2 steal:1 ox:1 geryon:1 hermes:1 possession:1 transform:1 punishment:1 literature:1 argonaut:1 able:2 watch:1 guide:1 thetis:1 nereid:1 odysseus:7 fortunate:1 choose:1 risk:1 cost:1 crew:2 rather:1 lose:2 ship:2 odyssey:1 book:1 xii:1 successfully:1 navigate:1 six:1 men:2 offend:1 helios:2 kill:1 god:1 sacred:1 cattle:1 retaliate:1 behest:1 destroy:1 except:1 thunderbolt:1 strand:1 makeshift:1 raft:3 sweep:1 near:1 suck:1 maw:1 survive:1 cling:1 fig:1 tree:1 grow:1 overhang:1 lair:1 next:1 outflow:1 explode:1 sink:1 expel:1 recover:1 paddle:1 torn:1 name:1 song:2 perform:1 metal:1 band:1 trivium:1 reference:3 sting:1 lyric:1 wrap:1 around:1 finger:1 police:1 charybis:1 commentary:1 musical:1 feature:1 dvd:1 version:1 joss:1 whedon:1 dr:1 horrible:1 sing:1 long:1 blog:1 heart:1 broken:1 location:3 traditionally:1 associate:1 messina:1 coast:1 sicily:1 opposite:1 call:1 thucydides:1 history:1 peloponnesian:1 war:1 meeting:1 current:1 seldom:1 dangerous:1 recently:1 tim:1 severin:1 look:1 suggest:1 association:1 misidentification:1 likely:1 story:1 could:1 find:1 cape:1 skilla:1 northwestern:1 greece:1 |@bigram vice_versa:1 scylla_charybdis:4 thomas_bulfinch:1 homer_odyssey:1 joss_whedon:1 peloponnesian_war:1 |
2,330 | Freikorps | The designation of Freikorps (German for "Free Corps") was originally applied to voluntary armies formed in German lands from the middle of the 18th century onwards. After World War I the term was used for the paramilitary organizations that sprang up around Weimar Germany and fought both for and against the state. First Freikorps The first freikorps were recruited by Frederick II of Prussia in the eighteenth century during the Seven Years' War. Other known freikorps appeared during the Napoleonic Wars and were led for example by Ferdinand von Schill and later Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow. The freikorps were regarded as unreliable by regular armies, so that they were mainly used as sentries and for minor duties. Post-World War I However, the meaning of the word changed over time. After 1918, the term was used for the paramilitary organizations that sprang up around Germany as soldiers returned in defeat from World War I. They were the key Weimar paramilitary groups active during that time. Many German veterans felt disconnected from civilian life, and joined a Freikorps in search of stability within a military structure. Others, angry at their sudden, apparently inexplicable defeat, joined up in an effort to put down Communist uprisings or exact some form of revenge (see Dolchstoßlegende). They received considerable support from Minister of Defense Gustav Noske, a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, who used them to crush the German Revolution and the Marxist Spartacist League, including the murder of Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg on 15 January 1919. They were also used to defeat the Bavarian Soviet Republic in 1919. On 5 May 1919 twelve workers (most of them members of the Social Democratic Party, SPD) were arrested and killed by members of Freikorps Lützow in Perlach near Munich based on a tip from a local cleric saying they were communists. A memorial on Pfanzeltplatz in Munich today commemorates this atrocity. Morris, Justice Imperiled: The Anti-Nazi Lawyer Max Hirschberg in Weimar Germany Freikorps Lützow in the Axis History Factbook Freikorps also fought in the Baltic, Silesia, and Prussia after the end of World War I, sometimes with significant success. Though officially 'disbanded' in 1920, many Freikorps attempted, unsuccessfully, to overthrow the government in the Kapp Putsch in March 1920. Their attack was halted when German citizens that were loyal to the state went on strike, cutting off many services, and making daily life so problematic that the Putsch was called off. In 1920, Adolf Hitler had just begun his political career as the leader of the tiny and as-yet-unknown German Workers Party (soon renamed the National Socialist German Workers Party, NSDAP) in Munich. Numerous future members and leaders of the Nazi Party had served in the Freikorps, including Ernst Röhm, future head of the Sturmabteilung, or SA, and Rudolf Höß, the future Kommandant of the Auschwitz concentration camp. Hermann Ehrhardt, founder and leader of Marinebrigade Ehrhardt, and his deputy Commander Eberhard Kautter, leaders of the Viking League, refused to help Hitler and Erich von Ludendorff in their Beer Hall Putsch and conspired against them. Relations with Hitler Freikorps leaders symbolically gave their old battle flags to Hitler's Sturmabteilung and Schutzstaffel on November 9, 1933 in a huge ceremony. Waite, p 197 Historian Robert Waite claims that Hitler had many problems with the Freikorps. Many of the Freikorps had joined the SA, so when the Night of the Long Knives came, they were among those targeted for killing or arrest, including Ehrhardt and Röhm. He claims that in Hitler's 'Rohm Purge' speech to the Reichstag on July 13, 1934, the third group of "pathological enemies of the state" that Hitler lists are, in fact, the Freikorps fighters. Hitler talks of the revolutionaries of 1918, who wanted permanent revolution, hated all authority, and were nihilistic. Waite, pg 280 - 281. See also the full text of the speech at http://members dot tripod dot com/~Comicism/340713.html In 1939, during the Polish September Campaign, Freikorps Ebbinghaus, a sabotage unit, consisting of German Silesians, was created to operate behind the frontlines. Having failed in most of its tasks, however, it was relegated to normal military duties, before being disbanded later that year. Blanke, pg 229, from Google Books Notable Freikorps members Rudolph Berthold Martin Bormann-NSDAP Politican Wilhelm Canaris-Admiral Kurt Daluege SS General Oskar Dirlewanger-SS Colonel Richard Glücks-SS General Arthur Greiser-SS General Reinhard Heydrich-SS General Hans Hinkel-SS Officer Heinrich Himmler-Leader of the SS Read, pg 46 Rudolf Hoess-Commandant of Auschwitz Hoess et al., pg 201 Hans Kammler-SS General Wilhelm Keitel-Field Marshal Erich Koch - NSDAP leader for East Prussia Wilhelm Friedrich Loeper SS General Hans-Adolf Prützmann SS General Beppo Römer KPD Member Albert Leo Schlageter Julius Schreck SS Leader Hugo Sperrle Luftwaffe General Felix Steiner-SS General Gregor Strasser NSDAP Member Franz Ritter von Epp NSDAP Reichsstatthalter, for Bavaria Wolf-Heinrich Graf von Helldorf SA member Manfred Freiherr von Killinger Bolko von Richthofen Ernst von Salomon SA member Walther Wenck German Army General Notable Freikorps Volunteer Division of Horse Guards (Garde-Kavallerie-Schützendivision) murdered Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, Jan 19, 1919 Waite, pg 62 led by Captain Pabst Waite, pg 62 disbanded on order of Defense Minister Gustav Noske, Jul 7, 1919, after Pabst threatened to kill him Waite, pg 145 Freikorps Maercker (Maercker's Volunteer Rifles, or Freiwillingen Landesjagerkorps) Waite, pg 33-37 had Reinhard Heydrich as a member Mueller, p 61 founded by Ludwig Maercker Freikorps Roßbach (Rossbach) founded by Gerhard Roßbach rescued the Iron Division after a 12,000 mile march. Waite, pg 131, 132 Marinebrigade Ehrhardt (The Second Naval Brigade) participated in the Kapp Putsch of 1920 Waite, pg 140-142 disbanded members eventually formed the Organisation Consul, which performed hundreds of political assassinations Waite, pg 203, 216 Iron Division (Eiserne Division, related to Eiserne Brigade) Fought in the Baltic. Got trapped in Thorensberg by the Latvian Army. Was rescued by the Rossbach Freikorps. Waite, pg 131, 132 See also Freikorps in the Baltic References Bibliography Blanke, Richard. Orphans of Versailles: The Germans in Western Poland, 1918-1939 , University Press of Kentucky, 1993, ISBN 081311803 Hoess, Rudolf. Constantine Fitzgibbon, and Primo Levi. Commandant of Auschwitz: The Autobiography of Rudolf Hoess, Sterling Publishing Co., 2000. Translated by Constantine Fitzgibbon, Joachim Neugroschel. ISBN 1842120247, 9781842120248 Morris, Douglas G. Justice Imperiled: The Anti-Nazi Lawyer Max Hirschberg in Weimar Germany, 2005, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 047211476X Mueller, Michael. Canaris, Naval Institute Press, 2007 Read, Anthony. The Devil's Disciples: Hitler's Inner Circle, W. W. Norton & Company, 2004. ISBN 0393048004, 9780393048001 Waite, Robert G L. Vanguard of Nazism, 1969, W W Norton & Co Notes External links Axis History Factbook; Freikorps section – By Marcus Wendel and contributors; site also contains an apolitical forum Freikorps Master list on Axis History Forum {reference only} | Freikorps |@lemmatized designation:1 freikorps:24 german:10 free:1 corp:1 originally:1 apply:1 voluntary:1 army:4 form:3 land:1 middle:1 century:2 onwards:1 world:4 war:6 term:2 use:5 paramilitary:3 organization:2 spring:2 around:2 weimar:4 germany:5 fought:2 state:3 first:2 recruit:1 frederick:1 ii:1 prussia:3 eighteenth:1 seven:1 year:2 known:1 appear:1 napoleonic:1 lead:2 example:1 ferdinand:1 von:8 schill:1 later:2 ludwig:2 adolf:3 wilhelm:4 lützow:3 regard:1 unreliable:1 regular:1 mainly:1 sentry:1 minor:1 duty:2 post:1 however:2 meaning:1 word:1 change:1 time:2 soldier:1 return:1 defeat:3 key:1 group:2 active:1 many:5 veteran:1 felt:1 disconnect:1 civilian:1 life:2 join:3 search:1 stability:1 within:1 military:2 structure:1 others:1 angry:1 sudden:1 apparently:1 inexplicable:1 effort:1 put:1 communist:2 uprising:1 exact:1 revenge:1 see:3 dolchstoßlegende:1 receive:1 considerable:1 support:1 minister:2 defense:2 gustav:2 noske:2 member:12 social:2 democratic:2 party:5 crush:1 revolution:2 marxist:1 spartacist:1 league:2 include:3 murder:2 karl:2 liebknecht:2 rosa:2 luxemburg:2 january:1 also:5 bavarian:1 soviet:1 republic:1 may:1 twelve:1 worker:3 spd:1 arrest:2 kill:3 perlach:1 near:1 munich:3 base:1 tip:1 local:1 cleric:1 say:1 memorial:1 pfanzeltplatz:1 today:1 commemorate:1 atrocity:1 morris:2 justice:2 imperil:2 anti:2 nazi:3 lawyer:2 max:2 hirschberg:2 axis:3 history:3 factbook:2 fight:1 baltic:3 silesia:1 end:1 sometimes:1 significant:1 success:1 though:1 officially:1 disband:4 attempt:1 unsuccessfully:1 overthrow:1 government:1 kapp:2 putsch:4 march:2 attack:1 halt:1 citizen:1 loyal:1 go:1 strike:1 cut:1 service:1 make:1 daily:1 problematic:1 call:1 hitler:9 begin:1 political:2 career:1 leader:8 tiny:1 yet:1 unknown:1 soon:1 rename:1 national:1 socialist:1 nsdap:5 numerous:1 future:3 serve:1 ernst:2 röhm:2 head:1 sturmabteilung:2 sa:4 rudolf:4 höß:1 kommandant:1 auschwitz:3 concentration:1 camp:1 hermann:1 ehrhardt:4 founder:1 marinebrigade:2 deputy:1 commander:1 eberhard:1 kautter:1 viking:1 refuse:1 help:1 erich:2 ludendorff:1 beer:1 hall:1 conspire:1 relation:1 symbolically:1 give:1 old:1 battle:1 flag:1 schutzstaffel:1 november:1 huge:1 ceremony:1 waite:12 p:2 historian:1 robert:2 claim:2 problem:1 night:1 long:1 knife:1 come:1 among:1 target:1 rohm:1 purge:1 speech:2 reichstag:1 july:1 third:1 pathological:1 enemy:1 list:2 fact:1 fighter:1 talk:1 revolutionary:1 want:1 permanent:1 hat:1 authority:1 nihilistic:1 pg:12 full:1 text:1 http:1 dot:2 tripod:1 com:1 comicism:1 html:1 polish:1 september:1 campaign:1 ebbinghaus:1 sabotage:1 unit:1 consist:1 silesians:1 create:1 operate:1 behind:1 frontlines:1 fail:1 task:1 relegate:1 normal:1 blanke:2 google:1 book:1 notable:2 rudolph:1 berthold:1 martin:1 bormann:1 politican:1 canaris:2 admiral:1 kurt:1 daluege:1 general:10 oskar:1 dirlewanger:1 colonel:1 richard:2 glücks:1 arthur:1 greiser:1 reinhard:2 heydrich:2 han:3 hinkel:1 ss:3 officer:1 heinrich:2 himmler:1 read:2 hoe:4 commandant:2 et:1 al:1 kammler:1 keitel:1 field:1 marshal:1 koch:1 east:1 friedrich:1 loeper:1 prützmann:1 beppo:1 römer:1 kpd:1 albert:1 leo:1 schlageter:1 julius:1 schreck:1 hugo:1 sperrle:1 luftwaffe:1 felix:1 steiner:1 gregor:1 strasser:1 franz:1 ritter:1 epp:1 reichsstatthalter:1 bavaria:1 wolf:1 graf:1 helldorf:1 manfred:1 freiherr:1 killinger:1 bolko:1 richthofen:1 salomon:1 walther:1 wenck:1 volunteer:2 division:4 horse:1 guard:1 garde:1 kavallerie:1 schützendivision:1 jan:1 captain:1 pabst:2 order:1 jul:1 threaten:1 maercker:3 rifle:1 freiwillingen:1 landesjagerkorps:1 mueller:2 found:2 roßbach:2 rossbach:2 gerhard:1 rescue:2 iron:2 mile:1 second:1 naval:2 brigade:2 participate:1 eventually:1 organisation:1 consul:1 perform:1 hundred:1 assassination:1 eiserne:2 relate:1 get:1 trap:1 thorensberg:1 latvian:1 reference:2 bibliography:1 orphan:1 versailles:1 western:1 poland:1 university:2 press:3 kentucky:1 isbn:4 constantine:2 fitzgibbon:2 primo:1 levi:1 autobiography:1 sterling:1 publishing:1 co:2 translate:1 joachim:1 neugroschel:1 douglas:1 g:2 michigan:1 michael:1 institute:1 anthony:1 devil:1 disciple:1 inner:1 circle:1 w:4 norton:2 company:1 l:1 vanguard:1 nazism:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 section:1 marcus:1 wendel:1 contributor:1 site:1 contain:1 apolitical:1 forum:2 master:1 |@bigram rosa_luxemburg:2 adolf_hitler:1 sturmabteilung_sa:1 rudolf_höß:1 concentration_camp:1 erich_von:1 hall_putsch:1 waite_pg:9 martin_bormann:1 wilhelm_canaris:1 reinhard_heydrich:2 heinrich_himmler:1 rudolf_hoe:2 commandant_auschwitz:2 et_al:1 wilhelm_friedrich:1 gregor_strasser:1 ritter_von:1 freiherr_von:1 von_richthofen:1 primo_levi:1 w_norton:2 external_link:1 |
2,331 | Garry_Trudeau | Garretson Beekman Trudeau (born July 21, 1948) is an American cartoonist, best known for the Doonesbury comic strip. Background and education Trudeau was born in New York City, the son of Jean Douglas (née Moore) and Francis Berger Trudeau. He is the great-grandson of Dr. Edward Livingston Trudeau, who created the world-famous Adirondack Cottage Sanitorium for the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis at Saranac Lake, New York State. Edward was succeeded by his son Francis and grandson Francis Jr. The latter founded the Trudeau Institute at Saranac Lake, with which his son Garry retains a connection. The Trudeau Institute,Trudeau Institute Raised in Saranac Lake, Garry Trudeau attended St. Paul's School in Concord, New Hampshire. He enrolled in Yale University in 1966 and later became a member of Scroll and Key. Garry was confident that his major would end up being theatre, but he discovered a greater interest in art design. A drawing by Trudeau of famous Yale quarterback Brian Dowling for the Yale Daily News led to the creation of a comic strip for the paper, Bull Tales, the progenitor of Doonesbury. Charlie Rose - GARRY TRUDEAU, Charlie Rose October 11, 2004, Uploaded on August 27, 2007 on Youtube Garry continued his studies with postgraduate work at the Yale School of Art, earning his M.F.A. in graphic design in 1973. Creative works In 1970, Garry's creation of Doonesbury was syndicated by the newly formed Universal Press Syndicate. Today Doonesbury is syndicated to almost 1,400 newspapers worldwide and is accessible online in association with Slate Magazine at doonesbury.com. In 1975, he became the first comic strip artist to win a Pulitzer, traditionally awarded to editorial-page cartoonists. He was also a Pulitzer finalist in 1990. He was nominated for an Oscar in 1977 in the category of Animated Short Film, for The Doonesbury Special, in collaboration with John Hubley and Faith Hubley. The Doonesbury Special eventually won the Cannes Film Festival Jury Special Prize in 1978. Other awards include the National Cartoonist Society Newspaper Comic Strip Award in 1994, and the Reuben Award in 1995. He was made a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1993. Wiley Miller, fellow comic-strip artist responsible for Non Sequitur, called Trudeau "far and away the most influential editorial cartoonist in the last 25 years." In addition to his work on Doonesbury, Trudeau has teamed up with Elizabeth Swados and written plays (such as Rap Master Ronnie and Doonesbury: A Musical Comedy). In 1988, Trudeau joined forces with director Robert Altman for the HBO miniseries Tanner '88 and the Sundance Channel miniseries sequel Tanner on Tanner in 2004. In 1996, Newsweek and the Washington Post speculated that Trudeau penned the novel Primary Colors, which was later revealed to have been written by Joe Klein. Private life He married the journalist Jane Pauley in 1980. They have three children - Ross, Rachel, and Thomas – and live in New York City. He is distantly related to the late former Canadian prime minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau (via common ancestor Étienne Trudeau). Trudeau maintains a low personal profile. A rare and early appearance on television was as a guest on To Tell the Truth in 1971, where all but one of the panelists failed to guess his identity. Trudeau granted an interview with Rolling Stone in 2004 in which he discussed his time at Yale University, which he attended two years behind George W. Bush. In 2006, The Washington Post printed an article that writer Gene Weingarten called the "first extensive profile of him (Trudeau) in the 36 years since he began the comic strip." Doonesbury's War, Washington Post, October 22, 2006 He has also appeared on the Charlie Rose television program, and at signings for his Doonesbury book about B.D.'s struggle with injuries received during the second Gulf War. "Doonesbury" & Private Lupo, Pentagon Channel, Uploaded September 27, 2006 on Youtube Criticisms & controversies In August 2001, Trudeau and The Guardian both fell for a report by the fictional "Lovenstein Institute" that stated that President George W. Bush had the lowest IQ (91) of any president in the past 50 years, and that former president Bill Clinton had exactly twice the IQ of Bush. The Guardian published an article while Trudeau published a comic strip based on the given information. Both later realized they had fallen for the hoax, and both made public retractions. Lovenstein Institute Presidential IQ Report Hoaxes That Occurred in September, 2001 Text of the Lovenstein Institute Email In 2004, Trudeau made a widely-circulated offer of a $10,000 reward (in the form of a gift to the USO in the winner's name) for proof that George W. Bush fulfilled his military duties in the 1970s. (See George W. Bush military service controversy for more complete coverage). As of September 2008, no one has collected on the offer. Bibiliography Non-Doonesbury publications Hitler Moves East: A Graphic Chronicle, 1941-43 (with David Levinthal), Sheed, Andrews and McMeel, 1977. Library of Congress 76-52888. The cover shows two Wehrmacht motorcyclists. The book relates the story of Nazi Germany's Army Group Centre on the Eastern Front through archival photos and new photography of model soldiers. ISBN 0-8362-0708-4 Finding Your Religion: When the Faith You Grew Up With Has Lost Its Meaning, by Scotty McLennan. Trudeau wrote the introduction and drew the cover cartoon. Doonesbury.com's The Sandbox: Dispatches from Troops in Iraq and Afghanistan, Andrews McMeel Publishing (October 1, 2007), ISBN 0740769456 ISBN 978-0740769450. Blogs by soldiers in Iraq and Afghanistan. References External links Doonesbury.com Profile on Garry Trudeau Charlie Rose Interview with Garry Trudeau NCS Awards Rolling Stone interview Army Times interview 2006 Army Times article Mother Jones interview Phill Jupitus BBC interview Guardian article | Garry_Trudeau |@lemmatized garretson:1 beekman:1 trudeau:25 bear:2 july:1 american:2 cartoonist:4 best:1 know:1 doonesbury:15 comic:7 strip:7 background:1 education:1 new:5 york:3 city:2 son:3 jean:1 douglas:1 née:1 moore:1 francis:3 berger:1 great:2 grandson:2 dr:1 edward:2 livingston:1 create:1 world:1 famous:2 adirondack:1 cottage:1 sanitorium:1 treatment:1 pulmonary:1 tuberculosis:1 saranac:3 lake:3 state:2 succeed:1 jr:1 latter:1 found:1 institute:6 garry:8 retain:1 connection:1 raise:1 attend:2 st:1 paul:1 school:2 concord:1 hampshire:1 enrol:1 yale:5 university:2 later:3 become:2 member:1 scroll:1 key:1 confident:1 major:1 would:1 end:1 theatre:1 discover:1 interest:1 art:3 design:2 drawing:1 quarterback:1 brian:1 dowling:1 daily:1 news:1 lead:1 creation:2 paper:1 bull:1 tale:1 progenitor:1 charlie:4 rise:4 october:3 upload:2 august:2 youtube:2 continue:1 study:1 postgraduate:1 work:3 earn:1 f:1 graphic:2 creative:1 syndicate:3 newly:1 form:2 universal:1 press:1 today:1 almost:1 newspaper:2 worldwide:1 accessible:1 online:1 association:1 slate:1 magazine:1 com:3 first:2 artist:2 win:2 pulitzer:2 traditionally:1 award:5 editorial:2 page:1 also:2 finalist:1 nominate:1 oscar:1 category:1 animate:1 short:1 film:2 special:3 collaboration:1 john:1 hubley:2 faith:2 eventually:1 cannes:1 festival:1 jury:1 prize:1 include:1 national:1 society:1 reuben:1 make:3 fellow:2 academy:1 science:1 wiley:1 miller:1 responsible:1 non:2 sequitur:1 call:2 far:1 away:1 influential:1 last:1 year:4 addition:1 team:1 elizabeth:1 swados:1 write:3 play:1 rap:1 master:1 ronnie:1 musical:1 comedy:1 join:1 force:1 director:1 robert:1 altman:1 hbo:1 miniseries:2 tanner:3 sundance:1 channel:2 sequel:1 newsweek:1 washington:3 post:3 speculate:1 pen:1 novel:1 primary:1 color:1 reveal:1 joe:1 klein:1 private:2 life:1 marry:1 journalist:1 jane:1 pauley:1 three:1 child:1 ross:1 rachel:1 thomas:1 live:1 distantly:1 relate:2 late:1 former:2 canadian:1 prime:1 minister:1 pierre:1 elliott:1 via:1 common:1 ancestor:1 étienne:1 maintain:1 low:2 personal:1 profile:3 rare:1 early:1 appearance:1 television:2 guest:1 tell:1 truth:1 one:2 panelist:1 fail:1 guess:1 identity:1 grant:1 interview:6 roll:2 stone:2 discuss:1 time:3 two:2 behind:1 george:4 w:4 bush:5 print:1 article:4 writer:1 gene:1 weingarten:1 extensive:1 since:1 begin:1 war:2 appear:1 program:1 signing:1 book:2 b:1 struggle:1 injury:1 receive:1 second:1 gulf:1 lupo:1 pentagon:1 september:3 criticism:1 controversy:2 guardian:3 fell:1 report:2 fictional:1 lovenstein:3 president:3 iq:3 past:1 bill:1 clinton:1 exactly:1 twice:1 publish:2 base:1 give:1 information:1 realize:1 fall:1 hoax:2 public:1 retraction:1 presidential:1 occur:1 text:1 email:1 widely:1 circulate:1 offer:2 reward:1 gift:1 uso:1 winner:1 name:1 proof:1 fulfil:1 military:2 duty:1 see:1 service:1 complete:1 coverage:1 collect:1 bibiliography:1 publication:1 hitler:1 move:1 east:1 chronicle:1 david:1 levinthal:1 sheed:1 andrew:1 mcmeel:2 library:1 congress:1 cover:2 show:1 wehrmacht:1 motorcyclist:1 story:1 nazi:1 germany:1 army:3 group:1 centre:1 eastern:1 front:1 archival:1 photo:1 photography:1 model:1 soldier:2 isbn:3 find:1 religion:1 grow:1 lose:1 meaning:1 scotty:1 mclennan:1 introduction:1 draw:1 cartoon:1 sandbox:1 dispatch:1 troop:1 iraq:2 afghanistan:2 andrews:1 publishing:1 blog:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 ncs:1 mother:1 jones:1 phill:1 jupitus:1 bbc:1 |@bigram comic_strip:7 garry_trudeau:4 cannes_film:1 reuben_award:1 non_sequitur:1 editorial_cartoonist:1 robert_altman:1 distantly_relate:1 prime_minister:1 elliott_trudeau:1 roll_stone:2 w_bush:4 bill_clinton:1 andrew_mcmeel:1 external_link:1 |
2,332 | Cost-push_inflation | Aggregate Supply-Aggregate Demand model illustration of aggregate supply (AS) shifting to AS' and causing price level to increase while output shrinks Cost-push inflation is a type of inflation caused by substantial increases in the cost of important goods or services where no suitable alternative is available. A situation that has been often cited of this was the oil crisis of the 1970s, which some economists see as a major cause of the inflation experienced in the Western world in that decade. It is argued that this inflation resulted from increases in the cost of petroleum imposed by the member states of OPEC. Since petroleum is so important to industrialised economies, a large increase in its price can lead to the increase in the price of most products, raising the inflation rate. This can raise the normal or built-in inflation rate, reflecting adaptive expectations and the price/wage spiral, so that a supply shock can have persistent effects. Keynesians argue that in a modern industrial economy, many prices are sticky downward or downward inflexible, so that instead of prices falling in this story, a supply shock would cause a recession, i.e., rising unemployment and falling gross domestic product. It is the costs of such a recession that likely causes governments and central banks to allow a supply shock to result in inflation. They also note that though there was no deflation in the 1980s, there was a definite fall in the inflation rate during this period. Actual deflation was prevented because supply shocks are not the only cause of inflation; in terms of the modern triangle model of inflation, supply-driven deflation was counteracted by demand pull inflation and built-in inflation resulting from adaptive expectations and the price/wage spiral. Monetarist economists such as Milton Friedman argue against the concept of cost-push inflation because increases in the cost of goods and services do not lead to inflation without the government and its central bank cooperating in increasing the money supply. The argument is that if the money supply is constant, increases in the cost of a good or service will decrease the money available for other goods and services, and therefore the price of some those goods will fall and offset the rise in price of those goods whose prices have increased. One consequence of this is that monetarist economists do not believe that the rise in the cost of oil was a direct cause of the inflation of the 1970s. They argue that although the price of oil went back down in the 1980s, there was no corresponding deflation. Cost Push Inflation and the Global economic slowdown The world economy is slowing down, particularly in the OECD countries. This is blamed mainly on the credit crisis, and the prices of raw materials. The price of oil increased by 40% in just a year, reaching a peak of almost $140 a barrel in July 2008 (BBC News).Other raw materials such as wheat and steel saw similar increases. This means that costs increased for manufacturers who use these raw materials in production. Transportation and energy for industry and the service sector will also cost more as oil and gas increase in price. The result is a huge increase in business costs, and this cost is often passed on to the consumer, and so we have cost push inflation. There has been evidence of businesses shedding jobs in order to cut costs, and a number of airlines such as Silverjet have gone out of business as a result of high fuel prices. See also Inflation Stagflation Demand pull inflation Built-in inflation External links Cost push inflation as found on infocheese.com | Cost-push_inflation |@lemmatized aggregate:3 supply:9 demand:3 model:2 illustration:1 shift:1 cause:7 price:15 level:1 increase:14 output:1 shrink:1 cost:16 push:5 inflation:21 type:1 substantial:1 important:2 good:6 service:5 suitable:1 alternative:1 available:2 situation:1 often:2 cite:1 oil:5 crisis:2 economist:3 see:2 major:1 experience:1 western:1 world:2 decade:1 argue:4 result:5 petroleum:2 impose:1 member:1 state:1 opec:1 since:1 industrialised:1 economy:3 large:1 lead:2 product:2 raise:2 rate:3 normal:1 build:3 reflect:1 adaptive:2 expectation:2 wage:2 spiral:2 shock:4 persistent:1 effect:1 keynesian:1 modern:2 industrial:1 many:1 sticky:1 downward:2 inflexible:1 instead:1 fall:4 story:1 would:1 recession:2 e:1 rise:3 unemployment:1 gross:1 domestic:1 likely:1 government:2 central:2 bank:2 allow:1 also:3 note:1 though:1 deflation:4 definite:1 period:1 actual:1 prevent:1 term:1 triangle:1 driven:1 counteract:1 pull:2 monetarist:2 milton:1 friedman:1 concept:1 without:1 cooperate:1 money:3 argument:1 constant:1 decrease:1 therefore:1 offset:1 whose:1 one:1 consequence:1 believe:1 direct:1 although:1 go:2 back:1 corresponding:1 global:1 economic:1 slowdown:1 slow:1 particularly:1 oecd:1 country:1 blame:1 mainly:1 credit:1 raw:3 material:3 year:1 reach:1 peak:1 almost:1 barrel:1 july:1 bbc:1 news:1 wheat:1 steel:1 saw:1 similar:1 mean:1 manufacturer:1 use:1 production:1 transportation:1 energy:1 industry:1 sector:1 gas:1 huge:1 business:3 pass:1 consumer:1 evidence:1 shed:1 job:1 order:1 cut:1 number:1 airline:1 silverjet:1 high:1 fuel:1 stagflation:1 external:1 link:1 find:1 infocheese:1 com:1 |@bigram adaptive_expectation:2 gross_domestic:1 milton_friedman:1 economic_slowdown:1 raw_material:3 bbc_news:1 external_link:1 |
2,333 | Mabon_ap_Modron | Mabon ap Modron is a figure of Welsh mythology, the son of Modron. Both he and his mother were likely deities in origin, decending from a divine mother-son pair. His name is related to the Romano-British god Maponos, whose name means "divine son"; Modron, in turn, is likely related to the Gaulish goddess Dea Matrona. Mabon was a common name in medieval Wales, and it is difficult to determine whether the various references to Mabons in poetry and the Triads are to the same character. The most important appearance of Mabon ap Modron is in the prose tale Culhwch and Olwen, associated with the Mabinogion and perhaps authored around 1100. King Arthur's men must recruit Mabon to fulfill the demands of Ysbaddaden the giant before he will allow his daughter Olwen marry the protagonist Culhwch. Mabon is the only one who can hunt with the dog Drudwyn, in turn the only dog who can track the great boar Twrch Trwyth. However, Mabon has been missing since he was three nights old, when unknown intruders stole him from between his mother and the wall. Arthur determines that he and his men will find and rescue Mabon. Mabon's whereabouts are unknown even to Britain's oldest and wisest animals, but finally Arthur's followers are led to the Salmon of Llyn Llyw, the oldest animal of all. The enormous salmon carries Arthur's men Cei and Bedwyr downstream to Mabon's prison in Gloucester; they hear him through the walls, singing a lamentation for his fate. The rest of Arthur's men launch an assault on the front of the prison, while Cei and Bedwyr sneak in the back and rescue Mabon. Mabon subsequently participates in the hunt for the Twrch Trywth Etymology The name Mabon is derived from the Common Brythonic and Gaulish deity Maponos. Similarly, Modron is derived from Common Brythonic and Gaulish deity Matrona. The language changes creating the Middle Welsh form are: dropping of masculine singular -os and feminine singular -a endings p > b a > o t > d These changes are discussed in Sims-Williams (2003). The name Mabon has special connections to Hadrian's Wall where a cult of Apollo Maponos was practised by the Roman soldiers based there. References Sims-Williams, Patrick (2003) The Celtic Inscriptions of Britain: phonology and chronology, c.400-1200 Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-0903-3 | Mabon_ap_Modron |@lemmatized mabon:13 ap:2 modron:5 figure:1 welsh:2 mythology:1 son:3 mother:3 likely:2 deity:3 origin:1 decending:1 divine:2 pair:1 name:5 relate:2 romano:1 british:1 god:1 maponos:3 whose:1 mean:1 turn:2 gaulish:3 goddess:1 dea:1 matrona:2 common:3 medieval:1 wale:1 difficult:1 determine:1 whether:1 various:1 reference:2 mabons:1 poetry:1 triad:1 character:1 important:1 appearance:1 prose:1 tale:1 culhwch:2 olwen:2 associate:1 mabinogion:1 perhaps:1 author:1 around:1 king:1 arthur:5 men:4 must:1 recruit:1 fulfill:1 demand:1 ysbaddaden:1 giant:1 allow:1 daughter:1 marry:1 protagonist:1 one:1 hunt:2 dog:2 drudwyn:1 track:1 great:1 boar:1 twrch:2 trwyth:1 however:1 miss:1 since:1 three:1 night:1 old:3 unknown:2 intruder:1 steal:1 wall:3 determines:1 find:1 rescue:2 whereabouts:1 even:1 britain:2 wise:1 animal:2 finally:1 follower:1 lead:1 salmon:2 llyn:1 llyw:1 enormous:1 carry:1 cei:2 bedwyr:2 downstream:1 prison:2 gloucester:1 hear:1 sing:1 lamentation:1 fate:1 rest:1 launch:1 assault:1 front:1 sneak:1 back:1 subsequently:1 participate:1 trywth:1 etymology:1 derive:2 brythonic:2 similarly:1 language:1 change:2 create:1 middle:1 form:1 dropping:1 masculine:1 singular:2 feminine:1 endings:1 p:1 b:1 discuss:1 sims:2 williams:2 special:1 connection:1 hadrian:1 cult:1 apollo:1 practise:1 roman:1 soldier:1 base:1 patrick:1 celtic:1 inscription:1 phonology:1 chronology:1 c:1 oxford:1 blackwell:1 isbn:1 |@bigram tale_culhwch:1 culhwch_olwen:1 feminine_singular:1 sims_williams:2 oxford_blackwell:1 |
2,334 | Keystone_Cops | The Keystone Cops in a typical pose in The Gangsters (1913). The desk officer using the telephone is Ford Sterling. The policeman directly behind Sterling (in extreme background, left) is Edgar Kennedy. The hefty policeman at extreme right is Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle. The young constable with bulging eyes, fourth from right, is Arbuckle's nephew Al St. John. The casting of the Keystone police force changed from one film to the next; many of the individual members were per-diem actors who remain unidentifiable. The Keystone Cops was a series of silent film comedies about a totally incompetent group of policemen. The movies were produced by Mack Sennett, for his Keystone Film Company, between 1912 and 1917. The idea came from Hank Mann, who also played police chief Tehiezel in the first film before being replaced by Ford Sterling. Their first film was Hoffmeyer's Legacy (1912), but their popularity stemmed from the 1913 short, The Bangville Police, starring Mabel Normand. As early as 1914, Sennett shifted the Keystone Cops from starring roles to background ensemble, in support of comedians like Charlie Chaplin and Fatty Arbuckle. The Keystone Cops serve as supporting players for Marie Dressler, Mabel Normand, and Chaplin in the first full-length Sennett comedy feature, Tillie's Punctured Romance (1914), as well as in Mabel's New Hero (1913) with Normand and Arbuckle, Making a Living (1914) with Chaplin in his first screen appearance (pre-Tramp), In the Clutches of the Gang (1914) with Normand, Arbuckle, and Al St. John, and Wished on Mabel (1915) with Arbuckle and Normand, among others. Mack Sennett's Keystone film studio always used the spelling "Cops" whenever publicizing their films, never "Kops", as some more recent secondary sources have rendered the name. No contemporary citation of the "Kop" spelling has ever surfaced, whereas film historian Kalton C. Lahue and others have found many documents issued by the Keystone studio which retain the spelling "Cop". Universal Pictures, however, changed the spelling to "Kops" in 1955 for the feature Abbott and Costello Meet the Keystone Kops-which starred Sennett in a cameo role. Revivals Mack Sennett continued to use the Keystone Cops intermittently through the 1920s. By the time sound movies arrived, the Keystone Cops' popularity had waned. In 1935, director Ralph Staub staged a revival of the Sennett gang for his Warner Brothers short subject Keystone Hotel, featuring a re-creation of the Cops clutching at their hats, leaping in the air in surprise, running energetically in any direction, and taking extreme pratfalls. This footage has been used countless times in later productions purporting to use silent-era material. The Staub version of the Keystone Cops became a template for later re-creations. 20th Century Fox's 1939 feature. Hollywood Cavalcade had Buster Keaton in a Keystone chase scene. However, during his own silent film career, the nearest Keaton had appeared in a "police comedy" was The Goat (1921) and Cops (1922). Abbott and Costello Meet the Keystone Kops (1955) included a lengthy chase scene, showcasing a group of stuntmen dressed as Sennett's squad. (An original Keystone Cop in this movie was Heinie Conklin.) Mel Brooks directed a Keystone Cops-type car chase in his comedy film, Silent Movie. By the 1950s, any surviving silent-movie comedian might be pressed into service as a Keystone Cop, regardless of whether he appeared with the troupe authentically. In the This Is Your Life TV tribute to Mack Sennett, several Sennett alumni ran on stage -- dressed as Keystone Cops. "Keystone Cops" in popular usage The term has since come to be used to criticize any group for its mistakes, particularly if the mistakes happened after a great deal of energy and activity, or if there was a lack of coordination among the members of the group. For example, the June 2004 election campaign of the Liberal Party of Canada was compared with "the Keystone Cops running around" by one of its parliamentary members, Carolyn Parrish. In criticizing the Department of Homeland Security's response to Hurricane Katrina, Senator Joseph Lieberman claimed that emergency workers under DHS chief Michael Chertoff "ran around like Keystone Cops, uncertain about what they were supposed to do or uncertain how to do it" Another example is a statement by Peter Beattie, Premier of the Australian state of Queensland, on the counter-terrorism investigation into Gold Coast doctor Mohamed Haneef in July 2007. After the Australian Federal Police committed a series of blunders, the Premier likened their actions to those of the "Keystone Cops". Representative John Dingell (D-Michigan), Chairman of the House and Energy Committee likened the government's response to the 2008 salmonella outbreak to an episode of Keystone Cops. The Keystone Cops re-emerge every year in the town of Cedar Springs, Michigan during their Red Flannel Festival, and also in Sitka, Alaska during the annual Alaska Day festival. The Police Academy movies that began in 1984 are frequently considered a modern day version of the Keystone Cops. In the first season of The West Wing, in the episode In Excelsis Deo, the White House Chief of Staff's character Leo McGarry refers to Sam Seaborn and Josh Lyman as the Keystone Cops. In Ian McEwan's Enduring Love, the actions of the police are described as 'Keystone Kops style'. In the film Con Air, DEA agent Duncan Malloy, on an angry tirade about the incompetence of the prison guards, accuses Vince Larkin of running a "Keystone Cops" operation. In an episode ("Syzygy") of the US Television series The X-Files, a Keystone Cops movie is showing on all of the channels on Mulder and Scully's hotel room TV. It is also shown on every TV in the video game which the series inspired, The X-Files: The Game. In an episode of Batman (TV series) had a brief segment of "Keystone Cops" silent movie. Ironically this episode had two silent movie actors in speaking parts-Neil Hamilton (actor) and Francis X. Bushman. In sport, the term has come into common usage by television commentators, particularly in the United Kingdom and Ireland. The rugby commentator Liam Toland uses the term to describe a team's incompetent performance on the pitch. The phrase 'Keystone cops defending' has become a favourite catchphrase for describing a situation in an English soccer match where a defensive error, or series of defensive errors lead to a goal. http://angleofpostandbar.blogspot.com/2007/03/art-of-defending.html Video games In 1983, a video game called Keystone Kapers was released for the Atari 2600 and 5200. Playing as Keystone Cop Officer Kelly, your object is to stop would-be robber Hooligan Harry from escaping Southwick's Mall. The game, which became a hit, was produced by Activision. The Keystone Cops also appear in the computer game NetHack, usually when the player steals from one of the shops. They are more dangerous than their cinematic inspiration, however; they typically surround the player's character so escape is impossible, and then mercilessly beat the player with rubber hoses from all directions, while temporarily blinding the player with cream pie. External links: Movies featuring the Keystone Cops Hoffmeyer's Legacy (1912) The Bangville Police (1913) with Mabel Normand The Gangsters (1913) with Roscoe Arbuckle, Ford Sterling, and Al St. John Barney Oldfield's Race for a Life (1913) with Mabel Normand Mabel's New Hero (1913) with Mabel Normand and Roscoe Arbuckle Making a Living (1914) (Available to watch/download from the Internet Archive) with Charles Chaplin Tillie's Punctured Romance (1914) (Available to watch/download from the Internet Archive) with Marie Dressler, Mabel Normand, and Charles Chaplin In the Clutches of the Gang (1914) with Roscoe Arbuckle, Mabel Normand, and Al St. John The Noise of Bombs (1914) with Edgar Kennedy as police chief Love, Loot and Crash (1915) (Available to watch/download from the Internet Archive) with Charley Chase Wished on Mabel (1915) with Roscoe Arbuckle and Mabel Normand Love, Speed and Thrills (1915) (Available to watch/download from the Internet Archive) with Mack Swain, Minta Durfee, and Chester Conklin References Further reading Jeanine Basinger (1999), chapter on Keystone Cops (also covers Mabel Normand) in Silent Stars, (ISBN 0-8195-6451-6). See also Chester Conklin Heinie Conklin Jimmy Finlayson | Keystone_Cops |@lemmatized keystone:37 cop:30 typical:1 pose:1 gangster:2 desk:1 officer:2 use:7 telephone:1 ford:3 sterling:4 policeman:3 directly:1 behind:1 extreme:3 background:2 leave:1 edgar:2 kennedy:2 hefty:1 right:2 roscoe:5 fatty:2 arbuckle:10 young:1 constable:1 bulge:1 eye:1 fourth:1 nephew:1 al:4 st:4 john:5 casting:1 police:9 force:1 change:2 one:3 film:11 next:1 many:2 individual:1 member:3 per:1 diem:1 actor:3 remain:1 unidentifiable:1 series:6 silent:8 comedy:4 totally:1 incompetent:2 group:4 movie:10 produce:2 mack:5 sennett:10 company:1 idea:1 come:3 hank:1 mann:1 also:6 play:2 chief:4 tehiezel:1 first:5 replace:1 hoffmeyer:2 legacy:2 popularity:2 stem:1 short:2 bangville:2 star:4 mabel:13 normand:12 early:1 shift:1 role:2 ensemble:1 support:2 comedian:2 like:2 charlie:1 chaplin:5 serve:1 player:5 marie:2 dressler:2 full:1 length:1 feature:5 tillie:2 puncture:2 romance:2 well:1 new:2 hero:2 make:2 living:2 screen:1 appearance:1 pre:1 tramp:1 clutch:3 gang:3 wish:2 among:2 others:2 studio:2 always:1 spell:1 whenever:1 publicize:1 never:1 kops:5 recent:1 secondary:1 source:1 render:1 name:1 contemporary:1 citation:1 kop:1 spelling:3 ever:1 surface:1 whereas:1 historian:1 kalton:1 c:1 lahue:1 find:1 document:1 issue:1 retain:1 universal:1 picture:1 however:3 abbott:2 costello:2 meet:2 cameo:1 revival:2 continue:1 intermittently:1 time:2 sound:1 arrive:1 wan:1 director:1 ralph:1 staub:2 stag:1 warner:1 brother:1 subject:1 hotel:2 creation:2 hat:1 leap:1 air:2 surprise:1 run:5 energetically:1 direction:2 take:1 pratfall:1 footage:1 countless:1 late:1 production:1 purport:1 era:1 material:1 version:2 become:3 template:1 later:1 century:1 fox:1 hollywood:1 cavalcade:1 buster:1 keaton:2 chase:4 scene:2 career:1 near:1 appear:3 goat:1 include:1 lengthy:1 showcasing:1 stuntmen:1 dress:2 squad:1 original:1 heinie:2 conklin:4 mel:1 brook:1 direct:1 type:1 car:1 survive:1 might:1 press:1 service:1 regardless:1 whether:1 troupe:1 authentically:1 life:2 tv:4 tribute:1 several:1 alumnus:1 stage:1 popular:1 usage:2 term:3 since:1 criticize:2 mistake:2 particularly:2 happen:1 great:1 deal:1 energy:2 activity:1 lack:1 coordination:1 example:2 june:1 election:1 campaign:1 liberal:1 party:1 canada:1 compare:1 around:2 parliamentary:1 carolyn:1 parrish:1 department:1 homeland:1 security:1 response:2 hurricane:1 katrina:1 senator:1 joseph:1 lieberman:1 claim:1 emergency:1 worker:1 dhs:1 michael:1 chertoff:1 uncertain:2 suppose:1 another:1 statement:1 peter:1 beattie:1 premier:2 australian:2 state:1 queensland:1 counter:1 terrorism:1 investigation:1 gold:1 coast:1 doctor:1 mohamed:1 haneef:1 july:1 federal:1 commit:1 blunder:1 liken:2 action:2 representative:1 dingell:1 michigan:2 chairman:1 house:2 committee:1 government:1 salmonella:1 outbreak:1 episode:5 emerge:1 every:2 year:1 town:1 cedar:1 spring:1 red:1 flannel:1 festival:2 sitka:1 alaska:2 annual:1 day:2 academy:1 begin:1 frequently:1 consider:1 modern:1 season:1 west:1 wing:1 excelsis:1 deo:1 white:1 staff:1 character:2 leo:1 mcgarry:1 refers:1 sam:1 seaborn:1 josh:1 lyman:1 ian:1 mcewan:1 endure:1 love:3 describe:3 style:1 con:1 dea:1 agent:1 duncan:1 malloy:1 angry:1 tirade:1 incompetence:1 prison:1 guard:1 accuse:1 vince:1 larkin:1 operation:1 syzygy:1 u:1 television:2 x:3 file:2 cops:1 show:2 channel:1 mulder:1 scully:1 room:1 video:3 game:6 inspire:1 batman:1 brief:1 segment:1 ironically:1 two:1 speaking:1 part:1 neil:1 hamilton:1 francis:1 bushman:1 sport:1 common:1 commentator:2 united:1 kingdom:1 ireland:1 rugby:1 liam:1 toland:1 team:1 performance:1 pitch:1 phrase:1 defend:1 favourite:1 catchphrase:1 situation:1 english:1 soccer:1 match:1 defensive:2 error:2 lead:1 goal:1 http:1 angleofpostandbar:1 blogspot:1 com:1 art:1 defending:1 html:1 call:1 kapers:1 release:1 atari:1 kelly:1 object:1 stop:1 would:1 robber:1 hooligan:1 harry:1 escape:2 southwick:1 mall:1 hit:1 activision:1 computer:1 nethack:1 usually:1 steal:1 shop:1 dangerous:1 cinematic:1 inspiration:1 typically:1 surround:1 impossible:1 mercilessly:1 beat:1 rubber:1 hose:1 temporarily:1 blind:1 cream:1 pie:1 external:1 link:1 barney:1 oldfield:1 race:1 available:4 watch:4 download:4 internet:4 archive:4 charles:2 noise:1 bomb:1 loot:1 crash:1 charley:1 speed:1 thrill:1 swain:1 minta:1 durfee:1 chester:2 reference:1 far:1 read:1 jeanine:1 basinger:1 chapter:1 cover:1 isbn:1 see:1 jimmy:1 finlayson:1 |@bigram keystone_cop:26 fatty_arbuckle:2 mack_sennett:4 mabel_normand:9 charlie_chaplin:1 abbott_costello:2 buster_keaton:1 mel_brook:1 hurricane_katrina:1 counter_terrorism:1 chief_staff:1 ian_mcewan:1 blogspot_com:1 cream_pie:1 external_link:1 roscoe_arbuckle:4 |
2,335 | Darwinism | Charles Darwin in 1868 Darwinism is a term used for various movements or concepts related to ideas of transmutation of species or evolution, including ideas with no connection to the work of Charles Darwin. The meaning of Darwinism has changed over time, and varies depending on who is using the term. In modern usage, particularly in the United States, Darwinism is often used by creationists as a pejorative term. The term was coined by Thomas Henry Huxley in April 1860, and was used to describe evolutionary concepts, including earlier concepts such as Malthusianism and Spencerism. In the late 19th century it came to mean the concept that natural selection was the sole mechanism of evolution, in contrast to Lamarckism, then around 1900 it was eclipsed by Mendelism until the modern evolutionary synthesis unified Darwin's and Gregor Mendel's ideas. As modern evolutionary theory has developed, the term has been associated at times with specific ideas. While the term has remained in use amongst scientific authors, it is increasingly regarded as an inappropriate description of modern evolutionary theory For example, Darwin was unfamiliar with the work of Gregor Mendel , having as a result only a vague and inaccurate understanding of heredity, and knew nothing of genetic drift. Darwinism in the 19th Century As "Darwinism" became widely accepted in the 1870s, caricatures of Charles Darwin with an ape or monkey body symbolised evolution. While the term Darwinism had been used previously to refer to the work of Erasmus Darwin in the late 18th century, the term as understood today was introduced when Charles Darwin's 1859 book On the Origin of Species was reviewed by Thomas Henry Huxley in the April 1860 issue of the Westminster Review. Having hailed the book as, "a veritable Whitworth gun in the armoury of liberalism" promoting scientific naturalism over theology, and praising the usefulness of Darwin's ideas while expressing professional reservations about Darwin's gradualism and doubting if it could be proved that natural selection could form new species, Huxley compared Darwin's achievement to that of Copernicus in explaining planetary motion: "Darwinism" soon came to stand for an entire range of evolutionary (and often revolutionary) philosophies about both biology and society. One of the more prominent approaches was that summed in the phrase "survival of the fittest" by the philosopher Herbert Spencer, which was later taken to be emblematic of Darwinism even though Spencer's own understanding of evolution was more similar to that of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck than to that of Darwin, and predated the publication of Darwin's theory. What is now called "Social Darwinism" was, in its day, synonymous with "Darwinism" — the application of Darwinian principles of "struggle" to society, usually in support of anti-philanthropic political agendas. Another interpretation, one notably favoured by Darwin's half-cousin Francis Galton, was that Darwinism implied that because natural selection was apparently no longer working on "civilized" people it was possible for "inferior" strains of people (who would normally be filtered out of the gene pool) to overwhelm the "superior" strains, and voluntary corrective measures would be desirable — the foundation of eugenics. In Darwin's day there was no rigid definition of the term "Darwinism", and it was used by opponents and proponents of Darwin's biological theory alike to mean whatever they wanted it to in a larger context. The ideas had international influence, and Ernst Haeckel developed what was known as Darwinismus in Germany, although, like Spencer Haeckel's "Darwinism" had only a rough resemblance to the theory of Charles Darwin, and was not centered on natural selection at all. While the reaction against Darwin's ideas is nowadays often thought to have been widespread immediately, in 1886 Alfred Russel Wallace went on a lecture tour across the United States, starting in New York and going via Boston, Washington, Kansas, Iowa and Nebraska to California, lecturing on what he called Darwinism without any problems. Other uses The term Darwinism is often used in the United States by promoters of creationism, notably by leading members of the intelligent design movement to describe evolution. In this usage, the term has connotations of atheism. For example, in Charles Hodge's book What Is Darwinism?, Hodge answers the question posed in the book's title by concluding: "It is Atheism." Creationists use the term Darwinism, often pejoratively, to imply that the theory has been held as true only by Darwin and a core group of his followers, whom they cast as dogmatic and inflexible in their belief. Casting evolution as a doctrine or belief bolsters religiously motivated political arguments to mandate equal time for the teaching of creationism in public schools. However, Darwinism is also used neutrally within the scientific community to distinguish modern evolutionary theories from those first proposed by Darwin, as well as by historians to differentiate it from other evolutionary theories from around the same period. For example, Darwinism may be used to refer to Darwin's proposed mechanism of natural selection, in comparison to more recent mechanisms such as genetic drift and gene flow. It may also refer specifically to the role of Charles Darwin as opposed to others in the history of evolutionary thought — particularly contrasting Darwin's results with those of earlier theories such as Lamarckism or later ones such as the modern synthesis. In the United Kingdom the term retains its positive sense as a reference to natural selection, and for example Richard Dawkins wrote in his collection of essays A Devil's Chaplain, published in 2003, that as a scientist he is a Darwinist. Sheahen, Laura. Religion: For Dummies. BeliefNet.com, interview about 2003 book. See also Modern evolutionary synthesis Neo-Darwinism Neural Darwinism Social Darwinism Darwin Awards Pangenesis - Charles Darwin's hypothetical mechanism for heredity Universal Darwinism Footnotes References External links Universal Darwinism Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry What is Darwinism The Darwinian Revolution sp:Darwinismo | Darwinism |@lemmatized charles:8 darwin:24 darwinism:25 term:13 use:12 various:1 movement:2 concept:4 relate:1 idea:7 transmutation:1 specie:3 evolution:6 include:2 connection:1 work:4 meaning:1 change:1 time:3 varies:1 depend:1 modern:7 usage:2 particularly:2 united:4 state:3 often:5 creationists:2 pejorative:1 coin:1 thomas:2 henry:2 huxley:3 april:2 describe:2 evolutionary:9 early:2 malthusianism:1 spencerism:1 late:2 century:3 come:2 mean:2 natural:6 selection:6 sole:1 mechanism:4 contrast:2 lamarckism:2 around:2 eclipse:1 mendelism:1 synthesis:3 unify:1 gregor:2 mendel:2 theory:9 develop:2 associate:1 specific:1 remain:1 amongst:1 scientific:3 author:1 increasingly:1 regard:1 inappropriate:1 description:1 example:4 unfamiliar:1 result:2 vague:1 inaccurate:1 understanding:2 heredity:2 know:2 nothing:1 genetic:2 drift:2 become:1 widely:1 accept:1 caricature:1 ape:1 monkey:1 body:1 symbolise:1 previously:1 refer:3 erasmus:1 understood:1 today:1 introduce:1 book:5 origin:1 review:2 issue:1 westminster:1 hail:1 veritable:1 whitworth:1 gun:1 armoury:1 liberalism:1 promote:1 naturalism:1 theology:1 praise:1 usefulness:1 express:1 professional:1 reservation:1 gradualism:1 doubt:1 could:2 prove:1 form:1 new:2 compare:1 achievement:1 copernicus:1 explain:1 planetary:1 motion:1 soon:1 stand:1 entire:1 range:1 revolutionary:1 philosophy:2 biology:1 society:2 one:3 prominent:1 approach:1 sum:1 phrase:1 survival:1 fit:1 philosopher:1 herbert:1 spencer:3 later:2 take:1 emblematic:1 even:1 though:1 similar:1 jean:1 baptiste:1 lamarck:1 predate:1 publication:1 call:2 social:2 day:2 synonymous:1 application:1 darwinian:2 principle:1 struggle:1 usually:1 support:1 anti:1 philanthropic:1 political:2 agenda:1 another:1 interpretation:1 notably:2 favour:1 half:1 cousin:1 francis:1 galton:1 imply:2 apparently:1 longer:1 civilize:1 people:2 possible:1 inferior:1 strain:2 would:2 normally:1 filter:1 gene:2 pool:1 overwhelm:1 superior:1 voluntary:1 corrective:1 measure:1 desirable:1 foundation:1 eugenics:1 rigid:1 definition:1 opponent:1 proponent:1 biological:1 alike:1 whatever:1 want:1 large:1 context:1 international:1 influence:1 ernst:1 haeckel:2 darwinismus:1 germany:1 although:1 like:1 rough:1 resemblance:1 center:1 reaction:1 nowadays:1 think:1 widespread:1 immediately:1 alfred:1 russel:1 wallace:1 go:2 lecture:2 tour:1 across:1 start:1 york:1 via:1 boston:1 washington:1 kansa:1 iowa:1 nebraska:1 california:1 without:1 problem:1 promoter:1 creationism:2 lead:1 member:1 intelligent:1 design:1 connotation:1 atheism:2 hodge:2 answer:1 question:1 pose:1 title:1 conclude:1 pejoratively:1 hold:1 true:1 core:1 group:1 follower:1 cast:2 dogmatic:1 inflexible:1 belief:2 doctrine:1 bolster:1 religiously:1 motivate:1 argument:1 mandate:1 equal:1 teaching:1 public:1 school:1 however:1 also:3 neutrally:1 within:1 community:1 distinguish:1 first:1 propose:2 well:1 historian:1 differentiate:1 period:1 may:2 comparison:1 recent:1 flow:1 specifically:1 role:1 oppose:1 others:1 history:1 thought:1 kingdom:1 retain:1 positive:1 sense:1 reference:2 richard:1 dawkins:1 write:1 collection:1 essay:1 devil:1 chaplain:1 publish:1 scientist:1 darwinist:1 sheahen:1 laura:1 religion:1 dummy:1 beliefnet:1 com:1 interview:1 see:1 neo:1 neural:1 award:1 pangenesis:1 hypothetical:1 universal:2 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 stanford:1 encyclopedia:1 entry:1 revolution:1 sp:1 darwinismo:1 |@bigram charles_darwin:7 gregor_mendel:2 genetic_drift:2 erasmus_darwin:1 planetary_motion:1 herbert_spencer:1 jean_baptiste:1 baptiste_lamarck:1 francis_galton:1 ernst_haeckel:1 alfred_russel:1 russel_wallace:1 intelligent_design:1 richard_dawkins:1 devil_chaplain:1 beliefnet_com:1 external_link:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1 |
2,336 | Foreign_relations_of_Guyana | After independence in 1966, Guyana sought an influential role in international affairs, particularly among Third World and non-aligned nations. It served twice on the UN Security Council (1975–76 and 1982–83). Former Vice President, Deputy Prime Minister, and Attorney General Mohamed Shahabuddeen served a 9-year term on the International Court of Justice (1987–96). Guyana has diplomatic relations with a wide range of nations. The European Union (EU), the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), the UN Development Programme (UNDP), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the Organization of American States (OAS) have offices in Georgetown. Guyana strongly supports the concept of regional integration. It played an important role in the founding of the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), but its status as the organization's poorest member limits its ability to exert leadership in regional activities. Guyana has sought to keep foreign policy in close alignment with the consensus of CARICOM members, especially in voting in the UN, OAS, and other international organizations. In 1993, Guyana ratified the 1988 Vienna Convention on illicit traffic in narcotic drugs and cooperates with U.S. law enforcement agencies on counter-narcotics efforts. Two neighbours have longstanding territorial disputes with Guyana. Since the 19th century, Venezuela has claimed all of Guyana west of the Essequibo River — 62% of Guyana's territory. At a meeting in Geneva in 1966, the two countries agreed to receive recommendations from a representative of the UN Secretary General on ways to settle the dispute peacefully. Diplomatic contacts between the two countries and the Secretary General's representative continue. Neighbouring Suriname also claims the territory east of Guyana's New River, a largely uninhabited area of some 15,000 square kilometres (6,000 square miles) in southeast Guyana. Guyana and Suriname also disputed their offshore maritime boundaries. This dispute flared up in June 2000 in response to an effort by a Canadian company to drill for oil under a Guyanese concession. Guyana regards its legal title to all of its territory as sound. However, the dispute with Suriname was arbitrated by the United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea and a ruling in favor of Guyana was announced in September, 2007. Welcome to guyanachronicle.com Guyana to experience ‘massive' oil exploration this year Business: News in the Caribbean - Caribbean360.com Guyana is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98). Disputes - international All of the area west of the Essequibo River claimed by Venezuela; Suriname claims area east of the New Upper Courantyne. Illicit drugs Transshipment point for narcotics from South America - primarily Venezuela - to Europe and the United States; producer of cannabis. Relations by country Country Formal Relations BeganNotesSee Barbados–Guyana relationsSee Brazil–Guyana relations1964See Canada–Guyana relationsSee Guyana – United States relations See also Diplomatic missions of Guyana List of diplomatic missions in Guyana References and notes | Foreign_relations_of_Guyana |@lemmatized independence:1 guyana:21 seek:2 influential:1 role:2 international:5 affair:1 particularly:1 among:1 third:1 world:2 non:1 align:1 nation:3 serve:2 twice:1 un:4 security:1 council:1 former:1 vice:1 president:1 deputy:1 prime:1 minister:1 attorney:1 general:3 mohamed:1 shahabuddeen:1 year:2 term:1 court:2 justice:1 diplomatic:4 relation:4 wide:1 range:1 european:1 union:1 eu:1 inter:1 american:2 development:2 bank:1 idb:1 programme:1 undp:1 health:1 organization:4 state:3 oas:2 office:1 georgetown:1 strongly:1 support:1 concept:1 regional:2 integration:1 play:1 important:1 founding:1 caribbean:2 community:1 common:1 market:1 caricom:2 status:1 poor:1 member:3 limit:1 ability:1 exert:1 leadership:1 activity:1 keep:1 foreign:1 policy:1 close:1 alignment:1 consensus:1 especially:1 vote:1 ratify:1 vienna:1 convention:2 illicit:2 traffic:1 narcotic:3 drug:2 cooperates:1 u:2 law:2 enforcement:1 agency:1 counter:1 effort:2 two:3 neighbour:1 longstanding:1 territorial:1 dispute:6 since:1 century:1 venezuela:3 claim:4 west:2 essequibo:2 river:3 territory:3 meeting:1 geneva:1 country:4 agree:1 receive:1 recommendation:1 representative:2 secretary:2 way:1 settle:1 peacefully:1 contact:1 continue:1 neighbouring:1 suriname:4 also:4 east:2 new:2 largely:1 uninhabited:1 area:3 square:2 kilometre:1 mile:1 southeast:1 offshore:1 maritime:1 boundary:1 flare:1 june:1 response:1 canadian:1 company:1 drill:1 oil:2 guyanese:1 concession:1 regard:1 legal:1 title:1 sound:1 however:1 arbitrate:1 united:3 sea:1 ruling:1 favor:1 announce:1 september:1 welcome:1 guyanachronicle:1 com:2 experience:1 massive:1 exploration:1 business:1 news:1 criminal:1 bilateral:1 immunity:1 agreement:1 protection:1 military:1 cover:1 article:1 upper:1 courantyne:1 transshipment:1 point:1 south:1 america:1 primarily:1 europe:1 producer:1 cannabis:1 formal:1 begannotessee:1 barbados:1 relationssee:2 brazil:1 canada:1 see:1 mission:2 list:1 reference:1 note:1 |@bigram vice_president:1 prime_minister:1 diplomatic_relation:1 bank_idb:1 programme_undp:1 narcotic_drug:1 enforcement_agency:1 essequibo_river:2 square_kilometre:1 guyana_suriname:1 bilateral_immunity:1 illicit_drug:1 diplomatic_mission:2 |
2,337 | Mondegreen | A mondegreen is the mishearing or misinterpretation of a phrase, typically a standardized phrase such as a line in a poem or a lyric in a song, due to near homophony, in a way that yields a new meaning to the phrase. The Word Detective: "Green grow the lyrics" Retrieved on 2008-07-17 It should not be confused with Soramimis, which are songs that produce different meanings than those originally intended, when interpreted in another language. Etymology The American writer Sylvia Wright coined the term mondegreen in her essay "The Death of Lady Mondegreen," which was published in Harper's Magazine in November 1954. Drawings by Bernarda Bryson. Reprinted in: Contains the essays "The Death of Lady Mondegreen" and "The Quest of Lady Mondegreen." In the essay, Wright described how, as a young girl, she misheard the final line of the first stanza from the 17th century ballad "The Bonnie Earl O' Murray." She wrote: When I was a child, my mother used to read aloud to me from Percy's Reliques, and one of my favorite poems began, as I remember: Ye Highlands and ye Lowlands, Oh, where hae ye been? They hae slain the Earl Amurray, And Lady Mondegreen. The actual fourth line is "And laid him on the green". As Wright explained the need for a new term "The point about what I shall hereafter call mondegreens, since no one else has thought up a word for them, is that they are better than the original". Other examples Wright suggested are: Surely Good Mrs. Murphy shall follow me all the days of my life ("Surely goodness and mercy…" from Psalm 23) The wild, strange battle cry "Haffely, Gaffely, Gaffely, Gonward." ("Half a league, half a league,/ Half a league onward," from "The Charge of the Light Brigade") In 2008, the word was added to Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. CNN.com: Dictionary adds new batch of words. July 7, 2008. NBC News: Merriam-Webster adds words that have taken root among Americans Role in culture Examples in song lyrics The "top 3" mondegreens submitted regularly to mondegreen expert Jon Carroll are: Gladly the cross-eyed bear (from the line in the hymn "Keep Thou My Way" by Fanny Crosby, "Kept by Thy tender care, gladly the cross I'll bear") Carroll and many others quote it as "Gladly the cross I'd bear". Ed McBain used the mondegreen as the title of a novel. Also, this mondegreen is paraphrased by the band They Might Be Giants in their song "Hide Away Folk Family" (Sadly the cross-eyed bear's been put to sleep behind the stairs, and his shoes are laced with irony.) There's a bathroom on the right (the line at the end of each verse of "Bad Moon Rising" by Creedence Clearwater Revival: "There's a bad moon on the rise") 'Scuse me while I kiss this guy (from a lyric in the song "Purple Haze", by Jimi Hendrix: "'Scuse me while I kiss the sky"). Both Creedence's John Fogerty and Hendrix eventually capitalized on these mishearings and deliberately sang the "mondegreen" versions of their songs in concert. "The Guardian," Letters April 26, 2007 CCR/John Fogerty FAQ. This can be heard on his 1998 live album Premonition. In Stevie Nicks' song Edge of Seventeen the line "Just like a white-winged dove" is often misheard as "Just like a one-winged dove". The Archive of Misheard Lyrics :: Stevie Nicks - Edge Of Seventeen Am I Right - Misheard Lyrics, Edge Of Seventeen "A wean in a manger," using the Scottish word for a baby, instead of "Away in a Manger." Gervase Phinn used "A Wayne in a Manger" as the title of a book about a children's nativity play. A Wayne in a Manger by Gervaise Phinn "Tell the Huns it's time for me" (from the song "Beneath the Lights of Home (In a Little Sleepy Town)" sung by Deanna Durbin in Nice Girl? (1941): "Turn the hands of time for me") on the BBC radio programme Quote Unquote in 2002. Quote Unquote, BBC Radio 4, 2002 When Bob Dylan offered marijuana to The Beatles, he was surprised to find they had not tried it before; he had misheard the lyric "I can't hide" in "I Want to Hold Your Hand" as "I get high". Mairzy Doats, a 1943 novelty song by Milton Drake, Al Hoffman and Jerry Livingston, works the other way around. The lyrics are already a mondegreen, and it's up to the listener to figure out what they mean. The refrain of the song repeats nonsensical sounding lines: Mairzy doats and dozy doats and liddle lamzy divey A kiddley divey too, wooden shoe (or, if you prefer, "wouldn't chew"). The only clue to the actual meaning of the words is contained in the bridge: If the words sound queer and funny to your ear, a little bit jumbled and jivey, Sing "Mares eat oats and does eat oats and little lambs eat ivy." From this point, the ear can figure out that the last line of the refrain is "A kid'll eat ivy too; wouldn't you?", but this last line is sung in the song only as a mondegreen. The Joni Mitchell cover of the Lambert, Hendricks & Ross song "Twisted" includes a mondegreen: the original lyric They all laughed at A. Graham Bell was misheard and subsequently recorded by Mitchell as They all laugh at angry young men. Examples in literature In The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, Mr. Tumnus mishears Lucy and so supposes that she comes from the city of War Drobe in the country of Spare Oom. Examples in television "Mondegreens" is the name of a segment on the Australian music quiz show Spicks and Specks (ABC TV). In an episode of the television sitcom Friends, Phoebe believes the lyric from Elton John's "Tiny Dancer", "Hold me closer, tiny dancer" is actually "Hold me close, young Tony Danza." Friends, NBC TV, Episode 3.1, "The One With The Princess Leia Fantasy" In the CBS sitcom The Nanny, "The girl with kaleidoscope eyes," from the song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" by The Beatles, is misheard as "The girl with colitis goes by." Other examples A controversial example is found in the movie Who Framed Roger Rabbit, where Donald Duck in a scene chastises Daffy Duck, exclaiming "Doggone stubborn little...", Donald's quacks have frequently been misheard as "God damn stupid nigger", resulting in a hard-to-put-down urban legend. See also Ambiguity Amphibology Double entendre Eggcorn Folk etymology Holorime Mad Gab Mairzy Doats Olive, the Other Reindeer Phono-semantic matching Malapropism Relaxed pronunciation Soramimi References Further reading Scuse Me While I Kiss This Guy — Gavin Edwards, 1995. ISBN 0-671-50128-3 When a Man Loves a Walnut — Gavin Edwards, 1997. ISBN 0-684-84567-9 He's Got the Whole World in His Pants — Gavin Edwards, 1996. ISBN 0-684-82509-0 Deck The Halls With Buddy Holly — Gavin Edwards, 1998. ISBN 0-060-95293-8 Chocolate Moose for Dinner — Fred Gwynne, 1988. ISBN 0-671-66741-6 External links Misheard lyrics to Christmas songs are immortalized as 'mondegreens' (from Snopes.com) "Mondegreens Ripped My Flesh" - columns by San Francisco Chronicle columnist Jon Carroll Man-bol lists numerous Hindi mondegreens, mainly from Bollywood movie songs | Mondegreen |@lemmatized mondegreen:13 mishearing:1 misinterpretation:1 phrase:3 typically:1 standardized:1 line:9 poem:2 lyric:11 song:15 due:1 near:1 homophony:1 way:3 yield:1 new:3 meaning:3 word:8 detective:1 green:2 grow:1 retrieve:1 confuse:1 soramimis:1 produce:1 different:1 originally:1 intend:1 interpret:1 another:1 language:1 etymology:2 american:2 writer:1 sylvia:1 wright:4 coin:1 term:2 essay:3 death:2 lady:4 publish:1 harper:1 magazine:1 november:1 drawing:1 bernarda:1 bryson:1 reprint:1 contains:1 quest:1 describe:1 young:3 girl:4 misheard:9 final:1 first:1 stanza:1 century:1 ballad:1 bonnie:1 earl:2 murray:1 write:1 child:2 mother:1 use:4 read:1 aloud:1 percy:1 reliques:1 one:4 favorite:1 begin:1 remember:1 ye:3 highland:1 lowland:1 oh:1 hae:2 slay:1 amurray:1 actual:2 fourth:1 lay:1 explain:1 need:1 point:2 shall:2 hereafter:1 call:1 mondegreens:6 since:1 else:1 think:1 good:2 original:2 example:5 suggest:1 surely:2 mr:2 murphy:1 follow:1 day:1 life:1 goodness:1 mercy:1 psalm:1 wild:1 strange:1 battle:1 cry:1 haffely:1 gaffely:2 gonward:1 half:3 league:3 onward:1 charge:1 light:2 brigade:1 add:3 merriam:2 webster:2 collegiate:1 dictionary:2 cnn:1 com:2 batch:1 july:1 nbc:2 news:1 take:1 root:1 among:1 role:1 culture:1 top:1 submit:1 regularly:1 expert:1 jon:2 carroll:3 gladly:3 cross:4 eye:3 bear:4 hymn:1 keep:2 thou:1 fanny:1 crosby:1 thy:1 tender:1 care:1 many:1 others:1 quote:3 ed:1 mcbain:1 title:2 novel:1 also:2 paraphrase:1 band:1 might:1 giant:1 hide:2 away:2 folk:2 family:1 sadly:1 put:2 sleep:1 behind:1 stair:1 shoe:2 lace:1 irony:1 bathroom:1 right:2 end:1 verse:1 bad:2 moon:2 rise:2 creedence:2 clearwater:1 revival:1 scuse:3 kiss:3 guy:2 purple:1 haze:1 jimi:1 hendrix:2 sky:2 john:3 fogerty:2 eventually:1 capitalize:1 mishearings:1 deliberately:1 sing:3 version:1 concert:1 guardian:1 letter:1 april:1 ccr:1 faq:1 hear:1 live:1 album:1 premonition:1 stevie:2 nick:2 edge:3 seventeen:3 like:2 white:1 wing:2 dove:2 often:1 archive:1 wean:1 manger:4 scottish:1 baby:1 instead:1 gervase:1 phinn:2 wayne:2 book:1 nativity:1 play:1 gervaise:1 tell:1 hun:1 time:2 beneath:1 home:1 little:4 sleepy:1 town:1 sung:1 deanna:1 durbin:1 nice:1 turn:1 hand:2 bbc:2 radio:2 programme:1 unquote:2 bob:1 dylan:1 offer:1 marijuana:1 beatles:2 surprise:1 find:2 try:1 want:1 hold:3 get:2 high:1 mairzy:3 doats:4 novelty:1 milton:1 drake:1 al:1 hoffman:1 jerry:1 livingston:1 work:1 around:1 already:1 listener:1 figure:2 mean:1 refrain:2 repeat:1 nonsensical:1 sound:2 dozy:1 liddle:1 lamzy:1 divey:2 kiddley:1 wooden:1 prefer:1 chew:1 clue:1 contain:1 bridge:1 queer:1 funny:1 ear:2 bit:1 jumbled:1 jivey:1 mare:1 eat:4 oat:2 lambs:1 ivy:2 last:2 kid:1 joni:1 mitchell:2 cover:1 lambert:1 hendricks:1 ross:1 twist:1 include:1 laugh:2 graham:1 bell:1 subsequently:1 record:1 angry:1 men:1 literature:1 lion:1 witch:1 wardrobe:1 tumnus:1 mishears:1 lucy:2 suppose:1 come:1 city:1 war:1 drobe:1 country:1 spare:1 oom:1 television:2 name:1 segment:1 australian:1 music:1 quiz:1 show:1 spick:1 speck:1 abc:1 tv:2 episode:2 sitcom:2 friend:2 phoebe:1 believe:1 elton:1 tiny:2 dancer:2 close:2 actually:1 tony:1 danza:1 princess:1 leia:1 fantasy:1 cbs:1 nanny:1 kaleidoscope:1 diamond:1 colitis:1 go:1 examples:1 controversial:1 movie:2 frame:1 roger:1 rabbit:1 donald:2 duck:2 scene:1 chastise:1 daffy:1 exclaim:1 doggone:1 stubborn:1 quack:1 frequently:1 god:1 damn:1 stupid:1 nigger:1 result:1 hard:1 urban:1 legend:1 see:1 ambiguity:1 amphibology:1 double:1 entendre:1 eggcorn:1 holorime:1 mad:1 gab:1 olive:1 reindeer:1 phono:1 semantic:1 matching:1 malapropism:1 relaxed:1 pronunciation:1 soramimi:1 reference:1 far:1 reading:1 gavin:4 edward:4 isbn:5 man:2 love:1 walnut:1 whole:1 world:1 pant:1 deck:1 hall:1 buddy:1 holly:1 chocolate:1 moose:1 dinner:1 fred:1 gwynne:1 external:1 link:1 christmas:1 immortalize:1 snopes:1 rip:1 flesh:1 column:1 san:1 francisco:1 chronicle:1 columnist:1 bol:1 list:1 numerous:1 hindi:1 mainly:1 bollywood:1 |@bigram read_aloud:1 merriam_webster:2 webster_collegiate:1 cnn_com:1 creedence_clearwater:1 clearwater_revival:1 jimi_hendrix:1 stevie_nick:2 bob_dylan:1 joni_mitchell:1 graham_bell:1 lion_witch:1 witch_wardrobe:1 cbs_sitcom:1 donald_duck:1 daffy_duck:1 double_entendre:1 folk_etymology:1 buddy_holly:1 external_link:1 snopes_com:1 san_francisco:1 |
2,338 | El_Cid | Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar (c. 1040, Vivar, near Burgos – July 10, 1099, Valencia), known as El Cid Campeador, was a Castilian nobleman, a military leader and diplomat who, after being exiled, conquered and governed the city of Valencia. Rodrigo Díaz was educated in the royal court of Castile and became the alférez, or chief general, of Alfonso VI, and his most valuable asset in the fight against the Moors. The name "El Cid" comes from the Spanish article El, and the dialectal Arab word سيد sîdi or sayyid, which means "Lord". The title Campeador comes from campidoctor, a medieval Latin word roughly meaning "master of military arts", so El Cid Campeador translates as "The lord, master of military arts". He is considered the national hero of Spain. Life and career Origins The Cid was born circa 1040 in Vivar, also known as Castillona de Bivar, a small town about six miles north of Burgos, the capital of Castile. His father, Diego Laínez, was a courtier, bureaucrat, and cavalryman who had fought in several battles. Despite the fact that El Cid's mother's family was aristocratic, in later years the peasants would consider him one of their own. However, his relatives were not major court officials; documents show that El Cid's paternal grandfather, Lain, only confirmed five documents of Ferdinand I's, his maternal grandfather, Rodrigo Alvarez, certified only two of Sancho II's, and the Cid's own father confirmed only one. This seems to indicate that El Cid's family was not composed of major court officials. Service under Sancho II El Cid was educated in the Castilian royal court, serving the prince and future king Sancho II, the son of King Ferdinand I. When Ferdinand died in 1065, Sancho continued to enlarge his territory, conquering both Christian and the Moorish cities of Zamora and Badajoz. As a young adult in 1057, Rodrigo fought against the Moorish stronghold of Zaragoza, making its emir al-Muqtadir a vassal of Sancho. In the spring of 1063, he fought in the Battle of Graus, where Ferdinand's half-brother, Ramiro I of Aragon, was laying siege to the Moorish town of Graus which was in Zaragozan lands. Al-Muqtadir, accompanied by Castilian troops including the Cid, fought against the Aragonese. The party would emerge victorious; Ramiro I was killed and the Aragonese fled the field. One legend has said that during the conflict El Cid killed an Aragonese knight in single combat, giving him the honorific title Campeador. Campeador is the Old Spanish version of the Latin campi doctor or campi doctus; the term can be found in writings of late Latinity (4th – 5th century) and can be found in some inscriptions of that era. After that period it became rare, although still sometimes found in the writings of the less educated writers of the Middle Ages. The literal significance of the expression campi doctor is "master of the military arts", and its use in the period of the late Roman Empire appears to have signified only one who instructed new military recruits. But it was in current usage when El Cid was still alive, and was applied to Rodrigo by a member of his circle in an official document promulgated in his name in 1098. Service under Alfonso VI Much speculation abounds about Sancho's death. Most say that the assassination was a result of a pact between his brother Alfonso and his sister Urraca ; some even say Alfonso and Urraca had an incestuous relationship. In any case, since Sancho died unmarried and childless, all of his power passed to his brother Alfonso — the very person against whom he had fought. Almost immediately, Alfonso was recalled from exile in Toledo and took his seat as king of León and Castile. He was deeply suspected in Castile, probably correctly, for being involved in Sancho's murder. According to the epic of El Cid, the Castilian nobility led by the Cid and a dozen "oath-helpers", forced Alfonso to swear publicly in front of Santa Gadea (Saint Agatha) Church in Burgos on holy relics multiple times that he did not participate in the plot to kill his brother. This is widely reported as truth but contemporary documents on the lives of both Alfonso VI of Castile and Leon and Rodrigo Diaz do not mention any such event. The Cid's position as armiger regis was taken away, however, and it was given to the Cid's enemy, Count García Ordóñez. Later in the year Alfonso's younger brother García returned to Galicia under the false pretenses of a conference. Exile In the Battle of Cabra (1079), El Cid rallied his troops and turned the battle into a rout of Emir Abd Allah of Granada and his ally García Ordóñez. However, El Cid's unauthorized expedition into Granada greatly angered Alfonso, and May 8, 1080, was the last time El Cid confirmed a document in King Alfonso's court. This is the generally given reason for El Cid's exile, although several others are plausible and may have been contributing factors: jealous nobles turning Alfonso against El Cid, Alfonso's own animosity towards El Cid, and an accusation of pocketing some of the tribute from Seville. However, the exile was not the end of El Cid, either physically or as an important figure. In 1081, El Cid, now a mercenary, offered his services to the Moorish king of the northeast Al-Andaluz city of Zaragoza, Yusuf al-Mutamin, and served both him and his successor, Al-Mustain II. O'Callaghan writes: At first he went to Barcelona where Ramón Berenguer II (1076-1082) and Berenguer Ramón II (1076-1097) refused his offer of service. Then he journeyed to Zaragoza where he received a warmer welcome. That kingdom was divided between al-Mutamin (1081-1085) who ruled Zaragoza proper, and his brother al-Mundhir, who ruled Lérida and Tortosa. El Cid entered al-Mutamin's service and successfully defended Zaragoza against the assaults of al-Mutamdhir, Sancho I of Aragón, and Ramón Berenguer II, whom he held captive briefly in 1082. In 1084, he defeated Sancho of Aragon at the Battle of Morella. In 1086, the great Almoravid invasion of the Iberian Peninsula through and around Gibraltar began. The Almoravids, Berber residents of present-day Morocco and Algeria, led by Yusuf ibn Tashfin,were asked to help defend the Moors from Alfonso. The great battle of az-Zallaqah took place on Friday, October 23, 1086, near Badajoz. The Moorish Andalusians, including the armies of Badajoz, Málaga, Granada and Seville, defeated a combined army of León, Aragón and Castile. Terrified after his crushing defeat, Alfonso recalled the best Christian general from exile — El Cid. It has been shown that the Cid was at court on July 1087; however, what happened after that is unclear. Conquest of Valencia Around this time, the Cid, with a combined Christian and Moorish army, began maneuvering in order to create his own fiefdom in the Moorish Mediterranean coastal city of Valencia. Several obstacles lay in his way. First was Ramón Berenguer II, who ruled nearby Barcelona. In May 1090, the Cid defeated and captured Berenguer in the Battle of Tébar. Berenguer was later ransomed and his son Ramón Berenguer III married the Cid's youngest daughter Maria to ward against future conflicts. Along the way to Valencia, El Cid also conquered other towns, many of which were near Valencia, like Castejón and Alucidia. El Cid gradually came to have more influence on Valencia, then ruled by al-Qadir. In October 1092 an uprising occurred in Valencia inspired by the city's chief judge Ibn Jahhaf and the Almoravids. The Cid began a siege of Valencia. A December 1093 attempt to break failed. By the time the siege ended in May 1094 the Cid had carved out his own principality on the coast of the Mediterranean. Officially the Cid ruled in the name of Alfonso; in reality, the Cid was fully independent. The city was both Christian and Muslim, and both Moors and Christians served in the army and as administrators. El Cid died peacefully in 1099. His wife, Jimena ruled in his place for three years until the Almoravids besieged the city. Unable to hold it, she abandoned the city. Alfonso ordered the city burned to prevent it from falling into the hands of the Almoravids. Valencia was captured by Masdali on May 5, 1102 and would not become a Christian city again for over 125 years. Jimena fled to Burgos with her husband's body. Originally buried in Castile in the monastery of San Pedro de Cardeña, his body now lies at the center of the Burgos Cathedral. Warrior and general Battle tactics During his campaigns, the Cid often ordered that books by classic Roman and Greek authors on military themes be read in high-pitched, loud voices to him and his troops, both for entertainment and inspiration before battle. El Cid's army had a novel approach to planning strategy as well, holding what might be called brainstorming sessions before each battle to discuss tactics. They frequently used unexpected strategies, engaging in what modern generals would call psychological warfare — waiting for the enemy to be paralyzed with terror and then attacking them suddenly, distracting the enemy with a small group of soldiers, etc. (El Cid used this distraction in capturing the town of Castejón as depicted in "The Poem of the Cid") El Cid accepted or included suggestions from his troops. He remained open to input from his soldiers . The man who served him as his closest adviser was his kinsman, Alvar Fáñez de Minaya. Taken together, these practices imply an educated and intelligent commander who was able to attract and inspire good subordinates, and who would have attracted considerable loyalty from his followers including those who were not Christian. It is these qualities, coupled with El Cid's legendary martial abilities, which have fueled his reputation as an outstanding battlefield commander. Babieca Babieca or Bavieca was El Cid's warhorse. Several stories exist about the Cid and Babieca. One well-known legend about the Cid describes how he acquired the stallion. According to this story, Rodrigo's godfather, Pedro El Grande, was a monk at a Carthusian monastery. Pedro's coming-of-age gift to El Cid was his pick of a horse from an Andalusian herd. El Cid picked a horse that his godfather thought was a weak, poor choice, causing the monk to exclaim "Babieca!" (stupid!) Hence, it became the name of El Cid's horse. Another legend states that in a competition of battle to become King Sancho's "Campeador", or champion, a knight on horseback wished to challenge the Cid. The King wished a fair fight and gave the Cid his finest horse, Babieca, or Bavieca. This version says Babieca was raised in the royal stables of Seville and was a highly trained and loyal war horse, not a foolish stallion. The name in this instance could suggest that the horse came from the Babia region in León, Spain. In the poem Carmen Campidoctoris, Babieca appears as a gift from "a barbarian" to the Cid, so its name could also be derived from "Barbieca", or "horse of the barbarian". In either case, Babieca became a great warhorse, famous to the Christians, feared by El Cid's enemies, and loved by the Cid, who allegedly requested that Babieca be buried with him in the monastery of San Pedro de Cardeña. His name is mentioned in several tales and historical documents about El Cid, including "Cantar de mio Cid" ("The Lay of the Cid"). Swords A weapon traditionally identified as El Cid's sword, Tizona, used to be displayed in the Army Museum (Museo del Ejército) in Madrid. In 1999, a small sample of the blade underwent metallurgical analysis which confirmed that the blade was made in Moorish Córdoba in the eleventh century and contained amounts of Damascus steel. In 2007 the Autonomous Community of Castile and León bought the sword for 1.6 million Euros, and it is currently on display at the Museum of Burgos. El Cid also had a sword called Colada. Marriage and family El Cid was married in July 1075 to Alfonso's kinswoman Jimena of Oviedo The Historia Roderici calls her daughter of a Count Diego of Oviedo, a person unknown to contemporary records, while later poetic sources name her father as an otherwise unknown Count Gomez de Gormaz. Tradition states that when the Cid laid eyes on her he was enamored by her beauty. Together El Cid and Jimena had three children. Their daughters Cristina and María both married high nobility; Cristina to Ramiro, Lord of Monzón, grandson of García Sánchez III of Navarre via an illegitimate son; María, first (it is said) to a prince of Aragon (presumably the son of Peter I) and second to Ramón Berenguer III, count of Barcelona. El Cid's son Diego Rodríguez was killed while fighting against the invading Muslim Almoravids from North Africa at the Battle of Consuegra (1097). His own marriage and that of his daughters increased his status by connecting El Cid to royalty; even today, living monarchs descend from El Cid, through the lines of Navarre and Foix. El Cid is an ancestor to the monarchies of France and Britain, as well as every other monarchy in Europe, through his daughter Cristina's son, king García Ramírez of Navarre, as well as most of their nobility and even many of the people, which once considered him one of their own. Legend, literature and art Starting in the 12th century the legend of El Cid has been perpetuated in chronicles and ballads. Until the 14th century his life was told in the form of epic poems, each time with more attention to his youth imagined with much creative liberty, as can be observed in the late Mocedades de Rodrigo, in which are mentioned how in his youth he ventures to invade France, so eclipsing the exploits of the French chansons de geste. The new compositions presented a conceited nature much to the liking of the times but were contradictory to the moderate and prudent style of Cantar de mio Cid. His youth and his love of Jimena were also subjects in the Spanish Romanceros. These anonymous short poems were based upon the epic poetry, which preserved the memory of El Cid in the late Middle Ages and created new literary episodes on the topic. The feats of El Cid are one of the many sources for Don Quixote's early inspiration: though his steed Rocinante is less than capable, Don Quixote believes him to be better than Babieca. Many works have been written about El Cid. The oldest of the preserved manuscripts is the three-part Castilian cantar de gesta Cantar de Mio Cid, also called The Lay of the Cid, The Song of My Cid, or Poema de Mio Cid. It keeps a realistic tone while not exactly following the historical truth. The exploits of El Cid are the topic of the Carmen Campidoctoris, a Latin text that predates the Cantar de Mio Cid. Here we find the only description about the shield of the Cid. According to the poem, it has a "fierce shining golden dragon" depicted on it. The French playwright Pierre Corneille wrote the tragicomedy Le Cid in 1636, based on the play of Guillén de Castro, Las Mocedades del Cid. Jules Massenet's 1885 opera Le Cid was based on Corneille's play. It is a favorite of Plácido Domingo, who has sung the role of Rodrigue (Rodrigo) many times since first performing it at Carnegie Hall in 1976. The official authorized Website of Plácido Domingo | Repertoire/ Roles The English poet Robert Southey wrote "The Chronicle of the Cid" in English. This work, written in 1808, is a translated blend of three Spanish sources: Chronica del famoso cavallero Cid Ruydiez Campeador, Poema del Cid, and Romances del Cid. El Cid is mentioned in Canto III of The Cantos of Ezra Pound: as he arrives at Burgos Cathedral and later, alluding to his capture of Valencia. There have been modern-day films about El Cid, such as El Cid The DVD release of El Cid made a list of "5 Things You Should Know About," Time 171.5 (February 4, 2008): 63. (1961, starring Charlton Heston and Sophia Loren) and the animated El Cid: La Leyenda (2003). In the early 1980s there was an animated series called Ruy, el Pequeño Cid (Little Cid no Boken), portraying the fictional adventures of El Cid as a child. Computer games set in medieval Europe sometimes feature El Cid. Age of Empires II: The Conquerors Expansion featured a six-level campaign based on the exploits of El Cid, including his exile from Castile, his conquest of Valencia and his legendary posthumous battle. He also appears as a warrior in the Anachronism card game and as the rebel leader of Valencia in Medieval: Total War and Medieval II. In the latter case, his appearance is also an in-joke homage to Sid Meier, creator of the Civilization series. Also in the game Crusader Kings, he appears as Rodrigo de Vivar at the court of King Sancho II of Castile. Most instalments of the Final Fantasy series also feature a character named Cid, as well as some having swords named after El Cid directly. Final Fantasy XII specifically has a character named El Cid Margrace, along with the traditional Cid. The bard in the original Bard's Tale was named El Cid. The El Cid Statue overlooks the Plaza de Panama, facing south toward the Spreckels Organ Pavilion in Balboa Park, San Diego, California. This 23-ft (7-m) tall bronze equestrian sculpture was dedicated in 1930 as a symbolic guardian of Balboa Park. Three other statues were made from the same mold — one stands in the court of the Museum of the Hispanic Society in New York City; anothes stands on Plaza de España, Valencia (Spain), near the oldest known church in the city- San Vicent de la Roqueta; the other is in Seville, Spain. The statue is attributed to Anna Hyatt Huntington and dated 1927. Cid Harbour, in the Whitsunday Islands, on Australia's Great Barrier Reef was named in his honour. It is overlooked by Bavieca Hill. References Bibliography "Cid Campeador". The Columbia Encyclopedia. 6th ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001. Camino del Cid "Ferdinand I, Spanish king of Castile and León". The Columbia Encyclopedia. 6th ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004. "Ramiro I". The Columbia Encyclopedia. 6th ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004. "Sancho III, king of Castile". The Columbia Encyclopedia. 6th ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004. "Sancho III, king of Navarre". The Columbia Encyclopedia. 6th ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004. Simon Barton and Richard Fletcher. The world of El Cid, Chronicles of the Spanish reconquest. Manchester: University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-7190-5225-4 hardback, ISBN 0-7190-5226-2 paperback. Gonzalo Martínez Díez, "El Cid Histórico: Un Estudio Exhaustivo Sobre el Verdadero Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar", Editorial Planeta (Spain, June 1999). ISBN 84-08-03161-9 Richard Fletcher. "The Quest for El Cid". ISBN 0-19-506955-2 Kurtz, Barbara E. El Cid. University of Illinois. I. Michael. The Poem of the Cid. Manchester: 1975. C. Melville and A. Ubaydli (ed. and trans.), Christians and Moors in Spain, vol. III, Arabic sources (711-1501). (Warminster, 1992). Nelson, Prof. Lynn Harry. "Thoughts on Reading El Cid".. Joseph F. O'Callaghan. A History of Medieval Spain. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975 Peter Pierson. The History of Spain. Ed. John E. Findling and Frank W. Thacheray. Wesport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1999. 34-36. Bernard F. Reilly. The Kingdom of León-Castilla under King Alfonso VI, 1065-1109 Princeton, New Jersey: University Press, 1988. The Song of the Cid. Translated by Burton Raffel. Penguin Classics, 2009. R. Selden Rose and Leonard Bacon (trans.) The Lay of the Cid. Semicentennial Publications of the University of California: 1868-1918. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997. Steven Thomas. 711-1492: Al-Andalus and the Reconquista. Camino del Cid M. J. Trow,El Cid The Making of a Legend, Sutton Publishing Limited, 2007. Henry Edwards Watts. "The Story of the Cid (1026-1099)" in The Christian Recovery of Spain: The Story of Spain from the Moorish Conquest to the Fall of Grenada (711-1492 AD). New York: Putnam, 1894. 71-91. Cantar de mío Cid - Spanish (free PDF) Poema de Mio Cid, Códice de Per Abbat in The European Library (third item on page) T.Y. Henderson. 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2,339 | Transport_in_Chile | An enlargeable relief map of Chile with major roads and rail lines depicted. Transport in Chile is mostly by road. The south of the country is not connected to central Chile by road, except through Argentina, and water transport also plays a part there. The railways were historically important in Chile, but now play a relatively small part in the country's transport system. Because of the country's geography and long distances between major cities, aviation is also important. Road transport Highways total: 79,800 km paved: 41,012 km unpaved: 38,788 km (1996 est.) Chile Highway 5 Chile Highway 7 Chile Highway 9 Chile Highway 68 Chile Highway 181 Freeways 2,653 km Chile Freeway 5 Chile Freeway 68 Chile Autopista del Sol Chile Autopista del Itata Long distance buses Buses are now the main means of long distance transportation in Chile, following the decline of the rail network Omnilineas website . The bus system covers the whole country, from Arica to Santiago (a 30 hour journey) and from Santiago to Punta Arenas (about 40 hours, with a change at Osorno). There are also international services to most other countries in South America. Longer-distance services are mostly on semi-cama (reclining seat) or cama (sleeper) buses, often double deck. Railways total: 6,782 km broad gauge: 3,743 km gauge (1,653 km electrified) narrow gauge: 116 km gauge; 2,923 km gauge (40 km electrified) (1995) standard gauge: about 40 km from Arica to Tacna, Peru Not all lines connect. Chile's railways (except for a few dedicated industrial lines ) are operated by the state owned company Empresa de los Ferrocarriles del Estado (EFE), which completed a major investment programme in 2005. The rail system once served the entire country, running rail lines from Arica in the north to Puerto Montt in the south. Due partly to the nature of the terrain and evolution in transportation systems, rail travel has suffered greatly at the hands of bus and air competition. The train usually takes longer to reach a destination than a bus, and the comfort is comparable. Prices also tend to be uncompetitive. Rail freight transport has also suffered at the hands of the trucking industry and will continue to do so due to the immense leverage the truck driver's union can bring to bear if they were to feel threatened. The Ferrocarril de Antofagasta a Bolivia is a metre gauge railway in the north of the country. It was originally constructed in gauge. The northern rail line out of Santiago is now disused past the intersection with the Valparaíso line. This section is used nearly exclusively for freight. Although the northern line is still in place, it is in a state of serious disrepair. The southern line runs as far as Puerto Montt and is electrified as far as the city of Temuco, from where diesel locomotives are used. Due to lack of budget and care, the 389 km Temuco to Puerto Montt section was abandoned in 1992 but after a $44m upgrade it has been back in use since 6 December 2005 with daily service between Victoria (north of Temuco) and Puerto Montt. Work to build/restore(?) the South Trans-Andean Railway link between Zapala, Argentina and Lonquimay, Chile was underway in 2005. IRJ March 2005 Possible break-of-gauge. Possible rack railway. Construction was undertaken by Patagonia Ferrocanal SA, formed and funded by the province. . The first 7 km was completed by January 2006. There have been repeated case studies regarding the installation of a high speed line between the cities of Valparaíso and Santiago, some even considering maglev trains, but no serious action has ever been taken on the matter. Rail links with adjacent countries Bolivia - yes - same gauge - from Arica to La Paz, Bolivia Argentina - Central Trans-Andean Railway - abandoned 1984 - 100 km of mountain railway of gauge with rack railway sections - break of gauge / at either end. Concession planned to re-open line. Peru - yes - a single gauge connection between the northern Chilean city of Arica and Tacna in Southern Peru. Cities with Metros Santiago (Metro de Santiago) website Valparaíso website Concepción (Biotren) Ports and merchant marine Ports Antofagasta Arica Chañaral Coquimbo Corral Iquique Puerto Montt Punta Arenas San Antonio San Vicente Talcahuano Tocopilla Valparaíso Merchant marine total: 45 ships ( or over) totaling / ships by type: (1999 est.) bulk carriers 11 cargo ships 9 chemical tankers 8 container ships 2 gas carrying tankers 2 Passenger ships 3 petroleum tanker 4 roll-on/roll-off 4 vehicle carrier 2 Aviation Airports - with paved runways total: 62 over 3,047 m: 6 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6 1,524 to 2,437 m: 20 914 to 1,523 m: 20 under 914 m: 10 (1999 est.) Arturo Merino Benitez International Airport, located in Santiago, is Chile's largest aviation facility. Airports - with unpaved runways total: 310 over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 1,524 to 2,437 m: 12 914 to 1,523 m: 68 under 914 m: 223 (1999 est.) National airlines LAN Airlines (formerly LanChile) Sky Airline Aerolíneas del Sur Pipelines crude oil 755 km petroleum products 780 km natural gas 320 km See also Chile Transantiago Empresa de los Ferrocarriles del Estado (EFE) Rail transport by country External links Empresa de los Ferrocarriles del Estado References | Transport_in_Chile |@lemmatized enlargeable:1 relief:1 map:1 chile:18 major:3 road:4 rail:9 line:10 depict:1 transport:6 mostly:2 south:4 country:9 connect:2 central:2 except:2 argentina:3 water:1 also:6 play:2 part:2 railway:9 historically:1 important:2 relatively:1 small:1 system:4 geography:1 long:5 distance:4 city:5 aviation:3 highway:6 total:6 km:17 pave:2 unpaved:2 est:4 freeway:3 autopista:2 del:6 sol:1 itata:1 bus:6 main:1 mean:1 transportation:2 follow:1 decline:1 network:1 omnilineas:1 website:3 cover:1 whole:1 arica:6 santiago:7 hour:2 journey:1 punta:2 arena:1 change:1 osorno:1 international:2 service:3 america:1 semi:1 cama:2 recline:1 seat:1 sleeper:1 often:1 double:1 deck:1 broad:1 gauge:13 electrify:3 narrow:1 standard:1 tacna:2 peru:3 dedicated:1 industrial:1 operate:1 state:2 company:1 empresa:3 de:5 los:3 ferrocarriles:3 estado:3 efe:2 complete:2 investment:1 programme:1 serve:1 entire:1 run:2 north:3 puerto:5 montt:5 due:3 partly:1 nature:1 terrain:1 evolution:1 travel:1 suffer:2 greatly:1 hand:2 air:1 competition:1 train:2 usually:1 take:2 reach:1 destination:1 comfort:1 comparable:1 price:1 tend:1 uncompetitive:1 freight:2 trucking:1 industry:1 continue:1 immense:1 leverage:1 truck:1 driver:1 union:1 bring:1 bear:1 feel:1 threatened:1 ferrocarril:1 antofagasta:2 bolivia:3 metre:1 originally:1 construct:1 northern:3 disused:1 past:1 intersection:1 valparaíso:4 section:3 use:3 nearly:1 exclusively:1 although:1 still:1 place:1 serious:2 disrepair:1 southern:2 far:2 temuco:3 diesel:1 locomotive:1 lack:1 budget:1 care:1 abandon:1 upgrade:1 back:1 since:1 december:1 daily:1 victoria:1 work:1 build:1 restore:1 trans:2 andean:2 link:3 zapala:1 lonquimay:1 underway:1 irj:1 march:1 possible:2 break:2 rack:2 construction:1 undertake:1 patagonia:1 ferrocanal:1 sa:1 form:1 fund:1 province:1 first:1 january:1 repeat:1 case:1 study:1 regard:1 installation:1 high:1 speed:1 even:1 consider:1 maglev:1 action:1 ever:1 matter:1 adjacent:1 yes:2 la:1 paz:1 abandoned:1 mountain:1 either:1 end:1 concession:1 plan:1 open:1 single:1 connection:1 chilean:1 metro:2 concepción:1 biotren:1 port:2 merchant:2 marine:2 chañaral:1 coquimbo:1 corral:1 iquique:1 arenas:1 san:2 antonio:1 vicente:1 talcahuano:1 tocopilla:1 ship:5 type:1 bulk:1 carrier:2 cargo:1 chemical:1 tanker:3 container:1 gas:2 carry:1 passenger:1 petroleum:2 roll:2 vehicle:1 airport:3 runway:2 arturo:1 merino:1 benitez:1 locate:1 large:1 facility:1 national:1 airline:3 lan:1 formerly:1 lanchile:1 sky:1 aerolíneas:1 sur:1 pipeline:1 crude:1 oil:1 product:1 natural:1 see:1 transantiago:1 external:1 reference:1 |@bigram km_unpaved:1 unpaved_km:1 autopista_del:2 punta_arena:1 km_electrify:2 narrow_gauge:1 arica_tacna:2 del_estado:3 puerto_montt:5 gauge_railway:1 maglev_train:1 la_paz:1 paz_bolivia:1 merchant_marine:2 san_antonio:1 petroleum_tanker:1 pave_runway:1 santiago_chile:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 del_sur:1 pipeline_crude:1 crude_oil:1 external_link:1 |
2,340 | Telecommunications_in_Canada | Telecommunications in Canada include telephone, radio, television, and internet usage. Telephone Telephones - main lines in use: 21 million (2006) Telephones - mobile cellular: 18.749 million (2006) Telephone system: excellent service provided by modern technology domestic: domestic satellite system with about 300 earth stations international: 5 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 5 Intelsat (4 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean) and 2 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region) Radio Radio broadcast stations: AM 245, FM 582, shortwave 6 (2004) *Note - Due to the amount of AM Radio stations moving to FM, the odd new AM station(s) signing on and new FM radio stations, etc. this information is subjected to change. Radios: 32.3 million (1997) ITU prefixes: Letter combinations available for use in Canada as the first two letters of a television or radio station's call sign are CF, CG, CH, CI, CJ, CK, CY, CZ, VA, VB, VC, VD, VE, VF, VG, VO, VX, VY, XJ, XK, XL, XM, XN and XO. Only CF, CH, CI, CJ and CK are currently in common use, although four radio stations in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador retained call letters beginning with VO when Newfoundland joined Canadian Confederation in 1949. Stations owned by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation use CB through a special agreement with the government of Chile. Some codes beginning with VE and VF are also in use to identify radio repeater transmitters. Television Television broadcast stations: 1456 (128 originating stations, 1328 retransmitters) (2003) *Note - Information subjected to change. Televisions: 21.5 million (1997) Internet Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 760 (2000 est.) Country codes: CA, CDN, 124 Internet users: 28 million (2007) Total households with Internet access: 6.7 million out of 12.3 million (2004) Total households with high speed connection: 65% (2004) Total users of home online banking: 57% (2004) Most connected are from Alberta, British Columbia and Ontario (2004) See also Canada Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission Canadian Association of Broadcasters Canadian Broadcast Standards Council Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Canadian Communications Foundation Media in Canada Telecommunications Source: http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/GENERAL/statistics/tab2003-1.htm External links The Canadian Communications Foundation - A History of Canadian Broadcasting | Telecommunications_in_Canada |@lemmatized telecommunication:3 canada:4 include:1 telephone:5 radio:10 television:6 internet:5 usage:1 main:1 line:1 use:5 million:7 mobile:1 cellular:1 system:2 excellent:1 service:2 provide:1 modern:1 technology:1 domestic:2 satellite:2 earth:2 station:11 international:1 coaxial:1 submarine:1 cable:1 intelsat:1 atlantic:2 ocean:3 pacific:1 intersputnik:1 region:1 broadcast:4 fm:3 shortwave:1 note:2 due:1 amount:1 move:1 odd:1 new:2 sign:2 etc:1 information:2 subject:2 change:2 itu:1 prefix:1 letter:3 combination:1 available:1 first:1 two:1 call:2 cf:2 cg:1 ch:2 ci:2 cj:2 ck:2 cy:1 cz:1 va:1 vb:1 vc:1 vd:1 vf:2 vg:1 vo:2 vx:1 vy:1 xj:1 xk:1 xl:1 xm:1 xn:1 xo:1 currently:1 common:1 although:1 four:1 st:1 john:1 newfoundland:2 labrador:1 retain:1 begin:2 join:1 canadian:9 confederation:1 broadcasting:2 corporation:2 cb:1 special:1 agreement:1 government:1 chile:1 code:2 also:2 identify:1 repeater:1 transmitter:1 originate:1 retransmitters:1 provider:1 isps:1 est:1 country:1 ca:2 cdn:1 user:2 total:3 household:2 access:1 high:1 speed:1 connection:1 home:1 online:1 banking:1 connect:1 alberta:1 british:1 columbia:1 ontario:1 see:1 commission:1 association:1 broadcaster:1 standard:1 council:1 communication:2 foundation:2 medium:1 source:1 http:1 www:1 crtc:1 gc:1 eng:1 general:1 statistic:1 htm:1 external:1 link:1 history:1 |@bigram mobile_cellular:1 station_intelsat:1 intelsat_atlantic:1 atlantic_ocean:2 pacific_ocean:1 fm_shortwave:1 ch_ci:2 newfoundland_labrador:1 broadcasting_corporation:1 provider_isps:1 http_www:1 crtc_gc:1 gc_ca:1 external_link:1 |
2,341 | Holomorphic_function | In mathematics, holomorphic functions are the central object of study of complex analysis; they are functions defined on an open subset of the complex number plane C with values in C that are complex-differentiable at every point. This is a much stronger condition than real differentiability and implies that the function is infinitely often differentiable and can be described by its Taylor series. The term analytic function is often used interchangeably with holomorphic function, although the term analytic is also used in a broader sense of any function (real, complex, or of more general type) that is equal to its Taylor series in a neighborhood of each point in its domain. The fact that the class of analytic functions coincides with the class of holomorphic functions is a major theorem in complex analysis. Holomorphic functions are sometimes called regular functions. Springer Online Reference Books, Wolfram MathWorld A function that is holomorphic on the whole complex plane is called an entire function. The phrase "holomorphic at a point z" means not just differentiable at z, but differentiable everywhere within some open disk centered at z in the complex plane. Definition If U is an open subset of C and ƒ : U → C is a complex function on U, we say that ƒ is complex differentiable at a point z0 of U if the limit exists. The limit here is taken as the complex number z approaches z0, and for all such sequences the difference quotient has to approach the same number ƒ ′(z0). Intuitively, if ƒ is complex differentiable at z0 and we approach the point z0 from the direction r, then the images will approach the point ƒ(z0) from the direction , where the last product is the multiplication of complex numbers. This concept of complex differentiability shares several properties with real differentiability: it is linear and obeys the product, quotient and chain rules. If ƒ is complex differentiable at every point z0 in U, we say that ƒ is holomorphic on U. We say that ƒ is holomorphic at the point z0 if it is holomorphic on some neighborhood of z0. We say that ƒ is holomorphic on some non-open set A if it is holomorphic in an open set containing A. The relationship between real differentiability and complex differentiability is the following. If a complex function = is holomorphic, then u and v have first partial derivatives with respect to x and y, and satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations: If continuity is not a given, the converse is not necessarily true. A simple converse is that if u and v have continuous first partial derivatives and satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations, then ƒ is holomorphic. A more satisfying converse, which is much harder to prove, is the Looman-Menchoff theorem: if ƒ is continuous, u and v have first partial derivatives, and they satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations, then ƒ is holomorphic. Terminology The word "holomorphic" was introduced by two of Cauchy's students, Briot (1817–1882) and Bouquet (1819–1895), and derives from the Greek ὅλος (holos) meaning "entire", and μορφή (morphê) meaning "form" or "appearance". Today, many mathematicians prefer the term "holomorphic function" to "analytic function", as the latter is a more general concept. This is also because an important result in complex analysis is that every holomorphic function is complex analytic, a fact that does not follow directly from the definitions. The term "analytic" is however also in wide use. Properties Because complex differentiation is linear and obeys the product, quotient, and chain rules, the sums, products and compositions of holomorphic functions are holomorphic, and the quotient of two holomorphic functions is holomorphic wherever the denominator is not zero. If one identifies C with R2, then the holomorphic functions coincide with those functions of two real variables with continuous first derivatives which solve the Cauchy-Riemann equations, a set of two partial differential equations. Every holomorphic function can be separated into its real and imaginary parts, and each of these is a solution of Laplace's equation on R2. In other words, if we express a holomorphic function f(z) as u(x, y) + i v(x, y) both u and v are harmonic functions. In regions where the first derivative is not zero, holomorphic functions are conformal in the sense that they preserve angles and the shape (but not size) of small figures. Cauchy's integral formula states that every function holomorphic inside a disk is completely determined by its values on the disk's boundary. Every holomorphic function is analytic. That is, a holomorphic function f has derivatives of every order at each point a in its domain, and it coincides with its own Taylor series at a in a neighborhood of a. In fact, f coincides with its Taylor series at a in any disk centered at that point and lying within the domain of the function. From an algebraic point of view, the set of holomorphic functions on an open set is a commutative ring and a complex vector space. In fact, it is a locally convex topological vector space, with the seminorms being the suprema on compact subsets. Examples All polynomial functions in z with complex coefficients are holomorphic on C, and so are sine, cosine and the exponential function. (The trigonometric functions are in fact closely related to and can be defined via the exponential function using Euler's formula). The principal branch of the complex logarithm function is holomorphic on the set C \ {z ∈ R : z ≤ 0}. The square root function can be defined as and is therefore holomorphic wherever the logarithm log(z) is. The function 1/z is holomorphic on {z : z ≠ 0}. As a consequence of the Cauchy–Riemann equations, a real-valued holomorphic function must be constant. Therefore, the absolute value of z, the argument of z, the real part of z and the imaginary part of z are not holomorphic. Another typical example of a continuous function which is not holomorphic is complex conjugation. Several variables A complex analytic function of several complex variables is defined to be analytic and holomorphic at a point if it is locally expandable (within a polydisk, a Cartesian product of disks, centered at that point) as a convergent power series in the variables. This condition is stronger than the Cauchy–Riemann equations; in fact it can be stated as follows: A function of several complex variables is holomorphic if and only if it satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations and is locally square-integrable. Extension to functional analysis The concept of a holomorphic function can be extended to the infinite-dimensional spaces of functional analysis. For instance, the Fréchet or Gâteaux derivative can be used to define a notion of a holomorphic function on a Banach space over the field of complex numbers. References See also Antiderivative (complex analysis) Antiholomorphic function Biholomorphy Meromorphic function Quadrature domains | Holomorphic_function |@lemmatized mathematics:1 holomorphic:40 function:45 central:1 object:1 study:1 complex:28 analysis:6 define:5 open:6 subset:3 number:5 plane:3 c:7 value:4 differentiable:7 every:7 point:13 much:2 strong:2 condition:2 real:8 differentiability:5 implies:1 infinitely:1 often:2 describe:1 taylor:4 series:5 term:4 analytic:9 use:5 interchangeably:1 although:1 also:4 broad:1 sense:2 general:2 type:1 equal:1 neighborhood:3 domain:4 fact:6 class:2 coincides:2 major:1 theorem:2 sometimes:1 call:2 regular:1 springer:1 online:1 reference:2 book:1 wolfram:1 mathworld:1 whole:1 entire:2 phrase:1 z:16 mean:1 everywhere:1 within:3 disk:5 center:3 definition:2 u:11 ƒ:12 say:4 limit:2 exist:1 take:1 approach:4 sequence:1 difference:1 quotient:4 intuitively:1 direction:2 r:2 image:1 last:1 product:5 multiplication:1 concept:3 share:1 several:4 property:2 linear:2 obey:2 chain:2 rule:2 non:1 set:6 contain:1 relationship:1 follow:3 v:5 first:5 partial:4 derivative:7 respect:1 x:3 satisfy:4 cauchy:9 riemann:7 equation:9 continuity:1 give:1 converse:3 necessarily:1 true:1 simple:1 continuous:4 satisfying:1 hard:1 prove:1 looman:1 menchoff:1 terminology:1 word:2 introduce:1 two:4 student:1 briot:1 bouquet:1 derives:1 greek:1 ὅλος:1 holos:1 meaning:2 μορφή:1 morphê:1 form:1 appearance:1 today:1 many:1 mathematician:1 prefer:1 latter:1 important:1 result:1 directly:1 however:1 wide:1 differentiation:1 sum:1 composition:1 wherever:2 denominator:1 zero:2 one:1 identifies:1 coincide:2 variable:5 solve:1 differential:1 separate:1 imaginary:2 part:3 solution:1 laplace:1 express:1 f:3 harmonic:1 region:1 conformal:1 preserve:1 angle:1 shape:1 size:1 small:1 figure:1 integral:1 formula:2 state:2 inside:1 completely:1 determine:1 boundary:1 order:1 lie:1 algebraic:1 view:1 commutative:1 ring:1 vector:2 space:4 locally:3 convex:1 topological:1 seminorms:1 suprema:1 compact:1 example:2 polynomial:1 coefficient:1 sine:1 cosine:1 exponential:2 trigonometric:1 closely:1 relate:1 via:1 euler:1 principal:1 branch:1 logarithm:2 square:2 root:1 therefore:2 log:1 consequence:1 must:1 constant:1 absolute:1 argument:1 another:1 typical:1 conjugation:1 expandable:1 polydisk:1 cartesian:1 convergent:1 power:1 integrable:1 extension:1 functional:2 extend:1 infinite:1 dimensional:1 instance:1 fréchet:1 gâteaux:1 notion:1 banach:1 field:1 see:1 antiderivative:1 antiholomorphic:1 biholomorphy:1 meromorphic:1 quadrature:1 |@bigram holomorphic_function:18 wolfram_mathworld:1 complex_differentiability:2 ƒ_holomorphic:5 satisfy_cauchy:4 cauchy_riemann:7 riemann_equation:7 partial_differential:1 differential_equation:1 commutative_ring:1 locally_convex:1 sine_cosine:1 exponential_function:2 trigonometric_function:1 closely_relate:1 cartesian_product:1 infinite_dimensional:1 banach_space:1 |
2,342 | Gustave_Eiffel | Alexandre Gustave Eiffel (December 15, 1832 – December 27, 1923; in French , in English usually ) was a French structural engineer and entrepreneur and a specialist of metallic structures. He is famous for designing the Eiffel Tower, built 1887–1889 for the 1889 Universal Exposition in Paris, France, and the armature for the Statue of Liberty, New York Harbor, U.S. A monument to Gustave Eiffel at the base of the Eiffel Tower Early life Gustave Eiffel was born in Dijon, Côte-d'Or, France. The name Eiffel was adopted by his father in the early 18th century from his birthplace in the German Eifel region (in Marmagen), as the French could not pronounce his actual surname, Bönickhausen. During his youth, the two strongest influences on Eiffel were both successful chemists, his uncles Jean-Baptiste Mollerat and Michel Perret. Both men spent a lot of time with young Eiffel, filling his head with everything from chemistry and mining to religion and philosophy. At school, Eiffel was extremely smart, but not very studious. While attending high school at Lycée Royal, Eiffel was bored and felt that the classes were a waste of time. It was not until his last two years at school that Eiffel found his niche; not in engineering, but in history and literature. Eiffel's study habits improved and he graduated with a degree in both science and humanities. Eiffel went on to attend college at Sainte Barbe College in Paris, in order to prepare for the difficult entrance exams into The École Polytechnique. The École Polytechnique was, and still is, the most prestigious engineering institution in France. Ultimately, Eiffel was denied admission to The École Polytechnique, but instead attended the École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures in Paris. École Centrale was a liberal private school that is now known as one of the top engineering schools in Europe. His mother's coal business provided ample income for the family and provided the funds for Gustave to receive education at the École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures in Paris, where he studied chemistry (the equivalent to a Master of Science). Eiffel graduated from École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures in 1855, the same year that Paris hosted the first World's Fair, with a master's degree in chemistry. "Gustave Eiffel: The Man Behind the Masterpiece" Retrieved April 1, 2007. After graduation, Eiffel's uncle offered him a job at his vinegar works in Dijon, France. However, a family dispute removed that opportunity, and Eiffel soon accepted entry-level employment with a company that designed railway bridges. Charles Nepveu provided Eiffel with his first job as one of many project managers for a railway bridge located in Bordeaux, France. During the construction process, fellow engineers on the project were steadily quitting, and Eiffel eventually took charge of the entire project. Neveu saw the work that Eiffel performed on the site, and continued to place Eiffel in other jobs that involved project management of railway bridges and structures. During these projects, Eiffel got to know other engineers of the time, and he would be remembered for his work and allowed to work on other projects. Without the influence of Neveu and his unwavering support, Eiffel might not have been as successful as he would later become for many of his structures. Career The Eiffel Tower at sunrise Cathedral "Saint Mark of Arica" Eiffel et Cie., Eiffel's consulting and construction firm, with the support of Belgian engineer Téophile Seyrig, participated in an international bid to design and build a 160-m long railway bridge over the Douro river, between Oporto and Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal. His proposal was the winner because it was a beautiful, transparent structure, it was the least expensive, and it incorporated the use of the method of forces, a then novel technique in structure design developed by Maxwell in 1864. The Ponte Maria Pia is a double-hinged arch that supports a single-line railway plate through pillars that reinforce the whole of the bridge. The construction proceeded rapidly and the bridge was built in less than two years (5 January 1876 to 4 November, 1877). It was inaugurated by King D. Luís and Queen D. Maria Pia, after whom it was named. The bridge was in use until 1991 (114 years), when it was superseded by the S. John Bridge, designed by engineer Edgar Cardoso. Porto, city of bridges. Retrieved April 17, 2006. Ponte Maria Pia. Retrieved April 17, 2006. Eiffel built a number of cast iron railway bridges in the Massif Central, such as the viaducts at Rouzat and Bouble. They are still in use by local trains and were built in the late 1860s. Rouzat viaduct Gustave Eiffel also designed La Ruche in Paris. This, like the Eiffel Tower, became a city landmark. It is a three-storey circular structure that looks like a large beehive and was created as a temporary structure for use as a wine rotunda at the Great Exposition of 1900. Quite coincidentally, the French translation of La Ruche is "the beehive". He also constructed the Garabit viaduct, a railway bridge near Ruynes en Margeride in the Cantal département. In the Americas, Eiffel designed the central railway station in Santiago de Chile (1897) and the Mona Island Light located near Puerto Rico. The lighthouse was built around 1900 by the United States which acquired the island after the end of the Spanish-American War. It was decommissioned in 1976. Mona Island Lighthouse, from Lighthouse Digest. Retrieved April 17, 2006. In 1887, Eiffel became involved with the French effort to construct a Panama Canal. The French Panama Canal Company, led by Ferdinand de Lesseps, had been attempting to build a sea-level canal, but finally came to the realisation that this was impractical. An elevated, lock-based canal was chosen as the new design, and Eiffel was enlisted to design and build the locks. However, the whole canal project suffered from serious mismanagement, and finally collapsed with enormous losses. Eiffel's reputation suffered a severe setback when he was implicated in the financial scandals surrounding de Lesseps and the entrepreneurs backing the project. Eiffel himself had no connection with the finances, and his guilty judgment was later reversed. Gustave Eiffel, from the official site of the Eiffel Tower. Retrieved April 17, 2006. However, his work was never realised, as the later American effort to build a canal used new lock designs (see History of the Panama Canal). After retirement he researched and developed new ideas through practical use of the Eiffel Tower. The tower enabled him to make advancements in aerodynamics, meteorology, and radio-broadcasting. He built a wind tunnel at the base of the tower for his aerodynamic research, had meteorological equipment placed in various locations on the tower, and suggested to the military to have radio equipment installed on the top of the tower. Within the following years the tower would continue to serve as a permanent radio tower and eventually used for television broadcasting. "Gustave Eiffel". Retrieved April 1, 2007. Eiffel died on December 27, 1923 in his mansion on Rue Rabelais in Paris. He was interred in the Cimetière de Levallois-Perret. Gustave Eiffel was also known to travel to places like Spain, Portugal and etc., designing buildings and other structures during his visits. He became extremely popular around the world for the famous tower we all know as the Eiffel Tower (mentioned above.). Gustave was great! Impact Edward Moran's 1886 painting, The Statue of Liberty Enlightening the World, depicts the unveiling of the Statue of Liberty. The Industrial Revolution played an important role in Gustave Eiffel's life. People were traveling across the world, new technologies and materials became available, and countries were industrializing. Much of Eiffel's work was affected by one or more of these conditions brought by the Industrial Revolution. The condition that had the most impact on Eiffel's work was transportation. People around the world were demanding safe passages across rivers and were in need of bridges. Building these bridges is how Eiffel gained a reputation as an engineer, which allowed him to pursue larger and more difficult projects later in life. The bridges that he designed were constructed all over the world. The bridges allowed for easier and faster travel and trade in the geographical area in which they were constructed. Many of Eiffel's bridges did not require skilled workers for assembly, which made his bridges a great economical choice. The Eiffel Tower had a huge impact on France. The tower was the focal point of the Exposition Universelle (1889) and drew millions of people to Paris. Nearly two million people visited the Eiffel Tower in 1889 alone. The tower quickly became a tourist attraction and brought large amounts of money into France's economy. After originally being thought of as an eyesore (it was actually designed to be torn down easily after the end of the Exposition), the tower quickly became a national symbol of France and brought a sense of pride to the people who live there. In 1910 Gustave Eiffel accomplished extraordinary outcomes in determining the wind resistance of a flat plate; Gustave used the Eiffel Tower as his test platform. The Statue of Liberty was a gift from France to the United States. Eiffel's design for the interior structural elements of the statue allowed for the statue to become a reality. The statue showed the friendship and respect that was shared between France and the United States. The Statue of Liberty quickly became a national symbol of freedom in the United States and gave citizens a sense of pride. The statue became a great tourist attraction and brought many people to New York, boosting the economy. Several Americans living in France were pleased by the gift to their country and in turn, built a ¼ scale bronze model which stands approximately 2km north of the Eiffel Tower. With all the opportunities the Industrial Revolution brought with it, it also had many challenges. Just as Eiffel had the opportunity to work on more projects in different locations, so did other engineers. Competition for projects was extremely high and the reputation of the engineer played a major role for obtaining projects. Yet another challenge during Eiffel's career was the introduction of new construction materials. Since the new materials had not been proven in projects, engineers took a risk in using them. Many of the bridges Eiffel had built were made from steel which Eiffel had helped pioneer. With the thriving Industrial world of the time. Some of his advancements included: designing a system of hydraulic presses which allowed workers to set bridge foundations deep under water, creating sturdy yet lightweight "web-like" trusses and arches to withstand high winds, using wrought iron for bridge construction because its flexibility could withstand high winds, curving the edges of piers to create more stable bases, and the development of "launching" which is a way to more easily move pieces of structures into place. Eiffel's ingenuity and brilliance allowed him to design and build some of the world's most famous structures. Buildings and structures The "Casa de Fierro" in the Peruvian jungle El Palacio de Hierro, Orizaba, Veracruz, México Konak Pier in İzmir, Turkey, designed by Gustave Eiffel Eiffel Tower Estación Central (main train station), Santiago, Chile Konak Pier, Izmir, Turkey Nice Observatory Palacio de Hierro, Orizaba Veracruz, Mexico Paradis Latin, Paris San Sebastian Church, Manila, Philippines Statue of Liberty The General Post Office, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam The Market, Dijon, France Bridges Truong Tien Bridge Birsbrücke, Münchenstein, Switzerland which collapsed on the 14th of June in 1891 killing over 70 people. See Munchenstein rail disaster. Bridge over the Schelde in Temse, in Belgium Garabit Viaduct Garonne River Bridge near Bordeaux was Eiffel's first project at age 25. Long Bien bridge, Hanoi, Vietnam Maria Pia Bridge (Porto Viaduct) Railway Bridge near Constitución, Chile Souleuvre Viaduct The Eiffel Bridge in Viana do Castelo's Marina was a Gustav Eiffel's project from 1878. The Railway Bridge over the Coura river in Caminha, Portugal. The road (D50) bridge over the River Lay at Lavaud in the Vendee, France Truong Tien Bridge is reflected in the Huong river, Hue, Viet Nam. Quezon Bridge in Quiapo District, Manila, Philippines Other works Combier Distillery, Saumur (Loire Valley), France Viaduct over the Sioule river (1867) Viaduct at Neuvial (1867) Notre Dame des Champs, Paris (1868) Swing bridge at Dieppe (1870) Gasworks of La Paz, Bolivia La Paz Train Station, La Paz, Bolivia (now Bus Station of La Paz) Church at Tacna, Peru (1875) Church in Arica, Chile Ruhnu Lighthouse at Ruhnu island, Estonia (1877) Hotel Traian, at Iaşi, Romania (1884) "Traian Hotel" from Iaşi, is Gustave Eiffel's link to Romania Bolivar Bridge, at Arequipa, Peru Fenix Theatre, at Arequipa, Peru San Camilo Market, at Arequipa, Peru Church at Santa Rosalía, Baja California Sur Bridge over the Tisza near Szeged, Hungary Farol de São Thomé in Campos, Brazil The framework of the Western Train station in Budapest, Hungary Great bridge over the Begej in Zrenjanin, Serbia, built in 1904, disassembled and replaced by concrete bridge in 1969 Mona Island Lighthouse at Mona Island, Puerto Rico Plaza del Mercado (local produce market) at Mayagüez, Puerto Rico ''Bridge in Trujillo Alto (still there but not used anymore), Puerto Rico Puente Quezon (Quezon Bridge) over Pasig River, Manila, Philippines House of Steel in Maputo, Mozambique Ajfel Bridge On Skenderija Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Dome (Salon Royale) of Hotel Negresco, Nice, France Pabellon de la Rosa Piriapolis, Uruguay Not Proved The Palácio de Ferro is thought to be designed by Eiffel. (Bridge over the Cuyuni River, southern Venezuela) Santa Efigênia Viaduct, São Paulo, Brazil (1913) Santa Justa Lift (Carmo Lift), in Lisbon, Portugal (1901) Dam on Great Bačka Canal, Bečej, Vojvodina, Serbia (1900) Malleco Viaduct, Chile (1890) Palácio de Ferro, Angola (1890) Unrealized projects Trinity Bridge, Saint Petersburg—Eiffel entered a project into the contest, but his project was not realized. Trivia Gustave's great-great-grandson, Savin Yeatman-Eiffel founded the independent animation company Sav! The World Productions, which has recently finished producing, writing, and directing its first TV production, Ōban Star-Racers. Further, in commemoration, his company's logo features the Eiffel Tower standing atop a globe. The song "Alec Eiffel" by alternative rock band the Pixies is a tribute to Gustave Eiffel. References Gustave Eiffel: The Man Behind the Masterpiece Gustave Eiffel Einsturz der Birsbrücke bei Münchenstein (Basel) be-x-old:Аляксандар Эйфэль | Gustave_Eiffel |@lemmatized alexandre:1 gustave:19 eiffel:72 december:3 french:6 english:1 usually:1 structural:2 engineer:9 entrepreneur:2 specialist:1 metallic:1 structure:11 famous:3 design:17 tower:23 built:1 universal:1 exposition:4 paris:10 france:15 armature:1 statue:10 liberty:6 new:8 york:2 harbor:1 u:1 monument:1 base:4 early:2 life:3 bear:1 dijon:3 côte:1 name:2 adopt:1 father:1 century:1 birthplace:1 german:1 eifel:1 region:1 marmagen:1 could:2 pronounce:1 actual:1 surname:1 bönickhausen:1 youth:1 two:4 strong:1 influence:2 successful:2 chemist:1 uncles:1 jean:1 baptiste:1 mollerat:1 michel:1 perret:2 men:1 spend:1 lot:1 time:4 young:1 fill:1 head:1 everything:1 chemistry:3 mining:1 religion:1 philosophy:1 school:5 extremely:3 smart:1 studious:1 attend:3 high:4 lycée:1 royal:1 bore:1 felt:1 class:1 waste:1 last:1 year:5 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2,343 | Kingdom_of_Jerusalem | This article is about the Christian kingdom. For the history of the city, see History of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem was a Christian kingdom established in the Levant in 1099 after the First Crusade. It lasted nearly two hundred years, from 1099 until 1291 when the last remaining possession, Acre, was destroyed by the Mamluks. At first the kingdom was little more than a loose collection of towns and cities captured during the crusade. At its height, the kingdom roughly encompassed the territory of modern-day Israel and the Palestinian territories. It extended from modern Lebanon in the north to the Sinai Desert in the south, and into modern Jordan and Syria in the east. There were also attempts to expand the kingdom into Fatimid Egypt. Its kings also held a certain amount of authority over the other crusader states, Tripoli, Antioch, and Edessa. Many customs and institutions were imported from the territories of Western Europe from which the crusaders came, and there were close familial and political connections with the West throughout the kingdom's existence. It was, however, a relatively minor kingdom in comparison and often lacked financial and military support from Europe. The kingdom had closer ties to the neighbouring Kingdom of Armenia and the Byzantine Empire, from which it inherited "oriental" qualities, and the kingdom was also influenced by pre-existing Muslim institutions. Socially, however, the "Latin" inhabitants from Western Europe had almost no contact with the Muslims and native Christians whom they ruled. At first the Muslim world had little concern for the fledgling kingdom, but as the 12th century progressed, the kingdom's increasingly-united Muslim neighbours vigorously began to recapture lost territory. Jerusalem itself was lost to Saladin in 1187, and by the 13th century the Kingdom was reduced to a small strip of land along the Mediterranean coast, dominated by a few cities. In this period, the kingdom, sometimes referred to as the "Kingdom of Acre", was dominated by the Lusignan dynasty of the crusader Kingdom of Cyprus, and ties were also strengthened with Tripoli, Antioch, and Armenia. The kingdom was also increasingly dominated by the Italian city-states of Venice and Genoa, as well as the imperial ambitions of the Holy Roman Emperors. Meanwhile the surrounding Muslim territories were united under the Ayyubid and later the Mamluk dynasties in Egypt, and the kingdom became little more than a pawn in the politics and warfare in the region, which saw invasions by the Khwarezmians and Mongols in the mid-13th century. The Mamluk sultans Baibars and al-Ashraf Khalil eventually reconquered all the remaining crusader strongholds, culminating in the destruction of Acre in 1291. History The First Crusade and the foundation of the kingdom The First Crusade was preached at the Council of Clermont in 1095 by Pope Urban II, with the goal of assisting the Byzantine Empire against the invasions of the Seljuk Turks. Very soon, however, the participants saw the main objective as the capturing or recapturing of the Holy Land. The kingdom came into being with the arrival of the crusaders in June 1099; a few of the neighbouring towns (Ramla, Lydda, Bethlehem, and others) were taken first, and Jerusalem itself was captured on July 15. The First Crusade is extensively documented in primary and secondary sources. See for example Thomas Asbridge, The First Crusade: A New History (Oxford: 2004), which takes in the most recent scholarship; Christopher Tyerman, God's War: A New History of the Crusades (Penguin: 2006), which deals extensively with the Crusade and also takes in the most recent academic research; Jonathan Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading (Pennsylvania: 1991); and Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades: Volume 1, The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem (Cambridge: 1953), somewhat out of date but still a very lively and readable account. There was immediately a dispute among the various leaders as to who would rule the newly-conquered territory, the two most worthy candidates being Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine, and Raymond of St. Gilles, Count of Toulouse. Neither wished to be crowned king in the city where Christ had worn his crown of thorns; Raymond was perhaps attempting to show his piety and hoped that the other nobles would insist upon his election anyway, but Godfrey, the more popular of the two, did no damage to his own piety by accepting a position as secular leader with an unknown or ill-defined title. A single letter written to Pope Paschal II gives Godfrey's title as Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri ("Defender of the Holy Sepulchre"), but it is not clear whether this was his actual title; similar phrases were also used by the later kings. Godfrey is called rex ("king") by Robert the Monk, and princeps ("prince") by other crusade chroniclers, but he seems to have referred to himself as nothing more than dux ("duke"), his title at home in Lower Lorraine. See Jonathan Riley-Smith, "The Title of Godfrey of Bouillon", Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research 52 (1979), 83-86, and Alan V. Murray, "The Title of Godfrey of Bouillon as Ruler of Jerusalem", Collegium Medievale 3 (1990), 163-78. With the election of Godfrey on July 22, Raymond, incensed, took his army to forage away from the city. The foundation of the kingdom, as well as Godfrey's reputation, was secured with the defeat of the Fatimid Egyptian army under al-Afdal Shahanshah at the Battle of Ascalon one month after the conquest, on August 12. However, Raymond and Godfrey's continued antagonism prevented the crusaders from taking control of Ascalon itself. Asbridge, pg. 326. There was still some uncertainty as to the nature of the new kingdom. The papal legate Daimbert of Pisa convinced Godfrey to hand over Jerusalem to him as Latin Patriarch, forming the basis for a theocratic state. According to William of Tyre, Godfrey may have supported Daimbert's efforts, and he agreed to take possession of "one or two other cities and thus enlarge the kingdom" if Daimbert were permitted to rule Jerusalem. William of Tyre, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea, trans. E.A. Babcock and A.C. Krey, Columbia University Press, 1943, vol. 1, bk. 9, ch. 16, pg. 404. During his short reign, Godfrey indeed increased the boundaries of the kingdom, by capturing Jaffa, Haifa, Tiberias, and other cities, and reducing many others to tributary status; he also set the foundations for the system of vassalage in the kingdom, including the Principality of Galilee and the County of Jaffa. The path for a secular state was therefore set during Godfrey's rule, and when Godfrey died of an illness in 1100, his brother Baldwin of Boulogne successfully outmanoeuvered Daimbert and claimed Jerusalem for himself as a secular "king of the Latins of Jerusalem." Daimbert compromised by crowning Baldwin in Bethlehem rather than Jerusalem, but the path for a secular state had been laid. Tyerman, pp. 201-202. Within this secular framework, a Catholic church hierarchy was established, overtop of the local Eastern Orthodox and Syrian Orthodox authorities, who retained their own hierarchies. Under the Latin Patriarch there were four suffragan archdioceses and numerous dioceses. Hans Eberhard Mayer, The Crusades, 2nd ed., trans. John Gillingham (Oxford: 1988), pp. 171-76. Expansion During Baldwin's reign the kingdom expanded even further. The numbers of Latin inhabitants increased, as the minor crusade of 1101 brought reinforcements to the kingdom. He also repopulated Jerusalem with Franks and native Christians, after his expedition across the Jordan in 1115. William of Tyre, vol. 1, bk. 11, ch. 27, pp. 507-508. With help from the Italian city-states and other adventurers, notably King Sigurd I of Norway, Baldwin captured the port cities of Acre (1104), Beirut (1110), and Sidon (1111), while also exerting his suzerainty over the other Crusader states to the north – the County of Edessa (which he had founded), the Principality of Antioch, and, after Tripoli was captured in 1109, the County of Tripoli. He successfully defended against Muslim invasions, from the Fatimids at the numerous battles at Ramla and elsewhere in the southwest of the kingdom, and from Damascus and Mosul in the northeast in 1113. Thomas Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades (Rowman and Littlefield, 2005), pp. 40-43. As Thomas Madden says, Baldwin was "the true founder of the kingdom of Jerusalem", who "had transformed a tenuous arrangement into a solid feudal state. With brilliance and diligence, he established a strong monarchy, conquered the Palestinian coast, reconciled the crusader barons, and built strong frontiers against the kingdom's Muslim neighbours." Madden, pg. 43. However, the kingdom would never overcome its geographic isolation from Europe. For almost its entire history it was confined to the narrow strip of land between the Mediterranean and the Jordan River; land beyond this was subject to constant raiding and warfare. The kingdom's population centres could also easily be isolated from each other in the event of a major invasion, which eventually led to the kingdom's downfall in the 1180s. Baldwin brought with him an Armenian wife, traditionally named Arda (although never named such by contemporaries), whom he had married to gain political support from the Armenian population in Edessa, and whom he quickly set aside when he found that he had no need of Armenian support in Jerusalem. He bigamously married Adelaide del Vasto, regent of Sicily, in 1113, but was convinced to divorce her as well in 1117; Adelaide's son from her first marriage, Roger II of Sicily, never forgave Jerusalem, and for decades withheld much-needed Sicilian naval support. Mayer, pp. 71-72. Baldwin died without heirs in 1118, during a campaign against Egypt, and the kingdom was offered to his brother Eustace III of Boulogne, who had accompanied Baldwin and Godfrey on the crusade, but he was uninterested. Instead the crown passed to Baldwin's relative, probably a cousin, Baldwin of Le Bourg, who had previously succeeded him as Count of Edessa. Baldwin II was also an able ruler, and he too successfully defended against Fatimid and Seljuk invasions. Although Antioch was severely weakened after the Battle of Ager Sanguinis in 1119, and Baldwin himself was held captive by the emir of Aleppo from 1122-1124, Baldwin led the crusader states to victory at the Battle of Azaz in 1125. His reign also saw the establishment of the first military orders, the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar. The earliest surviving written laws of the kingdom were compiled at the Council of Nablus in 1120, and the first commercial treaty with Venice, the Pactum Warmundi, was written in 1124; the increase of naval and military support from Venice led to capture of Tyre that year. The influence of Jerusalem was also further extended over Edessa and Antioch, where Baldwin II acted as regent when their own leaders were killed in battle, although there were regency governments in Jerusalem as well during Baldwin's captivity. Mayer, pp. 72-77. Baldwin was married to the Armenian princess Morphia of Melitene, and had four daughters: Hodierna and Alice, who married into the families of the Count of Tripoli and Prince of Antioch; Ioveta, who became an influential abbess; and the eldest, Melisende, who was his heir and succeeded him upon his death in 1131, with her husband Fulk V of Anjou as king-consort. Their son, the future Baldwin III, was also named co-heir by his grandfather. Tyerman, pp. 207-208. Edessa, Damascus, and the Second Crusade Fulk was an experienced crusader, who had brought military support to the kingdom during a pilgrimage in 1120. He also brought Jerusalem into the sphere of the Angevin Empire, as the father of Geoffrey V of Anjou and grandfather of the future Henry II of England. Not everyone appreciated the imposition of a foreigner as king, however; in 1132 Antioch, Tripoli, and Edessa all asserted their independence and conspired to prevent Fulk from exercising the suzerainty of Jerusalem over them. He defeated Tripoli in battle, and settled the regency in Antioch by arranging a marriage between the countess, Melisende's niece Constance, and his own relative Raymond of Poitiers. Mayer, pp. 83-85. Meanwhile, in Jerusalem, the native crusader nobles opposed Fulk's preference for his Angevin retinue. In 1134 Hugh II of Jaffa revolted against Fulk, allying with the Muslim garrison at Ascalon, for which he was convicted of treason in absentia. The Latin Patriarch intervened to settle the dispute, but an assassination attempt was then made on Hugh, for which Fulk was blamed. This scandal allowed Melisende and her supporters to gain control of the government, just as her father had intended. Mayer, pp. 83-84. Accordingly, Fulk "became so uxorious that...not even in unimportant cases did he take any measures without her knowledge and assistance." William of Tyre, vol. II, bk. 14, ch. 18, pg. 76. Fulk, a renowned military commander, was then faced with a new and more dangerous enemy: the Atabeg Zengi of Mosul, who had taken control of Aleppo and had set his sights on Damascus as well; the union of these three states would have been a serious blow to the growing power of Jerusalem. A brief intervention in 1137-1138 by the Byzantine emperor John II Comnenus, who wished to assert imperial suzerainty over all the crusader states, did nothing to stop the threat of Zengi; in 1139 Damascus and Jerusalem recognized the severity of the threat to both states, and an alliance was concluded which temporarily halted Zengi's advance. Fulk used this time to construct numerous castles, including Ibelin and Kerak. Mayer, pp. 86-88. However, after the death of both Fulk and Emperor John in separate hunting accidents in 1143, Zengi successfully invaded and conquered Edessa in 1144. Queen Melisende, now regent for her elder son Baldwin III, appointed a new constable, Manasses of Hierges, to head the army after Fulk's death, but Edessa could not be recaptured, despite Zengi's own assassination in 1146. Mayer, pg. 92. The fall of Edessa shocked Europe, and a Second Crusade arrived in 1148. After meeting in Acre in June, the crusading kings Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany agreed with Melisende, Baldwin III and the major nobles of the kingdom to attack Damascus. Zengi's territory had been divided amongst his sons after his death, and Damascus no longer felt threatened, so an alliance had been made with Zengi's son Nur ad-Din, the emir of Aleppo. Perhaps remembering attacks launched on Jerusalem from Damascus in previous decades, Damascus seemed to be the best target for the crusade, rather than Aleppo or another city to the north which would have allowed for the recapture of Edessa. The subsequent Siege of Damascus was a complete failure; when the city seemed to be on the verge of collapse, the crusader army suddenly moved against another section of the walls, and were driven back. The crusaders retreated within three days. There were rumours of treachery and bribery, and Conrad III felt betrayed by the nobility of Jerusalem. Whatever the reason for the failure, the French and German armies returned home, and a few years later Damascus was firmly under Nur ad-Din's control. Jonathan Phillips, The Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom (Yale University Press, 2007), pp. 216-227.</ref> With Syria in the east now united, the kingdom's attention was turned towards the much weaker Fatimid Egypt in the west. Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Comnenus, who became a close ally of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Civil war The failure of the Second Crusade had dire long-term consequences for the kingdom. The West was hesitant to send large-scale expeditions; for the next few decades, only small armies came, headed by minor European nobles who desired to make a pilgrimage. The Muslim states of Syria were meanwhile gradually united by Nur ad-Din, who defeated the Principality of Antioch at the Battle of Inab in 1149 and gained control of Damascus in 1154. Nur ad-Din was extremely pious and during his rule the concept of jihad came to be interpreted as a kind of counter-crusade against the kingdom, which was an impediment to Muslim unity, both political and spiritual. Tyerman, pp. 344-345. In Jerusalem, the crusaders were distracted by a conflict between Melisende and Baldwin III. Melisende continued to rule as regent long after Baldwin came of age. She was supported by, among others, Manasses of Hierges, who essentially governed for her as constable, her son Amalric, whom she set up as Count of Jaffa, Philip of Milly, and the Ibelin family. Baldwin asserted his independence by mediating disputes in Antioch and Tripoli, and gained the support of the Ibelin brothers when they began to oppose Manasses growing power, thanks to his marriage to their widowed mother Helvis of Ramla. In 1153 Baldwin had himself crowned as sole ruler, and a compromise was reached by which the kingdom was divided in two, with Baldwin taking Acre and Tyre in the north and Melisende remaining in control of Jerusalem and the cities of the south. Baldwin was also able to replace Manasses with one of his own supporters, Humphrey II of Toron. However, both Baldwin and Melisende knew that this situation was untenable. Baldwin soon invaded his mother's possessions, defeated Manasses, and besieged his mother in the Tower of David in Jerusalem. Melisende surrendered and retired to Nablus, but Baldwin appointed her his regent and chief advisor, and she retained some of her influence, especially in appointing ecclesiastical officials. Mayer, 108-111. In 1153, Baldwin launched an offensive against Ascalon, the fortress in the south from which Fatimid Egyptian armies had continually raided Jerusalem since the foundation of the kingdom. The fortress was captured and was added to the County of Jaffa, still in the possession of his brother Amalric. Mayer, pg. 112 Byzantine alliance and invasion of Egypt With the capture of Ascalon the southern border of the kingdom was now secure, and Egypt, which had formerly been a major threat to the kingdom but was now destabilized under the reign of several underaged caliphs, was reduced to a tributary state. Nur ad-Din remained a threat in the east, and Baldwin also had to contend with the advances of Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus, who claimed suzerainty over the Principality of Antioch. In order to bolster the defences of the kingdom against the growing strength of the Muslims, Baldwin III made the first direct alliance with the Byzantine Empire, by marrying Theodora Comnena, a niece of emperor Manuel; Manuel also married Baldwin's cousin Maria. Madden, pp. 64-65. As crusade historian William of Tyre put it, it was hoped that Manuel would be able "to relieve from his own abundance the distress under which our realm was suffering and to change our poverty into superabundance". William of Tyre, vol. II, bk. 18 ch. 16, pg. 265. When Baldwin died childless in 1162, a year after his mother Melisende, the kingdom passed to his brother Amalric I, who renewed the alliance negotiated by Baldwin. In 1163 the chaotic situation in Egypt led to a refusal to pay tribute to Jerusalem, and requests were sent to Nur ad-Din for assistance; in response, Amalric invaded, but was turned back when the Egyptians flooded the Nile at Bilbeis. The Egyptian vizier Shawar again requested help from Nur ad-Din, who sent his general Shirkuh, but Shawar quickly turned against him and allied with Amalric. Amalric and Shirkuh both besieged Bilbeis in 1164, but both withdrew due to Nur ad-Din's campaigns against Antioch, where Bohemond III of Antioch and Raymond III of Tripoli were defeated at the Battle of Harim. There seemed every chance that Antioch itself would fall to Nur ad-Din. Emperor Manuel immediately sent a large Byzantine force to the area, and Nur ad-Din retreated. Manuel also paid the ransom to release Bohemond from captivity. However, neither Amalric nor Nur ad-Din could ignore Egypt; Shirkuh was sent back to Egypt in 1166, and Shawar again allied with Amalric, who was defeated at the Battle of al-Babein. Despite the defeat, both sides withdrew once more, but Shawar remained in control with a crusader garrison in Cairo. Tyerman, pp. 347-348; Mayer, pg. 118-119. Amalric cemented his alliance with Manuel by marrying Manuel's niece Maria Komnene in 1167, and an embassy led by William of Tyre was sent to Constantinople to negotiate a military expedition, but in 1168 Amarlic pillaged Bilbeis without waiting for the naval support promised by Manuel. Amalric accomplished nothing else, but his actions prompted Shawar to switch sides and seek help from Shirkuh. Shawar was promptly assassinated, and when Shirkuh died in 1169, he was succeeded by his nephew Yusuf, better known as Saladin. That year, Manuel sent a large Byzantine fleet of some 300 ships to assist Amalric, and the town of Damietta was placed under siege. However, due to the failure of the crusaders and the Byzantines to cooperate fully, the chance to capture Egypt was thrown away. The Byzantine fleet sailed only with provisions for three months: by the time the crusaders were ready, supplies were already running out, and eventually the fleet retired. Each side sought to blame the other for failure, but both also knew that they depended on each other: the alliance was maintained, and plans for another campaign in Egypt were made, which ultimately were to come to naught. Mayer, pp. 119-120. In the end, Nur ad-Din was victorious and Saladin established himself as Sultan of Egypt. Saladin soon began to assert his independence from Nur ad-Din, and with the death of both Amalric and Nur ad-Din in 1174, he was well-placed to begin exerting control over Nur ad-Din's Syrian possessions as well. Tyerman, pg. 350. With the death of the pro-western Emperor Manuel in 1180, the Kingdom of Jerusalem also lost its most powerful ally. Disaster and recovery Saladin, from a 12th-century Arab codex. Amalric was succeeded by his young son, Baldwin IV, who was discovered at a very young age to be a leper. Baldwin nevertheless proved to be an effective and energetic king as well as being a brilliant military commander. His mother, Agnes of Courtenay, returned to the court, but her influence has been greatly exaggerated by earlier historians. Her role in appointing Eraclius, archbishop of Caesarea, as Patriarch of Jerusalem, followed the precedent of Queen Melisende: however, it sparked a grudge in Eraclius's rival, William of Tyre. His writings, and those of his continuators in the Chronicle of Ernoul, damaged her political and sexual reputation until the recent years. Count Raymond III of Tripoli, his father's first cousin, was bailli or regent during Baldwin IV's minority. Baldwin reached his majority in 1176, and despite his illness he no longer had any legal need for a regent. Since Raymond was his nearest relative in the male line, with a strong claim to the throne, there was concern about the extent of his ambitions (although he had no direct heirs of his body). To balance this, the king turned from time to time to his uncle, Joscelin III of Edessa, after he was ransomed in 1176: as his maternal kin, the Courtenay family had no claim to the throne. As a leper, Baldwin would never produce an heir, so the focus of his succession passed to his sister Sibylla and his younger half-sister Isabella. Baldwin and his advisors recognised that it was essential for Sibylla to be married to a Western nobleman in order to access support from Europe in a military crisis. In 1176, he married her to William of Montferrat, a cousin of Louis VII and of Frederick Barbarossa. Unfortunately, William died only a few months later in 1177, leaving Sibylla pregnant with the future Baldwin V. Meanwhile, Baldwin IV's stepmother Maria, mother of Isabella, married Balian of Ibelin. Baldwin defeated Saladin at the Battle of Montgisard in 1177, giving Jerusalem a brief respite from Saladin's continual attacks. The succession, however, remained a difficult issue. In 1180 Baldwin blocked moves by Raymond of Tripoli to marry Sibylla off to Baldwin of Ibelin by arranging her marriage to Guy of Lusignan. Guy was the younger brother of Amalric of Lusignan, who had already established himself as a capable figure in the kingdom, supported by the Courtenays. More importantly, internationally, the Lusignans were useful as vassals of Baldwin and Sibylla's cousin Henry II of England. Baldwin also betrothed Isabella (aged 8) to Humphrey IV of Toron, stepson of the powerful Raynald of Chatillon - thereby removing her from the influence of the Ibelin family and her mother. Guy was appointed bailli during the king's bouts of illness. In 1183 Isabella married Humphrey at Kerak, during a siege by Saladin. Baldwin, now blind and crippled, went to the castle's relief on a litter, tended by his mother. He became disillusioned with Guy's military performance there (he was less competent than his brother Amalric), and was reconciled with Raymond. To cut Sibylla and Guy out of the succession, he had Sibylla's son Baldwin of Montferrat crowned Baldwin V, as co-king, although the boy was only 5. The succession crisis had prompted a mission to the west to seek assistance: in 1184, Patriarch Eraclius travelled throughout the courts of Europe, but no help was forthcoming. The chronicler Ralph Niger reports that his enormous retinue and opulent dress offended the sensibilities of many westerners, who felt that if the east was so wealthy, no help was needed from the west. Eraclius offered the kingship to both Philip II of France and Henry II of England; the latter, as a grandson of Fulk, was a first cousin of the royal family of Jerusalem, and had promised to go on crusade after the murder of Thomas Becket, but he preferred to remain at home to defend his own territories. However, William V of Montferrat did come to support his grandson Baldwin V Baldwin IV died in spring 1185, and Baldwin V became king, with Raymond of Tripoli as regent and his great-uncle Joscelin of Edessa as his guardian. However, he was a sickly child and died in the summer of 1186. The kingdom passed to his mother Sibylla, on the condition that her marriage to Guy be annulled; she agreed, if only she could chose her own husband next time. The annulment did not take place: after being crowned, Sibylla immediately crowned Guy with her own hands. Raymond and the Ibelins attempted a coup, in order to place Baldwin IV and Sibylla's half-sister Isabella on the throne, with her husband Humphrey of Toron. Humphrey, however, defected to Guy. Disgusted, Raymond returned to Tripoli, and Baldwin of Ibelin also left the kingdom. Loss of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade Main entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The Near East, c. 1190, at the outset of the Third Crusade. Guy proved a disastrous ruler. His close ally Raynald of Chatillon, the lord of Oultrejourdain and of Kerak, provoked Saladin into open war by attacking Muslim caravans and threatening to attack Mecca itself. To make matters worse, Raymond had allied with Saladin against Guy and had allowed a Muslim garrison to occupy his fief in Tiberias. Guy was on the verge of attacking Raymond before Balian of Ibelin effected a reconciliation in 1187, and the two joined together to attack Saladin at Tiberias. However, Guy and Raymond could not agree on a proper plan of attack, and on July 4, 1187, the army of the Kingdom was utterly destroyed at the Battle of Hattin. Raynald was executed and Guy was imprisoned in Damascus. Over the next few months Saladin easily overran the entire Kingdom, save for the port of Tyre, which was ably defended by Conrad of Montferrat, the paternal uncle of Baldwin V, lately arrived from Constantinople. The subsequent fall of Jerusalem essentially ended the first Kingdom of Jerusalem. Much of the population, swollen with refugees fleeing Saladin's conquest of the surrounding territory, was allowed to flee to Tyre, Tripoli, or Egypt (whence they were sent back to Europe), but those who could not pay for their freedom were sold into slavery, and those who could were often robbed by Christians and Muslims alike on their way into exile. The capture of the city shocked Europe, resulting in the Third Crusade, which was launched in 1189, led by Richard the Lionheart, Philip Augustus and Frederick Barbarossa, though the last drowned en route. Guy of Lusignan, who had been refused entry to Tyre by Conrad, began to besiege Acre in 1189. During the lengthy siege, which lasted until 1191, Patriarch Eraclius, Queen Sibylla and her daughters, and many others died of disease. With the death of Sibylla in 1190, Guy now had no legal claim to the kingship, and the succession passed to Isabella. Her mother Maria and the Ibelins (now closely allied to Conrad) argued that Isabella and Humphrey's marriage was illegal, as she had been underage at the time; underlying this was the fact that Humphrey had betrayed his wife's cause in 1186. The marriage was annulled amid some controversy. (The annulment followed the precedents of Amalric I and Agnes, and - though not carried out - Sibylla and Guy - of succession dependent on annulling a politically inconvenient match.) Conrad, who was nearest kinsman to Baldwin V in the male line, and had already proved himself a capable military leader, then married Isabella, but Guy refused to concede the crown. When Richard arrived in 1191, he and Philip took different sides in the succession dispute. Richard backed Guy, his vassal from Poitou, while Philip supported Conrad, a cousin of his late father Louis VII. After much ill-feeling and ill-health, Philip returned home in 1191, soon after the fall of Acre. Richard defeated Saladin at the Battle of Arsuf in 1191 and the Battle of Jaffa in 1192, recovering most of the coast, but could not recover Jerusalem or any of the inland territory of the kingdom. Conrad was unanimously elected king in April 1192, but was murdered by the Hashshashin only days later. Eight days later, the pregnant Isabella was married to Count Henry II of Champagne, nephew of Richard and Philip, but politically allied to Richard. Guy was sold the Kingdom of Cyprus, after Richard had captured the island on the way to Acre, as compensation. The crusade came to an end peacefully, with the Treaty of Ramla negotiated in 1192; Saladin allowed pilgrimages to be made to Jerusalem, allowing the crusaders to fulfill their vows, after which they all returned home. The native crusader barons set about rebuilding their kingdom from Acre and the other coastal cities. Shortly after Richard left, Saladin died and his realm fell into civil war, leaving the Crusader lords further embittered at what could have been accomplished had the European princes remained to help rebuild. The Kingdom of Acre For the next hundred years, the Kingdom of Jerusalem clung to life as a tiny kingdom hugging the Syrian coastline. Its capital was moved to Acre and controlled most of the coastline of present day Israel and southern and central Lebanon, including the strongholds and towns of Jaffa, Arsuf, Caesarea, Tyre, Sidon, and Beirut. At best, it included only a few other significant cities, such as Ascalon and some interior fortresses, as well as suzerainty over Tripoli and Antioch. The new king, Henry of Champagne, died accidentally in 1197, and Isabella married for a fourth time, to Amalric of Lusignan, Guy's brother. A Fourth Crusade was planned after the failure of the Third, but it resulted in the sack of Constantinople in 1204 and the crusaders involved never arrived in the kingdom. Frederick II (left) meets al-Kamil (right). Both Isabella and Amalric died in 1205 and again an underage girl, Isabella and Conrad's daughter Maria of Montferrat, became queen of Jerusalem. In 1210 Maria was married to an experienced knight, John of Brienne, who succeeded in keeping the tiny kingdom safe. She died in childbirth in 1212, and John continued to rule as regent for their daughter Yolande. Schemes were hatched to reconquer Jerusalem through Egypt, resulting in the failed Fifth Crusade against Damietta in 1217; King John took part in this, but the crusade was a failure. John travelled throughout Europe seeking assistance, and found support only from Emperor Frederick II, who then married John and Maria's daughter, Queen Yolande. Frederick II led the Sixth Crusade in 1228, and claimed the kingship of Jerusalem by right of his wife, just as John had done. Indeed, the sheer size of Frederick II's army and his stature before the Islamic world was sufficient to regain Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, and a number of surrounding castles without a fight: these were recovered by treaty with the Ayyubid Sultan Al-Kamil. However, the nobles of Outremer, led by the regent John of Ibelin, not only felt more could have been recovered militarily, but also resented his attempts to impose Imperial authority over their kingdom, resulting in a number of military confrontations both on the mainland and on Cyprus. The recovery was short-lived - not enough territory had been ceded to make the city defensible, and in 1244 the Ayyubids invited the Khwarezmian clans displaced by the Mongols to reconquer the city. In the resulting siege and conquest the Khwarezmians completely razed Jerusalem, leaving it in ruins and useless to both Christians and Muslims. The Seventh Crusade under Louis IX of France was inspired by this massacre, but it accomplished little save to replace the Ayyubids and Khwarezmians with the more powerful Mamluks as the Crusaders' main enemy in 1250. Because the monarchy was now directly tied to powerful sovereigns in Europe, for the period from 1229 to 1268, the monarch resided in Europe and usually had a larger realm to pursue or take care of, thereby leaving governance to the Haute Cour. Kings of Jerusalem were represented by their baillis and regents. The title of King of Jerusalem was inherited by Conrad IV of Germany, son of Frederick II and Yolande, and later by his own son Conradin. With the death of Conradin, the kingdom was inherited by King Hugh III of Cyprus. The territory descended into squabbling between the nobles of Cyprus and the mainland, between the remnant of the (now unified) County of Tripoli and Principality of Antioch, whose rulers also vied for influence in Acre, and especially between the Italian merchant communities, whose quarrels erupted in the so-called "War of Saint Sabas" in Acre in 1257. After the Seventh Crusade, no organized effort from Europe ever arrived in the Kingdom, although in 1277 Charles of Anjou bought the title of "King of Jerusalem" from a pretender to the throne. He never appeared in Acre but sent a representative, who, like Frederick II's representatives before him, was rejected by the nobles of Outremer. Despite their precarious geopolitical situation, the Frankish realm managed to maintain an economically viable and influential power. Frankish diplomats aimed to keep the Muslim powers divided against each other, utilizing the feared Assassins as much as other Islamic rulers. In their later years, faced with the threat of the Egyptian Mamluks, the Crusaders' hopes rested with a Franco-Mongol alliance. The Mongols were thought to be sympathetic to Christianity, and some Christian territories such as Georgia, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, and Antioch had already submitted to Mongol overlordship in the mid-1200s, though others had refused any kind of alliance. The Mongols successfully attacked as far south as Damascus on these campaigns. In 1260, while the Mongol forces were temporarily depleted because of internal issues in the Empire, the Mamluks negotiated a passive alliance with the Barons of Acre. The Crusaders still saw the Muslims as enemies, but also saw that the Mongols were the greater threat at the time, and therefore the Crusaders allowed the Mamluks to advance northwards through Crusader territory, and resupply near Acre before engaging the Mongols in battle. This led to the Mongols suffering a historic defeat by the Mamluks at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, and the Mongols could never avenge the loss, instead being limited to a few raids into Palestine in 1260 and 1300. The Mamluks, for their part, eventually broke any truces with the Crusaders, and made good their pledge to cleanse the entire Middle East of the infidel Franks; in 1291, Acre, the last major Crusader stronghold, was taken by Sultan Al-Ashraf Khalil. This conquest was far less merciful than that of Saladin one hundred years before; much of the Frankish population was massacred or sold into slavery, such that Khalil could proclaim "A pearly white Frankish woman couldn't sell in the bazaar for a penny!" After Acre fell, the Crusaders moved their headquarters north to cities such as Tortosa, but lost that too, and were forced to relocate their headquarters offshore to Cyprus. Some naval raids and attempts to retake territory were made over the next ten years, but with the loss of the island of Arwad in 1302/1303, the Kingdom of Jerusalem ceased to exist on the mainland. The kings of Cyprus for many decades hatched plans to regain the Holy Land, but without success. For the next seven centuries, up to today, a veritable multitude of European monarchs have used the title of King of Jerusalem. See Kings of Jerusalem. Life in the early kingdom Crusader Jerusalem. The Latin population of the kingdom was always small; although a steady stream of settlers and new crusaders continually arrived, most of the original crusaders who fought in the First Crusade simply went home. According to William of Tyre, "barely three hundred knights and two thousand foot soldiers could be found" in the kingdom in 1100 during Godfrey's siege of Arsuf. William of Tyre, vol. 1, bk. 9, ch. 19, pg. 408. From the very beginning, the Latins were little more than a colonial frontier exercising rule over the native Muslim, Greek and Syrian population, who were more populous in number. But Jerusalem came to be known as Outremer, the French word for "overseas," and as new generations grew up in the kingdom, they also began to think of themselves as natives, rather than immigrants. Although they never gave up their core identity as Western Europeans or Franks, their clothing, diet, and commercialism integrated much Oriental, particularly Byzantine, influence. As the chronicler Fulcher of Chartres wrote around 1124, "For we who were Occidentals now have been made Orientals. He who was a Roman or Frank has in this land been made into a Galilean or a Palestinean. He who was of Rheims or Chartres has now become a citizen of Tyre or Antioch. We have already forgotten the places of our birth; already these are unknown to many of us or not mentioned any more." Fulcher of Chartres, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem, trans. Frances Rita Ryan, University of Tennessee Press, 1969, bk. III, ch. XXXVII.3. pg. 271 (available online). The crusaders and their descendants often learned to speak Greek, Arabic, and other eastern languages, and intermarried with the native Christians (whether Greek, Syrian, or Armenian) and sometimes with converted Muslims. Fulcher, bk. III, ch. XXXVII.4, pg. 271. Nonetheless, the Frankish principalities remained a distinctive Occidental colony in the heart of Islam. Fulcher, a participant in the First Crusade and chaplain of Baldwin I, continued his chronicle up to 1127. Fulcher's chronicle was very popular and was used as a source by other historians in the west, such as Orderic Vitalis and William of Malmesbury. Almost as soon as Jerusalem had been captured, and continuing throughout the 12th century, many pilgrims arrived and left accounts of the new kingdom; among them are the English Saewulf, the Russian Abbot Daniel, the Frank Fretellus, the Byzantine Johannes Phocas, and the Germans John of Wurzburg and Theoderich. Many chronicles of individual pilgrims are collected together in the Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society (London, 1884-); "Recueil de voyages et mémoires", published by the Société de Géographie (Paris, 1824-66); "Recueil de voyages et de documents pour servir à la géographie" (Paris, 1890-). Aside from these, thereafter there is no eyewitness to events in Jerusalem until William of Tyre, archbishop of Tyre and chancellor of Jerusalem, who began writing around 1167 and died around 1184, although he includes much information about the First Crusade and the intervening years from the death of Fulcher to his own time, drawn mainly from the writings of Albert of Aix and Fulcher himself. From the Muslim perspective, a chief source of information is Usamah ibn Munqidh, a soldier and frequent ambassador from Damascus to Jerusalem and Egypt, whose memoirs, Kitab al i'tibar, include lively accounts of crusader society in the east. Further information can be gathered from travellers such as Benjamin of Tudela and Ibn Jubayr. Crusader society and demographics The Kingdom at first was virtually bereft of a loyal subject population and had few knights to implement the laws and orders of the realm. However, with the arrival of Italian trading firms, the creation of the military orders, and immigration by European knights, artisans, and farmers, the affairs of the Kingdom improved and a feudal society developed, similar to but distinct from the society the crusaders knew in Europe. The nature of this society has long been a subject of debate among crusade historians. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, French scholars, such as E. G. Rey, Gaston Dodu, and Rene Grousset believed that the crusaders and the native Muslims and Christians lived in a totally integrated society. Ronnie Ellenblum however claims this view was influenced by French imperialism and colonialism; if medieval French crusaders could integrate themselves into local society, then certainly modern French colonies in the Levant could also thrive. Ronnie Ellenblum, Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 3-4, 10-11. In the mid-20th century, scholars such as Joshua Prawer, R. C. Smail, Meron Benvenisti, and Claude Cahen argued instead that the crusaders lived totally segregated from the native inhabitants, who were thoroughly Arabicized and/or Islamicized and were a constant threat to the foreign crusaders. Prawer argued further that the kingdom was an early attempt at colonization, in which the crusaders were a small ruling class, who were dependent on the native population for survival but made no attempt to integrate with them. Joshua Prawer, The Crusaders' Kingdom: European Colonialism in the Middle Ages (Praeger, 1972), pg. 60; pp. 469-470; and throughout. For this reason, the rural European society to which the crusaders were accustomed was replaced by a more secure urban society in the pre-existing cities of the Levant. Ellenblum, pp. 5-9. According to Ellenblum's interpretation the inhabitants of the Kingdom (Latin Christians living alongside native Greek and Syrian Christians, Shia and Sunni Arabs, Sufis, Bedouin, Turks, Druze, Jews, and Samaritans) all had major differences between each other as well as with the crusaders. Relations between eastern Christians and the Latin crusaders were "complex and ambiguous", not simply friendly or hostile. The Turks were the common enemy for everyone, as they were only very recent arrivals in the Levant, and although they had imposed their rule prior to the arrival of the crusaders, it is unlikely that they were thoroughly Islamicized as Prawer and others believed. The eastern Christians, at least, probably felt closer ties to their fellow Christian crusaders than to either Turkic overlords or Muslim Arabs. Ellenblum, pp. 26-28. Although the crusaders came upon an ancient urban society, Ellenblum argues that they neither completely abandoned their rural European lifestyle, nor was European society completely rural to begin with. Crusader settlement in the Levant resembled the types of colonization and settlement that were already being practised in Europe, a mixture of urban and rural civilization centred around fortresses. The crusaders were neither totally integrated with the native population, nor did they segregate themselves in the cities away from the rural natives, but rather that they settled in both urban and rural areas; specifically, they settled in areas that had traditionally been inhabited by the eastern Christians. Areas that were traditionally Muslim had very little crusader settlement, just as they already had very few native Christian inhabitants. Ellenblum, pp. 36-37. Into this mixed society the crusaders adapted existing institutions and introduced their own familiar customs from Europe. As in Europe the nobles had their own vassals and were themselves vassals to the king. Agricultural production was regulated by the iqta, a Muslim system of land ownership and payments roughly (though far from exactly) equivalent to the feudal system of Europe, and this system was not heavily disrupted by the crusaders. Prawer, Crusader Institutions, pp. 197, 205. As Hans Mayer says, "the Muslim inhabitants of the Latin Kingdom hardly ever appear in the Latin chronicles," so information on their role in society is difficult to find. The crusaders "had a natural tendency to ignore these matters as simply without interest and certainly not worthy of record." Hans Mayer, "Latins, Muslims, and Greeks in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem", History 63 (1978), pg. 175; reprinted in Probleme des lateinischen Königreichs Jerusalem (Variorum, 1983). Although Muslims, as well as Jews and Eastern Christians, had virtually no rights in the countryside, where they were essentially the property of the crusader lord who owned the land Mayer calls them "chattels of the state"; ibid., pg. 177 , tolerance for other faiths was in general higher than that found elsewhere in the Middle East. Greeks, Syrians, and Jews continued to live as they had before, subject to their own laws and courts, with their former Muslim overlords simply replaced by the crusaders; Muslims now joined them at the lowest level of society. The ra'is, the leader of a Muslim or Syrian community, was a kind of vassal to whatever noble owned his land, but as the crusader nobles were absentee landlords the ra'is and their communities had a high degree of autonomy. Prawer, Crusader Institutions, pg. 207; Jonathan Riley-Smith, "Some lesser officials in Latin Syria" (English Historical Review, vol. 87, no. 342 (Jan., 1972)), pp. 1-15. In the cities, Muslims and Eastern Christians were free, although no Muslims were permitted to live in Jerusalem itself. They were second-class citizens and played no part in politics or law, and owed no military service to the crown, although in some cities they may have been the majority of the population. Likewise, citizens of the Italian city-states owed nothing as they lived in autonomous quarters in the port cities. Prawer, Crusader Institutions, pg. 202. There were also an unknown number of Muslim slaves living in the Kingdom. There was a very large slave market in Acre which functioned throughout the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Although Christians, both Western and Eastern, were by law prohibited from being sold into slavery, the native Christians were often indistinguishable from the Muslim population and the Italian merchants were sometimes accused of selling them along with Muslim slaves. Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Feudal Nobility, pp. 62-63. Slavery was less common than ransom, especially for prisoners of war; the large numbers of prisoners taken during raids and battles every year ensured that ransom money flowed freely between the Christian and Muslim states. Yvonne Friedman, Encounter between Enemies: Captivity and Ransom in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. Brill, 2002, throughout. Escape for prisoners and slaves was probably not difficult, as the inhabitants of the countryside were majority Muslim, and fugitive slaves were always a problem. The only legal means of manumission was conversion to (Catholic) Christianity. No Christian, whether Western or Eastern, was permitted by law to be sold into slavery. Prawer, Crusader Institutions, pg. 209. The nomadic Bedouin tribes were legally considered to be personal property of the king and were under his protection. They could, however, be sold or alienated just like any other property, and later in the twelfth century they are often found under the protection of a lesser noble or one of the military orders. Prawer, Crusader Institutions, pg. 214. Population It is impossible to give an accurate estimate of the population of the kingdom. Josiah Russell calculates that all of Syria had about 2.3 million people at the time of the crusades, with perhaps eleven thousand villages; most of these, of course, were outside of crusader rule even at the greatest extent of all four crusader states. Josiah C. Russell, “Population of the Crusader States”, in Setton, ed. Crusades, vol. 5, pg. 108. It has been estimated by scholars such as Joshua Prawer and Meron Benvenisti that there were at most 120,000 Franks and 100,000 Muslims living in the cities, with another 250,000 Muslim and Eastern Christian peasants in the countryside. The crusaders accounted for 15-25% of the total population. Benjamin Z. Kedar, "The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant", in Muslims Under Latin Rule, 1100-1300, ed. James M. Powell, Princeton University Press, 1990, pg. 148; reprinted in The Crusades: The Essential Readings, ed. Thomas F. Madden, Blackwell, 2002, pg. 244. Kedar quotes his numbers from Joshua Prawer, Histoire du royaume latin de Jérusalem, tr. G. Nahon, Paris, 1969, vol. 1, pp. 498, 568-72. Benjamin Z. Kedar estimates that there were between three hundred thousand and three hundred and sixty thousand non-Franks in the Kingdom, two hundred and fifty thousand of whom were villagers in the countryside, and “one may assume that Muslims were in the majority in some, possibly most parts of the kingdom of Jerusalem…” Ibid., pg. 148-149. As Ronnie Ellenblum points out, however, there simply is not enough existing evidence to accurately count the population and any estimate is inherently unreliable. Ellenblum, pg. 31. Contemporary chronicler William of Tyre recorded the census of 1183, which was intended to determine the number of men available to defend against an invasion, and also to determine the amount of tax money that could be obtained from the inhabitants, Muslim or Christian. If, however, the population was actually counted, William did not record the number. William of Tyre, vol. 2, bk. 22, ch. 23, pp. 486-488. In the 13th century, John of Ibelin drew up a list of fiefs and the number of knights owed by each, but this gives no indication of the non-noble, non-Latin population. Economy The urban composition of the area, combined with the presence of the Italian merchants, led to the development of an economy that was much more commercial than it was agricultural. Palestine had always been a crossroads for trade; now, this trade extended to Europe as well. European goods, such as the woolen textiles of northern Europe, made their way to the Middle East and Asia, while Asian goods were transported back to Europe. Jerusalem was especially involved in the silk, cotton and spice trade; other items that first appeared in Europe through trade with crusader Jerusalem included oranges and sugar, the latter of which chronicler William of Tyre called "very necessary for the use and health of mankind." In the countryside, wheat, barley, legumes, olives, grapes, and dates were also grown. The Italian city-states made enormous profits from this trade, thanks to commercial treaties like the Pactum Warmundi, and it influenced their Renaissance in later centuries. Jerusalem also collected money through tribute payments, first from the coastal cities which had not yet been captured, and later from other neighbouring states such as Damascus and Egypt, which the crusaders could not conquer directly. After Baldwin I extended his rule over Oultrejordain, Jerusalem also gained revenue from the taxation of Muslim caravans passing from Syria to Egypt or Arabia. The money economy of Jerusalem meant that their manpower problem could be partially solved by paying for mercenaries, an uncommon occurrence in medieval Europe. Mercenaries could be fellow European crusaders, or, perhaps more often, Muslim soldiers, including the famous Turcopoles. Education Jerusalem was the center of education in the kingdom. There was a school in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, where the basic skills of reading and writing Latin were taught Hans E. Mayer, "Guillaume de Tyr à l’école," in Kings and Lords in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (Variorum, 1994), pg. V.264; originally published in Mémoires de l’Académie des sciences, arts et belles-lettres de Dijon 117 (1985-86). ; the relative wealth of the merchant class meant that their children could be educated there along with the children of nobles - it is likely that William of Tyre was a classmate of future king Baldwin III. Higher education had to be undertaken at one of the universities in Europe Note the famous example of William of Tyre, Willemi Tyrensis Archiepiscopi Chronicon, ed. R. B. C. Huygens, Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Medievalis, vol. 38 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1986), bk. 19, ch. 12, pp. 879-881. This chapter was discovered after the publication of Babcock and Krey's translation and is therefore not included in the English edition. ; the development of a university was impossible in the culture of crusader Jerusalem, where warfare was far more important than philosophy or theology. Nonetheless, the nobility and general Frankish population were noted for the high literacy: lawyers and clerks were in abundance, and the study of law, history, and other academic subjects was a beloved pastime of the royal family and the nobility. For example, King Baldwin III "was fairly well educated", and "particularly enjoyed listening to the reading of history..." (William of Tyre, vol. 2, bk. 16, ch. 2, pg. 138.) King Amalric I also "was fairly well educated, although much less so than his brother" Baldwin III; he "was well skilled in the customary law by which the kingdom was governed", and also "listened eagerly to history and preferred it to all other kinds of reading." (William of Tyre, vol. 2, bk. 19, ch. 2, pg. 296.) Jerusalem also had an extensive library not only of ancient and medieval Latin works but also of Arabic literature, much of which was apparently captured from Usamah ibn Munqidh and his entourage after a shipwreck in 1154. William of Tyre, introduction by Babcock and Krey, pg. 16. The Holy Sepulchre also contained the kingdom's scriptorium, where royal charters and other documents were produced. Aside from Latin, the standard written language of medieval Europe, the populace of crusader Jerusalem also communicated in vernacular forms of French and Italian; Greek, Armenian, and even Arabic were also not uncommonly mastered by Frankish settlers. Art and architecture Krak des Chevaliers, Syria. UNESCO World Heritage Site In Jerusalem itself the greatest architectural endeavour was the expansion of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in western Gothic style. This expansion consolidated all the separate shrines on the site into one building, and was completed by 1149. Outside of Jerusalem, castles and fortresses were the major focus of construction: Kerak and Montreal in Oultrejordain and Ibelin near Jaffa are among the numerous examples of crusader castles. Crusader art was a mix of Western, Byzantine, and Islamic styles. The major cities featured baths, interior plumbing, and other advanced hygienic tools which were lacking in most other cities and towns throughout the world. The foremost example of crusader art are perhaps the Melisende Psalter, an illuminated manuscript commissioned between 1135 and 1143 and now located in the British Library, and the sculpted Nazareth Capitals. Paintings and mosaics were popular forms of art in the kingdom, but many of these were destroyed by the Mamluks in the 13th century; only the most durable fortresses survived the reconquest. Government and legal system The Tower of David in Jerusalem as it appears today Immediately after the First Crusade, land was distributed to loyal vassals of Godfrey, forming numerous feudal lordships within the kingdom. This was continued by Godfrey's successors. The number and importance of the lordships varied throughout the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and many cities were part of the royal domain. The king was also assisted by a number of officers of state. The king and the royal court were normally located in Jerusalem, but due to the prohibition on Muslim inhabitants, the capital was small and underpopulated. The king just as often held court at Acre, Nablus, Tyre, or wherever else he happened to be. In Jerusalem, the royal family lived firstly on the Temple Mount, before the foundation of the Knights Templar, and later in the palace complex surrounding the Tower of David; there was another palace complex in Acre. Because the nobles tended to live in Jerusalem rather than on estates in the countryside, they had a larger influence on the king than they would have had in Europe. The nobles, along with the bishops, formed the haute cour (high court), which was responsible for confirming the election of a new king (or a regent if necessary), collecting taxes, minting coins, allotting money to the king, and raising armies. The haute cour was the only judicial body for the nobles of the kingdom, hearing criminal cases such as murder, rape, and treason, and simpler feudal disputes such as recovery of slaves, sales and purchases of fiefs, and default of service. Punishments included forfeiture of land and exile, or in extreme cases death. The first laws of the kingdom were, according to tradition, established during Godfrey of Bouillon's short reign, but were more probably established by Baldwin II at the Council of Nablus in 1120. Benjamin Z. Kedar argued that the canons of the Council of Nablus were in force in the twelfth century but had fallen out of use by the thirteenth; Marwan Nader, however, questions this and suggests that the canons may not have applied to the whole kingdom at all times.<ref>Benjamin Z. Kedar, On the origins of the earliest laws of Frankish Jerusalem: The canons of the Council of Nablus, 1120 ( 74, 1999), pp. 330-331; Marwan Nader, Burgesses and Burgess Law in the Latin Kingdoms of Jerusalem and Cyprus (1099-1325) (Ashgate: 2006), pg. 45. The most extensive collection of laws, together known as Assizes of Jerusalem, were written in the mid-thirteenth century, although many of them are purported to be twelfth-century in origin. Nader, pp. 28-30. There were other, lesser courts for non-nobles and non-Latins; the Cour des Bourgeois provided justice for non-noble Latins, dealing with minor criminal offences such as assault and theft, and provided rules for disputes between non-Latins, whose had fewer legal rights. Special courts such as the Cour de la Fond (for commercial disputes in the markets) and the Cour de la Mer (an admiralty court) existed in the coastal cities. The extent to which native Islamic and Eastern Christian courts continued to function is unknown, but the ra'is probably exercised some legal authority on a local level. The Cour des Syriens judged non-criminal matters among the native Christians (the "Syrians"), but for criminal offenses, however, non-Latins would be tried in the Cour des Bourgeois (or even the Haute Cour if the crime was sufficiently severe). Nader, pp. 158-170 The Italian communes were granted almost complete autonomy from the very early days of the Kingdom, thanks to their military and naval support in the years following the First Crusade. This autonomy included the right to administer their own justice, although the kinds of cases that fell under their jurisdiction varied at different times. Nader, pp. 170-77. The king was recognised as head of the Haute Cour, although he was legally only primus inter pares. Arms of the Kingdom of Jerusalem The coat of arms of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which has gone through several different varieties of a cross Or (gold) on an argent (silver) field, is a famous violation of or exception to the rule of tincture in heraldry, which prohibits the placement of metal on metal or fur on fur. Allowed are metal on color or fur, fur on metal or color and color on metal, fur or color. It is one of the earliest known coats of arms. The crosses are Greek crosses, one of the many Byzantine influences on the kingdom. References See also Crusade Kings of Jerusalem Kings of Jerusalem family tree Vassals of the Kingdom of Jerusalem Officers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem Haute Cour of Jerusalem Assizes of Jerusalem A 1911 map showing the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the other Crusader states. History of Palestine Terra Mariana, contemporary crusader state in the Baltics Sources Primary sources Fulcher of Chartres, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem, 1095-1127, trans. Frances Rita Ryan. University of Tennessee Press, 1969. William of Tyre, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea, trans. E.A. Babcock and A.C. Krey. Columbia University Press, 1943. Philip K. Hitti, trans., An Arab-Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period of the Crusades; Memoirs of Usamah ibn-Munqidh (Kitab al i'tibar). New York, 1929 Secondary sources Bernard Hamilton, The Leper King & His Heirs. Cambridge, 2000. Carole Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives. Routledge, 2000. P.M. Holt, The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517. Longman, 1989. Benjamin Z. Kedar, Hans Eberhard Mayer & R. C. Smail, ed., Outremer: Studies in the history of the Crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem presented to Joshua Prawer. Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi Institute, 1982. John L. La Monte, Feudal Monarchy in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1100-1291. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1932. Hans E. Mayer, The Crusades. Oxford University Press, 1965 (trans. John Gillingham, 1972). Joshua Prawer, The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem: European Colonialism in the Middle Ages. London, 1972. Joshua Prawer, Crusader Institutions. Oxford University Press, 1980. Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Feudal Nobility and the Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1174-1277. The Macmillan Press, 1973. Jonathan Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading. University of Pennsylvania, 1991. Jonathan Riley-Smith, ed., The Oxford History of the Crusades. Oxford, 2002. Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades. Cambridge University Press, 1951-54. Kenneth Setton, ed., A History of the Crusades. Madison, 1969-1989 (available online). Steven Tibble, Monarchy and Lordships in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1099-1291. Clarendon Press, 1989. 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2,344 | Media_of_Poland | Media and politics Poland has instituted freedom of press since the fall of communism. However, public TV and radio are still politically controlled, via a state regulatory body called Krajowa Rada Radiofonii i Telewizji (The National Radio and Television Committee), which is similar to CRTC in Canada. It is said that both public and private media are not impartial, and used as means for political propaganda. Various irregularities have been exposed during the investigation by a special parliamentary committee into the Lew Rywin affair. TV stations TVP – public broadcaster TVP 1 TVP 2 TVP Info (regional and news) TVP Polonia (for Poles abroad) TVP Kultura (cultural) TVP Sport TVP Historia (history) Belsat (in Belarusian language) Polsat – private Polsat Polsat News Polsat 2 International Polsat Sport Polsat Sport Extra Polsat Cafe (health and beauty) Polsat Play TV4 Grupa ITI (International Trading and Investments Holdings SA Luxembourg) TVN TVN HD TVN Siedem TVN24 (24/7 news channel) TVN Style (channel aimed at women) TVN Turbo (cars) TVN Meteo (weather) iTVN (for Poles abroad) TVN Med (private channel not available to general public) TVN Lingua (ESL for Polish audience) TVN Warszawa (Warsaw city TV) nSport (HDTV) Religia.tv (religion) Polcast Television Tele 5 Polonia 1 Minor players and joint-ventures: CNBC-TVN Biznes (business channel run together with CNBC Europe) TVN Discovery Historia (history and documentaries) TV Puls (35% owned by News Corporation) TV Trwam (catholic channel; owner Lux Veritatis Foundation) PodróżeTV (Britain licensed travel channel) Mango24 (shopping) iTV (interactive tv) 4fun.tv (interactive music; 4fun Media S.A. owned by Nova Holding Ltd., London) many local city and community cable stations Many major players are also present on the market, among them: Canal+ Polska, Canal+ Sport, Canal+ Film, Canal+ Sport2, HBO, HBO2, EuroSport, EuroSport2, Discovery Channel, Discovery Travel & Living, Discovery Science, Discovery Civilisation, MTV Poland ,VIVA Poland, VH1 Poland Digital TV platforms (all private) Cyfra+ (owned by Canal Plus Cyfrowy) Cyfrowy Polsat (owned by Polsat Cyfrowy stock company) n (owned by ITI Group) Radio stations Polskie Radio (public broadcaster) Program 1 (aka Jedynka) Program 2 (aka Dwójka) Program 3 (aka Trójka) Polskie Radio Euro Radio Parlament Polskie Radio dla Zagranicy (Polish Radio External Service) 17 regional stations of Polskie Radio Privately owned stations Broker FM group: RMF FM (nationwide) RMF Classic (classical music) RMF MAXXX (dance and pop music) Eurozet group: Radio Zet (nationwide) Chilli Zet (chillout and jazz music) Antyradio (rock music) Planeta FM (dance and club music) Radio Plus (soft pop music) Agora group: TOK FM (news and commentary) Złote Przeboje (oldies) Roxy FM (soft rock music) Time group: Radio Eska (pop and dance music) Eska Rock (rock music) VOX FM (oldies) Radio WAWA (polish music) other: Radio Maryja (religious, conservative, political) local radio stations Polish radio stations in other countries Polskie Radio Londyn Radio ORLA Londyn, Radio ORLA Dublin Press (all private) Daily papers Gazeta Wyborcza (centre-left) http://www.wyborcza.pl Rzeczpospolita (centre-right) http://www.rp.pl Dziennik Polska-Europa-Świat (centrist) http://www.dziennik.pl Polska (centrist; edited in cooperation with the British daily The Times) http://polskatimes.pl Fakt (tabloid) http://www.efakt.pl Super Express (tabloid) http://www.se.com.pl Nasz Dziennik (catholic, right-wing) http://www.naszdziennik.pl Trybuna (left-wing) http://www.trybuna.com.pl Weekly magazines Polityka (centre-left) http://www.polityka.pl Newsweek (Polish edition, centrist to left-wing) http://www.newsweek.pl Wprost (centrist to right) http://www.wprost.pl Przekrój (left-wing) http://www.przekroj.pl Przegląd (left-wing) http://www.przeglad.com.pl Nie (extremely left-wing) http://www.nie.com.pl Gazeta Polska (right-wing) http://www.gazetapolska.pl Najwyższy Czas! (extremely right-wing - libertarian) http://www.nczas.com Tygodnik Powszechny (Catholic socio-cultural weekly) http://tygodnik.onet.pl Niedziela (Catholic weekly) http://www.niedziela.pl/ Gość Niedzielny (Catholic weekly) http://goscniedzielny.wiara.pl/ Angora (left-wing Polish and world press review) http://www.angora.pl Forum (world press review, rather centrist to left-wing) See also CBOS List of Polish language television channels List of Polish language radio stations List of Polish newspapers | Media_of_Poland |@lemmatized medium:3 politics:1 poland:4 institute:1 freedom:1 press:4 since:1 fall:1 communism:1 however:1 public:5 tv:9 radio:20 still:1 politically:1 control:1 via:1 state:1 regulatory:1 body:1 call:1 krajowa:1 rada:1 radiofonii:1 telewizji:1 national:1 television:3 committee:2 similar:1 crtc:1 canada:1 say:1 private:5 impartial:1 use:1 mean:1 political:2 propaganda:1 various:1 irregularity:1 expose:1 investigation:1 special:1 parliamentary:1 lew:1 rywin:1 affair:1 station:8 tvp:8 broadcaster:2 info:1 regional:2 news:5 polonia:2 pole:2 abroad:2 kultura:1 cultural:2 sport:4 historia:2 history:2 belsat:1 belarusian:1 language:3 polsat:10 international:2 extra:1 cafe:1 health:1 beauty:1 play:1 grupa:1 iti:2 trading:1 investment:1 holding:1 sa:1 luxembourg:1 tvn:11 hd:1 siedem:1 channel:8 style:1 aim:1 woman:1 turbo:1 car:1 meteo:1 weather:1 itvn:1 med:1 available:1 general:1 lingua:1 esl:1 polish:9 audience:1 warszawa:1 warsaw:1 city:2 nsport:1 hdtv:1 religia:1 religion:1 polcast:1 tele:1 minor:1 player:2 joint:1 venture:1 cnbc:2 biznes:1 business:1 run:1 together:1 europe:1 discovery:5 documentary:1 pul:1 corporation:1 trwam:1 catholic:5 owner:1 lux:1 veritatis:1 foundation:1 podróżetv:1 britain:1 license:1 travel:2 shop:1 itv:1 interactive:2 music:11 nova:1 hold:1 ltd:1 london:1 many:2 local:2 community:1 cable:1 major:1 also:2 present:1 market:1 among:1 canal:5 polska:4 film:1 hbo:1 eurosport:1 living:1 science:1 civilisation:1 mtv:1 viva:1 digital:1 platform:1 cyfra:1 plus:2 cyfrowy:3 stock:1 company:1 n:1 group:5 polskie:5 program:3 aka:3 jedynka:1 dwójka:1 trójka:1 euro:1 parlament:1 dla:1 zagranicy:1 external:1 service:1 privately:1 broker:1 fm:6 rmf:3 nationwide:2 classic:1 classical:1 maxxx:1 dance:3 pop:3 eurozet:1 zet:2 chilli:1 chillout:1 jazz:1 antyradio:1 rock:4 planeta:1 club:1 soft:2 agora:1 tok:1 commentary:1 złote:1 przeboje:1 oldie:2 roxy:1 time:2 eska:2 vox:1 wawa:1 maryja:1 religious:1 conservative:1 country:1 londyn:2 orla:2 dublin:1 daily:2 paper:1 gazeta:2 wyborcza:2 centre:3 left:2 http:20 www:17 pl:19 rzeczpospolita:1 right:5 rp:1 dziennik:3 europa:1 świat:1 centrist:5 edit:1 cooperation:1 british:1 polskatimes:1 fakt:1 tabloid:2 efakt:1 super:1 express:1 se:1 com:5 nasz:1 wing:10 naszdziennik:1 trybuna:2 leave:7 weekly:4 magazine:1 polityka:2 newsweek:2 edition:1 wprost:2 przekrój:1 przekroj:1 przegląd:1 przeglad:1 nie:2 extremely:2 gazetapolska:1 najwyższy:1 czas:1 libertarian:1 nczas:1 tygodnik:2 powszechny:1 socio:1 onet:1 niedziela:2 gość:1 niedzielny:1 goscniedzielny:1 wiara:1 angora:2 world:2 review:2 forum:1 rather:1 see:1 cbos:1 list:3 newspaper:1 |@bigram joint_venture:1 polskie_radio:5 gazeta_wyborcza:1 http_www:17 |
2,345 | Kia_Asamiya | is the pen-name of a popular Japanese manga artist Michitaka Kikuchi whose work spans multiple genres and appeals to diverse audiences. He is well-known for using influences from American comics, television, and movies in his work, and describes himself as a big fan of both Batman and Star Wars. One of the most widely-published Japanese mangaka, nearly all of his stories have been translated into other languages, including English. His two most successful and popular manga series to-date are Martian Successor Nadesico and Silent Möbius. Prior to becoming a manga artist, Asamiya graduated from the Tokyo Designer School, and then worked as a character designer for a number of anime series, and even designed models for some of the later Godzilla movies (1980s). For this career, he used a different pen-name, , and maintained the two professional identities separately for many years. Several of the anime series that he worked on were very popular both inside and outside of Japan, most notably including Sonic Soldier Borgman and Project A-ko. Even after focusing primarily on his manga career, Asamiya continued to do character designs and creative consultation on anime series based on his stories, occasionally under the Kikuchi name. In the early 2000s, Asamiya has shifted his focus from teenage and young-adult stories to stories designed for children and for an American audience. In the former case, he credits his young children as a motivation, but in the latter case, he points to a long-standing desire to work with his favorite American characters. To that end, he has worked on projects with Image Comics, Marvel Comics, and DC Comics, as well as developing a manga adaptation of the movie, "Star Wars: The Phantom Menace". While many Japanese artists (and artists in general) are quite reclusive, Asamiya often makes an effort to be available to his fans. He maintains a website with news and information about his studio, Studio TRON (named after the Disney movie TRON). He also aids and assists his Official Fan Club by sending them regular announcements and limited-edition merchandise. Despite these actions, he shunned all public photography, and had the often-hilarious habit of depicting himself with a placeholder sign for a face. It has become a trademark feature of his books that instead of a picture of the artist, there is an elaborately decorated rectangle sporting the words "Now Printing". Works (ongoing) Assembler 0X Batman: Child of Dreams Compiler (anime) and Compiler Corrector Yui Dark Angel Dark Angel: Phoenix Resurrection Detonator Orgun Duplex Divine (game). Ebiru-kun Funpaira Gunhed (1990) Hades Project Zeorymer Hellboy Hikari no Densetsu Junk - Record of Last Hero !Karapuri! My Favorite Carrera Martian Successor Nadesico (Meteor Schlattschiff Nadesico). Möbius Klein (prequel to Silent Möbius) Shin Seiki Vagrants (game) Silent Möbius Sonic Soldier Borgman Star Wars Episode 1: The Phantom Menace manga adaptation. Steam Detectives White Diamond(game). Uncanny X-Men External links Kia Asamiya and Michitaka Kikuchi's Official Web Site Asamiya at AnimeNEXT 2002 convention Kia Asamiya on marvel.com | Kia_Asamiya |@lemmatized pen:2 name:4 popular:3 japanese:3 manga:6 artist:4 michitaka:2 kikuchi:3 whose:1 work:7 span:1 multiple:1 genre:1 appeal:1 diverse:1 audience:2 well:2 know:1 use:2 influence:1 american:3 comic:4 television:1 movie:4 describe:1 big:1 fan:3 batman:2 star:3 war:3 one:1 widely:1 publish:1 mangaka:1 nearly:1 story:4 translate:1 language:1 include:2 english:1 two:2 successful:1 series:4 date:1 martian:2 successor:2 nadesico:3 silent:3 möbius:4 prior:1 become:2 asamiya:7 graduate:1 tokyo:1 designer:2 school:1 character:3 number:1 anime:4 even:2 design:3 model:1 late:1 godzilla:1 career:2 different:1 maintain:2 professional:1 identity:1 separately:1 many:2 year:1 several:1 inside:1 outside:1 japan:1 notably:1 sonic:2 soldier:2 borgman:2 project:3 ko:1 focus:2 primarily:1 continue:1 creative:1 consultation:1 base:1 occasionally:1 early:1 shift:1 teenage:1 young:2 adult:1 child:3 former:1 case:2 credit:1 motivation:1 latter:1 point:1 long:1 standing:1 desire:1 favorite:2 end:1 image:1 marvel:2 dc:1 develop:1 adaptation:2 phantom:2 menace:2 artists:1 general:1 quite:1 reclusive:1 often:2 make:1 effort:1 available:1 website:1 news:1 information:1 studio:2 tron:2 disney:1 also:1 aid:1 assist:1 official:2 club:1 send:1 regular:1 announcement:1 limited:1 edition:1 merchandise:1 despite:1 action:1 shun:1 public:1 photography:1 hilarious:1 habit:1 depict:1 placeholder:1 sign:1 face:1 trademark:1 feature:1 book:1 instead:1 picture:1 elaborately:1 decorate:1 rectangle:1 sport:1 word:1 print:1 ongoing:1 assembler:1 dream:1 compiler:2 corrector:1 yui:1 dark:2 angel:2 phoenix:1 resurrection:1 detonator:1 orgun:1 duplex:1 divine:1 game:3 ebiru:1 kun:1 funpaira:1 gunhed:1 hades:1 zeorymer:1 hellboy:1 hikari:1 densetsu:1 junk:1 record:1 last:1 hero:1 karapuri:1 carrera:1 meteor:1 schlattschiff:1 klein:1 prequel:1 shin:1 seiki:1 vagrant:1 episode:1 steam:1 detectives:1 white:1 diamond:1 uncanny:1 x:1 men:1 external:1 link:1 kia:2 web:1 site:1 animenext:1 convention:1 com:1 |@bigram marvel_comic:1 dc_comic:1 phantom_menace:2 elaborately_decorate:1 uncanny_x:1 external_link:1 |
2,346 | Carmilla | "Carmilla" is a Gothic novella by Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu. First published in 1872, it tells the story of a young woman's susceptibility to the attentions of a female vampire named Carmilla. "Carmilla" predates Bram Stoker's Dracula by 25 years and has been adapted many times for cinema.Illustration from The Dark Blue by D. H. Friston, 1872 Publication "Carmilla" was first published in the magazine The Dark Blue in 1872, The story ran in in three issues of 1872: January (p. 592-606), February (p. 701-714) and March (p. 59-78). and then in the author's collection of short stories, In a Glass Darkly the same year. There were two original illustrators for the story, both of which appeared in the magazine but which do not appear in modern printings of the book. The two illustrators, David Henry Friston and Michael Fitzgerald, show some inconsistencies in their depiction of the characters, and as such some confusion has arisen in identifying the pictures as part of a continuous plot. Plot summary The story is presented by Le Fanu as part of the casebook of Dr Hesselius, whose departures from medical orthodoxy rank him as the first occult doctor in literature. Dr Martin Hesselius The story is narrated by Laura, one of the two main protagonists of the tale. Laura begins her tale by relating her childhood in a "picturesque and solitary" castle in the midst of an extensive forest in Styria where she lives with her father, a wealthy English widower, retired from the Austrian Service. When she is six years old, Laura has a vision of a beautiful visitor in her bedchamber. She later claims to have been bitten on the chest, although no wounds are found on her. Twelve years later, Laura and her father are admiring the sunset in front of the castle when her father tells her of a letter he received earlier from his friend General Spielsdorf. The General was supposed to bring his niece, Bertha Rheinfeldt, to visit the two, but the niece suddenly died under mysterious circumstances. The General ambiguously concludes that he will discuss the circumstances in detail when they meet later. Laura is saddened by the loss of a potential friend, and longs for a companion. A carriage accident outside Laura's home unexpectedly brings a girl of Laura's age into the family's care. Her name is Carmilla. Both girls instantly recognize the other from the 'dream' they both had when they were young. Carmilla appears injured after her carriage accident, but her mysterious mother informs Laura's father that her journey is urgent and cannot be delayed. She arranges to leave her daughter with Laura and her father until she can return in three months. Before she leaves she sternly notes that her daughter will not disclose any information whatsoever about her family, past, or herself and that Carmilla is of sound mind. Laura comments that this information seems needless to say, and her father laughs it off. Carmilla and Laura grow to be very close friends, but occasionally Carmilla's mood abruptly changes. She sometimes makes unsettling romantic advances towards Laura. Carmilla refuses to tell anything about herself or her background, despite questioning from Laura. Her secrecy isn't the only mysterious thing about her. Carmilla sleeps much of the day, and seems to sleepwalk at night. When a funeral procession passes by the two girls and Laura begins singing a hymn, Carmilla bursts out in rage and scolds Laura for singing a Christian song. When a shipment of family heirloom restored portraits arrives at the castle, Laura finds one of her ancestor, "Mircalla, Countess Karnstein", dated 1698. The portrait resembles Carmilla exactly, down to the mole on her neck. During Carmilla's stay, Laura has nightmares of a fiendish cat-like beast entering her room at night and biting her on the chest. The beast then takes the form of a female figure and disappears through the door without opening it. Laura's health declines and her father has a doctor examine her. He speaks privately with her father and only asks that Laura never be left unattended. Her father then sets out with Laura in a carriage for the ruined village of Karnstein. They leave a message behind asking Carmilla and one of the governesses entreated to follow after once the perpetually late-sleeping Carmilla wakes up. En route to Karnstein, Laura and her father encounter General Spielsdorf. He tells them his own ghastly story. Spielsdorf and his niece had met a young woman named Millarca and her enigmatic mother at a costume ball. The General's niece was immediately taken with Millarca. The mother convinced the General that she was an old friend of his and asked that Millarca be allowed to stay with them for three weeks while she attended to a secret matter of great importance. Funeral, illustration by Michael Fitzgerald for Carmilla in The Dark Blue, January 1872 The General's niece fell mysteriously ill and suffered exactly the same symptoms as Laura. After consulting with a priestly doctor who he had specially ordered, the General came to the realization that his niece was being visited by a vampire. He hid in a closet with a sword and waited until seeing a fiendish cat-like creature stalk around his niece's bedroom and bite her on the neck. He then leapt from his hiding place and attacked the beast, which took the form of Millarca. She fled through the locked door, unharmed. The General's niece died immediately afterward. When they arrive at Karnstein the General asks a nearby woodsman where he can find the tomb of Mircalla Karnstein. The woodsman relates that the tomb was relocated long ago, by the hero who vanquished the vampires that haunted the region. While the General and Laura are left alone in the ruined chapel, Carmilla appears. The General and Carmilla both fly into a rage upon seeing each other and the General attacks her with an axe. Carmilla flees and the General explains to Laura that Carmilla is also Millarca, both anagrams for the original name of the vampire Countess Mircalla Karnstein. The party is then joined by Baron Vordenburg, the descendant of the hero who rid the area of vampires long ago. Vordenburg is an authority on vampires and has discovered that his ancestor was romantically involved with the Countess Karnstein, before she died and became one of the undead. Using his forefather's notes he locates the hidden tomb of Carmilla. An Imperial Commission is then summoned who exhume and destroy the body of the vampire on behalf of the ruling Habsburg Monarchy, within whose domains Styria is situated. Sources As with Dracula critics have looked for the sources used in the writing of the text. Matthew Gibson has shown that LeFanu used Dom Augustin Calmet's Treatise on Vampires and Revenants, translated into English in 1850 as The Phantom World, the Reverend Sabine Baring-Gould's The Book of Were-wolves (1863), and his account of Erszebet Bathory, Coleridge's Christabel, and Captain Basil Hall's Schloss Hainfeld; or a Winter in Lower Styria (London and Edinburgh, 1836). Hall's account provides much of the Styrian background and in particular a model for both Carmilla and Laura in the figure of Jane Anne Cranstoun, Countess Purgstall. Matthew Gibson, Jane Cranstoun, Countess Purgstall: A possible inspiration for Le Fanu's “CARMILLA” in Le Fanu Studies, November 2007, ISSN 1932-9598 Matthew Gibson, Dracula and the Eastern Question: British and French Vampire Narratives of the Nineteenth-century Near East, ISBN 1403994773 & ISBN 1-4039-9477-3 Influence Carmilla, the title character, is the original prototype for a legion of female and lesbian vampires. Though Le Fanu portrays his vampire's sexuality with the circumspection that one would expect for his time, it is evident that lesbian attraction is the main dynamic between Carmilla and the narrator of the story: Carmilla selected exclusively female victims, though only became emotionally involved with a few. Carmilla had nocturnal habits, but was not confined to the darkness. She had unearthly beauty and was able to change her form and to pass through solid walls. Her animal alter ego was a monstrous black cat, not a large dog as in Dracula. She did, however, sleep in a coffin. Some critics, among them William Veeder, suggest that "Carmilla", notably in its outlandish use of narrative frames, was an important influence on Henry James' The Turn of the Screw. Bram Stoker's Dracula Although Carmilla is a lesser known and far shorter Gothic vampire story than the generally-considered master work of that genre, Dracula, the latter is heavily influenced by Le Fanu's short story. In the earliest manuscript of Dracula, dated 8 March, 1890, the castle is set in Styria, although the setting was changed to Transylvania six days later. Stoker's posthumously published short story "Dracula's Guest", known as the deleted first chapter to Dracula, shows a more obvious and intact debt to "Carmilla": Both stories are told in the first person. Dracula expands on the idea of a first person account by creating a series of journal entries and logs of different persons and creating a plausible background story for them having been compiled. Stoker also indulges the air of mystery further than Le Fanu by allowing the characters to solve the enigma of the vampire along with the reader. The descriptions of Carmilla and the character of Lucy in Dracula are similar, and have become archetypes for the appearance of the waif-like victims and seducers in vampire stories as being tall, slender, languid, and with large eyes, full lips and soft voices. Both women also sleepwalk. Stoker's Dr. Abraham Van Helsing is a direct parallel to Le Fanu's vampire expert Baron Vordenburg: both characters used to investigate and catalyse actions in opposition to the vampire, and symbolically represent knowledge of the unknown and stability of mind in the onslaught of chaos and death. "Le Fanu, J.S." in Jack Sullivan (ed) The Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural: 260 Carmilla in culture Films Danish director Carl Dreyer loosely adapted "Carmilla" for his 1932 film Vampyr. The credits of the original film say that the film is based on In A Glass Darkly. This collection contains five tales, one of which is "Carmilla." Actually the film draws its central character, Allan Gray, from Le Fanu's Dr. Hesselius; and the scene in which Gray is buried alive is drawn from "The Room in the Dragon Volant." French director Roger Vadim's Et mourir de plaisir (literally And to die of pleasure, but actually shown in England as Blood and Roses, 1960) is based on Carmilla and is considered one of the greatest of the vampire genre. The Vadim film thoroughly explores the lesbian implications behind Carmilla's selection of victims, and boasts cinematography by Claude Renoir. The film's lesbian eroticism was however significantly cut for its US release. A more-or-less faithful adaptation starring Christopher Lee was produced in Italy in 1964 under the title Crypt of the Vampire. The British Hammer Film Productions also produced a fairly faithful adaptation of "Carmilla" titled The Vampire Lovers (1970) with Ingrid Pitt in the lead role and Madeline Smith as her victim/lover. An explicit erotic lesbian theme was emphasised in this film, which was the first of the Karnstein Trilogy, followed by: Lust for a Vampire (1971): here Carmilla (Yutte Stensgaard), develops heterosexual interests, despite landing the ideal job for a lesbian vampire as a student in a girls' finishing school. This change in her sexual orientation seems to have been at the behest of the chief film censor, John Trevelyan, who closely monitored the film in production. Twins of Evil (1971): Mircalla (Katja Wyeth) plays a very minor role in this story, whose main interest is the two titular characters. The novella served as a very loose basis for the 1971 film Let's Scare Jessica to Death. The novella was freely adapted in Spain in 1972 as The Blood Splattered Bride (La Novia Ensangrentada), directed by Vicente Aranda. The theme of lesbian vampires was further explored in Vampyres (1974) by José Ramón Larraz. The story was a partial basis for the 1978 Mexican horror film Alucarda. In 1990, Gabrielle Beaumont created a film adaptation for a horror anthology television series "Nightmare Classics" titled Carmilla, which is one of the more faithful adaptations of the story, though the setting was transported to post-Civil War Deep South of the United States. It starred Meg Tilly as Carmilla and Ione Skye as a lonely Southern girl whom Carmilla seduces. In 1998, Carmilla was updated to present-day Long Island, New York in a film of the same name. The film is the brainchild of Jay Lind, the writer, director, and producer for the film. Starring Maria Pechukas, Heather Warr and Andy Gorkey, and co-produced by Jeff Schelenker, Carmilla is a horrific, gory, erotic counterpart to the Gothic novel. In 2001, Carmilla also makes an appearance in the anime film Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust. Her backstory is that her bloodlust grew so out of control that Vampire Hunter D's father, the Lord of Vampires (presumably Count Dracula, though this is not explicitly stated), impaled her in her sleep, leaving her body to rot and her spirit confined to her haunted Castle of Chaythe. When Meier Link and his beloved Charlotte come to her for help, she tricks them in order to resurrect her body, but the plan is foiled and she is killed once and for all by D. The story was very loosely adapted in the 2004 straight-to-video splatter movie Vampires vs. Zombies. Carmilla appears as the Bride of Dracula in the direct-to-DVD animated movie The Batman Vs. Dracula (2005). Carmilla is also the basic premise for the 2009 movie Lesbian Vampire Killers, a comedy starring Paul McGann and James Corden Carmilla (2009 film) is an upcoming Vampire Romance film directed by Paul Wiffen and starring Jennifer Ellison and Simone Kaye. Radio The character of Dr. Hesselius is featured in a Mutual Broadcasting Network radio drama entitled "The Shadow People", an episode from The Hall of Fantasy series (1946-1947, 1949-1952, 1952, 1953). The episode casts Dr. Hesselius as an occult sleuth and aired on September 5, 1952. On November 20, 1981, the CBC Radio series Nightfall aired an adaptation of Carmilla written by Graham Pomeroy and John Douglas. Music Cradle of Filth, a popular British Extreme metal band, has produced an album called Dusk... and Her Embrace inspired by "Carmilla", and have also recorded an instrumental track titled "Carmilla's Masque". The lyric: "Portrait of the Dead Countess" in the track "A Gothic Romance" could be in reference to the portrait found in the novel of the Countess Mircalla. There is also a track on the accompanying EP Vempire or Dark Faerytales in Phallustein titled "Queen Of Winter Throned" which contains the lyrics: "Iniquitous/I share Carmilla's mask/A gaunt mephitic voyeur/On the black side of the glass". Lead singer Dani Filth has often cited Sheridan Le Fanu as an inspiration to his lyrics. Two Witches, a Finnish Gothic rock band, created a song in the early 1990s called "Mircalla", inspired by the novel. Japanese Visual Kei artist Kaya released a single titled Carmilla in which he portrays himself as a female vampire who attempts to transform her lover. A chamber opera version of Carmilla appeared in 1970 (Carmilla: A Vampire Tale, music by Ben Johnston, script by Wilford Leach). Seated on a sofa, Laura and Carmilla recount the story retrospectively in song. Carmilla, a musical theater adaptation by Allan Jaffe and Deborah Atherton circa 1995. The 1980's band LaHost's track on the 1985 EMI compilation album 'Fire in Harmony' was 'Blood and Roses' - the lyrics of which are loosely based on the Roger Corman film version of Carmilla. The Green Pajamas' 2001 album In a Glass Darkly: Songs Inspired By The Stories of J.S. Le Fanu includes a song "Carmilla". Books The novel Carmilla: The Return, written in 1999 by Kyle Marffin, begins in 19th century Austria but follows Carmilla's life into 1990s Michigan. A vampire named Baron Karnstein appears in Anno Dracula by Kim Newman. Carmilla herself is mentioned several times as a former (until her death at the hands of vampire hunters) friend of the book's vampire heroine Geneviève. Some short stories set in the Anno Dracula universe have also included Carmilla. The story of Carmilla is illustrated using old antique etchings by Tiffini Elektra X in the book In This House: A Collection of Altered Art Imagery and Collage Techniques. Comics In 1991, Aircel Comics published a six-issue black and white miniseries of Carmilla by Steven Jones and John Ross. It was based on the story by Sheridan Le Fanu and billed as the "The Erotic Horror Classic of Female Vampirism". The first issue was printed in February 1991. The first three issues were an adaptation of the original story, while the latter three were a sequel set in the 1930s. Steven Philip Jones Previous Credits in comics The Grand Comics Database Team: Carmilla (1991 Series) Carmilla. Nuestra Señora de los Vampiros is a black and white one-shot published in 1999 by Spanish comic publisher Dude Comics based on the story by Sheridan Le Fanu, but with a modern twist. In present day, Carmilla saves a girl named Laura from being raped and later gives her Le Fanu's book to read to explain her past. Laura finally becomes Carmilla's companion. Based on a script by Roy Thomas, the comic had two artists with radically different graphic styles: Rafa Fonteriz draw the present day part, while Isaac M. del Rivero draw the part based on Le Fanu's book. Graphic Classics, vol. 14: Gothic Classics (2007) contains an adaptation of Carmilla, illustrated by Lisa K. Weber and adapted by Rod Lott. Gothic Classics: Graphic Classics Volume Fourteen The webcomic Romanian Gothique features a vampire countess named "Camilla", Romanian Gothique strip #13 who is also a lesbian. Anime Carmilla makes an appearance as the antagonist in the anime Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust. In the anime Hellsing, a succubus who claims to be the sister of Integra Hellsing makes an appearance. She goes by the name of Laura, and Integra asks her if she is the vampire Carmilla. When Alucard confronts her, she takes on a catlike appearance before she attacks him. In episode 30 and beyond of Yu-Gi-Oh! GX, a character named Camula is introduced as a soul-stealing vampiress trying to gain control of the three Sacred Beast cards. She is portrayed with a stereotypical Romanian accent in the English dub. In Glass Mask (episode 29 of the anime and volume 17 of the manga), Ayumi Himekawa played Carmilla in a stage adaptation of the novella. In Master of Mosquiton OVA, Carmilla shows up as Mosquiton's vampire ex-wife. Video games In the video game Boktai: The Sun is in Your Hand, Carmilla is one of the Immortals, who appears either as a young girl in a red dress, or a huge half-human, half-snake creature. In the video game Lunar Knights, a character named Sheridan has a maid named Carmilla. The banker in the game is also named Laura. In five of the Castlevania games; Circle of the Moon, the Japan-only Rondo of Blood, its PSP remake Dracula X Chronicles, Simon's Quest, and Judgment; there is a character named Camilla, described as being a longtime acolyte of Count Dracula. The Allies of Dracula The character's name has been spelled as both Carmilla and Camilla, but was changed to Vampira in the U.S. localization of Castlevania 2: Simon's Quest. In Rondo of Blood, Carmilla appears as a boss alongside Laura. In the game Portrait of Ruin, Laura appears as a minor vampire character, described as "Carmilla's servant". In Judgment, Carmilla appears as a playable character, using a bladed shield, gauntlet, and high heels to attack. Squaresoft'''s Seiken Densetsu III contains a type of monster called Carmilla and a higher level variant called Carmilla Queen. In Disgaea: Hour of Darkness there is a version of succubus called a Carmilla. References in other media The Doctor Who serial State of Decay features a vampire named Camilla. There is a Japanese lesbians' magazine named after Carmilla, as Carmilla "draws hetero women into the world of love between women". Celebrating Lesbian Sexuality: An Interview with Inoue Meimy, Editor of Japanese Lesbian Erotic Lifestyle Magazine Carmilla See also Homosexuality in speculative fiction References Carmilla: The Return'' by Kyle Marffin: ISBN 1-891946-02-1 Repossessing the body: transgressive desire in "Carmilla" and Dracula - vampire story retold with masculine themes added “Carmilla”: Bram Stoker’s Inspiration for Dracula Notes External links | Carmilla |@lemmatized carmilla:89 gothic:7 novella:4 joseph:1 sheridan:5 le:16 fanu:16 first:9 publish:5 tell:5 story:26 young:4 woman:5 susceptibility:1 attention:1 female:6 vampire:40 name:17 predate:1 bram:3 stoker:6 dracula:21 year:4 adapt:5 many:1 time:3 cinema:1 illustration:2 dark:4 blue:3 h:1 friston:2 publication:1 magazine:4 ran:1 three:6 issue:4 january:2 p:3 february:2 march:2 author:1 collection:3 short:5 glass:5 darkly:3 two:8 original:5 illustrator:2 appear:11 modern:2 printing:1 book:7 david:1 henry:2 michael:2 fitzgerald:2 show:5 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2,347 | Arianespace | Arianespace SA is a French company founded in 1980 as the world's first commercial space transportation company. They undertake the production, operation, and marketing of the Ariane 5 rocket launcher as part of the Ariane programme. , Arianespace held more than 50 percent of the world market for boosting satellites to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). More than 240 commercial launches have occurred since May 22, 1984, and Arianespace states that the total number of launch contracts signed since Ariane launches commenced operations in 1984 is 285. Arianespace uses the Centre Spatial Guyanais as a launch site. It has its headquarters in Évry, Essonne, France. The Company and its infrastructure Arianespace has 24 shareholders from 10 European countries, including: CNES (34%) EADS (30%) Country Shareholders Capital 3 3.15% 1 not significant 7 60.12% 2 18.62% 2 9.36% 1 1.82% 1 0.10% 3 2.01% 2 2.30% 2 2.51% Total of 99.99% due to round-off Corporate management is structured as follows: Position Name CEO & Chairman Jean-Yves Le Gall Quality Vice-President Gérard Gradel Senior Vice-President of Programs Patrick Bonguet Senior Vice-President of Marketing Philippe Berterottière General Secretary, Senior Vice-President of Finances Françoise Bouzitat Senior Vice-President of Engineering Édouard Perez Offices Location of Office Head of Branch Évry, France Jean-Yves Le Gall United States Clayton Mowry Tokyo, Japan Jean-Louis Claudon Singapore Richard Bowles As of 1 July 2006, Arianespace employed 271 personnel at its French headquarters, at its launch complex at the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana, and at offices in Singapore, Tokyo, and Washington, D.C. Ariane launch vehicles Since the first launch in 1979, there have been several versions of the Ariane launch vehicle: Ariane 1, first successful launch on December 24, 1979 Ariane 2, first successful launch on November 20, 1987 (the first launch on May 30, 1986 failed) Ariane 3, first successful launch on August 4, 1984 Ariane 4, first successful launch on June 15, 1988 Ariane 5, first successful launch on October 30, 1997 (the first launch on June 4, 1996 failed). See also Europa rocket References | Arianespace |@lemmatized arianespace:6 sa:1 french:3 company:3 found:1 world:2 first:9 commercial:2 space:2 transportation:1 undertake:1 production:1 operation:2 marketing:2 ariane:10 rocket:2 launcher:1 part:1 programme:1 hold:1 percent:1 market:1 boost:1 satellite:1 geostationary:1 transfer:1 orbit:1 gto:1 launch:15 occur:1 since:3 may:2 state:2 total:2 number:1 contract:1 sign:1 commence:1 use:1 centre:2 spatial:1 guyanais:1 site:1 headquarters:2 évry:2 essonne:1 france:2 infrastructure:1 shareholder:2 european:1 country:2 include:1 cnes:1 eads:1 capital:1 significant:1 due:1 round:1 corporate:1 management:1 structure:1 follow:1 position:1 name:1 ceo:1 chairman:1 jean:3 yves:2 le:2 gall:2 quality:1 vice:5 president:5 gérard:1 gradel:1 senior:4 program:1 patrick:1 bonguet:1 philippe:1 berterottière:1 general:1 secretary:1 finance:1 françoise:1 bouzitat:1 engineering:1 édouard:1 perez:1 office:3 location:1 head:1 branch:1 united:1 clayton:1 mowry:1 tokyo:2 japan:1 louis:1 claudon:1 singapore:2 richard:1 bowles:1 july:1 employ:1 personnel:1 complex:1 guiana:2 washington:1 c:1 vehicle:2 several:1 version:1 successful:5 december:1 november:1 fail:2 august:1 june:2 october:1 see:1 also:1 europa:1 reference:1 |@bigram ariane_rocket:1 rocket_launcher:1 jean_yves:2 vice_president:5 french_guiana:1 |
2,348 | Computational_complexity_theory | Computational complexity theory is a branch of the theory of computation in computer science that investigates the problems related to the resources required to run algorithms, and the inherent difficulty in providing algorithms that are efficient for both general and specific computational problems. Definitions An engineer might ask "As the size of the input to an algorithm increases, by what factor does the running time and memory requirements increase? And what are the implications of that?" In other words, complexity theory, among other things, investigates the scalability of computational problems and algorithms. In particular, it places practical limits on what computers can and cannot do. A problem is a collection of related questions, where each question is a finite string, not enumerated but written in an algebra called Big O notation, where the actual amount of resources uses numbers only to represent orders of magnitude and not the exact resources used by a particular machine. Example The notation O:- the function f(x)is said to be O(g(x)) [ie, f(x)=o(g(x)) if their exist two +ve integer/real number constant c&k. such that, f(x)<=c.g(x),!=x=>k ie,f(x)=o(g(x)) if f(x)<= c.g(x) Analysis Big O notation The time complexity of a problem is the number of steps that it takes to solve an instance of the problem as a function of the size of the input, using the most efficient known algorithm. If an instance has length and can be solved in steps we can say the problem has a time complexity of . But of course, the exact amount of resources will depend on what machine or language is being used. To avoid that difficulty, the Big O notation is generally used (the stands for the "order" of the calculation). If a problem runs in on one computer, then (barring perverse effects) it will also run in on all others, even though it may take longer or shorter depending on what resources they have. So this notation allows us to generalize away from the details of a particular computer. For example, searching an unsorted list of words for a particular word will take, on average, half the time of the size of the list, because if one starts from the beginning or end one must (on average) inspect half the words in the list before finding it. If the word does not exist, one must inspect the whole list to discover that fact, so actually it could be worse, depending on how likely it is that a word in the input is in the list. But a binary search algorithm is logarithmic in time over size (it is ). By analogy, humans roughly know where an entry would be in a phone book or dictionary, and use strategies quickly to get to their target, such as using headwords or a thumb index quickly to get roughly to the right place, then use a linear search when they are close to the target. It is important to note that most computational complexity theory is useful in other engineering fields and has made contributions to mathematics that would be of interest even if computers did not exist. Worst case analysis A common approach to computational complexity is the worst-case analysis, the estimation of the largest amount of computational resources (time or space) needed to run an algorithm. In many cases, the worst-case estimates are rather too pessimistic to explain the good performance of some algorithm in real use on real input. To address this, other approaches have been sought, such as average-case analysis or smoothed analysis. Axiomatic analysis An axiomatic approach to computational complexity was developed by Manuel Blum. He introduced measures of complexity such as the size of a machine and measures of the computational overhead of recursive functions. The complexity of algorithms are special cases of the axiomatic complexity measure. Blum axioms help in the study of computational complexity in the most general cases. An important aspect of the theory is to categorize computational problems and algorithms into complexity classes. The most important open question of complexity theory is whether the complexity class is the same as the complexity class , or whether it is a strict subset as is generally believed. Shortly after the question was first posed, it was realised that many important industry problems in the field of operations research are of an subclass called -complete. -complete problems have solutions that are quick to check, yet current methods to find those solutions are not "efficiently scalable" (as described more formally below). If the class is larger than , then NP-complete problems admit no polynomial-time algorithm and any all-purpose solution to the problem is not efficiently scalable. The fact that the problem has not been solved, prompts and justifies various research areas in the theory, such as: spotting and solving special cases of common computational problems the study of the computational complexity itself finding heuristic solutions researching into the hierarchies of complexity classes exploring multivariate algorithmic approaches such as Parameterized complexity. History The first publication on computational complexity appeared in 1956. But this publication in Russian was for a long time unknown in the Western world. The beginning of studies in computational complexity can be attributed not only to Trahtenbrot, but also to Rabin. , Hartmanis, Lewis and Stearns Hartmanis and Stearns' paper became the most popular in this area. As a result, some researchers attribute the beginning of computational complexity theory only to Hartmanis, Lewis and Stearns. Andrey Kolmogorov's research in the theory of algorithms influenced the development of computational complexity theory. A notable early discovery was the Karatsuba algorithm in 1960, for the multiplication of two numbers. This algorithm disproved Kolmogorov's 1956 conjecture that the fastest multiplication algorithm must be , and thus helped launch the study of algorithms in earnest. In 1967, Manuel Blum developed an axiomatic complexity theory based on his axioms and proved an important result, the so called, speed-up theorem. The field was subsequently expanded by many researchers, including: Manuel Blum Allan Borodin Stephen Cook Michael Fellows Michael R. Garey Oded Goldreich Juris Hartmanis David S. Johnson Richard Karp Marek Karpinski Donald Knuth Leonid Levin Christos H. Papadimitriou Alexander Razborov Richard Stearns Leslie Valiant Andrew Yao On August 6, 2002, the AKS primality test was published in a paper "PRIMES is in P" Agrawal, Manindra; Kayal, Neeraj; Saxena, Nitin, "PRIMES is in P", Annals of Mathematics, 160 (2004), 781–793 by three Indian computer scientists. They showed a deterministic primality-proving algorithm they had made. The algorithm determines whether a number is a Prime number or Composite number in polynomial time, and was soon improved by others. The key significance of AKS is that it was the first published primality-proving algorithm to be all of general, polynomial, deterministic, and unconditional. The authors received the 2006 Gödel Prize and the 2006 Fulkerson Prize for their work. Computational complexity theory topics Time and space complexity Complexity theory attempts to describe how difficult it is for an algorithm to find a solution to a problem. This differs from computability theory, which describes whether a problem can be solved at all: a branch of science probably made most famous by Alan Turing's essay On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem. Decision problems Much of complexity theory deals with decision problems. A decision problem is one where the answer is always "yes" or "no". Some problems are undecidable, or at least seem so, so complexity theory can be used to distinguish problems where it is certain to get a correct "yes" or "no" (not necessarily both). A problem that reverses which can be relied upon is called a complement of that problem. For example, the problem says "yes" if its input is a prime and "no" otherwise, while the problem says "yes" if the number is not prime. Either may be unpredictable when the correct result would be "no", they may say "yes" or perhaps never finish even if they were actually going to produce the right result, given an infinite number of monkeys. Decision problems are often interesting to researchers because a problem can always be reduced to a decision problem. For instance, a problem may be: Given integers and find whether has any prime factors less than . If we can solve this problem with known maximum resources we can use that solution to solve the next problem FACTORIZE without many more, using a binary search on factors of until we find the smallest, divide out that factor and repeat until all the factors are found (i.e. we end up with 1 or 0). Resources Complexity theory analyzes the difficulty of computational problems in terms of many different computational resources. A problem can be described in terms of many requirements it makes on resources: time, space, randomness, alternation, and other less-intuitive measures. A complexity class is the class of all problems which can be solved using a certain amount of a certain computational resource. There are other measures of computational complexity. For instance, communication complexity is a measure of complexity for distributed computations. A different measure of problem complexity, which is useful in some cases, is circuit complexity. This is a measure of the size of a boolean circuit needed to compute the answer to a problem, in terms of the number of logic gates required to build the circuit. Such a measure is useful, for example, when designing hardware microchips to compute the function instead of software. Perhaps the most studied computational resources are for determinism in time or space. These resources represent the amount of time or space needed by a deterministic computer. These resources are of great practical interest, and are well-studied. Some computational problems are easier to analyze in terms of more unusual resources. For example, a nondeterministic Turing machine is a computational model that is allowed to branch out to check many different possibilities at once. The nondeterministic Turing machine has very little to do with how we physically want to compute algorithms, but its branching exactly captures many of the mathematical models we want to analyze, so that nondeterministic time is a very important resource in analyzing computational problems. Many more unusual computational resources have been used in complexity theory. Technically, any complexity measure can be viewed as a computational resource, and complexity measures are very broadly defined by the Blum complexity axioms. Complexity classes A complexity class is the class of all of the computational problems which can be solved using a certain amount of a certain computational resource. The complexity class P is the class of decision problems that can be solved by a deterministic machine in polynomial time. This class corresponds to an intuitive idea of the problems which can be effectively solved in the worst cases. The complexity class NP is the set of decision problems that can be solved by a non-deterministic Turing machine in polynomial time. This class contains many problems that people would like to be able to solve effectively, including the Boolean satisfiability problem, the Hamiltonian path problem and the vertex cover problem. All the problems in this class have the property that their solutions can be checked efficiently. Many complexity classes can be characterized in terms of the mathematical logic needed to express them – this field is called descriptive complexity. NP completeness and other open questions The question of whether (can problems that can be solved in non-deterministic polynomial time also always be solved in deterministic polynomial time?) is one of the most important open questions in theoretical computer science because of the wide implications of a solution. If the answer is yes, many important problems can be shown to have more efficient solutions that are now used with reluctance because of unknown edge cases. These include various types of integer programming in operations research, many problems in logistics, protein structure prediction in biology, and the ability to find formal proofs of pure mathematics theorems. The problem is one of the Millennium Prize Problems proposed by the Clay Mathematics Institute the solution of which is a US$1,000,000 prize for the first person to provide a solution. Questions like this motivate the concepts of hard and complete Hard A class of problems is hard for a class of problems if every problem in can be transformed "easily" (that is to say, it may take a lot of effort but the person solving the problem knows a solution exists) into some problem in that produces the same solution. The definition of "hard" (or rather "easy") problems differs by context. For , "hard" means NP-hard— a class of problems that are not necessarily in themselves, but to which any they can be reduced to an problem in polynomial time. Complete The class is complete for if it is hard for and is also a subset of it. Thus, the class of NP-complete problems contains the most "difficult" problems in NP, in the sense that they are the ones most likely not to be in . Because the problem is not solved, being able to reduce another problem, , to a known NP-complete problem, , would indicate that there is no known polynomial-time solution for . This is due to the fact that a polynomial-time solution to would yield a polynomial-time solution to . Similarly, because all problems can be reduced to the set, finding an NP-complete problem that can be solved in polynomial time would mean that . Incomplete Diagram of complexity classes provided that P ≠ NP. The existence of problems in NP outside both P and NP-complete in this case was established by Ladner. Incomplete problems are those in that are neither -complete nor in . In other words, incomplete problems can neither be solved in polynomial time nor are they hard problems. It has been shown that if is found false then there exist NP-incomplete problems. Graph isomorphism An important unsolved problem in this context is, whether the graph isomorphism problem is in P, NP-complete, or NP-incomplete. The answer is not known, but there are strong hints that the problem is at least not NP-complete. The graph isomorphism problem asks whether two given graphs are isomorphic. The NP=co-NP problem co-NP is the class containing the complement problems (i.e. problems with the yes/no answers reversed) of NP problems. It is believed that the two classes are not equal; however, it has not yet been proven. It has been shown that if these two complexity classes are not equal no NP-complete problem can be in co-NP and no co-NP-complete problem can be in NP. Every problem in P is also in both NP and co-NP. Integer factorization is an example of a problem in both NP and co-NP that is not known to be in P. Intractability Problems that can be solved but not fast enough for the solution to be useful are called intractable . Naive complexity theory assumes problems that lack polynomial-time solutions are intractable for more than the smallest inputs. Problems that are known to be intractable in this sense include those that are EXPTIME-complete. If is not the same as , then the NP-complete problems are also intractable in this sense. To see why exponential-time algorithms might be unusable in practice, consider a program that makes operations before halting. For small , say 100, and assuming for the sake of example that the computer does operations each second, the program would run for about years, which is roughly the age of the universe. Even with a much faster computer, the program would only be useful for very small instances and in that sense the intractability of a problem is somewhat independent of technological progress. Nevertheless a polynomial time algorithm is not always practical. If its running time is, say, , it is unreasonable to consider it efficient and it is still useless except on small instances. The graph shows time (average of 100 instances in msec using a 933 MHz Pentium III) vs.problem size for knapsack problems for a state-of-the-art specialized algorithm. Quadratic fit suggests that empirical algorithmic complexity for instances with 50–10,000 variables is O((log n)2). The data comes from Pisinger, D. 2003. "Where are the hard knapsack problems?" Technical Report 2003/08, Department of Computer Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark Theory vs. practice What intractability means in practice is open to debate. Saying that a problem is not in does not imply that all large cases of the problem are hard or even that most of them are. For example the decision problem in Presburger arithmetic has been shown not to be in P, yet algorithms have been written that solve the problem in reasonable times in most cases. Similarly, algorithms can solve the NP-complete knapsack problem over a wide range of sizes in less than quadratic time (see graph) and SAT solvers routinely handle large instances of the NP-complete Boolean satisfiability problem. See also Algorithmic efficiency - discusses practical methods for improving an algorithms efficiency Amortized analysis Complexity Cyclomatic complexity Game complexity List of computability and complexity topics List of important publications in computational complexity theory List of open problems in computational complexity theory Parameterized Complexity Performance analysis - the measurement of an algorithms performance at run-time The Complexity of Songs Run-time analysis - discusses estimated run-time by analyzing the algorithm References Further reading Aho, A.V., Hopcroft, J.E., and Ullman, J.D. (1976) The Design and Analysis of Computer Algorithms, Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley P.C. Arora, Sanjeev; Barak, Boaz, "Complexity Theory: A Modern Approach", Cambridge University Press, March 2009. Blum, Manuel (1967) On the Size of Machines, Information and Control, v. 11, pp. 257–265 Blum M. (1967) A Machine-independent Theory of Complexity of Recursive Functions, Journal of the ACM, v. 14, No.2, pp. 322–336 Downey R. and M. Fellows (1999) Parameterized Complexity, Springer-Verlag. Fortnow, Lance; Homer, Steve, (2002/2003). A Short History of Computational Complexity. In D. van Dalen, J. Dawson, and A. Kanamori, editors, The History of Mathematical Logic. North-Holland, Amsterdam. Goldreich, Oded. Computational Complexity: A Conceptual Perspective, Cambridge University Press, 2008. Hartmanis, J., Lewis, P.M., and Stearns, R.E. (1965) Classification of computations by time and memory requirements, Proc. IfiP Congress 65, pp. 31–35 Hartmanis, J., and Stearns, R.E. (1964) Computational Complexity of Recursive Sequences, IEEE Proc. 5th Annual Symp. on Switching Circuit Theory and Logical Design, pp. 82–90 Hartmanis, J., and Stearns, R.E. (1965) On the Computational Complexity of Algorithms, Transactions American Mathematical Society, No. 5, pp. 285–306 Hopcroft, J.E., Motwani, R. and Ullman, J.D. (2007) Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation, Addison Wesley, Boston/San Francisco/New York van Leeuwen, Jan, (ed.) Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science, Volume A: Algorithms and Complexity, The MIT Press/Elsevier, 1990. ISBN 978-0-444-88071-0 (Volume A). QA 76.H279 1990. Huge compendium of information, 1000s of references in the various articles. Mertens, Stephan, "Computational Complexity for Physicists", Computing in Science & Engineering, vol. 4, no. 3, May/June 2002, pp 31–47 Trahtenbrot, B.A. (1956) Signalizing Functions and Table Operators, Research Notices of the Pensa Pedagogical Institute, v. 4, pp. 75–87 (in Russian) Trahtenbrot, B.A. Complexity of Algorithms and Computations, NGU, Novosibirsk, 1967 (in Russian) Wilf, Herbert S., Algorithms and Complexity, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice-Hall, 1986. 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2,349 | Clitic | In linguistics, a clitic is a grammatically independent and phonologically dependent morpheme. SIL Glossary of Linguistic Terms: What is a clitic? It is pronounced like an affix, but works at the phrase level. For example, the English possessive -'s is a clitic; in the phrase the girl next door’s cat, -’s is phonologically attached to the preceding word door while grammatically combined with the phrase the girl next door, the possessor. Clitics may belong to any grammatical category, though they are commonly pronouns, determiners, or adpositions. Note that spelling is not a good guide for identifying clitics, clitics may be spelled as independent words, bound affixes or separated by special characters (e.g. apostrophe). Classification A clitic that precedes its host is called a proclitic. English: an apple A clitic that follows its host is called an enclitic. Latin: Senatus Populusque Romanus ("Senate people-and Roman" = "The Roman Senate and people") A mesoclitic appears between the stem of the host and other affixes. Portuguese: Ela levá-lo-ia. ("She take-it-COND" = "She would take it.") A final type of clitic, the endoclitic, splits apart the root and is inserted between the two pieces. Endoclitics defy the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis (Lexicalist Hypothesis) and so were long claimed to be impossible, but evidence from the Udi language suggests that they do exist. Endoclitics are also found in Pashto. Craig A. Kopris & Anthony R. Davis (AppTek, Inc. / StreamSage, Inc.) Endoclitics in Pashto: Implications for Lexical Integrity (abstract pdf) . In addition to Udi and Pashto, endoclitics are reported to exist in Degema. Properties of clitics Some clitics can be understood as elements undergoing a historical process of grammaticalization: lexical item → clitic → affix According to this model, an autonomous lexical item in a particular context loses the properties of a fully independent word over time and acquires the properties of a morphological affix. At any intermediate stage of this evolutionary process, the element in question can be described as a "clitic". As a result, this term ends up being applied to a highly heterogeneous class of elements, presenting different combinations of word-like and affix-like properties. One characteristic shared by many clitics is a lack of prosodic independence. A clitic attaches to an adjacent word, known as its host. Orthographic conventions treat clitics in different ways: Some are written as separate words, some are written as one word with their hosts, and some are attached to their hosts, but set off by punctuation (a hyphen or an apostrophe, for example). Although the term "clitic" can be used descriptively to refer to any element whose grammatical status is somewhere in between a typical word and a typical affix, linguists have proposed various definitions of "clitic" as a technical term. One common approach is to treat clitics as words that are prosodically deficient: they cannot appear without a host, and they can only form an accentual unit in combination with their host. The term "postlexical clitic" is used for this narrower sense of the term. Given this basic definition, further criteria are needed to establish a dividing line between postlexical clitics and morphological affixes, since both are characterized by a lack of prosodic autonomy. There is no natural, clear-cut boundary between the two categories (since from a historical point of view, a given form can move gradually from one to the other by morphologization). However, by identifying clusters of observable properties that are associated with core examples of clitics on the one hand, and core examples of affixes on the other, one can pick out a battery of tests that provide an empirical foundation for a clitic/affix distinction. An affix syntactically and phonologically attaches to a base morpheme of a limited part of speech, such as a verb, to form a new word. A clitic syntactically functions above the word level, on the phrase or clause level, and attaches only phonetically to the first, last, or only word in the phrase or clause, whichever part of speech the word belongs to. The results of applying these criteria sometimes reveal that elements that have traditionally been called "clitics" actually have the status of affixes (e.g. the Romance pronominal clitics discussed below). Clitics do not always appear next to the word or phrase that they are associated with grammatically. They may be subject to global word order constraints that act on the entire sentence. Many languages, for example, obey "Wackernagel's Law", which requires clitics to appear in "second position", after the first syntactic phrase or the first stressed word in a clause: Czech: Kde se to stalo? ("Where REFL that happened" = "Where did that happen?") Several clitics appearing in the same position (sharing the same host) form a "clitic cluster". The relative order of clitics in a cluster is usually strictly fixed (just as affixes appear in a strict order within a single word): Czech: Nechtěli jsme vám ho dát. ("NOT-wanted 1PL to-you it give" = "We didn't want to give it to you.") Polish: Ty widziałbyś go jutro. ("you saw-COND-2sg him tomorrow" = "You would see him tomorrow.") Clitics in English English enclitics include: The abbreviated forms of be: ’m in I’m ’re in you’re ’s in she’s The abbreviated forms of auxiliary verbs: ’ll in they’ll ’ve in they’ve English proclitics include: a ____ in a desk an ____ in an egg the ____ in the house The contraction n’t as in couldn’t etc. has been shown to have the properties of an affix, rather than a syntactically independent clitic. In English, clitics must be unstressed, but not as a full word cannot be unstressed. I have not done it yet. I’ve not done it yet. I haven’t done it yet. I’ven’t done it yet. (dialectal non-standard) Stress also prevents cliticization as follows: I don’t know who she is. (*I don't know who she’s.) Have you done it? —Yes, I have. (*Yes, I’ve.) He’s not a fool. —He is a fool! (*He’s a fool!) cf. He’s not a genius, either. Clitics in Romance languages In the Romance languages, the articles and direct and indirect object personal pronoun forms are clitics. In Spanish, for example: las aguas ("the waters") lo atamos ("it tied-1PL" = "we tied it") dámelo ("give me it") According to most criteria, in fact, the pronominal clitics in most of the Romance languages have already developed into affixes. There is still some debate as to whether or not this change from clitic to affix has occurred with French subject pronouns. Subject pronouns, especially, are still considered clitics as they force a topicalized reading of a coindexed XP. Although mesoclisis is extremely formal in Brazilian Portuguese and tends to be circumscribed in lesser formal registers by avoiding synthetical future/conditional verb forms, European Portuguese still allows clitic object pronouns to surface as mesoclitics in colloquial situations: Ela levá-lo-ia ("She take-it-would" — "She would take it"). Eles dar-no-lo-ão ("They give-us-it-will" — "They will give it to us"). Further examples In the Indo-European languages, some clitics can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European: for example, *-kwe is the original form of Sanskrit च, Greek τε, and Latin -que. Latin: -que and, -ve or, -ne (yes-no question) Greek: τε and, δέ but, γάρ for (in a logical argument), οὖν therefore Russian: ли (yes-no question), же (emphasis), то (emphasis), не "not" (proclitic), бы (subjunctive) Dutch: 't definite article of neuter nouns and third person singular neuter pronoun, 'k first person pronoun, je second person singular pronoun, ie third person masculin singular pronoun, ze third person plural pronoun Plautdietsch: "Deit'a't vondoag?": "Will he do it today?" Czech: special clitics: weak personal and reflexive pronouns (mu, "him"), certain auxiliary verbs (by, "would"), and various short particles and adverbs (tu, "here"; ale, "though"). "Nepodařilo by se mi mu to dát" "I would not succeed in giving it to him". In addition there are various simple clitics including short prepositions. Swedish: Definite articles are attached to the end of the nouns (enclitic), like in the other Scandinavian languages. Examples: "en pojke" "a boy", "pojken" "the boy", "pojkarna" "the boys"; "en flicka" "a girl", "flickan" "the girl"; "ett barn" "a child", "barnet" "the child" In Old Norse, the definite article is expressed in the enclitics "-inn" (masc.) eg. alfrinn "the elf" dvergrinn "the dwarf" and haukrinn "the hawk", "-in" (fem.) gjǫfin and "-it" (neut.) treit "the tree". Examples of some non-Indo-European languages are shown below: Japanese: all particles, such as the genitive postposition の (no) and the topic marker は (wa). Korean: The copula 이다 (ida) and the adjectival 하다 (hada), as well as some nominal and verbal particles (e.g. 는, neun). However, alternative analysis suggests that the nominal particles do not function as clitics, but as phrasal affixes. Luganda: -nga attached to a verb to form the progressive; -wo 'in' (also attached to a verb) See also Affix Clitic doubling Possessive case Separable affix Tmesis Weak form and strong form Weak pronoun Genitive case References | Clitic |@lemmatized linguistics:1 clitic:19 grammatically:3 independent:4 phonologically:3 dependent:1 morpheme:2 sil:1 glossary:1 linguistic:1 term:6 pronounce:1 like:4 affix:19 work:1 phrase:7 level:3 example:10 english:6 possessive:2 girl:4 next:3 door:3 cat:1 attach:6 precede:2 word:18 combine:1 possessor:1 clitics:26 may:3 belong:2 grammatical:2 category:2 though:2 commonly:1 pronouns:1 determiner:1 adpositions:1 note:1 spell:2 good:1 guide:1 identify:2 bound:1 separate:2 special:2 character:1 e:3 g:3 apostrophe:2 classification:1 host:9 call:3 proclitic:2 apple:1 follow:2 enclitic:2 latin:3 senatus:1 populusque:1 romanus:1 senate:2 people:2 roman:2 mesoclitic:1 appear:6 stem:1 portuguese:3 ela:2 levá:2 lo:4 ia:2 take:4 cond:2 would:6 final:1 type:1 endoclitic:1 split:1 apart:1 root:1 insert:1 two:2 piece:1 endoclitics:4 defy:1 lexical:4 integrity:2 hypothesis:2 lexicalist:1 long:1 claim:1 impossible:1 evidence:1 udi:2 language:8 suggest:2 exist:2 also:4 find:1 pashto:3 craig:1 kopris:1 anthony:1 r:1 davis:1 apptek:1 inc:2 streamsage:1 implication:1 abstract:1 pdf:1 addition:2 report:1 degema:1 property:6 understand:1 element:5 undergo:1 historical:2 process:2 grammaticalization:1 item:2 accord:2 model:1 autonomous:1 particular:1 context:1 lose:1 fully:1 time:1 acquire:1 morphological:2 intermediate:1 stage:1 evolutionary:1 question:3 describe:1 result:2 end:2 apply:2 highly:1 heterogeneous:1 class:1 present:1 different:2 combination:2 one:6 characteristic:1 share:2 many:2 lack:2 prosodic:2 independence:1 attache:2 adjacent:1 know:3 orthographic:1 convention:1 treat:2 way:1 write:2 set:1 punctuation:1 hyphen:1 although:2 use:2 descriptively:1 refer:1 whose:1 status:2 somewhere:1 typical:2 linguist:1 propose:1 various:3 definition:2 technical:1 common:1 approach:1 prosodically:1 deficient:1 cannot:2 without:1 form:12 accentual:1 unit:1 postlexical:2 narrow:1 sense:1 give:8 basic:1 criterion:3 need:1 establish:1 dividing:1 line:1 since:2 characterize:1 autonomy:1 natural:1 clear:1 cut:1 boundary:1 point:1 view:1 move:1 gradually:1 morphologization:1 however:2 cluster:3 observable:1 associate:2 core:2 hand:1 pick:1 battery:1 test:1 provide:1 empirical:1 foundation:1 distinction:1 syntactically:3 base:1 limited:1 part:2 speech:2 verb:6 new:1 function:2 clause:3 phonetically:1 first:4 last:1 whichever:1 sometimes:1 reveal:1 traditionally:1 actually:1 romance:4 pronominal:2 discuss:1 always:1 subject:3 global:1 order:3 constraint:1 act:1 entire:1 sentence:1 obey:1 wackernagel:1 law:1 require:1 second:2 position:2 syntactic:1 stressed:1 czech:3 kde:1 se:2 stalo:1 refl:1 happen:2 several:1 relative:1 usually:1 strictly:1 fix:1 strict:1 within:1 single:1 nechtěli:1 jsme:1 vám:1 ho:1 dát:2 want:2 polish:1 ty:1 widziałbyś:1 go:1 jutro:1 saw:1 tomorrow:2 see:2 enclitics:2 include:3 abbreviated:2 auxiliary:2 proclitics:1 desk:1 egg:1 house:1 contraction:1 n:1 etc:1 show:2 rather:1 must:1 unstressed:2 full:1 yet:4 ven:1 dialectal:1 non:2 standard:1 stress:1 prevent:1 cliticization:1 yes:4 fool:3 cf:1 genius:1 either:1 article:4 direct:1 indirect:1 object:2 personal:2 pronoun:11 spanish:1 la:1 agua:1 water:1 atamos:1 tie:2 dámelo:1 fact:1 already:1 develop:1 still:3 debate:1 whether:1 change:1 occur:1 french:1 especially:1 consider:1 force:1 topicalized:1 reading:1 coindexed:1 xp:1 mesoclisis:1 extremely:1 formal:2 brazilian:1 tend:1 circumscribe:1 less:1 register:1 avoid:1 synthetical:1 future:1 conditional:1 european:4 allow:1 surface:1 mesoclitics:1 colloquial:1 situation:1 eles:1 dar:1 ão:1 u:2 indo:3 trace:1 back:1 proto:1 kwe:1 original:1 sanskrit:1 च:1 greek:2 τε:2 que:2 ne:1 δέ:1 γάρ:1 logical:1 argument:1 οὖν:1 therefore:1 russian:1 ли:1 же:1 emphasis:2 то:1 не:1 бы:1 subjunctive:1 dutch:1 definite:3 neuter:2 noun:2 third:3 person:5 singular:3 k:1 je:1 ie:1 masculin:1 ze:1 plural:1 plautdietsch:1 deit:1 vondoag:1 today:1 weak:3 reflexive:1 mu:2 certain:1 short:2 particle:4 adverb:1 tu:1 ale:1 nepodařilo:1 mi:1 succeed:1 simple:1 preposition:1 swedish:1 scandinavian:1 en:2 pojke:1 boy:3 pojken:1 pojkarna:1 flicka:1 flickan:1 ett:1 barn:1 child:2 barnet:1 old:1 norse:1 express:1 inn:1 masc:1 eg:1 alfrinn:1 elf:1 dvergrinn:1 dwarf:1 haukrinn:1 hawk:1 fem:1 gjǫfin:1 neut:1 treit:1 tree:1 japanese:1 genitive:2 postposition:1 の:1 topic:1 marker:1 は:1 wa:1 korean:1 copula:1 이다:1 ida:1 adjectival:1 하다:1 hada:1 well:1 nominal:2 verbal:1 는:1 neun:1 alternative:1 analysis:1 phrasal:1 luganda:1 nga:1 progressive:1 wo:1 double:1 case:2 separable:1 tmesis:1 strong:1 reference:1 |@bigram lexical_item:2 auxiliary_verb:2 yes_yes:1 indo_european:3 proto_indo:1 neuter_noun:1 singular_pronoun:2 nominal_verbal:1 |
2,350 | Blackwood_convention | The Blackwood convention is a popular bidding convention in contract bridge that was developed by Easley Blackwood Sr. It is used to explore the partnership's possession of aces, kings and (in some cases) the queen of trumps, in order to judge more precisely whether a slam (ie making all, or all but one, tricks) is likely to be possible. Two main styles of Blackwood exist - "standard" Blackwood, and a more sophisticated variant known as "Roman key card" Blackwood, named for the Italian team that developed it. Whilst the former allows inquiry about aces and kings in general, the latter allows precise inquiry about the key cards related to a particular agreed trump suit. In both cases, an initial bid of 4NT (No trumps) is commonly used as the conventional bid to ask partner about their high cards. Common variants Standard Blackwood When this convention is in force, a bid of 4NT (No Trump) asks the partner to provide information on the number of aces in his or her hand (as long as the previous bid is not 1NT, 2NT, or 3NT). With no aces or four aces partner replies 5; with one ace, 5; with two aces, 5; and with three aces, 5. The asking bidder usually has one or two aces, so it is easy to discover the partnership's combined assets. A continuing bid of 5NT asks for kings with the replies following the same pattern. However, asking for kings tends to confirm that your partnership has all the aces and the responder may simply bid the slam at the seven level if he has an appropriate hand. The responder should not count a void as an ace. Eddie Kantar recommends bidding the void suit at the 6 level with three aces and a void and 5NT with two aces and a void. Although alternatives to the Blackwood convention exist (e.g. the Norman four notrump convention), virtually all bridge partnerships deploy a variant of the Blackwood convention (see below) as part of their slam investigation methods. Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB) In modern times, a system called Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB) has largely replaced the original system, at least among more advanced players. It originated from Roman Blackwood (see below). The king of trump is included as a control or a "key card"— in effect, as a "fifth ace"— and so more information is gained. The responses are basically the same as for Roman Blackwood, but with five "aces" in play, and additionally queen of trumps: 5– 0 or 3 key cards5– 1 or 4 key cards5– 2 of the 5 key cards without trump Queen5– 2 of the 5 key cards with trump Queen Some players also choose to use the club response to show 1 or 4 and the diamond response to show 3 or none; this is referred to as "1430" while the above version is "3014". As with Roman Blackwood, for the ambiguous answers in the minor suits the asking partner can almost always work out which it is by looking at the controls in his or her own hand and by analyzing the bidding. The response of five key cards does not exist, as it is simply forbidden for the partner lacking any key card to query Blackwood (see below). Further bidding If partner gives a minor suit response to the RKCB 4NT inquiry, the inquiring partner may still determine if his side holds the queen of trumps. Bidding the next suit up from the 5-level minor suit response is a "queen ask" for the queen of trump. Bidding the agreed trump suit at the next available level denies holding the Queen. All other bids show a holding including the Queen, and give other information about King holdings. General provisions All the foregoing bidding is predicated on the assumption that a trump suit has been agreed upon. Without trump agreement, the last suit bid before the 4NT bid is considered to be the agreed trump suit for responding purposes. When No Trump was the last bid made, 4NT is considered to be a quantitative raise and invitational to a small slam. Therefore a bid of 4 (Gerber convention) is used in many partnerships to ask for aces in no trump sequences. Other variants Roman Blackwood A variation of the standard Blackwood convention, known as Roman Blackwood, was popularized by the famous Italian Blue Team in the 1960s. In Roman Blackwood, the responses are even more ambiguous, but more space-conserving. The basic outline of responses is: 5– 0 or 3 aces5– 1 or 4 aces5– 2 aces In practice, the ambiguity is unlikely to occur, as a strength difference between hands with 0 or 1 and 3 or 4 aces is big enough that it can be established in previous rounds of bidding. In other words, a partner who has previously shown e.g. 12-15 range of high points is unlikely to hold 3 aces for his bid, etc. Even Roman Blackwood convention has several variations, revolving around 5 and 5 responses. In all variants, they denote 2 aces. One variation is that 5 shows extra values, while 5 does not. In other variations, responses 5-5NT denote specific combinations of aces (same color, same rank, or "mixed"). If the querying partner ascertains that all aces are present, he can continue as follows: 5NT is a Grand slam force The first available bid which is not the agreed suit is the Roman Blackwood for kings. The partner responds stepwise, as above. Kickback "Kickback" is the variant of RKCB devised by Jeff Rubens in accordance with the Useful space principle. The step responses are the same as in RKCB, but the ask is not necessarily 4NT. Instead it is the 4-level bid immediately above the agreed trump suit, i.e.: 4– RKCB for clubs4– RKCB for diamonds4– RKCB for hearts4NT– RKCB for spades Kickback has the advantage that it saves bidding space and, especially for minor-suit fits, provides safety at the 5-level if the required keycards are missing. Since the Kickback bid would otherwise be a control bid, 4NT is usually substituted as the control bid in that suit (e.g., 4NT is a control bid in hearts if the agreed trump suit is diamonds). The drawback is that in unpracticed partnerships there can be confusion as to whether a bid is Kickback, a control bid or preference for a different strain: WestEast112344PassEast intended 4 as Kickback, but West thought it was secondary support for hearts, and decided to pass with minimum values. As result, a reasonable grand slam in diamonds was missed. An established partnership might have agreed that as hearts were not supported after opener's rebid, 4 cannot possibly show support, and must be ace asking in diamonds. Exclusion Blackwood Exclusion Blackwood or Voidwood The Bridge World, May 1981 Volume 52, Number 8, by Ron Gerard . was devised by Bobby Goldman as an attempt to resolve the situation when the Blackwood-asker has a void. In that case, he is not interested in the partner's ace in the void suit, as he already has the first-round control; partner's ace would present a duplicated value in that case. It should be noted, however, that many players, even experts, refuse to play Exclusion Blackwood because of the potential disaster of forgetting the agreement. It is usually played as the Roman Keycard Blackwood, with only four keycards: the three Aces outside the void suit and the King of trumps. However, the asking bid is not 4NT, but the void suit— Voidwood is made by jumping on level 4 or 5 in the void suit after a fit has been found, for example: WestEast135 Bids of 5, 5 and 5 present a Voidwood, denoting the void in the suit bid and asking for other keycards. The responses are, as in RKCB: 1st step – 0 or 3 key cards (1 or 4, if playing 1430) 2nd step – 1 or 4 key cards (0 or 3) 3rd step – 2 key cards without trump queen 4th step – 2 key cards trump queen Usage The Blackwood convention is not without problems. When the Blackwood bidder has a void, he is not able to tell whether partner's ace is in the void suit (where it would not be of great help) or in a side suit (where it would be very useful.) For this reason cue bidding to show aces is a superior method with hands that contain a void. In fact, most beginner-level players misuse this convention; they ask for aces when they really need other information from partner. Beginners—and even more advanced players—often fail to comprehend the fundamental purpose of the Blackwood convention. They believe—incorrectly—that the convention is designed for the purpose of ascertaining if the partnership holds all four aces. In fact, the purpose of Blackwood is fundamentally to determine if the partnership is missing two or more aces. If the partnership is missing only one ace, then contracting for 12 tricks may still be reasonable, assuming that the partnership resources are sufficient to capture this many tricks. Blackwood should not be used when the information gleaned will not answer the question that needs to be answered. A simplified, but instructive, way to think about Blackwood is this: "I am concerned that we may lose the first two tricks, if we bid a slam. I can use Blackwood as a kind of insurance policy, to guarantee that this will not happen." But Blackwood will not help if, due to the structure of the hands, there are multiple ways to lose the first two tricks. It only helps, for the most part, if the exclusive risk of losing the first two tricks is due to the opponents' holding two cashable aces. Obviously, the opposition might hold the ace and king of a side suit, and could bang those tricks right down, resulting in an immediate set. Thus, a player should use Blackwood only when he can ascertain that the partnership holds at least second-round controls in all suits (kings or, if a suit fit is found, singletons). Thus, a Blackwood query by the player holding two quick losers in a side suit is a wild gamble, as it is still possible that the suit is not controlled by an Ace or a King. For the same reason, it is generally wrong to use Blackwood with a void. (This is not always true, but the rule of thumb is: Don't use Blackwood with a void unless you are absolutely sure you know what you are doing, and why you are doing it. If you don't understand why it is correct, in a given case, to use Blackwood with a void, then it's very likely that its usage will be incorrect.) You may be missing two aces, but your void may compensate for the lack of one of the enemy aces. Thus, Blackwood will not tell you what you want to know: Are we at risk of losing the first two tricks? If your side has two aces and a void, then you are not at risk of losing the first two tricks, so long as (a) your void is useful (i.e. does not duplicate the function of an ace that your side holds) and (b) you are not vulnerable to the loss of the first two tricks in the fourth suit (because, for instance, one of the partnership hands holds a singleton in that suit or the protected king, giving your side second round control). Other problems can easily occur when clubs is the agreed upon trump suit. The reply to Blackwood could take the partnership past their agreed suit and going to the next higher level may be one trick too high. The adage is 'don't use the convention if there is a possibility you won't like the reply.' A further problem occurs when, after hearing his partner's response, the player who bid 4NT wants to stop in 5NT — as this is a forcing bid asking for Kings. The usual situation here is to bid a previously unbid suit instead (if there is one available) - your partner should recognise that this cannot be a genuine bid and corrects to 5NT. Further reading Ron Klinger, collab Husband & Kambites. (1994) Basic Bridge Victor Gollancz, London, UK. ISBN 0-575-05690-8 Paul Mendelson, Mendelson's Guide to The Bidding Battle (1998) Colt Books, Cambridge, UK. ISBN 0-905899-86-5 Ben Cohen and Rhoda Barrow (ed). The Bridge Players' Encyclopedia 1967 Paul Hamlyn, London UK. William S. Root, The ABCs of Bridge (1998) Crown Publishers Inc, New York, USA ISBN 0-609-80162-7 Eric Crowhurst & Andrew Kambites. Understanding Acol. The Good Bidding Guide 1992 Victor Gollancz in association with Peter Crawley, London, UK. ISBN 0-575-05253-8 Notes </div> References External links Roman Blackwood Blue Team Roman Blackwood Roman Key Card Blackwood Exclusion Keycard Blackwood Green Aces Eddie Kantar's bidding tips | Blackwood_convention |@lemmatized blackwood:44 convention:14 popular:1 bidding:8 contract:2 bridge:6 develop:2 easley:1 sr:1 use:11 explore:1 partnership:14 possession:1 ace:40 king:13 case:5 queen:10 trump:22 order:1 judge:1 precisely:1 whether:3 slam:7 ie:1 make:3 one:9 trick:11 likely:2 possible:2 two:15 main:1 style:1 exist:3 standard:3 sophisticated:1 variant:6 know:4 roman:15 key:16 card:15 name:1 italian:2 team:3 whilst:1 former:1 allows:2 inquiry:3 general:2 latter:1 precise:1 relate:1 particular:1 agree:3 suit:32 initial:1 bid:33 commonly:1 conventional:1 ask:13 partner:16 high:4 common:1 force:3 provide:2 information:5 number:2 hand:7 long:2 previous:2 four:4 reply:4 three:3 bidder:2 usually:3 easy:1 discover:1 combine:1 asset:1 continue:2 asks:1 follow:2 pattern:1 however:3 tends:1 confirm:1 responder:2 may:8 simply:2 seven:1 level:9 appropriate:1 count:1 void:19 eddie:2 kantar:2 recommend:1 although:1 alternative:1 e:5 g:3 norman:1 notrump:1 virtually:1 deploy:1 see:3 part:2 investigation:1 method:2 rkcb:10 modern:1 time:1 system:2 call:1 largely:1 replace:1 original:1 least:2 among:1 advanced:2 player:9 originate:1 include:2 control:10 effect:1 fifth:1 gain:1 response:12 basically:1 five:2 play:3 additionally:1 without:4 also:1 choose:1 club:2 show:7 diamond:4 none:1 refer:1 version:1 ambiguous:2 answer:3 minor:4 almost:1 always:2 work:1 look:1 analyze:1 forbidden:1 lack:2 query:2 far:1 give:4 inquire:1 still:3 determine:2 side:7 hold:11 next:3 agreed:7 available:3 denies:1 holding:1 provision:1 forego:1 predicate:1 assumption:1 upon:2 agreement:2 last:2 consider:2 respond:2 purpose:4 quantitative:1 raise:1 invitational:1 small:1 therefore:1 gerber:1 many:3 sequence:1 variation:4 popularize:1 famous:1 blue:2 even:4 space:3 conserving:1 basic:2 outline:1 practice:1 ambiguity:1 unlikely:2 occur:3 strength:1 difference:1 big:1 enough:1 establish:2 round:4 word:1 previously:2 range:1 point:1 etc:1 several:1 revolve:1 around:1 denote:3 extra:1 value:3 responses:1 specific:1 combination:1 color:1 rank:1 mixed:1 querying:1 ascertain:3 present:3 grand:2 first:8 stepwise:1 kickback:6 devise:2 jeff:1 rubens:1 accordance:1 useful:3 principle:1 step:5 necessarily:1 instead:2 immediately:1 spade:1 advantage:1 save:1 especially:1 fit:3 safety:1 required:1 keycard:5 miss:5 since:1 would:4 otherwise:1 substitute:1 heart:3 drawback:1 unpracticed:1 confusion:1 preference:1 different:1 strain:1 intend:1 west:1 think:2 secondary:1 support:3 decide:1 pass:1 minimum:1 result:2 reasonable:2 might:2 opener:1 rebid:1 cannot:2 possibly:1 must:1 exclusion:4 voidwood:3 world:1 volume:1 ron:2 gerard:1 bobby:1 goldman:1 attempt:1 resolve:1 situation:2 asker:1 interested:1 already:1 duplicated:1 note:2 expert:1 refuse:1 potential:1 disaster:1 forget:1 outside:1 jump:1 find:2 example:1 playing:1 usage:2 problem:3 able:1 tell:2 great:1 help:3 reason:2 cue:1 superior:1 contain:1 fact:2 beginner:2 misuse:1 really:1 need:2 often:1 fail:1 comprehend:1 fundamental:1 believe:1 incorrectly:1 design:1 fundamentally:1 assume:1 resource:1 sufficient:1 capture:1 glean:1 question:1 simplified:1 instructive:1 way:2 concern:1 lose:5 kind:1 insurance:1 policy:1 guarantee:1 happen:1 due:2 structure:1 multiple:1 exclusive:1 risk:3 opponent:1 cashable:1 obviously:1 opposition:1 could:2 bang:1 right:1 immediate:1 set:1 thus:3 second:2 singleton:2 quick:1 loser:1 wild:1 gamble:1 generally:1 wrong:1 true:1 rule:1 thumb:1 unless:1 absolutely:1 sure:1 understand:2 correct:1 incorrect:1 compensate:1 enemy:1 want:2 duplicate:1 function:1 b:1 vulnerable:1 loss:1 fourth:1 instance:1 protected:1 easily:1 take:1 past:1 go:1 adage:1 possibility:1 win:1 like:1 hear:1 stop:1 usual:1 unbid:1 recognise:1 genuine:1 corrects:1 reading:1 klinger:1 collab:1 husband:1 kambites:2 victor:2 gollancz:2 london:3 uk:4 isbn:4 paul:2 mendelson:2 guide:2 battle:1 colt:1 book:1 cambridge:1 ben:1 cohen:1 rhoda:1 barrow:1 ed:1 encyclopedia:1 hamlyn:1 william:1 root:1 abc:1 crown:1 publisher:1 inc:1 new:1 york:1 usa:1 eric:1 crowhurst:1 andrew:1 acol:1 good:1 association:1 peter:1 crawley:1 div:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 green:1 tip:1 |@bigram blackwood_convention:8 trump_suit:7 revolve_around:1 grand_slam:2 victor_gollancz:2 external_link:1 |
2,351 | Brian_Kernighan | Brian Wilson Kernighan (, the 'g' is silent), (born January 1942, Toronto, Ontario, Canada) is a computer scientist who worked at Bell Labs alongside Unix creators Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie and contributed greatly to Unix and its school of thought. He is also coauthor of the AWK and AMPL programming languages. The 'K' of K&R C and the 'K' in AWK both stand for 'Kernighan'. Kernighan's name became widely known through co-authorship of the first book on the C programming language with Dennis Ritchie. Kernighan has said that he had no part in the design of the C language ("it's entirely Dennis Ritchie's work"). He authored many Unix programs, including ditroff, and cron for Version 7 Unix. In collaboration with Shen Lin he devised well-known heuristics for two NP-complete optimization problems: graph partitioning and the travelling salesman problem. (In a display of authorial equity, the former is usually called the Kernighan-Lin algorithm, while the latter is styled Lin-Kernighan.) Kernighan was the software editor for Prentice-Hall International. His "Software Tools" series spread the essence of 'C/Unix thinking' with makeovers for BASIC, FORTRAN, and Pascal - and most notably his 'Ratfor' (rational FORTRAN) was put in the public domain. He has said that if stranded on an island with only one programming language it would have to be C. An Interview with Brian Kernighan Education He received his Bachelor's degree in Engineering Physics from the University of Toronto. He received his PhD in electrical engineering from Princeton University, where he has held a professorship in the department of computer science since 2000. Each fall he teaches a course called "Computers in Our World", which introduces the fundamentals of computing to non-majors. He has on occasion revealed it was his own pun which led to the use of the name 'Unix' (initially 'Unics') for the operating system Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie were working on. Summary of Achievements Hello, world, a program originally written by Brian Kernighan of Bell Labs in "A Tutorial Introduction to the Language B" . The AWK programming language, along with Al Aho and Peter J. Weinberger, and its book The AWK Programming Language The AMPL programming language The Elements of Programming Style, with P. J. Plauger Ratfor, along with P. J. Plauger Software Tools, a book and set of tools for Ratfor, cocreated in part with P. J. Plauger Software Tools in Pascal, a book and set of tools for PASCAL, with P. J. Plauger The Unix Programming Environment, a tutorial book along with Rob Pike The C Programming Language along with C creator Dennis Ritchie, the first book on C The pic typesetting language for troff The eqn typesetting language for troff, along with Lorinda Cherry The Practice of Programming, with Rob Pike Why Pascal is Not My Favorite Programming Language, a popular criticism of the Pascal programming language by Niklaus Wirth. Some parts of the criticism are obsolete due to ISO 7185 (Programming Languages - Pascal), the criticism was written before ISO 7185 was even created. See below for a link. (AT&T Computing Science Technical Report #100) ditroff, or "device independent troff", which allowed troff to be used with any device The m4 macro processing language, with Dennis Ritchie Writings Software Tools (1976 with PJ Plauger) Software Tools in Pascal (1981 with PJ Plauger) The C Programming Language ('K/R') (1978, 1988 with Dennis M. Ritchie) The Elements of Programming Style (1974, 1978 with PJ Plauger) The Unix Programming Environment (1984 with Rob Pike) The AWK Programming Language (1988 with Al Aho and Peter J. Weinberger) The Practice of Programming (1999 with Rob Pike) AMPL: A Modeling Language for Mathematical Programming, 2nd Ed. (2003 with Robert Fourer and David Gay) References External links Brian Kernighan's home page at Princeton U. Brian Kernighan's home page at Bell Labs "Why Pascal is Not My Favorite Programming Language" – By Brian Kernighan, AT&T Bell Labs, 2 April 1981 An Interview with Brian Kernighan – By Mihai Budiu, for PC Report Romania, August 2000 Interview with Brian Kernighan – By Aleksey Dolya, for Linux Journal'', July 2003. Transcript of an interview with Brian Kernighan – Interview by Michael S. Mahoney Video - TechNetCast At Bell Labs: Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan (1999-05-14) Video (Princeton University, September 7, 2003) - "Assembly for the Class of 2007: 'D is for Digital and Why It Matters'" A Descent into Limbo by Brian Kernighan Photos of Brian Kernighan | Brian_Kernighan |@lemmatized brian:12 wilson:1 kernighan:18 g:1 silent:1 bear:1 january:1 toronto:2 ontario:1 canada:1 computer:3 scientist:1 work:3 bell:5 lab:5 alongside:1 unix:8 creator:2 ken:2 thompson:2 dennis:8 ritchie:8 contribute:1 greatly:1 school:1 thought:1 also:1 coauthor:1 awk:5 ampl:3 programming:14 language:19 k:4 r:2 c:9 stand:1 name:2 become:1 widely:1 know:2 co:1 authorship:1 first:2 book:6 program:8 say:2 part:3 design:1 entirely:1 author:1 many:1 include:1 ditroff:2 cron:1 version:1 collaboration:1 shen:1 lin:3 devise:1 well:1 heuristic:1 two:1 np:1 complete:1 optimization:1 problem:2 graph:1 partitioning:1 travel:1 salesman:1 display:1 authorial:1 equity:1 former:1 usually:1 call:2 algorithm:1 latter:1 style:3 software:6 editor:1 prentice:1 hall:1 international:1 tool:7 series:1 spread:1 essence:1 think:1 makeover:1 basic:1 fortran:2 pascal:8 notably:1 ratfor:3 rational:1 put:1 public:1 domain:1 strand:1 island:1 one:1 would:1 interview:5 education:1 receive:2 bachelor:1 degree:1 engineering:2 physic:1 university:3 phd:1 electrical:1 princeton:3 hold:1 professorship:1 department:1 science:2 since:1 fall:1 teach:1 course:1 world:2 introduce:1 fundamental:1 compute:2 non:1 major:1 occasion:1 reveal:1 pun:1 lead:1 use:2 initially:1 unics:1 operating:1 system:1 summary:1 achievement:1 hello:1 originally:1 write:2 tutorial:2 introduction:1 b:1 along:5 al:2 aho:2 peter:2 j:6 weinberger:2 element:2 p:4 plauger:7 set:2 cocreated:1 environment:2 rob:4 pike:4 pic:1 typeset:2 troff:4 eqn:1 lorinda:1 cherry:1 practice:2 favorite:2 popular:1 criticism:3 niklaus:1 wirth:1 obsolete:1 due:1 iso:2 even:1 create:1 see:1 link:2 technical:1 report:2 device:2 independent:1 allow:1 macro:1 processing:1 writing:1 pj:3 modeling:1 mathematical:1 ed:1 robert:1 fourer:1 david:1 gay:1 reference:1 external:1 home:2 page:2 u:1 april:1 mihai:1 budiu:1 pc:1 romania:1 august:1 aleksey:1 dolya:1 linux:1 journal:1 july:1 transcript:1 michael:1 mahoney:1 video:2 technetcast:1 september:1 assembly:1 class:1 digital:1 matter:1 descent:1 limbo:1 photo:1 |@bigram toronto_ontario:1 bell_lab:5 ken_thompson:2 dennis_ritchie:8 np_complete:1 travel_salesman:1 prentice_hall:1 brian_kernighan:11 bachelor_degree:1 awk_programming:3 rob_pike:4 niklaus_wirth:1 external_link:1 |
2,352 | Natural_language_processing | Natural language processing (NLP) is a field of computer science and linguistics concerned with the interactions between computers and human (natural) languages. Natural language generation systems convert information from computer databases into readable human language. Natural language understanding systems convert samples of human language into more formal representations such as parse trees or first order logic that are easier for computer programs to manipulate. Many problems within NLP apply to both generation and understanding; for example, a computer must be able to model morphology (the structure of words) in order to understand an English sentence, and a model of morphology is also needed for producing a grammatically correct English sentence. NLP has significant overlap with the field of computational linguistics, and is often considered a sub-field of artificial intelligence. The term natural language is used to distinguish human languages (such as Spanish, Swahili or Swedish) from formal or computer languages (such as C++, Java or LISP). Charniak, Eugene: Introduction to artificial intelligence, page 2. Addison-Wesley, 1984. Although NLP may encompass both text and speech, work on speech processing has evolved into a separate field. Tasks and limitations In theory, natural-language processing is a very attractive method of human-computer interaction. Early systems such as SHRDLU, working in restricted "blocks worlds" with restricted vocabularies, worked extremely well, leading researchers to excessive optimism, which was soon lost when the systems were extended to more realistic situations with real-world ambiguity and complexity. Natural-language understanding is sometimes referred to as an AI-complete problem, because natural-language recognition seems to require extensive knowledge about the outside world and the ability to manipulate it. The definition of "understanding" is one of the major problems in natural-language processing. Subproblems Speech segmentation In most spoken languages, the sounds representing successive letters blend into each other, so the conversion of the analog signal to discrete characters can be a very difficult process. Also, in natural speech there are hardly any pauses between successive words; the location of those boundaries usually must take into account grammatical and semantic constraints, as well as the context. Text segmentation Some written languages like Chinese, Japanese and Thai do not have single-word boundaries either, so any significant text parsing usually requires the identification of word boundaries, which is often a non-trivial task. Part-of-speech tagging Word sense disambiguation Many words have more than one meaning; we have to select the meaning which makes the most sense in context. Syntactic ambiguity The grammar for natural languages is ambiguous, i.e. there are often multiple possible parse trees for a given sentence. Choosing the most appropriate one usually requires semantic and contextual information. Specific problem components of syntactic ambiguity include sentence boundary disambiguation. Imperfect or irregular input Foreign or regional accents and vocal impediments in speech; typing or grammatical errors, OCR errors in texts. Speech acts and plans A sentence can often be considered an action by the speaker. The sentence structure alone may not contain enough information to define this action. For instance, a question is actually the speaker requesting some sort of response from the listener. The desired response may be verbal, physical, or some combination. For example, "Can you pass the class?" is a request for a simple yes-or-no answer, while "Can you pass the salt?" is requesting a physical action to be performed. It is not appropriate to respond with "Yes, I can pass the salt," without the accompanying action (although "No" or "I can't reach the salt" would explain a lack of action). Statistical NLP Statistical natural-language processing uses stochastic, probabilistic and statistical methods to resolve some of the difficulties discussed above, especially those which arise because longer sentences are highly ambiguous when processed with realistic grammars, yielding thousands or millions of possible analyses. Methods for disambiguation often involve the use of corpora and Markov models. Statistical NLP comprises all quantitative approaches to automated language processing, including probabilistic modeling, information theory, and linear algebra Christopher D. Manning, Hinrich Schutze Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing, MIT Press (1999), ISBN 978-0262133609, p. xxxi . The technology for statistical NLP comes mainly from machine learning and data mining, both of which are fields of artificial intelligence that involve learning from data. Major tasks in NLP Automatic summarization Foreign language reading aid Foreign language writing aid Information extraction Information retrieval (IR) - IR is concerned with storing, searching and retrieving information. It is a separate field within computer science (closer to databases), but IR relies on some NLP methods (for example, stemming). Some current research and applications seek to bridge the gap between IR and NLP. Machine translation - Automatically translating from one human language to another. Named entity recognition (NER) - Given a stream of text, determining which items in the text map to proper names, such as people or places. Although in English, named entities are marked with capitalized words, many other languages do not use capitalization to distinguish named entities. Natural language generation Natural language understanding Optical character recognition anaphora resolution Question answering - Given a human language question, the task of producing a human-language answer. The question may be a closed-ended (such as "What is the capital of Canada?") or open-ended (such as "What is the meaning of life?"). Speech recognition - Given a sound clip of a person or people speaking, the task of producing a text dictation of the speaker(s). (The opposite of text to speech.) Spoken dialogue system Text simplification Text-to-speech Text-proofing Concrete problems Some examples of the problems faced by natural-language-understanding systems: The sentences "We gave the monkeys the bananas because they were hungry" and "We gave the monkeys the bananas because they were over-ripe" have the same surface grammatical structure. However, the pronoun they refers to monkeys in one sentence and bananas in the other, and it is impossible to tell which without a knowledge of the properties of monkeys and bananas. A string of words may be interpreted in different ways. For example, the string "Time flies like an arrow" may be interpreted in a variety of ways: The common simile: time moves quickly just like an arrow does; measure the speed of flies like you would measure that of an arrow (thus interpreted as an imperative) - i.e. (You should) time flies as you would (time) an arrow; measure the speed of flies like an arrow would - i.e. Time flies in the same way that an arrow would (time them); measure the speed of flies that are like arrows - i.e. Time those flies that are like arrows; all of a type of flying insect, "time-flies," collectively enjoys a single arrow (compare Fruit flies like a banana); each of a type of flying insect, "time-flies," individually enjoys a different arrow (similar comparison applies); A concrete object, for example the magazine, Time, travels through the air in an arrow-like manner. English is particularly challenging in this regard because it has little inflectional morphology to distinguish between parts of speech. English and several other languages don't specify which word an adjective applies to. For example, in the string "pretty little girls' school". Does the school look little? Do the girls look little? Do the girls look pretty? Does the school look pretty? We will often imply additional information in spoken language by the way we place stress on words. The sentence "I never said she stole my money" demonstrates the importance stress can play in a sentence, and thus the inherent difficulty a natural language processor can have in parsing it. Depending on which word the speaker places the stress, this sentence could have several distinct meanings: "I never said she stole my money" - Someone else said it, but I didn't. "I never said she stole my money" - I simply didn't ever say it. "I never said she stole my money" - I might have implied it in some way, but I never explicitly said it. "I never said she stole my money" - I said someone took it; I didn't say it was she. "I never said she stole my money" - I just said she probably borrowed it. "I never said she stole my money" - I said she stole someone else's money. "I never said she stole my money" - I said she stole something, but not my money. Evaluation of natural language processing Objectives The goal of NLP evaluation is to measure one or more qualities of an algorithm or a system, in order to determine whether (or to what extent) the system answers the goals of its designers, or meets the needs of its users. Research in NLP evaluation has received considerable attention, because the definition of proper evaluation criteria is one way to specify precisely an NLP problem, going thus beyond the vagueness of tasks defined only as language understanding or language generation. A precise set of evaluation criteria, which includes mainly evaluation data and evaluation metrics, enables several teams to compare their solutions to a given NLP problem. Short history of evaluation in NLP The first evaluation campaign on written texts seems to be a campaign dedicated to message understanding in 1987 (Pallet 1998). Then, the Parseval/GEIG project compared phrase-structure grammars (Black 1991). A series of campaigns within Tipster project were realized on tasks like summarization, translation and searching (Hirshman 1998). In 1994, in Germany, the Morpholympics compared German taggers. Then, the Senseval and Romanseval campaigns were conducted with the objectives of semantic disambiguation. In 1996, the Sparkle campaign compared syntactic parsers in four different languages (English, French, German and Italian). In France, the Grace project compared a set of 21 taggers for French in 1997 (Adda 1999). In 2004, during the Technolangue/Easy project, 13 parsers for French were compared. Large-scale evaluation of dependency parsers were performed in the context of the CoNLL shared tasks in 2006 and 2007. In Italy, the evalita campaign was conducted in 2007 to compare various tools for Italian evalita web site. In France, within the ANR-Passage project (end of 2007), 10 parsers for French were compared passage web site. Adda G., Mariani J., Paroubek P., Rajman M. 1999 L'action GRACE d'évaluation de l'assignation des parties du discours pour le français. Langues vol-2 Black E., Abney S., Flickinger D., Gdaniec C., Grishman R., Harrison P., Hindle D., Ingria R., Jelinek F., Klavans J., Liberman M., Marcus M., Reukos S., Santoni B., Strzalkowski T. 1991 A procedure for quantitatively comparing the syntactic coverage of English grammars. DARPA Speech and Natural Language Workshop Hirshman L. 1998 Language understanding evaluation: lessons learned from MUC and ATIS. LREC Granada Pallet D.S. 1998 The NIST role in automatic speech recognition benchmark tests. LREC Granada Different types of evaluation Depending on the evaluation procedures, a number of distinctions are traditionally made in NLP evaluation. Intrinsic vs. extrinsic evaluation Intrinsic evaluation considers an isolated NLP system and characterizes its performance mainly with respect to a gold standard result, pre-defined by the evaluators. Extrinsic evaluation, also called evaluation in use considers the NLP system in a more complex setting, either as an embedded system or serving a precise function for a human user. The extrinsic performance of the system is then characterized in terms of its utility with respect to the overall task of the complex system or the human user. For example, consider a syntactic parser that is based on the output of some new part of speech (POS) tagger. An intrinsic evaluation would run the POS tagger on some labelled data, and compare the system output of the POS tagger to the gold standard (correct) output. An extrinsic evaluation would run the parser with some other POS tagger, and then with the new POS tagger, and compare the parsing accuracy. Black-box vs. glass-box evaluation Black-box evaluation requires one to run an NLP system on a given data set and to measure a number of parameters related to the quality of the process (speed, reliability, resource consumption) and, most importantly, to the quality of the result (e.g. the accuracy of data annotation or the fidelity of a translation). Glass-box evaluation looks at the design of the system, the algorithms that are implemented, the linguistic resources it uses (e.g. vocabulary size), etc. Given the complexity of NLP problems, it is often difficult to predict performance only on the basis of glass-box evaluation, but this type of evaluation is more informative with respect to error analysis or future developments of a system. Automatic vs. manual evaluation In many cases, automatic procedures can be defined to evaluate an NLP system by comparing its output with the gold standard (or desired) one. Although the cost of producing the gold standard can be quite high, automatic evaluation can be repeated as often as needed without much additional costs (on the same input data). However, for many NLP problems, the definition of a gold standard is a complex task, and can prove impossible when inter-annotator agreement is insufficient. Manual evaluation is performed by human judges, which are instructed to estimate the quality of a system, or most often of a sample of its output, based on a number of criteria. Although, thanks to their linguistic competence, human judges can be considered as the reference for a number of language processing tasks, there is also considerable variation across their ratings. This is why automatic evaluation is sometimes referred to as objective evaluation, while the human kind appears to be more subjective. Shared tasks (Campaigns) BioCreative Message Understanding Conference Technolangue/Easy Text Retrieval Conference Standardization in NLP An ISO sub-committee is working in order to ease interoperability between Lexical resources and NLP programs. The sub-committee is part of ISO/TC37 and is called ISO/TC37/SC4. Some ISO standards are already published but most of them are under construction, mainly on lexicon representation (see LMF), annotation and data category registry. Journals Computational Linguistics Language Resources and Evaluation Linguistic Issues in Language Technology Organizations and conferences Associations Association for Computational Linguistics Association for Machine Translation in the Americas AFNLP - Asian Federation of Natural Language Processing Associations Australasian Language Technology Association (ALTA) Conferences Language Resources and Evaluation Software tools AlchemyAPI Expert System S.p.A. General Architecture for Text Engineering MontyLingua Natural Language Toolkit (NLTK): a Python library suite OpenNLP NLP Software Packages - Free software packages for NLP research, including a Semantic Role Labeler, Named Entity Tagger, Coreference Resolution, and more! This also the home of Learning-Based Java (Machine Learning Framework) and Sparse Network of Winnows (Learning Architecture). See also Natural language generation Natural language understanding Biomedical text mining Chatterbot Compound term processing Computational linguistics Computer-assisted reviewing Controlled natural language Human language technology Information retrieval Latent semantic indexing Lexical markup framework lojban / loglan Transderivational search Speech Recognition Implementations Cypher, a framework for transforming natural language phrases and statements into SPARQL and RDF. Uses the Metalanguage Ontology to describe language constructs such as phrase grammars, morphology rules and lexicons. Distinguo, an API tool bsed on description logic in C++ that provides solutions for Semantic Search in Natural Language Texts for searching and comparing document content in large archives. Infonic Sentiment, an NLP-based news analysis software package that reads news flows and provides news sentiment signals for the algorithmic trading systems of investment banks LinguaStream, a generic platform for NLP experimentation MARF, a framework for voice and statistical NLP processing Nortel Speech Server, a speech processing system primarily used for large-vocabulary speech recognition, natural-language understanding, text-to-speech, and speaker verification References Related academic articles Bates, M. (1995). Models of natural language understanding. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 92, No. 22 (Oct. 24, 1995), pp. 9977-9982. External links Resources Resources for Text, Speech and Language Processing A comprehensive list of resources, classified by category CICLing annual conferences on Intelligent Text Processing and Computational Linguistics Free online introductory book (Internet Archive copy) Language Technology Documentation Centre in Finland (FiLT) Some simple examples of NLP-hard utterances. A Graph based natural language processor Organizations The Stanford Natural Language Processing Group The Cognitive Computation Group NLP group of CIC-IPN; many publications available online be-x-old:Апрацоўка натуральнай мовы | Natural_language_processing |@lemmatized natural:30 language:56 processing:13 nlp:31 field:6 computer:9 science:3 linguistics:6 concern:2 interaction:2 human:14 languages:1 generation:5 system:22 convert:2 information:9 database:1 readable:1 understand:4 sample:2 formal:2 representation:2 parse:4 tree:2 first:2 order:4 logic:2 easy:3 program:2 manipulate:2 many:6 problem:10 within:4 apply:1 understanding:10 example:9 must:2 able:1 model:4 morphology:4 structure:4 word:11 english:7 sentence:12 also:6 need:3 produce:4 grammatically:1 correct:2 significant:2 overlap:1 computational:5 often:9 consider:4 sub:3 artificial:3 intelligence:3 term:3 use:8 distinguish:3 spanish:1 swahili:1 swedish:1 c:3 java:2 lisp:1 charniak:1 eugene:1 introduction:1 page:1 addison:1 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2,353 | Mind_control | Mind control is a broad range of psychological tactics able to subvert an individual's control of his or her own thinking, behavior, emotions, or decisions. There are a number of controversial issues regarding mind control and the methods by which control might be attained (either direct or more subtle) are the focus of study among psychologists, neuroscientists, and sociologists. The question of mind control has been discussed in relation to religion, politics, prisoners of war, totalitarianism, black operations, neural cell manipulation, cults, terrorism, torture, parental alienation, and even battered person syndrome. Mind control as a legal defense tactic (see also temporary insanity) was rejected by the court in the case of Patty Hearst, and in several court cases involving New Religious Movements. Also, questions of mind control are regarding ethical questions linked to the subject of free will. Mind control theories are based on the premise that an outside source can strongly influence or even control an individual's thinking, behavior or consciousness. Such theories have ethical and legal implications. Perhaps the most frequently thought of example of mind control is hypnosis, a widely accepted practice often used for entertainment and psychological assessment. Theoretical models and methods Lifton thought reform model In his 1961 book Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism: A Study of "Brainwashing" in China, psychiatrist Robert Jay Lifton, M.D., describes eight coercive methods which, he says, are able to change the minds of individuals without their knowledge and were used with this purpose on prisoners of war in Korea and China. These include: Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism: A Study of "Brainwashing" in China, Robert J. Lifton, 1956 Milieu Control. This involves the control of information and communication both within the environment and, ultimately, within the individual, resulting in a significant degree of isolation from society at large. Mystical Manipulation. There is manipulation of experiences that appear spontaneous but in fact were planned and orchestrated by the group or its leaders in order to demonstrate divine authority or spiritual advancement or some special gift or talent that will then allow the leader to reinterpret events, scripture, and experiences as he or she wishes. Demand for Purity. The world is viewed as black and white and the members are constantly exhorted to conform to the ideology of the group and strive for perfection. The induction of guilt and/or shame is a powerful control device used here. Confession. Sins, as defined by the group, are to be confessed either to a personal monitor or publicly to the group. There is no confidentiality; members' "sins", "attitudes", and "faults" are discussed and exploited by the leaders. Sacred Science. The group's doctrine or ideology is considered to be the ultimate Truth, beyond all questioning or dispute. Truth is not to be found outside the group. The leader, as the spokesperson for God or for all humanity, is likewise above criticism. Loading the Language. The group interprets or uses words and phrases in new ways so that often the outside world does not understand. This jargon consists of thought-terminating clichés, which serve to alter members' thought processes to conform to the group's way of thinking Doctrine over person. Member's personal experiences are subordinated to the sacred science and any contrary experiences must be denied or reinterpreted to fit the ideology of the group. Dispensing of existence. The group has the prerogative to decide who has the right to exist and who does not. This is usually not literal but means that those in the outside world are not saved, unenlightened, unconscious and they must be converted to the group's ideology. If they do not join the group or are critical of the group, then they must be rejected by the members. Thus, the outside world loses all credibility. In conjunction, should any member leave the group, he or she must be rejected also. In his 1999 book Destroying the world to save it: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence and the New Global Terrorism, Lifton concluded that thought reform was possible without violence or physical coercion. Robert W. Ford, a British radio operator who worked in Tibet in the 1950s, spent five years in Chinese jails. He published a book entitled Captured in Tibet, describing and analyzing thought reform to which he was harshly subjected. Robert W. Ford, Captured in Tibet, Oxford Univ Press, September 1990, ISBN 019581570X; Wind Between the Worlds: Captured in Tibet, SLG Books, ISBN 0961706694. William Sargant's theories on mind control William Sargant connected Pavlov’s findings to the ways people learned and internalized belief systems. Conditioned behavior patterns could be changed by stimulated stresses beyond a dog’s capacity for response, in essence causing a breakdown. This could also be caused by intense signals, longer than normal waiting periods, rotating positive and negative signals and changing a dog’s physical condition, as through illness. Depending on the dog’s initial personality, this could possibly cause a new belief system to be held tenaciously. Sargant also connected Pavlov’s findings to the mechanisms of brain-washing in religion and politics. Margaret Singer's conditions for mind control Psychologist Margaret Singer describes in her book Cults in our Midst six conditions which she says would create an atmosphere in which thought reform is possible. Singer states that these conditions involve no need for physical coercion or violence. Cults in Our Midst: The Continuing Fight Against Their Hidden Menace, Margaret Thaler Singer, Jossey-Bass, publisher, April 2003, ISBN 0-78796-741-6] Keep the person unaware of what is going on and how attempts to psychologically condition him or her are directed in a step-by-step manner. Potential new members are led, step by step, through a behavioral-change program without being aware of the final agenda or full content of the group. The goal may be to make them deployable agents for the leadership, to get them to buy more courses, or get them to make a deeper commitment, depending on the leader's aim and desires. Control the person's social and/or physical environment; especially control the person's time. Through various methods, newer members are kept busy and led to think about the group and its content during as much of their waking time as possible. Systematically create a sense of powerlessness in the person. This is accomplished by getting members away from their normal social support group for a period of time and into an environment where the majority of people are already group members. The members serve as models of the attitudes and behaviors of the group and speak an in-group language. Strip members of their main occupation (quit jobs, drop out of school) or source of income or have them turn over their income (or the majority of) to the group. Once the target is stripped of their usual support network, their confidence in their own perception erodes. As the target's sense of powerlessness increases, their good judgment and understanding of the world are diminished. (ordinary view of reality is destabilized) As the group attacks the target's previous worldview, it causes the target distress and inner confusion; yet they are not allowed to speak about this confusion or object to it - leadership suppresses questions and counters resistance. This process is sped up if the targeted individual or individuals are kept tired - the cult will take deliberate actions to keep the target constantly busy. Manipulate a system of rewards, punishments and experiences in such a way as to inhibit behavior that reflects the person's former social identity. Manipulation of experiences can be accomplished through various methods of trance induction, including leaders using such techniques as paced speaking patterns, guided imagery, chanting, long prayer sessions or lectures, and lengthy meditation sessions. the target's old beliefs and patterns of behavior are defined as irrelevant or evil. Leadership wants these old patterns eliminated, so the member must suppress them. Members get positive feedback for conforming to the group's beliefs and behaviors and negative feedback for old beliefs and behavior. The group manipulates a system of rewards, punishments, and experiences in order to promote learning the group's ideology or belief system and group-approved behaviors. Good behavior, demonstrating an understanding and acceptance of the group's beliefs, and compliance are rewarded while questioning, expressing doubts or criticizing are met with disapproval, redress and possible rejection. If one expresses a question, he or she is made to feel that there is something inherently disordered about them to be questioning. The only feedback members get is from the group; they become totally dependent upon the rewards given by those who control the environment. Members must learn varying amounts of new information about the beliefs of the group and the behaviors expected by the group. The more complicated and filled with contradictions the new system is and the more difficult it is to learn, the more effective the conversion process will be. Esteem and affection from peers is very important to new recruits. Approval comes from having the new member's behaviors and thought patterns conform to the models (members). Members' relationship with peers is threatened whenever they fail to learn or display new behaviors. Over time, the easy solution to the insecurity generated by the difficulties of learning the new system is to inhibit any display of doubts—new recruits simply acquiesce, affirm and act as if they do understand and accept the new ideology. Put forth a closed system of logic and an authoritarian structure that permits no feedback and refuses to be modified except by leadership approval or executive order. The group has a top-down, pyramid structure. The leaders must have verbal ways of never losing. Members are not allowed to question, criticize or complain—if they do, the leaders allege that the member is defective - not the organization or the beliefs. The targeted individual is treated as if he or she is always intellectually incorrect or injust, while conversely the system, its leaders and its beliefs are always automatically, and by default, considered as absolutely just. Conversion or remolding of the individual member happens in a closed system. As members learn to modify their behavior in order to be accepted in this closed system, they change—begin to speak the language—which serves to further isolate them from their prior beliefs and behaviors. A report on brainwashing and mind control presented by an American Psychological Association (APA) task force known as the APA Taskforce on Deceptive and Indirect Techniques of Persuasion and Control (DIMPAC), chaired by Singer, was rejected in 1987 by the APA's Board of Social and Ethical Responsibility for Psychology (BSERP) as lacking "the scientific rigor and evenhanded critical approach necessary for APA imprimatur." and cautioned the task force members to "not distribute or publicize the report without indicating that the report was unacceptable to the Board." May 11, 1987, APA MEMORANDUM available online In 2001, Alberto Amitrani and Raffaella Di Marzio, from the Roman seat of the Group for Research and Information about Sects (GRIS) published an article in which they assert that the rejection of the report should not be construed as a rejection of the theories of thought reform and mind control as applied to New Religious Movements, and that the rejection by one division of the APA does not represent the whole association. They quote a personal e-mail from Benjamin Zablocki, professor of sociology, from 1997 in which Zablocki told the authors "many people have been misled about the true position of the APA and the ASA with regard to brainwashing", and that the APA urged scholars to do more research on the matter. They also write that they have reason to believe that the APA still considers "psychological coercion" to be a phenomenon worth investigating, and not a notion rejected by the scientific community. They also write "Otherwise, why would people such as Margaret Singer, Michael Langone, and others considered to be 'anti-cultists' contribute to APA Conventions and be respected in other prestigious professional bodies as well?" "Mind Control" in New Religious Movements and the American Psychological Association, Amitrani Marzio and Raffaella Di Marzio, Cults and Society, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2001 Writing in 1999, research and forensic psychologist Dick Anthony noted that the removal of Singer's brainwashing concept from the most recent edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM IV) "would seem to indicate that the American Psychiatric Association, like the American Psychological Association, the American Sociological Association and the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, has repudiated Singer's cultic brainwashing theory because of its unscientific character." Anthony also noted that Singer's testimony had also been repeatedly excluded from American legal trials. Anthony, Dick, Pseudoscience and Minority Religions: An Evaluation of the Brainwashing Theories of Jean-Marie Abgrall, Social Justice Research, Springer Netherlands (1999), Volume 12, Number 4 Benjamin Zablocki points out the limitations of Dick Anthony's characterisation of Singer's cultic brainwashing theory as 'unscientific', in passing in a paper titled 'Methodological Fallacies In Anthony’s Critique Of Exit Cost Analysis' . In this paper, Zablocki attempts to rebutt Anthony's criticisms of his theoretical work on brainwashing in a chapter of the book 'Misunderstanding Cults' (University of Toronto Press 2001). Zablocki writes: There is one error that Anthony makes so persistently that it runs through fully one third of all his 98 propositions. This is the error of assuming that my theory asserts that the influence mechanism I am describing involves the destruction of the target’s free-will. [...] It is true that various anticult writers, drawn mostly from the ranks of mental health professionals rather than social sciences, have alleged that cults take away the free will of their members, not realizing– or not caring– that the overthrow of free will is an unfalsifiable (and therefore unscientific) phenomenon. It is also true that Anthony has been successful in the past in exposing the non-scientific nature of these cultic-loss-of-free-will arguments. He senses correctly that if he could only map an isomorphism between my theory and theirs, his work would be mostly done and he could tar me with the same brush he has used successfully in the past on these hapless clinicians (of which Margaret Singer is the most notorious example). [...] Anthony does not seem to grasp that one can discuss socially imposed constraints without declaring the overthrow of free will. Steven Hassan's BITE model In his book Releasing the Bonds: Empowering People to Think for Themselves, mental health counselor and exit counselor Steven Hassan describes his mind-control model, "BITE". "BITE" stands for "Behavior, Information, Thoughts, and Emotions." The model has a basis in the works of Singer and Lifton, and in the cognitive dissonance theory of Leon Festinger. In the book, Hassan describes the components of the BITE model: Behavior Control Regulation of individual’s physical reality Major time commitment required for indoctrination sessions and group rituals Need to ask permission for major decisions Need to report thoughts, feelings, and activities to superiors Rewards and punishments (behavior modification techniques positive and negative) Individualism discouraged; "group think" prevails Rigid rules and regulations Need for obedience and dependency Information Control Use of deception Access to non cult sources of information minimized or discouraged Compartmentalization of information; Outsider vs. Insider doctrines Spying on other members is encouraged Extensive use of cult generated information and propaganda Unethical use of confession Thought Control Need to internalize the group’s doctrine as "Truth" Use of "loaded" language (for example, “thought terminating clichés"). Words are the tools we use to think with. These "special" words constrict rather than expand understanding, and can even stop thoughts altogether. They function to reduce complexities of experience into trite, platitudinous "buzz words." Only "good" and "proper" thoughts are encouraged. Use of hypnotic techniques to induce altered mental states Manipulation of memories and implantation of false memories Use of thought stopping techniques, which shut down "reality testing" by stopping "negative" thoughts and allowing only "good" thoughts Rejection of rational analysis, critical thinking, constructive criticism. No critical questions about leader, doctrine, or policy seen as legitimate. No alternative belief systems viewed as legitimate, good, or useful Emotional Control Manipulate and narrow the range of a person’s feelings Make the person feel that if there are ever any problems, it is always their fault, never the leader’s or the group’s Excessive use of guilt Excessive use of fear Extremes of emotional highs and lows Ritual and often public confession of "sins" Phobia indoctrination: inculcating irrational fears about ever leaving the group or even questioning the leader’s authority. The person under mind control cannot visualize a positive, fulfilled future without being in the group. Hassan writes that cults recruit and retain members through a three-step process which he refers to as "unfreezing," "changing," and "refreezing". This involves the use of an extensive array of various techniques, including systematic deception, behavior modification, withholding of information, and emotionally intense persuasion techniques (such as the induction of phobias), which he collectively terms mind control. He describes these steps as follows: Releasing the Bonds: Empowering People to Think for Themselves, Steven Hassan, Ch. 4, Steven Hassan, Aitan Publishing Company, 2000 Unfreezing: the process of breaking a person down Changing: the indoctrination process Refreezing: the process of reinforcing the new identity In Releasing the Bonds he also writes "I suspect that most cult groups use informal hypnotic techniques to induce trance states. They tend to use what are called "naturalistic" hypnotic techniques. Practicing meditation to shut down thinking, chanting a phrase repetitively for hours, or reciting affirmations are all powerful ways to promote spiritual growth. But they can also be used unethically, as methods for mind control indoctrination." Releasing the Bonds: Empowering People to Think for Themselves, Steven Hassan, Ch. 2, Aitan Publishing Company, 2000 Hassan, after taking part in a number of deprogrammings in the late 1970s, states that he is no longer involved in this practice. Refuting the Disinformation Attacks Put Forth by Destructive Cults and their Agents and which eventually became completely illegal except in the case of minors. In Releasing the Bonds, Hassan describes an approach that he calls the "Strategic Interaction Approach" (SIA) in order to help cult members leave their groups, and in order to help them recover from the psychological damage that they have incurred. The approach is non-coercive and the person being treated is free to discontinue it at any time. He writes: "The goal of the SIA is to help the loved one recover his full faculties; to restore the creative, interdependent adult who fully understands what has happened to him; who has digested and integrated the experience and is better and stronger from the experience." Releasing the Bonds: Empowering People to Think for Themselves, Steven Hassan, Ch. 3, Aitan Publishing Company, 2000 In 1998 the Enquete Commission issued its report on "So-called Sects and Psychogroups" in Germany. Reviewing Hassan's BITE model, the report said that: Final Report of the Enquete Commission on "So-called Sects and Psychogroups" New Religious and Ideological Communities and Psychogroups in the Federal Republic of Germany Thus, the milieu control identified by Hassan, consisting of behavioural control, mental control, emotional control and information control cannot, in every case and as a matter of principle, be characterised as "manipulative". Control of these areas of action is an inevitable component of social interactions in a group or community. The social control that is always associated with intense commitment to a group must therefore be clearly distinguished from the exertion of intentional, methodical influence for the express purpose of manipulation. Social psychology tactics A contemporary view of mind control sees it as an intensified and persistent use of well researched social psychology principles like compliance, conformity, persuasion, dissonance, reactance, framing or emotional manipulation. One of the most notable proponents of such theories is social psychologist Philip Zimbardo, former president of the American Psychological Association: I conceive of mind control as a phenomenon encompassing all the ways in which personal, social and institutional forces are exerted to induce compliance, conformity, belief, attitude, and value change in others. Phil Zimbardo "Mind control is the process by which individual or collective freedom of choice and action is compromised by agents or agencies that modify or distort perception, motivation, affect, cognition and/or behavioral outcomes. It is neither magical nor mystical, but a process that involves a set of basic social psychological principles." In Influence, Science and Practice, social psychologist Robert Cialdini argues that mind control is possible through the covert exploitation of the unconscious rules that underlie and facilitate healthy human social interactions. He states that common social rules can be used to prey upon the unwary, and he titles them as follows: "Reciprocation: The Old Give and Take...and Take" "Commitment and Consistency: Hobgoblins of the Mind" "Social Proof: Truths Are Us" "Liking: The Friendly Thief" "Authority: Directed Deference" "Scarcity: The Rule of the Few" Using these six broad categories, he offers specific examples of both mild and extreme mind control (both one on one and in groups), notes the conditions under which each social rule is most easily exploited for false ends, and offers suggestions on how to resist such methods. Social psychological conditioning by Stahelski Writing in the Journal of Homeland Security, a publication of the ANSER Institute for Homeland Security, Anthony Stahelski identifies five phases of social psychological conditioning which he calls cult-like conditioning techniques employed by terrorist groups: [Stahelski, 2004]: Depluralization: stripping away all other group member identities Self-deindividuation: stripping away each member’s personal identity Other-deindividuation: stripping away the personal identities of enemies Dehumanization: identifying enemies as subhuman or nonhuman Demonization: identifying enemies as evil Subliminal advertising Subliminal advertising was proposed around 1960 as a means for organized mass control of human behavior. The allegations has since then fallen out of the common debate, because there are few reports that subliminal advertising has any real effect in the way advertisers may wish. Cults and mind control controversies Some of the mind control models discussed above have been related to religious and non-religious cults (for debates regarding what is a cult, see the article). There is debate among scholars, members of new religious movements, and cult critics whether or not mind control is applied either in general or by any particular group. Scholarly points of view While the majority of scholars in the study of religion reject theories of mind control (e.g., Massimo Introvigne and J. Gordon Melton), it is often accepted in psychology and psychiatry (e.g., Margaret Singer, Michael Langone, and Philip Zimbardo) and in sociology the opinions are divided (e.g., David G. Bromley and Anson Shupe contra, Stephen A. Kent and Benjamin Zablocki pro). Most scholars have either a decided contra or a decided pro opinion; there are few who advocate a moderate point of view. James T. (Jim) Richardson, professor of Sociology and Judicial Studies at the University of Nevada, writes in his "Brainwashing" Claims and Minority Religions Outside the United States: Cultural Diffusion of a Questionable Concept in the Legal Arena that, while heavy on theory, the mind control model is light on evidence: "The CCM movement has collected some information to support its belief that religious groups successfully employ mind-control techniques. But the data is unreliable. The information typically represents a very small sample size. It is not practical to obtain information before, during and after an individual has been in a new religious movement (NRM). Often, their data is disproportionately obtained from former members of a religious organization who have been convinced during CCM counseling that they have been victims of mind-control." Brainwashing by Religious Cults James Richardson, also states that if the NRMs had access to powerful brainwashing techniques, one would expect that NRMs would have high growth rates, while in fact most have not had notable success in recruitment. Most adherents participate for only a short time, and the success in retaining members has been limited. In addition, Thomas Robbins, Eileen Barker, Newton Maloney, Massimo Introvigne, John Hall, Lorne Dawson, Anson Shupe, David G. Bromley, Gordon Melton, Marc Galanter, Saul Levine and other scholars researching NRMs have argued and established to the satisfaction of courts and relevant professional associations and scientific communities that there exists no scientific theory, generally accepted and based upon methodologically sound research, that supports the brainwashing theories as advanced by the anti-cult movement. CESNUR - Brainwashing and Mind Control Controversies Sociologist Benjamin Zablocki sees strong indicators of mind control in some NRMs and suggests that the concept should be researched without bias: "I am not personally opposed to the existence of NRMs and still less to the free exercise of religious conscience. I would fight actively against any governmental attempt to limit freedom of religious expression. Nor do I believe it is within the competence of secular scholars such as myself to evaluate or judge the cultural worth of spiritual beliefs or spiritual actions. However, I am convinced, based on more than three decades of studying NRMs through participant-observation and through interviews with both members and ex-members, that these movements have unleashed social and psychological forces of truly awesome power. These forces have wreaked havoc in many lives—in both adults and in children. It is these social and psychological influence processes that the social scientist has both the right and the duty to try to understand, regardless of whether such understanding will ultimately prove helpful or harmful to the cause of religious liberty." (Zablocki, 1997) Sociologists David Bromley and Anson Shupe consider the idea that "cults" are brainwashing American youth to be "implausible".. Sociology professor Stephen A. Kent published several articles where he discusses practices of NRMs as regards to brainwashing Brainwashing and Re-Indoctrination Programs in the Children of God/The Family In 1984 the American Psychological Association (APA) requested Margaret Singer, the main proponent of mind control theories, to set up a working group called the APA taskforce on Deceptive and Indirect Techniques of Persuasion and Control (DIMPAC). In 1987 the DIMPAC committee submitted its final report to the Board of Social and Ethical Responsibility for Psychology of the APA. On May 11, 1987 the Board rejected the report. In the rejection memo CESNUR - APA Memo of 1987 with Enclosures it is stated: "Finally, after much consideration, BSERP does not believe that we have sufficient information available to guide us in taking a position on this issue.". There are two interpretations of this rejection: one side (e.g. Amitrani and di Marzio 2000 and Zablocki 2001) see it as no position on the issue of brainwashing, the other (e.g. Introvigne 1997) sees it as rejecting all brainwashing theories. Philip Zimbardo, who teaches a course on the "The psychology of mind control" at Stanford University, wrote that "Several participants [in a presentation called 'Cults of Hatred'] challenged our profession to form a task force on extreme forms of influence, asserting that the underlying issues inform discourses on terrorist recruiting, on destructive cults versus new religious movements, on social-political-'therapy' cults and on human malleability or resiliency when confronted by authority power." Mind Control: Psychological Reality or Mindless Rhetoric? Philip Zimbardo, Monitor on Psychology, Volume 33, No. 10, November 2002 Recently, there are indications that some members of both sides are willing to start a dialog as, for example, in the 2001 book "Misunderstanding Cults: Searching for Objectivity in a Controversial Field". Additionally, professor of Sociology Eileen Barker was invited to speak at the 2002 yearly conference of the International Cultic Studies Association. And J. Gordon Melton and Douglas Cowan were invited to speak at a conference sponsored by the Evangelical Ministries to New Religions. Mind control, exit counseling, and deprogramming Opponents of some new religious movements have accused them of being cults that coerce recruits to join (and members to remain) by using strong influence over members that is instilled and maintained by manipulation (see also Anti-cult movement, Opposition to cults and new religious movements and Christian countercult movement). Such opponents frequently advocate exit counseling as necessary to free the cult member from mind control. The practice of coercive deprogramming has practically ceased. (Kent & Szimhart, 2002) Opponents of deprogramming generally regard it as an even worse violation of personal autonomy than any loss of free will attributable to the recruiting tactics of new religious movements. These people complain that targets of deprogramming are being deceived, denied due process, and forced to endure more intense manipulation than that encountered during their previous group membership. Steven Hassan, who began his career as a deprogrammer, criticizes deprogramming in his book Releasing the Bonds: Empowering People to Think for Themselves. He writes that "Deprogramming has many drawbacks. I have met dozens of people who were successfully deprogrammed but, to this day, experience psychological trauma as a result of the method. These people were glad to be released from the grip of cult programming but were not happy about the method used to help them." Releasing the Bonds: Empowering People to Think for Themselves, Steven Hassan, Ch. 3, Aitan Press, 2000 Deprogramming has many drawbacks. I have met dozens of people who were successfully deprogrammed but, to this day, experience psychological trauma as a result of the method. These people were glad to be released from the grip of cult programming but were not happy about the method used to help them...A deprogramming triggers the deepest fears of cult members. They have been taken against their will. Family and friends are not to be trusted. The trauma of being thrown into a van by unknown people, driven away, and imprisoned creates mistrust, anger, and resentment. Mind control and recruitment rates Eileen Barker states that out of one thousand people persuaded by the Unification Church to attend one of their overnight programs in 1979, 90% had no further involvement. Only 8% joined for more than one week and less than 4% remained members by 1981, two years later. Tyler Hendricks, former president of the Unification Church, estimates that approximately 100,000 people "moved into" the Unification Church as full-time members from the 1970s to the 1990s. Membership in the church was 8,600 in 2004 (counting only those who joined as adults and excluding the children of members). This is an attrition rate of 93%. Billy Graham, one of the most prominent evangelists of the last century had only an average of 1% of the attendants of his evangelizations heed the altar call at all. Follow-up work after evangelizations shows that only 10% of the people responding to an altar call actually do join a church. Therefore successful Christian evangelizations resulted in a longterm success rate of 0.1%, as compared to the 4% of Barker's observation. And these 0.1% do not become full-time missionaries as in the Unification Church. (Langone, 1993). Mind control and faith The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) published a statement in 1977 related to brainwashing and mind control. In this statement the ACLU opposed certain methods "depriving people of the free exercise of religion". The ACLU also rejected (under certain conditions) the idea that claims of the use of 'brainwashing' or of 'mind control' should overcome the free exercise of religion. American Civil Liberties Union Records, 1947-1995: Finding Aid Leon Festinger based his theory of the cognitive dissonance, a component of Hassan's Mind Control model, on his observation that the faith of most members of a UFO cult was unshattered by failed prophecy. . cognitive dissonance Barrett who is affiliated with CESNUR and Eileen Barker, whom some anti-cult activists consider cult apologists, wrote that logical arguments are irrelevant when trying to persuade some members to leave a movement due to the certainty that they have about their faith, which he sees as not confined to cults, but also occurring in some forms of mainstream religion. He also wrote that some members do not leave the movement even though they realize that things are wrong. See also Leaving a cult. Counter-cult movement and mind control In the Christian counter-cult movement there are several commentators who reject mind control as a factor in cult membership, and membership in both Christian and non-Christian cults as a spiritual or theological issue. In an article by the evangelical Christian writers Bob and Gretchen Passantino, first appearing in Cornerstone magazine, titled Overcoming The Bondage Of Victimization: A Critical Evaluation of Cult Mind Control Theories they challenge the validity of mind control theories and the alleged "victimization" by mind-control, and assert in their conclusion: [...] the Bogey Man of cult mind control is nothing but a ghost story, good for inducing an adrenaline high and maintaining a crusade, but irrelevant to reality. The reality is that people who have very real spiritual, emotional, and social needs are looking for fulfillment and significance for their lives. Ill-equipped to test the false gospels of this world, they make poor decisions about their religious affiliations. Poor decisions, yes, but decisions for which they are personally responsible nonetheless. As Christians who believe in an absolute standard of truth and religious reality, we cannot ignore the spiritual threat of the cults. We must promote critical thinking, responsible education, biblical apologetics, and Christian evangelism. We must recognize that those who join the cults, while morally responsible, are also spiritually ignorant. In a rebuttal to the Passantino's article, a protagonist of the counter-cult movement, Paul R. Martin, Ph.D. et al. in his Overcoming the Bondage of Revictimization: A Rational/Empirical Defense of Thought Reform, (first appeared in Cultic Studies Journal 15/2 1998), writes: "The Passantinos are well known and respected evangelical writers. Consequently, their critique, which is rife with errors and misinterpretations, disturbs us very much and calls for a detailed rebuttal. [...]For us, theological considerations inform our understanding of the sociological and psychological destruction caused by cults, although others hold similar positions without considering theological issues. Cults distort one's perceptions both of natural reality (sociological and psychological) and spiritual reality. In the Christian tradition, the former is supposed to reveal the latter; therefore, those interested in spiritual issues must address both sides in order to minister adequately to former cult members. Martin, Paul: "Overcoming the Bondage of Revictimization: A Rational/Empirical Defense of Thought Reform" Legal issues Some persons have claimed a "brainwashing defense" for crimes committed while purportedly under mind control. In the cases of Patty Hearst, Steven Fishman and Lee Boyd Malvo the court rejected such defenses. Also in the court cases against members of Aum Shinrikyo regarding the 1995 sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway system the mind control defense was not a mitigating factor. Starting from the Fishman case (1990) (where a defendant accused of commercial fraud raised as a defense that he was not fully responsible since he was under the mind control of Scientology) American courts consistently rejected testimonies about mind control and manipulation, stating that these were not part of accepted mainline science according to the Frye Standard (Anthony & Robbins 1992: 5-29). Margaret Singer and her associate Richard Ofshe filed suits against the American Psychological Association) (APA) and the American Sociological Association (ASA) (who had supported APA's 1987 statement) but they lost in 1993 and 1994. Case No. 730012-8, Margaret Singer, et al., Plaintiff v. American Psychological Association, et al., Defendants "This case, which involves claims of defamation, frauds, aiding and abetting and conspiracy, clearly constitutes a dispute over the application of the First Amendment to a public debate over matters both academic and professional. The disputant may fairly be described as the opposing camps in a longstanding debate over certain theories in the field of psychology. The speech of which the plaintiff's complain, which occurred in the context of prior litigation and allegedly involved the "fraudulent" addition of the names of certain defendants to documents filed in said prior litigation, would clearly have been protected as comment on a public issue whether or not the statements were made in the contest of legal briefs. The court need not consider whether the privilege of Civil Code 47 (b) extends to an alleged interloper in a legal proceeding. Plaintiffs have not presented sufficient evidence to establish any reasonable probability of success on any cause of action. In particular Plaintiffs cannot establish deceit with reference to representations made to other parties in the underlying lawsuit. Thus Defendants' Special Motions to Strike each of the causes at action asserted against them, pursuant to Code of Civil Procedure 425.16 is granted." The Frye standard has since been replaced by the Daubert standard and there have been to court cases where testimonies about mind control have been examined according to the Daubert standard. Some Civil suits where mind control was an issue, were, though, more effective: In the case of Wollersheim v. Church of Scientology of California the court states church practices had been conducted in a coercive environment and so were not protected by religious freedom guarantees. Wollersheim was finally awarded $8 million in damages. (California appellate court, 2nd district, 7th division, Wollersheim v. Church of Scientology of California, Civ. No. B023193 Cal. Super. (1986) "During trial, Wollersheim's experts testified Scientology's "auditing" and "disconnect" practices constituted "brainwashing" and "thought reform" akin to what the Chinese and North Koreans practiced on American prisoners of war. A religious practice which takes place in the context of this level of coercion has less religious value than one the recipient engages in voluntarily. Even more significantly, it poses a greater threat to society to have coerced religious practices inflicted on its citizens." "Using its position as religious leader, the 'church' and its agents coerced Wollersheim into continuing auditing even though his sanity was repeatedly threatened by this practice... Thus there is adequate proof the religious practice in this instance caused real harm to the individual and the appellant's outrageous conduct caused that harm... 'Church' practices conducted in a coercive environment are not qualified to be voluntary religious practices entitled to first amendment religious freedom guarantees" Newsletter May 2002 - Scientology pays Lawrence Wollersheim at www.factnet.org In 1993 the European Court of Human Rights upheld the right of a Greek Jehovah's Witness Minos Kokkinakis, who had been sentenced to prison and a fine for proselytizing, to spread his faith, though the court sought to define what it regarded as acceptable ways of sharing one's faith. However, in a dissenting judgment, two judges argued that Kokkinakis and his wife had applied "unacceptable psychological techniques" akin to brainwashing. KOKKINAKIS v. GREECE (14307/88) [1993] ECHR 20 (25 May 1993) KOKKINAKIS v. GREECE - 14307/88 (1993) ECHR 20 (25 May 1993) at www.worldlii.org See also Methods Brain implant Brainwashing Cognotechnology Conditioning Culture of fear Hypnosis Hypnotherapy, Hypnotherapist Love bombing Memory inhibition Milieu control MKULTRA Neuro-Linguistic Programming Propaganda, and Propaganda model Simulated reality Subliminal messages Thought reform Researchers José Manuel Rodriguez Delgado George Estabrooks Joseph Goebbels William Sargant Miscellaneous Candy Jones James Carne Christian Conventions Manchurian Candidate Robert Hendy-Freegard L. Ron Hubbard References Further reading External links Mind Control: America's Secret War Video - The History Channel (2000) | Mind_control |@lemmatized mind:55 control:77 broad:2 range:2 psychological:22 tactic:4 able:2 subvert:1 individual:12 thinking:5 behavior:20 emotion:2 decision:5 number:3 controversial:2 issue:11 regard:8 method:13 might:1 attain:1 either:4 direct:3 subtle:1 focus:1 study:9 among:2 psychologist:5 neuroscientist:1 sociologist:2 question:10 discuss:5 relation:1 religion:10 politics:2 prisoner:3 war:4 totalitarianism:1 black:2 operation:1 neural:1 cell:1 manipulation:10 cult:49 terrorism:2 torture:1 parental:1 alienation:1 even:8 batter:1 person:13 syndrome:1 legal:7 defense:7 see:11 also:21 temporary:1 insanity:1 reject:12 court:12 case:11 patty:2 hearst:2 several:4 involve:9 new:25 religious:28 movement:19 ethical:4 link:2 subject:2 free:12 theory:20 base:4 premise:1 outside:6 source:3 strongly:1 influence:7 consciousness:1 implication:1 perhaps:1 frequently:2 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2,354 | Jeff_Mills | Jeff Mills (born 18 June 1962 in Detroit, Michigan U.S.A.) is an influential Techno DJ and producer from Detroit. Life In the 1980s, Mills was an influential radio DJ on WJLB under the pseudonym "The Wizard." Mills' sets were a highlight of the nightly show from "The Electrifying Mojo," Charles Johnson. Complementing Mojo's eclectic playlists, Mills would do advanced DJ tricks like beat juggling and scratching while mixing obscure Detroit Techno, Miami Bass, Chicago House and classic New Wave tracks both live and using a multi track when pre-recorded. In going on to create his own music Jeff Mills is credited with laying the foundations for the highly influential Detroit Techno collective, Underground Resistance, alongside 'Mad' Mike Banks, a former Parliament bass player. Just like Public Enemy did some years before in hip hop, these men confronted the mainstream music industry with revolutionary rhetoric. Dressed in uniforms with skimasks and black combat suits, they were ‘men on a mission’, aiming at giving techno more content and meaning. Mills would never leave UR officially, but later on he still went his own way. He moved to New York and after a short stay in Berlin (Tresor) ended up in Chicago. There in 1992, with fellow Detroit native Robert Hood, he set up his most important record label, Axis, aiming for a simpler more minimal sound than most of the techno being produced in those years. www.axisrecords.com/ Later sub-labels were created:Purpose Maker, Tomorrow, and 6277. His albums and EPs are mostly separate tracks of his compositions, which Mills would mix into the live DJ sets for which he became a legend. Mills has been credited for his exceptional turntable skills. Tracks are almost chopped to bits to showcase the strongest fragments for his relentless sound collages. He usually uses three decks, a Roland 909 drum-machine and up to seventy records in one hour. The live DJ-mix album Mix-Up Volume 2 is a highly-regarded example of Mills' 1990s stage show, recorded at the Liquid Room in Tokyo. "A decade back, while not exactly establishing a precedent, Detroit deejay Jeff Mills unleashed a recording of one of his live deejay sets at the Liquid Room's former Kabukicho residence," assessed Andrez Bergen in 2005, in Japan's Daily Yomiuri newspaper. "Titled Mix-Up Vol. 2, it was a relentless techno masterpiece, warts and all, that combined two diverse channels in the mix: the actual music itself, along with the audience's response." Live At Womb, Andrez Bergen. Daily Yomiuri, February 2005. The Exhibitionist album contains a live show from 2004. More recently he appears to be taking extended forays into epic techno (such as his re-scoring of Metropolis, which he performed live with the original film) and his 16 September 2004 7-hour set with Laurent Garnier at Fabric. The epic proportions were further extended when his 2006 album Blue Potential was recorded with the Montpellier Philharmonic Orchestra under Alain Altinoglu. There is a DVD of the concert at which the album was recorded, an opportunity to see Mills in action, live on stage. His "Exhibitionist" DVD, from 2004, features him mixing live on three decks and CD player in a studio, stark and simple. There are several mixes, one of Axis tracks, two of Jeff Mills tracks, and another of various artists. The mixes are shot from several cameras, up close, and his long graceful fingers fly over the gear, furious, his genius and skill on full display. The DVD also includes an interview with him, and another one with Octave One. He also reached 2nd in the charts on 1996 Releases Albums 1992 Waveform Transmission - Volume 1 1994 Waveform Transmission - Volume 3 1996 Mix-Up Volume 2 Live at the Liquid Room (a live DJ set) 1996 Purpose Maker Compilation 1997 The other Day 1999 From the 21st 2000 Every Dog Has Its Day 2000 Metropolis (soundtrack to the Fritz Lang film) 2000 The Art of Connecting 2000 Lifelike 2002 Actual 2002 At First Sight 2004 Exhibitionist (a live DJ set, also available as a DVD) 2004 Choice: A Collection of Classics 2005 The Three Ages (new soundtrack to the Buster Keaton film) 2005 Contact Special The Mission Objective (2005) (a live DJ set) 2006 Blue Potential 2007 One Man Spaceship 2008 Gamma Player Compilation Vol 1: The Universe By Night Axis AX-001 - Tranquilizer AX-004 - Mecca AX-005 - Thera AX-006 - More Drama AX-008 - Cycle 30 AX-009ab - AX-009 Series AX-009cd - Actual AX-009ef - Medium AX-010 - Growth AX-011 - Purpose Maker EP AX-012 - Humana AX-013 - Tephra AX-015 - Other Day EP AX-016 - Very (first released vinyls were perfume-scented to 'enhance the idea of influence through interaction) AX-018 - Tomorrow EP AX-019 - Apollo AX-019 OUR - From the 21st part 1 AX-019 AFV - From the 21st part 2 AX-020 - Every Dog has its Day vol. 1 AX-021 - Lifelike EP AX-022 - Metropolis AX-023 - Every Dog has its Day vol. 2 AX-024 - 4Art/UFO AX-026 - Every Dog has its Day vol. 3 AX-030 - Every Dog has its Day vol. 4 AX-036 - See the Light Part 1 AX-037 - See the Light Part 2 AX-038 - See the Light Part 3 AX-039 - Expanded AX-040 - The Tomorrow Time Forgot AX-041 - Suspense/Dramatized AX-043 - Time Mechanic AX-044 - Blade Runner (EP) (inspired by the Ridley Scott film) AX-048 - Systematic/The Sin AX-049 - Alpha Centauri AX-052 - Flyby - X-102 AX-055 - The Good Robot (Coming Soon) Purpose Maker Purpose Maker is a funky tribal techno label from Jeff Mills. PM-001 - Java PM-002 - Kat Moda PM-003 - Force Universelle PM-004 - Our Man in Havanna PM-005 - Steampit PM-006 - Vanishing Act PM-007 - Live Series PM-008 - Skin Deep PM-009 - If/Tango PM-010 - Circus PM-012 - Jetset PM-014 - Electrical Experience PM-015 - Divine PM-016 - Kana PM-020 - The Bells [10th Anniversary] PM-021 - Natural World PMWCD9601 - Purpose Maker Compilation [CD] PMWLP9601 - Purpose Maker Compilation [2xLP] Tomorrow TW-001 - Preview EP TW-300 - Sculptures 1-3 CD TW-400 - Europa CD TW-800 - Time Machines CD 6277 MISSION 01 Elektrabel - Elektrabel EP 2003 MISSION 02 Hieroglyphic Being - Du Commencement A L'Eternite 2004 MISSION 03 Elektrabel - Crocks EP 2005 MISSION 04 Elektrabel - For Various Reasons 2005 MISSION 05 Sub Space - First Step EP 2005 MISSION 06 Zachary Lubin - Controllability 2005 MISSION 07 Various artists (Jeff Mills Mix) - The objective Mission [Top Secret] 2005 MISSION 08 Trefa - Elektrabel 2006 MISSION 09 Ben Gibson - No Signify EP 2006 MISSION 10 CounterPart - The Martian Mystique 2006 MISSION 11 Johannes Volk - The Mysteries Of Tharsis Montes 2006 MISSION 12 Jeroen - New Reality Tresor Records Waveform Transmission Vol. 1 The Extremist Waveform Transmission Vol. 3 Waveform Transmission Vol. 3 (Detroit Cut) Atlantis (under moniker X-103) References External links Jeff Mills discography at Discogs. See Deep House Page for some very rare live Chicago sets from around 1985-86. Higher Frequency Interview Hardware Interview La Sauterelle = Musiques electroniques : house, techno, electro Real Detroit Weekly Interview | Jeff_Mills |@lemmatized jeff:7 mill:15 bear:1 june:1 detroit:8 michigan:1 u:1 influential:3 techno:9 dj:8 producer:1 life:1 radio:1 wjlb:1 pseudonym:1 wizard:1 set:9 highlight:1 nightly:1 show:3 electrify:1 mojo:2 charles:1 johnson:1 complement:1 eclectic:1 playlist:1 would:3 advanced:1 trick:1 like:2 beat:1 juggling:1 scratch:1 mix:11 obscure:1 miami:1 bass:2 chicago:3 house:3 classic:2 new:4 wave:1 track:6 live:15 use:2 multi:1 pre:1 record:7 go:2 create:2 music:3 credit:2 lay:1 foundation:1 highly:2 collective:1 underground:1 resistance:1 alongside:1 mad:1 mike:1 bank:1 former:2 parliament:1 player:3 public:1 enemy:1 year:2 hip:1 hop:1 men:2 confront:1 mainstream:1 industry:1 revolutionary:1 rhetoric:1 dress:1 uniform:1 skimasks:1 black:1 combat:1 suit:1 mission:15 aim:2 give:1 content:1 meaning:1 never:1 leave:1 ur:1 officially:1 later:2 still:1 way:1 move:1 york:1 short:1 stay:1 berlin:1 tresor:2 end:1 fellow:1 native:1 robert:1 hood:1 important:1 label:3 axis:3 simpler:1 minimal:1 sound:2 produce:1 www:1 axisrecords:1 com:1 sub:2 purpose:7 maker:7 tomorrow:4 album:5 eps:1 mostly:1 separate:1 composition:1 become:1 legend:1 exceptional:1 turntable:1 skill:2 almost:1 chop:1 bit:1 showcase:1 strong:1 fragment:1 relentless:2 collage:1 usually:1 three:3 deck:2 roland:1 drum:1 machine:2 seventy:1 one:6 hour:2 volume:4 regarded:1 example:1 stage:2 liquid:3 room:3 tokyo:1 decade:1 back:1 exactly:1 establish:1 precedent:1 deejay:2 unleash:1 recording:1 kabukicho:1 residence:1 assess:1 andrez:2 bergen:2 japan:1 daily:2 yomiuri:2 newspaper:1 titled:1 vol:9 masterpiece:1 wart:1 combine:1 two:2 diverse:1 channel:1 actual:3 along:1 audience:1 response:1 womb:1 february:1 exhibitionist:3 contain:1 recently:1 appear:1 take:1 extended:1 foray:1 epic:2 scoring:1 metropolis:3 perform:1 original:1 film:4 september:1 laurent:1 garnier:1 fabric:1 proportion:1 far:1 extend:1 blue:2 potential:2 montpellier:1 philharmonic:1 orchestra:1 alain:1 altinoglu:1 dvd:4 concert:1 opportunity:1 see:5 action:1 feature:1 cd:5 studio:1 stark:1 simple:1 several:2 another:2 various:3 artist:2 shoot:1 camera:1 close:1 long:1 graceful:1 finger:1 fly:1 gear:1 furious:1 genius:1 full:1 display:1 also:3 include:1 interview:4 octave:1 reach:1 chart:1 release:2 albums:1 waveform:5 transmission:5 compilation:4 day:7 every:5 dog:5 soundtrack:2 fritz:1 lang:1 art:1 connect:1 lifelike:2 first:3 sight:1 available:1 choice:1 collection:1 age:1 buster:1 keaton:1 contact:1 special:1 objective:2 man:2 spaceship:1 gamma:1 universe:1 night:1 ax:38 tranquilizer:1 mecca:1 thera:1 drama:1 cycle:1 series:2 medium:1 growth:1 ep:10 humana:1 tephra:1 vinyl:1 perfume:1 scent:1 enhance:1 idea:1 influence:1 interaction:1 apollo:1 part:5 afv:1 ufo:1 light:3 expand:1 time:3 forget:1 suspense:1 dramatize:1 mechanic:1 blade:1 runner:1 inspire:1 ridley:1 scott:1 systematic:1 sin:1 alpha:1 centauri:1 flyby:1 x:2 good:1 robot:1 come:1 soon:1 funky:1 tribal:1 pm:16 java:1 kat:1 moda:1 force:1 universelle:1 havanna:1 steampit:1 vanishing:1 act:1 skin:1 deep:2 tango:1 circus:1 jetset:1 electrical:1 experience:1 divine:1 kana:1 bell:1 anniversary:1 natural:1 world:1 tw:4 preview:1 sculpture:1 europa:1 elektrabel:5 hieroglyphic:1 du:1 commencement:1 l:1 eternite:1 crock:1 reason:1 space:1 step:1 zachary:1 lubin:1 controllability:1 top:1 secret:1 trefa:1 ben:1 gibson:1 signify:1 counterpart:1 martian:1 mystique:1 johannes:1 volk:1 mystery:1 tharsis:1 monte:1 jeroen:1 reality:1 extremist:1 cut:1 atlantis:1 moniker:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 discography:1 discogs:1 page:1 rare:1 around:1 high:1 frequency:1 hardware:1 la:1 sauterelle:1 musiques:1 electroniques:1 electro:1 real:1 weekly:1 |@bigram detroit_techno:2 hip_hop:1 highly_regarded:1 philharmonic_orchestra:1 waveform_transmission:5 fritz_lang:1 buster_keaton:1 blade_runner:1 ridley_scott:1 alpha_centauri:1 external_link:1 |
2,355 | NeXT | NeXT, Inc. (later NeXT Computer, Inc. and NeXT Software, Inc.) was an American computer company headquartered in Redwood City, California, that developed and manufactured a series of computer workstations intended for the higher education and business markets. NeXT was founded in 1985 by Apple Computer co-founder Steve Jobs after his forced resignation from Apple. NeXT introduced the first NeXT Computer in 1988, and the smaller NeXTstation in 1990. Sales of the NeXT computers were relatively limited, with estimates of about 50,000 units shipped in total. Nevertheless, its innovative object-oriented NeXTSTEP operating system and development environment were highly influential. NeXT later released much of the NeXTSTEP system as a programming environment standard called OpenStep. NeXT withdrew from the hardware business in 1993 to concentrate on marketing OPENSTEP, its own OpenStep implementation, for several OEMs. NeXT also developed WebObjects, one of the first enterprise web application frameworks. WebObjects never became very popular because of its initial high price of $50,000 but remains a prominent early example of a web server based on dynamic page generation rather than static content. Apple purchased NeXT on December 20, 1996 for $429 million, and much of the current Mac OS X system is built on the OPENSTEP foundation. WebObjects is now bundled with Mac OS X Server and Xcode. History 1985–1986: Founding NeXT In 1984, Apple co-founder Steve Jobs was the head of Apple's SuperMicro division, which was responsible for the development of the Macintosh and Lisa personal computers. The Macintosh had been successful on university campuses in considerable part because of the Apple University Consortium, which allowed students and institutions to buy the computers at a discount. Stross 1993, p. 67 The consortium had sold more than $50 million in computers by February 1984. As chairman, Jobs visited university departments and faculty members to sell Macintoshes. Jobs met Paul Berg, a Nobel Laureate in chemistry, at a luncheon held in Silicon Valley to honour François Mitterrand, then President of France. Stross 1993, p. 72 Berg was frustrated by the expense of teaching students about recombinant DNA from textbooks instead of in wet labs, used for the testing and analysis of chemicals, drugs, and other materials or biological matter. Wet labs were prohibitively expensive for lower-level courses and were too complex to be simulated on personal computers of the time. Berg suggested to Jobs that he use his influence at Apple to create a "3M" workstation for higher education, featuring more than one megabyte of random access memory (RAM), a megapixel display and megaflop performance (hence the name "3M"). Jobs was intrigued by Berg's concept for a workstation and contemplated starting a higher education computer company in the fall of 1985, amidst increasing turmoil at Apple. Jobs' division did not release upgraded versions of the Macintosh and most of the Macintosh Office. As a result, sales plummeted, and Apple was forced to write off millions of dollars in unsold inventory. Rose 1990, p. 227 Apple's Chief Executive Officer (CEO) John Sculley ousted Jobs from his day-to-day role at Apple, replacing him with Jean-Louis Gassée in 1985. Rose 1990, p. 291 Later that year, Jobs began a power struggle to regain control of the company. The board of directors sided with Sculley while Jobs took a business visit to Western Europe and the Soviet Union on behalf of Apple. After several months of being sidelined at Apple, Jobs resigned on Friday, September 13, 1985. He told the board he was leaving to set up a new computer company, and that he would be taking several Apple employees from the SuperMicro division with him. He also told the board that his new company would not compete with Apple and might even consider licensing its designs back to them to market under the Macintosh brand. Jobs was joined by former Apple employees Bud Tribble, George Crow, Rich Page, Susan Barnes, Susan Kare, and Dan'l Lewin and named his new company Next, Inc. After consulting with major educational buyers from around the country (including a follow-up meeting with Paul Berg), a tentative specification for the workstation was drawn up. It was designed to be powerful enough to run wet lab simulations and cheap enough for college students to use in their dorm rooms. Before the specifications were finished, however, Apple sued Next for "nefarious schemes" to take advantage of the cofounders' insider information. Stross 1993, p. 75 Deutschman, p. 44 Jobs remarked, "It is hard to think that a $2 billion company with 4,300-plus people couldn't compete with six people in blue jeans." The suit was eventually dismissed before trial. In 1986, Jobs recruited the famous graphic designer Paul Rand to create a brand identity costing $100,000. Rand created a 100-page brochure detailing the brand, including the precise angle used for the logo (28°) and a new company name, NeXT. The first major outside investment was from Ross Perot, an American businessman from Texas. Perot first saw NeXT employees and Jobs featured on the public television show The Entrepreneurs. In 1987 he invested $20 million in exchange for 16% of NeXT's stock, valuing the company at $125 million. He subsequently joined the board of directors in 1988. 1987–1993: NeXT Computer First generation The NeXT Computer used by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN became the world's first web server. NeXT changed its business plan in mid-1986. The company decided to develop both computer hardware and software, instead of just a low-end workstation. A team led by Avie Tevanian, who had joined the company after working as one of the Mach kernel engineers at Carnegie Mellon University, was to develop the NeXTSTEP operating system. The hardware division, led by Rich Page, one of the cofounders who had previously led the Apple Lisa team, designed and developed the hardware. NeXT's first factory was completed in Fremont, California in 1987. It was capable of producing 150,000 machines per year. NeXT's first workstation was officially named the NeXT Computer, although it was widely referred to as "the cube" because of its distinctive case, a 1ft x 1ft x 1ft magnesium cube, an edict of Jobs' designed by Apple IIc case designer frogdesign. Prototype workstations were shown to standing ovations on October 12, 1988. The first machines were tested in 1989, after which NeXT started selling limited numbers to universities with a beta version of the NeXTSTEP operating system installed. Initially the NeXT Computer was targeted at US higher education establishments only, with a base price of $6,500. The machine was widely reviewed in magazines, generally concentrating on the hardware. When asked if he was upset that the computer's debut was delayed by several months, Jobs responded, "Late? This computer is five years ahead of its time!" The NeXT Computer was based on the new 25 MHz Motorola 68030 central processing unit (CPU). The Motorola 88000 RISC chip was originally considered, but was not available in sufficient quantities. It included between 8 and 64 MB of random access memory (RAM), a 256 MB magneto-optical (MO) drive, a 40 MB (swap-only), 330 MB, or 660 MB hard drive, 10Base-2 Ethernet, NuBus and a 17-inch MegaPixel grayscale display measuring 1120 by 832 pixels. In 1989, a typical PC included 640 KB to 4 MB of RAM, the 8086, 8088, 286 or 386 CPU, a 640×350 16-color or 720×348 monochrome display, a 10 to 20 megabyte hard drive and few networking capabilities. The magneto-optical drive manufactured by Canon was used as the primary mass storage device. These drives were relatively new to the market, and the NeXT was the first computer to use them. They were cheaper than hard drives (blank media especially so: though each had a cost of $150 to Canon, Jobs' typically forthright negotiations saw Canon agree to a retail of only $50 apiece) but slower (with an average seek time of 96 ms). The design made it impossible to move files between computers without a network, since each NeXT Computer had only one MO drive and the disk could not be removed without shutting down the system. Storage options proved challenging for the first NeXT Computers. The magneto-optical media was relatively expensive and had performance and reliability problems despite being faster than a floppy drive.. The drive was not sufficient to run as the primary medium running the NeXTSTEP operating system both in terms of speed and capacity. In 1989, NeXT struck a deal for former Compaq reseller BusinessLand to sell NeXT computers in select markets nationwide. Selling through a retailer was a major change from NeXT's original business model of only selling directly to students and educational institutions. BusinessLand founder David Norman predicted that sales of the NeXT Computer would surpass sales of Compaq computers after 12 months. In 1989, Canon invested US$100 million in NeXT, giving it a 16.67% stake , making NeXT worth almost $600 million. Canon invested in NeXT with the condition that it would be able to use the NeXTSTEP environment with its own workstations, which would mean a greatly expanded market for the software. Eventually, Canon released a NeXTstation which used the Intel GX processor for the Japanese market. Canon also served as NeXT's distributor in Japan. The first NeXT computers were released on the retail market in 1990, for $9,999. NeXT's original investor Ross Perot resigned from the board of directors in June 1991 to dedicate more time to Perot Systems, a Dallas-based systems integrator. Second generation A NeXTstation with the original keyboard, mouse and the NeXT MegaPixel monitor. NeXT released a second generation of workstations in 1990. The new range included a revised NeXT Computer, renamed the NeXTcube, and the NeXTstation, nicknamed "the slab," which used a "pizza box" case form-factor. Jobs was explicit in ensuring NeXT staff did not use the latter terminology, lest the NeXT machines be compared to competing Sun workstations. The magneto-optical drive was replaced with a 2.88 MB floppy drive to offer users a way to use their floppy disks. However, individual 2.88 MB floppies were expensive and the technology did not supplant the 1.44 MB floppy. Realizing this, NeXT utilized the CD-ROM drive, which eventually became an industry standard for storage. Color graphics were available on the NeXTstation Color and the NeXTdimension graphics processor hardware for the NeXTcube. The new computers were cheaper and faster than their predecessors, with the new Motorola 68040 processor. In 1992, NeXT launched "Turbo" variants of the NeXTcube and NeXTstation with a 33 MHz 68040 processor and maximum RAM capacity increased to 128 MB. NeXT's long-term aim was to migrate to the RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) architecture, a processor design strategy intended to increase performance. The project was known as the NeXT RISC Workstation (NRW). Initially the NRW was to be based on the Motorola 88110 processor, but due to a lack of confidence in Motorola's commitment to the 88k architecture, it was later redesigned around dual PowerPC 601s. NeXT produced some motherboards and enclosures but exited the hardware business before full production. Several developers used the NeXT platform to write pioneering programs. Tim Berners-Lee used a NeXT Computer in 1991 to create the first web browser and web server. In the early 1990s John Carmack used a NeXTcube to build two of his pioneering games, Wolfenstein 3D and Doom. Other commercial programs were released for NeXT computers, including the Lotus Improv spreadsheet program and Mathematica. The systems also came with a number of smaller built-in applications such as the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, Oxford Quotations, the complete works of William Shakespeare, and the Digital Librarian search engine to access them. NeXT sold 20,000 computers in 1992 (NeXT counted upgraded motherboards on back order as sales) – a small number compared with their competitors. The company reported sales of $140 million in 1992, encouraging Canon to invest a further $30 million to keep the company afloat. In total, 50,000 NeXT machines were sold. 1993–1996: NeXT Software NeXTSTEP, the operating system used by the NeXTcube and NeXTstation. NeXT started porting the NeXTSTEP operating system to PC compatible computers using the Intel 486 processor in 1992. The operating system was ported to Intel's architecture because of a change in NeXT's business strategy. By late 1993 this port was complete and version 3.1, also known as NeXTSTEP 486, was released. Prior to the release of NeXTSTEP, Chrysler planned to buy 3,000 copies in 1992. NeXTSTEP 3.x was later ported to PA-RISC and SPARC-based platforms, for a total of four versions: NeXTSTEP/NeXT (for NeXT's 68k "black boxes"), NeXTSTEP/Intel, NeXTSTEP/PA-RISC and NeXTSTEP/SPARC. Although these ports were not widely used, NeXTSTEP gained popularity at institutions such as First Chicago NBD, Swiss Bank Corporation, O'Connor and Company, and other organisations owing to its programming model. It was also used by many federal agencies, such as Naval Research Laboratory, the National Security Agency, the Advanced Research Projects Agency, the Central Intelligence Agency and the National Reconnaissance Office. NeXT withdrew from the hardware business in 1993 and the company was renamed NeXT Software Inc; subsequently 300 of the 540 staff employees were laid off. NeXT negotiated to sell the hardware business including the Fremont factory to Canon. Canon later pulled out of the deal. Work on the PowerPC machines was stopped along with all hardware production. CEO of Sun Microsystems Scott McNealy announced plans to invest $10 million in 1993 and use NeXT software (OpenStep) in future Sun systems. NeXT partnered with Sun to create OpenStep which was NeXTSTEP sans the Mach-based kernel. After dropping the hardware business, NeXT returned to selling a toolkit to run on other operating systems, in effect returning to the original business plan. New products based on OpenStep were released, including OpenStep Enterprise, a version for Microsoft's Windows NT. The company also launched WebObjects, a platform for building large scale dynamic web applications. Many large businesses including Dell, Disney, WorldCom, and the BBC used this WebObjects software. Apple still uses it for the iTunes Store and most of its corporate website. 1996: After NeXT Apple Computer announced an intention to acquire NeXT on December 20, 1996. Apple paid $429 million in cash which went to the initial investors and 1.5 million Apple shares which went to Steve Jobs. (Steve Jobs was deliberately not given cash for his part in the deal.) The main purpose of the acquisition was to use NeXTSTEP as a foundation to replace the dated Mac OS operating system. Apple favoured this option over others which included continuing development of the Copland operating system, or purchasing the Be Operating System (BeOS). Jobs returned to Apple as a consultant in 1997 and then after the 4 July weekend the same year became interim CEO. In 2000 Jobs took the CEO position as a permanent assignment. Several NeXT executives replaced their Apple counterparts when Steve Jobs restructured the company board of directors. Over the next five years the NeXTSTEP operating system was ported to the PowerPC architecture, and the Intel port and the OpenStep Enterprise toolkit for Windows were kept in sync. The operating systems were code named Rhapsody, while the toolkit for development on all platforms was called 'Yellow Box'. For backwards compatibility Apple added the 'Blue Box' to the 'Mac', allowing existing Mac applications to be run in a self-contained cooperative multitasking environment. A server version of the new operating system was released as Mac OS X Server 1.0 in 1999, and the first consumer version, Mac OS X 10.0, in 2001. The OpenStep developers toolkit was renamed Cocoa. Rhapsody's Blue Box was renamed Classic Environment. Apple included an updated version of the original Macintosh toolbox that allowed existing Mac applications access to the environment without the constraints of Blue Box called Carbon. Some of NeXTSTEP's interface features were used in Mac OS X; these included the Dock, the Services menu, the Finder's 'browser' view, the text system NSText, and system-wide selectors for fonts and colors. NeXTSTEP's processor-independent capabilities were retained in Mac OS X. Every version was compiled on both PowerPC and Intel x86 architectures, although only PowerPC versions were released to the public until 2005. Apple publicly announced on June 6, 2005 plans to base future systems on Intel processors. The transition to Intel was completed by August 2006. In addition, the iPhone contains a specialized ARM version of OS X. Corporate culture and community Jobs had felt stymied by Apple's corporate structure and was determined to avoid the bureaucratic infighting that led to his resignation. He created a different corporate culture at NeXT in terms of facilities, salaries, and benefits. Jobs had experimented with some structural changes at Apple but at NeXT he abandoned conventional corporate structures, instead making a "community" with "members" instead of employees. There were only two different salaries at NeXT until the early 1990s. Team members who joined before 1986 were paid $75,000 while those who joined afterwards were paid $50,000. This caused a few awkward situations where managers were paid less than their employees. Employees were given performance reviews and raises every six months because of the spartan salary plans. To foster openness, all employees had full access to the payrolls, although few employees ever took advantage of the privilege. NeXT's health insurance plan offered benefits to not only married couples but unmarried couples and same-sex couples, although the latter privilege was later withdrawn due to insurance complications. The payroll schedule was also very different from other companies in Silicon Valley at the time: instead of getting paid twice a month at the end of the pay period, employees would get paid once a month in advance. Jobs found office space in Palo Alto on Deer Creek Road, occupying a glass and concrete building which featured a staircase designed by architect I. M. Pei. The first floor used hardwood flooring and large worktables where the workstations would be assembled. To avoid inventory errors NeXT used the just in time (JIT) inventory strategy. The company contracted out for all major components such as mainboards and cases and had the finished components shipped to the first floor for assembly. The second floor was the office space with an open floor plan. The only enclosed rooms were Jobs' office and a few conference rooms. As NeXT expanded more office space was needed. The company rented an office in Redwood City, designed by Pei. The architectural centerpiece was a "floating" staircase with no visible supports. The open floor plan was retained although furnishings became luxurious with $5,000 chairs, $10,000 sofas and Ansel Adams prints. The first issue of NeXTWORLD magazine was printed in 1991. It was published in San Francisco by Integrated Media and edited by Michael Miley and later Dan Ruby. It was the only mainstream periodical to discuss NeXT computers, the operating system, and NeXT software. Publication was discontinued in 1994 after only four volumes were released. A NeXTWORLD Expo followed as a developer conference, held in 1991 and 1992 at the San Francisco Civic Center and in 1993 at the Moscone Center in San Francisco, with Steve Jobs as the keynote speaker. Impact on the computer industry Despite NeXT's limited commercial success, the company had a profound impact on the computer industry. Object-oriented programming and graphical user interfaces became more common after the 1988 release of the NeXTcube and NeXTSTEP, when other companies started to emulate NeXT's object-oriented system. Apple started the Taligent project in 1989, with the goal of building a NeXT-like operating system for the Macintosh, with collaboration from both HP and IBM. Ironically, the NeXT sales organization reads like a "Who's Who" among future Silicon Valley impact players, guys who would go forward and make millions of dollars leading sales teams for successful enterprise software start-up firms. Todd Rulon-Miller (Dan’l Lewin's replacement) became legendary as the founding Vice-President of Sales at browser pioneer Mosaic (Netscape), taking them from start-up to a billion dollar a year run-rate. The NeXT Washington DC sales office was notable for the pioneering work done in Federal accounts by savvy industry veteran Fred Giordano (who went on to monumental success in sales leadership at Netscape after joining Rulon-Miller), and in commercial accounts by an early-stage Oracle sales-whiz named Tom Looney, who eventually opened several potential multi-million dollar projects for NeXT. After Rulon-Miller and Giordano left the firm in 1993 to join Mosaic, Bill Wesemann joined the firm. Bill won a Steve-engineered power struggle with another Redwood City based Sales executive (Warren Weiss) and became head of worldwide sales just as the company veered out of hardware into software-only sales. Wesemann was very effective in his early interactions with Steve Jobs, a failure by most other NeXT sales executives (all but the wickedly smart, Princeton eduated Rulon-Miller). Jobs was clearly and painfully insecure around salespeople. About his top performers, he felt they were all well-dressed, good-looking athletes who were overpaid and "silver-tongued." Basically, the anti-social nerd in him couldn't relate to salespeople but he needed their skills. Once in power in Redwood City in early ‘93, Wesemann formed a strong alliance with the D.C. metro-based Looney who was by then a Jobs favorite and respected NeXT sales team leader. Another NeXT sales standout well-liked by Jobs was Los Angeles-based Jim Diamond. All these men knew how to sell to and negotiate with complex corporate accounts, skills which continually confused, frustrated and eluded Jobs himself. He was only comfortable in event selling, preferably to the end-user retail and higher education markets. Jobs was often a liability in sales meetings with major corporate prospects, unless carefully managed and choreographed by the canny sales team leaders. The sales team bonded around some classic stories of Jobs, uncomfortably dressed in suit and tie, forced out on the road to meet with customers and prospects. They were hilarious and became part of the "quiet history" of NeXT. Former Microsoft Marketing honcho Mike Slade joined NeXT and transformed the company's sales focus from "interpersonal computing" to "mission-critical corporate custom application development." Jobs reluctantly agreed to the changes to help save the company, but many in his core corporate team felt betrayed by the new focus. Then there was the issue of team compensation, which had been famously open and democratic. Suddenly, these sales superstars (Diamond, Wesemann, Looney, Jim Demetros/New York office, and others) demanded to be paid in proportion to their success and market-value, which led to multiple-six figure incomes and resentment from other parts of the company. Eventually Wesemann tired of battling Jobs over sales team related issues such as compensation, and moved on with NeXT's Chicago sales office chief Chris Moore to multi-million dollar paydays as the top sales executives for CRM software upstart Genesys Telecommunications. In 1996 Diamond and Looney teamed up to launch sales operations at Java-Fund darling Active Software where they each went on to earning millions. Microsoft announced the Cairo project in 1991; the Cairo specification included similar object-oriented user interface features for a coming consumer version of Windows NT. Although the project was ultimately abandoned, some elements were integrated into other projects. By 1994, Microsoft and NeXT were collaborating on a Windows NT-port of OpenStep; the port, however, was never released. WebObjects failed to achieve wide popularity partly because of the initial high price of $50,000, but it remains a prominent early example of a web server based on dynamic page generation rather than static content. WebObjects is now bundled with Mac OS X Server and Xcode. Notes References External links The Chronology of Workstation Computers Full acquisition/merger contract between Apple and NeXT NeXT Computer Historical Site NeXTWORLD Magazine Archives NeXTcomputers.org - Welcome to the NeXT world! | NeXT |@lemmatized next:94 inc:5 later:8 computer:40 software:12 american:2 company:26 headquarter:1 redwood:4 city:4 california:2 develop:4 manufacture:2 series:1 workstation:13 intend:2 high:7 education:5 business:12 market:10 found:2 apple:33 co:2 founder:3 steve:8 job:38 forced:1 resignation:2 introduce:1 first:18 small:3 nextstation:7 sale:27 relatively:3 limited:2 estimate:1 unit:2 ship:2 total:3 nevertheless:1 innovative:1 object:4 orient:3 nextstep:22 operating:8 system:27 development:5 environment:6 highly:1 influential:1 release:14 much:2 programming:2 standard:2 call:3 openstep:11 withdrew:2 hardware:12 concentrate:2 implementation:1 several:7 oems:1 also:8 developed:1 webobjects:7 one:5 enterprise:4 web:7 application:6 framework:1 never:2 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2,356 | Olbers'_paradox | Olbers' paradox in action In astrophysics and physical cosmology, Olbers' paradox, is the argument that the darkness of the night sky conflicts with the assumption of an infinite and eternal static universe. It is one of the pieces of evidence for a non-static universe such as the current Big Bang model. The argument is also referred to as the "dark night sky paradox" (see physical paradox). History Harrison (1987) is the definitive account to date of the dark night sky paradox, seen as a problem in the history of science. According to Harrison, the first to conceive of anything like the paradox was Thomas Digges, who was also the first to exposit the Copernican system in English, and may have been the first to postulate an infinite universe with infinitely many stars. Kepler also posed the problem in 1610, and the paradox took on its mature form in the 18th century work of Halley and Cheseaux. The paradox is commonly attributed to the German amateur astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers, who indeed described it in 1823, but Harrison shows convincingly that Olbers was far from the first to pose the problem, nor was his thinking about it particularly valuable. Harrison argues that the first to set out a satisfactory resolution of the paradox was Lord Kelvin, in a little known 1901 paper, For a key extract from this paper, see Harrison (1987), pp. 227-28. and that Edgar Allan Poe's essay Eureka curiously anticipated some qualitative aspects of Kelvin's argument. Assumptions What if every line of sight ended in a star? (Infinite universe assumption #2) If the universe is assumed to contain an infinite number of uniformly distributed luminous stars, then: The collective brightness received from a set of stars at a given distance is independent of that distance; Every line of sight should terminate eventually on the surface of a star; Every point in the sky should be as bright as the surface of a star. Looking at trees within a big flat wood in the direction of the horizon shows the effect: The mass of dark trees will hide the horizon (imagine the trees now as lights). Since the speed of light is finite, the further away one looks, the older the image viewed by the observer. For stars to appear uniformly distributed in space, the light from the stars must have been emitted from places where the stellar density of the region at the time of emission was the same as the current local stellar density. A simple interpretation of Olbers' paradox assumes that there were no dramatic changes in the homogeneous distribution of stars in that time. This implies that if the universe is infinitely old and infinitely large, the flux received by stars would be infinite. Kepler saw this as an argument for a finite observable universe, or at least for a finite number of stars. In general relativity theory, it is still possible for the paradox to hold in a finite universe: D'Inverno, Ray. Introducing Einstein's Relativity, Oxford, 1992. though the sky would not be infinitely bright, every point in the sky would still be like the surface of a star. In a universe of three dimensions with stars distributed evenly, the number of stars would be proportional to volume. If the surface of concentric sphere shells were considered, the number of stars on each shell would be proportional to the square of the radius of the shell. In the picture above, the shells are reduced to rings in two dimensions with all of the stars on them. A more precise way to look at this is to place Earth in the centre of a "sphere". If the universe were homogeneous and infinite, then at a distance r away from the earth, the shell of the sphere would have a certain flux (viewed from Earth) due to the individual flux of the stars on the shell (brightness) and also the number of stars in the shell (cumulative flux). When an observer from Earth looks to a farther distance to another shell, r+x, the number of stars increases by the square of the distance, while the individual flux from each star decreases by the inverse squared. Comparing the total brightness of the first shell to the second shell, one notices that both shells have equal flux, since the flux of each individual star decreases due to distance but is equally made up for by the number of stars. This means that no matter how far away an observer on Earth views the sky, the brightness of each consecutive shell would not diminish; rather, they would be equal. If the universe were infinite (age and volume) and had a regular distribution of stars, then there will be an infinite number of such shells and infinite amount of time for the light to reach Earth (infinite flux) as long as the earth remains, effectively meaning that there would never be night on Earth. The mainstream explanation In order to explain Olbers' paradox, one would need to account for the relatively low brightness of the night sky in relation to the circle of our sun. Finite speed of light The greater the distance of a star from an observer on Earth, the longer it takes the star's light to reach the observer. Thus, the farther we look into space, the farther we see into the past. This fact is a key ingredient in the mainstream explanation of Olbers' paradox, although it cannot alone explain the paradox, since the speed of light has no direct connection to the energy density and broadness of light received at any given point. Finite age of the universe; the origin of all light is a finite distance away Edgar Allan Poe was the first to solve Olbers' paradox when he observed in his essay Eureka: A Prose Poem (1848): "Were the succession of stars endless, then the background of the sky would present us a uniform luminosity, like that displayed by the Galaxy –since there could be absolutely no point, in all that background, at which would not exist a star. The only mode, therefore, in which, under such a state of affairs, we could comprehend the voids which our telescopes find in innumerable directions, would be by supposing the distance of the invisible background so immense that no ray from it has yet been able to reach us at all." The universe, according to the mainstream theory of the universe, called the Big Bang Theory, is only finitely old; stars have existed only for part of that time. So, as Poe suggested, the earth receives no starlight from beyond a certain distance. According to the Big Bang Theory, the sky was much brighter in the past, especially in the first few seconds of the universe. All points of the local sky at that era were therefore brighter than the circle of the sun, despite the finite and even more limited range that light could travel in that prehistoric era; this implies that most light rays will terminate not in a star but in the relic of the Big Bang. Expanding space While the finite distance for the origin of any received light does not by itself solve the paradox, the Big Bang Theory also involves the expansion of the "fabric" of space itself (not just the distance of objects in that space) that can cause the energy of emitted light to be reduced via redshift. More specifically, the extreme levels of radiation from the Big Bang have been redshifted to microwave wavelengths as a result of the cosmic expansion, and thus form the cosmic microwave background radiation. This explains the relatively low light densities present in most of our sky despite the assumed bright nature of the Big Bang. The redshift also affects light from distant stars and quasars, but the diminution is only an order of magnitude or so, since the most distant galaxies and quasars have redshifts of only around 5. Thus, the mainstream explanation of Olbers' paradox requires a universe that is both finitely old and expanding. Alternative explanations Steady State redshifts The redshift and expanding space hypothesised in the Big Bang model would by itself explain the darkness of the night sky, even if the universe were infinitely old. The steady state cosmological model assumes that the universe is indeed infinitely old and uniform in time as well as space. It is also expanding exponentially, producing a redshift. There is no Big Bang in this model, but there are stars and quasars at arbitrarily great distances. The light from these distant stars and quasars will be redshifted accordingly, so that the total light flux from the sky remains finite and dominated by the nearest light sources. However, the steady state model cannot explain the detailed behavior of distant starlight and the microwave background, since it requires a continuous transformation of the former into the latter at decreasing frequencies; this transformation is not observed. Finite age of stars Stars have a finite age and a finite power, thereby implying that each star has a finite impact on a sky's light field density. But the finity of the influence from any given star does not imply that our sky will be darker than the circle of the sun in most areas of our sky. Only those stars whose worldlines intersect the light cone of a point would contribute to the luminosity there in any event, so the age of any given star is largely irrelevant. Despite being neither a sufficient nor a necessary explanation of the darkness of the sky, the finite age of stars is erroneously considered by some to be the reason for the dark sky, and therefore a solution to Olbers' paradox. Absorption An alternative explanation, which is sometimes suggested by non-scientists, is that the universe is not transparent, and the light from distant stars is blocked by intermediate dark stars or absorbed by dust or gas, so that there is a bound on the distance from which light can reach the observer. However, this reasoning alone would not resolve the paradox given the following argument: According to the second law of thermodynamics, there can be no material hotter than its surroundings that does not give off radiation and at the same time be uniformly distributed through space. Energy must be conserved, per the first law of thermodynamics. Therefore, the intermediate matter would heat up and soon reradiate the energy (possibly at different wavelengths). This would again result in intense uniform radiation as bright as the collective of stars themselves, which is not observed. Fractal star distribution A different resolution, which does not rely on the Big Bang theory, was first proposed by Carl Charlier in 1908 and later rediscovered by Benoît Mandelbrot in 1974. They both postulated that if the stars in the universe were fractally distributed in a hierarchical cosmology (e.g., similar to Cantor dust)—the average density of any region diminishes as the region considered increases—it would not be necessary to rely on the Big Bang theory to explain Olbers' paradox. This model would not rule out a Big Bang but would allow for a dark sky even if the Big Bang had not occurred. This merely demonstrates that fractal theory is sufficient but not necessary to resolve the paradox. Mathematically, the light received from stars as a function of star distance in a hypothetical fractal cosmos is: where: r0 = the distance of the nearest star. r0 > 0; r = the variable measuring distance from the Earth; L(r) = average luminosity per star at distance r; N(r) = number of stars at distance r. The function of luminosity from a given distance L(r)N(r) determines whether the light received is finite or infinite. For any luminosity from a given distance L(r)N(r) proportional to ra, is infinite for a ≥ -1 but finite for a < -1. So if L(r) is proportional to r-2, then for to be finite, N(r) must be proportional to rb, where b<1. For b=1, the numbers of stars at a given radius is proportional to that radius. When integrated over the radius, this implies that for b=1, the total number of stars is proportional to r2. Mainstream cosmologists reject a fractal cosmology of this sort, on the grounds that what we know at present about the large-scale structure and timeline of the universe is not consistent with it. Footnotes References Edward Robert Harrison (1987) Darkness at Night: A Riddle of the Universe, Harvard University Press. Very readable. -------- (2000) Cosmology, 2nd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press. Chpt. 24. Taylor Mattie, Fundamentals of Heat Transfer. MAHS Wesson, Paul (1991) "Olbers' paradox and the spectral intensity of the extragalactic background light," The Astrophysical Journal 367: 399-406. External links Relativity FAQ about Olbers' paradox Astronomy FAQ about Olbers' paradox Cosmology FAQ about Olbers' paradox On Olber's Paradox at MathPages | Olbers'_paradox |@lemmatized olbers:15 paradox:26 action:1 astrophysics:1 physical:2 cosmology:5 argument:5 darkness:4 night:7 sky:20 conflict:1 assumption:3 infinite:12 eternal:1 static:2 universe:22 one:4 piece:1 evidence:1 non:2 current:2 big:14 bang:13 model:6 also:7 refer:1 dark:7 see:4 history:2 harrison:6 definitive:1 account:2 date:1 problem:3 science:1 accord:4 first:10 conceive:1 anything:1 like:3 thomas:1 digges:1 exposit:1 copernican:1 system:1 english:1 may:1 postulate:2 infinitely:6 many:1 star:51 kepler:2 pose:2 take:2 mature:1 form:2 century:1 work:1 halley:1 cheseaux:1 commonly:1 attribute:1 german:1 amateur:1 astronomer:1 heinrich:1 wilhelm:1 indeed:2 describe:1 show:2 convincingly:1 far:2 thinking:1 particularly:1 valuable:1 argue:1 set:2 satisfactory:1 resolution:2 lord:1 kelvin:2 little:1 known:1 paper:2 key:2 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2,357 | Southeast_Alaska | The Alaska Panhandle The Alaska Panhandle, sometimes referred to as Southeast Alaska, is the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Alaska, which lies just west of the northern half of the Canadian province of British Columbia. The majority of the panhandle's area is part of the Tongass National Forest, the United States' largest national forest. In many places, the international border runs along the crest of the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains (see Alaska boundary dispute). Misty Fjords Waterfall and kayak Tongass Forest near Ketchikan Cruise ships at Ketchikan Geography The Alaska Panhandle is the northern terminus of the Inside Passage, a protected waterway of convoluted passages between islands and fjords, beginning in Puget Sound in Washington state. This was an important travel corridor for native canoeists, as well as gold-rush steam ships, and in modern times is an important route for ferries and cruise ships. The Panhandle has a land area of 91,008.18 km2 (35,138.46 square miles), comprised of six entire boroughs and three census areas, in addition to the part of Yakutat Borough lying east of 141° West longitude. Although it has only 6.14 percent of Alaska's land area, it is larger than the state of Maine, and almost as large as the state of Indiana. The 2000 census population of the Panhandle was 72,954 inhabitants, about 42 percent of whom were concentrated in the city of Juneau. Haines Borough Hoonah-Angoon Census Area Juneau Borough Ketchikan Gateway Borough Petersburg Census Area Prince of Wales-Hyder Census Area Sitka Borough Skagway Borough Wrangell Borough Yakutat Borough (the part east of 141° W longitude; 12,506.53 km², or about 63.12 percent of the borough) It includes the Tongass National Forest, Glacier Bay National Park, Admiralty Island National Monument, Misty Fjords National Monument, Alaska's Inside Passage, and myriad large and small islands. The largest islands are, from North to South, Chichagof Island, Admiralty Island, Baranof Island, Kupreanof Island, Revillagigedo Island and Prince of Wales Island. Major bodies of water of the Alaska Panhandle include Glacier Bay, Lynn Canal, Icy Strait, Chatham Strait, Stephens Passage, Frederick Sound, Sumner Strait, and Clarence Strait. On August 20, 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt established the Alexander Archipelago Forest Reserve, which formed the heart of the Tongass National Forest that covers most of the region. National Parks and Monuments Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park Sitka National Historical Park Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve (part, the southeasternmost section only) Admiralty Island National Monument Misty Fjords National Monument Ecology Southeast Alaska is a temperate rain forest within the Pacific temperate rain forest zone, which extends from northern California to Prince William Sound. The most common tree species are sitka spruce and western hemlock Wildlife includes brown bears, black bears, wolves, Sitka deer, humpback whales, orcas, five species of salmon, bald eagles, harlequin ducks, scoters, and marbled murrelets. Cities and towns Major cities are Juneau, Sitka, and Ketchikan. Other towns are Petersburg, Wrangell, Metlakatla, Haines, Hoonah, Angoon, Kake, Craig, Klawock, Yakutat, Skagway, and Gustavus. There are also many tiny (under 100 people) towns and villages, such as Baranof Warm Springs, Edna Bay, Elfin Cove, Excursion Inlet, Hyder, Meyers Chuck, Pelican, Port Alexander, Port Frederick, Port Protection, and Tenakee Springs. Culture This area is the traditional homeland of the Tlingit people, and home of a prehistoric settling of Haida as well as a modern settlement of Tsimshian. The region is closely connected to Seattle and the American Pacific Northwest economically and culturally. Industry Major industries in Southeast Alaska include commercial fishing and tourism (primarily the cruise ship industry). Logging has been an important industry in the past, but has been steadily declining with competition from other areas and the closure of the region's major pulp mills. Transportation Due to the extremely rural nature of Southeastern Alaska, almost all communities (with the exception of Hyder, Skagway, and Haines) have no road connections outside of their locale, so aircraft and boats are the major means of transport. The Alaska Marine Highway passes through this region. Air transportation Alaska Airlines is by far the largest air carrier in the region, with Juneau's Juneau International Airport serving as the aerial hub for all of Southeast and Ketchikan's Ketchikan International Airport serving as a secondary hub for southern Southeast Alaska. However, Alaska Airline's Boeing 737s can only be handled by a few airports in the region and Alaska's bush airlines serve many of the smaller and more isolated communities and villages in the regions. L.A.B. Flying Service (based out of Haines), Wings of Alaska (based out of Juneau), Alaska Seaplane Service (based out of Juneau), and Skagway Air Service (based out of Skagway) are the primary bush carriers in region and also offer cargo service to smaller communities. Numerous carriers serve other parts of the Alaska Panhandle. For example, [Sunrise Aviation] (based in Wrangell), provides flightseeing and chartered service to outlying areas and international charters up the Stikine River to places such as Telegraph Creek, Dease Lake as well as numerous lakes and communities in Northern British Columbia. Marine transportation Southeast Alaska is primarily served by the state-run Alaska Marine Highway and secondarily by the Prince of Wales Island-based Inter-Island Ferry Authority. Small companies like Sitka-based Allen Marine and other independent operators in the Lynn Canal occasionally also offer marine passenger service. Ship traffic in the area is seasonally busy with cruise ships. External links The regional economy of southeast Alaska : final report / prepared for Alaska Conservation Foundation ; prepared by Steve Colt, Darcy Dugan, Ginny Fay (EcoSystems). Hosted by Alaska State Publications Program. Southeast Alaska energy export study : final report / prepared for The Southeast Conference ; by D. Hittle & Associates, Inc., in association with Commonwealth Associates, Inc. Hosted by the Alaska State Publications Program. Swan - Tyee intertie economic analysis / prepared for the Four Dam Pool Power Agency ; prepared by CAI, Commonwealth Associates, Inc. Hosted by Alaska State Publications Program. | Southeast_Alaska |@lemmatized alaska:28 panhandle:8 sometimes:1 refer:1 southeast:9 southeastern:2 portion:1 u:1 state:9 lie:2 west:2 northern:4 half:1 canadian:1 province:1 british:2 columbia:2 majority:1 area:11 part:5 tonga:4 national:14 forest:8 united:1 large:6 many:3 place:2 international:4 border:1 run:2 along:1 crest:1 boundary:2 range:1 coast:1 mountain:1 see:1 dispute:1 misty:3 fjord:4 waterfall:1 kayak:1 near:1 ketchikan:6 cruise:4 ship:6 geography:1 terminus:1 inside:2 passage:4 protected:1 waterway:1 convoluted:1 island:13 begin:1 puget:1 sound:3 washington:1 important:3 travel:1 corridor:1 native:1 canoeist:1 well:3 gold:2 rush:2 steam:1 modern:2 time:1 route:1 ferry:2 land:2 square:1 mile:1 comprise:1 six:1 entire:1 borough:10 three:1 census:5 addition:1 yakutat:3 east:2 longitude:2 although:1 percent:3 maine:1 almost:2 indiana:1 population:1 inhabitant:1 concentrate:1 city:3 juneau:7 haines:4 hoonah:2 angoon:2 gateway:1 petersburg:2 prince:4 wale:3 hyder:3 sitka:6 skagway:5 wrangell:4 w:1 include:4 glacier:3 bay:4 park:6 admiralty:3 monument:5 myriad:1 small:4 north:1 south:1 chichagof:1 baranof:2 kupreanof:1 revillagigedo:1 major:5 body:1 water:1 lynn:2 canal:2 icy:1 strait:4 chatham:1 stephens:1 frederick:2 sumner:1 clarence:1 august:1 president:1 theodore:1 roosevelt:1 establish:1 alexander:2 archipelago:1 reserve:1 form:1 heart:1 cover:1 region:8 preserve:2 klondike:1 historical:2 st:1 elias:1 southeasternmost:1 section:1 ecology:1 temperate:2 rain:2 within:1 pacific:2 zone:1 extend:1 california:1 william:1 common:1 tree:1 specie:2 spruce:1 western:1 hemlock:1 wildlife:1 brown:1 bear:2 black:1 wolf:1 deer:1 humpback:1 whale:1 orca:1 five:1 salmon:1 bald:1 eagle:1 harlequin:1 duck:1 scoter:1 marble:1 murrelets:1 town:3 metlakatla:1 kake:1 craig:1 klawock:1 gustavus:1 also:3 tiny:1 people:2 village:2 warm:1 spring:2 edna:1 elfin:1 cove:1 excursion:1 inlet:1 meyers:1 chuck:1 pelican:1 port:3 protection:1 tenakee:1 culture:1 traditional:1 homeland:1 tlingit:1 home:1 prehistoric:1 settling:1 haida:1 settlement:1 tsimshian:1 closely:1 connect:1 seattle:1 american:1 northwest:1 economically:1 culturally:1 industry:4 commercial:1 fishing:1 tourism:1 primarily:2 logging:1 past:1 steadily:1 decline:1 competition:1 closure:1 pulp:1 mill:1 transportation:3 due:1 extremely:1 rural:1 nature:1 community:4 exception:1 road:1 connection:1 outside:1 locale:1 aircraft:1 boat:1 mean:1 transport:1 marine:5 highway:2 pass:1 air:3 airline:3 far:1 carrier:3 airport:3 serve:5 aerial:1 hub:2 secondary:1 southern:1 however:1 boeing:1 handle:1 bush:2 isolated:1 l:1 b:1 fly:1 service:6 base:7 wing:1 seaplane:1 primary:1 offer:2 cargo:1 numerous:2 example:1 sunrise:1 aviation:1 provide:1 flightseeing:1 chartered:1 outlying:1 charter:1 stikine:1 river:1 telegraph:1 creek:1 dease:1 lake:2 secondarily:1 inter:1 authority:1 company:1 like:1 allen:1 independent:1 operator:1 occasionally:1 passenger:1 traffic:1 seasonally:1 busy:1 external:1 link:1 regional:1 economy:1 final:2 report:2 prepare:5 conservation:1 foundation:1 steve:1 colt:1 darcy:1 dugan:1 ginny:1 fay:1 ecosystems:1 host:3 publication:3 program:3 energy:1 export:1 study:1 conference:1 hittle:1 associate:3 inc:3 association:1 commonwealth:2 swan:1 tyee:1 intertie:1 economic:1 analysis:1 four:1 dam:1 pool:1 power:1 agency:1 cai:1 |@bigram alaska_panhandle:5 puget_sound:1 theodore_roosevelt:1 rain_forest:2 humpback_whale:1 whale_orca:1 bald_eagle:1 pulp_mill:1 external_link:1 |
2,358 | IEEE_802.2 | IEEE 802.2 is the IEEE 802 standard defining Logical Link Control (LLC), which is the upper portion of the data link layer of the OSI Model. The LLC sublayer presents a uniform interface to the user of the data link service, usually the network layer. Beneath the LLC sublayer is the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer, which is dependent on the particular medium being used (Ethernet, token ring, FDDI, 802.11, etc.). The IEEE standard adds this sublayer which adds the standard 8-bit DSAP (Destination Service Access Point) and SSAP (Source Service Access Point) labels to a given packet regardless of network type. There is also an 8 or 16 bit control field for use in auxiliary functions such as flow control. There is room for 64 globally assigned SAP numbers, and the IEEE does not assign them lightly. IP does not have an assigned SAP number, because only “international standards” could be given globally assigned SAP numbers. Protocols which are not international standards can use a SAP number from the locally administered SAP number space. The Subnetwork Access Protocol (SNAP) allows EtherType values to be used to specify the protocol being transported atop IEEE 802.2, and also allows vendors to define their own protocol value spaces. Operational modes IEEE 802.2 provides two connectionless and one connection-oriented operational modes: Type 1 is an unacknowledged connectionless mode. It allows for sending frames to a single destination (point-to-point or unicast transfer), to multiple destinations on the same network (multicast), or to all stations of the network (broadcast). The use of multicasts and broadcasts reduce network traffic when the same information needs to be propagated to all stations of the network. However the Type 1 service provides no guarantees regarding the order of the received frames compared to the order in which they have been sent; the sender does not even get an acknowledgment that the frames have been received. Type 2 is a connection-oriented operational mode. Sequence numbering ensures that the frames received are guaranteed to be in the order they have been sent, and no frames are lost. Type 3 is an acknowledged connectionless service. It supports point-to-point communication only. LLC header 802.2 defines a special header that includes a SNAP (subnetwork access protocol) header. Some protocols, particularly those designed for the OSI networking stack, operate directly on top of 802.2 LLC, which provides both datagram and connection-oriented network services. This 802.2 header is currently embedded in modern 802.3 frames (Ethernet II frames, aka. DIX frames). The LLC header includes two additional eight-bit address fields, called service access points or SAPs in OSI terminology; when both source and destination SAP are set to the value 0xAA, the SNAP service is requested. The SNAP header allows EtherType values to be used with all IEEE 802 protocols, as well as supporting private protocol ID spaces. In IEEE 802.3x-1997, the IEEE Ethernet standard was changed to explicitly allow the use of the 16-bit field after the MAC addresses to be used as a length field or a type field. Novell NetWare used this frame type by default until the mid nineties, and since Netware was very widespread back then, while IP was not, at some point in time most of the world's Ethernet traffic ran over "raw" 802.3 carrying IPX. Since Netware 4.10 Netware now defaults to IEEE 802.2 with LLC (Netware Frame Type Ethernet_802.2) when using IPX. (See "Ethernet Framing" in References for details) Mac OS uses 802.2/SNAP framing for the AppleTalk protocol suite on Ethernet ("EtherTalk") and Ethernet II framing for TCP/IP. The 802.2 variants of Ethernet are not in widespread use on common networks currently, with the exception of large corporate Netware installations that have not yet migrated to Netware over IP. In the past, many corporate networks supported 802.2 Ethernet to support transparent translating bridges between Ethernet and IEEE 802.5 Token Ring or FDDI networks. There exists an Internet standard for encapsulating IP version 4 traffic in IEEE 802.2 frames with LLC/SNAP headers. RFC 1042 It is almost never implemented on Ethernet (although it is used on FDDI and on token ring, IEEE 802.11, and other IEEE 802 networks). IP traffic can not be encapsulated in IEEE 802.2 LLC frames without SNAP because, although there is an LLC protocol type for IP, there is no LLC protocol type for ARP. IP Version 6 can also be transmitted over Ethernet using IEEE 802.2 with LLC/SNAP, but, again, that's almost never used (although LLC/SNAP encapsulation of IPv6 is used on IEEE 802 networks). IEEE 802.2 header control words and frame formats To confuse matters further, there can be three kinds of IEEE 802.2 PDU, in so-called U, I or S frames. U frames, with an 8-bit control field, are intended for connectionless applications I frames, with a 16-bit control and sequence numbering field, are intended to be used in connection-oriented applications S frames, with a 16-bit control field, are intended to be used for supervisory functions at the LLC ( Logical Link Control) layer. Of these three formats, only the U-format is commonly used. The format of a PDU frame is identified by the lower two bits of the first byte of the control field. IEEE 802.2 was conceptually derived from HDLC, which explains these aspects of its design. References External links IEEE 802.2 online | IEEE_802.2 |@lemmatized ieee:21 standard:7 define:3 logical:2 link:5 control:10 llc:14 upper:1 portion:1 data:2 layer:3 osi:3 model:1 sublayer:4 present:1 uniform:1 interface:1 user:1 service:8 usually:1 network:12 beneath:1 medium:2 access:6 mac:3 dependent:1 particular:1 use:18 ethernet:12 token:3 ring:3 fddi:3 etc:1 add:2 bit:8 dsap:1 destination:4 point:8 ssap:1 source:2 label:1 give:2 packet:1 regardless:1 type:10 also:3 field:9 auxiliary:1 function:2 flow:1 room:1 globally:2 assign:4 sap:7 number:6 lightly:1 ip:8 international:2 could:1 protocol:11 locally:1 administer:1 space:3 subnetwork:2 snap:9 allow:5 ethertype:2 value:4 specify:1 transport:1 atop:1 vendor:1 operational:3 mode:4 provide:3 two:3 connectionless:4 one:1 connection:4 orient:4 unacknowledged:1 send:3 frame:21 single:1 unicast:1 transfer:1 multiple:1 multicast:1 station:2 broadcast:2 multicasts:1 reduce:1 traffic:4 information:1 need:1 propagate:1 however:1 guarantee:2 regard:1 order:3 receive:3 compare:1 sender:1 even:1 get:1 acknowledgment:1 sequence:2 ensures:1 lose:1 acknowledged:1 support:4 communication:1 header:8 special:1 include:2 particularly:1 design:2 networking:1 stack:1 operate:1 directly:1 top:1 datagram:1 currently:2 embed:1 modern:1 ii:2 aka:1 dix:1 additional:1 eight:1 address:2 call:2 terminology:1 set:1 request:1 well:1 private:1 id:1 change:1 explicitly:1 length:1 novell:1 netware:7 default:2 mid:1 ninety:1 since:2 widespread:2 back:1 time:1 world:1 run:1 raw:1 carry:1 ipx:2 see:1 reference:2 detail:1 os:1 us:1 appletalk:1 suite:1 ethertalk:1 tcp:1 variant:1 common:1 exception:1 large:1 corporate:2 installation:1 yet:1 migrate:1 past:1 many:1 transparent:1 translate:1 bridge:1 exist:1 internet:1 encapsulate:2 version:2 rfc:1 almost:2 never:2 implement:1 although:3 without:1 arp:1 transmit:1 encapsulation:1 word:1 format:4 confuse:1 matter:1 far:1 three:2 kind:1 pdu:2 u:3 intend:3 application:2 numbering:1 supervisory:1 commonly:1 identify:1 low:1 first:1 byte:1 conceptually:1 derive:1 hdlc:1 explain:1 aspect:1 external:1 online:1 |@bigram ieee_ieee:3 layer_osi:1 mac_sublayer:1 token_ring:3 llc_header:2 ieee_ethernet:1 novell_netware:1 mac_os:1 protocol_suite:1 tcp_ip:1 external_link:1 |
2,359 | Arizona_Diamondbacks | The Arizona Diamondbacks are a professional baseball team based in Phoenix, Arizona. They play in the West Division of Major League Baseball's National League. From 1998 to the present, they have played in Chase Field (formerly Bank One Ballpark). Also known as the D-backs, Arizona has one World Series title, in 2001. Franchise history The desire for baseball in the desert Between 1940 and 1990, Phoenix jumped from the 99th largest city in the nation to the 9th largest. As such, it was frequently mentioned as a possible location for either a new or relocated MLB franchise. Baseball had a rich tradition in Arizona long before talk of bringing a big-league team even started. The state has been a frequent spring training site since 1946. With the large numbers of people relocating to the state from the Midwest and the Northeast, as well as from California, many teams (most notably the Chicago Cubs and the Los Angeles Dodgers) have normally had large followings in Arizona. The first serious attempt to land an expansion team for the Phoenix area was mounted by Elyse Doherty and Martin Stone, owner of the Phoenix Firebirds, the city's Triple-A minor league baseball team and an affiliate of the San Francisco Giants. In the late 1980s Stone approached St. Louis (football) Cardinals owner Bill Bidwill about sharing a proposed 70,000 seat domed stadium in Phoenix. It was taken for granted that a domed stadium was essential for a prospective baseball team to be a viable enterprise in the city. Phoenix is by far the hottest major city in North America; the average high temperature during baseball's regular season is 99.1 °F, and temperatures above 120 °F in July and August are not unheard of, but have only occurred three times. Bidwill, with plans already in the works to leave St. Louis, opted instead to sign a long term lease with Arizona State University to use its Sun Devil Stadium as the home of his soon-to-be Arizona-based NFL franchise. Since baseball-only stadiums were not seen as fiscally viable during that era, this effectively ended Stone's bid. In the fall of 1993, Jerry Colangelo, majority owner of the Phoenix Suns, the area's NBA franchise, announced he was assembling an ownership group, "Arizona Baseball, Inc.," to apply for a Major League Baseball expansion team. This was after a great deal of lobbying by the Maricopa County Sports Authority, a local group formed to preserve Cactus League spring training in Arizona and eventually secure a Major League franchise for the state. Colangelo's group was so certain that they would be awarded a franchise that they held a name-the-team contest for it; they took out a full-page ad in the sports section of the February 13, 1995 edition of the state's leading newspaper, the Arizona Republic. First prize was a pair of lifetime season tickets awarded to the person who submitted the winning entry. The winning choice was "Diamondbacks," after the Western diamondback, a rattlesnake native to the region known for injecting a large amount of venom when it strikes. Colangelo's bid received strong support from one of his friends, Chicago White Sox and Chicago Bulls owner Jerry Reinsdorf, and media reports say that then-acting Commissioner of Baseball and Milwaukee Brewers founder Bud Selig was also a strong supporter of Colangelo's bid. AZStarNet.com Plans were also made for a new retractable-roof ballpark, Bank One Ballpark, nicknamed the BOB, (renamed in 2005 to Chase Field) to be built in an industrial/warehouse district on the southeast edge of downtown Phoenix, across the street from the Suns' America West Arena (now US Airways Center). On March 9, 1995, Colangelo's group was awarded a franchise to begin play for the 1998 season. A $130 million franchise fee was paid to Major League Baseball. The Tampa Bay Area was also granted a franchise, the Devil Rays (to be based in St. Petersburg), at the same time. According to the original press release from Colangelo's group (which remained posted on the team website during the first few seasons) the chosen team colors were Arizona turquoise, copper, black and purple. "...Turquoise was chosen because the greenish-blue stone is indigenous to Arizona, copper because Arizona is one the nation's top copper-producing states and purple because it has become a favorite color for Arizona sports fans, thanks to the success of the National Basketball Association's Phoenix Suns." AZDiamondbacks.com: First press release from Diamondbacks organization, March 9, 1995, announcing MLB's awarding of the franchise to Jerry Colangelo In the earliest days, the Diamondbacks operated basically as a subsidiary of the Suns; several executives and managers with the Suns and America West Arena were brought over to the Diamondbacks in similar roles. Challenges just starting for D-backs – The Business Journal of Phoenix: Preparing for launch: AL or NL? There was some talk (which actually persisted for a few years after the awarding of the franchise) about the Diamondbacks being placed in the American League West. Colangelo strongly opposed this, pushing baseball officials to allow the new team to play in the National League West. Colangelo cited the relative close proximity of Phoenix to the other NL West cities; the similarities between the two fast-growing cities of Phoenix and Denver (home to the Colorado Rockies); the long history of Arizona tourism to San Diego; the Firebirds' long history as the Giants' top farm team; and the fact that Dodgers, Giants and Padres games were broadcast in the Phoenix and Tucson markets for many years. AugustaSports.com A regional team From the beginning, Colangelo wanted to market the Diamondbacks to a statewide fan base and not limit fan appeal to Phoenix and its suburbs. Although every Major League Baseball team cultivates fans from outside its immediate metropolitan area, and even though the greater Phoenix area has 2/3 of the entire statewide population, Colangelo still decided to call the team the "Arizona Diamondbacks" rather than the "Phoenix Diamondbacks". Many in Phoenix were not pleased by this; they felt this move lent a "small market" tincture to the team's name. However, fans in other areas of the state generally agreed with the move. Tucson, Arizona's second largest city, located about a 90-minute drive southeast of Phoenix, was selected as the home for Diamondbacks spring training as well as the team's top minor league affiliate, the Tucson Sidewinders. Radio and television broadcast deals were struck with affiliates in Tucson, Flagstaff, Prescott, and Las Vegas; among others. A series of team-sponsored fan motorcoach trips from Tucson to Bank One Ballpark were inaugurated for the opening season and are still in operation to this day (it is now known as the "Diamond Express"). The Diamondbacks are also known for the "Hometown Tour", held in January, where selected players, management and broadcasters make public appearances, hold autograph signings, etc., in various locations around Phoenix and Tucson, as well as many small and mid-sized towns in other areas of Arizona. Further preparations Two seasons before their first opening day, Colangelo hired Buck Showalter, the American League Manager of the Year in 1994 with the New York Yankees. Their lower level minor league teams began play in 1997; the expansion draft was held that year as well. 1998–2002: Early success and a World Series championship — the rise The Diamondbacks' first major league game was played against the Colorado Rockies on March 31, 1998, at Bank One Ballpark before a standing-room only crowd of 50,179. Tickets had gone on sale on January 10 and sold out before lunch. The Rockies won, 9–2, with Andy Benes on the mound for the Diamondbacks, and Travis Lee being the first player to hit, score, homer and drive in a run. In their first five seasons of existence, the Diamondbacks won three division titles (1999, 2001, & 2002) and one World Series (2001). In 1999, Arizona won 100 games in only its second season to win the National League West. They lost to the New York Mets in four games in the NLDS. Colangelo fired Showalter after a relatively disappointing 2000 season, and replaced him with Bob Brenly, the former Giants catcher and coach, who had up to that point been working as a color analyst on Diamondbacks television broadcasts. In 2001, the team was led by two of the most dominant pitchers in all of baseball: Randy Johnson and Curt Schilling. Arizona had postseason victories over the St. Louis Cardinals (3-2 in the NLDS) and the Atlanta Braves (4-1 in the NLCS) to advance to the World Series where, in one of the most exciting series ever, in the wake of the September 11th terrorist attacks in New York City, they beat the reigning champions, the New York Yankees, 4 to 3, to become the youngest expansion franchise to win the World Series (in just their fourth season of play). That classic World Series is chronicled in Charles Euchner's book The Last Nine Innings (Sourcebooks, 2006). The series was also seen as the beginning of the end of the Yankees' stranglehold on baseball glory, as profiled in Buster Olney's book The Last Night of the Yankee Dynasty. All games in that series were won by the home team. An estimated orderly crowd of over 300,000 celebrated at the Diamondbacks victory parade, held at Bank One Ballpark and the surrounding downtown Phoenix streets on November 7, 2001. This was the first major professional sports championship for the state of Arizona and the first for a team (in the four major North American professional sports leagues) owned or controlled by Colangelo, whose basketball Suns made it to the NBA Finals in 1976 and 1993 but lost both times. (Colangelo's Arizona Rattlers won the Arena Football League championship in 1994 and 1997.) Colangelo’s willingness to go into debt and acquire players through free agency would ultimately lead to one of the quickest free falls in major sports history when in just three years, the Diamondbacks would record one of the worst losing records in all of major league baseball by losing 111 games. The team won the NL West Division Title again in 2002, but were swept out in the NLDS by the St. Louis Cardinals. 2003–2005: Tough times and the end of the Colangelo era — the fall By the 2004 season, however, the Diamondbacks had dropped to a dismal 51-111 record, the worst in Major League Baseball that year and also one of the 10 worst records in the past 100 years of MLB, despite Johnson pitching a perfect game on May 18 of that season. Brenly was fired partway through the season and was replaced on an interim basis by coach Al Pedrique. Before the season co-MVP (with Johnson) of the 2001 World Series Curt Schilling had been traded to the Boston Red Sox, who won the World Series in 2004 and 2007. By this time Colangelo and the other partners were embroiled in a dispute over the financial health and direction of the Diamondbacks (and notably including over $150 million dollars in deferred compensation to many players who were key members of the 2001 World Series winning team and others). He was forced to resign his managing general partner post in the late summer of 2004. Colangelo sold his interest in the General Partnership of the Diamondbacks to a group of investors who were all involved as partners in the founding of the team in 1995. The investors include equal partners Ken Kendrick, Dale Jensen, Mike Chipman, and Jeffrey Royer. Jeff Moorad, a former sports agent, joined the partnership, and was named the team's CEO; becoming its primary public face. Ken Kendrick became the managing general partner. Colangelo was sharply criticized for plunging the team into over $150 million in debt to secure the services of expensive veterans in order to field a competitive team quickly. In a 2004 interview with columnist Hal Bodley of USA TODAY, Colangelo defended his actions: Also a factor in Colangelo's leaving his post was his advancing age: Colangelo was 64 years of age in 2004, and had he not sold his sports franchises, upon his death, his family would have been faced with having to pay high estate taxes based on the value of the Diamondbacks as well as the Suns (which he sold to Robert Sarver in the spring of 2004). Phoenix.Bizjournals.com Following the 2004 season, the Diamondbacks hired Wally Backman to be the team's manager. Backman was formerly manager of the Class A California League Lancaster JetHawks, one of the Diamondbacks' minor-league affiliates. In a turn of events that proved to be a minor embarrassment for the reorganized ownership group, Backman was almost immediately fired after management learned, after the fact, of legal troubles and improprieties in Backman's past. Former Seattle Mariners manager and Diamondbacks bench coach Bob Melvin became the new manager after only a ten-day tenure for Backman. Following the Backman incident, the Diamondbacks spent heavily on free agents in order to re-build into a contender. The club signed 3B Troy Glaus, P Russ Ortiz, SS Royce Clayton, and 2B Craig Counsell, among others. They then traded Randy Johnson to the New York Yankees, for Javier Vazquez, Dioner Navarro, and Brad Halsey. They then turned around and dealt newly acquired catcher Dioner Navarro to the Dodgers for Shawn Green, and sent Shea Hillenbrand to the Toronto Blue Jays. Finally, they traded Casey Fossum to the Tampa Bay Devil Rays for José Cruz, Jr. The Diamondbacks, led by Melvin, finished the 2005 season with a record of 77 wins and 85 losses. However, this was a 26-game improvement over 2004, and actually good enough for second place in the woefully weak NL West, five games behind the San Diego Padres. The Diamondbacks were considered by some to be the favorite to win the division after spending big money on the aforementioned free agents; however, injuries hurt the team's chances of reaching its expected potential. Starting pitcher Ortiz was out for some time which really hurt the pitching staff. Glaus played with a hurt knee all season. Of all the free agents that signed before the season, no one had a better season than first baseman Tony Clark. Clark started the season as a bench player and ended the season starting and being an important part of the team. Clark was rewarded with a new contract at the end of the season. In October 2005 the Diamondbacks hired 35-year-old Josh Byrnes, assistant general manager of the Boston Red Sox, to replace the out-going Joe Garagiola, Jr. as Diamondbacks General Manager. Garagiola took a position in Major League Baseball's main offices in New York City. 2006–present : Rebuilt and reloaded – Rising from the Ashes In a weak NL West division, the Diamondbacks failed to improve on their 2005 performance, finishing fourth with a slightly worse record than the year before. The season did include two excellent individual performances, however. 2B Orlando Hudson became the recipient of his second career Gold Glove Award, as announced on November 3. Hudson became only the sixth infielder in major league history to win a Gold Glove award in both the American and National Leagues. He first received the award after the 2005 season as a member of the Toronto Blue Jays, and was traded to the Diamondbacks later that offseason. On November 14, it was announced that RHP Brandon Webb was the recipient of the Cy Young Award for the National League. Webb, a specialist in throwing the sinkerball, received 15 of 32 first-place votes in balloting by the Baseball Writers Association of America. Webb went 16-8 with a 3.10 ERA and in the 2006 season was named to his first All-Star team. San Diego Padres relief pitcher Trevor Hoffman was second place in the voting with 12 first-place votes and 77 points. In preparation for the next season, the Diamondbacks made several significant trades during the offseason. The Diamondbacks and Brewers made a trade on November 25, 2006. Johnny Estrada, Greg Aquino, and Claudio Vargas were dealt to the Milwaukee Brewers for Doug Davis, Dana Eveland, and Dave Krynzel. MLB.com On Sunday January 7, it was announced that Randy Johnson would return to the Diamondbacks on a two year contract, pending a physical. He was obtained from the Yankees in exchange for Luis Vizcaino, Ross Ohlendorf, Alberto Gonzalez and Steven Jackson. The Yankees will pay $2 million of Johnson's $26 million salary. The Diamondbacks and Florida Marlins made a deal March 26 to acquire RHP Yusmeiro Petit in exchange for Jorge Julio and cash. 2007: A new look and a return to the playoffs Uniform and color change: Sedona Red The Diamondbacks announced in early September 2006 that their uniforms, which remained largely unchanged since the team's first season, would be completely redesigned for the 2007 season. MLB.com Details were supposed to be kept from the public until after the 2006 postseason as per MLB rules, but the Diamondback page from the 2007 MLB Official Style Guide was somehow leaked around September 25, and local media broadcast printed the new design for all to see. Of great surprise to many fans was a brand new color scheme; apparently the original colors used by the franchise since Major League Baseball awarded it to Jerry Colangelo's ownership group in 1995 were to be discontinued. While some fans applauded the redesign, most of the reaction to the new color scheme, which included the changing of the historical purple and traditional Arizonan colors of copper and turquoise to a reddish color known as "Sedona Red" similar to that of the Phoenix Coyotes and Arizona Cardinals color schemes, was pointedly negative. AZCentral.com About.com AZCentral.com Many fans went so far as to call the 2007 D-backs a new and completely different team, calling the 2007 season a "re-inaugural year"; some fans in Tucson had banners reading; "Arizona Diamondbacks 1998-2006 – Arizona D-Backs 2007- " or "Exit Diamondbacks Enter D-Backs" and "Exit Purple Enter Sedona." The official unveiling of the uniforms came at a charity event on November 8 in nearby Scottsdale, where several of the players modeled the uniforms on a runway, and posed for publicity photos. The distinctive "A" design remained unchanged save for the colors. The stylized snake-like "D" logo, also used since the early days for the road uniforms, was slightly redesigned and a completely new shoulder patch introduced. The lettering on the jerseys was completely redesigned. "Sedona Red" became the dominant color scheme used throughout Chase Field and in all marketing and promotional materials for the Diamondback ballclub. Changing faces and a successful season Not only did the Diamondbacks uniforms change, but many faces of the organization changed as well. In addition to the trades detailed above: Fan favorite and Diamondbacks stalwart Luis Gonzalez did not return as the left fielder for the Diamondbacks. The most popular player in franchise history, "Gonzo" signed a one-year contract worth just under $7 million on December 7 to play for the rival Los Angeles Dodgers for the 2007 season. Craig Counsell, another popular player, signed a two-year contract with his hometown Milwaukee Brewers and did not return to the Diamondbacks in 2007. Pitcher Miguel Batista did not return in an Arizona uniform (he signed a three-year contract with the Mariners in December 2006). Jay Bell, a longtime Diamondback as both a player and coach, relinquished his duties as bench coach to spend more time with family; he remained in the organization as an adviser to Bob Melvin. The original Diamondbacks play-by-play man Thom Brennaman moved on to the Cincinnati Reds organization to work with his father Marty Brennaman in the booth. In the 2007 regular season, the Diamondbacks enjoyed a relatively high degree of success with a young team including Brandon Webb, Conor Jackson, Stephen Drew, Carlos Quentin, Chad Tracy, Chris Young, Miguel Montero, Mark Reynolds (called up from Double-A in May) and Justin Upton (called up from Double-A in August), earning them the nickname "The Babybacks". The Diamondbacks in the regular season posted the best record in the NL with 90 wins and 72 losses. Despite their success, they were actually outscored by a cumulative total of 20 runs in their games. 2007 postseason On September 28, the Diamondbacks beat the Colorado Rockies to secure a position in the 2007 playoffs. After the Padres' defeat at the hands of the Milwaukee Brewers on September 29, the Diamondbacks secured both the NL West title and home field throughout the NL playoffs. After taking the first two games at home against the Cubs, in the National League Division Series, they took the series to Wrigley Field, where they completed their sweep, earning their first berth in the National League Championship Series since 2001. In the NLCS (where, ironically, they faced the Rockies), however, the D-backs' bats – and any sort of luck they had – fell silent. Though the D-backs' pitchers kept it close, they just didn't seem to get any kind of situational hitting. Plays in key situations- Upton's slide in Game 1, Stephen Drew's baserunning mistake and Valverde's 3 walks in a row, including a bases-loaded walk in the 10th in Game 2, Yorvit Torrealba's homer in Game 3, Conor Jackson booting the ball in Game 4, and even into the 8th and 9th innings of the final game, with the D-backs trailing by two, Tony Clark struck out leaving Upton at third base in the 8th, and in the 9th, Chris Young's leadoff double was wasted...the D-backs ran out of momentum against a Colorado team who just couldn't lose and were swept by the Rockies. The 2007 season overall was a great success, with many of the young players showing their potential and proving that the team would be a force in the National League for years to come. 2007 offseason Reloading for 2008 with Dan Haren On December 3, 2007 the Diamondbacks traded Carlos Quentin to the Chicago White Sox for first base prospect Chris Carter. On December 14, in a blockbuster trade, the Diamondbacks acquired starting RHP Dan Haren from the Oakland Athletics for six players: LHP Brett Anderson, LHP Dana Eveland and LHP Greg Smith; the above-mentioned just-acquired infielder Chris Carter; and outfielders Aaron Cunningham and Carlos Gonzalez. The team also traded relief pitcher Jose Valverde, who led the major leagues in saves in 2007 with 47, to the Houston Astros for reliever Chad Qualls, RHP Juan Gutiérrez and IF/OF Chris Burke. (Valverde was expected to immediately become the Astros' closer.) Haren was expected to immediately join the Diamondbacks starting rotation which will include Webb and hopefully Randy Johnson if he rehabilitates successfully from his season-ending back injuries (Johnson was acquired from the Yankees in January 2007 and had a strong start to the 2007 season before back problems forced him out in August). Haren was 15-9 with a 3.07 ERA for Oakland in 2007. This move was expected to make the D-backs favored to win the NL West in 2008 provided the offensive production is good. Arizona was not able to re-sign veteran free agents Tony Clark and Livan Hernandez, who were picked up by San Diego and Minnesota, respectively. 2008 season Further information: 2008 Arizona Diamondbacks season After winning the opening game of the season on March 31 on the road against the Cincinnati Reds, the Diamondbacks found themselves with the best record in Major League Baseball, 20-8, by the start of May. At that time, they also led the NL West by 6.5 games. They lost the first series in May against the New York Mets, the first series lost since the opening series against the Reds. The Diamondbacks continued to lead the NL west despite only being 47-48 at the All-Star break. On July 17, 2008, Tony Clark was traded back to the D-backs from the San Diego Padres for a minor league pitcher, Evan Scribner. On August 5, Dan Haren signed a four-year, $44.75 million deal with the Diamondbacks worth a guaranteed $41.25 million through 2012 and including a $15.5 million club option for 2013 with a $3.5 million buyout. Orlando Hudson, one of the more consistent offensive D-backs players in 2008, underwent season-ending surgery on his left wrist August 9 in the wake of a collision with catcher Brian McCann of the Atlanta Braves. Hudson is due to become a free agent at the end of the season and speculation is that he will not be re-signed with the Diamondbacks, because he wanted a higher salary. LF Eric Byrnes was on the 60-day disabled list from late June, with a torn left hamstring, and was out for the remainder of the season. On August 11, 2008, Dallas Buck, RHP Micah Owings, and C Wilkin Castillo were traded to the Reds (in last place in the NL Central at the time) in exchange for OF Adam Dunn. Dunn, who was tied for the major league lead with 32 home runs, was expected to provide a significant boost to an offense that has struggled to score runs for most of the season. Dunn seemed quite positive about being traded to a ballclub in first place in its division in August. azcentral.com The move was seen by some fans as a belated attempt by the D-backs to counter the trade by their division rival, the Los Angeles Dodgers, for Boston Red Sox power-hitting OF Manny Ramirez on July 31 and also to compensate for the injuries to Hudson and Byrnes, generally considered two of the more "power-hitting" Diamondbacks on a team which has relied heavily on pitching and defense in recent years. Owings, once considered an excellent pitching prospect for the Diamondbacks, struggled in the 2008 campaign with a 7.09 ERA after April 21. azcentral.com On August 31, the Diamondbacks acquired former World Series MVP David Eckstein to fill the hole at secondbase which was opened after Orlando Hudson was placed on the disabled list. Eckstein was traded from the Toronto Blue Jays for Minor League pitcher Chad Beck. They finished the season with a record of 82-80, (good for second in the NL West to the Los Angeles Dodgers). 2009 season 2009 Arizona Diamondbacks season On May 8, after going 12-17 in 29 games, the Diamondbacks let manager Bob Melvin go and hired A. J. Hinch. Pitching position players In their short history, the Diamondbacks have been known to invite position players to pitch an inning in games that have already been blown out. The first such appearance occurred on August 30 of their 2001 division-winning season, when Manager Bob Brenly decided to pitch veteran outfielder Steve Finley for an inning of relief. Although Finley pitched a shut-out, no-hit inning, he walked a batter and also hit a batter. Former managers Bob Brenly and Bob Melvin have done this twice each, and current manager A.J. Hinch once. PlayerYearIPHERHRBBHBPSOERASteve Finley20011.00001100.00Mark Grace20021.01110009.00Jeff Cirillo20071.00002010.00Augie Ojeda20071.00000000.00Josh Wilson20091.00001000.00 </center> Diamondbacks broadcasters The primary television play-by-play voice for the team's first nine seasons of play was Thom Brennaman, who also broadcasts baseball and college football games nationally for FOX Television. Brennaman was the TV announcer for the Chicago Cubs and Cincinnati Reds (along with his father Marty Brennaman) before being hired by Diamondbacks founder Jerry Colangelo in 1996, two years before the team would begin play. In October 2006, Brennaman left the Diamondbacks to call games with his father for the Reds beginning in 2007, signing a 4-year deal (his FOX duties remained unchanged). The English language flagship radio station is KTAR. Greg Schulte is the regular radio play-by-play voice, a 25-year veteran of sports radio in the Phoenix market, also well-known for his previous work on Phoenix Suns, Arizona Cardinals and Arizona State University (ASU) broadcasts. In February 2007 he agreed to a contract extension through at least the 2011 season. Jeff Munn is a backup radio play-by-play announcer; he served as the regular public address announcer at Chase Field in the early days of the franchise. He is well-known to many Phoenix area sports fans, having also served as the public address announcer for the Suns at America West Arena (now US Airways Center) in the 1990s. He is also the play-by-play radio voice for ASU women's basketball. On November 1, 2006, the team announced that the TV voice of the Milwaukee Brewers since 2002, Daron Sutton, would be hired as the Diamondbacks primary TV play-by-play voice. Sutton was signed to a five-year contract with a team option for three more years. Sutton is considered one of the best of the younger generation of baseball broadcasters. His signature chants include "lets get some runs" when the D-Backs trail in late innings. Sutton's father is Hall of Fame pitcher and current Atlanta Braves broadcaster Don Sutton. MLB.com Former Diamondback and Chicago Cub Mark Grace and former Major League knuckleball pitcher Tom Candiotti were the Diamondbacks primary color analysts for the 2006 and 2007 seasons. Former Diamondback player (and current Diamondbacks minority owner) Matt Williams also does color commentary on occasion, as does former Cardinals and NBC broadcast legend Joe Garagiola, Sr.., a longtime Phoenix-area resident and father of Joe Garagiola, Jr., the first GM of the Diamondbacks (as head of the Maricopa County Sports Authority in the early 1990s, Garagiola, Jr. was one of the primary people involved in Phoenix obtaining a Major League Baseball franchise). The Diamondbacks announced in July 2007 FSN Arizona to become exclusive TV home for the D-backs starting next season | Dbacks.com: Official Info that for the 2008 season, all regionally broadcast Diamondback TV games will be shown exclusively on FSN Arizona; and a few could possibly be shown on the national MLB on FOX telecasts. FSN Arizona is currently seen in 2.8 million households in Arizona & New Mexico. The previous flagship station, since the inaugural 1998 season, was KTVK, a popular over-the-air independent station in Phoenix. Spanish broadcasts The flagship Spanish language radio station is KSUN AM 1400 with Miguel Quintana and Arthuro Ochoa as the regular announcers. They are sometimes joined by Richard Saenz or Oscar Soria. Games are also televised in Spanish on KPHE-LP with Oscar Soria and Jerry Romo as the announcers. Season records All-time leaders Hitting Games Played—Luis Gonzalez (1999–2006) 1,194 Hits—Luis Gonzalez 1,337 At Bats—Luis Gonzalez 4,488 Runs—Luis Gonzalez 780 Doubles—Luis Gonzalez 310 Triples—Steve Finley (1999–2004) 34 Home Runs—Luis Gonzalez 224 Runs Batted In—Luis Gonzalez 774 Walks—Luis Gonzalez 650 Stolen Bases—Tony Womack 110 Batting Average—Luis Gonzalez .298 Pitching ERA—Randy Johnson (1999–2004, 2007–2008) 2.69 Wins—Randy Johnson 107 Games—Jose Valverde (2003–2007) 253 Saves—Jose Valverde 98 Innings—Randy Johnson 1446.2 Strikeouts—Randy Johnson 1,904 Complete Games—Randy Johnson 37 Shutouts—Randy Johnson 14 (Perfect Game May 18, 2004) all stats as of 10/1/07 Baseball Hall of Famers As of the 2009 Baseball Hall of Fame election, no inducted members have played or managed for the Diamondbacks. Retired numbers 42 Jackie Robinson, retired throughout all Major League Baseball Current roster Championships | colspan = 3 align = center | World Series Champions |- | width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:New York Yankees | width = 40% align = center | 2001 | width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by :Anaheim Angels |- | colspan = 3 align = center | National League Champions |- | width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:New York Mets | width = 40% align = center | 2001 | width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by :San Francisco Giants |- | colspan = 3 align = center | National League Western Division Champions |- | width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:San Diego Padres | width = 40% align = center | 2007 | width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by :Los Angeles Dodgers |- | width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:San Francisco Giants | width = 40% align = center | 2001 & 2002 | width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by :San Francisco Giants |- | width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:San Diego Padres | width = 40% align = center | 1999 | width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by:San Francisco Giants |- Minor league affiliations AAA: Reno Aces, Pacific Coast League AA: Mobile BayBears, Southern League Advanced A: Visalia Rawhide, California League A: South Bend Silver Hawks, Midwest League Short A: Yakima Bears, Northwest League Rookie: Missoula Osprey, Pioneer League References See also Diamondbacks statistical records and milestone achievements List of Arizona Diamondbacks broadcasters Managers and ownership of the Arizona Diamondbacks External links Arizona Diamondbacks game reports, analysis and commentary FutureBacks.com - Covering every level of the Arizona Diamondbacks organization DiamondbacksBullpen.org - Ongoing discussions of the Diamondbacks Arizona Diamondbacks Chat Arizona Diamondbacks coverage on The Arizona Republic/azcentral.com Arizona Diamondbacks on Twitter | Arizona_Diamondbacks |@lemmatized arizona:43 diamondback:82 professional:3 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2,360 | Gallifrey | Gallifrey is a fictional planet in the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who and is the homeworld of the Doctor and the Time Lords. It is supposed to be located in the constellation of Kasterborous, at "galactic coordinates ten-zero-eleven-zero-zero by zero-two from galactic zero centre" (Pyramids of Mars, 1975), some 250 million light years away from Earth (as stated in the 1996 Doctor Who television movie; this would put it far outside our Milky Way galaxy, which is only 80-100 thousand light years in diameter). In Terror of the Autons (1971), a Time Lord emissary says that he has travelled "29,000 light years", leading to the original assumption that the Time Lord homeworld was that distance away. However, it is never actually stated in Terror of the Autons where the Time Lord is travelling from, as compared to the explicit statement made in the 1996 television movie. During the first decade of the television series, the name of the Doctor's home planet was not revealed, although it was actually shown for the first time in The War Games (1969) during the Doctor's trial. It was finally identified by name for the first time in The Time Warrior (1973) whilst the Doctor was being interrogated by the Sontaran Commander Linx. The Third Doctor, at gun-point, informed Linx that he was aware of the Sontaran species. Linx, realising that if the Doctor were human he would have no knowledge of his species, asks, "What is your native planet?" The Doctor replies, "Gallifrey. I am a Time Lord." It is never definitively stated when the appearances of Gallifrey in the television series take place. As the planet is often reached by means of time travel, its relative present could conceivably exist anywhere in the Earth's past or future. The Three Doctors seemed to set Gallifrey's relative present in the near future (UNIT dating controversy) with its sequel Arc of Infinity setting it in the 1980s, although at least a decade had passed on Gallifrey (The Doctor's age). Alternatively, The Trial of a Time Lord (1986, specifically The Mysterious Planet and The Ultimate Foe) seems to imply that the planet's relative present is in the Earth's far future. This is also the position taken by The Doctor Who Role Playing Game released by FASA, although the information in it is not usually considered canon. Both the Virgin New Adventures and the BBC Books Doctor Who novels seem to take the stance that Gallifrey's relative present is far in the Earth's relative past. Gallifrey's position in the revived series (2005 onwards) was filled in slowly over the first three years of the series' run. In Series 1, it had been implied that it was destroyed, along with the Dalek Empire, by the Doctor during the Time War. The planet was not referred to by name until the 2006 Christmas Special and wasn't shown on screen until "The Sound of Drums". Geography A Vardan spaceship approaches Gallifrey from space (from The Invasion of Time) From space, Gallifrey is seen as a yellow-orange planet and is close enough to central space lanes for spacecraft to require clearance from Gallifreyan Space Traffic Control as they pass through its system (The Invasion of Time, 1978). The planet is surrounded by a quantum force field as well as an impenetrable force field called the transduction barrier. This prevents all outsiders (with hostile intent, or otherwise) from approaching the planet and allows the Time Lords to maintain their status of absolute neutrality. It also lets them observe the actions of the rest of the Universe without actually taking part in its affairs. The barrier was breached on one occasion by the Sontarans, when it was sabotaged from within (The Invasion of Time, 1978). The Doctor's granddaughter Susan described her home world (presumably Gallifrey, but not named as such) as having bright, silver-leafed trees and a burnt orange sky at night (The Sensorites, 1964), features that the Tenth Doctor reiterates in the episode "Gridlock" (2007). This casts an amber tint on anything outside the city, as seen in The Invasion of Time. Gallifrey's sky appeared blue and Earth-like in The Five Doctors (1983) within the isolated Death Zone, but this is likely a production oversight. This can be explained using what is stated in "The War Games" as the Second Doctor states the Time Lords can control their own environment, so the blue sky of the death zone could be an account of that. In "Gridlock", the Doctor also mentions vast mountain ranges situated on Gallifrey, "with fields of deep red grass, capped with snow". He goes on to describe how Gallifrey's second sun would "rise in the south and the mountains would shine", with the silver-leafed trees looking like "a forest on fire" in the mornings. In "The Sound of Drums", the Doctor says that Gallifrey was called the "Shining World of the Seven Systems". The Citadel of the Time Lords stands on the continent of Wild Endeavour, in the Mountains of Solace and Solitude ("The Sound of Drums"), where the Capitol is also located. Within the Capitol is the Panopticon, under which the Eye of Harmony, the nucleus of a black hole also used as the heart of the TARDIS. The Eye provides the power required for time travel (The Three Doctors, 1973; The Deadly Assassin, 1976), and all Time Lord TARDIS time machines draw their power from it (the 1996 television movie). Also situated in the Capitol is the Matrix, the vast extradimensional computer network which acts as the repository of all Time Lord knowledge as well as containing the memories of dead Time Lords (The Deadly Assassin). Outside the city lie wastelands where "Outsiders", The Doctor Who Role Playing Game released by FASA equates the Outsiders with the "Shobogans", who are briefly mentioned in the serial The Deadly Assassin. However, there is nothing in the programme itself that connects the two. The Outsiders appeared on-screen in The Invasion of Time (1978) whilst the Shobogans were linked to acts of vandalism around the Panopticon in an off-handed remark by the Castellan. Gallifreyans who have dropped out of Time Lord society, live in less technological tribal communities. The wastes of Gallifrey include the Death Zone, an area that was used as a gladiatorial arena by the first Time Lords, pitting various species kidnapped from their respective time zones against each other (although Daleks and Cybermen were considered too dangerous to use). Inside the Death Zone stands the Tomb of Rassilon, the founder of Time Lord society (The Five Doctors). Somewhere on Gallifrey is also a portal known as the Untempered Schism, a gap in the fabric of reality. Eight-year-old Gallifreyans are brought before the Schism and made to look into the Time Vortex as part of an initiation ceremony into the Time Lord Academy. According to the Doctor, some are inspired, some run away, and some are driven mad. ("The Sound of Drums"). In several spin-off novels, which are of uncertain canonicity, Gallifrey is said to have a copper moon, Pazithi Gallifreya (first named in Cat's Cradle: Time's Crucible). The novel Lungbarrow also places Karn (setting of The Brain of Morbius, 1976) in Gallifrey's solar system, along with a frozen gas giant named Polarfrey and an "astrological figure" of "Kasterborous the Fibster". History For general Time Lord history, see History of the Time Lords. On screen Few details on the history of the planet itself emerge from the original series run from 1963–1989. In "The End of the World" (2005), the Ninth Doctor states that his home planet has been destroyed in a war and that he is the last of the Time Lords. The episode also indicates that the Time Lords are remembered in the far future. Subsequently, in "Dalek" (2005), it is revealed that the last great Time War was fought between the Time Lords and the Daleks, ending in the obliteration of both sides and with only two apparent survivors; the Doctor and a lone Dalek that had somehow fallen through time and crashed on Earth. At the conclusion of that episode, that surviving Dalek self-destructs, leaving the Doctor believing that he was the sole survivor of the Time War. However, the Daleks return in "Bad Wolf"/"The Parting of the Ways" (2005), and subsequently in "Army of Ghosts"/"Doomsday" (2006), "Daleks in Manhattan"/"Evolution of the Daleks" (2007), and "The Stolen Earth"/"Journey's End" (2008), the last of these being the series 4 finale where Davros also returns. It is suggested that other Time Lords might have survived the war when the Face of Boe utters its final words to the Doctor: "Know this, Time Lord, you are not alone" ("Gridlock"). These suspicions are later borne out in "Utopia" (2007) when the Tenth Doctor discovers that the renegade Time Lord the Master has survived the Time War and has been living in human form in the year 100 trillion, at the end of the material universe, a point so far forward in time that it is believed that no Time Lord has ever travelled there. The Doctor's reference to Gallifrey in "The Runaway Bride" marks the first time the name of his homeworld has been uttered on screen since the new series began. The Doctor's revelation that he is from Gallifrey elicits terror from the Empress of the Racnoss. John Smith (the Doctor in human form) also mentions Gallifrey in "Human Nature". The planet makes its first appearance in the revived series in "The Sound of Drums", where the Citadel, enclosed in a glass dome (as described by the Doctor in "Gridlock"), is seen in flashback as the Doctor describes it. Also seen is a ceremony initiating 8-year-old Gallifreyans — in particular the Master — into the Time Lord Academy. Novels Various spin-off novels have expanded on the history and nature of Gallifrey, although not all fans consider the information in them to be canonical. In the Eighth Doctor Adventures novel The Ancestor Cell by Peter Anghelides and Stephen Cole, Gallifrey is destroyed as a result of the Eighth Doctor's desire to prevent the voodoo cult Faction Paradox from starting a war between the Time Lords and an unnamed Enemy. This also apparently (and retroactively) wipes the Time Lords from history. It is unclear what the attitude of the new Doctor Who television series is toward the information in the novels and audio plays, the latter produced by Big Finish Productions. However, a number of writers of the novels and audio plays are also writing for the new television series, and Russell T Davies refers to the comic strips, audio plays and novels in an essay describing the Time War, written for the Doctor Who Annual 2006. In the last regular Eighth Doctor novel, The Gallifrey Chronicles by Lance Parkin, it is revealed that while Gallifrey was destroyed, the Time Lords were not erased from history. However, the cataclysm sets up an event horizon in time that prevents anyone from entering Gallifrey's relative past or travelling from it to the present or future. The Time Lords also survive within the Matrix, which has been downloaded into the Eighth Doctor's mind, but their reconstruction requires a sufficiently advanced computer. At the novel's end, the question of whether or not the Time Lords will be restored remains unanswered, although if the events of the novel are to tie in with later events in the TV series it must be assumed that Gallifrey was at some point restored, only to be destroyed again during the events of the Time War. Television series executive producer Russell T Davies wrote in Doctor Who Magazine #356 that there is no connection between the War of the books and the Time War of the television series. Presumably, if the novels and the television series events are to be reconciled, at some point Gallifrey is restored, only to be destroyed again in the Time War. In the same Doctor Who Magazine column, Davies compared Gallifrey being destroyed twice with Earth's two World Wars. He also said that he was "usually happy for old and new fans to invent the Complete History of the Doctor in their heads, completely free of the production team's hot and heavy hands". Despite Davies' unequivocal statement that the two wars are distinct, Lance Parkin, in his Doctor Who chronology AHistory, suggests in a speculative essay that the two destructions of Gallifrey may be the same event seen from two different perspectives, with the Eighth Doctor present twice (and both times culpable for the planet's destruction). Notes See also Chronology of the Doctor Who universe Outpost Gallifrey, a Doctor Who fan website named for the planet External links Rassilon, Omega, and that Other guy — every fact about Gallifrey no matter how apocryphal | Gallifrey |@lemmatized gallifrey:32 fictional:1 planet:15 long:1 run:4 british:1 science:1 fiction:1 television:11 series:16 doctor:47 homeworld:3 time:58 lord:31 suppose:1 locate:2 constellation:1 kasterborous:2 galactic:2 coordinate:1 ten:1 zero:5 eleven:1 two:7 centre:1 pyramid:1 mar:1 million:1 light:3 year:7 away:3 earth:8 state:6 movie:3 would:4 put:1 far:5 outside:3 milky:1 way:2 galaxy:1 thousand:1 diameter:1 terror:3 autons:2 emissary:1 say:4 travel:5 lead:1 original:2 assumption:1 distance:1 however:5 never:2 actually:3 compare:2 explicit:1 statement:2 make:3 first:8 decade:2 name:8 home:3 reveal:3 although:6 show:2 war:16 game:4 trial:2 finally:1 identify:1 warrior:1 whilst:2 interrogate:1 sontaran:2 commander:1 linx:3 third:1 gun:1 point:4 inform:1 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2,361 | Guitar | The guitar is a musical instrument with ancient roots that is used in a wide variety of musical styles. It typically has six strings, but four, seven, eight, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen and eighteen string guitars also exist. Guitars are recognized as one of the primary instruments in flamenco, jazz, blues, country, mariachi, rock music, and many forms of pop. They can also be a solo classical instrument. Guitars may be played acoustically, where the tone is produced by vibration of the strings and modulated by the hollow body, or they may rely on an amplifier that can electronically manipulate tone. Such electric guitars were introduced in the 1930s and continue to have a profound influence on popular culture. Traditionally guitars have usually been constructed of combinations of various woods and strung with animal gut, or more recently, with either nylon or steel strings. Guitars are made and repaired by luthiers. There are many brands of guitars, but some commonly known brands are PRS, Gibson, Dean, Gretsch, Ibanez, Martin, Jackson, Schecter, and Fender. History Before the development of the electric guitar and the use of synthetic materials, a guitar was defined as being an instrument having "a long, fretted neck, flat wooden soundboard, ribs, and a flat back, most often with incurved sides". Kasha, Dr. Michael (August 1968). "A New Look at The History of the Classic Guitar". Guitar Review 30,3-12 The term is used to refer to a number of such related instruments that were developed and used across Europe in the modern era. Wade, Graham A Concise History of the Classic Guitar Mel Publications, 2001 Some types of guitars, which are themselves related to these European instruments, originated in the Americas. The ancestors of the European guitar can be traced back as much as 4000 thousand years to an Indo-European origin of stringed instruments then known in central Asia and India. For this reason guitars are distantly related to instruments such as the tanbur and setar, and the sitar. The oldest known iconographic representation of an instrument displaying the essential features of a guitar is a 3,300 year old stone carving of a Hittite bard. [A Brief History of the Guitar http://www.guyguitars.com/eng/handbook/BriefHistory.html] The modern word, guitar, was adopted into English from Spanish guitarra (German Gitarre, French Guitare), loaned from the medieval Andalusian Arabic qitara , itself derived from the Latin cithara, which in turn came from the earlier Greek word kithara, Kithara appears in the Greek New Testament four times (1 Cor. 14:7, Rev. 5:8, 14:2 and 15:2), and is usually translated into English as harp. Strong's Concordance Number: 2788 a possible descendant of Old Persian sihtar. Illustration from a Carolingian Psalter from the 9th century, showing a guitar-like plucked instrument. The guitar is descended from the Roman cithara brought by the Romans to Hispania around 40 AD, and further adapted and developed with the arrival of the four-string oud, brought by the Moors after their conquest of Iberia in the 8th century. Summerfield, Maurice J. (2003). The Classical Guitar, It's Evolution, Players and Personalities since 1800 (5th ed.) Blaydon on Tyne: Ashley Mark Publishing. ISBN 1-872-63946-1. Elsewhere in Europe, the indigenous six-string Scandinavian lut (lute), had gained in popularity in areas of Viking incursions across the continent. Often depicted in carvings c. 800 AD, the Norse hero Gunther (also known as Gunnar), played a lute with his toes as he lay dying in a snake-pit, in the legend of Siegfried. [Viking Art & Architecture http://www.angelfire.com/realm/shades/vikings/vikart.htm] By 1200 AD, the four string "guitar" had evolved into two types: the (Moorish guitar) which had a rounded back, wide fingerboard and several soundholes, and the (Latin guitar) which resembled the modern guitar with one soundhole and a narrower neck. [A Look At The History Of The Guitar http://www.thejazzfestival.net/showarticle?id=109580] The Spanish vihuela or "", a guitar-like instrument of the 15th and 16th centuries is, due to its similarities, is often considered an important influence in the development of the modern guitar. It had lute-style tuning and a guitar-like body. Its construction had as much in common with the modern guitar as with its contemporary four-course renaissance guitar. The vihuela enjoyed only a short period of popularity in Spain and Italy; the last surviving publication of music for the instrument appeared in 1576. It is not clear whether it represented a transitional form or was simply a design that combined features of the Arabic oud and the European lute. In favor of the latter view, the reshaping of the vihuela into a guitar-like form can be seen as a strategy of differentiating the European lute visually from the Moorish oud. Meanwhile, the five string renassance guitar and the baroque guitar enjoyed popularity, especially in Italy and France, and indeed, most of Europe, from the 15th to the 18th centuries. Types of guitar The guitar player (c. 1672), by Johannes Vermeer Guitars can be divided into two broad categories, acoustic and electric: Acoustic guitars An acoustic guitar is one not dependent on an external device to be heard but uses a soundboard which is a wooden piece mounted on the front of the guitar's body. The acoustic guitar is quieter than other instruments commonly found in bands and orchestras so when playing within such groups it is often externally amplified. Many acoustic guitars available today feature a variety of pickups which enable the player to amplify and modify the raw guitar sound. There are several notable subcategories within the acoustic guitar group: classical and flamenco guitars; steel string guitars, which include the flat top or "folk" guitar; twelve string guitars and the arch top guitar. The acoustic guitar group also includes unamplified guitars designed to play in different registers such as the acoustic bass guitar which has a similar tuning to that of the electric bass guitar. Renaissance and Baroque guitars These are the gracile ancestors of the modern classical guitar. They are substantially smaller and more delicate than the classical guitar, and generate a much quieter sound. The strings are paired in courses as in a modern 12 string guitar, but they only have four or five courses of strings rather than six. They were more often used as rhythm instruments in ensembles than as solo instruments, and can often be seen in that role in early music performances. (Gaspar Sanz' Instrucción de Música sobre la Guitarra Española of 1674 constitutes the majority of the surviving solo corpus for the era.) Renaissance and Baroque guitars are easily distinguished because the Renaissance guitar is very plain and the Baroque guitar is very ornate, with ivory or wood inlays all over the neck and body, and a paper-cutout inverted "wedding cake" inside the hole. Classical guitars These are typically strung with nylon strings, played in a seated position and are used to play a diversity of musical styles including classical music. The classical guitar's wide, flat neck allows the musician to play scales, arpeggios and certain chord forms more easily and with less adjacent string interference than on other styles of guitar. Flamenco guitars are very similar in construction, but are associated with a more percussive tone. In Mexico, the popular mariachi band includes a range of guitars, from the tiny requinto to the guitarron, a guitar larger than a cello, which is tuned in the bass register. In Colombia, the traditional quartet includes a range of instruments too, from the small bandola (sometimes known as the Deleuze-Guattari, for use when traveling or in confined rooms or spaces), to the slightly larger tiple, to the full sized classical guitar. The requinto also appears in other Latin-American countries as a complementary member of the guitar family, with its smaller size and scale, permitting more projection for the playing of single-lined melodies. Modern dimensions of the classical instrument were established by Antonio Torres Jurado (1817-1892). In recent years, the series of guitars used by the Niibori Guitar orchestra have gained some currency, namely: Sopranino guitar (an octave and a fifth higher than normal); sometimes known as the piccolo guitar Soprano guitar (an octave higher than normal) Alto guitar (a 5th higher than normal) Prime (ordinary classical) guitar Niibori bass guitar (a 4th lower than normal); Niibori simply calls this the "bass guitar", but this assigns a different meaning to the term than other parts of the community use, as his is only a 4th lower, and has 6 strings Contrabass guitar (an octave lower than normal) The modern Ten-string guitar The Modern/Yepes 10-string guitar (a classical guitar) adds four strings (resonators) tuned in such a way that they (along with the other three bass strings) can resonate in unison with any of the 12 chromatic notes that can occur on the higher strings; the idea behind this being an attempt at enhancing and balancing sonority. Portuguese guitar In spite of the name, it is not a guitar, but rather a cittern. Flat-top (steel-string) guitars Similar to the classical guitar, however, within the varied sizes of the steel-stringed guitar the body size is usually significantly larger than a classical guitar and it has a narrower, reinforced neck and stronger structural design. This allows the instrument to withstand the additional tension of steel strings. The steel strings produce a brighter tone, and according to many players, a louder sound. The acoustic guitar is used in many kinds of music including folk, country, bluegrass, pop, jazz and blues. Many variations are possible from the roughly classical-sized OO and Parlour to the large Dreadnought and Jumbo. Archtop guitars These are steel string instruments in which the top (and often the back) of the instrument are carved in a curved rather than a flat shape. Lloyd Loar of the Gibson Guitar Corporation introduced the violin-inspired f-hole design now usually associated with archtop guitars, after designing a style of mandolin of the same type. The typical archtop guitar has a large, deep, hollow body whose form is much like that of a mandolin or violin family instrument. Nowadays, most archtops are equipped with magnetic pickups and are therefore both acoustic and electric. F-hole archtop guitars were immediately adopted upon their release by both jazz and country musicians and have remained particularly popular in jazz music, usually with flatwound strings. Selmer-Maccaferri guitars are usually played by those who follow the style of Django Reinhardt. It is an unusual-looking instrument, distinguished by a fairly large body with squarish bouts, and either a "D"-shaped or longitudinal oval soundhole. The strings are gathered at the tail like an archtop guitar, but the top is flatter. It also has a wide fingerboard and slotted head like a nylon-string guitar. The loud volume and penetrating tone make it suitable for single-note soloing and it is frequently employed as a lead instrument in gypsy swing. Ellis 8 string baritone tricone resonator guitar. Resonator, resophonic or Dobro guitars Similar to the flat top guitar in appearance, the sound of the resonator guitar is produced by a metal resonator mounted in the middle of the top. The physical principle of the guitar is therefore similar to the banjo. The original purpose of the resonator was to amplify the sound of the guitar. This purpose has been largely superseded by electrical amplification, but the resonator guitar is still played because of its distinctive sound. Resonator guitars may have either one resonator cone or three resonator cones. Three-cone resonators have two cones on the left above one another and one cone immediately to the right. The method of transmitting sound resonance to the cone is either a "biscuit" bridge, made of a small piece of hardwood, or a "spider" bridge, made of metal and larger in size. Three-cone resonators always use a specialized metal spider bridge. The type of resonator guitar with a neck with a square cross-section – called "square neck" – is usually played face up, on the lap of the seated player, and often with a metal or glass slide. The round neck resonator guitars are normally played in the same fashion as other guitars, although slides are also often used, especially in blues. 12 string guitars The twelve string guitar usually has steel strings and is widely used in folk music, blues and rock and roll. Rather than having only six strings, the 12-string guitar has six courses made up of two strings each, like a mandolin or lute. The highest two courses are tuned in unison, while the others are tuned in octaves. The 12-string guitar is also made in electric forms. Russian guitars These are seven string acoustic guitars which were the norm for Russian guitarists throughout the 19th and well into the 20th centuries. The guitar is traditionally tuned to an open G major tuning. Acoustic bass guitars Have steel strings or gut strings and often the same tuning as an electric bass guitar. Tenor guitars A number of classical guitarists call the Niibori prime guitar a "Tenor Guitar" on the grounds that it sits in pitch between the alto and the bass. Elsewhere the name is taken for a 4-string guitar with a scale length of 23" (585 mm) – about the same as a Terz Guitar. The tenor guitar is tuned in fifths, C G D A, as is the tenor banjo and the cello. It is generally accepted that the tenor guitar was created to allow a tenor banjo player to follow the fashion as it evolved from Dixieland Jazz towards the more progressive Jazz that featured guitar. It allows a tenor banjo player to provide a guitar-based rhythm section with little to learn. A small minority of players (such as Nick Reynolds of the Kingston Trio) close tuned the instrument to D G B E to produce a deep instrument that could be played with the 4-note chord shapes found on the top 4 strings of the guitar or ukulele. The deep pitch warrants the wide-spaced chords that the banjo tuning permits, and the close tuned tenor does not have the same full, clear sound. Harp guitars Harp Guitars are difficult to classify as there are many variations within this type of guitar. They are typically rare and uncommon in the popular music scene. Most consist of a regular guitar, plus additional 'harp' strings strung above the six normal strings. The instrument is usually acoustic and the harp strings are usually tuned to lower notes than the guitar strings, for an added bass range. Normally there is neither fingerboard nor frets behind the harp strings. Some harp guitars also feature much higher pitch strings strung below the traditional guitar strings. The number of harp strings varies greatly, depending on the type of guitar and also the player's personal preference (as they have often been made to the player's specification). http://www.oddmusic.com/gallery/om23350.html The Pikasso guitar; 4 necks, 2 sound holes, 42 strings] and also the Oracle Harp Sympitar; 24 strings (with 12 sympathetic strings protruding through the neck) are modern examples. Extended-range guitars For well over a century guitars featuring seven, eight, nine, ten or more strings have been used by a minority of guitarists as a means of increasing the range of pitch available to the player. Usually, it is bass strings that are added. Classical guitars with an extended range are useful for playing lute repertoire, some of which was written for lutes with more than six courses. Guitar battente The battente is smaller than a classical guitar, usually played with four or five metal strings. It is mainly used in Calabria (a region in southern Italy) to accompany the voice. This Fender Stratocaster has features common to many electric guitars: multiple pickups, a whammy bar, volume and tone knobs. Electric guitars Electric guitars can have solid, semi-hollow, or hollow bodies, and produce little sound without amplification. Electromagnetic pickups convert the vibration of the steel strings into electrical signals, which are fed to an amplifier through a cable or radio transmitter. The sound is frequently modified by other electronic devices or the natural distortion of valves (vacuum tubes) in the amplifier. There are two main types of pickup, single and double coil (or humbucker), each of which can be passive or active. The electric guitar is used extensively in jazz, blues, and rock and roll, and was commercialized by Gibson in collaboration with Les Paul, and independently by Leo Fender of Fender Music. The lower fretboard action (the height of the strings from the fingerboard), lighter (thinner) strings, and its electrical amplification lend the electric guitar to some techniques which are less frequently used on acoustic guitars. These include tapping, extensive use of legato through pull-offs and hammer-ons (also known as slurs), pinch harmonics, volume swells, and use of a tremolo arm or effects pedals. Seven-strings were popularized in the 1980s and 1990s in part due to the release of the Ibanez Universe guitar, endorsed by Steve Vai. Other artists go a step further, by using an 8 string guitar with two extra low strings. Although the most common 7-string has a low B string, Roger McGuinn (of The Byrds and Rickenbacker) uses an octave G string paired with the regular G string as on a 12 string guitar, allowing him to incorporate chiming 12 string elements in standard 6 string playing. in 1982 Uli Jon Roth developed the "Sky Guitar", with a vastly extended amount of frets, which was the first guitar to venture into the upper registers of the violin. Roth's 7-string "Mighty Wing" guitar features an altogether 6-octave range. The electric bass guitar is similar in tuning to the traditional double bass viol. Hybrids of acoustic and electric guitars are also common. There are also more exotic varieties, such as guitars with two, three, The Official Steve Vai Website - www.vai.com > The Machines > Steve's Guitars or rarely four necks, all manner of alternate string arrangements, fretless fingerboards (used almost exclusively on bass guitars, meant to emulate the sound of a stand-up bass), 5.1 surround guitar, and such. Some electric guitar and electric bass guitar models feature Piezoelectric pickups, which function as transducers to provide a sound closer to that of an acoustic guitar with the flip of a switch or knob, rather than switching guitars. Guitar construction and components Headstock Nut Machine heads (or pegheads, tuning keys, tuning machines, tuners) Frets Truss rod Inlays Neck Heel (acoustic) – Neckjoint (electric) Body Pickups Electronics Bridge Pickguard Back Soundboard (top) Body sides (ribs) Sound hole, with Rosette inlay Strings Saddle Fretboard (or Fingerboard) General Guitars can be constructed to meet the demands of both left and right-handed players. Traditionally the dominant hand is assigned the task of plucking or strumming the strings. For the majority of people this entails using the right hand. This is because musical expression (dynamics, tonal expression and colour etc) is largely determined by the plucking hand, while the fretting hand is assigned the lesser mechanical task of depressing and gripping the strings. This is similar to the convention of the violin family of instruments where the right hand controls the bow. A minority, however, believe that left-handed people should learn to play guitars strung in the manner used by right-handed people, simply to standardise the instrument. Headstock The headstock is located at the end of the guitar neck furthest from the body. It is fitted with machine heads that adjust the tension of the strings, which in turn affects the pitch. Traditional tuner layout is "3+3" in which each side of the headstock has three tuners (such as on Gibson Les Pauls). In this layout, the headstocks are commonly symmetrical. Many guitars feature other layouts as well, including six-in-line (featured on Fender Stratocasters) tuners or even "4+2" (Ernie Ball Music Man). However, some guitars (such as Steinbergers) do not have headstocks at all, in which case the tuning machines are located elsewhere, either on the body or the bridge. Nut The nut is a small strip of bone, plastic, brass, corian, graphite, stainless steel, or other medium-hard material, at the joint where the headstock meets the fretboard. Its grooves guide the strings onto the fretboard, giving consistent lateral string placement. It is one of the endpoints of the strings' vibrating length. It must be accurately cut, or it can contribute to tuning problems due to string slippage, and/or string buzz. Fretboard Also called the fingerboard, the fretboard is a piece of wood embedded with metal frets that comprises the top of the neck. It is flat on classical guitars and slightly curved crosswise on acoustic and electric guitars. The curvature of the fretboard is measured by the fretboard radius, which is the radius of a hypothetical circle of which the fretboard's surface constitutes a segment. The smaller the fretboard radius, the more noticeably curved the fretboard is. Most modern guitars feature a 12" neck radius, while older guitars from the 1960s and 1970s usually feature a 6-8" neck radius. Pinching a string against the fretboard effectively shortens the vibrating length of the string, producing a higher pitch. Fretboards are most commonly made of rosewood, ebony, maple, and sometimes manufactured or composite materials such as HPL or resin. See below on section "Neck" for the importance of the length of the fretboard in connection to other dimensions of the guitar. Frets Frets are metal strips (usually nickel alloy or stainless steel) embedded along the fretboard and located at exact points that divide the scale length in accordance with a specific mathematical formula. Pressing a string against a fret determines the strings' vibrating length and therefore its resultant pitch. The pitch of each consecutive fret is defined at a half-step interval on the chromatic scale. Standard classical guitars have 19 frets and electric guitars between 21 to 24 frets (though Ibanez has issued guitars with as many as 36 frets.) Frets are laid out to a mathematical ratio that results in equal tempered division of the octave. The ratio of the spacing of two consecutive frets is the twelfth root of two. The twelfth fret divides the scale length in two exact halves and the 24th fret position divides the scale length in half yet again. Every twelve frets represents one octave. In practice, luthiers determine fret positions using the constant 17.817, which is derived from the twelfth root of two (21/12). The scale length divided by this value yields the distance from the nut to the first fret. That distance is subtracted from the scale length and the result is divided in two sections by the constant to yield the distance from the first fret to the second fret. Positions for the remainder of the frets are calculated in like manner. Actual fret spacing does not use this exact value; the fret spacing on the fretboard was also done by trial and error (testing) method over the ages. There are several different fret gauges, which can be fitted according to player preference. Among these are "jumbo" frets, which have much thicker gauge, allowing for use of a slight vibrato technique from pushing the string down harder and softer. "Scalloped" fretboards, where the wood of the fretboard itself is "scooped out" between the frets allows a dramatic vibrato effect. Fine frets, much flatter, allow a very low string-action but require other conditions such as curvature of the neck to be well maintained in order to prevent buzz. On steel-string guitars, frets are eventually bound to wear down; when this happens, frets can be replaced or, to a certain extent, leveled, polished, recrowned, or reshaped as required. Truss rod The truss rod is a metal rod that runs along the inside of the neck. It is used to correct changes to the neck's curvature caused by the neck timbers aging, changes in humidity or to compensate for changes in the tension of strings. The tension of the rod and neck assembly is adjusted by a hex nut or an allen-key bolt on the rod, usually located either at the headstock, sometimes under a cover, or just inside the body of the guitar underneath the fretboard and accessible through the sound hole. Some truss rods can only be accessed by removing the neck. The truss rod counteracts the immense amount of tension the strings place on the neck, bringing the neck back to a straighter position. Turning the truss rod clockwise will tighten it, counteracting the tension of the strings and straightening the neck or creating a backward bow. Turning the truss rod counter-clockwise will loosen it, allowing string tension to act on the neck and creating a forward bow. Adjusting the truss rod affects the intonation of a guitar as well as the height of the strings from the fingerboard, called the action. Some truss rod systems, called "double action" truss systems, tighten both ways, allowing the neck to be pushed both forward and backward (standard truss rods can only be released to a point beyond which the neck will no longer be compressed and pulled backward). Classical guitars do not require truss rods as their nylon strings exert a lower tensile force with lesser potential to cause structural problems. However their necks are often reinforced with a strip of harder wood, such as an ebony strip running down the back of a cedar neck. There is no tension adjustment on this form of reinforcement. Inlays Inlays are visual elements set into the exterior surface of a guitar. The typical locations for inlay are on the fretboard, headstock, and on acoustic guitars around the soundhole, known as the rosette. Inlays range from simple plastic dots on the fretboard to intricate works of art covering the entire exterior surface of a guitar (front and back). Some guitar players have used LEDs in the fretboard to produce a unique lighting effects onstage. Fretboard inlays are most commonly shaped like dots, diamond shapes, parallelograms, or large blocks in between the frets. Dots are usually inlaid into the upper edge of the fretboard in the same positions, small enough to be visible only to the player. These usually appear on the odd numbered frets, but also on the 12th fret (the one octave mark) instead of the 11th and 13th frets. Some older or high-end instruments have inlays made of mother of pearl, abalone, ivory, coloured wood or other exotic materials and designs. Simpler inlays are often made of plastic or painted. High-end classical guitars seldom have fretboard inlays as a well trained player is expected to know his or her way around the instrument. In addition to fretboard inlay, the headstock and soundhole surround are also frequently inlaid. The manufacturer's logo or a small design is often inlaid into the headstock. Rosette designs vary from simple concentric circles to delicate fretwork mimicking the historic rosette of lutes. Bindings that edge the finger and sound boards are sometimes inlaid. Some instruments have a filler strip running down the length and behind the neck, used for strength and/or to fill the cavity through which the trussrod was installed in the neck. Elaborate inlays are a decorative feature of many limited edition, high-end and custom-made guitars. Guitar manufacturers often release such guitars to celebrate significant or historic milestones. Neck A guitar's frets, fretboard, tuners, headstock, and truss rod, all attached to a long wooden extension, collectively constitute its neck. The wood used to make the fretboard will usually differ from the wood in the rest of the neck. The bending stress on the neck is considerable, particularly when heavier gauge strings are used (see Tuning), and the ability of the neck to resist bending (see Truss rod) is important to the guitar's ability to hold a constant pitch during tuning or when strings are fretted. The rigidity of the neck with respect to the body of the guitar is one determinant of a good instrument versus a poor one. The shape of the neck can also vary, from a gentle "C" curve to a more pronounced "V" curve. There are many different types of neck profiles available, giving the guitarist many options. Some aspects to consider in a guitar neck may be the overall width of the fingerboard, scale (distance between the frets), the neck wood, the type of neck construction (for example, the neck may be glued in or bolted on), and the shape (profile) of the back of the neck. Other type of material used to make guitar necks are graphite (Steinberger guitars), aluminium (Kramer Guitars, Travis Bean and Veleno guitars), or carbon fiber (Modulus Guitars and ThreeGuitars). Double neck electric guitars have two necks, allowing the musician to quickly switch between guitar sounds. Neck joint or 'Heel' This is the point at which the neck is either bolted or glued to the body of the guitar. Almost all acoustic guitars, with the primary exception of Taylors, have glued (otherwise known as set) necks, while electric guitars are constructed using both types. Commonly used set neck joints include mortise and tenon joints (such as those used by CF Martin & Co. guitars), dovetail joints (also used by CF Martin on the D28 and similar models) and Spanish heel neck joints which are named after the shoe they resemble and commonly found in classical guitars. All three types offer stability. Bolt-on necks, though they are historically associated with cheaper instruments, do offer greater flexibility in the guitar's set-up, and allow easier access for neck joint maintenance and repairs. Another type of neck, only available for solid body electric guitars, is the neck-through-body construction. These are designed so that everything from the machine heads down to the bridge are located on the same piece of wood. The sides (also known as wings) of the guitar are then glued to this central piece. Some luthiers prefer this method of construction as they claim it allows better sustain of each note. Some instruments may not have a neck joint at all, having the neck and sides built as one piece and the body built around it. Strings Modern guitar strings are constructed of metal, polymers, or animal or plant product materials. Instruments utilising "steel" strings may have strings made of alloys incorporating steel, nickel or phosphor bronze. Classical and flamenco instruments historically used gut strings, but these have been superseded by polymer materials, such as nylon and fluorocarbon materials. Bass strings for both instruments are wound rather than monofilament. Body (acoustic guitar) In acoustic guitars, string vibration is transmitted through the bridge and saddle to the body via sound board. The sound board is typically made of tone woods such as spruce or cedar. Timbers for tone woods are chosen for both strength and ability to transfer mechanical energy from the strings to the air within the guitar body. Sound is further shaped by the characteristics of the guitar body's resonant cavity. In electric guitars, transducers known as pickups convert string vibration to an electric signal, which in turn is amplified and fed to speakers, which vibrate the air to produce the sounds we hear. Nevertheless, the body of the electric guitar still performs a role in shaping the resultant tonal signature. In an acoustic instrument, the body of the guitar is a major determinant of the overall sound quality. The guitar top, or soundboard, is a finely crafted and engineered element made of tonewoods such as spruce and red cedar. This thin piece of wood, often only 2 or 3 mm thick, is strengthened by differing types of internal bracing. The top is considered by many luthiers to be the dominant factor in determining the sound quality. The majority of the instrument's sound is heard through the vibration of the guitar top as the energy of the vibrating strings is transferred to it. Body size, shape and style has changed over time. 19th century guitars, now known as salon guitars, were smaller than modern instruments. Differing patterns of internal bracing have been used over time by luthiers. Torres, Hauser, Ramirez, Fleta, and C.F. Martin were among the most influential designers of their time. Bracing not only strengthens the top against potential collapse due to the stress exerted by the tensioned strings, but also affects the resonance characteristics of the top. The back and sides are made out of a variety of timbers such as mahogany, Indian rosewood and highly regarded Brazilian rosewood (Dalbergia nigra). Each one is primarily chosen for their aesthetic effect and can be decorated with inlays and purfling. The body of an acoustic guitar has a sound hole through which sound is projected. The sound hole is usually a round hole in the top of the guitar under the strings. Air inside the body vibrates as the guitar top and body is vibrated by the strings, and the response of the air cavity at different frequencies is characterised, like the rest of the guitar body, by a number of resonance modes at which it responds more strongly. Instruments with larger areas for the guitar top were introduced by Martin in an attempt to create louder volume levels. The popularity of the larger "dreadnought" body size amongst acoustic performers is related to the greater sound volume produced. Body (electric guitar) Most electric guitar bodies are made of wood and include a plastic pick guard. Boards wide enough to use as a solid body are very expensive due to the worldwide depletion of hardwood stock since the 70's, so the wood is rarely one solid piece. Most bodies are made of two pieces of wood with some of them including a seam running down the centre line of the body. The most common woods used for electric guitar body construction include maple, basswood, ash, poplar, alder, and mahogany. Many bodies will consist of good sounding but inexpensive woods, like ash, with a "top", or thin layer of another, more attractive wood (such as maple with a natural "flame" pattern) glued to the top of the basic wood. Guitars constructed like this are often called "flame tops". The body is usually carved or routed to accept the other elements, such as the bridge, pickup, neck, and other electronic components. Most electrics have a polyurethane or nitrocellulose lacquer finish. Other alternative materials to wood, are used in guitar body construction. Some of these include carbon composites, plastic material (such as polycarbonate) and aluminium alloys. Pickups Pickups are transducers attached to a guitar that detect (or "pick up") string vibrations and convert the mechanical energy of the string into electrical energy. The resultant electrical signal can then be electronically amplified. The most common type of pickup is electromagnetic in design. These contain magnets that are tightly wrapped in a coil, or coils, of copper wire. Such pickups are usually placed right underneath the guitar strings. Electromagnetic pickups work on the same principles and in a similar manner to an electrical generator. The vibration of the strings causes a small voltage to be created in the coils surrounding the magnets; this signal voltage is later amplified. Traditional electromagnetic pickups are either single-coil or double-coil. Single-coil pickups are susceptible to noise induced from electric fields, usually mains-frequency (60 or 50 hertz) hum. The introduction of the double-coil humbucker in the mid-1950s did away with this problem through the use of two coils, one of which is wired in a reverse polarity orientation. The types and models of pickups used can greatly affect the tone of the guitar. Typically, humbuckers, which are two magnet–coil assemblies attached to each other are traditionally associated with a heavier sound. Single-coil pickups, one magnet wrapped in copper wire, are used by guitarists seeking a brighter, twangier sound with greater dynamic range. Modern pickups are tailored to the sound desired. A commonly applied approximation used in selection of a pickup is that less wire (lower DC resistance) = brighter sound, more wire = "fat" tone. Other options include specialized switching that produces coil-splitting, in/out of phase and other effects. Guitar circuits are either active, needing a battery to power their circuit, or, as in most cases, equipped with a passive circuit. Fender Stratocaster type guitars generally utilize three single-coil pickups, while most Gibson Les Paul types use humbucker pickups. Piezoelectric, or piezo, pickups represent another class of pickup. These employ piezoelectricity to generate the musical signal and are popular in hybrid electro-acoustic guitars. A crystal is located under each string, usually in the saddle. When the string vibrates, the shape of the crystal is distorted, and the stresses associated with this change produce tiny voltages across the crystal that can be amplified and manipulated. Some piezo-equipped guitars use what is known as a hexaphonic pickup. "Hex" is a prefix meaning six. In a hexaphonic pickup separate outputs are obtained from discrete piezoelectric pickups for each of the six strings. This arrangement allows the signal to be easily modified by on-board modelling electronics, as in the Line 6 Variax brand of electric guitars; the guitars allow for a variety of different sounds to be obtained by digitally manipulating the signal. This allows a guitar to mimic many vintage models of guitar, as well as output alternate tunings without the need to adjust the strings. Another use for hexaphonic pickups is to send the output signals to a MIDI interpretation device, which determines the note pitch, duration, attack and decay characteristics and so forth. The MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) interpreter then sends the note information to a sound bank device. The resulting sound can closely mimic numerous types of instruments. Electronics On guitars that have them, these components and the wires that connect them allow the player to control some aspects of the sound like volume or tone. These at their simplest consist of passive components such as potentiometers and capacitors, but may also include specialized integrated circuits or other active components requiring batteries for power, for preamplification and signal processing, or even for assistance in tuning. In many cases the electronics have some sort of shielding to prevent pickup of external interference and noise. Lining, Binding, and Purfling The top, back and ribs of an acoustic guitar body are very thin (1-2 mm), so a flexible piece of wood called lining is glued into the corners where the rib meets the top and back. This interior reinforcement provides 5 to 20 mm of solid gluing area for these corner joints. Solid linings are often used in classical guitars, while kerfed lining is most often found in steel string acoustics. Kerfed lining is also called kerfing (because it is scored, or kerfed to allow it to bend with the shape of the rib). During final construction, a small section of the outside corners is carved or routed out and then filled with binding material on the outside corners and decorative strips of material next to the binding, which are called purfling. This binding serves to seal off the endgrain of the top and back. Purfling can also appear on the back of an acoustic guitar, marking the edge joints of the two or three sections of the back. Binding and purfling materials are generally made of either wood or plastic. Bridge The main purpose of the bridge on an acoustic guitar is to transfer the vibration from the strings to the soundboard, which vibrates the air inside of the guitar, thereby amplifying the sound produced by the strings. On both electric and acoustic guitars, the bridge holds the strings in place on the body. There are many varied bridge designs. There may be some mechanism for raising or lowering the bridge to adjust the distance between the strings and the fretboard (action), and/or fine-tuning the intonation of the instrument. Some are spring-loaded and feature a "whammy bar", a removable arm which allows the player to modulate the pitch moving the bridge up and down. The whammy bar is sometimes also referred to as a "tremolo bar" (see Tremolo for further discussion of this term – the effect of rapidly changing pitch produced by a whammy bar is more correctly called "vibrato"). Some bridges also allow for alternate tunings at the touch of a button. On almost all modern electric guitars, the bridge is adjustable for each string so that intonation stays correct up and down the neck. If the open string is in tune but sharp or flat when frets are pressed, the bridge can be adjusted with a screwdriver or hex key to remedy the problem. In general, flat notes are corrected by moving the bridge forward and sharp notes by moving it backwards. On an instrument correctly adjusted for intonation, the actual length of each string from the nut to the bridge saddle will be slightly but measurably longer than the scale length of the instrument. This additional length is called compensation, which flattens all notes a bit to compensate for the sharping of all fretted notes caused by stretching the string during fretting. Pickguard Also known as a scratchplate. This is usually a piece of laminated plastic or other material that protects the finish of the top of the guitar from damage due to the use of a plectrum or fingernails. Electric guitars sometimes mount pickups and electronics on the pickguard. It is a common feature on steel-string acoustic guitars. Vigorous performance styles such as flamenco, which can involve the use of the guitar as a percussion instrument, call for a scratchplate to be fitted to nylon-string instruments. Tremolo arm Many electric guitars are fitted with a vibrato and pitch bend device known as a "tremolo bar (or arm)", "sissy bar", "wang bar", "slam handle", "whammy handle", and "whammy bar". The latter two terms led stompbox manufacturers to use the term 'whammy' in coming up with a pitch raising effect introduced by popular guitar effects pedal brand "Digitech". The tremolo arm is common enough that there is a technical term, hard tail, for a guitar without one. Leo Fender, who did much to create the electric guitar, also created much confusion over the meaning of the terms "tremolo" and "vibrato" by the naming the "tremolo" unit on many of his guitars and also the "vibrato" unit on his "Vibrolux" amps. In general, vibrato is a variation in pitch, whereas tremolo is a variation in volume, so the tremolo bar is actually a vibrato bar and the "Vibrolux" amps actually had a tremolo effect. However, following Fender's example, electric guitarists traditionally reverse these meanings when speaking of hardware devices and the effects they produce. See vibrato unit for a more detailed discussion, and tremolo arm for more of the history. Another type of pitch bender is the B-Bender, a spring and lever device mounted in an internal cavity of a solid body electric, guitar that allows the guitarist to bend just the B string of the guitar using a lever connected to the strap handle of the guitar. The resulting pitch bend is evocative of the sound of the pedal steel guitar. Guitar Strap Strip of fabric with a leather or synthetic leather piece on each end. Made to hold a guitar via the shoulders, at an adjustable length to suit the position favoured by the guitarist. Self-tuning guitars Self-tuning guitars are computerized guitars programmed to tune themselves. The Gibson Robot guitar, released in 2007, is often mistaken as the first of this kind, but was preceded by the Transperformance system by at least 20 years. Gibson is currently working on a new self-tuning model called the Dark Fire. http://www.gibson.com/Products/DarkFire.aspx Tuning The guitar is a transposing instrument. Its pitch sounds one octave lower than it is notated on a score. A variety of different tunings may be used. The most common tuning, known as "Standard Tuning," has the strings tuned from a low E, to a high E, traversing a two octave range – EADGBE. The pitches are as follows: String Scientific pitch Helmholtz pitch Interval from middle C Frequency first E4 e' major third above 329.63 Hz second B3 b minor second below 246.94 Hz third G3 g perfect fourth below 196.00 Hz fourth D3 d minor seventh below 146.83 Hz fifth A2 A minor tenth below 110 Hz sixth E2 E minor thirteenth below 82.41 Hz The table below shows pitch names found over the six strings of a guitar in standard tuning, from the nut (zero), to the twelfth fret. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 E F F♯ G A♭ A B♭ B C C♯ D E♭ E B C C♯ D E♭ E F F♯ G A♭ A B♭ B G A♭ A B♭ B C C♯ D E♭ E F F♯ G D E♭ E F F♯ G A♭ A B♭ B C C♯ D A B♭ B C C♯ D E♭ E F F♯ G A♭ A E F F♯ G A♭ A B♭ B C C♯ D E♭ E A guitar using this tuning can tune to itself using the fact, with a single exception, that the 5th fret on one string is the same note as the next open string; that is, a 5th-fret note on the sixth string is the same note as the open fifth string. The exception is the interval between the second and third strings, in which the 4th-fret note on the third string is equivalent to the open second string. Standard tuning has evolved to provide a good compromise between simple fingering for many chords and the ability to play common scales with minimal left hand movement. Uniquely, the guitar's tuning allows for repeatable patterns which also facilitates the ease in which common scales can be played. There are also a variety of commonly used alternate tunings – most of which are open tunings that create entire chord voicings without fretting any strings. Many open tunings, where all of the strings are tuned to a similar note or chord, are popular for slide guitar playing. Alternate tunings are used for two main reasons: the ease of playing and the variation in tone that can be achieved. Many guitarists use a long established, centuries-old tuning variation where the lowest string is 'dropped' down a whole tone. Known as Drop-D (or dropped D) tuning it is, from low to high, DADGBE. This allows for open string tonic and dominant basses in the keys of D and D minor. It also enables simple fifths (powerchords) to be more easily played. Eddie Van Halen sometimes uses a device known as a 'D Tuna,' the patent for which he owns. It is a small lever, attached to the fine tuner of the 6th string on a Floyd Rose tremolo, which allows him to easily drop that string's tuning to a D. Many contemporary rock bands detune all strings by several semi-tones, making, for example, Drop-C or Drop-B tunings, However this terminology is inconsistent with that of "drop-D" as "drop-D" refers to dropping a single string to the named pitch. Often these new tunings are also simply referred to as the "Standard" of the note in question e.g. – "D Standard" (DGcfad'). Some guitarists tune in straight fourths, avoiding the major third between the third and second strings. While this makes playing major and minor triads slightly more difficult, it facilitated playing chords with more complicated extended structures. One proponent of the straight fourth tuning (EADGCF) is Stanley Jordan. As with all stringed instruments a large number of scordatura are possible on the guitar. A common form of scordatura involves tuning the 3rd string to F to mimic the standard tuning of the lute, especially when playing renaissance repertoire originally written for the lute. Guitar accessories Though a guitar may be played on its own, there are a variety of common accessories used for holding and playing the guitar. Capotasto A capo (short for capotasto) is used to change the pitch of open strings. Capos are clipped onto the fret board with the aid of spring tension, or in some models, elastic tension. To raise the guitar's pitch by one semitone, the player would clip the capo onto the fret board just below the first fret. Their use allows a player to play in different keys without having to change the chord formations they use. Because of the ease with which they allow guitar players to change keys, they are sometimes referred to as "cheaters" or the "hillbilly crutch." Classical performers are known to use them to enable modern instruments to match the pitch of historical instruments such as the renaissance lute. Slides A slide, (neck of a bottle, knife blade or round metal bar) used in blues and rock to create a glissando or 'Hawaiian' effect. The necks of bottles were often used in blues and country music. Modern slides are constructed of glass, plastic, ceramic, chrome, brass or steel, depending on the weight and tone desired. An instrument that is played exclusively in this manner, (using a metal bar) is called a steel guitar or pedal steel. Slide playing to this day is very popular in blues music and country music. Some slide players use a so called Dobro guitar. Some performers that have become famous for playing slide are Robert Johnson, Elmore James, Ry Cooder, George Harrison, Bonnie Raitt, Derek Trucks, Warren Haynes, Duane Allman, Muddy Waters and Rory Gallagher. Plectrum A variety of guitar picksA "guitar pick" or "plectrum" is a small piece of hard material which is generally held between the thumb and first finger of the picking hand and is used to "pick" the strings. Though most classical players pick solely with their finger nails, the "pick" is often used for electric and some acoustic guitars. Though today they are mainly plastic, variations do exist, such as bone, wood, steel or tortoise shell. Tortoise shell was the most commonly used material in the early days of pick making but as tortoises became more and more endangered, the practice of using their shells for picks or anything else was banned. Tortoise shell picks are often coveted for a supposedly superior tone and ease of use. Picks come in many shapes and sizes. Picks vary from the small jazz pick to the large bass pick. The thickness of the pick often determines its use. A thinner pick (between .2 and .5 mm) is usually used for strumming or rhythm playing, whereas thicker picks (between .7 and 1.5+ mm) are usually used for single-note lines or lead playing. The distinctive guitar sound of Billy Gibbons is attributed to using a quarter or peso as a pick. Similarly, Brian May is known to use a sixpence coin as a pick. David Persons is known for using old credit cards, cut to the correct size, as plectrum. Thumb picks and finger picks that attach to the finger tips are sometimes employed in finger-picking styles. Notes See also Classical guitar List of guitarists Electric guitar Steel-string acoustic guitar Fretless guitar List of guitar manufacturers List of compositions for guitar Luthier 3rd Bridge Guitar solo Guitar harmonics Guitar effects Guitar amplifier Double-neck guitjo Prepared guitar Tablature Tonewood Stringed instrument tunings External links The Guitar Family Tree Instruments In Depth: The Guitar An online feature from Bloomingdale School of Music (October, 2007) Stalking the Oldest Six-String Guitar Guitar physics International Guitar Research Archive The first rock guitars allGuitarists.com – Web forum and online magazine about guitar. Guitar Albums Collection - World of Instrumental Music http://www.guitar-insight.com - Guitar Strap Sample Images Fretbase - An Online Guitar Encyclopedia The Guitar, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art featuring many historic guitars from the Museum's collection be-x-old:Гітара | Guitar |@lemmatized guitar:307 musical:6 instrument:55 ancient:1 root:3 use:82 wide:6 variety:9 style:9 typically:5 six:12 string:156 four:9 seven:4 eight:2 ten:3 eleven:1 twelve:4 thirteen:1 eighteen:1 also:35 exist:2 recognize:1 one:21 primary:2 flamenco:5 jazz:8 blue:8 country:6 mariachi:2 rock:6 music:15 many:26 form:8 pop:2 solo:4 classical:28 may:12 play:27 acoustically:1 tone:16 produce:14 vibration:8 modulate:2 hollow:4 body:42 rely:1 amplifier:4 electronically:2 manipulate:3 electric:40 introduce:4 continue:1 profound:1 influence:2 popular:8 culture:1 traditionally:5 usually:26 construct:6 combination:1 various:1 wood:24 strung:3 animal:2 gut:3 recently:1 either:10 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2,362 | Dana_Plato | Dana Michelle Plato (November 7, 1964 – May 8, 1999) was an American actress notable for playing the role of Kimberly Drummond in the U.S. television sitcom Diff'rent Strokes. Plato's career declined after her departure from the show, with appearances in low-budget films, including softcore pornography. She had longstanding personal problems and died from an overdose of prescription medication on May 8, 1999. Childhood Plato was born on November 7, 1964, Official Death Certificate http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/DanaDCTop.jpg in Maywood, California to Linda Strain, an unwed 16-year-old who was already caring for an 18-month-old. Strain put her infant daughter Dana up for adoption and Dean and Florine "Kay" Plato adopted the child in June 1965, Danaplato.net biography raising her in the San Fernando Valley in Los Angeles. She attended Sutter Junior High School in Canoga Park, California. Yearbook photos of Dana at sitcomsonline.com Career in television and film Kay Plato began taking Dana to auditions when she was very young. By the age of seven, Dana began doing television commercials, reportedly appearing in over 100 spots for companies as diverse as Kentucky Fried Chicken, Dole, and Atlantic Richfield. Plato biography at TV.com She claimed she was offered two highly sought-after movie roles: the part of possessed child Regan MacNeil in the 1973 film, The Exorcist, and the starring role in Louis Malle's 1978 film, Pretty Baby. Kay Plato, it was said, vetoed both jobs, either fearing her daughter would be typecast, or subjected to unsavory subject matters. Dana Plato's final interview with Howard Stern Plato herself appears to have been the source for these oft-repeated casting stories. Exorcist author William Peter Blatty, who also wrote the screenplay for the film, said in the book Former Child Stars: The Story of America's Least Wanted that he had "no such recollection" of Plato being offered the role. Plato made her film debut in 1977, at the age of thirteen in Return to Boggy Creek. Other credits include California Suite, High School U.S.A. and Exorcist II: The Heretic. Dana trained as a figure skater and was quite accomplished. She was training for a possible Olympic team spot (she later claimed that she qualified for the team). Stern Interview At the same time, however, she was spotted by a television producer during a brief appearance on The Gong Show Dana Plato biography at Sitcoms Online and won what would become her most famous acting role. According to Dana, Kay Plato decided she should cut back on her skating to focus on her portrayal of Kimberly Drummond on Diff'rent Strokes. Diff'rent Strokes In 1978, Diff'rent Strokes debuted on NBC. The show concerned Phillip Drummond (Conrad Bain), a wealthy white widower in New York who adopted two young black boys after their parents died. Plato played Kimberly, the teenage daughter of Drummond and the sister of the two adopted boys, Willis (Todd Bridges) and Arnold (Gary Coleman). She was the oldest, Willis was second, and Arnold was the third. The show was an immediate hit. Even though she was a supporting character, Plato claimed to have made up to US$100,000 an episode during its peak. (Some sources suggest, however, that US$22,000 might be a more representative figure. NetGlimse biography of Dana Plato ). However, in an episode of E!'s show True Hollywood Story on Plato, it was reported that she made $50,000 an episode. Plato appeared on the show until 1984. During that year, she got pregnant by her boyfriend, a musician named Lanny Lambert. TV.com biography The producers of Diff'rent Strokes did not feel that a pregnancy would fit the show's wholesome image, so Plato was let go. Although rumors of drug use and other "problems on the set" swirled around her dismissal, the producers were adamant that the pregnancy was the only reason her character was written out. Plato actually returned for several appearances during the show's final season, which appeared on ABC, including an episode in which Kimberly suffers the effects of bulimia. Career after Diff'rent Strokes After leaving Diff'rent Strokes in 1984, Plato attempted to establish herself as a serious actress, but found it difficult to step out of the long shadows cast by her sitcom career. After her child was born, she had breast implants and appeared in a June 1989 Playboy pictorial, but her career remained in the doldrums. She started taking roles in such B-movies as Bikini Beach Race and Lethal Cowboy, while more respectable roles eluded her. In 1992, Plato was one of the first celebrities to star in a video game. The game, Night Trap, was universally panned by critics and attracted much controversy (the secondary reason the ESRB exists today) over a scene of a girl in a nightgown being killed, although that scene was considered to have been in the comedic vein of the entire game. Plato's career took another hit from the attitudes toward the game. Armchair Empire's writeup on Night Trap In 1994, Plato underwent additional plastic surgery to further enhance her breasts. She also acquired several tattoos, including a dove on the back of her left shoulder, a winged fairy and a star above her groin, and flowers on her feet. Coroner's report, pp.2,3 Toward the end of her career, Plato chose roles that could be considered erotic or even softcore pornography. She appeared partially nude in Prime Suspect (1988) and Compelling Evidence (1995), but her most infamous picture is 1997's Different Strokes: The Story of Jack and Jill...and Jill. The movie's title was changed after shooting to tie it to Plato's famous past, but was not connected in any way to the sitcom other than through her involvement. Plato played a lesbian, and the film was rated X due to sexual content, but it was not considered hardcore pornography. The New York Times description of Different Strokes: The Story of Jack and Jill...and Jill Plato would appear in only one more film. Troubled personal life Plato, arrested in Las Vegas, January 1992, for forging a Valium prescription. Plato began having drug and alcohol problems early in life. At age 14, she overdosed on Valium. She also, by her own admission, drank and used recreational drugs during her years on Diff'rent Strokes. In 1988, Plato's adoptive mother, Kay, died from scleroderma. Shortly thereafter, Plato's marriage to Lanny Lambert began to fall apart. The couple officially divorced in 1990, with Lambert getting custody of their only child, Tyler (born 1985). During this time, Plato posed nude for Playboy, appearing in the June 1989 issue. The issue was also notable for featuring Hugh Hefner's new wife, Kimberley Conrad. In 1991, Plato ended up in Las Vegas with no work. She took a job at a dry-cleaning store to support herself. One day, she entered a video store, produced a gun, and demanded the money from the register. She was arrested minutes later. Las Vegas entertainer Wayne Newton posted her US$13,000 bail bond. The Death of Dana Plato at Morbidly Hollywood Plato was given five years probation. CNN account of Plato's death, May 9, 1999. The gun was only a pellet gun and the robbery netted Plato less than US$200. She made headlines and became part of the national debate over troubled child stars, particularly given the difficulties of her Diff'rent Strokes co-stars, Gary Coleman and Todd Bridges. In January 1992, she was again arrested, this time for forging a prescription for Valium. CNN story She served 30 days in jail for violation of the terms of her probation and entered a drug program immediately thereafter. Following her appearance in the erotic film Different Strokes: The Story of Jack and Jill...and Jill, Plato appeared on the cover of the lesbian lifestyle magazine, Girlfriends, in 1998. She was interviewed by Diane Anderson-Minshall and came out as a lesbian, although she later recanted. It was reported that Plato showed up drunk for the magazine's cover shoot. Dana Plato's Corpse at gettingit.com In her interview with Howard Stern, in which she lied nearly continuously, Plato mentioned that the traumatic events of her mother's death and her husband leaving her took place during the course of only a week. In desperation, she signed over power of attorney to an accountant who absconded with the majority of her money, leaving her with no more than US$150,000. She claimed that the accountant was never found, despite an exhaustive search, and had stolen a grand total of more than US$11 million of other people's money, as well. Just before her death, she and her fiancé, Robert Menchaca, were living in an RV in Navarre, Florida. The Death of Dana Plato at Morbidly Hollywood. Final interview and death On May 7, 1999, Plato appeared on The Howard Stern Show, where she told Stern and Robin Quivers that she was engaged to the 28-year-old Robert Menchaca, and that he was managing her career. She was frank about her situation, discussing her financial problems and past run-ins with the law. She admitted to being a recovering alcoholic/drug addict, but claimed that she had been sober for more than ten years by that point, and was not using any drugs, with the exception of prescribed painkillers due to discomfort and pain from the recent extraction of her wisdom teeth. Many of her callers called her everything from a "has been" to an addict. She was referred to by one caller as an "ex-con lesbian drug addict with mental problems". This provoked a defiant Plato, as she offered to take a drug test on the air (and even placed a large wager on the results of the test to one particularly doubtful caller). Some callers, however, came to Plato's defense by consoling and complimenting her. After the first three negative calls, a caller named Julie told Dana that she looked and sounded great, and could not fathom why people were attacking her the way they were, and although they were cruel to her, she was supportive. Plato wept while offering her gratitude, as well to a later caller who also claimed to be a recovering addict, and told her that he believed everything she said. Other callers asked her relatively "neutral" (mostly Diff'rent Strokes related) questions, such as, "What happened to your kid?" "Did Todd (Bridges) break your arm (in a playful brawl gone wrong) on the set of Diff'rent Strokes?", "Have you ever had the opportunity of seeing Janet Jackson change during the taping of Diff'rent Strokes?" and, likely most humorously, "I need a date with Dana!" which gave Plato a good laugh. Stern later mentioned that she was scheduled to appear at a concert event, The Expo of the Extreme, in Chicago two weeks after the interview. However, her appearance would not take place as planned. The next day, Plato and Menchaca were returning to California, hoping to revive her stagnant career. The couple stopped at Menchaca's mother's home in Moore, Oklahoma (coincidentally, the birthplace of another Diff'rent Strokes cast member, Danny Cooksey) for a Mother's Day visit. Plato went to lie down inside her recreational vehicle parked outside the house and subsequently died of an overdose from Vanadom (Soma) and Vicodin. Her death at the early age of 35 was eventually ruled a suicide. Subsequently both Gary Coleman and Todd Bridges, who remained friends with Plato after Diff'rent Strokes, have said they do not believe she intended to kill herself, and that they believe it was an accidental overdose. Much confusion remains about her precise age. Oklahoma authorities, presumably taking the information from Plato's Florida driver's license, determined her birthdate to be November 1, 1963, making her 35 when she died, while many news sources reported that she was born on November 7, 1964. Plato claimed that she was only 34 years old at one point during her Night Trap appearance, which took place one day before she died. Her body was cremated and her ashes were scattered over the Pacific Ocean. Legacy She ranked at 101 on VH1's 100 Greatest Kid Stars. She was also mentioned on E!'s 50 Greatest Child Stars. References External links Plato's autopsy report at The Smoking Gun Plato's final interview on The Howard Stern Show (RealAudio format - 35:39). Film Criticism: Did AIDS Perform nensha? 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2,363 | Constructed_language | This article is about the creation of planned or artificial languages. See Language planning for information about the linguistic field of language planning and policy. A planned or constructed language—known colloquially or informally as a conlang—is a language whose phonology, grammar, and/or vocabulary have been consciously devised by an individual or group, instead of having evolved naturally. There are many possible reasons to create a constructed language: to ease human communication (see international auxiliary language and code); to bring fiction or an associated constructed world to life; for linguistic experimentation; for artistic creation; and for language games. The expression planned language is sometimes used to mean international auxiliary languages and other languages designed for actual use in human communication. Some prefer it to the term "artificial", as that term may have pejorative connotations in some languages. Outside the Esperanto community, the term language planning means the prescriptions given to a natural language to standardize it; in this regard, even "natural languages" may be artificial in some respects. In the case of prescriptive grammars, where wholly artificial rules exist, the line is difficult to draw. The term glossopoeia, coined by J. R. R. Tolkien, is also used to mean language construction, particularly construction of artistic languages. Sarah L. Higley: Hildegard of Bingen's Unknown Language. Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. Planned, constructed, artificial The terms "planned", "constructed", and "artificial" are used differently in some traditions. For example, few speakers of Interlingua consider their language artificial, since they assert that it has no invented content: Interlingua's vocabulary is taken from a small set of natural languages, and its grammar is based closely on these source languages, even including some degree of irregularity; its proponents prefer to describe its vocabulary and grammar as standardized rather than artificial or constructed. Similarly, Latino sine Flexione (LsF) is a simplification of Latin from which the inflections have been removed. As with Interlingua, some prefer to describe its development as "planning" rather than "constructing". Some speakers of Esperanto and Ido also avoid the term "artificial language" because they deny that there is anything "unnatural" about the use of their language in human communication. By contrast, some philosophers have argued that all human languages are conventional or artificial. Francois Rabelais, for instance, stated: "C'est abus de dire que nous avons une langue naturelle; les langues sont par institution arbitraires et conventions des peuples." François Rabelais, Œvres complètes, III, 19 (Paris: Seuil, 1973), cited in Claude Piron, Le Defi des Langues (L'Harmattan, 1994) ISBN 2-7384-2432-5. This article deals with "planned" or "constructed" languages designed for human/human-like communication. Overview Constructed languages are categorized as either a priori languages or a posteriori languages. The grammar and vocabulary of the former are created from scratch, either by the author's imagination or by computation; the latter possess a grammar and vocabulary derived from natural language. In turn, a posteriori languages are divided into schematic languages, in which a natural or partly natural vocabulary is altered to fit pre-established rules, and naturalistic languages, in which a natural vocabulary retains its normal sound and appearance. While Esperanto is generally considered schematic, Interlingua is viewed as naturalistic. Ido is presented either as a schematic language or as a compromise between the two types. Further, fictional and experimental languages can be naturalistic in that they are meant to sound natural, have realistic amounts of irregularity, and, if derived a posteriori from a real-world natural language (such as Vulgar Latin or Proto Indo-European) or from a fictional protolanguage, they try to imitate natural processes of phonological, lexical and grammatical change. In contrast with Interlingua, these languages are not usually intended for easy learning or communication; and most artlangers would not consider Interlingua to be naturalistic in the sense in which this term is used in artlang criticism. Thus, a naturalistic fictional language tends to be more difficult and complex. While Interlingua has simpler grammar, syntax, and orthography than its source languages (though more complex and irregular than Esperanto or Ido), naturalistic fictional languages typically mimic behaviors of natural languages like irregular verbs and nouns and complicated phonological processes. In terms of purpose, most constructed languages can broadly be divided into: Engineered languages (engelangs ), further subdivided into philosophical languages, logical languages (loglangs) and experimental languages; devised for the purpose of experimentation in logic, philosophy, or linguistics; Auxiliary languages (auxlangs) devised for international communication (also IALs, for International Auxiliary Language); Artistic languages (artlangs) devised to create aesthetic pleasure or humorous effect, just for fun; usually secret languages and mystical languages are classified as artlangs The boundaries between these categories are by no means clear. The "Conlang Triangle" by Raymond Brown. Accessed 8 August 2008 A constructed language could easily fall into more than one of the above categories. A logical language created for aesthetic reasons would also be classifiable as an artistic language, which might be created by someone with philosophical motives intending for said conlang to be used as an auxiliary language. There are no rules, either inherent in the process of language construction or externally imposed, that would limit a constructed language to fitting only one of the above categories. A constructed language can have native speakers if young children learn it from parents who speak it fluently. According to Ethnologue, there are "200–2000 who speak Esperanto as a first language" (most famously George Soros). Ethnologue report for language code:epo A member of the Klingon Language Institute, d'Armond Speers, attempted to raise his son as a native (bilingual with English) Klingon speaker. Gavin Edwards: Babble On Revisited, Wired Magazine, Issue 7.08, August 1999 As soon as a constructed language has a community of fluent speakers, especially if it has numerous native speakers, it begins to evolve and hence loses its constructed status. For example, Modern Hebrew was modeled on Biblical Hebrew rather than engineered from scratch, and has undergone considerable changes since the state of Israel was founded in 1948 (Hetzron 1990:693). However, linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann argues that Modern Hebrew, which he terms "Israeli", is a Semito-European hybrid, based not only on Hebrew but also on Yiddish and other languages spoken by revivalists. Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns, Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Journal of Language Contact, Varia 2, pp. 40-67 (2009). Zuckermann therefore endorses the translation of the Hebrew Bible into what he calls "Israeli". Let my people know!, Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Jerusalem Post, May 18, 2009. Esperanto as a living spoken language has evolved significantly from the prescriptive blueprint published in 1887, so that modern editions of the Fundamenta Krestomatio, a 1903 collection of early texts in the language, require many footnotes on the syntactic and lexical differences between early and modern Esperanto. Fundamenta Krestomatio, ed. L. L. Zamenhof, 1903; 18th edition with footnotes by Gaston Waringhien, UEA 1992. Proponents of constructed languages often have many reasons for using them. The famous but disputed Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is sometimes cited; this claims that the language one speaks influences the way one thinks. Thus, a "better" language should allow the speaker to think more clearly or intelligently or to encompass more points of view; this was the intention of Suzette Haden Elgin in creating Láadan, the language embodied in her feminist science fiction series Native Tongue "My hypothesis was that if I constructed a language designed specifically to provide a more adequate mechanism for expressing women's perceptions, women would (a) embrace it and begin using it, or (b) embrace the idea but not the language, say "Elgin, you've got it all wrong!" and construct some other "women's language" to replace it." . A constructed language could also be used to restrict thought, as in George Orwell's Newspeak, or to simplify thought, as in Toki Pona. In contrast, linguists such as Stephen Pinker argue that ideas exist independently of language. Thus, children spontaneously re-invent slang and even grammar with each generation. (See The Language Instinct.) If this is true, attempts to control the range of human thought through the reform of language would fail, as concepts like "freedom" will reappear in new words if the old vanish. Proponents claim a particular language makes it easier to express and understand concepts in one area, and more difficult in others. An example can be taken from the way various computer languages make it easier to write certain kinds of programs and harder to write others. Another reason cited for using a constructed language is the telescope rule; this claims that it takes less time to first learn a simple constructed language and then a natural language, than to learn only a natural language. Thus, if someone wants to learn English, some suggest learning Basic English first. Constructed languages like Esperanto and Ido are in fact often simpler due to the typical lack of irregular verbs and other grammatical quirks. Some studies have found that learning Esperanto helps in learning a non-constructed language later (see Propaedeutic value of Esperanto). The ISO 639-2 standard reserves the language code "art" to denote artificial languages. However, some constructed languages have their own ISO 639 language codes (e.g. "eo" and "epo" for Esperanto, "io" and "ido" for Ido, "ia" and "ina" for Interlingua, "qny" for Quenya). History Grammatical speculation dates from Classical Antiquity, appearing for instance in Plato's Cratylus. However the mechanisms of grammar suggested by classical philosophers were designed to explain existing languages (Latin, Greek, Sanskrit), rather than constructing new grammars. Roughly contemporary to Plato, in his descriptive grammar of Sanskrit, Pāṇini constructed a set of rules for explaining language, so that the text of his grammar may be considered a mixture of natural and constructed language. The earliest non-natural languages were less considered "constructed" as "super-natural" or mystical. The Lingua Ignota, recorded in the 12th century by St. Hildegard of Bingen is an example; apparently it is a form of private mystical cant (see also language of angels). An important example from Middle-Eastern culture is Balaibalan, invented in the 16th century. Kabbalistic grammatical speculation was directed at recovering the original language spoken by Adam and Eve in Paradise, lost in the confusion of tongues. The first Christian project for an ideal language is outlined in Dante Alighieri's De vulgari eloquentia, where he searches for the ideal Italian vernacular suited for literature. Ramon Llull's Ars magna was a project of a perfect language with which the infidels could be convinced of the truth of the Christian faith. It was basically an application of combinatorics on a given set of concepts. During the Renaissance, Lullian and Kabbalistic ideas were drawn upon in a magical context, resulting in cryptographic applications. The Voynich manuscript may be an example of this. Renaissance interest in Ancient Egypt, notably the discovery of the Hieroglyphica of Horapollo, and first encounters with the Chinese script directed efforts towards a perfect written language. Johannes Trithemius, in Steganographia and Polygraphia, attempted to show how all languages can be reduced to one. In the 17th century, interest in magical languages was continued by the Rosicrucians and Alchemists (like John Dee). Jakob Boehme in 1623 spoke of a "natural language" (Natursprache) of the senses. Musical languages from the Renaissance were tied up with mysticism, magic and alchemy, sometimes also referred to as the language of the birds. The Solresol project of 1817 re-invented the concept in a more pragmatic context. The 17th century saw the rise of projects for "philosophical" or "a priori" languages, such as: Francis Lodwick's A Common Writing (1647) and The Groundwork or Foundation laid (or So Intended) for the Framing of a New Perfect Language and a Universal Common Writing (1652) Sir Thomas Urquhart's Ekskybalauron (1651) and Logopandecteision (1652) George Dalgarno's Ars signorum, 1661 John Wilkins' Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language, 1668 These early taxonomic conlangs produced systems of hierarchical classification that were intended to result in both spoken and written expression. Leibniz had a similar purpose for his lingua generalis of 1678, aiming at a lexicon of characters upon which the user might perform calculations that would yield true propositions automatically, as a side-effect developing binary calculus. These projects were not only occupied with reducing or modelling grammar, but also with the arrangement of all human knowledge into "characters" or hierarchies, an idea that with the Enlightenment would ultimately lead to the Encyclopédie. Many of these 17th-18th century conlangs were pasigraphies, or purely written languages with no spoken form or a spoken form that would vary greatly according to the native language of the reader. Leopold Einstein, "Al la historio de la Provoj de Lingvoj Tutmondaj de Leibnitz ĝis la Nuna Tempo", 1884. Reprinted in Fundamenta Krestomatio, UEA 1992 [1903]. Leibniz and the encyclopedists realized that it is impossible to organize human knowledge unequivocally in a tree diagram, and consequently to construct an a priori language based on such a classification of concepts. Under the entry Charactère, D'Alembert critically reviewed the projects of philosophical languages of the preceding century. After the Encyclopédie, projects for a priori languages moved more and more to the lunatic fringe. Individual authors, typically unaware of the history of the idea, continued to propose taxonomic philosophical languages until the early 20th century (e.g. Ro), but most recent engineered languages have had more modest goals; some are limited to a specific field, like mathematical formalism or calculus (e.g. Lincos and programming languages), others are designed for eliminating syntactical ambiguity (e.g., Loglan and Lojban) or maximizing conciseness (e.g., Ithkuil, Ygyde Arahau). Already in the Encyclopédie attention began to focus on a posteriori auxiliary languages. Joachim Faiguet in the article on Langue already wrote a short proposition of a "laconic" or regularized grammar of French. During the 19th century, a bewildering variety of such International Auxiliary Languages (IALs) were proposed, so that Louis Couturat and Leopold Leau in Histoire de la langue universelle (1903) reviewed 38 projects. The first of these that made any international impact was Volapük, proposed in 1879 by Johann Martin Schleyer; within a decade, 283 Volapükist clubs were counted all over the globe. However, disagreements between Schleyer and some prominent users of the language led to schism, and by the mid 1890s it fell into obscurity, making way for Esperanto, proposed in 1887 by Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof. Ido, made public in 1907, was a reform of Esperanto. Interlingua, the most recent auxlang to gain a significant number of speakers, emerged in 1951, when the International Auxiliary Language Association published its Interlingua-English Dictionary and an accompanying grammar. The success of Esperanto did not stop others from trying to construct new auxiliary languages, such as Leslie Jones' Eurolengo, which mixes elements of English and Spanish. Loglan (1955) and its descendants constitute a pragmatic return to the aims of the a priori languages, tempered by the requirement of usability of an auxiliary language. Thus far, these modern a priori languages have garnered only small groups of speakers. Artistic languages, constructed for literary enjoyment or aesthetic reasons without any claim of usefulness, begin to appear in Early Modern literature (in Pantagruel, and in Utopian contexts), but they only seem to gain notability as serious projects from the 20th century. A Princess of Mars by Edgar Rice Burroughs was possibly the first fiction of the 20th century to feature a constructed language. Tolkien was the first to develop a family of related fictional languages and was the first academic to publicly discuss artistic languages, admitting to A Secret Vice of his in 1930 at an Esperanto congress. (Orwell's Newspeak should be considered a parody of an IAL rather than an artistic language proper.) By the turn of the 21st century, it had become common for science-fiction and fantasy works set in other worlds to feature constructed languages, or more commonly, an extremely limited but defined vocabulary which suggests the existence of a complete language, and constructed languages are a regular part of the genre, appearing in Star Wars, Star Trek, Stargate SG-1, Atlantis: The Lost Empire, and the Myst series of computer adventure games. The most famous of these is the Klingon language from Star Trek, which has a bona-fide vocabulary and a full set of functional grammar rules. Various paper zines on constructed languages were published from the 1970s through the 1990s, such as Glossopoeic Quarterly, Taboo Jadoo, and The Journal of Planned Languages. "How did you find out that there were other conlangers?" CONLANG list posting by And Rosta, 14 October, 2007 The CONLANG Mailing List was founded in 1991, and later split off an AUXLANG mailing list dedicated to international auxiliary languages. In the early to mid 1990s a few conlang-related zines were published as email or websites, such as Vortpunoj Archives of Vortpunoj at Steve Brewer's website and Model Languages. The CONLANG mailing list has developed a community of conlangers with its own customs, such as translation challenges and translation relays Audience, Uglossia, and CONLANG: Inventing Languages on the Internet by Sarah L. Higley. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3.1 (2000). (Google cache version of article, media-culture.org.au site sometimes has problems.) , and its own terminology. "Conlang terminology" at Conlang Wikia Sarah Higley reports from results of her surveys that the demographics of the CONLANG list are primarily men from North America and western Europe, with a smaller number from Oceania, Asia, the Middle East, and South America, with an age range from thirteen to over sixty; the number of women participating has increased over time. More recently founded online communities include the Zompist Bulletin Board (ZBB; since 2001) and the Conlanger Bulletin Board. Discussion on these fora includes presentation of members' conlangs and feedback from other members, discussion of natural languages, whether particular conlang features have natural language precedents, and how interesting features of natural languages can be repurposed for conlangs, posting of interesting short texts as translation challenges, and meta-discussion about the philosophy of conlanging, conlangers' purposes, and whether conlanging is an art or a hobby. Another 2001 survey by Patrick Jarrett showed an average age of 30.65, with the average time since starting to invent languages 11.83 years. "Update mailing list statistics—FINAL", CONLANG list posting by Patrick Jarrett, 13 September 2001 A more recent thread on the ZBB showed that many conlangers spend a relatively small amount of time on any one conlang, moving from one project to another; about a third spend years on developing the same language. "Average life of a conlang" thread on Zompist Bulletin Board, 15 August 2008; accessed 26 August 2008."Average life of a conlang" thread on CONLANG mailing list, 27 August 2008 (should be archived more persistently than the ZBB thread) Collaborative constructed languages While most constructed languages have been created by a single person, a few are the results of group collaborations; examples are Interlingua, which was developed by the International Auxiliary Language Association, and Lojban, which was developed by a breakaway group of Loglanists. Group collaboration has apparently become more common in recent years, as constructed language designers have started using Internet tools to coordinate design efforts. NGL/Tokcir NGL Central Repository was an early Internet collaborative engineered language whose designers used a mailing list to discuss and vote on grammatical and lexical design issues. More recently, The Demos IAL Project was developing an international auxiliary language with similar collaborative methods. Several artistic languages have been developed on different constructed language wikis, usually involving discussion and voting on phonology, grammatical rules and so forth. An interesting variation is the corpus approach, exemplified by Madjal (late 2004) and Kalusa (mid-2006), The 2006 Smiley Award Winner: Kalusa by David J. Peterson where contributors simply read the corpus of existing sentences and add their own sentences, perhaps reinforcing existing trends or adding new words and structures. The Kalusa engine adds the ability for visitors to rate sentences as acceptable or unacceptable. There is no explicit statement of grammatical rules or explicit definition of words in this corpus approach; the meaning of words is inferred from their use in various sentences of the corpus, perhaps in different ways by different readers and contributors, and the grammatical rules can be inferred from the structures of the sentences that have been rated highest by the contributors and other visitors. A special example for this kind of language is Simplish "dis is de niu esperânto: SIMPLISH!", accessed 8 September 2008 : the German Artist Ulli Purwin tried to set a focus on (what Germans call) 'Anglicisms'—in a humorous way. Everyone is invited to increase the vocabulary: from 'ââtist' to 'ørn'... See also Language Creation Conference List of constructed languages Universal language Pasigraphy Linguistic relativity Language construction List of language inventors Language regulator Langmaker Language Construction Kit Language game Artificial script Language modelling and translation Language translation Knowledge representation Universal grammar Metalanguage Spontaneous emergence of grammar Origin of language Pidgin Poto and Cabengo June and Jennifer Gibbons Mystical languages Glossolalia Language of the birds Notes References "Babel's modern architects", by Amber Dance. The Los Angeles Times, 24 August 2007 (Originally published as "In their own words -- literally") External links Scholarship Language Arts Outpost preserves several articles from the paper zine Journal of Planned Languages The Language Lab, Rick Harrison's site, also reprints several such articles on specific languages Language Creation Conference Communities The CONLANG Mailing List, whence the term "conlang". Primarily discusses artlangs, but also engelangs sometimes. The AUXLANG Mailing List, split from CONLANG; primarily discusses international auxiliary languages. Zompist Bulletin Board, a highly active online forum devoted to conlangs (and conworlds in general). LiveJournal Conlangs community Conlanger Bulletin Board, a multilingual forum primarily for conlangers. Scriptorium Bulletin Board, a forum primarily devoted to artificial and natural writing systems. #ConLang, the IRC channel #ConLang on EFNet. Conlanging.Com, a relatively new forum for new conlangers, who have no prior knowledge of IPA, X-SAMPA , SAMPA etc. Is a logically perfect language possible? How to The Language Construction Kit by Mark Rosenfelder How to Create a Language by Pablo David Flores. Langmaker: ConLangs and neologisms forum Lingua Questionnaire, questions to aid in the writing of natural or constructed language grammars. Essays on Language Design by Rick Morneau, primarily on creating efficient and unambiguous engelangs but also on how to create a realistic fictional language. Directories Conlang Profiles at Langmaker.com, over 1,000 languages listed, frequently updated. Conlang Atlas of Language Structures, a typological database of conlangs, based on the World Atlas of Language Structures. Invaluable Conlang Links Blueprints For Babel, focusing on international auxiliary languages. Garrett's Links to Logical Languages Department of Planned Languages Esperanto Museum of the Austrian National Library. Wikis Conlang Wikia ("Conlang Free City"). ConlangWiki, a wiki devoted to the topics of ConLangs and ConCultures. KneeQuickie, a wiki for conlanging, linguistics, and the ZBB community. IAL Wiki, a wiki for the Auxlang community. 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2,364 | Bead_weaving | Bead weaving using seed beads can be done either on a loom or using one of a number of off-loom stitches. On-loom beadweaving An old bead loom. 1. Roller. 2. Roller end. 3. Spacers. 4. Spacers. When weaving on a loom, the beads are locked in between the warp threads by the weft threads. Although a heddle can be used as in ordinary weaving, the most common technique requires two passes of the weft thread. First, an entire row of beads is strung on the weft thread. Then the beads are pressed in between the warp threads. The needle is passed back through the beads above the warp threads to lock the beads into place. The most difficult part of loomwork is finishing off the warp threads. Although loomed pieces are typically rectangular, it is possible to increase and decrease to produce angular or curvy shapes. Fringe can also be added during weaving or before the piece is removed from the loom. Bead looms vary in size and are typically made of wood or metal. Usually, a comb or spring is used to hold the warp threads a bead-width apart. Some looms have roller bars that allow the weaver to produce pieces that are longer than the loom. Most looms are meant to sit on a table, but some have floor stands or are meant to sit in the lap. Off-loom beadweaving Off-loom beadweaving is a family of beadwork techniques in which seed beads are woven together into a flat fabric or a three-dimensional object such as a ball, clasp, or box. All off-loom techniques can be accomplished using a single needle and thread (no warp threads), but some have two-needle variations. Different stitches produce pieces with distinct textures, shapes, and patterns. There are a number of different off-loom bead stitches, including: peyote stitch, also known as gourd stitch brick stitch, also known as Comanche or Cheyenne stitch square stitch herringbone stitch, also known as Ndebele stitch Pondo stitch, also known as African circle stitch right-angle weave triangle weave bead netting African helix Dutch spiral References Don Pierce, Beading on a Loom. Interweave Press, 1999. ISBN 1-883010-63-2 Carol Wilcox Wells, Creative Bead Weaving. Lark Books, 1996. ISBN 1-887374-05-1 | Bead_weaving |@lemmatized bead:15 weave:6 use:5 seed:2 either:1 loom:15 one:1 number:2 stitch:12 beadweaving:3 old:1 roller:3 end:1 spacers:2 lock:2 warp:6 thread:10 weft:3 although:2 heddle:1 ordinary:1 weaving:2 common:1 technique:3 require:1 two:2 pass:2 first:1 entire:1 row:1 string:1 press:2 needle:3 back:1 place:1 difficult:1 part:1 loomwork:1 finish:1 loomed:1 piece:4 typically:2 rectangular:1 possible:1 increase:1 decrease:1 produce:3 angular:1 curvy:1 shape:2 fringe:1 also:5 add:1 remove:1 vary:1 size:1 make:1 wood:1 metal:1 usually:1 comb:1 spring:1 hold:1 width:1 apart:1 bar:1 allow:1 weaver:1 long:1 mean:2 sit:2 table:1 floor:1 stand:1 lap:1 family:1 beadwork:1 together:1 flat:1 fabric:1 three:1 dimensional:1 object:1 ball:1 clasp:1 box:1 accomplish:1 single:1 variation:1 different:2 distinct:1 texture:1 pattern:1 include:1 peyote:1 know:4 gourd:1 brick:1 comanche:1 cheyenne:1 square:1 herringbone:1 ndebele:1 pondo:1 african:2 circle:1 right:1 angle:1 triangle:1 netting:1 helix:1 dutch:1 spiral:1 reference:1 pierce:1 interweave:1 isbn:2 carol:1 wilcox:1 well:1 creative:1 lark:1 book:1 |@bigram warp_thread:6 |
2,365 | Bride_of_the_Monster | Bride of the Monster (originally known as Bride of the Atom) is a 1955 horror/science-fiction film starring Béla Lugosi in a traditional mad scientist role. It was produced, directed and co-written by Edward D. Wood, Jr.. A sequel, entitled Night of the Ghouls, was made in 1959, but went unreleased for decades. Plot Lugosi's character, Dr. Eric Vornoff, is experimenting with atomic energy in a primitive laboratory in his mansion with the help of his assistant, Lobo (Tor Johnson) . His goal is to create an army of mutated supermen to do his bidding. Newspaper reporter Janet Lawton (a role originally intended for Dolores Fuller but given to Loretta King Hadler) starts investigating, as do the local police. Meanwhile, an East German "monster hunter", Professor Strowksi (George Becwar), is creeping around trying to persuade Dr. Vornoff to return to their homeland. In the end, Lobo betrays Vornoff and Vornoff becomes a monster and is then blown up in an atomic explosion. Myths about the film Some sources say Wood stole the mechanical octopus (originally used for the John Wayne film Wake of the Red Witch). Other sources insist Wood legitimately rented the octopus, along with some cars. Regardless, its inner mechanism was missing. The filming of these scenes, as well as the production of the film in general, were played to comic effect in the movie Ed Wood, directed by Tim Burton. Lugosi's monologue to Professor Strowksi is even featured twice in the movie. The book The Golden Turkey Awards claims that Lugosi's character declares his manservant Lobo (Tor Johnson) "as harmless as kitchen" (sic). This allegedly misspoken line is cited as evidence of either Lugosi's failing health/mental faculties, or as further evidence of Wood's incompetence as a director. However, a viewing of the film itself reveals that Lugosi said this line correctly, the exact words being, "Don't be afraid of Lobo; he's as gentle as a kitten." Rudolph Grey's book Nightmare of Ecstasy: The Life and Art of Edward D. Wood Jr. contains anecdotes regarding the making of this film. Grey notes that participants in the original events sometimes contradict one another, but he relates each person's information for posterity. He also includes Ed Wood's claim that one of his films made a profit and surmises that it was most likely Bride of the Monster, but, in a situation similar to the play in Mel Brooks' The Producers, he oversold the film and couldn't reimburse the backers. Legacy This film is part of what Wood aficionados refer to as "The Kelton Trilogy", a trio of films featuring Paul Marco as "Officer Kelton", a whining, reluctant policeman. The other two films are Plan 9 from Outer Space and Night of the Ghouls. The television program Mystery Science Theater 3000 featured Bride of the Monster in episode 423. Mystery Science Theater 3000, "The Unearthly" (episode 3.20). Johnson, in the character of Lobo, also appeared in The Unearthly, a non-Wood film which was made years after Bride of the Monster, but was featured on MST3K a year before Bride. Mystery Science Theater 3000, "Bride of the Monster" (episode 4.23). Johnson also appeared in a third MST3K episode, The Beast of Yucca Flats. Mystery Science Theater 3000, The Beast of Yucca Flats (episode 6.21). The character of Lobo appeared again in Bride'''s sequel, Night of the Ghouls, which was never MSTed. As mentioned in an episode of the 1986 syndicated series, the Canned Film Festival, Bride of the Monster was Bela Lugosi's last speaking role in a feature film. His last appearance in a film was Wood's Plan 9 from Outer Space. Lugosi's "Atomic Supermen" speech from this film is referenced in the Futurama'' episode "A Fishful of Dollars" with Professor Farnsworth ranting about creating his own race of atomic monsters. In 2008, a colorized version was released by Legend Films. This version is also available from Amazon Video on Demand. See also List of films in the public domain References External links | Bride_of_the_Monster |@lemmatized bride:9 monster:9 originally:3 know:1 atom:1 horror:1 science:5 fiction:1 film:18 star:1 béla:1 lugosi:8 traditional:1 mad:1 scientist:1 role:3 produce:1 direct:2 co:1 write:1 edward:2 wood:10 jr:2 sequel:2 entitle:1 night:3 ghoul:3 make:3 go:1 unreleased:1 decade:1 plot:1 character:4 dr:2 eric:1 vornoff:4 experiment:1 atomic:4 energy:1 primitive:1 laboratory:1 mansion:1 help:1 assistant:1 lobo:6 tor:2 johnson:4 goal:1 create:2 army:1 mutated:1 superman:2 bidding:1 newspaper:1 reporter:1 janet:1 lawton:1 intend:1 dolores:1 fuller:1 give:1 loretta:1 king:1 hadler:1 start:1 investigate:1 local:1 police:1 meanwhile:1 east:1 german:1 hunter:1 professor:3 strowksi:2 george:1 becwar:1 creep:1 around:1 try:1 persuade:1 return:1 homeland:1 end:1 betrays:1 become:1 blow:1 explosion:1 myth:1 source:2 say:2 steal:1 mechanical:1 octopus:2 use:1 john:1 wayne:1 wake:1 red:1 witch:1 insist:1 legitimately:1 rent:1 along:1 car:1 regardless:1 inner:1 mechanism:1 miss:1 filming:1 scene:1 well:1 production:1 general:1 play:2 comic:1 effect:1 movie:2 ed:2 tim:1 burton:1 monologue:1 even:1 featured:1 twice:1 book:2 golden:1 turkey:1 award:1 claim:2 declare:1 manservant:1 harmless:1 kitchen:1 sic:1 allegedly:1 misspoken:1 line:2 cite:1 evidence:2 either:1 fail:1 health:1 mental:1 faculty:1 incompetence:1 director:1 however:1 viewing:1 reveal:1 correctly:1 exact:1 word:1 afraid:1 gentle:1 kitten:1 rudolph:1 grey:2 nightmare:1 ecstasy:1 life:1 art:1 contain:1 anecdote:1 regard:1 making:1 note:1 participant:1 original:1 event:1 sometimes:1 contradict:1 one:2 another:1 relate:1 person:1 information:1 posterity:1 also:5 include:1 profit:1 surmise:1 likely:1 situation:1 similar:1 mel:1 brook:1 producer:1 oversold:1 reimburse:1 backer:1 legacy:1 part:1 aficionado:1 refer:1 kelton:2 trilogy:1 trio:1 feature:4 paul:1 marco:1 officer:1 whining:1 reluctant:1 policeman:1 two:1 plan:2 space:2 television:1 program:1 mystery:4 theater:4 episode:7 unearthly:2 appear:3 non:1 year:2 third:1 beast:2 yucca:2 flat:2 never:1 msted:1 mention:1 syndicated:1 series:1 canned:1 festival:1 bela:1 last:2 speaking:1 appearance:1 speech:1 reference:2 futurama:1 fishful:1 dollar:1 farnsworth:1 rant:1 race:1 colorized:1 version:2 release:1 legend:1 available:1 amazon:1 video:1 demand:1 see:1 list:1 public:1 domain:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram bride_monster:6 science_fiction:1 béla_lugosi:1 night_ghoul:3 dolores_fuller:1 tim_burton:1 mel_brook:1 bela_lugosi:1 external_link:1 |
2,366 | Caliph | The Caliph (; /khalīfah/) is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah. It is a transliterated version of the Arabic word which means "successor" or "representative". The early leaders of the Muslim nation following Muhammad's (570–632) death were called "Khalifat Rasul Allah", means the political successors to the messenger of God (referring to Muhammad). Some academics prefer to transliterate the term as Khalīf. Caliphs were often also referred to as Amīr al-Mu'minīn (أمير المؤمنين) "Commander of the Faithful", Imam al-Ummah, Imam al-Mu'minīn (إمام المؤمنين), or more colloquially, leader of the Muslims. After the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib), the title was claimed by the Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Ottomans, and at times, by competing dynasties in Spain, Northern Africa, and Egypt. Most historical Muslim governors were called sultans or amirs, and gave allegiance to a caliph, but at times had very little real authority. The title has been defunct since the Republic of Turkey abolished the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924, although some individuals and groups have called for its restoration. Jay Tolson, “Caliph Wanted: Why An Old Islamic Institution Resonates With Many Muslims Today,” U.S News & World Report 144.1 (January 14, 2008): 38-40. Succession to Muhammad Fred Donner, in his book The Early Islamic Conquests (1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice at the time was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and elect a leader from amongst themselves. There was no specified procedure for this shura, or consultation. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual heir. This is also the argument advanced by Sunni Muslims, who believe that Muhammad's Father-in-law Abu Bakr was chosen by the community and that this was the proper procedure. They further argue that a caliph may be ideally chosen by election or community consensus. Shi'a Muslims disagree. They believe that since Muhammad had given many indications that , his cousin and son-in-law, is his chosen successor, regardless of democracy. and his descendants are believed to have been the only proper Muslim leaders, or imams in the Shia's point of view. This matter is covered in much greater detail in the article Succession to Muhammad and in the article on Shi'a Islam. A third branch of Islam, the Ibadi Kharijites, believes that the caliphate rightly belongs to the greatest spiritual leader among Muslims, regardless of his lineage. They are currently an extremely small sect, found mainly in Oman. Word Usage Caliph is translated from the Arabic Khalifa (خليفة ) meaning "successor", "substitute", or "lieutenant". It is used in the Qur'an to establish Adam's role as representative of Allah on earth. Kalifa is also used to describe the belief that man's role, in his real nature, is as viceroy to Allah. The word is also most commonly used for the Islamic leader of the Ummah; starting with the Prophet Muhammad and his line of successors. The Patriarchal Caliphs The more general meaning of Khalifa refers to the successors of the Prophet Muhammad. The first four Caliphs: Abu Bakr as-Siddiq, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib are commonly known as the "rightly guided" or "patriarchal" Caliphs. This is because each was a close companion of the Prophet during his prophethood. They are therefore seen as having a direct succession to the Prophet. History Succession and Recognition Sunni and Shi'a Muslims differ on the legitimacy of the reigns of the four Caliphs. Sunnis follow the Caliphates of all four, compare to Shi'ites who recognize only the Caliphate of Ali and the short Caliphate of his son Hasan. This division of the relegion occurred following the death of the Prophet Muhammad. As described in Islam, Muhammad gave no specific directions as to the choosing of his successor when he died. At this time there were two customary means of selecting a leader: having a hereditary leader for general purposes, and choosing someone with good qualities in times of crisis or opportunities for action. Both methods were advocated by different groups among the early Muslims, which led to the early division between the Sunnis and Shi'ites. While Sunni and Shia Islam differ sharply on the conduct of a caliph and the right relations between a leader and a community, they do not differ on the underlying theory of stewardship. Both abhor waste of natural resources in particular to show off or demonstrate power. Many consider this conservation urge a necessity of any desert culture, where oases are precious and natural capital must be preserved, in particular clean water sources. In the initial stages the latter way of choosing leadership prevailed among the leading companions of the Prophet. Abu Bakr was elected as the first caliph or successor to Muhammad, with the other companions of Muhammad giving an oath of allegiance to him. Those opposing this method thought that Ali, Muhammad's nearest relative, should have succeeded him. However the appointment of the next two caliphs varied from the election of Abu Bakr. On his deathbed, Abu Bakr appointed Umar as his successor without an election by the community of Believers. The oath, approving the appointment of Umar, was taken only by the Companions present in Medina at the time. This lead to certain groups disputing the authority of Umar. Umar also altered the way his successor would be found. Before he was assassinated, Umar decided that his successor would come from a group of six. This group included Ali and Uthman another companion of the Prophet. These six would have to establish from among themselves Umar's successor. Ultimately Uthman was chosen as Umar successor, becoming the third Caliph. After the assassination at the , Ali was elected elected as the fourth Caliph. Ali's Caliphate and the Rise of the Ummayyad Dynasty Ali's reign as Caliph was plagued by great turmoil and internal strife. Ali was faced with multiple rebellions and insurrections. The primary one coming from Mu'awiyah a relative of Uthman and Governor of Damascus. Mu'awiyah attacked Ali at the Battle of Siffin. The battle lasted several months resulting in a stalemate. In order to avoid further bloodshed, Ali agreed to negotiate with Mu'waiyah. This caused a faction of some 4,000 strict traditionalists, known as Kharijites ("Seceders"), to abandon the fight. After defeating the Kharijites at the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali would later be assassinated by the Kharijite Ibn Muljam. Ali's son Hasan was elected as the fifth Caliph only to concede his title to Mu'awiyah a few months later. Mu'awiyah became the sixth Caliph, establishing the Ummayyad Dynasty The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. Cyril Glasse. pp. 39-41,318-319, 353-354 . Umayyad The expansion of the caliphate under the Umayyads. Under the Umayyads, the Muslim empire grew rapidly. To the West, Muslim rule expanded across North Africa and into Spain. To the East, it expanded through Iran and ultimately to India. This made it one of the largest empires in the history of West Eurasia, extending its entire breadth. However, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within Islam itself. Some Muslims supported prominent early Muslims like az-Zubayr; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, the Banū Hashim, or his own lineage, the descendants of , should rule. There were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry between Yaman and Qays). Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hisham and Alid claims united to bring down the Umayyads in 750. However, the , "the Party of ", were again disappointed when the Abbasid dynasty took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib and not from . Following this disappointment, the finally split from the majority Sunni Muslims and formed what are today the several denominations. Abbasids Map of Abbasid Empire at its greatest extent The Abbasids would provide an unbroken line of caliphs for over three centuries, consolidating Islamic rule and cultivating great intellectual and cultural developments in the Middle East. But by 940 the power of the caliphate under the Abbasids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the Turkish (and later the Mamluks in Egypt in the latter half of the 13th century), gained influence, and sultans and emirs became increasingly independent. However, the caliphate endured as both a symbolic position and a unifying entity for the Islamic world. During the period of the Abassid dynasty, Abassid claims to the caliphate did not go unchallenged. The Said ibn Husayn of the Fatimid dynasty, which claimed descendancy of Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of Caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Initially covering Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt and Palestine, before the Abbassid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting Fatimid rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in 1171. The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over the Muslim provinces of Spain, reclaimed the title of Caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031. Shadow Caliphate 1258 saw the conquest of Baghdad and the execution of Abassid caliph al-Musta'sim by Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan. A surviving member of the Abbasid House was installed as Caliph at Cairo under the patronage of the Mamluk Sultanate three years later. However, the authority of this line of Caliphs was confined to ceremonial and religious matters, and later Muslim historians referred to it as a "shadow" caliphate. Ottomans As the Ottoman Empire grew in size and strength, Ottoman rulers beginning with Mehmed II began to claim caliphal authority. Their claim was strengthened when the Ottoman Empire defeated the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517 and took control of most Arab lands. The last Abbasid Caliph at Cairo, al-Mutawakkil III, was taken into custody and was transported to Istanbul, where he surrendered the Caliphate to Selim I. Ottoman rulers were known primarily by the title of Sultan.The Ottoman Caliphate. According to Barthold, the first time the title of caliph was used as a political instead of symbolic religious title by the Ottomans was the peace treaty with Russia in 1774. The outcome of this war was disastrous for the Ottomans. Large territories, including those with large Muslim populations such as Crimea, were lost to the Christian Russian Empire. However, the Ottomans under Abdulhamid I claimed a diplomatic victory, the recognition of themselves as protectors of Muslims in Russia as part of the peace treaty. This was the first time the Ottoman caliph was acknowledged as having political significance outside of Ottoman borders by a European power. As a consequence of this diplomatic victory, as the Ottoman borders were shrinking, the powers of the Ottoman caliph increased. Around 1880 Sultan Abdulhamid II reasserted the title as a way of countering creeping European colonialism in Muslim lands. His claim was most fervently accepted by the Muslims of British India. By the eve of the First World War, the Ottoman state, despite its weakness vis-à-vis Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. But the sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia. Abolition of the institution On 3 March 1924, the Turkish Grand National Assembly, on the initiative of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, abolished the institution of the Caliphate, transferring its powers within Turkey to the Assembly. Occasional demonstrations have been held calling for the reestablishment of the Caliphate. Titular uses Religious leaders In 19th century Sudan, Mohammed Ahmed "the Mahdi" was succeeded by Abdallahi ibn Muhammad "the Khalifa". In the Ahmadiyya sect, khalifatul Masih is the title of the successors of its founding Messiah, except in the break-away Lahore branch, which is led by its own Emirs. Secular offices In Morocco, the Sherifian Monarch awarded the title Khalifa or Chaliphe, here meaning 'Viceroy', to royal princes (styled Moulay), including future Sultans, who represented the crown in a part of the sultanate: especially in the former royal capitals Marrakesh, Fes and Meknes also in other mayor cities, e.g. in Shawiya, Casablanca, Tafilalt, Tadla, Tiznit Tindouf, in the valley of the Draa River and in Tetouan. but also, in the 20th century, as irrevocably fully mandated Representative of the Sultan in the Spanish Zone, known after him in Spanish as el Jalifato (note the definite article; although the Spanish word can also be applied to other deputies of various Moroccan officials), besides the Alto comisario (de facto governing 'High Commissioner') of the colonial 'protector' Spain, which called his office el Jalifa (not Califa, the word for any 'imperial' Caliph, ruling a califato): 19 April 1913 - 9 November 1923 Mulay al-Mahdi bin Isma'il bin Muhammad (d. 1923) 9 November 1923 - 9 November 1925 Vacant 9 November 1925 - 16 March 1941 Mulay Hassan bin al-Mahdi (1st time) (b. 1912) 16 March 1941 - October 1945 Vacant October 1945 - 7 April 1956 Mulay Hassan bin al-Mahdi (2nd time) Other uses Khalifa can have a definition, be a first name, or family or tribe name. Like many titles, Khalifa also occurs in many names. It is the family name of the Al Khalifa dynasty, rulers of the peninsular Arab nation of Bahrain, who are descended from the Bani Utub tribe. One of the more notable Khalifa's of modern times is Khalifa Saleh Abdulla Haroon. Son of the Director of Air Transport and Airport affairs. Founder of the government backed iLoveQatar Marketing. Authority of the successor The question of who should succeed Muhammad was not the only issue that faced the early Muslims; they also had to clarify the extent of the leader's powers. Muhammad, during his lifetime, was not only the Muslim political leader, but the Islamic prophet. All law and spiritual practice proceeded from Muhammad. Nobody claimed that his successor would be a prophet; succession referred to political authority. The uncertainty centered on the extent of that authority. Muhammad's revelations, claiming to be directly from God, were soon codified and written down as the Qur'an, which was accepted as a supreme authority, limiting what a caliph could legitimately command. However, there is some evidence that some early caliphs did believe that they had authority to rule in matters not specified in the Qur'an. They believed themselves to be temporal and spiritual leaders even in issues not commanded in the Quran, and insisted that implicit obedience to the caliph in all things not contradicting the Quran, was the hallmark of the good Muslim. The modern scholars Patricia Crone and Martin Hinds, in their book God's Caliph, outline the evidence for an early, expansive view of the caliph's importance and authority. They argue that this view of the caliph was eventually nullified (in Sunni Islam, at least) by the rising power of the ulema, or Islamic lawyers, judges, scholars, and religious specialists. The ulema insisted on their right to determine what was legal and orthodox. The proper Muslim leader, in the ulema's opinion, was the leader who enforced the rulings of the ulema, rather than making rulings of his own, unless he himself was qualified in Islamic law. Conflict between caliph and ulema, akin to a modern judiciary, was a recurring theme in early Islamic history, and ended in the victory of the ulema. The caliph was henceforth limited to temporal rule only. He would be considered a righteous caliph if he were guided by the ulema. Crone and Hinds argue that Shi'a Muslims, with their expansive view of the powers of the imamate, have preserved some of the beliefs of the early Ummayad dynasty which ironically, they despise. Crone and Hinds' thesis is not accepted by some scholars. Most Sunni Muslims now believe that the caliph has always been a merely temporal ruler, and that the ulema has always been responsible for adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law (shari'a). The first four caliphs are called the Rashidun, the Rightly Guided Caliphs, because they are believed to have followed the Qur'an and the way or sunnah of Muhammad in all things. This formulation itself presumes the Sunni ulema's view historically. Al-Ghazali on the desired character traits for administration Al Ghazali wrote the "Nasihat al-Muluk" or "Advice for Kings" to a Seljuq Sultan in which he gave ten different ethics of royal administration: The ruler should understand the importance and danger of the authority entrusted to him. In authority there is great blessing, since he who exercises it righteously obtained unsurpassed happiness but if any ruler fails to do so he incurs torment surpassed only by the torment for unbelief. The ruler should always be thirsting to meet devout religious scholars and ask them for advice. The ruler should understand that he must not covet the wives of other men and be content with personally refraining from injustice, but must discipline his slave-troops, servants, and officers and never tolerate unjust conduct by them; for he will be interrogated not only about his own unjust deeds but also about those of his staff. The ruler should not be dominated by pride; for pride gives rise to the dominance of anger, and will impel him to revenge. Anger is the evil genius and blight of the intellect. If anger is becoming dominant it will be necessary for the ruler in all his affairs to bend his inclinations in the direction of forgiveness and make a habit of generosity and forbearance unless he is to be like the wild beasts. In every situation that arises, the ruler should figure that he is the subject and the other person is the holder of authority. He should not sanction for others anything that he would not sanction for himself. For if he would do so he would be making fraudulent and treasonable use of the authority entrusted to him. The ruler should not disregard the attendance of petitioners at his court and should beware of the danger of so doing. He should solve the grievances of the Muslims. The ruler should not form a habit of indulging the passions. Although he might dress more finely or eat more sumptuously, he should be content with all that he has; for without contentment, just conduct will not be possible. The ruler should make the utmost effort to behave gently and avoid governing harshly. The ruler should endeavor to keep all the subjects pleased with him. The ruler should not let himself be so deluded by the praise he gets from any who approach him as to believe that all the subjects are pleased with him. On the contrary, such praise is entirely due to fear. He must therefore appoint trustworthy persons to carry on espionage and inquire about his standing among the people, so that he may be able to learn his faults from men’s tongues. The ruler should not give satisfaction to any person if a contravention of God’s law would be required to please him for no harm will come from such a person’s displeasure. Single Caliph for the Muslim World It has been recorded that Muhammad has said: "The children of Israel have been governed by Prophets; whenever a Prophet died another Prophet succeeded him; but there will be no prophet after me. There will be caliphs and they will number many (in one time); they asked: What then do you order us? He said: Fulfil bayah to them, only the first of them, the first of them, and give them their dues; for verily Allah will ask them about what he entrusted them with" Sahih Muslim, Kitab al-Imarah (Book of Government) "When the oath of allegiance has been taken for two Caliphs, kill the latter of them". Abu-Bakr Muhammad's primary disciple is reported to have said: "It is forbidden for Muslims to have two Amirs for this would cause differences in their affairs and concepts, their unity would be divided and disputes would break out amongst them. The Sunnah would then be abandoned, the bida'a (innovations) would spread and Fitna would grow, and that is in no one's interests". "As-Sirah" of Ibn Ishaq; on the day of Thaqifa Umar bin Al-Khattab another disciple of Muhammad is reported to have said: “There is no way for two (leaders) together at any one time" Ibn Khaldun the famous 14th century Muslim scholar, economist and historian said: "It is not possible to appoint two men to the position (of caliph) at the same time. Religious scholars generally are of this opinion, on the basis of certain hadith(recorded statements) of Muhammad. Those hadith are found in the book entitled, "On Leadership (imarah)," in Sahih Muslim. They expressly indicate that this is so." Al-Muqaddimah by ibn Khaldun The 10th century Sunni scholar Imam of al-Haramayn (i.e Makkah and Medinah) al-Juwayni wrote: “Our (scholarly) associates agree on precluding the investing of two different individuals with the imamate at either end of the world. But, they add: If it should happen that two different persons were invested with the imamate, that would be analogous to the situation of two guardians contracting a marriage for the same woman to two different suitors without either being aware of the other's contract. The decision in the matter rests on the application of jurisprudence. My opinion on this issue is that investiture of two individuals with the imamate in a single locality within relatively restricted boundaries and limited provinces is not permitted and the investiture should be in accord with a consensus. But, when the distances are great and the two Imams quite remote from each other, there is room to allow it, although this cannot be established conclusively.” Chapter On "Election, It's Characteristics, and How the Imamate is to Be Invested" paragraph "On investing the imamate in two individuals" in the book "A Guide to the Conclusive Proofs for the Principles of Belief" (Kitab al-irshad ila qawati' al-adilla fi usul al-i'tiqad) by al-Juwayni p 234 The 11th century Sunni jurist Al-Mawardi wrote: “The investment of two rulers in two different cities is invalid in both cases, for the ummah may not have two rulers simultaneously, even though there are some dissenting voices who would make that permissible. Jurists are disagreed regarding which one of the two should be sovereign. One party take him to be the one elected in the city where the previous leader died, because its residents are more entitled to make the choice, the rest of the Community in other districts delegating the task to them... Others have suggested that each one of the two must give up the office in favour of his opponent, thus allowing the elections to opt for one or the other..” "The Ordinances of Government” (Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya w'al-Wilayat al-Diniyyya) pg. 7-8 by al-Mawardi Imam Al-Nawawi a 12th century authority of the Sunni Shafi'i madhhab said: "It is forbidden to give an oath to two caliphs or more, even in different parts of the world and even if they are far apart" Mughni Al-Muhtaj, volume 4, page 132 Imam Al-Juzairi, a more modern expert on the Fiqh of the four Sunni madhhabs said regarding the opinion of the four Imams, “...It is forbidden for Muslims to have two Imams in the world whether in agreement or discord." ‘Fiqh ul-Mathahib ul- Arba'a’ (the fiqh of the four schools of thought), al-Juzairi, volume 5, p. 416 Notable Caliphs Abu Bakr: First rightly guided caliph. Subdued rebel tribes in the Ridda Wars. Umar ibn al-Khattab: Second rightly guided caliph. During his reign, the Islamic empire expanded to include Egypt, Jerusalem, and Persia. Uthman ibn Affan: Third rightly guided caliph. The Qur'an was compiled under his direction. Killed by rebels. Ali ibn Abu Talib: Fourth and last rightly guided caliph, and considered the first imam by Shi'a Muslims. His reign was fraught with internal conflict. Muawiya I: First caliph of the Umayyad Dynasty. Muawiya instituted dynastic rule by appointing his son Yazid as his successor, a trend that would continue through subsequent caliphates. Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan - Fifth caliph of Ummayad Dynasty, translated important records into Arabic, established an Islamic currency system, led additional wars against the Byzantines and ordered construction of the Dome of the Rock. Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz: Umayyad caliph considered by some (mainly Sunnis) to be a fifth rightly guided caliph. Harun al-Rashid: Abbasid caliph during whose reign Baghdad became the world's preeminent center of trade, learning, and culture. Harun is the subject of many stories in the famous work 1001 Arabian Nights. Selim I the Brave: First Caliph of the Ottoman Empire with the conquest of Egypt and the Holy Cities. Defeated the powerful Shia Safavid Empire. Suleiman the Magnificent: Early Ottoman Sultan during whose reign the Ottoman Empire reached its zenith. Abdul Mejid II: Last Caliph of the Ottoman Dynasty, the 101st Caliph in line from Caliph Abu Bakr. On August 23, 1944, Abdul Mejid II died at his house in the Boulevard Suchet, Paris XVIe, France. He was buried at Medina, Saudi Arabia. Several Arabic surnames found throughout the Middle East are derived from the word khalifa. These include: Khalif, Khalifa, Khillif, Kalif, Kalaf, Khalaf, and Kaylif. The usage of this title as a surname is comparable to the existence of surnames such as King, Duke, and Noble in the English language. Dynasties The more important dynasties include: The Umayyad dynasty in Damascus (661–750), followed by: The Abbasid dynasty in Baghdad (750–1258), and later in Cairo (under Mameluk control) (1260–1517). The Shi'ite Fatimid dynasty in North Africa and Egypt (909–1171). Not universally accepted and not currently included in the list here. The Rahmanids, a surviving branch of the Damascus Umayyads, established "in exile" as Emirs of Córdoba, Spain, declared themselves Caliphs (known as the Caliphs of Cordoba; not universally accepted; 929–1031). The Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Spain (not universally accepted; 1145–1269). Traced their descent not from Muhammad, but from a puritanic reformer in Morocco who claimed to be the Mahdi (a puritanic reformer in Morocco, bringing down the "decadent" Almoravid emirate) whose son established a sultanate and claimed to be a caliph. The Ottomans (1517–1924; main title Padishah, also known as Great Sultan etc.), assumed the title after defeating the Mamluk Sultanate and used it sporadically between the 16th and early 20th century. Note on the overlap of Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates: After the massacre of the Umayyad clan by the Abbassids, one lone prince escaped and fled to North Africa, which remained loyal to the Umayyads. This was Abd-ar-rahman I. From there, he proceeded to Spain, where he overthrew and united the provinces conquered by previous Umayyad Caliphs (in 712 and 712). From 756 to 929, this Umayyad domain in Spain was an independent emirate, until Abd-ar-rahman III reclaimed the title of Caliph for his dynasty. The Umayyad Emirs of Spain are not listed in the summary below because they did not claim the caliphate until 929. For a full listing of all the Umayyad rulers in Spain see the Umayyad article. Claims to the caliphate Many local rulers throughout Islamic history have claimed to be caliphs. Most claims were ignored outside their limited domains. In many cases, these claims were made by rebels against established authorities and died when the rebellion was crushed. Notable claimants include: Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr, who held the Hijaz against the Ummayad، certain scholars considered him a legitimate caliph, being a close companion of Muhammad. His rebellion, centered in Makkah, was crushed by an infamous Umayyad general, Hajjaj. Hajjaj's attack caused some damage in Makkah, and necessitated the rebuilding of the Kaaba. Caliph of the Sudan, a Songhai king of the Sahel Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, who claimed Caliphate at Medina two days after it was abandoned by the Republic of Turkey. The Saudis, realizing that a unified Islamic government would pose a threat to the absolute monarchy that they held over Arabia quicky defeated his movement. See also Caliphate Emir Sultan Shah Sheikh ul-Islam History of Islam Muhammad Succession to Muhammad :Category:Caliphs Sunni Islam Shi'a Islam Khalifatul Masih Khilafah ( Caliphate)References Crone, Patricia, and Martin Hinds. God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 0521321859. Donner, Fred. The Early Islamic Conquests''. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1981. ISBN 0691053278. RoyalArk here Morocco - see also other present countries External links Ahmadiyya Muslim Caliphs Worldstatesmen.org Hizb-ut-tahrir UK website Khilafah.com official website Caliphate.eu official website | Caliph |@lemmatized caliph:73 khalīfah:1 head:1 state:2 caliphate:25 title:17 leader:20 islamic:18 ummah:4 community:6 rule:11 shari:2 ah:1 transliterated:1 version:1 arabic:4 word:6 mean:5 successor:17 representative:3 early:13 muslim:37 nation:2 follow:6 muhammad:31 death:3 call:6 khalifat:1 rasul:1 allah:5 political:6 messenger:1 god:5 refer:4 academic:1 prefer:2 transliterate:1 term:1 khalīf:1 often:1 also:15 amīr:1 al:39 mu:7 minīn:2 أمير:1 المؤمنين:2 commander:1 faithful:1 imam:10 إمام:1 colloquially:1 first:15 four:8 abu:10 bakr:9 umar:12 ibn:19 khattab:4 uthman:6 affan:3 ali:15 abi:2 talib:3 claim:19 umayyad:22 abbasids:5 ottoman:21 time:14 compete:1 dynasty:21 spain:10 northern:1 africa:6 egypt:8 historical:1 governor:2 sultan:11 amir:2 give:10 allegiance:3 little:1 real:2 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2,367 | Constitutional_law | The French Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen, whose principles still have constitutional value Constitutional law is the study of foundational or basic laws of nation states and other political organizations. Constitutions are the framework for government and may limit or define the authority and procedure of political bodies to execute new laws and regulations. Not all nation states have codified constitutions, though all such states have a jus commune, or law of the land, that may consist of a variety of imperative and consensual rules. These may include customary law, conventions, statutory law, judge-made law or international rules and norms, etc. Functions of constitutions State and legal structure Constitutional laws may often be considered second order rulemaking or rules about making rules to exercise power. It governs the relationships between the judiciary, the legislature and the executive with the bodies under its authority. One of the key tasks of constitutions within this context is to indicate hierarchies and relationships of power. For example, in a unitary state, the constitution will vest ultimate authority in one central administration and legislature, and judiciary, though there is often a delegation of power or authority to local or municipal authorities. When a constitution establishes a federal state, it will identify the several levels of government coexisting with exclusive or shared areas of jurisdiction over lawmaking, application and enforcement. Human rights Human rights or civil liberties form a crucial part of a country's constitution and govern the rights of the individual against the state. Most jurisdictions, like the United States and France, have a single codified constitution, with a bill of rights. A recent example is the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union which was intended to be included in the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, that failed to be ratified. Perhaps the most important example is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights under the UN Charter. These are intended to ensure basic political, social and economic standards that a nation state, or intergovernmental body is obliged to provide to its citizens but many do include its governments. Some countries like the United Kingdom, have no entrenched document setting out fundamental rights; in those jurisdictions the constitution is composed of statute, case law and convention. A case named Entick v. Carrington Entick v. Carrington (1765) 19 Howell's State Trials 1030 illustrates a constitutional principle deriving from the common law. Mr Entick's house was searched and ransacked by Sherriff Carrington. Carrington argued that a warrant from a Government minister, the Earl of Halifax was valid authority, even though there was no statutory provision or court order for it. The court, led by Lord Camden stated that, "The great end, for which men entered into society, was to secure their property. That right is preserved sacred and incommunicable in all instances, where it has not been taken away or abridged by some public law for the good of the whole. By the laws of England, every invasion of private property, be it ever so minute, is a trespass... If no excuse can be found or produced, the silence of the books is an authority against the defendant, and the plaintiff must have judgment." Inspired by John Locke, Chapter 9, Line 124, John Locke, Second Treatise on Government (1690) the fundamental constitutional principle is that the individual can do anything but that which is forbidden by law, while the state may do nothing but that which is authorised by law. Legislative procedure Another main function of constitutions may be to describe the procedure by which parliaments may legislate. For instance, special majorities may be required to alter the constitution. In bicameral legislatures, there may be a process laid out for second or third readings of bills before a new law can enter into force. Alternatively, there may further be requirements for maximum terms that a government can keep power before holding an election. The study of constitutional law Constitutional law is a major focus of legal academia. For example, most law students in the United States are required to take a class in "Con Law" during their first year, and several law journals, like the Duke Journal of Constitutional Law & Public Policy, the University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law, and the University of California, Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly, are devoted to the discussion of constitutional issues. Constitutions by region The Rule of Law The doctrine of the rule of law dictates that government must be conducted according to law. Dicey identified 3 essential elements of the British Constitution which were indicative of the rule of law. 1. absence of arbitrary power; 2. equality before the law; and 3. the constitution is a result of the ordinary law of the land. References | Constitutional_law |@lemmatized french:1 declaration:2 right:9 man:1 citizen:2 whose:1 principle:3 still:1 constitutional:11 value:1 law:29 study:2 foundational:1 basic:2 nation:3 state:13 political:3 organization:1 constitution:15 framework:1 government:7 may:10 limit:1 define:1 authority:7 procedure:3 body:3 execute:1 new:2 regulation:1 codify:1 though:3 jus:1 commune:1 land:2 consist:1 variety:1 imperative:1 consensual:1 rule:7 include:3 customary:1 convention:2 statutory:2 judge:1 make:2 international:1 norm:1 etc:1 function:2 legal:2 structure:1 often:2 consider:1 second:3 order:2 rulemaking:1 exercise:1 power:5 govern:2 relationship:2 judiciary:2 legislature:3 executive:1 one:2 key:1 task:1 within:1 context:1 indicate:1 hierarchy:1 example:4 unitary:1 vest:1 ultimate:1 central:1 administration:1 delegation:1 local:1 municipal:1 establish:2 federal:1 identify:1 several:2 level:1 coexist:1 exclusive:1 share:1 area:1 jurisdiction:3 lawmaking:1 application:1 enforcement:1 human:3 civil:1 liberty:1 form:1 crucial:1 part:1 country:2 individual:2 like:3 united:3 france:1 single:1 codified:1 bill:2 recent:1 charter:2 fundamental:3 european:1 union:1 intend:2 treaty:1 europe:1 fail:1 ratify:1 perhaps:1 important:1 universal:1 un:1 ensure:1 social:1 economic:1 standard:1 intergovernmental:1 oblige:1 provide:1 many:1 kingdom:1 entrenched:1 document:1 set:1 compose:1 statute:1 case:2 name:1 entick:3 v:2 carrington:4 howell:1 trial:1 illustrate:1 derive:1 common:1 mr:1 house:1 search:1 ransack:1 sherriff:1 argue:1 warrant:1 minister:1 earl:1 halifax:1 valid:1 even:1 provision:1 court:2 lead:1 lord:1 camden:1 great:1 end:1 men:1 enter:2 society:1 secure:1 property:2 preserve:1 sacred:1 incommunicable:1 instance:2 take:2 away:1 abridge:1 public:2 good:1 whole:1 england:1 every:1 invasion:1 private:1 ever:1 minute:1 trespass:1 excuse:1 find:1 produce:1 silence:1 book:1 defendant:1 plaintiff:1 must:2 judgment:1 inspire:1 john:2 locke:2 chapter:1 line:1 treatise:1 anything:1 forbid:1 nothing:1 authorise:1 legislative:1 another:1 main:1 describe:1 parliament:1 legislate:1 special:1 majority:1 require:2 alter:1 bicameral:1 process:1 lay:1 third:1 reading:1 force:1 alternatively:1 far:1 requirement:1 maximum:1 term:1 keep:1 hold:1 election:1 major:1 focus:1 academia:1 student:1 class:1 con:1 first:1 year:1 journal:3 duke:1 policy:1 university:2 pennsylvania:1 california:1 hastings:1 quarterly:1 devote:1 discussion:1 issue:1 region:1 doctrine:1 dictate:1 conduct:1 accord:1 dicey:1 identified:1 essential:1 element:1 british:1 indicative:1 absence:1 arbitrary:1 equality:1 result:1 ordinary:1 reference:1 |@bigram codified_constitution:1 bicameral_legislature:1 |
2,368 | Consociationalism | Consociationalism (, ) is a form of government involving guaranteed group representation, and is often suggested for managing conflict in deeply divided societies. It is often viewed as synonymous with power-sharing, although it is technically only one form of power-sharing. Consociationalism was discussed in academic terms by the political scientist Arend Lijphart. However, Lijphart has stated that he had "merely discovered what political practitioners had repeatedly – and independently of both academic experts and one another – invented years earlier". Arend Lijphart (2004) 'Constitutional design for divided societies', Journal of Democracy 15(2), pp. 96-109, p. 97 John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary trace consociationalism back to 1917, when it was first employed in the Netherlands. John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary (1993) 'Introduction: The macro-political regulation of ethnic conflict', in John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary (eds.) The Politics of Ethnic Conflict Regulation: Case Studies of Protracted Ethnic Conflicts, London: Routledge, pp. 1-40 Indeed, Lijphart draws heavily on the experience of the Netherlands in developing his argument in favour of the consociational approach to ethnic conflict regulation. The Netherlands, as a consociational state, was between 1857 and 1967 divided into four non-territorial pillars: Calvinist, Catholic, socialist and liberal, although until 1917 there was a plurality ('first past the post') electoral system rather than a consociational one. In their heyday, each comprised tightly-organised groups, schools, universities, hospitals and newspapers, all divided along a pillarised social structure. The theory, according to Lijphart, focuses on the role of social elites, their agreement and co-operation, as the key to a stable democracy. The goals of consociationalism are governmental stability, the survival of the power-sharing arrangements, the survival of democracy and the avoidance of violence. When consociationalism is organised along religious confessional lines, it is known as confessionalism, as is the case in Lebanon. Characteristics Lijphart identifies four key characteristics of consociational democracies: Arend Lijphart (1977) Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press NameExplanationGrand coalitionElites of each pillar come together to rule in the interests of society because they recognize the dangers of non-cooperation.Mutual vetoConsensus among the groups is required to confirm the majority rule. Mutuality means that the minority is unlikely to successfully block the majority. If one group blocks another on some matter, the latter are likely to block the former in return.ProportionalityRepresentation is based on population. If one pillar accounts for 30% of the overall society, then they occupy 30% of the positions on the police force, in civil service, and in other national and civic segments of society.Segmental autonomyCreates a sense of individuality and allows for different culturally-based community laws. Favourable conditions Lijphart also identifies a number of 'favourable conditions' under which consociationalism is likely to be successful. He has changed the specification of these conditions somewhat over time. Michael Kerr summarises Lijphart's most prominent favourable factors as: Segmental isolation of ethnic communities A multiple balance of power The presence of external threats common to all communities Overarching loyalties to the state A tradition of elite accommodation Socioeconomic equality A small population size, reducing the policy load A moderate multi-party system with segmental parties Lijphart stresses that these conditions are neither indispensable nor sufficient to account for the success of consociationalism. This has led Rinus van Schendelen to conclude that "the conditions may be present and absent, necessary and unnecessary, in short conditions or no conditions at all". John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary argue that three conditions are key to the establishment of democratic consociational power-sharing: elites have to be motivated to engage in conflict regulation; elites must lead deferential segments; and there must be a multiple balance of power, but more importantly the subcultures must be stable. Michael Kerr, in his study of the role of external actors in power-sharing arrangements in Northern Ireland and Lebanon, adds to McGarry and O'Leary's list the condition that "the existence of positive external regulating pressures, from state to non-state actors, which provide the internal elites with sufficient incentives and motives for their acceptance of, and support for, consociation". Advantages In a consociational state, all groups, including minorities, are represented on the political and economic stage. Supporters of consociationalism argue that it is a more realistic option in deeply divided societies than integrationist approaches to conflict resolution. John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary (2006) 'Consociational theory, Northern Ireland's conflict, and its agreement 2: What critics of consociation can learn from Northern Ireland', Government and Opposition 41(2), pp. 249-277 It has been credited with supporting successful and non-violent transitions to democracy in countries such as South Africa. Criticisms Brian Barry Brian Barry has questioned the nature of the divisions that exist in the countries that Lijphart considers to be 'classic cases' of consociational democracies. For example, he makes the case that in the Swiss example, "political parties cross-cut cleavages in the society and provide a picture of remarkable consensus rather than highly structured conflict of goals". Brian Barry (1979a) 'Political accommodation and consociational democracy', British Journal of Political Science 5(4), pp. 477-505, p. 501 In the case of the Netherlands, he argues that "the whole cause of the disagreement was the feeling of some Dutchman...that it mattered what all the inhabitants of the country believed. Demands for policies aimed at producing religious or secular uniformity presuppose a concern...for the state of grace of one's fellow citizens". He contrasts this to the case of a society marked by conflict, in this case Northern Ireland, where he argues that "the inhabitants…have never shown much worry about the prospects of the adherents of the other religion going to hell". Brian Barry (1979b) 'The consociational model and its dangers', European Journal of Political Research 3(4), pp. 393-412, p. 407 Barry concludes that in the Dutch case, consociationalism is tautological and argues that "the relevance of the 'consociational' model for other divided societies is much more doubtful than is commonly supposed". Brian Barry (1979a), p. 481 Rinus van Schendelen Van Schendelen has argued that Lijphart uses evidence selectively. Pillarisation was "seriously weakening," even in the 1950s, cross-denominational co-operation was increasing, and formerly coherent political sub-cultures were dissolving. He argued that elites in the Netherlands were not motivated by preferences derived from the general interest, but rather by self-interest. They formed coalitions not to forge consociational negotiation between segments but to improve their parties' respective power. He argued that the Netherlands was "stable" in that it had few protests or riots, but that it was so before consociationalism, and that it was not stable from the standpoint of government turnover. He questioned the extent to which the Netherlands, or indeed any country labelled a consociational system, could be called a democracy, and whether calling a consociational country a democracy isn't somehow ruled out by definition. He believed that Lijphart suffered severe problems of rigor when identifying whether particular divisions were cleavages, whether particular cleavages were segmental, and whether particular cleavages were cross-cutting. Lustick on hegemonic control Ian Lustick has argued that academics lack an alternative 'control' approach for explaining stability in deeply divided societies and that this has resulted in the empirical overextension of consociational models. Ian Lustick (1979) 'Stability in deeply divided societies: Consociationalism versus control', World Politics 31(3), pp. 325-344 Lustick argues that Lijphart has "an impressionistic methodological posture, flexible rules for coding data, and an indefatigable, rhetorically seductive commitment to promoting consociationalism as a widely applicable principle of political engineering" Ian Lustick (1997) 'Lijphart, Lakatos, and consociationalism', World Politics 50(1), pp. 88-117, p. 117 , that results in him applying consociational theory to case studies that it does not fit. Furthermore, Lustick states that "Lijphart's definition of 'accommodation'...includes the elaborately specified claim that issues dividing polarized blocs are settled by leaders convinced of the need for settlement". Ian Lustick (1997), p. 100 Other criticisms Critics point out that consociationalism is dangerous in a system of differing antagonistic ideologies, generally conservatism and communism. They state that specific conditions must exist for three or more groups to develop a multi-party system with strong leaders. This philosophy is dominated by elites, with those masses that are sidelined with the elites having less to lose if war breaks out. Consociationalism cannot be imperially applied. For example, it does not effectively apply to Austria. Critics also point to the failure of this line of reasoning in Lebanon, a country that reverted back to civil war. It only truly applies in Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands, and not in more deeply divided societies. If one of three groups gets half plus one of the vote, then the other groups are in perpetual opposition, which is largely incompatible with consociationalism. Consociationalism focuses on diverging identities such as ethnicity instead of integrating identities such as class, institutionalizing and entrenching the former. Furthermore, it relies on rival co-operation, which is inherently unstable. It focuses on intrastate relations and neglects relations with other states. Donald Horowitz argues that consociationalism can lead to the reification of ethnic divisions, since "grand coalitions are unlikely, because of the dynamics of intraethnic competition. The very act of forming a multiethnic coalition generates intraethnic competition – flanking – if it does not already exist". Donald Horowitz (1985) Ethnic Groups in Conflict, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, p. 575 Consociationalism assumes that each group is cohesive and has strong leadership. Although the minority can block decisions, this requires 100 per cent agreement. Rights are given to communities rather than individuals, leading to over-representation of some individuals in society and under-representation of others. Grand coalitions are unlikely to happen due to the dynamics of ethnic competition. Each group seeks more power for itself. Consociationalists are criticized for focusing too much on the set up of institutions and not enough on transitional issues which go beyond such institutions. Finally, it is claimed that consociational institutions promote sectarianism and entrench existing identities. Examples The political systems of a number of countries operate on a consociational basis, including, Belgium, Lebanon, The Netherlands (from 1917 until 1967), Switzerland and Nigeria. Some academics have also argued that the European Union resembles a consociational democracy. Additionally, a number of peace agreements are consociational, including the Dayton Agreement that ended the 1992-1995 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is described as a "classic example of consociational settlement" by Sumantra Bose Sumantra Bose (2002) Bosnia After Dayton: Nationalist Partition and International Intervention, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 216 and "an ideal-typical consociational democracy" by Roberto Belloni, Roberto Belloni (2004) 'Peacebuilding and consociational electoral engineering in Bosnia and Herzegovina', International Peacekeeping 11(2), pp. 334-353, p. 336 and the Belfast Agreement of 1998 in Northern Ireland (and its subsequent reinforcement with 2006's St Andrews Agreement), which Brendan O'Leary describes as "power-sharing plus". Brendan O'Leary (1999) 'The 1998 British-Irish Agreement: Power-sharing plus', Scottish Affairs 26, pp. 14-35 See also Conflict management Consociational state Consensus democracy Minority groups Minority rights References | Consociationalism |@lemmatized consociationalism:19 form:4 government:3 involve:1 guarantee:1 group:12 representation:3 often:2 suggest:1 manage:1 conflict:12 deeply:5 divided:5 society:14 view:1 synonymous:1 power:11 sharing:6 although:3 technically:1 one:8 discuss:1 academic:4 term:1 political:11 scientist:1 arend:3 lijphart:16 however:1 state:11 merely:1 discover:1 practitioner:1 repeatedly:1 independently:1 expert:1 another:2 invent:1 year:1 earlier:1 constitutional:1 design:1 journal:3 democracy:13 pp:9 p:9 john:5 mcgarry:6 brendan:7 leary:8 trace:1 back:2 first:2 employ:1 netherlands:9 introduction:1 macro:1 regulation:4 ethnic:8 ed:1 politics:3 case:9 study:3 protracted:1 london:1 routledge:1 indeed:2 draw:1 heavily:1 experience:1 develop:2 argument:1 favour:1 consociational:24 approach:3 divide:5 four:2 non:4 territorial:1 pillar:3 calvinist:1 catholic:1 socialist:1 liberal:1 plurality:1 past:1 post:1 electoral:2 system:6 rather:4 heyday:1 comprise:1 tightly:1 organised:1 school:1 university:4 hospital:1 newspaper:1 along:2 pillarised:1 social:2 structure:1 theory:3 accord:1 focus:4 role:2 elite:6 agreement:8 co:3 operation:3 key:3 stable:4 goal:2 governmental:1 stability:3 survival:2 arrangement:2 avoidance:1 violence:1 organise:1 religious:2 confessional:1 line:2 know:1 confessionalism:1 lebanon:4 characteristic:2 identifies:1 plural:1 comparative:1 exploration:1 new:1 ct:1 yale:1 press:3 nameexplanationgrand:1 coalitionelites:1 come:1 together:1 rule:4 interest:3 recognize:1 danger:2 cooperation:1 mutual:1 vetoconsensus:1 among:1 require:2 confirm:1 majority:2 mutuality:1 mean:1 minority:5 unlikely:3 successfully:1 block:4 matter:2 latter:1 likely:2 former:2 return:1 proportionalityrepresentation:1 base:2 population:2 account:2 overall:1 occupy:1 position:1 police:1 force:1 civil:2 service:1 national:1 civic:1 segment:3 segmental:4 autonomycreates:1 sense:1 individuality:1 allow:1 different:1 culturally:1 community:4 law:1 favourable:3 condition:10 also:4 identify:2 number:3 successful:2 change:1 specification:1 somewhat:1 time:1 michael:2 kerr:2 summarises:1 prominent:1 factor:1 isolation:1 multiple:2 balance:2 presence:1 external:3 threat:1 common:1 overarch:1 loyalty:1 tradition:1 accommodation:3 socioeconomic:1 equality:1 small:1 size:1 reduce:1 policy:2 load:1 moderate:1 multi:2 party:5 stress:1 neither:1 indispensable:1 sufficient:2 success:1 lead:4 rinus:2 van:3 schendelen:3 conclude:1 may:1 present:1 absent:1 necessary:1 unnecessary:1 short:1 argue:11 three:3 establishment:1 democratic:1 motivate:2 engage:1 elites:2 must:4 deferential:1 importantly:1 subculture:1 actor:2 share:1 northern:5 ireland:5 add:1 list:1 existence:1 positive:1 regulating:1 pressure:1 provide:2 internal:1 incentive:1 motif:1 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irish:1 scottish:1 affair:1 see:1 management:1 reference:1 |@bigram arend_lijphart:3 mcgarry_brendan:5 brendan_leary:7 consociational_democracy:5 ct_yale:1 ian_lustick:4 inherently_unstable:1 per_cent:1 bosnia_herzegovina:2 |
2,369 | Orthodox_Judaism | Rabbi Moshe Feinstein, a leading Rabbinical authority for Orthodox Jewry of the second half of the twentieth century.Orthodox Judaism is a formulation of Judaism that adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics first canonized in the Talmudic texts ("Oral Torah") and as subsequently developed and applied by the later authorities known as the Gaonim, Rishonim, and Acharonim. Orthodox Judaism is characterized by belief that the Torah and its laws are Divine, were transmitted by God to Moses, are eternal, and are unalterable; belief that there is also an oral law in Judaism, which contains the authoritative interpretation of the written Torah's legal sections, and is also Divine by virtue of having been transmitted by God to Moses along with the Written Law, as embodied in the Talmud, Midrash, and innumerable related texts, all intrinsically and inherently entwined with the written law of the Torah; belief that God has made an exclusive, unbreakable covenant with the Children of Israel to be governed by the Torah; adherence to Halakha, or Jewish law, including acceptance of codes, mainly the Shulchan Aruch, as authoritative practical guidance in application of both the written and oral laws, as well as acceptance of halakha-following Rabbis as authoritative interpreters and judges of Jewish law; belief in Jewish eschatology. Orthodox beliefs may be most found in their adherence to the thirteen Jewish principles of faith as stated by the Rambam (Maimonides). Although Orthodox Jews are expected to observe all 613 mitzvot, certain core practices are generally considered essential to being Orthodox and converts are generally required to promise to observe: Refraining from murder, idolatry, and certain biblically-prohibited sexual practices such as adultery and incest (See Self-sacrifice under Jewish law). Shabbat, refraining from activities that violate the Jewish sabbath, and Jewish holidays. Kashrut, the Jewish dietary laws. Taharat Hamishpacha, the laws of family purity, restricting sexual relations for a prescribed period around menstruation and after childbirth. Circumcision for males. History Orthodoxy is not a single movement or school of thought. There is no single rabbinic body to which all its rabbis are expected to belong, or any one organization representing its member congregations. In the United States at the present moment, there are a number of Orthodox congregational organizations, such as Agudath Israel, the Orthodox Union, and the National Council of Young Israel; none of which can claim to represent even a majority of all Orthodox congregations. What the exact forms of Judaism were during the times of Moses or during the eras of the Mishnah and Talmud cannot be exactly known today in all their details, but Orthodox Jews maintain that contemporary Orthodox Judaism maintains the same basic philosophy and legal framework that existed throughout Jewish history, whereas the other denominations depart from it. It may be said that Orthodox Judaism, as it exists today, is an outgrowth that stretches from the time of Moses, to the time of the Mishnah and Talmud, through the oral law, and rabbinic literature ongoing until the present time. In the early 19th century, elements within German Jewry sought to reform Jewish belief and practice in response to The Age of Enlightenment and the Jewish Emancipation. In light of contemporary scholarship, they denied divine authorship of the Torah, declared only those biblical laws concerning ethics to be binding, and stated that the rest of halakha (Jewish law) need no longer be viewed as normative (see Reform Judaism). Rabbi S.R. Hirsch At the same time, there were those German Jews who actively maintained their traditions and adherence to Jewish law while simultaneously engaging with a post-Enlightenment society. This camp was best represented by the work and thought of Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch. Hirsch held that Judaism demands an application of Torah thought to the entire realm of human experience—including the secular disciplines. This philosophy is termed "Torah im Derech Eretz". While insisting on strict adherence to Jewish beliefs and practices, he held that Jews should attempt to engage and influence the modern world, and encouraged those secular studies compatible with Torah thought. This form of Judaism is sometimes termed "neo-Orthodoxy". The religious and social realities of Western European Jewry are considered by some to be the precursors to Modern Orthodoxy. While Modern Orthodoxy is considered traditional by most Jews today, some within the Orthodox community groups to its right consider it of questionable validity, and the neo-Orthodox movement of today holds that Hirsch's views are unalike in essence to those of Modern Orthodoxy. [See Torah im Derech Eretz and Torah Umadda "Relationship with Torah im Derech Eretz" for a more extensive listing.] In the 20th century, a large segment of the Orthodox population (notably as represented by the World Agudath Israel movement formally established in 1912) disagreed, and took a stricter approach. For a few of them, the motto "recent is forbidden by Torah" was appealing, but they too followed various routes of observance and practice. The leading rabbis of Orthodoxy viewed innovations and modifications within Jewish law and customs with extreme care and caution. Some today refer to this form of Judaism as "Haredi Judaism", or "Ultra-Orthodox Judaism". The latter term is controversial, and some consider the label "ultra-Orthodox" pejorative. Several media entities refrain from using the term “ultra Orthodox” including the Religion Newswriters Association, JTA, the global Jewish news service, and the Star-Ledger — New Jersey’s largest daily newspaper, according the New Jersey Press Association. http://www.jstandard.com/index.php/content/item/paper_loses_divisive_term/6507 Josh Lipowsky, Paper loses 'divisive' term, New Jersey Jewish Standard, Februrary 5, 2009, pp 10. New Jersey attorney Stephen E. Schwartz, Esq., convinced the Star-Ledger to become the first mainstream newspaper to drop the term. Ibid Several local Jewish papers including the Jewish Week in New York and the Jewish Exponent in Philadelphia have also dropped the term. According to Rabbi Shammai Engelmayer, spiritual leader of Temple Israel Community Center in Cliffside Park and former executive editor of the Jewish Week, this leaves “Orthodox” as “an umbrella term that designates a very widely disparate group of people very loosely tied together by some core beliefs.” Ibid The various approaches have proved resilient. It is estimated that presently there are more Jews studying in yeshivot (Talmudical schools) and Kollelim (post-graduate Talmudical colleges for married students) than at any other time in history. In 1915 Yeshiva College (later Yeshiva University) and its Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary was established in New York, New York for training in a Modern Orthodox milieu. Eventually a school branch was established in Los Angeles, California. A number of other influential Orthodox seminaries, mostly Haredi, were also established throughout the country, most notably in New York, New York, Baltimore, Maryland, and Chicago, Illinois. Beth Medrash Govoha, the Haredi yeshiva in Lakewood, New Jersey is the largest Talmudic academy in the United States with a student body of over 5,000 students. Origin of the term "Orthodox" While many Orthodox Jews accept the label "Orthodox", others reject and criticise it because it was never traditionally applied to Jews who strictly interpreted and followed halakha in ancient times or the Middle Ages. Many Orthodox Jews prefer to call their faith Torah Judaism. The word "orthodox" itself is derived from the Greek orthos meaning "straight/correct" and doxia meaning "opinion", from the verb "doko', in Greek "Δοκώ", which means "I believe". Use of the "Orthodox" label seems to have begun towards the beginning of the 19th century. Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch wrote in 1854 that: ...it was not "Orthodox" Jews who introduced the word "orthodox" into Jewish discussion. It was the modern "progressive" Jews who first applied the name to "old," "backward" Jews as a derogatory term. This name was... resented by "old" Jews. And rightfully so... Others, however, say that Rabbi Isaac Leeser was the first to use the term in the US in his journal "The Occident," whose target audience was the more "traditional" or Orthodox Jew. Yet others explain that the term arose out of the growth of the then-new Reformer Movement, which was "unorthodox", hence making the traditionalists the "orthodox." Diversity within Orthodox Judaism Orthodox Judaism's central belief is that Torah, including both the Written Law and the Talmud, was given directly from God to Moses and can never be altered or rejected in any way. As a result, all Jews are required to live in accordance with the Commandments and Jewish law. However, since there is no one unifying Orthodox body, there is no one canonical statement of principles of faith. Rather, each Orthodox group claims to be a non-exclusive heir to the received tradition of Jewish theology, while still affirming a literal acceptance of Maimonides' thirteen principles. Given this (relative) philosophic flexibility, variant viewpoints are possible, particularly in areas not explicitly demarcated by the Halakha. The result is a relatively broad range of hashkafot, or world views, within Orthodoxy. The greatest differences within strains of Orthodoxy are over: the degree to which an Orthodox Jew should integrate and/or disengage from secular society; whether Zionism is part of Judaism or opposed to it, and the role of the modern State of Israel in Judaism; the extent of acceptance of Torah/Talmud/Aggadah/Halakha through the viewpoint of rabbis and their rabbinical literature as a principal outlook on all matters of the external world including secular, scientific, and political matters, vis-a-vis accepting secular views on some matters; the weight assigned to Torah study versus secular studies or other pursuits; the centrality of yeshivas as the place for personal Torah study; the importance of a central spiritual guide in areas outside of Halakhic decision (Da'as Torah); the importance of maintaining non-Halakhic customs, such as dress, language and music; the role of women in (religious) society. the nature of the relationship with non-Jews. Streams of Orthodoxy The above differences are realised in the various subgroups of Orthodoxy, which maintain significant social differences, and differences in understanding Halakha. These groups, broadly, comprise Modern Orthodox Judaism and Haredi Judaism, most Hasidic Jewish groups falling into the latter category. Modern Orthodoxy comprises a fairly broad spectrum of movements each drawing on several distinct, though related, philosophies, which in some combination provide the basis for all variations of the movement today. In general, Modern Orthodoxy holds that Jewish law is normative and binding, while simultaneously attaching a positive value to interaction with contemporary society. In this view, Orthodox Judaism can “be enriched” by its intersection with modernity; further, “modern society creates opportunities to be productive citizens engaged in the Divine work of transforming the world to benefit humanity”. At the same time, in order to preserve the integrity of halakha, any area of “powerful inconsistency and conflict” between Torah and modern culture must be avoided. http://shma.com/feb01/berman.htm . Modern Orthodoxy, additionally, assigns a central role to the "People of Israel" Rabbi Norman Lamm: Some Comments on Centrist Orthodoxy . Modern Orthodoxy, in general, places a high national, as well as religious, significance on the State of Israel, and Modern Orthodox institutions and individuals are, typically, Zionistic in orientation. An additional manifestation is that involvement with non-orthodox Jews will extend beyond "outreach (Kiruv)" to continued institutional relations and cooperation; see further under Torah Umadda. A Haredi Jew Haredi Judaism advocates segregation from non-Jewish culture, although not from non-Jewish society entirely. It is characterised by its focus on community-wide Torah study (in contrast with Modern Orthodoxy, which in practice decentralises the role of Torah study for lay people through the emphasis of other concurrent religious values). Haredi Orthodoxy's differences with Modern Orthodoxy usually lie in interpretation of the nature of traditional halakhic concepts and in understanding of what constitutes acceptable application of these concepts. Engaging in the commercial world is often seen as a legitimate means to achieving a livelihood, but participation in modern society is not perceived as an inherently worthy ambition. The same outlook is applied with regard to obtaining degrees necessary to enter one's intended profession: where tolerated in the Haredi society, attending secular institutions of higher education is viewed as a necessary but inferior activity. Pure academic interest is instead directed toward the religious edification found in the yeshiva. Depending on various factors, both boys and girls attend school and proceed to higher Torah study, starting anywhere between the ages of 13 and 18. A significant proportion of students, especially boys, remain in yeshiva until marriage (which is often arranged through facilitated dating. See shiduch), and many study in a kollel (Torah study institute for married men) - for many years after marriage. Most men, even those not in Kollel, will make certain to study Torah daily. Families tend to be large, reflecting adherence to the Torah commandment "be fruitful and multiply" (Book of Genesis 1:28, 9:1,7). Hasidic Judaism originated in Eastern Europe (what is now Belarus and Ukraine) in the 18th century. Founded by Israel ben Eliezer known as the Baal Shem Tov (1698–1760), it originated in an age of persecution of the Jewish people, when a schism between scholarly and ignorant European Jews existed. In addition to bridging this class gap, Hasidic teachings sought to reintroduce joy in the peformance of the commandments and in prayer. This joy had been suppressed in favor of intense intellectual study of the Talmud. The Ba'al Shem Tov sought to combine rigorous scholarship with more emotional mitzvah observance. In practice The Babylonian Talmud For guidance in practical application of Jewish law the majority of Orthodox Jews appeal, ultimately, to the Shulchan Aruch ("Code of Jewish Law" composed in the 16th century by Rabbi Joseph Caro) together with its surrounding commentaries. Thus, at a general level, there is a large degree of uniformity amongst all Orthodox Jews. Concerning the details, however, there is often variance: decisions may be based on various of the standardized codes of Jewish Law that have been made over the centuries, as well as on the various responsa. These codes and responsa may differ from each other as regards detail (and reflecting the above differences, on the weight assigned to various issues). By and large, however, the differences result from the historic dispersal of the Jews and the consequent regional differences in practice (see minhag). Mizrahi and Sephardic Orthodox Jews base their practice on the Shulchan Aruch. Two recent works of Halakha, Kaf HaChaim and Ben Ish Chai, have become authoritative in many Sephardic communities. Thus Mizrahi and Sephardi Jews may choose to follow the opinion of the Ben Ish Chai when it conflicts with the Shulchan Aruch. Some of these practices are derived from the Kabbalistic school of Isaac Luria. Ashkenazic Orthodox Jews have traditionally based most of their practices on the Rema, the gloss on the Shulchan Aruch by Rabbi Moses Isserles reflecting differences between Ashkenazi and Sephardi custom. In the postwar period, the Mishnah Berurah has become authoritative, and Ashkenazi Jews may choose to follow the opinion of the Mishna Brurah instead of a particular detail of Jewish law as presented in the Shulchan Aruch. Chabad Lubavitch Hasidim and many other hasidic sects generally follow the rulings of Shneur Zalman of Liadi in the Shulchan Aruch HaRav. Traditional Baladi and Dor Daim (Yemenite Jews) base most of their practices on the Mishneh Torah, Maimonides' earlier compendium of halakha, written several centuries before the Shulchan Aruch. The Talmidei haRambam also keep Jewish law as codified in the Mishneh Torah. An even smaller number - such as the Romaniote Jews - traditionally rule according to the Jerusalem Talmud over the Babylonian Talmud. Spanish and Portuguese Jews consider the Shulchan Aruch as authoritative, but differ from other Sephardim by making less allowance for more recent authorities, in particular customs based on the Kabbalah. Some customs are based on Maimonides or the Arba'ah Turim. (Note that on an individual level there is a considerable range in the level of observance amongst "Orthodox Jews". Thus there are those who would consider themselves "Orthodox" and yet may not be observant of, for example, the laws of family purity.) There are several Jewish laws that Orthodox Judaism has traditionally placed an emphasis on. Amongst them are the rules of Kashrut, Shabbat, Family Purity, and Tefilah (Prayer). Externally, Orthodox Jews can often be identified by their manner of dress and family lifestyle. Orthodox women will traditionally dress modestly; keeping most of their skin covered. Additionally, most married women will cover their hair usually in the form of hat, bandanna, or wig. Orthodox men traditionally wear a skullcap known as a Kipa. Haredi men often distinguish themselves by growing beards, wearing black hats and dressing in formal attire. Beliefs Orthodox Judaism is composed of different groups with intertwining beliefs, practices and theologies, although in their core beliefs, all Orthodox movements share the same principles. Orthodoxy collectively considers itself the only true heir to the Jewish tradition. The Orthodox Jewish movements generally consider all non-Orthodox Jewish movements to be unacceptable deviations from authentic Judaism; both because of other denominations' doubt concerning the verbal revelation of Written and Oral Torah, and because of their rejection of Halakhic precedent as binding. As such, most Orthodox groups characterise non-Orthodox forms of Judaism as heretical; see the article on Relationships between Jewish religious movements. Orthodox Judaism affirms monotheism, or the belief in one God. Among the in-depth explanations of that belief are Maimonidean rationalism, Kabbalistic mysticism, and Chassidic Philosophy (Chassidut). A few affirm self-limited omniscience (the theology elucidated by Gersonides in "The Wars of the Lord".) Orthodox Judaism maintains the historical understanding of Jewish identity. A Jew is someone who was born to a Jewish mother, or who converts to Judaism in accordance with Jewish law and tradition. Orthodoxy thus rejects patrilineal descent as a means of establishing Jewish national identity. Similarly, Orthodoxy strongly condemns intermarriage. Intermarriage is seen as a deliberate rejection of Judaism, and an intermarried person is effectively cut off from most of the Orthodox community. However, some Orthodox Jewish organizations do reach out to intermarried Jews. Orthodox Judaism holds that the words of the Torah, including both the Written Law (Pentateuch) and those parts of the Oral Law which are halacha leMoshe m'Sinai, were dictated by God to Moses essentially as they exist today. The laws contained in the Written Torah were given along with detailed explanations as how to apply and interpret them, the Oral Law. Although Orthodox Jews believe that many elements of current religious law were decreed or added as "fences" around the law by the rabbis, all Orthodox Jews believe that there is an underlying core of Sinaitic law and that this core of the religious laws Orthodox Jews know today is thus directly derived from Sinai and directly reflects the Divine will. As such, Orthodox Jews believe that one must be extremely careful in changing or adapting Jewish law. Orthodox Judaism holds that, given Jewish law's Divine origin, no underlying principle may be compromised in accounting for changing political, social or economic conditions; in this sense, "creativity" and development in Jewish law is limited. However, there is significant disagreement within Orthodox Judaism, particularly between Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism, about the extent and circumstances under which the proper application of Halakha should be re-examined as a result of changing realities. As a general rule, Haredi Jews believe that when at all possible the law should be maintained as it has been practiced through the generations; Modern Orthodox authorities are more willing to assume that under scrupulous exmaination, identical principles may lead to different applications in the context of modern life. To the Orthodox Jew, halakha is a guide, God's Law, governing the structure of daily life from the moment he or she wakes up to the moment he goes to sleep. It includes codes of behaviour applicable to a broad range of circumstances (and many hypothetical ones). There are though a number of meta-principles that guide the halakhic process and in an instance of opposition between a specific halakha and a meta-principle, the meta-principle often wins out. Examples of Halachic Meta-Principles are: Deracheha Darchei Noam-the ways of Torah are pleasant, Kavod Habriyot-basic respect for human beings, Pikuach Nefesh-the sanctity of human life. Orthodox Judaism holds that on Mount Sinai the Written Law was transmitted along with an Oral Law. The words of the Torah (Pentateuch) were spoken to Moses by God; the laws contained in this Written Torah, the Mitzvot, were given along with detailed explanations in the oral tradition as to how to apply and interpret them. Furthermore, the Oral law includes principles designed to create new rules. The Oral law is held to be transmitted with an extremely high degree of accuracy. Jewish theologians, who choose to emphasize the more evolutionary nature of the Halacha point to a famous story in the Talmud, where Moses is magically transported to the House of Study of Rabbi Akiva and is clearly unable to follow the ensuing discussion. According to Orthodox Judaism, Jewish law today is based on the commandments in the Torah, as viewed through the discussions and debates contained in classical rabbinic literature, especially the Mishnah and the Talmud. Orthodox Judaism thus holds that the halakha represents the "will of God", either directly, or as closely to directly as possible. The laws are from the word of God in the Torah, using a set of rules also revealed by God to Moses on Mount Sinai, and have been derived with the utmost accuracy and care, and thus the Oral Law is considered to be no less the word of God. If some of the details of Jewish law may have been lost over the millennia, they were reconstructed in accordance with internally consistent rules; see The 13 rules by which Jewish law was derived. In this world view, the Mishnaic and Talmudic rabbis are closer to the Divine revelation; by corollary, one must be extremely conservative in changing or adapting Jewish law. Furthermore, Orthodox Judaism holds that, given Jewish law's Divine origin, no underlying principle may be compromised in accounting for changing political, social or economic conditions; in this sense, "creativity" and development in Jewish law is held to have been limited. Orthodox Jews will also study the Talmud for its own sake; this is considered to be the greatest mitzvah of all; see Torah study. Haredi and Modern Orthodox Judaism vary somewhat in their view of the validity of Halakhic reconsideration. It is held virtually as a principle of belief among many Haredi Jews that halakhah never changes. Haredi Judaism thus views higher criticism of the Talmud as inappropriate, and almost certainly heretical. At the same time, many within Modern Orthodox Judaism do not have a problem with historical scholarship in this area. See the entry on historical analysis of the Talmud. Modern Orthodox Judaism is also somewhat more willing to consider revisiting questions of Jewish law through Talmudic arguments. Although in practice such instances are rare, they do exist. Notable examples include acceptance of rules permitting farming during the Shmita year and permitting the advanced religious education of women. Orthodox movements, organizations and groups Beit midrash in Belz yeshiva The Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America, known as the Orthodox Union, or "OU", and the Rabbinical Council of America, "RCA" are organizations that represent Modern Orthodox Judaism, a large segment of Orthodoxy in the United States and Canada. These groups should not be confused with the similarly named Union of Orthodox Rabbis (described below). The National Council of Young Israel, and the Council of Young Israel Rabbis are smaller groups that were founded as Modern Orthodox organizations, are Zionistic, and are in the right wing of Modern Orthodox Judaism. Young Israel strongly supports and allies itself with the settlement movement in Israel. While the lay membership of synagogues affiliated with the NCYI are almost exclusively Modern Orthodox in orientation, the rabbinical leadership of the synagogues ranges from Modern Orthodox to Haredi. The Chief Rabbinate of Israel was founded with the intention of representing all of Judaism within the State of Israel, and has two chief rabbis: One is Ashkenazic (of the East European and Russian Jewish tradition) and one is Sephardic (of the Mediterranean, North African, Central Asian, Middle-Eastern and of Caucasus Jewish tradition.) The rabbinate has never been accepted by most Israeli Haredi groups. Since the 1960s the Chief rabbinate of Israel has moved somewhat closer to the positions of Haredi Judaism. Chief Rabbinate of Israel Mizrachi, and political parties such as Mafdal and National Union (Israel) all represent certain sectors within the Religious Zionist movement, both in diaspora and Israel. Gush Emunim, Meimad, Tzohar, Hazit and other movements represent over competing divisions within the sector. They firmly believe in the 'Land Of Israel for the People of Israel according to the principles Torah of Israel.', although Meimad are pragmatic about such programme. Gush Emunim are the settlement wing of National Union (Israel) and support widespread kiruv as well, through such institutions as Machon Meir, Merkaz HaRav and Rabbi Shlomo Aviner. Another sector includes the Hardal faction, which tends to be unallied to the Government and quite centristic. Chabad Lubavitch is a branch of Hasidic Judaism widely known for its emphasis on outreach and education. The organization has been in existence for 200 years, and especially after the Second World War, it began sending out emissaries (shluchim) who have as a mission the bringing back of disaffected Jews to a level of observance consistent with authentic and proper norms (ie, Orthodox Judaism). They are major players in what is known as the Baal Teshuva movement. Their mandate is to make nonobservant Jews more Jewishly aware. Agudath Israel of America is a large and influential Haredi group in America. Its roots go back to the establishment of the original founding of the Agudath Israel movement in 1912 in Katowitz, Prussia (now KatowicePoland). The American Agudath Israel was founded in 1939. There is an Agudat Israel (Hasidic) in Israel, and also Degel HaTorah (non-Hasidic "Lithuanian"), as well as an Agudath Israel of Europe. These groups are loosely affiliated through the World Agudath Israel, which from time to time holds a major gathering in Israel called a knessia. Agudah unites many rabbinic leaders from the Hasidic Judaism wing with those of the non-Hasidic "yeshiva" world. It is generally non-nationalistic. Agudath Yisrael More on Agudath Yisrael In Israel it shares a similar agenda with the Sephardic Shas political party, although Shas is more bipartisan when it comes to its own issues and non-nationalistic-based with a huge emphasis on Sephardi Judaism and Mizrahi Judaism. Shas has its own positions and plays a more prominent role in the government of the State, usually having something to say about almost every Jewish issue. It is usually in fierce contention with Agudat Yisrael in Israel. The Agudath HaRabbonim, also known as the Union of Orthodox Rabbis of the United States and Canada, is a small Haredi-leaning organization founded in 1902. It should not be confused with "The Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America" (see above) which is a separate organization. While at one time influential within Orthodox Judaism, the Agudath HaRabbonim in the last several decades has progressively moved further to the right; its membership has been dropping and it has been relatively inactive. Some of its members are rabbis from Chabad Lubavitch; some are also members of the RCA (see above). It is currently most famous for its 1997 declaration (citing Israeli Chief Rabbi Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog, Lubavitcher Rebbe Menachem Mendel Schneerson, and Modern Orthodox Rabbi Joseph Soloveitchik) that the Conservative and Reform movements are "not Judaism at all." The Igud HaRabbonim, the Rabbinical Alliance of America, is a small Haredi organization. Founded in 1944, it claims over 650 rabbis; recent estimates indicate that less than 100 of its members worldwide actually work as rabbis. The Central Rabbinical Congress of the United States and Canada (CRC) was established in 1952. It is an anti-Zionist, Haredi organization, consisting mainly of the Satmar Hasidic group, which has about 100,000 adherents (an unknown number of which are rabbis), and like-minded Haredi groups. During the past years, the left-wing Modern Orthodox advocacy group, Edah, consisting of American Modern Orthodox rabbis. Most of its membership came from synagogues affiliated with the Union of Orthodox Congregations and RCA (above). Their motto was, "The courage to be Modern and Orthodox". Edah ceased functioning in 2007 and merged some of its programs into the left-wing Yeshivat Chovevei Torah. The Bais Yaakov movement, begun in 1917, introduced the concept of formal Judaic schooling for Orthodox women. See also Divine Providence: Contemporary Orthodox thought Jewish denominations Torah Judaism Haredi Judaism Hasidic Judaism List of Orthodox rabbis Religious Zionism List of Baalei teshuva References External links Your Complete Guide to Brochos Origins of Orthodox Judaism The different Orthodox Jewish groups The State of Orthodox Judaism Today Orthodox Judaism in Israel Google-Powered Search Engine indexing Orthodox-Interest Web Sites Orthodox Jewish population growth and political changes | Orthodox_Judaism |@lemmatized rabbi:28 moshe:1 feinstein:1 lead:3 rabbinical:6 authority:4 orthodox:105 jewry:3 second:2 half:1 twentieth:1 century:8 judaism:61 formulation:1 adhere:1 relatively:3 strict:2 interpretation:3 application:7 law:54 ethic:2 first:4 canonize:1 talmudic:4 text:2 oral:12 torah:41 subsequently:1 develop:1 apply:6 late:1 know:9 gaonim:1 rishonim:1 acharonim:1 characterize:1 belief:14 divine:9 transmit:4 god:12 moses:10 eternal:1 unalterable:1 also:12 contain:4 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2,370 | Caldera | Satellite image of Santorini. The Minoan caldera is at the lower part of the image and formed in the Minoan eruption approx. 1600 BCE (3610 BP). The whole caldera is formed of three overlapping calderas. Clockwise from centre: Nea Kameni; Palea Kameni; Aspronisi; Therasia; Thera A caldera is a cauldron-like volcanic feature usually formed by the collapse of land following a volcanic eruption such as the one at Yellowstone National Park. They are sometimes confused with volcanic craters. The word comes from Spanish caldera, and this from Latin CALDARIA, meaning "cooking pot". In some texts the English term cauldron is also used. In 1815, the German geologist Leopold von Buch visited the Las Cañadas Caldera Teide, Tenerife and the Caldera de Taburiente, La Palma, both in the Canary Islands. When he published his memoirs he introduced the term "caldera" into the geological vocabulary. Caldera formation A collapse is triggered by the emptying of the magma chamber beneath the volcano, usually as the result of a large volcanic eruption. If enough magma is erupted, the emptied chamber will not be able to support the weight of the volcanic edifice above it. A roughly circular fracture - the "Ring Fault" develops around the edge of the chamber. These ring fractures serve as feeders for fault intrusions which are also known as ring dykes. Secondary volcanic vents may form above the ring fracture. As the magma chamber empties, the center of the volcano within the ring fracture begins to collapse. The collapse may occur as the result of a single cataclysmic eruption, or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of eruptions. The total area that collapses may be hundreds or thousands of square kilometers. Landsat image of Lake Toba, on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. A resurgent dome formed the island of Samosir. Explosive calderas If the magma is rich in silica, the caldera is often filled in with ignimbrite, tuff, rhyolite, and other igneous rocks. Silica-rich magma does have a high viscosity, and therefore does not flow easily like basalt. As a result, gases tend to become trapped at high pressure within the magma. When the magma approaches the surface of the Earth the rapid off-loading of overlying material causes the trapped gases to decompress rapidly triggering explosive destruction of the magma and spreading volcanic ash over wide areas. There is a type of lava in explosive calderas called A'a. Further lava flows may be erupted. If volcanic activity continues the centre of the caldera may be uplifted in the form of a resurgent dome such as is seen at Cerro Galán, Lake Toba, Yellowstone etc; by subsequent intrusion of magma. A silicic or rhyolitic caldera may erupt hundreds or even thousands of cubic kilometers of material in a single event. Even small caldera-forming eruptions, such as Krakatoa in 1883 or Mount Pinatubo in 1991, may result in significant local destruction and a noticeable drop in temperature around the world. Large calderas may have even greater effects. When Yellowstone Caldera last erupted some 640,000 years ago, it released about 1,000 km3 of dense rock equivalent (DRE) material, covering a substantial part of North America in up to two metres of debris. By comparison, when Mount St. Helens erupted in 1980, it released ~1.2 km3 (DRE) of ejecta. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the Lake Toba eruption in Indonesia. Toba About 75,000 years ago, this Indonesian volcano released about 2,800 </sup> km3 DRE of ejecta, the largest known eruption within the Quaternary Period (last 1.8 million years) and probably the largest explosive eruption withtin the last 25 million years. In the late 1990s, anthropologist Stanley Ambrose Stanley Ambrose page at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign proposed that a volcanic winter induced by this eruption reduced the human population to about 2,000 - 20,000 individuals, resulting in a population bottleneck (see Toba catastrophe theory). More recently several geneticists, including Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending have proposed that the human race was reduced to approximately five to ten thousand people. Supervolcanoes, BBC2, 3 February 2000 Whichever figure is right, the fact remains that the human race seemingly came close to extinction about 75,000 years ago. Eruptions forming even larger calderas are known, especially La Garita Caldera in the San Juan Mountains of Colorado, where the 5,000 km3 Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in a major single eruption about 27.8 million years ago. At some points in geological time, rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters. The remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the San Juan Mountains of Colorado (erupted during the Tertiary Period) or the Saint Francois Mountain Range of Missouri (erupted during the Proterozoic). Satellite photograph of the summit caldera on Fernandina Island in the Galapagos archipelago. Non-explosive calderas Some volcanoes, such as Kīlauea on the island of Hawaii, form calderas in a different fashion. In the case of Kilauea, the magma feeding the volcano is basalt which is silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less viscous than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano, and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events. The resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas, and can form more gradually than explosive calderas. For instance, the caldera atop Fernandina Island underwent a collapse in 1968, when parts of the caldera floor dropped 350 meters. Kilauea Caldera has an inner crater known as Halema‘uma‘u, which has often been filled by a lava lake. At the summit of the largest volcano on Earth, Mauna Loa, is a subsidence caldera called Moku‘āweoweo Caldera. It is very frequent for a caldera to become emptied by drainage of melted lava throughout a breach on the caldera's rim. The Caldera de Taburiente and the Caldereta, both in the island of La Palma (Canary Islands), are calderas emptied by a river of lava some 500,000 years ago. Non-Earth Calderas Since the early sixties it has been known that volcanism exists on other planets and moons. Through the use of manned and unmanned spacecraft volcanism has been undoubtedly discovered on Venus, Mars, the Moon and , a satellite of Jupiter. It is not known whether any of these orbs have plate tectonics, which contributes approximately 60% of the Earth's volcanic activity (the other 40% attributed to hot spot volcanism)(Wilson 2008). Caldera structure is similar on all of these planetary bodies, though the size varies considerably. The average caldera diameter on Venus is 68 km. The average caldera diameter of Io is close to 40 km, and the mode is 6 km. Tvashtar Catena is likely the largest caldera on Io with a diameter of 290 km. The average of Mars caldera diameter is 48 km, smaller than Venus. Calderas on Earth are the smallest of all planetary bodies and vary from 1.6 to 80 km as a maximum (Gottsmann 2008). The Moon The Moon has an outer shell of low density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick, which formed due to a rapid creation. The craters of the moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity, but instead were formed by meteorites, mostly all of which took place in the first few hundred million years after the Moon formed. Around 500 million years afterwards, the Moon's mantle was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements. Massive basaltic eruptions took place generally at the base of large impact craters. Also, eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust. This forms a dome, but possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form (Wilson 2008). Mars The volcanic activity of Mars is concentrated on two major provinces, Tharsis and Elysium. Each Province contains a series of giant shield volcanoes that are similar to what we see on Earth and likely are the result of mantle hot spots. The surfaces are dominated by lava flows, and all have one or more collapse calderas (Wilson 2008). Venus Because there are no plate tectonics on Venus, heat must be lost by conduction through the lithosphere. This causes enormous lava flows, accounting for 80% of Venus' surface area. Many of the mountains are large shield volcanoes that range in size from 150-400 km in diameter and 2–4 km high. More than 80 of these large shield volcanoes have summit calderas averaging 60 km across (Wilson 2008). Io Io has an unusual heat source because of the solid flexing that occurs due to the tidal influence as it orbits its parent planet, Jupiter. Io, unlike any of the planets mentioned, is volcanically active and contains many calderas with diameters tens of kilometers across (Wilson 2008). Mineralization Some calderas are known to support rich mineralogy. One of the world's best preserved mineralized calderas is the Neoarchean Sturgeon Lake Caldera in northeastern Ontario, Canada. UMD: Precambrian Research Center Volcanic calderas See also :Category:Volcanic calderas Africa Ngorongoro Crater (Tanzania, Africa) Mount Elgon (Uganda/Kenya) Mount Fogo, Cape VerdeSee Europe for calderas in the Canary Islands Asia Aira Caldera (Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan) Aso (Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan) Mount Halla (Jeju-do, South Korea) Kikai Caldera (Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan) Krakatoa, Indonesia Mount Pinatubo (Luzon, Philippines) Taal Volcano (Luzon, Philippines) Lake Toba (Sumatra, Indonesia) Mount Tambora (Sumbawa, Indonesia) Tao-Rusyr Caldera (Onekotan, Russia) Towada (Aomori Prefecture, Japan) Tazawa (Akita Prefecture, Japan) Ashi (Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan) Crater Lake|Crater Lake, Oregon, formed around 5,680 BC Mount Pleasant Caldera, southwestern New Brunswick, Canada Americas USA Mount Aniakchak (Alaska, US) Crater Lake on Mount Mazama (Crater Lake National Park, Oregon, US) Mount Katmai (Alaska, US) La Garita Caldera (Colorado, US) Long Valley (California, US) Henry's Fork Caldera (Idaho, US) Island Park Caldera (Idaho, Wyoming, US) Newberry Volcano (Oregon, US) Mount Okmok (Alaska, US) Valles Caldera (New Mexico, US) Yellowstone Caldera (Wyoming, US) Canada Silverthrone Caldera (British Columbia, Canada) Mount Edziza (British Columbia, Canada) Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex (British Columbia/Yukon, Canada) Mount Pleasant Caldera (New Brunswick, Canada) Sturgeon Lake Caldera (Ontario, Canada) Mount Skukum Volcanic Complex (Yukon, Canada) Blake River Megacaldera Complex (Quebec/Ontario, Canada) New Senator Caldera (Quebec, Canada) Misema Caldera (Ontario/Quebec, Canada) Noranda Caldera (Quebec, Canada) Chile Chaitén, Chile Laguna del Maule, Chile Sollipulli, Chile Ecuador Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve Cuicocha El Salvador Lake Ilopango Lake Coatepeque Other Masaya, Nicaragua Lake Atitlan, Guatemala Fernandina Island, Galapagos Islands, Ecuador Galán, Argentina Europe Santorini (Greece) Askja (Iceland) Campi Flegrei (Italy) Lake Bracciano (Italy) Las Cañadas on Teide (Spain) Ardnamurchan (Scotland) Satellite photo of Lake Taupo Oceania Lake Taupo (New Zealand) Kilauea (Hawaii, US) Moku‘āweoweo Caldera on Mauna Loa (Hawaii, US) Rano Kau (Easter Island, Chile) Antarctica Deception Island Indian Ocean Cirque de Mafate, Cirque de Salazie, and Cirque de Cilaos on Réunion Mars Olympus Mons Caldera Venus Maat Mons Caldera Erosion calderas Americas Mount Tehama (California, US) Europe Caldera de Taburiente (Spain) Oceania Mount Warning (Australia) See also Supervolcano Volcanic Explosivity Index Somma volcano Complex volcano Notes References Clough, C. T; Maufe, H. B. & Bailey, E. B; 1909. The cauldron subsidence of Glen Coe, and the Associated Igneous Phenomena. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 65, 611-678. Gudmundsson, A (2008). Magma-Chamber Geometry, Fluid Transport, Local Stresses, and Rock Behavior During Collapse Caldera Formation. In Gottsmann J. & Marti, J (Ed. 10) Caldera Volcanism: Analysis, Modeling, and Response (314-346) Elsener, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Kokelaar, B. P; and Moore, I. D; 2006. Glencoe caldera volcano, Scotland. ISBN. 0852725252. Pub. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottinghamshire. There is an associated 1:25000 solid geology map. Lipman, P; 1999. "Caldera". In Haraldur Sigurdsson, ed. Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-643140-X Williams, H; 1941. Calderas and their origin. California University Publ. Geol. Sci. 25, 239-346. Wilson, E & Wilson, L (2008). Volcanism on Other Planets. In Fundamentals of Physical Volcanology (190-212) Malden, MA External links USGS page on calderas List of Caldera Volcanoes Collection of references on collapse calderas (43 pages) The Caldera of the Tweed Volcano - Australia Largest Explosive Eruptions: New results for the 27.8 Ma Fish Canyon Tuff and the La Garita caldera, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado | Caldera |@lemmatized satellite:4 image:3 santorini:2 minoan:2 caldera:83 low:2 part:3 form:15 eruption:16 approx:1 bce:1 bp:1 whole:1 three:1 overlap:1 clockwise:1 centre:2 nea:1 kameni:2 palea:1 aspronisi:1 therasia:1 thera:1 cauldron:3 like:2 volcanic:18 feature:1 usually:2 collapse:9 land:1 follow:1 one:3 yellowstone:4 national:2 park:3 sometimes:1 confuse:1 crater:9 word:1 come:2 spanish:1 latin:1 caldaria:1 mean:1 cooking:1 pot:1 texts:1 english:1 term:2 also:6 use:2 german:1 geologist:1 leopold:1 von:1 buch:1 visit:1 la:6 cañadas:2 teide:2 tenerife:1 de:6 taburiente:3 palma:2 canary:3 island:14 publish:1 memoir:1 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2,371 | Bangladesh | (Bengali: বাংলাদেশ ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh (Bengali: গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ ) is a country in South Asia. It is bordered by India on all sides except for a small border with Burma (Myanmar) to the far southeast and by the Bay of Bengal to the south. Together with the Indian state of West Bengal, it makes up the ethno-linguistic region of Bengal. The name Bangladesh means "Country of Bengal" in the official Bengali language. The borders of present-day Bangladesh were established with the partition of Bengal and India in 1947, when the region became the eastern wing of the newly formed Pakistan. However, it was separated from the western wing by 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi) across India. Political and linguistic discrimination as well as economic neglect led to popular agitations against West Pakistan, which led to the war for independence in 1971 and the establishment of Bangladesh. After independence the new state endured famines, natural disasters and widespread poverty, as well as political turmoil and military coups. The restoration of democracy in 1991 has been followed by relative stability and economic progress. Bangladesh is the seventh most populous country in the world and is among the most densely populated countries in the world with a high poverty rate. However, per-capita (inflation-adjusted) GDP has more than doubled since 1975, and the poverty rate has fallen by 20% since the early 1990s. The country is listed among the "Next Eleven" economies. Dhaka and other urban centers have been the driving force behind this growth. [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:21421907~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html Sandeep Mahajan, "Bangladesh: Strategy for Sustained Growth", Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network, World Bank (July 26, 2007)] Geographically, the country straddles the fertile Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta and is subject to annual monsoon floods and cyclones. The government is a parliamentary democracy; however, political rule was suspended under emergency law for two years from 11 January 2007 to 17 December 2008. "Bangladesh emergency laws lifted." Al Jazeera. Wednesday 17 December, 2008. Retrieved on 17 February 2009. Bangladesh is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, SAARC, BIMSTEC, the OIC, and the D-8. As the World Bank notes in its July 2005 Country Brief, the country has made significant progress in human development in the areas of literacy, gender parity in schooling and reduction of population growth. Bangladesh - Country Brief, World Bank, July 2005 However, Bangladesh continues to face a number of major challenges, including widespread political and bureaucratic corruption, and economic competition relative to the world. History Somapura Mahavihara in Paharpur, Bangladesh is the greatest Buddhist Vihara in the Indian Subcontinent built by Dharmapala of Bengal. The Shaheed Minar, which commemorates the Bengali Language Movement, is a well known landmark in Bangladesh. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman(3rd person from right), founder of Bangladesh and Maulana Bhashani (4th person from right) in 1953. Remnants of civilization in the greater Bengal region date back four thousand years, when the region was settled by Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman, and Austro-Asiatic peoples. The exact origin of the word "Bangla" or "Bengal" is unknown, though it is believed to be derived from Bang, the Dravidian-speaking tribe that settled in the area around the year 1000 BC. The kingdom of Gangaridai was formed from at least the seventh century BC, which later united with Bihar under the Magadha, Nanda, Mauryan and Sunga Empires. Bengal was later part of the Gupta Empire and Harsha Empire from the third to the sixth centuries CE. Following its collapse, a dynamic Bengali named Shashanka founded an impressive yet short-lived kingdom. Shashanka is considered the first independent king in the history of Bangladesh. After a period of anarchy, the Buddhist Pala dynasty ruled the region for four hundred years, followed by a shorter reign of the Hindu Sena dynasty. Islam was introduced to Bengal in the twelfth century by Arab Muslim merchants and Sufi missionaries, and subsequent Muslim conquests helped spread Islam throughout the region. Bakhtiar Khilji, a Turkic general, defeated Lakshman Sen of the Sena dynasty and conquered large parts of Bengal. The region was ruled by dynasties of Sultans and feudal lords for the next few hundred years. By the 16th century, the Mughal Empire controlled Bengal, and Dhaka became an important provincial centre of Mughal administration. European traders arrived late in the 15th century, and their influence grew until the British East India Company gained control of Bengal following the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The bloody rebellion of 1857, known as the Sepoy Mutiny, resulted in transfer of authority to the crown, with a British viceroy running the administration. Baxter, pp.30-32 During colonial rule, famine racked the Indian subcontinent many times, including the Great Bengal famine of 1943 that claimed 3 million lives. Between 1905 and 1911, an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two zones, with Dhaka being the capital of the eastern zone. Baxter, pp. 39-40 When India was partitioned in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines, with the western part going to India and the eastern part joining Pakistan as a province called East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan), with its capital at Dhaka. In 1950, land reform was accomplished in East Bengal with the abolishment of the feudal zamindari system. Baxter, p. 72 However, despite the economic and demographic weight of the east, Pakistan's government and military were largely dominated by the upper classes from the west. The Bengali Language Movement of 1952 was the first sign of friction between the two wings of Pakistan. Baxter, pp. 62-63 Dissatisfaction with the central government over economic and cultural issues continued to rise through the next decade, during which the Awami League emerged as the political voice of the Bengali-speaking population. It agitated for autonomy in the 1960s, and in 1966, its president Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was jailed; he was released in 1969 after an unprecedented popular uprising. In 1970, a massive cyclone devastated the coast of East Pakistan, and the central government responded poorly. The Bengali population's anger was compounded when Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, whose Awami League won a majority in Parliament in the 1970 elections, Baxter, pp. 78-79 was blocked from taking office. After staging compromise talks with Mujib, President Yahya Khan arrested him on the early hours of March 26, 1971, and launched Operation Searchlight, a sustained military assault on East Pakistan. Yahya's methods were extremely bloody, and the violence of the war resulted in many civilian deaths . Rummel, Rudolph J., "Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900", ISBN 3-8258-4010-7, Chapter 8, table 8.1. Rummel comments that, In East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) [General Agha Mohammed Yahya Khan and his top generals] also planned to murder its Bengali intellectual, cultural, and political elite. They also planned to indiscriminately murder hundreds of thousands of its Hindus and drive the rest into India. And they planned to destroy its economic base to insure that it would be subordinate to West Pakistan for at least a generation to come. This despicable and cutthroat plan was outright genocide. Chief targets included intellectuals and Hindus, and about ten million refugees fled to neighbouring India. Estimates of those massacred throughout the war range from three hundred thousand to 3 million. Rummel, Rudolph J., "Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900", ISBN 3-8258-4010-7, Chapter 8, Table 8.2 Pakistan Genocide in Bangladesh Estimates, Sources, and Calcualtions. Prior to his arrest by Pakistan army, Sk. Mujibur Rahman formally declared the independence of Bangladesh and directed everyone to fight till the last soldier of the Pakistan army was evicted from East Pakistan. Most of the Awami League leaders fled and set up a government-in-exile in Calcutta, India. The exile government formally took oath at Mujib Nagar in Kustia district of East Pakistan on April 14, 1971. The Bangladesh Liberation War lasted for nine months. The guerrilla Mukti Bahini and Bengali regulars eventually received support from the Indian Armed Forces in December 1971. Mitro Bahini achieved a decisive victory over Pakistan on December 16, 1971, taking over 90,000 prisoners of war. Jatiyo Smriti Soudho, a tribute to the martyrs of the Bangladesh Liberation War. After its independence, Bangladesh became a parliamentary democracy, with Mujib as the Prime Minister. In the 1973 parliamentary elections, the Awami League gained an absolute majority. A nationwide famine occurred during 1973 and 1974, and in early 1975, Mujib initiated a one-party socialist rule with his newly formed BAKSAL. On August 15, 1975, Mujib and his family were assassinated by mid-level military officers. A series of bloody coups and counter-coups in the following three months culminated in the ascent to power of General Ziaur Rahman, who reinstated multi-party politics and founded the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP). Zia's rule ended when he was assassinated in 1981 by elements of the military. Bangladesh's next major ruler was General Hossain Mohammad Ershad, who gained power in a bloodless coup in 1982 and ruled until 1990, when he was forced to resign under western donor pressure in a major shift in international policy after the end of communism when anti-communist dictators were no longer felt necessary. Since then, Bangladesh has reverted to a parliamentary democracy. Zia's widow, Khaleda Zia, led the Bangladesh Nationalist Party to parliamentary victory at the general election in 1991 and became the first female Prime Minister in Bangladesh's history. However, the Awami League, headed by Sheikh Hasina, one of Mujib's surviving daughters, clinched power at the next election in 1996 but lost to the Bangladesh Nationalist Party again in 2001. In January 11, 2007, following widespread violence, a caretaker government was appointed to administer the next general election. The country had suffered from extensive corruption, disorder and political violence. The new caretaker government has made it a priority to root out corruption from all levels of government. To this end, many notable politicians and officials, along with large numbers of lesser officials and party members, have been arrested on corruption charges. The caretaker government held a fair and free election on December 29, 2008. The associated press Awami League's Sheikh Hasina won the elections with a landslide victory and took oath of Prime Minister on 6 Jan 2009. Reuters Government and politics Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban houses the Parliament of Bangladesh. National symbols of Bangladesh Anthem Amar Shonar Bangla</tr> Animal Royal Bengal Tiger</tr> Bird Oriental Magpie Robin</tr> Fish Hilsa</tr> Flower White Water Lily</tr> Fruit Jackfruit</tr> Sport Kabadi</tr> Calendar Bengali calendar</tr> Bangladesh is a parliamentary democracy.<ref>http://www.pmo.gov.bd/constitution/index.htm Constitution of Bangladesh]</</ref> Direct elections involving all citizens over the age 18 are held every five years for the unicameral parliament known as Jatiya Sangsad. The parliament building is known as the Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban designed by architect Louis Kahn and currently has 345 members including 45 reserved seats for women, elected from single-member constituencies. The Prime Minister, as the head of government, forms the cabinet and runs the day-to-day affairs of state. While the Prime Minister is formally appointed by the President, he or she must be an MP who commands the confidence of the majority of parliament. The President is the head of state, a largely ceremonial post elected by the parliament. Background Note: Bangladesh, US Department of State, May 2007 However the President's powers are substantially expanded during the tenure of a caretaker government, which is responsible for the conduct of elections and transfer of power. The officers of the caretaker government must be non-partisan and are given three months to complete their task. This transitional arrangement is an innovation that was pioneered by Bangladesh in its 1991 election and then institutionalised in 1996 through its 13th constitutional amendment. The Constitution of Bangladesh was drafted in 1972 and has undergone fourteen amendments. The highest judicial body is the Supreme Court. Justices are appointed by the President. The judicial and law enforcement institutions are weak. Bangladesh Today, Asia Report N°121, International Crisis Group, October 23, 2006 Separation of powers, judicial from executive was finally implemented on the 1st of November, 2007. It is expected that this separation will make the judiciary stronger and impartial. Laws are loosely based on English common law, but family laws such as marriage and inheritance are based on religious scripts, and therefore differ between religious communities. The two major parties in Bangladesh are the Bangladesh Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP). BNP is led by Khaleda Zia and finds its allies among Islamist parties like Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh and Islami Oikya Jot, while Sheikh Hasina's Awami League aligns with leftist and secularist parties. Hasina and Zia are bitter rivals who have dominated politics for 15 years; both are women and each is related to one of the leaders of the independence movement. Another important player is the Jatiya Party, headed by former military ruler Ershad. The Awami League-BNP rivalry has been bitter and punctuated by protests, violence and murder. Student politics is particularly strong in Bangladesh, a legacy from the liberation movement era. Almost all parties have highly active student wings, and students have been elected to the Parliament. Two radical Islamist parties, Jagrata Muslim Janata Bangladesh (JMJB) and Jama'atul Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB), were banned in February 2005. Bomb attacks taking place since 1999 have been blamed on those groups, and hundreds of suspected members have been detained in numerous security operations, including the head of those two parties in 2006. The first recorded case of a suicide bomb attack in Bangladesh took place in November 2005. The January 22, 2007 election was postponed indefinitely and emergency law declared in January 11, 2007 as Army backed caretaker government of Fakhruddin Ahmed aims to prepare a new voter list and crack down on corruption. The government aims to hold new elections by 2008 but a lack of coordination between the Election Commission and the Government and Political Parties threatens to undermine this deadline. Recent activities of Government have created uncertainty about Election while Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina, two leader of major Political parties BNP and Awami League who ruled the country for the last 15 years, were detained and are facing criminal charges in court and the banned indoor politics is yet to be exercised. Meanwhile the Bangladesh Military has expressed their interest in controlling the country with statements like "own brand of Democracy" and making changes in the constitution to allow military participation in politics. Bangladesh to have own brand of democracy, Army chief says They are also assisting the interim Government of Bangladesh in a drive against corruption which seems to be mostly targeted against the politicians and opponents. The military has also imposed censorship of the national media and closing down/hampering private TV stations. Bangladesh Media Censorship Illegal detentions and torture to extract confessions have also become rampant. Grand alliance leaded by Awami League won the December 29, 2008 poll. Bangladesh Awami League won a landslide victory. They got 230 seats among 300 seats in the parliament. Bangladesh Election Commission Foreign policy and military Bangladesh pursues a moderate foreign policy that places heavy reliance on multinational diplomacy, especially at the United Nations. In 1974 Bangladesh joined both the Commonwealth of Nations and the United Nations and has since been elected to serve two terms on the Security Council in 1978-1979 and 2000–2001. In the 1980s, Bangladesh played a lead role in founding the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in order to expand relations with other South Asian states. Since the founding of SAARC 1985, a Bangladeshi has held the post of Secretary General on two occasions. Bangladesh's most important and complex foreign relationships are with India. These relationships are informed by historical and cultural ties and form an important part of the domestic political discourse. Bangladesh's relationship with India began on a positive note because of India's assistance in the independence war and reconstruction. Throughout the years, relations between both countries have fluctuated for a number of reasons. A major source of tension between Bangladesh and India is the Farakka Dam. In 1975, India constructed a dam on the Ganges River from the Bangladeshi border. Bangladesh alleges that the dam diverts much needed water from Bangladesh and adds a man-made disaster to the country already plagued by natural disasters. The dam also has terrible ecological consequences. On the other hand, India has voiced concerns about anti-Indian separatists and Islamic militants allegedly being harboured across their border, as well as the flow of illegal migrants, and is building a fence along most of it. India quietly ringing Bangladesh with barbed-wire, cutting off former neighbors, by Tim Sullivan, Associated Press, June 25, 2007 But at the 2007 SAARC meeting both nations pledged to work cooperatively on security, economic and border issues. Pattanaik, Smruti S., "India-Bangladesh Relations after the Foreign Secretary Level Talks," IDSA (Institute for Defense Studies and Analyses), July 17, 2007. Retrieved July 17, 2007. The current strength of the army is around 200,000, the air force 7,000, and navy 14,950. Including service and civilian personnel. See Bangladesh Navy. Retrieved July 17, 2007. In addition to traditional defense roles, the military has been called on to provide support to civil authorities for disaster relief and internal security during periods of political unrest. Bangladesh is not currently active in any ongoing war, but it did contribute 2,300 troops to the coalition that fought in the 1991 Persian Gulf War and Bangladesh is consistently a top contributor to UN peacekeeping forces around the world. As of May 2007, Bangladesh had major deployments in Democratic Republic of Congo, Liberia, Sudan, Timor-Leste and Côte d'Ivoire. Bangladesh enjoys relatively warm ties with the People's Republic of China which has, particularly in the past decade, increased economic cooperation with the South Asian nation. Between 2006-07, trade between the two nations rose by 28.5% and there have been agreements to grant various Bangladeshi commodities tariff-free access to the Chinese market. Cooperation between the Military of Bangladesh and the People's Liberation Army is also increasing, with joint military agreements signed and Bangladesh procuring Chinese arms which range from small arms to large naval surface combatants such as the Chinese Type 053H1 Missile Frigate. Divisions, districts, and upazilas Administrative divisions of Bangladesh. This map shows the highest level unit called a Division. Bangladesh is divided into six administrative divisions, CIA World Factbook 2007 each named after their respective divisional headquarters: Barisal (বরিশাল), Chittagong (চট্টগ্রাম), Dhaka (ঢাকা), Khulna (খুলনা), Rajshahi (রাজশাহী), and Sylhet (সিলেট). Divisions are subdivided into districts (zila). There are 64 districts in Bangladesh, each further subdivided into upazila (subdistricts) or thana ("police stations"). The area within each police station, except for those in metropolitan areas, is divided into several unions, with each union consisting of multiple villages. In the metropolitan areas, police stations are divided into wards, which are further divided into mahallas. There are no elected officials at the divisional, district or upazila levels, and the administration is composed only of government officials. Direct elections are held for each union (or ward), electing a chairperson and a number of members. In 1997, a parliamentary act was passed to reserve three seats (out of twelve) in every union for female candidates. Local Government Act, No. 20, 1997. Dhaka is the capital and largest city of Bangladesh. Other major cities include Chittagong, Khulna, Rajshahi, Sylhet and Barisal. These metropolitan cities have mayoral elections, while other municipalities elect a chairperson. Mayors and chairpersons are elected for a span of five years. City City population (2007 estimate) Metro population (2007 estimate) Dhaka 6,737,774 12,295,728 Chittagong 2,532,421 3,720,437 Khulna 842,995 1,355,354 Rajshahi 459,682 756,359 Sylhet 445,798 - Barisal 195,955 - Geography and climate Satellite image presenting physical features of Bangladesh. Panorama of Cox's Bazar in the early morning: clouds on a blue sky, still water and forest in the distance. Bangladesh is located in the low-lying Ganges-Brahmaputra River Delta or Ganges Delta. This delta is formed by the confluence of the Ganges (local name Padma or Pôdda), Brahmaputra (Jamuna or Jomuna), and Meghna rivers and their respective tributaries. The Ganges unites with the Jamuna (main channel of the Brahmaputra) and later joins the Meghna to eventually empty into the Bay of Bengal. The alluvial soil deposited by these rivers has created some of the most fertile plains in the world. Bangladesh has 58 trans-boundary rivers, making water issues politically complicated to resolve - in most cases as the lower riparian state to India. Shankha river in Bandarban. Most parts of Bangladesh are less than 12 metres (39 ft) above the sea level, and it is believed that about 50% of the land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by a metre (3 ft). The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at 1,052 metres (3,451 ft) in the Chittagong Hill Tracts to the southeast of the country. Summit Elevations: Frequent Internet Errors. Retrieved 2006-04-13. A major part of the coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the Royal Bengal Tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered. Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladeshi climate is tropical with a mild winter from October to March, a hot, humid summer from March to June. A warm and humid monsoon season lasts from June to October and supplies most of the country's rainfall. Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores occur almost every year, combined with the effects of deforestation, soil degradation and erosion. Cox's Bazar, south of the city of Chittagong, has a beach that stretches uninterrupted over 120 kilometres (75 mi). In September 1998, Bangladesh saw the most severe flooding in modern world history. As the Brahmaputra, Ganges and Meghna spilt over and swallowed 300,000 houses, of road and of embankment 1,000 people were killed and 30 million more were made homeless with 135,000 cattle killed, 50 square kilometres of land destroyed and 11,000 kilometres of roads damaged or destroyed. Two-thirds of the country was underwater. There were several reasons for the severity of the flooding. Firstly, there were unusually high monsoon rains. Secondly, the Himalayas shed off an equally unusually high amount of melt water that year. Trees that usually intercept rain water were cut down for firewood or to make space for animals. Bangladesh is now widely recognized to be one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change. Natural hazards that come from increased rainfall, sea level rise, and tropical cyclones are expected to increase as climate change, each seriously affecting agriculture, water & food security, human health and shelter. Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan 2008 Ministry of Environment and Forests Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, September, 2008. It is believed that in the coming decades the rising sea level alone will create more than 25 million climate refugees. “Another Major Cyclone, Bangladesh Worries About Climate Change” PBS News Hour, 2008 http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/environment/jan-june08/bangladesh_03-28.html Economy Worker in a paddy field - a common scene throughout Bangladesh. Two thirds of the population works in the agricultural sector. Jamuna Bridge: one of the longest bridges in the world. Despite continuous domestic and international efforts to improve economic and demographic prospects, Bangladesh remains a developing nation. "Reproductive Health and Rights is Fundamental for Sound Economic Development and Poverty Alleviation," United Nations Population Fund. Retrieved July 17, 2007. Its per capita income in 2006 was US$1400 (adjusted by purchasing power parity) compared to the world average of $10,200. Jute was once the economic engine of the country. Its share of the world export market peaked in the Second World War and the late 1940s at 80% and even in the early 1970s accounted for 70% of its export earnings. However, polypropylene products began to substitute for jute products worldwide and the jute industry started to decline. Bangladesh grows very significant quantities of rice (chal), tea (Cha) and mustard. Although two-thirds of Bangladeshis are farmers, more than three quarters of Bangladesh’s export earnings come from the garment industry, which began attracting foreign investors in the 1980s due to cheap labour and low conversion cost. In 2002, the industry exported US$5 billion worth of products. The industry now employs more than 3 million workers, 90% of whom are women. A large part of foreign currency earnings also comes from the remittances sent by expatriates living in other countries. Bashundhara City, the largest shopping mall in South Asia Obstacles to growth include frequent cyclones and floods, inefficient state-owned enterprises, mismanaged port facilities, a growth in the labour force that has outpaced jobs, inefficient use of energy resources (such as natural gas), insufficient power supplies, slow implementation of economic reforms, political infighting and corruption. According to the World Bank, "among Bangladesh’s most significant obstacles to growth are poor governance and weak public institutions." Despite these hurdles, the country has achieved an average annual growth rate of 5% since 1990, according to the World Bank. Bangladesh has seen expansion of its middle class, and its consumer industry has also grown. In December 2005, four years after its report on the emerging "BRIC" economies (Brazil, Russia, India, and China), Goldman Sachs named Bangladesh one of the "Next Eleven," along with Egypt, Indonesia, Pakistan and seven other countries. Bangladesh has seen a dramatic increase in foreign direct investment. A number of multinational corporations and local big business houses such as Beximco, Square, Akij Group, Ispahani, Navana Group, Habib Group, KDS Group and multinationals such as Unocal Corporation and Chevron, have made major investments, with the natural gas sector being a priority. In December 2005, the Central Bank of Bangladesh projected GDP growth around 6.5%. Annual Report 2004–2005, Bangladesh Bank One significant contributor to the development of the economy has been the widespread propagation of microcredit by Muhammad Yunus (awarded the Nobel peace prize in 2006) through the Grameen Bank. By the late 1990s, Grameen Bank had 2.3 million members, along with 2.5 million members of other similar organisations. In order to enhance economic growth, the government set up several export processing zones to attract foreign investment. These are managed by the Bangladesh Export Processing Zone Authority. Demographics Recent (2005-2007) estimates of Bangladesh's population range from 142 to 159 million, making it the 7th most populous nation in the world. With a land area of 144,000 square kilometers, ranked 94th, the population density is remarkable. A striking comparison is offered by the fact that Russia's population is slightly smaller even though Russia has a land area of 17.5 million square kilometers, at least 120 times bigger than Bangladesh. Bangladesh has the highest population density in the world, excluding a handful of city-states and small countries such as Bahrain. Bangladesh's population growth was among the highest in the world in the 1960s and 1970s, when the country grew from 50 to 90 million, but with the promotion of birth control in the 1980s, the growth rate slowed. The total fertility rate is now 3.1 children per woman, compared with 6.2 thirty years ago. The population is relatively young, with the 0–25 age group comprising 60%, while 3% are 65 or older. Life expectancy is 63 years for both males and females. The majority ethnic group of Bangladesh are the Bengali people, comprising 98% of the population. "Background Note: Bangladesh". Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs (March 2008). Accessed June 11, 2008. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. The remainder are mostly Bihari migrants and indigenous tribal groups. There are thirteen tribal groups located in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the most populous of the tribes are the Chakmas. The region has been a source for ethnic tension since the inception of Bangladesh. The largest tribal groups outside the Hill Tracts are the Santhals and the Garos (Achiks). There are also Kaibartta,Mundas, Oraons, and Zomi ethnic groups. Human trafficking has been a lingering problem in Bangladesh and illegal immigration has remained a cause of friction with Burma AI Index: ASA 16/005/2004, Amnesty International and India. The official and most widely used language in Bangladesh, as in West Bengal, is Bengali or Bangla, Constitution of Bangladesh, Part I, Article 5. an Indo-Aryan language of Sanskrit origin with its own script. English is used as second language among the middle and upper classes S. M. Mehdi Hasan, Condition of English in Bangladesh: Second Language or Foreign Language. Retrieved July 17, 2007. and in higher education. Since a President Order in 1987, Bengali is used for all official correspondence except those that are to foreign recipients. Baitul Mukarram, the National Mosque of Bangladesh in Dhaka, was built in 1962. Health and education levels have recently improved as poverty levels have decreased. Most Bangladeshis are rural, living on subsistence farming. Health problems abound, ranging from surface water contamination, to arsenic contamination of groundwater, and diseases including malaria, leptospirosis and dengue. The literacy rate in Bangladesh is approximately 41%. There is gender disparity, though, as literacy rates are 50% among men and 31% among women, according to a 2004 UNICEF estimate. UNICEF: Bangladesh Statistics. Literacy has gone up due to many programmes introduced in the country. Among the most successful ones are the Food for education (FFE) programme introduced in 1993, and a stipend programme for women at the primary and secondary levels. The major religion practiced in Bangladesh is Islam (89.7%) and a sizable minority adheres to Hinduism (9.2%). Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics About 96% of the Muslims are Sunni while over 3% are Shi'a and remainders are Ahmadis. Ethnic Biharis are predominantly Shia Muslims. Other religious groups include Buddhists (0.7%, mostly Theravada), Christians (0.3%, mostly of the Roman Catholic denomination), and Animists (0.1%). Bangladesh ranks fourth after Indonesia, Pakistan, and India by the number of Muslims, with over 130 million. Islam is the state religion of Bangladesh, but other religions may also be practiced in harmony. State religion The United Nations has recognised the country mainly as a moderate Muslim democratic country. Culture Bangladeshi artists performing a traditional dance. Celebrations of the Pohela Baishakh (Bengali New Year), in Dhaka. Durga Puja at the Dhakeshwari Temple Reflecting the long history of the region, Bangladesh has a culture that encompasses elements both old and new. The Bengali language boasts a rich literary heritage, which Bangladesh shares with the Indian state of West Bengal. The earliest literary text in Bengali is the 8th century Charyapada. Medieval Bengali literature was often either religious (e.g. Chandidas), or adapted from other languages (e.g. Alaol). Bengali literature reached its full expression in the nineteenth century, with its greatest icons being poets Rabindranath Tagore and Kazi Nazrul Islam. Bangladesh also has a long tradition in folk literature, for example Maimansingha Gitika, Thakurmar Jhuli and stories related to Gopal Bhar. The musical tradition of Bangladesh is lyrics-based (Baniprodhan), with minimal instrumental accompaniment. The Baul tradition is a unique heritage of Bangla folk music, and there are numerous other musical traditions in Bangladesh, varying from one region to region. Gombhira, Bhatiali, Bhawaiya are a few of the better-known musical forms. Folk music of Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara, an instrument with only one string. Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla. Bangladesh also has an active heritage in North Indian classical music. Similarly, Bangladeshi dance forms draw from folk traditions, especially those of the tribal groups, as well as the broader Indian dance tradition. Bangladesh produces about 80 films a year. Feature film in Banglapedia Mainstream Hindi films are also quite popular. Around 200 daily newspapers are published in Bangladesh, along with more than 1800 periodicals. However, regular readership is low at just under 15% of the population. Newspapers and periodicals in Banglapedia Bangladeshis listen to a variety of local and national radio programmes from Bangladesh Betar, as well as four Private FM radio channels (Radio Foorti, ABC Radio, Radio Today, Radio Amar) popularity to the younger generation is growing rapidly at the important cities. Also, there is Bangla services of Radio from the BBC and Voice of America. The dominant television channel is the state-controlled Bangladesh Television, but in the last few years, privately owned channels have developed considerably. The culinary tradition of Bangladesh has close relations to Indian and Middle Eastern cuisine as well as having its own unique traits. Rice and curry are traditional favourites. Bangladeshis make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, some common ones being Rôshogolla, chômchôm and kalojam. The sari (shaŗi) is by far the most widely worn dress by Bangladeshi women. Dhaka in particular is renowned for producing saris from exquisite Jamdani muslin. The salwar kameez (shaloar kamiz) is also quite popular, and in urban areas some women wear Western attire. Among men, Western attire is more widely adopted. Men also wear the kurta-paejama combination, often on religious occasions, and the lungi, a kind of long skirt. The two Eids, Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha are the largest festivals in the Islamic calendar. The day before Eid ul-Fitr is called Chãd Rat (the night of the moon), often celebrated with firecrackers. Other Muslim holidays are also observed. Major Hindu festivals are Durga Puja (Buddhism)Puja, kali puja and Saraswati Puja. Buddha Purnima, which marks the birth of Gautama Buddha, is one of the most important Buddhist festivals while Christmas, called Bôŗodin (Great day) in Bangla is celebrated by the minority Christian population. The most important secular festival is Pohela Baishakh or Bengali New Year, the beginning of the Bengali calendar. Other festivities include Nobanno, Poush parbon (festival of Poush) and observance of national days like Shohid Dibosh. Sports While Kabbadi is the national game of Bangladesh, Football and Cricket are more popular with Cricket being the most popular sport in Bangladesh followed very closely by Football. The Bangladeshi cricket team won the ICC Trophy in 1997 against Kenya which qualified them for the 1999 Cricket World Cup. In their very first world cup Bangladesh beat Pakistan in first round. In 2000, the Bangladeshi cricket team was granted Test cricket status and be able to play other test playing nations. At various times Bangladesh has beat Australia, New Zealand, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan; more importantly Bangladesh has beat India and South Africa in 2007 Cricket World Cup. Other popular sports include field hockey, tennis, badminton, handball, volleyball, chess, carrom games, and kabbadi, which is the national sport of Bangladesh. The Bangladesh Sports Control Board regulates twenty-nine different sporting federations. See also List of Bangladesh-related articles Outline of Bangladesh References External links Government Bangladesh Government official government portal Bangladesh Parliament Election Commission Secretariat National Board of Revenue Bangladesh Telephone and Telegraph Board (BTTB/T&T) Electronic forms from the Government of Bangladesh, in English Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Bangladesh at UCB Libraries GovPubs Banglapedia National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh Other Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industry National Policies of Bangladesh from SDNP Genocide in Bangladesh, 1971 be-x-old:Банґлядэш | Bangladesh |@lemmatized bengali:21 ব:2 ল:4 দ:2 শ:3 officially:1 people:7 republic:4 bangladesh:138 গণপ:1 রজ:1 তন:1 ত:1 র:3 country:28 south:9 asia:3 border:6 india:22 side:1 except:3 small:4 burma:2 myanmar:1 far:4 southeast:2 bay:2 bengal:24 together:1 indian:9 state:14 west:6 make:13 ethno:1 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2,372 | Channel_Islands | A map of the location of the Channel Islands, located between southern Great Britain and Northern France. The Channel Islands (Norman: Îles d'la Manche, French: Îles Anglo-Normandes or Îles de la Manche) are a Archipelago in the English Channel, off the French coast of Normandy. They include two separate bailiwicks: the Bailiwick of Guernsey and the Bailiwick of Jersey. They are British Crown dependencies, but neither is part of the United Kingdom. They have a total population of about 158,000. Their respective capitals, St. Peter Port and St. Helier, have populations of 16,488 and 28,310. Geography Map of Channel Islands and adjacent coast of France. Viewed from Jersey's north coast, Jethou, Herm and Sark are hazy outlines on the horizon. The inhabited islands of the Channel Islands are Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, Sark, Herm (the main islands); Jethou, Brecqhou (Brechou), and Lihou. All of these except Jersey are in the Bailiwick of Guernsey. In addition there are the following uninhabited islets: the Minquiers, Écréhous, Les Dirouilles and Les Pierres de Lecq (the Paternosters), are part of the Bailiwick of Jersey, and Burhou and the Casquets lie off Alderney. As a general rule, the larger islands have the -ey suffix, and the smaller ones have the -hou suffix; this is believed to be from the Old Norse ey and holmr, respectively. The Chausey Islands south of Jersey are not generally included in the geographical definition of the Channel Islands but occasionally described as 'French Channel Islands' in English in view of their French jurisdiction. They were historically linked to the Duchy of Normandy, but they are part of the French territory along with continental Normandy, and not part of the British Isles or of the Channel Islands in a political sense. They are an incorporated part of the commune of Granville (Manche), and although popular with visitors from France, they are rarely visited by Channel Islanders, as there are no direct transport links from the other islands. In official Jersey French (see Jersey Legal French), the islands are called 'Îles de la Manche', while in France, the term 'Îles anglo-normandes' (Anglo-Norman isles) is used to refer to the British 'Channel Islands' in contrast to other islands in the Channel. Chausey is referred to as an 'Île normande' (as opposed to anglo-normande). 'Îles Normandes' and 'Archipel Normand' have also, historically, been used in Channel Island French to refer to the islands as a whole. The very large tidal variation provides an environmentally rich inter-tidal zone around the islands, and some sites have received Ramsar Convention designation (see :Category:Ramsar sites in the Channel Islands). The waters around the islands include the following: The Swinge (between Alderney and Burhou) The Little Swinge (between Burhou and Les Nannels) La Déroute (between Jersey and Sark, and Jersey and the Cotentin) Le Raz Blanchard, or Race of Alderney (between Alderney and the Cotentin) The Great Russel (between Sark, Jéthou and Herm) The Little Russel (between Guernsey, Herm and Jéthou) Souachehouais (between Le Rigdon and L'Étacq, Jersey) Le Gouliot (between Sark and Brecqhou) La Percée (between Herm and Jéthou) History The islands were annexed to the Duchy of Normandy in 933. In 1066, William II of Normandy, a vassal to the king of France, invaded and conquered England, becoming William I of England, also known as William the Conqueror. Since 1204, the loss of the rest of the monarch's lands in mainland Normandy has meant that the Channel Islands have been governed as separate possessions of the Crown. The Bailiwicks have been administered separately from each other since the late 13th century, and although those unacquainted with the islands often assume they form one political unit, common institutions are the exception rather than the rule. The two Bailiwicks have no common laws, no common elections, and no common representative body (although their politicians consult regularly). There is no common newspaper or radio station, but a common television station, ITV Channel Television. The islands acquired commercial and political interests in the North American colonies. Islanders became involved with the Newfoundland fisheries in the 17th century. In recognition for all the help given to him during his exile in Jersey in the 1640s, Charles II gave George Carteret, Bailiff and governor, a large grant of land in the American colonies, which he promptly named New Jersey, now part of the United States of America. Edmund Andros of Guernsey was an early colonial governor in North America, and head of the short-lived Dominion of New England. Over a dozen windmills are known to have existed in the Channel Isles. They were mostly tower mills used for grinding corn. During the Second World War, the islands were the only part of the British Commonwealth occupied by Germany. The German occupation 1940–1945 was harsh, with some island residents being taken for slave labour on the continent; native Jews sent to concentration camps; partisan resistance and retribution; accusations of collaboration; and slave labour (primarily Russians and eastern Europeans) being brought to the islands to build fortifications. The Royal Navy blockaded the islands from time to time, particularly following the liberation of mainland Normandy in 1944. Intense negotiations resulted in some Red Cross humanitarian aid, but there was considerable hunger and privation during the five years of German occupation, particularly in the final months when the population was close to starvation. The German troops on the islands surrendered only a few days after the final surrender in mainland Europe. Politics The Channel Islands fall into two separate self-governing bailiwicks. Both the Bailiwick of Guernsey and the Bailiwick of Jersey are British Crown Dependencies, but neither is part of the United Kingdom. They have been part of the Duchy of Normandy since the 10th century and Queen Elizabeth II is often referred to by her traditional and conventional title of Duke of Normandy. However, pursuant to the Treaty of Paris (1259) she is not the Duke in a constitutional capacity and instead governs in her right as Queen. This notwithstanding, it is a matter of local pride for monarchists to treat the situation otherwise: the Loyal Toast at formal dinners is to 'The Queen, our Duke', rather than 'Her Majesty, the Queen' as in the UK. Entrance to the public gallery of the States Chamber in Jersey. The Channel Islands are not represented in the UK Parliament but each island has its own primary legislature, known as the States of Guernsey and the States of Jersey, with Chief Pleas in Sark and the States of Alderney. Laws passed by the States are given Royal Sanction by the Queen in Council, to whom the islands' governments are responsible. The systems of government date from Norman times, which accounts for the names of the legislatures, the States, derived from the Norman 'États' or 'estates' (i.e. the Crown, the Church, and the people). The States have evolved over the centuries into democratic parliaments. A bailiwick is a territory administered by a bailiff. The Bailiff in each bailiwick is the civil head, presiding officer of the States, and also head of the judiciary. In 2001, responsibility for links between the Channel Islands (together with the Isle of Man) and the Crown passed from the Home Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Department, replaced in 2003 by the Department of Constitutional Affairs. In addition, Acts of the UK Parliament may be extended to any of the Channel Islands by Order-in-Council (thus giving the UK Government some responsibility for good governance in the islands). By constitutional convention this is only done at the request of the Insular Authorities, and has become a rare option (thus giving the Insular Authorities themselves the responsibility for good governance in the islands), the islands usually preferring nowadays to pass localised versions of laws giving effect to international treaties. Matters reserved to the Crown (i.e. the United Kingdom Government) are limited to defence, citizenship, and diplomatic representation. The islands are not bound by treaties concluded by the United Kingdom (unless they so request) and may separately conclude treaties with foreign governments (except concerning matters reserved to the Crown). The United Kingdom conceded at the end of the 20th century that the islands may establish direct political (non-diplomatic) contacts with foreign governments to avoid the situation whereby British embassies were obliged to pass on communications from the governments of the Bailiwicks that were in conflict with United Kingdom government policy. The islands are not part of the European Union, but are part of the Customs Territory of the European Community, by virtue of Protocol Three to the Treaty on European Union. Islanders are full British citizens, but not all are European citizens. Any British citizen who applies for a passport in Jersey or Guernsey receives a passport bearing the words "British Islands, Bailiwick of Jersey" or "British Islands, Bailiwick of Guernsey". Under the provisions of Protocol Three, Channel Islanders who do not have a close connection with the UK (no parent or grandparent from the UK, and have never been resident in Great Britain or Northern Ireland for any five-year period) do not automatically benefit from the EU provisions on free movement within the EU and consequently their passports receive an endorsement to that effect. This only affects a minority of islanders. Under the Interpretation Act 1978, the Channel Islands are deemed to be part of the British Islands, not to be confused with the British Isles. Both Bailiwicks are members of the British-Irish Council, and Jèrriais and Dgèrnésiais are recognised regional languages of the Isles. The legal courts are separate; separate courts of appeal have been in place since 1961. Among the legal heritage from Norman law is the Clameur de Haro. Economy Tourism is the major industry in the smaller islands (with some agriculture). Jersey and Guernsey have, since the 1960s, relied on financial services. Guernsey's horticultural and greenhouse activities have been more significant than in Jersey, and Guernsey has maintained light industry as a higher proportion of its economy than Jersey. Jersey's economy since the 1980s has been substantially more reliant on finance. Both Bailiwicks issue their own banknotes and coins, which circulate freely in all the islands alongside UK coinage and Bank of England and Scottish banknotes. There are many exports, largely consisting of crafted goods and farmed produce. The Genuine Jersey Products Association () certify products as being locally made/sourced. Transport and communications Since 1969, Jersey and Guernsey have operated postal administrations independently of the UK's Royal Mail, with their own postage stamps, which can only be used for postage in their respective Bailiwicks. UK stamps are no longer valid, but mail to the islands, and to the Isle of Man, is still charged at UK inland rates. However, it was not until the early 1990s that the islands joined the UK's postcode system, Jersey postcodes using the initials JE and Guernsey using GY. The islands are connected to the radio and television system of the UK. They are part of BBC Channel Islands, and have since 2000 had regular opt-outs from the main Spotlight programme - 15 minutes at 18.30 and a full late bulletin at 22.25. There are also two local BBC radio stations, BBC Radio Guernsey and BBC Radio Jersey. Alderney has its own radio station, QUAY-FM, which operates in the summer tourist season and at Christmas. The islands have had their own ITV franchise, Channel Television, since September 1962. The islands will switch to digital-only transmissions in November 2010. Jersey always operated its own telephone services independently of the UK's national systems, but Guernsey did not establish its own telephone services until 1969. Both islands still form part of the UK telephone numbering plan, but Ofcom in the UK does not have responsibility for regulatory and licensing issues on the islands. The Channel Islands have their own country-code top-level-domains (ccTLDs) on the internet, managed by a Network Information Centre in Alderney. The ccTLDs are .gg for the Bailiwick of Guernsey (including Alderney and Sark) and .je for the Bailiwick of Jersey. The codes were established on the Internet in 1996, and were entered on to the official ISO-3166 list of country codes in 2006. Alderney has a large and growing internet gambling industry. Each of the three largest islands has a distinct vehicle registration scheme: Guernsey (GBG): simply a number, up to five digits; Jersey (GBJ): J followed by up to seven digits (JSY vanity plates are also issued); Alderney (GBA): AY followed by up to five digits (four digits are the most that have been used, as redundant numbers are re-issued). In Sark, where most motor traffic is prohibited, the few vehicles on the island nearly all tractors do not display plates. In the 1960s, names used for the cross-Channel ferries plying the mail route between the islands and Weymouth, Dorset were taken from the popular Latin names for the islands: "Caesarea" (Jersey), "Sarnia" (Guernsey) and "Riduna" (Alderney). Culture A sea festival advertised using Dgèrnésiais. Culturally, the Norman language predominated in the islands until the 19th century, when increasing influence from English-speaking settlers and easier transport links led to Anglicisation. There are four main dialects/languages of Norman in the islands, Auregnais (Alderney, extinct in late 20th century), Dgèrnésiais (Guernsey), Jèrriais (Jersey) and Sercquiais (Sark, an offshoot of Jèrriais). Victor Hugo spent many years in exile, first in Jersey and then in Guernsey, where he wrote Les Misérables. Guernsey is also the setting of Hugo's later novel, Les Travailleurs De La Mer (The Toilers of the Sea). A "Guernsey-man" also makes an appearance in Herman Melville's Moby-Dick. The annual "Muratti", the inter-island football match, is considered the sporting event of the year—although, due to broadcast coverage, it no longer attracts the crowds of spectators, travelling between the islands, that occurred during the 20th century. Channel Island sportsmen and women compete in the Commonwealth Games for their respective islands and the islands have also been enthusiastic supporters of the Island Games. Shooting is a popular sport, in which islanders have won Commonwealth medals. Guernsey's traditional colour for sporting and other purposes is green and Jersey's is red. This statue of a crapaud (toad) in St. Helier represents the traditional nickname for Jersey people. The main islanders have traditional animal nicknames: Guernsey: les ânes ("donkeys" in French and Norman): the steepness of St. Peter Port streets required beasts of burden, but Guernsey people also claim it is a symbol of their strength of character which Jersey people traditionally interpret as stubbornness. Jersey: les crapauds ("toads" in French and Jèrriais): Jersey has toads and snakes that Guernsey lacks. Sark: les corbins ("crows" in Sercquiais, Dgèrnésiais and Jèrriais, les corbeaux in French): crows could be seen from sea on the island's coast. Alderney: les lapins ("rabbits" in French and Auregnais): the island is noted for its warrens. Christianity was brought to the islands around the 6th century; according to tradition, Jersey was evangelised by Saint Helier, Guernsey by Saint Samson of Dol and other smaller islands were occupied at various times by monastic communities representing strands of Celtic Christianity. At the Reformation, the islands turned Calvinist under the influence of an influx of French-language pamphlets published in Geneva. Anglicanism was imposed in the 17th century, but the Non-Conformist tendency re-emerged with a strong adoption of Methodism. The presence of long-term Catholic communities from France and seasonal workers from Brittany and Normandy added to the mix of denominations among the population. Other islands in the English Channel There are other islands in other stretches of the English Channel that are not traditionally included within the grouping of Channel Islands. Among these are Ouessant/Ushant, Bréhat, Île de Batz, Chausey, Grande-Île, Tatihou and Îles Saint-Marcouf (under French jurisdiction) and the Isle of Wight and Isles of Scilly (both part of England and under UK jurisdiction). External links Map of Alderney Map of Guernsey, Herm, and Sark Map of Jersey .GG and .JE Domain Registry States of Alderney States of Guernsey States of Jersey Seigneur of Sark Channel Islands at Britlink References Encyclopedia Britannica Vol. 5 (1951), Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., Chicago - London - Toronto | Channel_Islands |@lemmatized map:5 location:1 channel:31 islands:8 locate:1 southern:1 great:3 britain:2 northern:2 france:6 norman:8 îles:7 la:6 manche:4 french:14 anglo:4 normandes:3 de:6 archipelago:1 english:5 coast:4 normandy:10 include:5 two:4 separate:5 bailiwick:20 guernsey:30 jersey:40 british:13 crown:7 dependency:2 neither:2 part:15 united:7 kingdom:6 total:1 population:4 respective:3 capital:1 st:4 peter:2 port:2 helier:3 geography:1 island:69 adjacent:1 view:2 north:3 jethou:2 herm:6 sark:12 hazy:1 outline:1 horizon:1 inhabited:1 alderney:16 main:4 brecqhou:2 brechou:1 lihou:1 except:2 addition:2 following:2 uninhabited:1 islet:1 minquiers:1 écréhous:1 les:4 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2,373 | Geography_of_Germany | This article describes the geography of Germany. The location of Germany General map of Germany Germany is a large country in Central Europe, stretching from the Alps, across the North European Plain to the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. Germany has the second largest population in Europe (after the European part of Russia) and is seventh largest in area. The territory of Germany covers , consisting of of land and of water. Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Alps (highest point: the Zugspitze at ) in the south to the shores of the North Sea (Nordsee) in the northwest and the Baltic Sea (Ostsee) in the northeast. Between lie the forested uplands of central Germany and the low-lying lands of northern Germany (lowest point: Neuendorf-Sachsenbande at below sea level), traversed by some of Europe's major rivers such as the Rhine, Danube and Elbe. Germany CIA Factbook. November 14, 2006. Retrieved 2006, 11-29. Because of its central location, Germany shares borders with more European countries than any other country on the continent. Its neighbours are Denmark in the north, Poland and the Czech Republic in the east, Austria and Switzerland in the south, France in the southwest and Belgium, Luxemburg and the Netherlands in the west. Terrain 250x|Physical map of Germany The northern third of the country lies in the North European Plain, with flat terrain crossed by northward-flowing watercourses (Elbe, Ems, Weser, Oder). Wetlands and marshy conditions are found close to the Dutch border and along the Frisian coast. Sandy Mecklenburg in the northeast has many glacier-formed lakes dating to the last glacial period. Moving south, central Germany features rough and somewhat patternless hilly and mountainous countryside, some of it formed by ancient volcanic activity. The Rhine valley cuts through the western part of this region. The central uplands continue east and north as far as the Saale and merge with the Ore Mountains on the border with the Czech Republic. Upland regions include the Eifel, Hunsrück and Palatine Forest west of the Rhine, the Taunus hills north of Frankfurt, the Vogelsberg massif, the Rhön, and the Thüringer Wald. South of Berlin, the east-central part of the country is more like the low northern areas, with sandy soil and river wetlands such as the Spreewald region. Southern Germany's landforms are defined by various linear hill and mountain ranges like the two adjacent ranges of the Swabian and Franconian Alb (reaches approximately from the source of the Danube in the southwest of Baden-Württemberg, south of Stuttgart, across Swabia into Central Franconia and to the valley of the river Main) and the Bavarian Forest along the border between Bavaria and the Czech Republic. The Alps on the southern border are the highest mountains, but relatively little Alpine terrain lies within Germany (in southeastern Swabia and Upper Bavaria) compared to Switzerland and Austria. The Black Forest, on the southwestern border with France, separates the Rhine from the headwaters of the Danube on its eastern slopes. Climate Alpine scenery in Bavaria Germany's climate is temperate and marine, with cool, cloudy, wet winters and summers and in the south occasional warm föhn wind. The greater part of Germany lies in the cool/temperate climatic zone in which humid westerly winds predominate. In the northwest and the north the climate is extremely oceanic and rain falls all the year round. Winters there are relatively mild and summers comparatively cool. In the east the climate shows clear continental features; winters can be very cold for long periods, and summers can become very warm. Here too, long dry periods are often recorded. In the centre and the south there is a transitional climate which may be predominantly oceanic or continental, according to the general weather situation. Winters are mild and summers tend to be cool, though maximum temperatures can exceed 30 °C (86 °F) for several days in a row during heat waves. The warmest regions of Germany can be found in the south-west (see rhine rift, German Wine Route and Palatinate). Here summers can be hot with a high number of days exceeding 30 °C (86 °F). Sometimes minimum temperatures don't drop under 20 degrees, which is relatively rare in other regions. German Climate Handbuch Deutschland. Retrieved 2006, 11-30. German Climate and Weather World Travels. Retrieved 2006, 11-30. It covers most of Europe. Land use Germany covers a total of 357,021 km², of which 4,750 km² is irrigated land and 7,798 km² is covered by water, the largest lakes being Lake Constance (total area of 536 km², with 62% of the shore being German; international borders are not defined on the lake itself), Müritz (117 km²) and Chiemsee (80 km²). The majority of Germany is covered by either arable land (33%) or forestry and woodland (31%). Only 15% is covered by permanent pastures. Germany has a total of 2,389 km of coastline, and borders totalling 3,621 km (clockwise from north: Denmark 68 km, Poland 456 km, Czech Republic 646 km, Austria 784 km, Switzerland 334 km, France 451 km, Luxembourg 138 km, Belgium 167 km, Netherlands 577 km). The German-Austrian border crosses itself near Jungholz. The border with Belgium includes 5 German exclaves because the Vennbahn railway is on Belgian territory crossing in and out of Germany. Caves Throughout the Karst rocks many caves were built especially in the valley of the Hönne. The biggest culture cave of Europe is located in Balve. Rivers 300x|The major German rivers The three main rivers in Germany are: the Rhine (Rhein in German) with a German part of 865 km (main tributaries including the Neckar, the Main and the Moselle (Mosel)); the Elbe with a German part of 727 km (also drains into the North Sea); and, the Danube (Donau) with a German part of 687 km. Further important rivers include the Isar in the southeast, the Main in central Germany, the Neckar in the southwest, and the Weser in the North. See also the list of rivers in Germany. Maritime claims Continental shelf: 200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm. The exact EEZ is due to conventions with neighbouring states. Territorial sea: 12 nm Natural resources Iron ore, coal, potash, timber, lignite, uranium, copper, natural gas, salt, nickel, arable land, water Environment Current issues Emissions from coal-burning utilities and industries contribute to air pollution; acid rain, resulting from sulphur dioxide emissions, is damaging forests; pollution in the Baltic Sea from raw sewage and industrial effluents from rivers in eastern Germany; hazardous waste disposal; government (under Chancellor Schröder, SPD) announced intent to end the use of nuclear power for producing electricity; government working to meet EU commitment to identify nature preservation areas in line with the EU's Flora, Fauna, and Habitat directive. Germany's last glacier is disappearing. International agreements Party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling Signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants Natural hazards Flooding through rivers after heavy rainfall, such as during the 2002 European floods, or Storm surge, such as the North Sea flood of 1962 or the historic floods of 1634 and 1362 that changed the coastline of what is now the west coast of Schleswig-Holstein. Extreme points Latitude and longitude This is a list of the extreme points of Germany, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location. northernmost point: List, Sylt, Schleswig-Holstein southernmost point: Haldenwanger Eck, Oberstdorf, Bavaria westernmost point: Isenbruch, near Millen, North Rhine-Westphalia easternmost point: Deschka, Saxony The northernmost point in mainland Germany lies near Aventoft, Schleswig-Holstein at The extreme points of the German Confederation are mentioned in the first stanza of Das Lied der Deutschen, of which the third stanza is today the national anthem of Germany. They were accurate when the song was penned in 1841, but are no longer accurate today. The limits mentioned are the following rivers: Meuse River which crosses France, Belgium and the Netherlands and formed the border of the Duchy of Limburg, then part of the German Confederation and today the Dutch Province of Limburg. Memel, which runs through Belarus and Lithuania but previously formed part of the border of East Prussia Adige (Etsch), beginning in the province of Bolzano-Bozen (then in Austria) which was transferred from the Habsburg Empire to Italy after World War I and the Belt which is a part of the Baltic Sea between Germany and Denmark. Elevation lowest point: Wilstermarsch at Neuendorf-Sachsenbande (near Itzehoe) 3.53 m below sea level highest point: Zugspitze (in the Bavarian Alps, on the Austrian border) 2,962 m See also Germany National parks (Germany) Geography of Europe List of administrative divisions of Germany References | Geography_of_Germany |@lemmatized article:1 describe:1 geography:2 germany:33 location:3 general:2 map:2 large:4 country:5 central:8 europe:6 stretch:1 alp:4 across:2 north:14 european:5 plain:2 sea:12 baltic:4 second:1 population:1 part:10 russia:1 seventh:1 area:4 territory:2 cover:6 consist:1 land:6 water:3 elevation:2 range:3 mountain:4 high:4 point:13 zugspitze:2 south:9 shore:2 nordsee:1 northwest:2 ostsee:1 northeast:2 lie:7 forested:1 upland:3 low:4 northern:3 neuendorf:2 sachsenbande:2 level:2 traverse:1 major:2 river:11 rhine:7 danube:4 elbe:3 cia:1 factbook:1 november:1 retrieve:1 share:1 border:13 continent:1 neighbour:1 denmark:3 poland:2 czech:4 republic:4 east:6 austria:4 switzerland:3 france:4 southwest:3 belgium:4 luxemburg:1 netherlands:3 west:5 terrain:3 physical:1 third:2 flat:1 cross:3 northward:1 flowing:1 watercourse:1 ems:1 weser:2 oder:1 wetland:3 marshy:1 condition:1 find:2 close:1 dutch:2 along:2 frisian:1 coast:2 sandy:2 mecklenburg:1 many:2 glacier:2 form:4 lake:4 date:1 last:2 glacial:1 period:3 move:1 feature:2 rough:1 somewhat:1 patternless:1 hilly:1 mountainous:1 countryside:1 ancient:1 volcanic:1 activity:1 valley:3 cut:1 western:1 region:5 continue:1 far:2 saale:1 merge:1 ore:2 include:4 eifel:1 hunsrück:1 palatine:1 forest:4 taunus:1 hill:2 frankfurt:1 vogelsberg:1 massif:1 rhön:1 thüringer:1 wald:1 berlin:1 like:2 soil:1 spreewald:1 southern:2 landforms:1 define:2 various:1 linear:1 two:1 adjacent:1 swabian:1 franconian:1 alb:1 reach:1 approximately:1 source:1 baden:1 württemberg:1 stuttgart:1 swabia:2 franconia:1 main:5 bavarian:2 bavaria:4 relatively:3 little:1 alpine:2 within:1 southeastern:1 upper:1 compare:1 black:1 southwestern:1 separate:1 headwater:1 eastern:2 slope:1 climate:9 scenery:1 temperate:2 marine:2 cool:4 cloudy:1 wet:1 winter:4 summer:5 occasional:1 warm:3 föhn:1 wind:2 great:1 climatic:1 zone:2 humid:1 westerly:1 predominate:1 extremely:1 oceanic:2 rain:2 fall:1 year:1 round:1 mild:2 comparatively:1 show:1 clear:1 continental:3 cold:1 long:2 become:1 dry:1 often:1 record:1 centre:1 transitional:1 may:1 predominantly:1 accord:1 weather:2 situation:1 tend:1 though:1 maximum:1 temperature:2 exceed:2 c:2 f:2 several:1 day:2 row:1 heat:1 wave:1 see:3 rift:1 german:13 wine:1 route:1 palatinate:1 hot:1 number:1 sometimes:1 minimum:1 drop:1 degree:1 rare:1 handbuch:1 deutschland:1 retrieved:2 world:2 travel:1 use:2 total:4 irrigate:1 constance:1 international:2 müritz:1 chiemsee:1 majority:1 either:1 arable:2 forestry:1 woodland:1 permanent:1 pasture:1 km:14 coastline:2 clockwise:1 luxembourg:1 austrian:2 near:4 jungholz:1 exclaves:1 vennbahn:1 railway:1 belgian:1 crossing:1 cave:3 throughout:1 karst:1 rock:1 build:1 especially:1 hönne:1 big:1 culture:1 locate:1 balve:1 rivers:1 three:1 rhein:1 tributary:1 neckar:2 moselle:1 mosel:1 also:3 drain:1 donau:1 important:1 isar:1 southeast:1 list:4 maritime:1 claim:1 shelf:1 depth:2 exploitation:1 exclusive:1 economic:1 nm:2 exact:1 eez:1 due:1 convention:1 neighbouring:1 state:1 territorial:1 natural:3 resource:1 iron:1 coal:2 potash:1 timber:3 lignite:1 uranium:1 copper:1 gas:1 salt:1 nickel:1 environment:1 current:1 issue:1 emission:2 burning:1 utility:1 industry:1 contribute:1 air:7 pollution:9 acid:1 result:1 sulphur:3 dioxide:1 damaging:1 raw:1 sewage:1 industrial:1 effluent:1 hazardous:2 waste:2 disposal:1 government:2 chancellor:1 schröder:1 spd:1 announce:1 intent:1 end:1 nuclear:2 power:1 produce:1 electricity:1 work:1 meet:1 eu:2 commitment:1 identify:1 nature:1 preservation:1 line:1 flora:1 fauna:1 habitat:1 directive:1 disappear:1 agreement:1 party:1 nitrogen:1 oxide:1 volatile:1 organic:2 compound:1 antarctic:2 environmental:2 protocol:2 treaty:1 biodiversity:1 change:3 kyoto:1 desertification:1 endanger:1 specie:1 modification:1 law:1 dumping:1 test:1 ban:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 ship:1 tropical:2 whale:1 sign:1 ratify:1 persistent:1 pollutant:1 hazard:1 flood:4 heavy:1 rainfall:1 storm:1 surge:1 historic:1 schleswig:3 holstein:3 extreme:3 latitude:1 longitude:1 farther:1 northernmost:2 sylt:1 southernmost:1 haldenwanger:1 eck:1 oberstdorf:1 westernmost:1 isenbruch:1 millen:1 westphalia:1 easternmost:1 deschka:1 saxony:1 mainland:1 aventoft:1 confederation:2 mention:2 first:1 stanza:2 da:1 der:1 deutschen:1 today:3 national:2 anthem:1 accurate:2 song:1 pen:1 longer:1 limit:1 following:1 meuse:1 duchy:1 limburg:2 province:2 memel:1 run:1 belarus:1 lithuania:1 previously:1 prussia:1 adige:1 etsch:1 beginning:1 bolzano:1 bozen:1 transfer:1 habsburg:1 empire:1 italy:1 war:1 belt:1 wilstermarsch:1 itzehoe:1 park:1 administrative:1 division:1 reference:1 |@bigram baltic_sea:4 rhine_danube:1 cia_factbook:1 czech_republic:4 hilly_mountainous:1 sandy_soil:1 baden_württemberg:1 climatic_zone:1 westerly_wind:1 arable_land:2 permanent_pasture:1 continental_shelf:1 exploitation_exclusive:1 iron_ore:1 sulphur_dioxide:1 dioxide_emission:1 raw_sewage:1 industrial_effluent:1 hazardous_waste:2 waste_disposal:1 chancellor_schröder:1 flora_fauna:1 nitrogen_oxide:1 pollution_sulphur:2 pollution_volatile:1 volatile_organic:1 organic_compound:1 biodiversity_climate:1 kyoto_protocol:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 modification_hazardous:1 marine_dumping:1 dumping_nuclear:1 ozone_layer:1 tropical_timber:2 timber_tropical:1 timber_wetland:1 wetland_whale:1 pollution_persistent:1 persistent_organic:1 organic_pollutant:1 storm_surge:1 schleswig_holstein:3 latitude_longitude:1 rhine_westphalia:1 der_deutschen:1 duchy_limburg:1 province_bolzano:1 bolzano_bozen:1 bavarian_alp:1 |
2,374 | Demographics_of_Georgia_(country) | Georgia: Total population with (top blue curve) and without (bottom red curve) Abkhazia and South Osetia, in millions. Data from statistical yearbooks of Georgian SSR (before 1990) and Republic of Georgia (after 1990), various years. The Demographics of Georgia is about the demographic features of the population of Georgia, including population growth, population density, ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects of the population. Demographic trends The demographic situation in Georgia has been characterized by two prominent features since independence: decline in total population and significant "Georgeanization" of the ethnic composition. The proportion of ethnic Georgians increased by full 10 percentage points between 1989 and 2002, rising from 73.7% to 83.7% of the population. Richard H. Rowland, "National and regional population trends in Georgia, 1989-2002: Results from the 2002 census," Eurasian Geography and Economics, 47(2): 221-242, 2006 (excluding Abkhazia and South Osetia). The population grew steadily during the Soviet period and the first years of independence, rising from less than 4 million in the 1950s to a peak of 5.5 million in 1992. Statistical yearbooks of Georgian SSR, State Committee of Statistics, Tbilisi, various years . Then the trend changed and the population began to decline, dropping to 4.5 million in 2005 according to the estimates by the Georgian Department of Statistics. Statistical Yearbook of Georgia 2005: Population, Table 2.1, p. 33, Department for Statistics, Tbilisi (2005) This figure represents the total population, including the separatist regions of Abkhazia and South Osetia, whose population in 2005 was estimated at 178,000 and 49,200, respectively. Without Abkhazia and South Osetia, the population in the regions controlled by the central government of Georgia was 4,321,500 in 2005 and 4,382,100 in 2008 Statistics Georgia: Population by region (compare the 2008 figure with the CIA estimate of 4,630,841 for all of Georgia, including Abkhazia and South Osetia). CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook Georgia in CIS World Factbook 2008. Population: 4,630,841 (July 2008 est.) Age structure: 0–14 years: 16.3% (male 402,961; female 352,735) 15–64 years: 67.1% (male 1,496,802; female 1,610,725) 65 years and over: 16.6% (male 307,795; female 459,823) (2008 est.) Median age: total: 38.3 years male: 35.8 years female: 40.7 years (2008 est.) Population growth rate: -0.325% (2008 est.) Birth rate: 10.62 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) Death rate: 9.51 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.) Net migration rate: -4.36 migrants/1,000 population (2008 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.13 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.14 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.67 male(s)/female total population: 0.9125 male(s)/female (2008 est.) Infant mortality rate: total: 16.78 deaths/1,000 live births male: 18.81 deaths/1,000 live births female: 14.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2008 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 76.51 years male: 73.21 years female: 80.26 years (2008 est.) Total fertility rate: 1.43 children born/woman (2008 est.) HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate: less than 0.1% (2001 est.) people living with HIV/AIDS: 3,000 (2003 est.) deaths: less than 200 (2003 est.) Nationality: noun: Georgian(s) adjective: Georgian Religions: Orthodox Christian 83.9%, Muslim 9.9%, Armenian-Gregorian 3.9%, Roman Catholics 0.8%, Jews 0.1%, other 1.4% (2002 census) Population Census 2002: Religious beliefs, Statistics Georgia, Tbilisi. Languages: Georgian 71% (official), Russian 9%, Armenian 7%, Azeri 6%, other 7% Note: Abkhaz is the official language in Abkhazia Literacy:, age 15 and over can read and write total population: 100% male: 100% female: 100% (2004 est.) Ethnic groups Major nationalities of Georgia according to population censuses of 1979, 1989, and 2002 (in percent; 1989 and 2002 excluding Abkhazia and South Osetia) Nationality1979 Georgian SSR, Georgian Soviet Encyclopedia, Tbilisi, 1981, p. 35 (data for 1979 including Abkhazia and South Osetia) 19892002Georgians Including Mingrelians, Svans, Lazs, and Adjarians (Muslim Georgians] ] 68.873.783.7Abkhazians 1.7– –Azerbaijanis5.16.46.5Armenians9.07.55.7Russians7.45.51.5Ossetians3.22.10.9Kurds and Yezids0.50.70.5Greeks1.91.80.3Ukrainians0.90.80.2Other1.51.50.7Total population 5,014,8004,789,3264,369,579 Population growth rate by province Source: Statistics Georgia: Population by region Year2003200420052006Change in Births2003200420052006200320042005200620032004200520062003200420052006RegionBirthsBirthsBirthsBirthsBirthsBR 03BR 04BR 05BR 06DeathsDeathsDeathsDeathsDR 03DR 04DR 05DR 06PGR 03PGR 04PGR 05PGR 06GEORGIA46,19449,57246,51247,7953.47%10.6411.4910.7610.8646,05548,79340,72142,25510.6111.319.429.60.00%0.02%0.13%0.13%Tbilisi16,80812,31712,79413,773(-18.06%)15.5811.4211.8512.4812,59712,42411,16412,45411.6711.5210.3411.290.39%(-0.01%)0.15%0.12%Autonomous Republic AbkhaziaNANANANANANANANANANANANANANANANANANANANANAAutonomous Republic Adjara4,0925,7164,7114,63713.32%10.9615.4412.6312.292,4053,0173,0202,6096.448.158.16.920.45%0.73%0.45%0.54%Guria 1,1651,4311,4321,34315.28%8.210.2810.329.641,9231,9631,7461,47913.5314.112.5910.62(-0.53%)(-0.38%)(-0.23%)(-0.10%)Imereti 6,3487,7176,7177,13112.33%9.1411.189.7510.198,1439,7566,4907,79711.7214.149.4211.14(-0.26%)(-0.30%)(0.03%)(-0.10%)Kakheti 2,7873,6553,3663,84037.78%6.99.118.429.494,6525,5274,0054,18911.5213.7710.0210.35(-0.46%)(-0.47%)(-0.16%)(-0.09%)Mtskheta-Mtianeti 9031,5141,2981,16529.01%7.2512.3610.69.361,4801,7011,3321,23711.8813.8910.879.94(-0.46%)(-0.15%)(-0.03%)(-0.06%)Racha-Lechkumi and Kvemo Svaneti 20232737623516.34%4.026.587.664.7979899170063215.919.9414.2612.87(-1.19%)(-1.34%)(-0.66%)(-0.81%)Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti3,6523,8174,4084,42121.06%7.868.279.539.354,8033,6824,1933,89210.347.989.078.23(-0.25%)0.03%0.05%0.11%Samtskhe-Javakheti 2,1422,8362,3032,113(-1.35%)10.391411.3210.132,1432,2081,7061,60410.3910.98.387.690.00%0.31%0.29%0.24%Kvemo Kartli 3,5686,4075,1485,85664.13%7.2313.0510.4111.543,4243,5613,0863,3546.947.256.246.610.03%0.58%0.42%0.49%Shida Kartli (includes South Ossetia, according to Georgian officials)4,5273,8353,9593,281(-27.52%)14.5812.4212.8110.453,6873,9633,2793,00811.8712.8310.619.580.27%(-0.04%)0.22%0.09% References See also Georgia Russians in Georgia Azeris in Georgia Assyrians in Georgia Greeks in Georgia Trialeti Ossetia | Demographics_of_Georgia_(country) |@lemmatized georgia:19 total:9 population:28 top:1 blue:1 curve:2 without:2 bottom:1 red:1 abkhazia:8 south:8 osetia:7 million:4 data:2 statistical:3 yearbook:3 georgian:11 ssr:3 republic:3 various:2 year:15 demographic:6 feature:2 include:6 growth:3 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:2 affiliation:1 aspect:1 trend:3 situation:1 characterize:1 two:1 prominent:1 since:1 independence:2 decline:2 significant:1 georgeanization:1 ethnic:3 composition:1 proportion:1 increase:1 full:1 percentage:1 point:1 rise:2 richard:1 h:1 rowland:1 national:1 regional:1 result:1 census:4 eurasian:1 geography:1 economics:1 exclude:2 grow:1 steadily:1 soviet:2 period:1 first:1 less:3 peak:1 state:1 committee:1 statistic:8 tbilisi:4 change:1 begin:1 drop:1 accord:3 estimate:3 department:2 table:1 p:2 figure:2 represent:1 separatist:1 region:4 whose:1 respectively:1 control:1 central:1 government:1 compare:1 cia:3 world:3 factbook:3 following:1 cis:1 july:1 est:15 age:3 structure:1 male:12 female:12 median:1 rate:8 birth:7 death:6 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 live:4 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 hiv:2 aid:2 adult:1 prevalence:1 people:1 nationality:2 noun:1 adjective:1 religion:1 orthodox:1 christian:1 muslim:2 armenian:2 gregorian:1 roman:1 catholic:1 jew:1 belief:1 language:2 official:3 russian:2 azeri:2 note:1 abkhaz:1 literacy:1 read:1 write:1 group:1 major:1 percent:1 encyclopedia:1 mingrelians:1 svans:1 lazs:1 adjarians:1 province:1 source:1 autonomous:1 abkhazianananananananananananananananananananananaautonomous:1 guria:1 imereti:1 kakheti:1 mtskheta:1 mtianeti:1 racha:1 lechkumi:1 kvemo:2 svaneti:1 samegrelo:1 zemo:1 samtskhe:1 javakheti:1 kartli:2 shida:1 ossetia:2 reference:1 see:1 also:1 assyrian:1 greek:1 trialeti:1 |@bigram south_osetia:7 statistical_yearbook:3 georgian_ssr:3 density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:2 adult_prevalence:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 south_ossetia:1 |
2,375 | Telecommunications_in_Lebanon | This article concerns the systems of communication in Lebanon. Lebanon possesses a number of systems of telecommunication, some of which are currently being reconstructed following damage during the civil war. The country code and top-level domain for Lebanon is "LB". Telephone There are 700,000 telephone main lines, and 600,000 mobile telephones in use in Lebanon. The telephone system experienced severe damage during the civil war, but was completely rebuilt and revamped. The systems that provide the infrastructure for the telephone network are, domestically, microwave radio relay stations and cables, and internationally, two Intelsat satellite-earth stations, a coaxial cable, and microwave radio relay station to Syria and three submarine coaxial cables. Free Radio and TV Broadcasting in Lebanon Lebanon possesses one AM radio broadcast station, and 32 FM radio broadcast stations. As of 2005, there are 28 privately owned FM radio stations. One FM station, which shifts between French, English, and Armenian, and the sole AM radio station, which broadcasts solely in Arabic, are owned by the state-owned Radio Lebanon, which is responsible to the Ministry of Information. Radio Lebanon also relays Radio France International at 13:00 (UTC) daily. Among private broadcasters are the Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation(LBCI), National Broadcasting Network, Radio One, and the Voice of Tomorrow. World Radio Television Handbook (WRTH), 2005. There are 2.85 million radios is Lebanon. Furthermore, Lebanon has two digital cable television companies, Cable Vision and echonet. There are 28 television broadcast stations in Lebanon, although the application of the Audiovisual law has caused the closure of a number of TV stations. The PAL television standard is used in Lebanon. Except for the state-owned Télé-Liban, most broadcasters run commercials and are privately owned. Some of the most important television networks are the LBC, New TV, Future TV, Orange TV (OTV), Al-Manar, NBN, Télé Lumière, and TL (controlled by the government). There are 1.18 million television sets in Lebanon. Paid Radio and TV in Lebanon There are two cable TV companies in Lebanon: Cable Vision and Echo Net. Different Internet Services in Lebanon Internet services are administered in Lebanon by the Ministry of Telecommunication. Lebanon provides three types of services: dialup services, wireless Internet service and ADSL. A) 56 K dialup: Dialup services cost around $7 a month but users have to pay for the cost of phone communication. B) ADSL Services: ADSL was offered for the first time in April 2007 and there are currently (as of October 2007) 14,000 subscribers. The ADSL network is still under development in some cities or rural areas. The prices for ADSL varies depending on the DSP but typically cost from $19/month (128 kpbs) to 70$/month (1 Mbit/s). Ogero also gives HDSL: a 2.3 Mbit/s account for the download and upload traffic with an 8 GB/month limitation for 200$/month. As Listed on The IDM Website, 90% of Lebanon will be able to use ADSL by the End of 2008. IDM :: Products :: ADSL Broadband There are current unlimited plans for ADSL but only on low accounts such as 128 kbit/s for 26$/month and 256 kbit/s for 36$/month. C) Wirless Internet: Wireless Internet services were offered for the first time in 2006 and cost around $45/month. Wireless high-speed internet is portable; users can connect anytime anywhere, in the office, on the mountain or by the sea and it provides very high speed with a download rate between 512 kbit/s and 1 Mbit/s depending on the chosen account. Point-to-Point Leased Line fees include: A one time connection fee based on Bit Rate- calculated per Leased Line- (and depending on the Leased Line Bit Rate). A recurring monthly fee with a fixed component which is based on Bit Rate, and a variable component based on Bit Rate and distance. http://www.mpt.gov.lb/nleased.htm, Fees and Tariffs (Local link) Point-to-Point Analog and Digital Leased Lines (valid from 15/07/2006). Retrieved on 2008-06-26. The following ISPs/DSPs exist in Lebanon: IDM, Blink (OGERO), Cyberia, FastNET, NewCOM Fiberlink, Sodetel, Terranet, Trinec (ASP), Netlink, Farah Net, Virtual ISP, Lebanon OnLine, WISE Moscanet As of of 2009 lebanon has 950000 internet users or 24% of the population. References Much of the information in this article is adapted from the CIA World Factbook. External links IDM Ogero Lebanon Online Cyberia FastNET Fiberlink WISE SODETEL Ministry Of Telecommunications | Telecommunications_in_Lebanon |@lemmatized article:2 concern:1 system:4 communication:2 lebanon:23 possess:2 number:2 telecommunication:3 currently:2 reconstruct:1 follow:1 damage:2 civil:2 war:2 country:1 code:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 lb:2 telephone:5 main:1 line:5 mobile:1 use:3 experience:1 severe:1 completely:1 rebuilt:1 revamp:1 provide:3 infrastructure:1 network:4 domestically:1 microwave:2 radio:14 relay:3 station:10 cable:7 internationally:1 two:3 intelsat:1 satellite:1 earth:1 coaxial:2 syria:1 three:2 submarine:1 free:1 tv:7 broadcasting:3 one:4 broadcast:4 fm:3 privately:2 shift:1 french:1 english:1 armenian:1 sole:1 solely:1 arabic:1 state:2 responsible:1 ministry:3 information:2 also:2 france:1 international:1 utc:1 daily:1 among:1 private:1 broadcaster:2 lebanese:1 corporation:1 lbci:1 national:1 voice:1 tomorrow:1 world:2 television:6 handbook:1 wrth:1 million:2 furthermore:1 digital:2 company:2 vision:2 echonet:1 although:1 application:1 audiovisual:1 law:1 cause:1 closure:1 pal:1 standard:1 except:1 télé:2 liban:1 run:1 commercial:1 important:1 lbc:1 new:1 future:1 orange:1 otv:1 al:1 manar:1 nbn:1 lumière:1 tl:1 control:1 government:1 set:1 pay:2 echo:1 net:2 different:1 internet:7 service:8 administer:1 type:1 dialup:3 wireless:3 adsl:8 k:1 cost:4 around:2 month:8 user:3 phone:1 b:1 offer:2 first:2 time:3 april:1 october:1 subscriber:1 still:1 development:1 city:1 rural:1 area:1 price:1 varies:1 depend:3 dsp:1 typically:1 kpbs:1 mbit:3 ogero:3 give:1 hdsl:1 account:3 download:2 upload:1 traffic:1 gb:1 limitation:1 list:1 idm:4 website:1 able:1 end:1 product:1 broadband:1 current:1 unlimited:1 plan:1 low:1 kbit:3 c:1 wirless:1 high:2 speed:2 portable:1 connect:1 anytime:1 anywhere:1 office:1 mountain:1 sea:1 rate:5 chosen:1 point:4 lease:4 fee:4 include:1 connection:1 base:3 bit:4 calculate:1 per:1 recur:1 monthly:1 fixed:1 component:2 variable:1 distance:1 http:1 www:1 mpt:1 gov:1 nleased:1 htm:1 tariff:1 local:1 link:2 analog:1 valid:1 retrieve:1 following:1 isps:1 dsps:1 exist:1 blink:1 cyberia:2 fastnet:2 newcom:1 fiberlink:2 sodetel:2 terranet:1 trinec:1 asp:1 netlink:1 farah:1 virtual:1 isp:1 online:2 wise:2 moscanet:1 population:1 reference:1 much:1 adapt:1 cia:1 factbook:1 external:1 |@bigram coaxial_cable:2 broadcasting_corporation:1 al_manar:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
2,376 | Drew_Barrymore | Drew Blyth Barrymore (born February 22, 1975) is an American actress and film producer. She is the youngest member of the Barrymore family of American actors. She first appeared in a film when she was eleven months old. Barrymore made her screen debut in Altered States in 1980. Afterwards, she starred in her breakout role in E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. She quickly became one of Hollywood's most recognized child actresses, going on to establish herself in mainly comic roles. Following a turbulent childhood which was marked by drug and alcohol abuse and two stints in rehab, Barrymore wrote the 1990 autobiography, Little Girl Lost. She successfully made the transition from child star to adult actress with a number of films including the unsuccessful Poison Ivy, Bad Girls, Boys on the Side, and Everyone Says I Love You. Subsequently, she has established herself in romantic comedies such as The Wedding Singer and starred in the drama film Lucky You opposite Eric Bana. In 1995, she and partner Nancy Juvonen formed the production company Flower Films, with its first production the 1999 Barrymore film Never Been Kissed. Flower Films has gone on to produce the Barrymore vehicle films Charlie's Angels, 50 First Dates, and Music and Lyrics, as well as the cult film Donnie Darko. Barrymore's more recent projects include He's Just Not That into You, Beverly Hills Chihuahua, and Everybody's Fine. A recipient of a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, Barrymore appeared on the cover of the 2007 People magazine's 100 Most Beautiful issue. Barrymore was named Ambassador Against Hunger for the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP). Since then, she has donated over $1 million to the program. In 2007, she became both CoverGirl's newest model and spokeswoman for the cosmetic and the face for Gucci's newest jewelry line. Life and career Early life Barrymore was born in Culver City, California, the daughter of American actor John Drew Barrymore and Ildikó Jaid Barrymore (née Makó), an aspiring actress born in a Displaced Persons camp in Brannenburg, West Germany to Hungarian World War II refugees. She is of Irish descent on her father's side through an ancestor, actor Maurice Costello. Her parents divorced after she was born. She has a half-brother John Blyth Barrymore, also an actor, and two half-sisters, Blyth Dolores Barrymore and Brahma (Jessica) Blyth Barrymore. Barrymore was born into the acting profession, her great-grandparents Maurice Barrymore and Georgie Drew Barrymore, Maurice Costello and Mae Costello (née Altschuk) Stein Hoffman, Carol. The Barrymores: Hollywood's First Family. University Press of Kentucky, 2001. ISBN 0-81312-213-9. and her grandparents John Barrymore and Dolores Costello were all actors; John Barrymore was arguably the most acclaimed actor of his generation. She is the grandniece of Lionel Barrymore, Ethel Barrymore and Helene Costello, "The Costello Family." BarrymoreFamily.com. the great-great-granddaughter of John Drew and actress Louisa Lane Drew, and the great grandniece of silent film actor/writer/director Sidney Drew. "The Drew family." BarrymoreFamily.com. She is also the god-daughter of director Steven Spielberg, and Sophia Loren. Her first name, Drew, was the maiden name of her paternal great-grandmother, Georgie Drew Barrymore; her middle name, Blyth, was the original surname of the dynasty founded by her great-grandfather, Maurice Barrymore. Rise to fame Drew Barrymore's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame Barrymore's career began when she auditioned for a dog food commercial at eleven months old. When she was bitten by her canine co-star, the producers were afraid she would cry, but she merely laughed, and was hired for the job. She made her film debut in Altered States (1980), in which she got a small part. A year later, she landed the role of Gertie, the younger sister of Elliott, in E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, which made her famous. She received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Supporting Actress in 1984 for her role in Irreconcilable Differences, in which she starred as a young girl divorcing her parents. In a review in the Chicago Sun-Times, Roger Ebert states: "Barrymore is the right actress for this role precisely because she approaches it with such grave calm." He concludes with saying that "The Drew Barrymore character sees right through all of this. She doesn't care about careers, she wants to be given a happy home and her minimum daily requirement of love, and, in a way, the movie is about how Hollywood (and American success in general) tends to cut adults off from the natural functions of parents." Rebellious era In the wake of this sudden stardom, Barrymore endured a notoriously troubled childhood. She was already a regular at the famed Studio 54 when she was a little girl, smoking cigarettes at age nine, drinking alcohol by the time she was 11, smoking marijuana at 12, and snorting cocaine at 13. Her nightlife and constant partying became a popular subject with the media. She was in rehab at age 13. A suicide attempt at age 14 put her back in rehab, followed by a three month stay with singer David Crosby and his wife. The stay was precipitated, Crosby said, because she "needed to be around some people that were committed to sobriety." Barrymore later described this period of her life in her 1990 autobiography, Little Girl Lost. The next year, following a successful juvenile court petition for emancipation, she moved into her own apartment and has never relapsed. New image In her late teens, Barrymore forged a new image as she played a manipulative teenage seductress in Poison Ivy (1992), which was a box office failure, but was popular on video and cable. That same year, at the age of 17, she posed nude for the cover of the July issue of Interview magazine with her then-fiance, actor Jamie Walters, as well as appearing nude in pictures inside the issue. In 1993, Barrymore earned a second Golden Globe nomination for the film Guncrazy. Barrymore would go on to pose nude for the January 1995 issue of Playboy. Steven Spielberg, who directed her in E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial when she was a child, gave her a quilt for her twentieth birthday with a note that read, "Cover yourself up". Enclosed were copies of her Playboy pictures, with the pictures altered by his art department so that she appeared fully clothed. She would appear nude in five of her films during this period. During a 1995 appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman, Barrymore climbed onto Dave Letterman's desk and bared her breasts to him, her back to the camera, in celebration of his birthday. She modeled in a series of Guess? jeans ads during this time. She underwent breast reduction surgery in 1992, and has said on the subject: Return to prominence In 1995, Barrymore starred in Boys on the Side opposite Whoopi Goldberg and Mary-Louise Parker, and had a cameo role in Joel Schumacher's film Batman Forever, in which she portrayed a moll to Tommy Lee Jones' character, Two-Face. The following year, she made a cameo in the successful horror film Scream. Barrymore has continued to be highly bankable, and a top box office draw. She was frequently cast in romantic comedies, such as Wishful Thinking (1996), The Wedding Singer (1998), Home Fries (1998). Besides a number of appearances in films produced by her company, Flower Films, including Charlie's Angels, Barrymore had a dramatic role in the comedy/drama Riding in Cars with Boys (2001), playing a teenage mother in a failed marriage with the drug-addicted father (based on the real-life story of Beverly D'Onofrio). In 2002, Barrymore appeared in Confessions of a Dangerous Mind, alongside Julia Roberts. Flower Films In 1995, Barrymore formed Flower Films, a production company, with business partner Nancy Juvonen. The first film produced by the company was 1999's Never Been Kissed. The second offering from the company was Charlie's Angels (2000), a major box office success in 2000 that helped solidify the standing of both Barrymore and the company. When the production of Richard Kelly's debut film, Donnie Darko, was threatened, Barrymore stepped forward with financing from Flower Films and took the small role of Karen Pomeroy, the title character's English teacher. Although the film was less than successful at the box office in the wake of 9/11, it reached cult film status after the DVD release, inspiring numerous websites devoted to unraveling the plot twists and meanings. In 2003, she reprised her role as Dylan Sanders in Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle, was nominated for an Emmy Award for her performance in Olive, the Other Reindeer and appeared with Ben Stiller in Duplex in 2003. Flower Films produced 50 First Dates with co-star Adam Sandler's Happy Madison company in 2004. Summing up Barrymore's appeal, Roger Ebert, in his review of 50 First Dates, described Barrymore as having a "smiling, coy sincerity", describing the film as "ingratiating and lovable". 50 First Dates was followed by Fever Pitch (2005), and in 2007, Music and Lyrics and Lucky You. Barrymore's more recent projects include Beverly Hills Chihuahua and Grey Gardens in 2008, and 2009's He's Just Not That into You and Everybody's Fine. Other career highlights One of her more recent roles has involved her becoming a recurring character in the animated comedy Family Guy as Brian Griffin's simple-minded girlfriend, Jillian. She has since appeared in four episodes. She was the subject of the 2005 documentary My Date with Drew. In it, an aspiring filmmaker and a fan of Barrymore's, uses his limited resources in an attempt to gain a date with her. On February 3, 2004, she received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Josette Sheeran Shiner, Barrymore, Condoleezza Rice, and Paul Tergat Barrymore's films have a worldwide box office gross that stands at over $2.3 billion. According to The Hollywood Reporter's annual Star Salary Top 10, she was one of the actresses with the second highest salary per movie for 2006. On February 3, 2007, Barrymore hosted Saturday Night Live (SNL) for the fifth time, making her the second female host in the show's history to do so (Candice Bergen being the first), and she still remains the youngest celebrity to host the show (Barrymore hosted in 1982 at age seven). Barrymore became a CoverGirl Cosmetics' model and spokeswoman in 2007, and was No. 1 in People'''s annual 100 Most Beautiful People list. In 2007, she was named the new face for the Gucci jewelry line. Barrymore is signed to IMG Models New York City. In May 2007, Barrymore was named Ambassador Against Hunger for the United Nations World Food Programme and later donated $1 million to the cause. Barrymore was reportedly in talks to direct the third movie in the Twilight film series, Eclipse. Personal life In 1991, at the age of 16, Barrymore became engaged to Leland Hayward, grandson of Hollywood producer Leland Hayward. However after a few months, this engagement was called off. Soon afterward, Barrymore was engaged to and lived with musician/actor Jamie Walters in 1992-93. She was married to Welsh bartender turned bar owner Jeremy Thomas from March 20 to April 28, 1994. Her second marriage was to comedian Tom Green from July 7, 2001 to October 15, 2002. Green filed for divorce in December 2001. In 2002, Barrymore began dating Strokes' drummer Fabrizio Moretti, soon after they met at a concert. Their five year relationship, however, ended on January 10, 2007. She most recently dated Justin Long, however, they confirmed their split in July 2008. Although the two remain split up, Us Weekly reports that they have signed on to co-star in the upcoming film Going the Distance. In the 1990s Barrymore was frequently described as bisexual, although she said in a 1997 interview that she hadn't "been with a woman in about two years." In 2004, she was quoted as saying "A woman and a woman together are beautiful, just as a man and a woman together are beautiful. Being with a woman is like exploring your own body, but through someone else. When I was younger I used to go with lots of women. Totally. I love it". In March 2007, former magazine editor Jane Pratt claimed on her Sirius Satellite Radio show that she had a romance with Barrymore in the mid-nineties. Barrymore was formerly a vegetarian, but has since begun to eat meat. Filmography Barrymore at the Music and Lyrics London premiere. Year Film Role Other notes 1980 Altered States Margaret Jessup 1982 E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial Gertie 1984 Firestarter Charlene "Charlie" McGee Irreconcilable Differences Casey Brodsky 1985 Cat's Eye Our Girl, Amanda (all segments) 1986 Babes in Toyland Lisa Piper 1989 See You In The Morning Cathy Goodwin Far From Home Joleen Cox 1991 Motorama Fantasy Girl 1992 Waxwork II: Lost in Time Vampire Victim #1 Poison Ivy Ivy Guncrazy Anita Minteer 1993 The Amy Fisher Story Amy Fisher No Place to Hide Tinsel Hanley Doppelganger Holly Gooding Wayne's World 2 Bjergen Kjergen 1994 Inside the Goldmine Daisy Bad Girls Lilly Laronette 1995 Boys on the Side Holly Pulchik-Lincoln Mad Love Casey Roberts Batman Forever Sugar 1996 Everyone Says I Love You Skylar Dandridge Scream Casey Becker 1997 Wishful Thinking Lena Best Men Hope 1998 The Wedding Singer Julia Sullivan Ever After Danielle de Barbarac Home Fries Sally Jackson 1999 Never Been Kissed Josie Geller Olive, the Other Reindeer Olive voice 2000 Skipped Parts Fantasy Girl Titan A.E. Akima voice Charlie's Angels Dylan Sanders 2001 Donnie Darko Karen Pomeroy Freddy Got Fingered Mr. Davidson's Receptionist Riding in Cars with Boys Beverly Donofrio 2002 Confessions of a Dangerous Mind Penny 2003 Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle Dylan Sanders Duplex Nancy Kendricks 2004 50 First Dates Lucy Whitmore My Date With Drew Herself 2005 Fever Pitch Lindsey Meeks 2006 Curious George Maggie voice 2007 Music and Lyrics Sophie Fisher Lucky You Billie Offer 2008 Beverly Hills Chihuahua Chloe voice 2009 He's Just Not That Into You Mary Grey Gardens Edith Bouvier Beale Made-for-cable HBO film Everybody's Fine Daughter awaiting release Whip It! Smashly Simpson awaiting release (also directorial debut) See also Barrymore family References Further reading Aronson, Virginia. Drew Barrymore. Chelsea House, 1999. ISBN 0791053067 Bankston, John. Drew Barrymore. Chelsea House Publishers, 2002. ISBN 0791067726 Barrymore, Drew. Little Girl Lost. Pocket Star Books, 1990. ISBN 0671689231 Ellis, Lucy. Drew Barrymore: The Biography. Aurum Press, 2004. ISBN 1845130324 Hill, Anne E. Drew Barrymore''. Lucent Books, 2001. ISBN 1560068310 External links Official Website at DrewBarrymore.com Drew Barrymore Video with Johnny Carson | Drew_Barrymore |@lemmatized drew:9 blyth:5 barrymore:68 born:1 february:3 american:4 actress:8 film:31 producer:3 young:5 member:1 family:6 actor:9 first:11 appear:8 eleven:2 month:4 old:2 make:7 screen:1 debut:4 altered:2 state:4 afterwards:1 star:13 breakout:1 role:11 e:6 extra:4 terrestrial:4 quickly:1 become:6 one:3 hollywood:8 recognize:1 child:3 go:5 establish:2 mainly:1 comic:1 follow:4 turbulent:1 childhood:2 mark:1 drug:2 alcohol:2 abuse:1 two:5 stint:1 rehab:3 write:1 autobiography:2 little:4 girl:10 lose:4 successfully:1 transition:1 adult:2 number:2 include:4 unsuccessful:1 poison:3 ivy:4 bad:2 boy:5 side:4 everyone:2 say:7 love:5 subsequently:1 romantic:2 comedy:4 wedding:3 singer:4 drama:2 lucky:3 opposite:2 eric:1 bana:1 partner:2 nancy:3 juvonen:2 form:2 production:4 company:7 flower:7 never:4 kiss:3 produce:4 vehicle:1 charlie:7 angel:6 date:10 music:4 lyric:4 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2,377 | Los_Angeles_International_Airport | Los Angeles International Airport is the primary airport serving Los Angeles, California, the second-most populated metropolitan area of the United States. It is often referred to by its airport code LAX, with the letters usually pronounced individually (IPA: /ɛl.eɪ.ɛks/). LAX is located in southwestern Los Angeles in the neighborhood of Westchester, from the downtown core. With 59,542,151 passengers in 2008, LAX is the sixth busiest airport in the world and is served by direct flights to North America, Latin America, Europe, Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East. The airport is a major hub for both United Airlines and Alaska Airlines, a focus city for American Airlines, Southwest Airlines, Allegiant Air and Virgin America. It also serves as an international gateway for Delta Air Lines. The airport also functions as joint civil-military facility, providing a base for the United States Coast Guard and its Coast Guard Air Station Los Angeles facility, operating 4 HH-65 Dolphin helicopters. LAX is the busiest airport in California in terms of flight operations, passenger traffic and air cargo activity, followed by San Francisco International Airport (SFO). LAX is also the only U.S. airport to serve 3 or more international destinations with ridership of 1 million passengers or more per year (Tokyo-Narita, London-Heathrow, Taipei). Although LAX is the busiest airport in the Greater Los Angeles Area, the region relies on a multiple airport system because of its vast size. Many of the area's most well-known attractions are closer to alternative airports than to LAX; for example, Hollywood and Griffith Park are closer to Bob Hope Airport in Burbank; while John Wayne Airport in Orange County is close to Disneyland, the Honda Center, Angel Stadium of Anaheim, and other Orange County attractions. Long Beach Airport is close to some of the coastal attractions known to Southern California, like Palos Verdes and Huntington Beach. LA/Ontario International Airport is closer to the Inland Empire region's cities of Riverside, and San Bernardino of Southern California. Design The airport occupies some of the city on the Pacific coast, about southwest of downtown Los Angeles. LAX is one of the most famous locations for commercial aircraft spotting, most notably at the so called "Imperial Hill" area (also known as Clutter's Park) in El Segundo from which nearly the entire South Complex of the airport can be viewed. Another famous spotting location sits right under the final approach for runways 24 L&R on a small grass lawn next to the Westchester In-N-Out Burger restaurant, and is noted as one of the few remaining locations in Southern California from which spotters may watch such a wide variety of low-flying commercial airliners from directly underneath. The airport's coastal location exposes it to fog, during which flights are occasionally diverted to LA/Ontario International Airport in Ontario, San Bernardino County to the east. History Los Angeles Municipal Airport on Army Day, circa 1931 Los Angeles International Airport with Marina Del Rey in the foreground and Palos Verdes Peninsula in the background. In 1928, the Los Angeles City Council selected in the southern part of Westchester as the site of a new airport for the city. The fields of wheat, barley and lima beans were converted into dirt landing strips without any terminal buildings. It was named Mines Field for William W. Mines, the real estate agent who arranged the deal. The first structure, Hangar No. 1, was erected in 1929 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Mines Field was dedicated and opened as the official airport of Los Angeles in 1930, and the city purchased it to be a municipal airfield in 1937. The name was officially changed to Los Angeles Airport in 1941, and to Los Angeles International Airport (LAX) in 1949. Prior to that time, the main airport for Los Angeles was the Grand Central Airport in Glendale. Until this time, the entire airport was located east of Sepulveda Boulevard. As the airport expanded westward to meet the Pacific Ocean, a tunnel was completed in 1953 so that Sepulveda Boulevard would pass underneath the airport's runways. It was the first tunnel of its kind. In 1958 the architecture firm Pereira & Luckman was contracted to design a master plan for the complete re-design of the airport in anticipation of the "jet age". The plan, developed along with architects Welton Becket and Paul Williams, called for a massive series of terminals and parking structures to be built in the central portion of the property, with these buildings connected at the center by a huge steel-and-glass dome. The plan was never fully realized, and shortly thereafter the Theme Building was constructed on the site originally intended for the dome. The distinctive white "Theme Building", designed by Pereira & Luckman architect Paul Williams and constructed in 1961, resembles a flying saucer that has landed on its four legs. A restaurant that provides a sweeping view of the airport is suspended beneath two intersecting arches that form the legs. The Los Angeles City Council designated the building a cultural and historical monument in 1992. A $4 million renovation, with retro-futuristic interior and electric lighting designed by Walt Disney Imagineering, was completed before the "Encounter Restaurant" opened there in 1997. At one time, tourists and passengers were able to take the elevator up to the roof of the "Theme Building", but after the September 11 attacks, the rooftop was closed off to everyone for security reasons. It was once said the rooftop would reopen for public use, but that was determined to be a rumor. The first jet service appeared at LAX in 1959, transporting passengers between LAX and New York. The first wide-bodied jets appeared in 1970 when TWA flew Boeing 747s between LAX and New York. In 1981, the airport began a substantial $700 million expansion in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics. To streamline traffic flow and ease congestion, the U-shaped roadway leading to the terminal entrances was given a second level, with the lower level dedicated to picking up arriving passengers and the upper level dedicated to dropping off departing passengers. Two new terminals (Terminal 1 and the International Terminal) were constructed and Terminal 2, then two decades old, was rebuilt. Multi-story parking structures were also built in the center of the airport. On July 8, 1982, groundbreaking for the two new terminals were conducted by Mayor Tom Bradley and World War II aviator General James Doolittle. The $123 million, International Terminal was opened on June 11, 1984 and named in Bradley's honor. In 1996, a new 277 foot (84 m) tall air traffic control tower, with overhanging awnings that shade the windows and make the building vaguely resemble a palm tree, was constructed at a cost of $29 million. The Theme Building decorated with light displays for the holidays In 2000, prior to Los Angeles hosting the Democratic National Convention. fourteen acrylic glass cylinders, each up to ten stories high, were placed in a circle around the intersection of Sepulveda Boulevard and Century Boulevard, with additional cylinders of decreasing height following Century Boulevard eastward. The cylinders, lit from inside, slowly cycle through a rainbow of colors, and provide an additional landmark for visitors arriving by air at night. This was part of an overall facelift that included new signage and various other cosmetic enhancements. At various points in its history, LAX has been a hub for TWA, Air California, Continental, Delta, PSA, USAir, Western Airlines, and the Flying Tiger Line. Starting in the mid-1990s under Los Angeles Mayors Richard Riordan and James Hahn modernization and expansion plans for LAX were prepared only to be stymied by a coalition spearheaded by residents who live near the airport angry at noise, pollution and traffic impacts of the existing facility. In late 2005 newly elected L.A. Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa was able to reach a compromise allowing some modernization to go forward while efforts are made to encourage future growth be spread among other facilities in the region. It is illegal to limit the number of passengers that can use an airport, however in December 2005 the city agreed to limit their construction of passengers gates to 163. Once passengers usage hits 75 million, a maximum of 2 gates a year for up to 10 gates will be closed, which theoretically will limit maximum growth to 79 million passengers a year. In exchange civil lawsuits were abandoned to allow the city to complete badly needed improvements to the airport. On July 29, 2006, Runway 7R/25L was closed for reconstruction until March 25, 2007. The reconstruction was to move the runway south to prevent runway incursions and prepare the runway for the next generation of Airbus A380. The newly moved runway also has storm drains, and enhanced runway lighting, something that the other 3 runways do not have. The reconstruction of runway 25L made way for a central taxiway in between runways 25L and 25R. The central taxiway between runways 25L and 25R was completed in 2008. On September 18, 2006, Los Angeles World Airports started a $503 million facelift of the Tom Bradley International Terminal. Improvements include installing new paging, air conditioning and electrical systems, along with new elevators, escalators, baggage carousels and a digital sign that will automatically update flight information. Also a large explosives-detection machine will be incorporated into the terminal's underground baggage system, in which the federal government will fund part of the system. According to the Los Angeles Times, in February 2007, many airlines flying outside of the United States have reduced flights to LAX and moved to other airports, such as San Francisco International Airport and McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas, Nevada due to outdated terminals. Airlines flying out of the Tom Bradley International Terminal have reduced flights because the International Terminal is 22 years old and has not been upgraded. In response to the report, the $500 million Tom Bradley International Terminal project began immediately. On March 19, 2007, the Airbus A380 made its debut at LAX, landing on runway 24L. LA city officials fought for the super-jumbo jet to land at LAX, in addition to making its US debut in New York's JFK airport. abc7.com: World's Largest Airliner Lands at LAX 3/19/07 On August 15, 2007, the Los Angeles City Council approved a $1.2 billion project to construct a new 10 gate terminal to handle international flights using the A380. Steve Hymon, Council OKs 10 new gates at LAX, Los Angeles Times, August 16, 2007 Adding the first new gates built since the early 1980s, the new structure is to be built directly west of the Tom Bradley International Terminal on a site that is occupied mostly by aircraft hangars with passengers ferried to the building by an underground people mover extending from the terminal. It is expected to be completed in 2012. On March 31, 2008, the Los Angeles Times reported that international airlines were once again flocking to LAX's Tom Bradley International Terminal and have added or are announcing several flights to a variety of existing and new destinations. The weak dollar has caused a surge in demand for US travel, and among the new airlines at LAX are V Australia and Emirates Airlines. In addition, Korean Air, Qantas, Air China, and Air France are all adding new routes, and Brazilian carriers TAM Airlines and OceanAir are planning to begin service, as is a new British airline that will be offering all-business-class round trip flights on the busy Los Angeles-London route. Most of the new flights will start in mid to late 2008 and will raise the number of travelers to the airport to pre-9/11 levels. The influx of new flights comes amidst the renovation of the airport and underscores LAX's status as the international gateway of the US West Coast. Qantas launched service with the Airbus A380 on October 20, 2008, using the west side remote gates. The select day service goes to/from Melbourne and Sydney to Los Angeles. The "X" in LAX Before the 1930s, existing airports used a two-letter abbreviation based on the weather station at the airports. So, at that time, LA served as the designation for Los Angeles International Airport. But, with the rapid growth in the aviation industry, the designations expanded to three letters, and LA became LAX. The letter X does not otherwise have any specific meaning in this identifier. Portland International Airport in Oregon also has a similar code: PDX. "LAX" is also used for the International Port of Los Angeles located in San Pedro and for the Amtrak-serving Union Station in downtown. All three along with the Atlanta (ATL) and Dallas-Fort Worth (DFW) designations have become culturally eponymous and are often used in shorthand as an indicator of identity by local residents. Terminals, airlines, and destinations LAX handles more "origin and destination" (i.e. not connecting) passengers than any other airport in the world. What's more, LAX has become the world's busiest airport in numbers of arriving and departing passengers. "Other airports may have more passengers going through, but we have more arrivals and departures' said Nancy Castles, spokeswoman for Los Angeles World Airports, the L.A. city agency that operates LAX. "That means more passengers to screen than any other airport." It is the world's fifth-busiest airport by passenger traffic and eleventh-busiest by cargo traffic, serving over 60 million passengers and more than two million tons of freight in 2006. It is the busiest airport in the state of California, and the third-busiest airport by passenger traffic in the United States based on final 2006 statistics. Passenger Traffic 2006 FINAL from Airports Council International In terms of international passengers, LAX is the second-busiest in the U.S. (behind only JFK International Airport in New York City), and 26th worldwide. LAX connects 87 domestic and 69 international destinations in North America, Latin America, Europe, the Middle East, Asia and Oceania. Its most prominent airlines are United Airlines (18.24% of passenger traffic, combined with United Express traffic), American Airlines (14.73%) and Southwest Airlines (12.62%). Other airlines with a presence on a lesser scale include Delta Airlines (7.33%), Alaska Airlines (4.74%), Northwest Airlines (3.79%), and Continental Airlines (3.76%). http://www.lawa.org/%5Cuploadedfiles%5CLAX%5Cstatistics%5Caircarrier-2008.pdf Mexicana operates the most flights of any non-American airline.The LAX control tower and Theme Building as seen from Terminal 4 LAX has nine passenger terminals arranged in a "U", also called a "horseshoe." The terminals are served by a shuttle bus. United Airlines/United Express operates the most departures from the airport per day (210), followed by American Airlines/ American Eagle (126), and Southwest Airlines (123). United Airlines operates to the most destinations (61), followed by American Airlines (34), and then Alaska Airlines/Horizon (29). Qantas operates the most international trans-Pacific destinations (4), with direct services to Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and Auckland. Lufthansa serves two destinations in Europe for the most there, and Alaska Airlines and Mexicana Airlines have the most destinations in Latin America (11). In addition to these terminals, there are 2 million square feet (186,000 m²) of cargo facilities at LAX, and a heliport operated by Bravo Aviation, Continental Airlines and Qantas each have maintenance facilities at LAX although neither carrier operates a hub there. Terminal 1 Terminal 1 has 15 gates: 1-3, 4A-4B, 5-14. Terminal 1 was built in 1984 and is the largest of all the terminals in number of gates. Terminal 2 Note: Some TACA/LACSA arrivals are processed at the Tom Bradley International Terminal. Terminal 2 has 11 gates: 21-21B, 22-22B, 23, 24-24B, 25-28. Terminal 2 was built in 1962 and was the original international terminal, it was completely torn down and rebuilt in 1984. Terminal 2 has CBP (Customs and Border Protection) facilities to process arriving international passengers. Note:: Northwest Airlines' operations will be moved to Terminal 5 with Delta Air Lines by June 2009. Terminal 3 Note: V Australia's and Alaska Airlines' international arrivals from airports without United States border preclearance are processed at the Tom Bradley International Terminal. Terminal 3 has 12 gates: 30, 31A, 31B, 32, 33A, 33B, 34-36, 37A, 37B, 38, [gate 39 was removed to make room for V Australia 777 operations at gate 38]. Terminal 3 opened in 1961 and was Trans World Airlines' terminal. It formerly housed some American Airlines flights after acquiring Reno Air and TWA in 1999 and 2001, respectively, then moved all American flights to Terminal 4. Terminal 4 Interior view of Terminal 4 Note: American Eagle commuter flights operate from a remote terminal 0.3 mi (500 m) west of Terminal 4. "Gate 44" serves as the shuttle bus stop at Terminal 4. The Eagle terminal is also connected by shuttle buses to Terminals 2 (Gate 22A), 3 (Gate 35), 5, and 6, because of Eagle's codesharing with Northwest/Hawaiian, Alaska, Delta, and Continental respectively. Terminal 4 has 14 gates: 40, 41, 42A, 42B, 43, 44 (bus to American Eagle satellite terminal), 45, 46A, 46B, 47A, 47B, 48A, 48B, 49B. Terminal 4 was built in 1961 and in 2001 was renovated at a cost of $400 million in order to improve the appearance and functionality of the terminal. An international arrivals facility was also added in the renovation serving American Airlines flights. Terminal 5 Delta Boeing 757-232 at LAX in August 2003. Terminal 5 has 14 gates: 50B, 51A-51B, 52A-52B, 53A-53B, 54A-54B, 55A, 56, 57, 58A, 59. Western Airlines had occupied this terminal since its opening in 1962, and then Western was merged with Delta Air Lines on April 1, 1987. Terminal 5 was re-designed, expanded to include a connector building between the original satellite and the ticketing facilities, and remodeled from 1986 through early 1988. It was unofficially named 'Delta's Oasis at LAX' with the slogan 'Take Five at LAX' when construction was completed in the summer of 1988. Many of these gates are no longer used due to the economic crisis of 2008 and Delta's reduced flight schedule. Northwest Airlines, a subsidiary of Delta Air Lines, will move its operations to Terminal 5 from Terminal 2 to be adjacent to Delta by June 2009 . Terminal 6 A Virgin America Airbus A319 at Terminal 6. In December 2008, Virgin America moved to Terminal 3. Terminal 6 has 14 gates: 60, 61, 62-62A, 63-66, 67A-67B, 68A-68B, 69A-69B. This terminal has changed little from its opening in 1961; in 1979, new gates were expanded from the main building, as is obvious from the rotunda at the end. Four of these gates have two jetways, which can accommodate large aircraft. Terminal 6 hosts airline tenants with a variety of relationships with the Airport. Continental built and owns the Connector Building (which links the Ticketing and Satellite buildings), and leases much of the space in the Ticketing Building. Continental in turn leases some of its Connector gates to Delta, supplementing its base at Terminal 5. United leases space from the Airport in Terminal 6, in addition to its base at Terminal 7. Most of the Satellite gates can feed arriving passengers into a sterile corridor that shunts them to Terminal 7's customs and immigration facility. Other airlines, such as AirTran, Sun Country, Frontier, and Spirit, lease space and operate at Terminal 6 under a monthly tariff agreement. Also, one foreign-flag airline, Copa, departs from Terminal 6. Terminal 7 Terminal 7 has 11 gates: 70A-70B, 71A-71B, 72-74, 75A-75B, 76, 77. This terminal opened in 1962. Five of these gates have two jetways, which accommodate large aircraft. Terminal 7 is the home to United Airlines, which operates a major hub at the airport. The terminal has been renovated and has the United Red Carpet Club and International First Class Lounge. Terminal 8 Terminal 8 has 9 gates: 80-88. This terminal was added for smaller jets and turboprops in 1988 and formerly served Shuttle by United flights. In 2002, United moved all non-Express flights to Terminals 6 and 7. United Express is the regional division of United Airlines operating flights generally under 2 hours long. Tom Bradley International Terminal (TBIT) Tom Bradley International Terminal at early morning Check-in counters in the Tom Bradley International Terminal The Tom Bradley International Terminal has 12 gates, including six on the north concourse and six on the south concourse. In addition, there are nine satellite gates for international flights located on the west side of LAX. Passengers are ferried to the west side gates by bus. This terminal opened for the 1984 Summer Olympic Games and is named in honor of Tom Bradley, the first African-American and longest serving (20 years) mayor of Los Angeles, and champion of LAX. The terminal is located at the west end of the passenger terminal area between Terminals 3 and 4. There are 34 airlines that serve the Tom Bradley International Terminal and the terminal handles 10 million passengers per year. The terminal is currently undergoing major renovations to facelift and modernize the entire facility and add more building space for baggage screening equipment. The renovations include refreshed check in space with inline baggage screening, three large alliance aligned lounges plus one unaligned lounge (to replace the multiple airline specific lounges) and fully facelifted departures and arrivals areas. These renovations are expected to be completed by 2010. The current renovations do not add any new gates. On November 17, 2008, Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa unveiled vision design concepts for LAX's Bradley West and Midfield Concourse projects. Los Angeles World Airports (LAWA), along with city officials, selected Fentress Architects in association with HNTB to develop a design concept for the modernization of LAX – transforming the airport with a design that both dramatically enhances the passenger experience and re-establishes it as a modern U.S. gateway in a competitive global market. The emphasis of the modernization is to dramatically improve the passenger experience from curbside to airside with a design that adeptly captures the vibrant spirit of the City and establishes a new, refreshingly convenient functionality. Upon entry into Tom Bradley International Terminal (TBIT), centralized security would enhance way-finding and lead departing passengers into the Great Hall, where they can choose from a variety of world-class concessions and retail offering. The traveler will sense the enormous impact of having a space open to natural light, with both high ceiling and glass curtain walls. International passengers arriving at TBIT would be guided through the concourse on an elevated secured corridor. The corridor would be open to the ceiling above, allowing maximum natural daylight to welcome passengers to Los Angeles. The enlarged corridor would allow for changing public art exhibits that introduce travelers to the diverse culture of Los Angeles. These passengers would have shorter waiting periods in the expanded passport control and baggage claim areas. Interactive graphics through the passport control and baggage claim areas would welcome passengers not only to Los Angeles, but to the United States. There is still much to be done before the first shovel is in the ground. Each of these projects must first complete a rigorous environmental review process. Terminal Connections Multiple LAX terminals provide airside connections allowing passengers to access other terminals without having to re-clear through security. The following airside connections are possible: - Terminals 6, 7 and 8 are all connected airside via walking corridors allowing connecting passengers a seamless connection. The only exception is international arriving passengers in Terminals 6/7 who are making connections will have to re-clear through security to have access to the departures area. - Terminals 4, 5 and 6 are connected via an underground walkway located in the center of the concourses. This walkway is currently closed. - Terminals 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 and the American Eagle terminal are accessible via a shuttle service. This shuttle service also provides connections to American Eagle's other codeshare partners such as Alaska Airlines and Northwest. Service is provided to each of those airlines terminals. Terminals not listed here do require a land side connection, where you would have to leave the terminal and walk or use the LAX Transfer Bus to connect and re-clear security in the connecting terminal. Such connections can be time consuming and do normally require set minimum connections times to be considered a legal connection. Airport Lounges Terminal 1 (US Airways Club) Terminal 2 (Air Canada Maple Leaf Lounge, Air New Zealand Koru Club, Hawaiian Airlines Premier Club, Delta Air Lines Sky Club formerly Northwest Airlines WorldClub) Terminal 3 (Alaska Airlines Board Room) Terminal 4 (American Airlines Admiral's Club, Qantas Club) Terminal 5 (Delta Air Lines Sky Club) Terminal 6 (Continental Airlines Presidents Club) Terminal 7 (United Airlines International First Class Lounge, United Airlines Red Carpet Club) TBIT (Star Alliance Lounge, SkyTeam Alliance Lounge, Oneworld Alliance Lounge, ElAl King David Lounge, Los Angeles Airport Lounge for non-aligned airlines) Ground transportation One of the large LAX signs that greet visitors to Los Angeles International Airport. This sign is at the Century Boulevard entrance to the airport. Freeway LAX can be reached using the Century Boulevard exit (and several more northern exits) on Interstate 405, or the Sepulveda Boulevard exit on Interstate 105. Like all other California airports (with the exception of San Francisco International), LAX does not have direct freeway access; all visitors entering by car must pass at least one traffic light-controlled intersection to transition from the freeway into the airport's main loop road. Bus Out of a number of bus systems, many routes (local, rapid and express) of the LACMTA, Line 6 of the Culver CityBus system, Line 8 of Torrance Transit, and the regular as well as the rapid buses of the Santa Monica Big Blue Bus system's Line 3 all make stops at the LAX City Bus Center in Parking Lot C. on 96th St., where shuttle bus "C" offers free connections to and from every LAX terminal, and at the Green Line Station, where shuttle bus "G" connects to and from the terminals. FlyAway Bus Flyaway bus in service. The FlyAway Bus is a shuttle service run by the LAWA, which travels between one of three terminals, and stops at every LAX terminal. The service is operated 24 hours a day with each line operating at least one trip per hour, with more trips in daytime, with the exception of the line to and from Westwood, which does not run in the early morning hours. The one way ticket price is $6 cash for adults ($5 from Westwood), $4 for seniors (65 and older)/disabled/medicare, and free for children under age two. All terminals offer optional remote passenger and baggage check-in services for $5 per person. All lines use Los Angeles's system of High Occupancy Vehicle lanes to expedite their trips. Routes: Van Nuys/LAX- Travels between LAX and the FlyAway terminal located at the Van Nuys Airport located in Van Nuys. The terminal offers parking in a large parking structure for $4 a day, with a 30 day limit. The route is intended to reduce traffic on Interstate 405 and to provide convenient park-and-ride services to citizens of the San Fernando, Santa Clarita, and Antelope valleys. Union Station/LAX- Travels between LAX and the Patsaouras Transit Plaza at Union Station in downtown Los Angeles. At Union Station connections can be made to Metro Rail, Metrolink, Amtrak, and Amtrak California rail services (i.e. to Burbank-Bob Hope Airport), the Metro Transitway system, and bus services operated by Amtrak California, Metro, and other regional operators. The trip takes between 25 and 45 minutes depending on traffic. Although the route is mostly intended for travelers who wish to make a connection to rail or bus services, Union Station also offers parking for $6 a day, with a 30-day limit. http://www.metro.net/multimedia/video/lax_flyaway.m4v Westwood/LAX- Travels between LAX and the FlyAway terminal located at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) in Westwood The route is mainly intended for students, staff, and faculty of UCLA and residents of Westwood Village. The buses leave from UCLA Parking Structure 32. Parking is available for immediate drop-off and pick-up, and overnight parking is offered over weekends from 3 pm Friday until 7 am Monday. China Airlines private bus China Airlines operates private bus services from LAX to Monterey Park and Rowland Heights for its passengers. " Complimentary Bus Service to LAX", China Airlines Metro Rail Shuttle bus "G" offers a free connection to the Aviation/LAX station on the Metro Green Line. The line was originally intended to connect directly to the airport, but budgetary restraints and opposition from local long-term parking lot owners impeded its progress. A Metro Rail extension to LAX is a part of both LAX and Metro's master plans. Taxis and private shuttles Taxicab services are operated by nine city-authorized taxi companies and regulated by Authorized Taxicab Supervision Inc. (ATS). ATS maintains a taxicab holding lot under the 96th Street Bridge where, at peak periods, hundreds of cabs queue up to wait their turn to pull into the central terminal area to pick up riders. A number of private shuttle companies, among them Prime Time Shuttle, SuperShuttle, and Roadrunner Shuttle provide door-to-door airport transportation as well. Roadrunner Shuttle, apart from shared ride vans, also offers Limousine and Bus services to LAX airport. X-Press Shuttle operated door-to-door airport transportation until 2001, when they lost their contract to maintain a shared ride vans station at LAX. Coast Guard Air Station Los Angeles The United States Coast Guard operates an air station at LAX, covering Coast Guard operations in various Southern California locations, including Catalina Island, which are part of the Coast Guard's Eleventh District. Missions include search and rescue (SAR), Law enforcement, aids to navigation support (such as operating lighthouses) and various military operations. In addition, Coast Guard helicopters assigned to the air station deploy to Coast Guard cutters. The air station currently maintains and operates 3 HH-65 Dolphin helicopters. Flight Path Learning Center The light towers, first installed in preparation for the Democratic National Convention in 2000, change colors throughout the night. The Flight Path Learning Center is a museum located at 6661 Imperial Highway and was formerly known as the "West Imperial Terminal." This building used to house some charter flights (Condor Airlines) and regular scheduled flights by MGM Grand Air. It sat empty for 10 years until it was re-opened as a learning center for LAX. The center contains information on the history of aviation, several pictures of the airport, as well as aircraft scale models, flight attendant uniforms, and general airline memorabilia such as playing cards, china, magazines, signs, even a TWA gate information sign. The museum claims to be "the only aviation museum and research center situated at a major airport and the only facility with a primary emphasis on contributions of civil aviation to the history and development of Southern California". However, there are other museums at major airports including the Udvar-Hazy Center of the National Air and Space Museum adjacent to Washington Dulles Airport, the Royal Thai Air Force Museum at Don Muang Airport, the Suomen ilmailumuseo (Finnish Aviation Museum) at Helsinki-Vantaa Airport, the Frontier of Flight Museum at Dallas Love Field, and others. Incidents involving LAX During its history there have been numerous incidents, but only the most notable are summarized below: All incidents listed here are in the Aviation Safety Network LAX database, unless otherwise noted. 1950s On the morning of June 30, 1956, United Airlines Flight 718, a Douglas DC-7, and TWA Flight 2, a Lockheed Super Constellation, departed LAX within three minutes of each other on eastbound transcontinental flights. The two propeller-driven airliners subsequently collided over the Grand Canyon in Arizona while both were flying in unmonitored airspace, killing all 58 people aboard Flight 718 and 70 people aboard Flight 2. 1960s On January 13, 1969, a Scandinavian Airlines System Douglas DC-8-62 crashed into Santa Monica Bay, approximately west of LAX at 7:21 pm, local time. The aircraft was operating as flight SK-933, nearing the completion of a flight from Seattle. Of nine crewmembers, three lost their lives to drowning, while 12 of the 36 passengers also drowned. On January 18, 1969, a United Airlines Boeing 727-22C bearing the registration number N7434U, crashed into Santa Monica Bay approximately west of LAX at 6:21 p.m. local time. The aircraft was destroyed, resulting in the loss of all 32 passengers and six crewmembers aboard. 1970s On the evening of June 6, 1971, Hughes Airwest Flight 706, a Douglas DC-9 jetliner which had departed LAX on a flight to Salt Lake City, Utah, was struck nine minutes after takeoff by a U.S. Marine Corps McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II fighter jet over the San Gabriel Mountains. The midair collision killed all 44 passengers and five crew members aboard the DC-9 airliner and one of two crewmen aboard the military jet. On August 6, 1974, a bomb exploded near the Pan Am ticketing area at Terminal 2; three people were killed and 35 were injured. On March 1, 1978, two tires burst in succession on a Continental Airlines McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10 during its takeoff roll at LAX and the plane, bound for Honolulu, veered off the runway. A third tire burst and the DC-10's left landing gear collapsed, causing a fuel tank to rupture. Following the aborted takeoff, spilled fuel ignited and enveloped the center portion of the aircraft in flames. During the ensuing emergency evacuation, a husband and wife died when they exited the passenger cabin onto the wing and dropped down directly into the flames. Two additional passengers died of their injuries approximately three months after the accident; 74 others aboard the plane were injured, as were 11 firemen battling the fire. On the morning of September 25, 1978, Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 182, which was on a Sacramento-Los Angeles International Airport-Lindbergh Field, San Diego route, collided in midair with a Cessna 172 while descending for a landing at Lindbergh Field; both planes crashed in San Diego's North Park district, killing all 135 on board the PSA jetliner, both occupants of the Cessna aircraft, and seven people on the ground. On the evening of March 10, 1979, Swift Aire Flight 235, a twin-engine Aerospatiale Nord 262A-33 turboprop enroute to Santa Maria, was forced to ditch in Santa Monica Bay after experiencing engine problems upon takeoff from LAX. The pilot, co-pilot and a female passenger drowned when they were unable to exit the aircraft after the ditching. The female flight attendant and the three remaining passengers -- two men and a pregnant woman -- survived and were rescued by several pleasure boats and other watercraft in the vicinity. 1980s On August 31, 1986, Aeroméxico Flight 498, a DC-9 en route from Mexico City, Mexico to Los Angeles, began its descent into LAX when a Piper Cherokee collided with the DC-9's left horizontal stabilizer over Cerritos, California, causing the DC-9 to crash into a residential neighborhood. All 64 passengers and crew aboard the Aeroméxico flight were killed, in addition to 15 on the ground. 5 homes were destroyed and an additional 7 were damaged by the crash and resulting fire. The three occupants of the Piper were killed immediately when the two planes collided; their aircraft went down in a nearby schoolyard and caused no further injuries on the ground. As a result of this incident, FAA required all commercial aircraft to be equipped with Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS). On December 7, 1987, Pacific Southwest Airlines PSA Flight 1771, bound from LAX to San Francisco International Airport, was cruising above the central California coast when a USAir employee aboard the plane shot his ex-supervisor, both pilots and then himself, causing the airplane to crash near the town of Cayucos. All 43 aboard perished. Following this event, airline staff and crew were no longer allowed to bypass security checks at U.S. airports. 1990s On February 1, 1991, USAir Flight 1493, a Boeing 737 landing on Runway 24L at LAX, collided on touchdown with a SkyWest Airlines Fairchild Metroliner, Flight 5569 departing to Palmdale, that had been holding in position on the same runway. The collision killed all 12 occupants of the SkyWest plane and 22 people aboard the USAir 737 On February 20, 1992, Aerolíneas Argentinas Flight 386, cholera-tainted shrimp was distributed on the Buenos Aires-Lima-Los Angeles flight. One elderly passenger died from food poisoning. 2000s In the year 2000, Al-Qaeda attempted to bomb LAX during the millennium holiday, although the bomber was caught at the U.S. port of entry. Ahmed Ressam was captured in Port Angeles, Washington, with a cache of explosives in the trunk of his rented car which had traveled with him from Victoria, British Columbia, aboard the ferry "Coho". The plot was part of the 2000 millennium attack plots. Ressam was sentenced to 22 years in prison on July 27, 2005. PBS - frontline: trail of a terrorist: the millennium plot: ahmed ressam's millennium plot On the afternoon of January 31, 2000, Alaska Airlines Flight 261, a McDonnell Douglas MD-83 jetliner flying from Puerto Vallarta, Mexico to San Francisco and Seattle, requested to make an emergency landing at LAX after experiencing control problems with its tail-mounted horizontal stabilizer. Before the plane could divert to Los Angeles, it suddenly plummeted into the Pacific Ocean approximately north of Anacapa Island off the California coast, killing all 88 people aboard the aircraft. Singapore Airlines Flight 006, bound for Los Angeles, crashed in Taipei's Chiang Kai-shek Airport on October 31, 2000. Three of the four planes used on September 11 were originally headed for Los Angeles, including American Airlines Flight 11, United Airlines Flight 175 and American Airlines Flight 77. On July 4, 2002, Hesham Mohamed Hadayet killed 2 Israelis at the ticket counter of El Al Airlines at LAX. Although the gunman was not linked to any terrorist group, the man was upset at U.S. support for Israel, and therefore was motivated by political disagreement. This led the FBI to classify this shooting as a terrorist act, one of the few on U.S. soil since the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. The attack was similar to the Rome and Vienna Airport Attacks. On September 21, 2005, a JetBlue Airbus A320 (JetBlue Airways Flight 292) discovered a problem with its landing gear as it took off from Bob Hope Airport in Burbank, California. It flew in circles for three hours to burn off fuel, then landed safely at Los Angeles International Airport on runway 25L, balancing on its back wheels as it rolled down the center of the runway. Passengers were able to watch their own coverage live from the satellite broadcast on JetBlue in-flight TV seat displays of their plane as it made an emergency landing with the front landing gear visibly becoming damaged. Because JetBlue does not serve LAX, the aircraft was evaluated and repaired at a Continental Airlines hangar. On July 29, 2006, after America West Express Flight 6008, a Canadair Regional Jet operated by Mesa Airlines from Phoenix, Arizona, landed on runway 25L, controllers instructed the pilot to leave the runway on a taxiway known as "Mike" and stop short of runway 25R. Even though the pilot read back the instructions correctly, he accidentally taxied onto 25R and into the path of a departing SkyWest Airlines Embraer EMB-120 operating United Express Flight 6037 to Monterey, California. They cleared each other by and nobody was hurt. On August 16, 2007, a runway incursion occurred between West Jet Flight 900 and Northwest Airlines Flight 180 on runways 24R and 24L, respectively, with the aircraft coming within of each other. The planes were carrying a combined total of 296 people, none of whom were injured. The NTSB is currently investigating the incident. In September 2007, FAA Administrator Marion Blakey stressed the need for LAX to increase lateral separation between its pair of north runways in order to preserve the safety and efficiency of the airport. See also Busiest airports in the United States by international passenger traffic List of airports in California California World War II Army Airfields List of airports in the Los Angeles area Los Angeles Airport Police References External links Los Angeles International Airport (official site) Los Angeles International Airport Flight Radar from AirportMonitor | Los_Angeles_International_Airport |@lemmatized los:48 angeles:49 international:54 airport:98 primary:2 serve:12 california:20 second:3 populated:1 metropolitan:1 area:12 united:22 state:9 often:2 refer:1 code:2 lax:80 letter:4 usually:1 pronounce:1 individually:1 ipa:1 ɛl:1 eɪ:1 ɛks:1 locate:10 southwestern:1 neighborhood:2 westchester:3 downtown:4 core:1 passenger:50 sixth:1 busy:10 world:12 direct:3 flight:58 north:6 america:9 latin:3 europe:3 asia:2 oceania:2 middle:2 east:4 major:5 hub:4 airline:79 alaska:9 focus:1 city:19 american:17 southwest:6 allegiant:1 air:27 virgin:3 also:18 gateway:3 delta:14 line:16 function:1 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2,378 | Greek_cuisine | Typical Greek salad Souvlaki plate Greek cuisine (Greek: Ελληνική Κουζίνα) is the traditional cuisine of Greece, a typical Mediterranean cuisine, sharing characteristics with the cuisines of Italy, the Balkans, Anatolia, and the Middle East. Contemporary Greek cookery makes wide use of olive oil, vegetables and herbs, grains and bread, wine, fish, and various meats, including poultry and rabbit. Spices and Seasonings:A Food Technology Handbook - Donna R. Tainter, Anthony T. Grenis, p. 223 Typical ingredients in Greek cuisine are lamb and pork, olives, cheese, eggplant, zucchini, and yogurt. The desserts are dominated by nuts and honey. Some dishes use phyllo pastry. History Fresh fish, one of the favourite dishes of the Greeks, platter with red figures, c. 350–325 BC, Louvre Greek cuisine has a long tradition and its flavours change with the season and its geography. Greek cookery, historically a forerunner of Western cuisine, spread its culinary influence - via ancient Rome - throughout Europe and beyond. It has influences from the different people's cuisine the Greeks have interacted with over the centuries, as evidenced by several types of sweets and cooked foods. It was Archestratos in 330 B.C. who wrote the first cookbook in history. Greece has a culinary tradition of some 4,000 years http://www.focusmm.com/greece/gr_coumn.htm - Historical reference about Ancient Greek cuisine. . Ancient Greek cuisine was characterized by its frugality and was founded on the "Mediterranean triad": wheat, olive oil, and wine, with meat being rarely eaten and fish being more common. This trend in Greek diet continued in Roman and Ottoman times and changed only fairly recently when technological progress has made meat more available. Wine and olive oil have always been a central part of it and the spread of grapes and olive trees in the Mediterranean and further afield is not uncorrelated with Greek colonization. The Byzantine cuisine was similar to the classical cuisine including however new ingredients that were not available before, like caviar, nutmeg and lemons, with fish continuing to be an integral part of the diet. Culinary advice was influenced by the theory of humors, first put forth by the antient Greek doctor Claudius Aelius Galenus. Byzantine cuisine benefited from Constantinople’s position as a global hub of the spice trade. Overview Pikilia, Meze Mousaka Stifado with fried potatoes and salad Thyme, one of the most traditional Greek herbs, was mentioned in the Odyssey The most characteristic and ancient element of Greek cuisine is olive oil, which is frequently used in the dishes of the Greek cuisine. It is produced from the olive trees prominent throughout the region, and adds to the distinctive taste of Greek food. The basic grain in Greece is wheat, though barley is also grown. Important vegetables include tomato, aubergine (eggplant), potato, green beans, okra, green peppers, and onions. Honey in Greece is mainly honey from the nectar of fruit trees and citrus trees: lemon, orange, bigarade (bitter orange) trees, thyme honey, and pine honey from conifer trees. Mastic (aromatic, ivory coloured resin) is grown on the Aegean island of Chios. Greek cuisine uses some flavorings more often than other Mediterranean cuisines do: oregano, mint, garlic, onion, dill and bay laurel leaves. Other common herbs and spices include basil, thyme and fennel seed. Persillade is also used as a garnish on some dishes, as in French cuisine. Many Greek recipes, especially in the northern parts of the country, use "sweet" spices in combination with meat, for example cinnamon and cloves in stews. The terrain has tended to favour the breeding of goats and sheep over cattle, and thus beef dishes are uncommon. Fish dishes are common in coastal regions and on the islands. A great variety of cheese types are used in Greek cuisine, including Feta, Kasseri, Kefalotyri, Graviera, Anthotyros, Manouri, Metsovone and Mizithra. Too much refinement is generally considered to be against the hearty spirit of the Greek cuisine, though recent trends among Greek culinary circles tend to favour a somewhat more refined approach. Dining out is common in Greece, and has been for quite some time. The Taverna and Estiatorio are widespread, serving traditional Greek home cooking at affordable prices to both locals and tourists. Recently, fast-food has also become more popular in Greece and Europe, with local chains such as Goody's springing up. Although fast food is gaining popularity and many major fast-food chains have opened all over Greece, the Greek people still rely primarily on the rich and extensive dishes of the Greek cuisine. In addition, some traditional Greek foods, especially souvlaki, gyros, pitas such as tiropita and spanakopita (savory or sweet stuffed phyllo dough) are often served in fast food style. Origins Skordalia (center) Dolmathes, the famous stuffed grapevine leaves Pastitsio, an influence by the Italian (Venetian) cuisine Greece has an ancient culinary tradition dating back several millennia, and over the centuries Greek cuisine has evolved and absorbed numerous influences and influenced many cuisines itself. Some dishes can be traced back to ancient Greece: skordalia (walnuts, almonds, crushed garlic and olive oil), lentil soup, retsina (white or rosé wine sealed with pine resin) and pasteli (candy bar with sesame seeds baked with honey) greekcuisine ; some to the Hellenistic and Roman periods: loukaniko (dried pork sausage); and Byzantium: feta cheese, avgotaraho (cured fish roe) and paximadi (traditional hard bread baked from corn, barley and rye). There are also many ancient and Byzantine dishes which are no longer consumed: porridge as the main staple, fish sauce or salt water mixed into wine. Many dishes names come from the Ottoman cuisine tradition and their names reveal Arabic, Persian or Turkish roots such as moussaka (layers of ground minced lamb meat, eggplant and tomato baked in oven), tzatziki (yoghurt with garlic and cucumber), yuvarlakia (meatball in sauce) or keftethes in Greek (meatball). Many dishes' names probably entered the Greek vocabulary during Ottoman times, or earlier in contact with the Persians and the Arabs. Some dishes may be pre-Ottoman, only taking Turkish names later; Ash and Dalby, for example, speculate that grape-leaf dolmathes were made by the early Byzantine period. Dalby, p.190 John Ash, A Byzantine Journey A few dishes are influenced by Venetian (Italian) and French cuisines, such as pastitsio, makaronia me kima, (pasta with meat) found mostly in Greece and Anatolia and Asia Minor and regions of that influence. Legend has it that Klephtico (or Kleftiko), which is slowly cooked lamb (or other meat), can be translated as 'stolen meat'. The Klephts, not having flocks of their own, would steal lambs or goats and cook the meat in a sealed pit to avoid the smoke being seen. Typical dishes Greek cuisine is very diverse and although there are many common characteristics amongst the culinary traditions of different regions within the country, there are also many differences, making it difficult to present a full list of representative dishes. For example, the vegetarian dish " Haniotiko Mpoureki" (oven baked slices of potatoes with zucchini, myzithra cheese and mint) is a typical dish in western Crete, in the region of Chania. A family in Chania may consume this dish 1-2 times per week in the summer season. However, it is not cooked in any other region of Greece. The list will present some of the most representative Greek dishes that can be found throughout the country and the most famous of the local ones: Appetizers A simple Greek meze: Cheese and olives Taramosalata Meze is a collective name for a variety of small dishes, typically served with wines or anise-flavored liqueurs as ouzo or homemade tsipouro. Orektika is the formal name for appetizers and is often used as a reference to eating a first course of a cuisine other than Greek cuisine. Dips are served with bread loaf or pita bread. In some regions, dried bread (paximadhi) is softened in water. Boureki: individually vegetable and meat fillings wrapped in phyllo pastry or dough. Deep Fried vegetables "tiganita" (courgettes, aubergines, peppers or mushrooms). Dolmades: grapevine leaves stuffed with rice and vegetables, meat is also often included. Fava: Yellow split pea puree or other bean purees; sometimes made of fava beans (called κουκκιά in Greek) Greek Salad: The so-called Greek Salad is known in Greece as Village/Country Salad (Horiatiki), essentially a tomato salad with cucumber, red onion, feta cheese, and kalamata olives, dressed with olive oil. Horta: wild or cultivated greens, steamed or blanched and made into salad, simply dressed with lemon juice and olive oil. They can be eaten as a light meal with potatoes (especially during Lent, in lieu of fish or meat). Kolokythoanthoi: zucchini flowers stuffed with rice or cheese and herbs. Koukkia: fava beans. Lachanosalata: Cabbage Salad. Very finely shredded cabbage with salt, olive oil, lemon juice/vinegar dressing. Marides tiganites: Deep-fried whitebait, usually served with lemon wedges. Melitzanosalata: aubergine (eggplant) salad. Pantzarosalata: beetroot salad with olive oil and vinegar. Patata salata: Potato salad with olive oil, finely sliced onions, lemon juice or vinegar. Saganaki: fried cheese; the word "saganaki" means a small cooking pan, and can be applied to many other foods. Skordalia: thick garlic and potato puree, usually accompanies deep fried fish/cod. Spanakopita: spinach, feta cheese (sometimes in combination with ricotta cheese), onions or spring onions, egg and seasoning wrapped in phyllo pastry. Taramosalata: fish roe mixed with boiled potatoes or moistened breadcrumbs, olive oil and lemon juice. Tzatziki: yoghurt with cucumber and garlic puree, used as a dip. Tyropita: cheese (usually feta) wrapped in phyllo pastry. Many other food items also are wrapped in phyllo pastry, either in bite-size triangles or in large sheets: kotopita (chicken), spanakotyropita (spinach and cheese), hortopita (greens), kreatopita (meat pie, using ground meat), etc. Soups Avgolemono 'egg-lemon' soup: chicken, meat, vegetable, or fish broth thickened with eggs, lemon juice, and rice. Bourou-Bourou, a vegetable & pasta soup from the island of Corfu. Colomo soup. Fakes, is a lentil soup and one of the famous everyday Greek soups, usually served with vinegar and feta cheese. Fasolada, a bean soup defined in many cookery books as the traditional Greek dish, sometimes even called "the "national food of the Greeks" Λεξικό της κοινής Νεοελληνικής, 1998 . It is made of beans, tomatoes, carrot, celery and a lot of olive oil. Magiritsa, is the traditional Easter soup made with lamb offal and thickened with avgolemono. Patsas, a tripe soup. Psarosoupa or 'fish soup' can be cooked with a variety of fish types, and several kinds of vegetables (carrots, parsley, celery, potatoes, onion), several varieties include the classic kakavia which is drizzled with olive oil. Revithia, a chickpea soup. Trahana soup, a mixture of fermented grain and yogurt . Vegetarian main dishes Very popular during fasting periods, such as the Great Lent: Aginares A La Polita: artichokes with olive oil. Arakas Me Aginares: fresh peas with artichokes in the oven. Bamies: okra with tomato sauce (sometimes with potatoes and/or chicken/lamb). Briám: an oven-baked ratatouille of summer vegetables based on sliced potatoes and zucchini in olive oil. Usually includes eggplant, tomatoes, onions, and ample aromatic herbs and seasonings. Domatokeftedhes: tomato fritters with mint, fried in olive oil and typically served with fava (split pea paste). Mainly a Cycladic Island dish. Fasolakia freska: fresh green beans stewed with potatoes, zucchini and tomato sauce. Gigantes: baked beans with tomato sauce and various herbs. Gigantes/Yiyantes (Greek Giant Baked Beans) Often made spicy with various peppers. Horta (greens) already mentioned in the Appetizers section, are quite often consumed as a light main meal, with boiled potatoes and bread. Lachanorizo (Λαχανόριζο) (Cabbage with rice) Prassorizo (Πρασόριζο) (Leeks with rice) Lachanodolmades: Cabbage rolls, stuffed with rice and sometimes meat, spiced with various herbs and served with avgolemono sauce or simmered in a light tomato broth. Spanakorizo: Spinach and rice stew cooked in lemon and olive oil sauce. Yemista: Baked stuffed vegetables. Usually tomatoes, peppers, or other vegetables hollowed out and baked with a rice and herb filling. Meat dishes Kokoretsi, seasoned lamb innards Baked lamb with potatoes (Αρνί στο φούρνο με πατάτες). One of the most common Greek dishes. There are many variations with additional ingredients. Bekri Meze: 'drunkard's snack', diced beef marinated in wine, cloves, cinnamon, bay leaves, olive oil and cooked slowly. Giouvetsi: baked lamb in clay pot with Kritharaki - orzo. Yiouvarlakia: meatballs with tomato sauce over rice. Païdakia:Grilled lamb chops with lemon, oregano, salt and pepper. Htapothi sti Skhara: Grilled octopus in vinegar, oil and oregano. Accompanied by Ouzo. Gyros: meat roasted on a vertically turning spit and served with sauce (often tzatziki) and garnishes (tomato, onions) on pita bread; a popular fast food. Kleftiko: literally meaning "of the Klephts", this is lamb slow-baked on the bone, first marinated in garlic and lemon juice, originally cooked in a pit oven. Keftedes: fried meatballs with oregano and mint. Kotopoulo pilafi ('Chicken Pilaf'), mostly popular on the island of Crete. Moussaka: eggplant casserole. There are other variations besides eggplant, such as zucchini or rice, but the eggplant version melitzanes moussaka is most popular. Pastitsio: a baked pasta dish with a filling of ground meat and a Bechamel sauce top. Pork with celery (hirino me selino/hirino selinato). Soutzoukakia Smyrneika: large meatballs with cumin, cinnamon and garlic and served in a tomato sauce. Souvlaki: (lit: 'skewer') Anything grilled on a skewer (lamb, chicken, pork, swordfish, shrimp). Most common is lamb, pork or chicken, often marinated in oil, salt, pepper, oregano and lemon. Spetsofai: a dish with country sausages, peppers, onions and wine. Originates from Mt. Pelion. Stifado: game (rabbit, venison etc.)stew with pearl onions, red wine and cinnamon. Desserts and sweets Koulourakia and Kourabiedes Baklava, phyllo pastry layers filled with nuts and drenched in syrup. Diples, a Christmas and wedding delicacy, made of thin, sheet-like dough which is cut in large squares and dipped in a swirling fashion in a pot of hot olive oil for a few seconds. As the dough fries, boobies; it is then removed immediately and sprinkled with honey and crushed walnuts. Diples (Thiples) (Honey Rolls) Greek Dessert Galaktoboureko, custard between layers of phyllo. The name derives from the Greek "ghala", meaning milk, and from the Turkish börek, meaning filled, thus meaning "filled with milk." Halvadopites A nougat of sesame with almonds in a thin crust. Karidopita, a walnut cake. Koulourakia, butter or olive-oil cookies. Kourabiedes, Christmas cookies made by kneading flour, butter and crushed roasted almonds, then generously dusted with powdered sugar. Loukoumades, similar to donuts, loukoumades are essentially fried balls of dough drenched in honey and sprinkled with cinnamon. Melomakarona, "honey macaroons", Christmas cookies soaked in a syrup of diluted honey (meli in Greek, thus melomakarona), then sprinkled with crushed walnuts. Moustalevria, a flour and grape must pudding. Moustokouloura, cookies of flour kneaded with fresh grape must instead of water. Rizogalo 'rice-milk' is rice pudding. Loukoumi is a confection made from starch and sugar, essentially similar to the Turkish delight. A variation from Serres is called Akanes. Milopita me Pandespani, apple pie with cinnamon and powdered sugar. Spoon sweets (γλυκά του κουταλιού) of various fruits, ripe or unripe, or green unripe nuts. Spoon sweets are essentially made the same way as marmalade, except that the fruit are boiled whole or in large chunks. Tsoureki, a traditional Christmas and Easter sweet bread also known as 'Lambropsomo' (Easter bread), flavored with "mahlepi", the intensely aromatic extract of the stone of the St. Lucie Cherry. Vasilopita, Saint Basil's cake or King's cake, traditional for New Year's Day. Vasilopites are baked with a coin inside, and whoever gets the coin in their slice are considered blessed with good luck for the whole year. Yogurt with honey or spoon sweet syrup. Cheese Some feta cheese, a traditional Greek cheese There is a wide variety of cheeses made in various regions across Greece. The vast majority of them remain unknown outside the Greek borders due to the lack of knowledge and the highly localized distinctive features. Many artisanal hand made cheeses, both common varieties and local specialties, are produced by small family farms throughout Greece and offer distinct flavors atypical of the mass produced varieties found commercially in Greece and abroad. A good list of some of the varieties of cheese produced and consumed in Greece can be found in the List of cheeses article, under the name of the country. Here are some of the more popular throughout Greece: Feta Kasseri Kefalotyri Graviera Kefalograviera Formaela Myzithra Anthotyros Manouri Metsovone Drinks Greek frappé coffee Greek frappé coffee a foam-covered drink derived from spray-dried instant coffee that is consumed cold. Greek coffee, made by boiling finely ground coffee beans, and is served thick and strong, and often sweetened. It is always unfiltered, with the coffee sediment at the bottom of the cup. Wine is the most common drink in Greece. Legend claims that wine was invented on the island of Icaria. Beer is widely drunk; common brands include Vergina, Heineken, Amstel, Zeos, Mythos, Alfa Hellenic Lager, Fix, Henninger, and Kaiser, all of which are produced locally, some under license. Ouzo (an 80-proof clear alcoholic beverage that is flavored with anise; it turns milky white with water or ice; the best said to be produced on the island of Lesbos). Tsipouro or (esp. in Crete) tsikoudia/raki (Mostly home-brewed, a clear drink similar to ouzo, often with higher alcohol content, and usually not flavored with herbs. The city of Volos at the centre of Greece is well-known for its Tsipouradika (literally: tsipouro places). In Thessaly tsipouro is always flavored with anise. Retsina (a white wine that has some pine resin added, originally as a preservative, but nowadays for the flavor; this is an Athens region specialty. It should not be aged.). Mavrodafni Sweet, liquor-style, red wine with higher alcohol percentage than normal. Metaxa, a brand of sweet brandy, 40% alcohol content. Tentura, a cinnamon flavored liquor from Patras. See also List of Greek dishes Greek food products Cuisine of Cyprus Greek Macedonian cuisine Cuisine of the Mediterranean Meze References Andrew Dalby, Siren Feasts: A History of Food and Gastronomy in Greece, London, 1996. ISBN 0-415-11620-1. (Mostly about ancient and Byzantine food.) Tess Mallos, Greek Cookbook, New South Wales, Australia, 1979. ISBN 0-7271-0287-7. 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2,379 | The_Holocaust_Industry | The Holocaust Industry: Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering is a book published in 2000 by Norman G. Finkelstein, who argues that the American Jewish establishment exploits the memory of the Nazi Holocaust for financial and political gain, as well as to further the interests of Israel. See article on Norman Finklestein's webpage. According to Finkelstein, this "Holocaust industry" has corrupted Jewish culture, as well as the authentic memory of the Holocaust. Finkelstein's parents were both Holocaust survivors who had been inmates of concentration camps. Finkelstein's mother was a survivor of the Warsaw ghetto, Majdanek concentration camp and two slave-labor camps. His father survived the Warsaw ghetto, Auschwitz concentration camp and the Auschwitz death march. His entire family in Poland was exterminated. The book was a bestseller in Europe, the Middle East and the Americas, and has been translated into 16 languages. GOOGLE Scholar: The Holocaust Industry: Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering NG Finkelstein - 2003 Google books, cited by 98, best seller in throughout Europe, the Middle East and the Americas, translated into 16 languages. Verified 9th May 2008. Finkelstein on the book As the child of Holocaust survivors (every member of both of his parents' families having been exterminated by the Nazis), Norman Finkelstein has lived with the Holocaust all his life. However, he thinks of the Nazi holocaust as a historical event, while "The Holocaust" is its ideological representation. His earliest memory of the historical event is his mother watching the trial of Adolf Eichmann in 1961. Other than that, it did not intrude on his childhood. No friend (or parent of a friend) asked any questions about what his mother and father had suffered. As he says "This was not a respectful silence. It was indifference. In this light, one cannot but be sceptical of the outpourings of anguish in later decades, after the Holocaust industry was firmly established." In the foreword to the first paperback edition, Finkelstein notes that the first Hardback edition had been a considerable hit in several European countries and many languages, but had been panned in the US. He sees the New York Times as the main promotional vehicle of the Holocaust industry, and notes that the 1999 Index listed 273 entries for the Holocaust and just 32 entries for the whole of Africa. Historian Omer Bartov, one of the world's leading authorities on the subject of genocide, Bildner Center Event: Omer Bartov Brown University German Studies ridiculed the notion of Holocaust profiteers as a "novel variation of `The Protocols of the Elders of Zion," - only a few months later he railed against the "growing list of Holocaust profiteers," and fingered "The Holocaust Industry" as a prime example. Chapters of the Book Chapter 1: Capitalizing The Holocaust - by the 1980s, the "War against the Jews" had become more important to American cultural life than the "War Between the States". Chapter 2: Hoaxers, Hucksters and History - in 1967 two new dogmas appeared for the first time in public discourse. They were the uniqueness of the Nazi Holocaust, and that the Holocaust marks the climax of an irrational Gentile hatred of the Jews. These became the central feature of the Holocaust Industry, but neither figures in genuine scholarship of the Nazi Holocaust. Chapter 3: The Double Shakedown - the number of Holocaust Survivors increased from c. 100,000 in 1945 Henry Friedlander, "Darkness and Dawn in 1945: The Nazis, the Allies, and the Survivors," in US Holocaust Memorial Museum, 1945 - the Year of Liberation (Washington: 1995), 11-35. Cited in the 2003 edition of HI on p.81. to nearly 1 million in 1997. "Fraudulent" claims were made on Switzerland, while accounts and assets in the US and Israel were ignored. Payments were made to the wrong people and real survivors lost out. The 100 pages of new material in the 2003 edition mostly expand Chapter 3 concentrating on the Swiss Banks case. Finkelstein set out to provide later researchers with a guide to the relevant sections of the case. He feels that the presiding judge elected not to docket crucial documents, and that the Claims Resolution Tribunal could no longer be trusted. The CRT was on course to vindicate the Swiss banks before it switched tacks in order to "protect the blackmailers reputation". Other topics within the book Fraudulent writings on the Holocaust Finkelstein describes two known frauds, that of The Painted Bird (Jerzy Kosinski) and Fragments (Binjamin Wilkomirski), and how they were defended by people even after they'd been exposed. He identifies some of these people as members of the Holocaust Industry, and notes that they also support each other. Elie Wiesel supported Kosinski; Israel Gutman and Daniel Goldhagen (see below) supported Wilkomirski; Wiesel and Gutman support Goldhagen. Holocaust Industry defends itself Finkelstein has published heavy criticisms of several books in his career and he did the same to Hitler's Willing Executioners by Daniel Johnah Goldhagen, which he calls "replete with gross misinterpretations of source material and internal contradictions", and says "the book is devoid of scholarly value". Independently, Ruth Bettina Birn (the world's leading authority on the archives that Goldhagen had consulted and chief historian for War Crimes with the Canadian Department of Justice) did the same - she and Finkelstein worked together on A Nation of Trial: The Goldhagen Thesis and Historical Truth. Goldhagen refused the journal's invitation for a full rebuttal, and instead enlisted a London law firm to sue Birn and the Cambridge University Press. Protests were made to Birn's employer, calling her "a member of the perpetrator race" (she is German born), prompting an official investigation of her.(p.66) Armenian Genocide Finkelstein scathingly compared the media treatment of the Holocaust and the media treatment of the Armenian Genocide, particularly by members of what he calls "The Holocaust Industry". (1 to 1.5 million Armenians died in the years between 1915 and 1917/1923 - denial includes the claim that they were the result of a Civil War within WWI, or refusal to accept there were deaths). In 2000, Finkelstein documented in this book how, in 1982 and 1995, the genocide (and even the suffering) of the Armenians was rejected by Israel, by Elie Wiesel and the US Holocaust Council. In 2001, Israeli Foreign Minister Shimon Peres went so far as to dismiss it as "allegations," and Armenian accounts of the mass slaughter as "meaningless". However, by this time historical consensus was changing, and he was "angrily compared ... to a holocaust denier" by Dr Charny, executive director of the Institute on the Holocaust and Genocide in Jerusalem. Peres stands accused over denial of `meaningless' Armenian Holocaust". Findarticle archive of Independent 18th April 2001. Verified 22nd Jun 2008. In August 2007, the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity produced a letter signed by 53 Nobel Laureates re-affirming the Genocide Scholars' conclusion that the 1915 killings of Armenians constituted genocide. Nobel Laureates Call For Armenian-Turkish Reconciliation, Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty, April 10, 2007. Verified 22nd Jun 2008. However, Wiesel's organization asserted there would be no legal "basis for reparations or territorial claims", anticipating Turkish anxieties that it could prompt financial or property claims. The ADL's Abe Foxman announced: "Upon reflection, the consequences of those actions were indeed tantamount to genocide". "Upon reflection, the consequences of those actions were indeed tantamount to genocide. Armenian Weekly, September 15, 2007. Verified 22nd Jun 2008. Other forms of Holocaust Denial Finkelstein explains that to suggest that Wiesel has profited from the Holocaust Industry, or even to question him, amounts to Holocaust Denial, according to Elie Wiesel. Wiesel, All Rivers, 333, 336. Cited in the 2003 edition of HI on p.70. Questioning a survivor's testimony, denouncing the role of Jewish collaborators, suggesting that Germans suffered during the bombing of Dresden or that any state except Germany committed crimes in World War II are all evidence of Holocaust denial according to Deborah Lipstadt Lipstadt, Denying, 6, 12, 22, 89-90. Cited in the 2003 edition of HI on p.70. and the most "insidious" forms of Holocaust denial are "immoral equivalencies", denying the uniqueness of The Holocaust. Lipstadt, Denying, chapter 11. Cited in the 2003 edition of HI on p.70. Finkelstein examines the intriguing implications of applying this standard to another member of the "Holocaust Industry", Daniel Goldhagen, who argued that Serbian actions in Kosovo "are, in their essence, different from those of Nazi Germany only in scale". "A New Serbia" in New Republic (17 May 1999). Cited in the 2003 edition of HI on p.70. Holocaust Deniers in real life Deborah Lipstadt claims there is widespread Holocaust denial, but in "Denying the Holocaust" her prime example is Arthur Butz, author of "The Hoax of the Twentieth Century". The chapter on him is entitled "Entering the Mainstream" - but Finkelstein considers that, were it not for the likes of Lipstadt, no one would ever have heard of Arther Butz. Holocaust deniers have as much influence in the US as the flat-earth society (p. 69). Finkelstein believes there to be only one "truly mainstream" holocaust denier. This is Bernard Lewis, convicted in France of denying the Armenian genocide. "France Fines Historian Over Armenian Denial," in Boston Globe (22 June 1995), and "Bernard Lewis and the Armenians," in Counterpunch (16-31 December 1997). Cited in the 2003 edition of HI on p.69. Since Lewis is pro-Israel "this instance ... raises no hackles in the United States." Reviews and critiques The critical response has been varied. In addition to prominent supporters, such as Noam Chomsky and Alexander Cockburn, the esteemed Holocaust historian Raul Hilberg is on record as praising Finkelstein's book: I would now say in retrospect that he was actually conservative, moderate and that his conclusions are trustworthy. He is a well-trained political scientist, has the ability to do the research, did it carefully, and has come up with the right results. I am by no means the only one who, in the coming months or years, will totally agree with Finkelstein's breakthrough. TheNation.com Giving Chutzpah New Meaning June 23 2005. Further statements made by Hilberg on the work are available at NormanFinkelstein.com Raul Hilberg interviews on The Holocaust Industry & Finkelstein (2000/2001). Others have argued that The Holocaust Industry is an unscholarly work that promotes antisemitic stereotypes. For example, according to Israeli journalist Yair Sheleg, in August 2000, German historian Hans Mommsen called it "a most trivial book, which appeals to easily aroused anti-Semitic prejudices." [HTTP://WWW.NORMANFINKELSTEIN.COM/ARTICLE.PHP?PG=3&AR=11] Omer Bartov, Professor of History and European History at Brown University reviewing the first edition of the book wrote: What I find so striking about The Holocaust Industry is that it is almost an exact copy of the arguments it seeks to expose. It is filled with precisely the kind of shrill hyperbole that Finkelstein rightly deplores in much of the current media hype over the Holocaust; it is brimming with the same indifference to historical facts, inner contradictions, strident politics and dubious contextualizations; and it oozes with the same smug sense of moral and intellectual superiority. Here he [Finkelstein] combines an old-hat 1960's view of Israel as the outpost of American Imperialism with a novel variation on the anti-Semitic forgery, "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion", which warned of a Jewish conspiracy to take over the world. Now, however, the Jewish conspiracy is intended to "shake down" (his favorite phrase) such innocent entities as Swiss banks, German corporations and East European owners of looted Jewish property, all in order to consolidate Jewish power and influence without giving the real survivors of the genocide anything but empty rhetoric. This book is, in a word, an ideological fanatic's view of other people's opportunism, by a writer so reckless and ruthless in his attacks that he is prepared to defend his own enemies, the bastions of Western capitalism, and to warn that "The Holocaust" will stir up an anti-Semitism whose significance he otherwise discounts. Like any conspiracy theory, it contains several grains of truth; and like any such theory, it is both irrational and insidious. Finkelstein can now be said to have founded a Holocaust industry of his own. From The New York Times, Book Review Desk A Tale of Two Holocausts August 6 2000 (archived). Finkelstein was to later blame Bartov's review for the poor US sales of the book. From interview with Ha'aretz March 30 2001 The Finkelstein polemic "Finkelstein attributes the book's flop in the U.S. to a lethal book review by Israeli scholar Omer Bartov that appeared in the New York Times Book Review." University of Chicago Professor Peter Novick, whose work Finkelstein described as providing the "initial stimulus" for The Holocaust Industry , asserted in the July 28, 2000 Jewish Chronicle (London) that the book is replete with "false accusations", "egregious misrepresentations", "absurd claims" and "repeated mis-statements" ("A charge into darkness that sheds no light"). Andrew Ross reviewing the book for Salon magazine wrote: On the issue of reparations, he barely acknowledges the wrongs committed by the Swiss and German institutions — the burying of Jewish bank accounts, the use of slave labor — that gave rise to the recent reparations drive. The fear that the reparations will not wind up in the hands of those who need and deserve them most is a legitimate concern. But the idea that survivors have been routinely swindled by Jewish institutions is a gross distortion. The chief reason why survivors have so far seen nothing of the $1.25 billion Swiss settlement, reached in 1998, is that U.S. courts have yet to rule on a method of distribution. On other reparations and compensation settlements, the Claims Conference, a particular bete noire of Finkelstein, says that it distributed approximately $220 million to individual survivors in 1999 alone. From Salon Magazine September 6, 2000 [HTTP://EDITION.CNN.COM/2000/BOOKS/REVIEWS/09/06/SALON.REVIEW.HOLOCAUST/ REVIEW: 'THE HOLOCAUST INDUSTRY' ] Finkelstein responded to his critics in the foreword to the second edition: Mainstream critics allege that I conjured a "conspiracy theory" while those on the Left ridicule the book as a defense of "the banks". None, so far as I can tell, question my actual findings. Publishing history Publishing history of The Holocaust Industry : 2000; First published, by Verso Books (London) 150 p. Hardcover, ISBN 1-85984-773-0 (Blue star of David on cover) 2001; First paperback edition, Verso. ISBN 1-85984-323-9 (Yellow star of David on cover) 2003; 2 edition, expanded; 286 p., paperback, Verso. ISBN 1-85984-488-X (Red star of David on cover) See also Norman Finkelstein Nazi gold Claims Conference The Holocaust in American Life References External links Author's web page for the book http://www.crt-ii.org/index_en.phtm Final Report on the Work of the Claims Resolution Tribunal for Dormant Accounts in Switzerland (CRT-I) Zurich, 5 October 2001 The business of death Wednesday July 12, 2000 The Guardian Swiss toll II, Thursday July 13, 2000 The Guardian "It Takes an Enormous Amount of Courage to Speak the Truth When No One Else is Out There" -- World-Renowned Holocaust, Israel Scholars Defend DePaul Professor Norman Finkelstein as He Fights for Tenure (Raul Hilberg and Avi Shlaim speak in support of Norman Finkelstein's scholarship and "The Holocaust Industry" specifically.) | The_Holocaust_Industry |@lemmatized holocaust:59 industry:20 reflection:4 exploitation:2 jewish:12 suffering:2 book:24 publish:5 norman:6 g:1 finkelstein:33 argue:3 american:4 establishment:1 exploit:1 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2,380 | Lewis_Carroll | Charles Lutwidge Dodgson () (27 January 1832 – 14 January 1898), better known by the pen name Lewis Carroll (), was an English author, mathematician, logician, Anglican deacon and photographer. His most famous writings are Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and its sequel Through the Looking-Glass as well as the poems "The Hunting of the Snark" and "Jabberwocky", all considered to be within the genre of literary nonsense. His facility at word play, logic, and fantasy has delighted audiences ranging from children to the literary elite, and beyond this his work has become embedded deeply in modern culture, directly influencing many artists. There are societies dedicated to the enjoyment and promotion of his works and the investigation of his life in many parts of the world including United States, Japan, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand. Early life Antecedents Dodgson's family was predominantly northern English, with Irish connections. Conservative and High Church Anglican, most of Dodgson's ancestors were army officers or Church of England clergymen. His great-grandfather, also Charles Dodgson, had risen through the ranks of the church to become a bishop. His grandfather, another Charles, had been an army captain, killed in action in 1803 when his two sons were hardly more than babies. His mother's name was Frances Jane Lutwidge. The elder of these sons — yet another Charles — was Carroll's father. He reverted to the other family business and took holy orders. He went to Rugby School, and thence to Christ Church, Oxford. He was mathematically gifted and won a double first degree, which could have been the prelude to a brilliant academic career. Instead he married his first cousin in 1827 and became a country parson. Young Charles' father was an active and highly conservative clergyman of the Anglican church who involved himself, sometimes influentially, in the intense religious disputes that were dividing the Anglican church. He was High Church, inclining to Anglo-Catholicism, an admirer of Newman and the Tractarian movement, and he did his best to instill such views in his children. Young Charles, however, was to develop an ambiguous relationship with his father's values and with the Anglican church as a whole. Young Charles Dodgson was born in the little parsonage of Daresbury in Cheshire, the oldest boy but already the third child of the four-and-a-half year old marriage. Eight more were to follow. When Charles was 11, his father was given the living of Croft-on-Tees in North Yorkshire, and the whole family moved to the spacious Rectory. This remained their home for the next twenty-five years. During the earlier times in his life, young Dodgson was educated at home. His "reading lists" preserved in the family testify to a precocious intellect: at the age of seven the child was reading The Pilgrim's Progress. He also suffered from a stammer — a condition shared by his siblings — that often influenced his social life throughout his years. At twelve he was sent away to a small private school at nearby Richmond (now part of Richmond School), where he appears to have been happy and settled. But in 1846, young Dodgson moved on to Rugby School, where he was evidently less happy, for as he wrote some years after leaving the place: I cannot say ... that any earthly considerations would induce me to go through my three years again ... I can honestly say that if I could have been ... secure from annoyance at night, the hardships of the daily life would have been comparative trifles to bear. Collingwood, Stuart Dodgson. The Life and Letters of Lewis Carroll, 18. Scholastically, though, he excelled with apparent ease. "I have not had a more promising boy his age since I came to Rugby" observed R.B. Mayor, the Mathematics master. Oxford He left Rugby at the end of 1849 and, after an interval that remains unexplained, went on in January 1851 to Oxford, attending his father's old college, Christ Church. He had only been at Oxford two days when he received a summons home. His mother had died of "inflammation of the brain" — perhaps meningitis or a stroke — at the age of forty-seven. His early academic career veered between high promise and irresistible distraction. He may not always have worked hard, but he was exceptionally gifted and achievement came easily to him. In 1852 he received a First in Honour Moderations and was shortly thereafter nominated to a Studentship, by his father's old friend Canon Edward Pusey. However, a little later he failed an important scholarship through his self-confessed inability to apply himself to study. Even so, his talent as a mathematician won him the Christ Church Mathematical Lectureship, which he continued to hold for the next twenty-six years. The income was good, but the work bored him. Many of his pupils were older and richer than he was, and almost all of them were uninterested. However, despite early unhappiness, Dodgson was to remain at Christ Church, in various capacities, until his death. Leach, Karoline In the Shadow of the Dreamchild Ch. 2. Character and appearance Physical appearance The young adult Charles Dodgson was about six feet tall, slender and deemed attractive, with curling brown hair and blue or grey eyes (depending on the account). He was described in later life as somewhat asymmetrical, and as carrying himself rather stiffly and awkwardly, though this may be on account of a knee injury sustained in middle age. As a very young child, he suffered a fever that left him deaf in one ear. At the age of seventeen, he suffered a severe attack of whooping cough, which was probably responsible for his chronically weak chest in later life. Another defect he carried into adulthood was what he referred to as his "hesitation", a stammer he acquired in early childhood and which plagued him throughout his life. Leach, Karoline In the Shadow of the Dreamchild Ch. 2 Stammer The stammer has always been a potent part of the conceptions of Dodgson; it is part of the belief that he stammered only in adult company and was free and fluent with children, but there is no evidence to support this idea. Leach, p. 91 Many children of his acquaintance remembered the stammer while many adults failed to notice it. Dodgson himself seems to have been far more acutely aware of it than most people he met; it is said he caricatured himself as the Dodo in Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, referring to his difficulty in pronouncing his last name, but this is one of the many "facts" often-repeated, for which no firsthand evidence remains. He did indeed refer to himself as the dodo, but that this was a reference to his stammer is simply speculation. Leach, Karoline In the Shadow of the Dreamchild Ch. 2. Personality Although Dodgson's stammer troubled him, it was never so debilitating that it prevented him from applying his other personal qualities to do well in society. At a time when people commonly devised their own amusements and when singing and recitation were required social skills, the young Dodgson was well-equipped to be an engaging entertainer. He could sing tolerably well and was not afraid to do so before an audience. He was adept at mimicry and storytelling, and was, reputedly, quite good at charades. Dodgson was also quite socially ambitious and anxious to make his mark on the world as a writer or an artist. In the interim between his early published writing and the success of the Alice books, he began to move in the Pre-Raphaelite social circle. His scholastic career may well have been intended as something of a stop-gap on the way to other more exciting achievements. He first met John Ruskin in 1857 and became friendly with him. He developed a close relationship with Dante Gabriel Rossetti and his family, and also knew William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais, and Arthur Hughes among other artists. He also knew the fairy-tale author George MacDonald well — it was the enthusiastic reception of Alice by the young MacDonald children that convinced him to submit the work for publication. Artistic activities Literature From a young age, Dodgson wrote poetry and short stories, both contributing heavily to the family magazine Mischmasch and later sending them to various magazines, enjoying moderate success. Between 1854 and 1856, his work appeared in the national publications, The Comic Times and The Train, as well as smaller magazines like the Whitby Gazette and the Oxford Critic. Most of this output was humorous, sometimes satirical, but his standards and ambitions were exacting. "I do not think I have yet written anything worthy of real publication (in which I do not include the Whitby Gazette or the Oxonian Advertiser), but I do not despair of doing so some day", he wrote in July 1855. In 1856 he published his first piece of work under the name that would make him famous. A romantic poem called "Solitude" appeared in The Train under the authorship of "Lewis Carroll". This pseudonym was a play on his real name; Lewis was the anglicised form of Ludovicus, which was the Latin for Lutwidge, and Carroll being an anglicised version of Carolus, the Latin for Charles. Alice "The chief difficulty Alice found at first was in managing her flamingo" In the same year, 1856, a new Dean, Henry Liddell, arrived at Christ Church, bringing with him his young family, all of whom would figure largely in Dodgson's life and, over the following years, greatly influence his writing career. Dodgson became close friends with Liddell's wife, Lorina, and their children, particularly the three sisters: Lorina, Edith and Alice Liddell. He was for many years widely assumed to have derived his own "Alice" from Alice Liddell. This was given some apparent substance by the fact the acrostic poem at the end of Through the Looking Glass spells out her name, and that there are many superficial references to her hidden in the text of both books. Dodgson himself, however, repeatedly denied in later life that his "little heroine" was based on any real child, Cohen, Morton N. (ed), The Letters of Lewis Carroll, London: Macmillan, 1979. Leach, Karoline In the Shadow of the Dreamchild Ch. 5 "The Unreal Alice" and frequently dedicated his works to girls of his acquaintance, adding their names in acrostic poems at the beginning of the text. Gertrude Chataway's name appears in this form at the beginning of The Hunting of the Snark, and no one has ever suggested this means any of the characters in the narrative are based on her. Though information is scarce (Dodgson's diaries for the years 1858–1862 are missing), it does seem clear that his friendship with the Liddell family was an important part of his life in the late 1850s, and he grew into the habit of taking the children (first the boy, Harry, and later the three girls) on rowing trips to nearby Nuneham Courtenay or Godstow. Leach, Karoline In the Shadow of the Dream Child Ch. 4 It was on one such expedition, on 4 July 1862, that Dodgson invented the outline of the story that eventually became his first and largest commercial success. Having told the story and been begged by Alice Liddell to write it down, Dodgson eventually (after much delay) presented her with a handwritten, illustrated manuscript entitled Alice's Adventures Under Ground in November 1864. Before this, the family of friend and mentor George MacDonald read Dodgson's incomplete manuscript, and the enthusiasm of the MacDonald children encouraged Dodgson to seek publication. In 1863, he had taken the unfinished manuscript to Macmillan the publisher, who liked it immediately. After the possible alternative titles Alice Among the Fairies and Alice's Golden Hour were rejected, the work was finally published as Alice's Adventures in Wonderland in 1865 under the Lewis Carroll pen name, which Dodgson had first used some nine years earlier. The illustrations this time were by Sir John Tenniel; Dodgson evidently thought that a published book would need the skills of a professional artist. The overwhelming commercial success of the first Alice book changed Dodgson's life in many ways. The fame of his alter ego "Lewis Carroll" soon spread around the world. He was inundated with fan mail and with sometimes unwanted attention. Indeed, according to one popular story that Dodgson denied decades later, Queen Victoria herself enjoyed Alice In Wonderland so much that she suggested he dedicate his next book to her, and was accordingly presented with his next work, a scholarly volume entitled An Elementary Treatise on Determinants. He also began earning quite substantial sums of money. However, he continued with his seemingly disliked post at Christ Church. In 1872, a sequel — Through the Looking-Glass And What Alice Found There — was published. Its somewhat darker mood possibly reflects the changes in Dodgson's life. His father had recently died (1868), plunging him into a depression that lasted some years. The Hunting of the Snark In 1876, Dodgson produced his last great work, The Hunting of the Snark, a fantastical "nonsense" poem, exploring the adventures of a bizarre crew of variously inadequate beings, and one beaver, who set off to find the eponymous creature. The painter Dante Gabriel Rossetti reputedly became convinced the poem was about him. Photography Photo of Alice Liddell taken by Lewis Carroll (1858). Xie Kitchin, photographed by Lewis Carroll, 1876 In 1856, Dodgson took up the new art form of photography, first under the influence of his uncle Skeffington Lutwidge, and later his Oxford friend Reginald Southey. He soon excelled at the art and became a well-known gentleman-photographer, and he seems even to have toyed with the idea of making a living out of it in his very early years. A recent study by Roger Taylor and Edward Wakeling exhaustively lists every surviving print, and Taylor calculates that just over fifty percent of his surviving work depicts young girls, though this may be a highly distorted figure as approximately 60% of his original photographic portfolio is now missing, how much evidence is there? so any firm conclusions are difficult. Dodgson also made many studies of men, women, male children and landscapes; his subjects also include skeletons, dolls, dogs, statues and paintings, and trees. His studies of nude children were long presumed lost, but six have since surfaced, five of which have been published. Photo of John Everett Millais and his wife Effie Gray with two of their children, signed by Effie (c. 1860) He also found photography to be a useful entrée into higher social circles. During the most productive part of his career, he made portraits of notable sitters such as John Everett Millais, Ellen Terry, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Julia Margaret Cameron, Michael Faraday and Alfred, Lord Tennyson. Dodgson abruptly ceased photography in 1880. Over 24 years, he had completely mastered the medium, set up his own studio on the roof of Tom Quad, and created around 3,000 images. Fewer than 1,000 have survived time and deliberate destruction. His reasons for abandoning photography remain uncertain. With the advent of Modernism tastes changed, and his photography was forgotten from around 1920 until the 1960s. Inventions To promote letter writing, Dodgson invented The Wonderland Postage-Stamp Case in 1889. This was a cloth-backed folder with twelve slots, two marked for inserting the then most commonly used 1d. stamp, and one each for the other current denominations to 1s. The folder was then put into a slip case decorated with a picture of Alice on the front and the Cheshire Cat on the back. All could be conveniently carried in a pocket or purse. When issued it also included a copy of Carroll's pamphletted lecture, Eight or Nine Wise Words About Letter-Writing. Flodden W. Heron, "Lewis Carroll, Inventor of Postage Stamp Case" in Stamps, vol. 26, no. 12, 25 March 1939 Another invention is a writing tablet called the Nyctograph for use at night that allowed for note-taking in the dark; thus eliminating the trouble of getting out of bed and striking a light when one wakes with an idea. The device consisted of a gridded card with sixteen squares and system of symbols representing an alphabet of Dodgson's design. Among the games he devised outside of logic, croquet, billiards and those played on a chess board, there are a number of word games, including an early version of what today is known as Scrabble. He also appears to have invented, or at least certainly popularised, the Word Ladder (or "doublet" as it was known at first); a form of brain-teaser that is still popular today: the game of changing one word into another by altering one letter at a time, each successive change always resulting in a genuine word. For instance, CAT is transformed into DOG by the following steps: CAT, COT, DOT, DOG. Other items include a rule for finding the day of the week for any date; a means for justifying right margins on a typewriter; a steering device for a velociam (a type of tricycle); new systems of parliamentary representation; more nearly fair elimination rules for tennis tournaments; a new sort of postal money order; rules for reckoning postage; rules for a win in betting; rules for dividing a number by various divisors; a cardboard scale for the college common room he worked in later in life, which, held next to a glass, ensured the right amount of liqueur for the price paid; a double sided adhesive strip for things like the fastening of envelopes or mounting things in books; a device for helping a bedridden invalid to read from a book placed sideways; and at least two ciphers. The later years Over the remaining twenty years of his life, throughout his growing wealth and fame, his existence remained little changed. He continued to teach at Christ Church until 1881, and remained in residence there until his death. His last novel, the two-volume Sylvie and Bruno, was published in 1889 and 1893 respectively. Its extraordinary convolutions and apparent confusion baffled most readers and it achieved little success. It does contain an extremely concise account of three-valued logic when Bruno counts "about a thousand and four" pigs because he is certain about the four but estimates the remainder. In three-valued logic, unknown plus four = unknown (see Null (SQL)). The only occasion on which (as far as is known) he travelled abroad was a trip to Russia in 1867, which he recounts in his "Russian Journal" which was first commercially published in 1935. Chronology of Works of Lewis Carroll He died on 14 January 1898 at his sisters' home, "The Chestnuts" in Guildford, of pneumonia following influenza. He was 2 weeks away from turning 66 years old. He is buried in Guildford at the Mount Cemetery. Controversies and mysteries Priesthood Dodgson had been groomed for the ordained ministry in the Anglican Church from a very early age and was expected, as a condition of his residency at Christ Church, to take holy orders within four years of obtaining his master's degree. However, he evidently became reluctant to do this. He delayed the process for some time but eventually took deacon's orders on 22 December 1861. But when the time came a year later to progress to priestly orders, Dodgson appealed to the dean for permission not to proceed. This was against college rules, and initially Dean Liddell told him he would have to consult the college ruling body, which would almost undoubtedly have resulted in his being expelled. However, for unknown reasons, Dean Liddell changed his mind overnight and permitted Dodgson to remain at the college, in defiance of the rules. Dodgson's MS diaries, volume 8, 22-24 October 1862 Uniquely amongst Senior Students of his time Dodgson never became a priest. There is currently no conclusive evidence about why Dodgson rejected the priesthood. Some have suggested his stammer made him reluctant to take the step, because he was afraid of having to preach. Wilson quotes letters by Dodgson describing difficulty in reading lessons and prayers rather than preaching in his own words. But Dodgson did indeed preach in later life, even though not in priests orders, so it seems unlikely his impediment was a major factor affecting his choice. Wilson also points out that the then Bishop of Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, who ordained Dodgson, had strong views against members of the clergy going to the theatre, one of Dodgson's great interests. Others have suggested that he was having serious doubts about the Anglican church. It is known that he was interested in minority forms of Christianity (he was an admirer of FD Maurice) and "alternative" religions (theosophy). Leach, In the Shadow of the Dreamchild (new edition), 2009, p. 134 Dodgson became deeply troubled by an unexplained sense of sin and guilt at this time (the early 1860s), and frequently expressed the view in his diaries that he was a "vile and worthless" sinner, unworthy of the priesthood. Dodgson's MS diaries, volume 8, see prayers scattered throughout the text , and this sense of sin and unworthiness may well have had an impact on his decision to abandon the priesthood. There is currently no certain explanation of why he rejected the priesthood, or why he was, at this time in his life, assailed by a sense of guilt and sin. The missing diaries At least four complete volumes Leach, p. 48 and around seven pages Leach, p. 51 of text are missing from Dodgson's 13 diaries. The loss of the volumes remains unexplained; the pages have been deliberately removed by an unknown hand. Most scholars assume the diary material was removed by family members in the interests of preserving the family name, but this has not been proven. Leach, pp. 48–51 All of the missing material, with the exception of a single page, is believed to date from the period between 1853 (when Dodgson was 22) and 1863 (when he was 32). Leach, p. 52 Many theories have been put forward to explain the missing material. A popular explanation for one particular missing page (27 June 1863) is that it might have been torn out to conceal the belief that Dodgson had proposed marriage on that day to the 11-year old Alice Liddell. However, there has never been any evidence to suggest this was so, and a paper Dodgson Family Collection, Cat. No. F/17/1. "Cut Pages in Diary". (For an account of its discovery see The Times Literary Supplement, 3 May 1996.) that came to light in the Dodgson family archive in 1996 alleges some evidence to the contrary. The "cut pages in diary" document, in the Dodgson family archive in Woking, UK. This paper, known as the "cut pages in diary document", was compiled by various members of Carroll's family after his death. Part of it may have been written at the time the pages were destroyed, though this is unclear. The document offers a brief summary of two diary pages that are now missing, including the one for 27 June 1863. The summary for this page states that Mrs. Liddell told Dodgson there was gossip circulating about him and the Liddell family's governess, as well as about his relationship with "Ina", presumably Alice's older sister, Lorina Liddell. The "break" with the Liddell family that occurred soon after was presumably in response to this gossip. Leach, Karoline [http://shadowofthedreamchild.wild-reality.netIn the Shadow of the Dreamchild] pp. 170–2. An alternate interpretation has been made regarding Carroll's rumored involvement with "Ina": Lorina was also the name of Alice Liddell's mother. What is deemed most crucial and surprising is that the document seems to imply Dodgson's break with the family was not connected with Alice at all. However, until a primary source is discovered, the events of 27 June 1863 remain inconclusive. Migraine and epilepsy In his diary for the year 1880 Dodgson recorded experiencing his first episode of migraine with aura, describing very accurately the process of 'moving fortifications' that are a manifestation of the aura stage of the syndrome. "The Diaries of Lewis Carroll", vol 9 p. 52 Indeed a condition, Alice in Wonderland Syndrome, has been named after it. Also known as micropsia and macropsia, it is a brain condition affecting the way objects are perceived by the mind. For example, an afflicted person may look at a larger object, like a basketball, and perceive it as if it were the size of a mouse. Dodgson also suffered two attacks in which he lost consciousness. He was diagnosed by three different doctors; a Dr. Morshead, Dr. Brooks, and Dr. Stedman, believed the attack and a consequent attack to be an "epileptiform" seizure (initially thought to be fainting, but Brooks changed his mind). Some have concluded from this he was a lifetime sufferer from this condition, but there is no evidence of this in his diaries beyond the diagnosis of the two attacks already mentioned. "The Diaries of Lewis Carroll", vol 9 Some authors, in particular Sadi Ranson, have suggested Carroll may have suffered from temporal lobe epilepsy in which consciousness is not always completely lost, but altered, and in which the symptoms mimic many of the same experiences as Alice in Wonderland. Carroll had at least one incidence in which he suffered full loss of consciousness and awoke with a bloody nose, which he recorded in his diary and noted that the episode left him not feeling himself for "quite sometime afterward". This attack was diagnosed as possibly "epileptiform" and Carroll himself later wrote of his "seizures" in the same diary. Epilepsy runs in families, and Carroll had at least one other family member with epilepsy (also recorded in his diaries), and speech hesitations, facial asymmetry, as well as some deafness are not uncommon in certain epilepsies. It is also recorded that several of Dodgson's siblings suffered from a speech hesitation, suggesting again that any existing neurological condition was within the family as reported in Interviews & Recollections, editor Morton N. Cohen. Suggestions of paedophilia Dodgson's friendships with young girls, together with his perceived lack of interest in romantic attachments to adult women, and psychological readings of his work—especially his photographs of nude or semi-nude girls —have all led to speculation that he was a paedophile. This possibility has underpinned numerous modern interpretations of his life and work, particularly Dennis Potter's play Alice and his screenplay for the motion picture, Dreamchild, and even more importantly Robert Wilson's Alice, and a number of recent biographies, including Michael Bakewell's Lewis Carroll: A Biography (1996), Donald Thomas's Lewis Carroll: A Portrait with Background (1995) and Morton N. Cohen's Lewis Carroll: A Biography (1995). All of these works more or less unequivocally assume that Dodgson was a paedophile, albeit a repressed and celibate one. Cohen claims Dodgson's "sexual energies sought unconventional outlets", and further writes: Cohen notes that Dodgson "apparently convinced many of his friends that his attachment to the nude female child form was free of any eroticism", but adds that "later generations look beneath the surface" (p. 229). Cohen and other biographers argue that Dodgson may have wanted to marry the 11-year old Alice Liddell and that this was the cause of the unexplained "break" with the family in June 1863. But there has never been significant evidence to support the idea, and the 1996 discovery of the "cut pages in diary document" (see above) might imply that the 1863 "break" had less to do with Alice, but was perhaps connected with rumours involving her older sister Lorina, or possibly their governess. Some writers, e.g., Derek Hudson and Roger Lancelyn Green, who have fallen short of accepting Dodgson as a paedophile, have tended to concur that he had a passion for small female children and next to no interest in the adult world. "The Carroll Myth" The accepted view of Dodgson's biography has been challenged recently by a group of scholars led by Hugues Lebailly and Karoline Leach and others who argue that Dodgson's diaries and letters reveal him to have been very different in many key aspects from the traditional image. Leach's book, In the Shadow of the Dreamchild, in particular has raised a considerable amount of controversy. Lebailly has endeavoured to set Dodgson's child-photography within the "Victorian Child Cult", which perceived child-nudity as essentially an expression of innocence. Lebailly claims that studies of child nudes were mainstream and fashionable in Dodgson's time and that most photographers, including Oscar Gustave Rejlander and Julia Margaret Cameron, made them as a matter of course. Lebailly continues that child nudes even appeared on Victorian Christmas cards—implying a very different social and aesthetic assessment of such material. Lebailly concludes that it has been an error of Dodgson's biographers to view his child-photography with 20th or 21st century eyes, and to have presented it as some form of personal idiosyncrasy, when it was in fact a response to a prevalent aesthetic and philosophical movement of the time. Leach posed a new analysis of Dodgson's sexuality. She argues that the allegations of paedophilia rose initially from a misunderstanding of Victorian morals, as well as the mistaken idea, fostered by Dodgson's various biographers, that he had no interest in adult women. She termed the traditional image of Dodgson "the Carroll Myth". She asserts his diaries show he was also keenly interested in adult women, married and single, and enjoyed several scandalous (by the social standards of his time) relationships with them. In later life many of those he described as "child-friends" were girls in their late teens and even twenties. Leach, pp. 16–17 She argues that suggestions of paedophilia evolved only many years after his death, when his well-meaning family had suppressed all evidence of his relationships with women in an effort to preserve his reputation, thus giving a false impression of a man interested only in little girls. Similarly, Leach traces the claim that many of Carroll's female friendships ended when the girls reached the age of 14 to a 1932 biography by Langford Reed, Leach, p. 33 who Leach claims intended to suggest from this that Dodgson was a "pure man" untainted by sexual desire. Leach, p. 32 Sherry L. Ackerman argues that the Carroll Myth also extends to traditional, mainstream views of Carroll's spirituality. Ackerman proposes that Carroll, rather than being a conservative Victorian Anglican, was actually a mystic. She links Carroll to the nineteenth century Neoplatonic Revival in Great Britain, as well as to accompanying trends of theosophy and spiritualism. The concept of the Carroll Myth has been opposed by some leading Carroll scholars, in particular Morton Cohen and Martin Gardner. Works A Tangled Tale Alice's Adventures in Wonderland An Elementary Treatise on Determinants, With Their Application to Simultaneous Linear Equations and Algebraic Equations Euclid and his Modern Rivals (1879) Facts He thought he saw an elephant Rhyme? And Reason? (also published as Phantasmagoria) Pillow Problems Sylvie and Bruno Sylvie and Bruno Concluded Symbolic Logic Part I Symbolic Logic Part II (published posthumously) The Game of Logic The Hunting of the Snark Three Sunsets and Other Poems Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There (includes Jabberwocky) What the Tortoise Said to Achilles See also The Fales Library Guide to the Alfred C. Berol Collection of Lewis Carroll Dodgson condensation Lewis Carroll identity Lewis Carroll Shelf Award Lewis Carroll Society of North America Barbershop paradox Jack the Ripper, Light-Hearted Friend: deals with the unusual idea that Carroll may have been the Ripper. Phantasmagoria: The Visions of Lewis Carroll: An upcoming horror film based on the visions of Lewis Carroll, inspired, directed, and played by Marilyn Manson. "Father William" which is a parody of Robert Southey's poem, "The Old Man’s Comforts and How He Gained Them". RGS Worcester and The Alice Ottley School - Miss Ottley, the first Headmistress of The Alice Ottley School, was a friend of Lewis Carroll, and as such, one of the school's houses was named after him. Alfred C. Berol Collection of Lewis Carroll The Alfred C. Berol Collection of Lewis Carroll is housed in the Fales Library at New York University. One of the foremost collections of Lewis Carroll materials in the United States, it contains Carroll's correspondence, drawings, manuscripts (firsts, autographed copies, presentation copies, and proofs),and photographs. It also includes drawings by his illustrators Harry Furniss and John Tenniel. Additionally, the collection contains a number of ephemeral materials related to Lewis Carroll. This ephemera illustrates Carroll's work's contemporary and enduring cultural impact, as well as Alfred C. Berol's correspondence and notes on the gathering of the materials in the collection http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/fales/berol.html . The Fales Library guide to the Alfred C. Berol Collection of Lewis Carroll. Notes References Bowman, Isa (1899), The Story of Lewis Carroll, Told by the Real Alice in Wonderland, London: Dent Cohen, Morton N. (1995), Lewis Carroll: A Biography, London: Macmillan. (ISBN 0-333-62926-4) Collingwood, Stuart Dodgson (1898), The Life and Letters of Lewis Carroll, London: T. Fisher Unwin Graham-Smith, Darien (2005), Contextualising Carroll, University of Wales, Bangor: PhD Thesis () Huxley, Francis (1976), The Raven and the Writing Desk. (ISBN 0-06-012113-0). Kelly, Richard, Lewis Carroll. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1990. Kelly, Richard, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. Leach, Karoline (1999), In the Shadow of the Dreamchild: A New Understanding of Lewis Carroll, London: Peter Owen Publishers Lennon, Florence Becker (1947), Lewis Carroll, London: Cassell Reed, Langford (1932), The Life of Lewis Carroll, London: W. and G. Foyle Sunghyun Kim, 'Political Unconscious in Fantastic Narrative: Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland(Korean)', Yonsei University Graduate School, 2005 Taylor, Alexander L., Knight (1952), The White Knight, Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd Taylor, Roger & Wakeling, Edward, Lewis Carroll, Photographer. Princeton University Press, 2002. (ISBN 0691074437). Catalogues nearly every Carroll photograph known to be still in existence. Wullschläger, Jackie, Inventing Wonderland, (ISBN 0-7432-2892-8) — also looks at Edward Lear (of the "nonsense" verses), J. M. Barrie (Peter Pan), Kenneth Grahame (The Wind in the Willows), and A. A. Milne (Winnie-the-Pooh). n.n., Dreaming in Pictures: The Photography of Lewis Carroll. Yale University Press & SFMOMA, 2004. (Places Carroll firmly in the art photography tradition.) External links The Fales Library Guide to the Alfred C. Berol Collection of Lewis Carroll The Carroll Myth background on the current controversy. Cohen's objections to "The Carroll Myth" Lewis Carroll.CC The Lewis Carroll Society Lewis Carroll Society of North America Lewis Carroll at victorianweb.org Contrariwise; the Association for New Lewis Carroll Studies The Photography of Lewis Carroll (selected colourised plates from his child photography) Lewis Carroll Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin Lewis Carroll on Tant Mieux A collection of articles by S. Ranson-Polizzotti and note of forthcoming book, summer, 2008. Selected Poems, at Poetry Index Lewis Carroll - The First Monty Python? 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2,381 | Improvisational_theatre | An improvisation troupe at the University of Florida Improvisational theatre (also known as improv or impro) is a form of theatre in which the actors use improvisational acting techniques to perform spontaneously. Actors typically use audience suggestions to guide the performance as they create dialogue, setting, and plot extemporaneously. Improvisational theatre performances tend to be comedic, although some forms, including Playback Theatre and Theatre of the Oppressed, are not necessarily intended to be comedic. Many improvisational actors also work as scripted actors, and "improv" techniques are often taught in standard acting classes. The basic skills of listening, clarity, confidence, and performing instinctively and spontaneously are considered important skills for actors to develop. Improvisational comedy Modern improvisational comedy, as it is practiced in the West, falls generally into two categories: shortform and longform. Shortform improv consists of short scenes usually constructed from a predetermined game, structure, or idea and driven by an audience suggestion. Many shortform games were first created by Viola Spolin based on her training from Neva Boyd . The shortform improv comedy television series Whose Line Is It Anyway? has familiarized American and British viewers with shortform. Longform improv performers create shows in which scenes are often interrelated by story, characters, or themes. Longform shows may take the form of an existing type of theatre, for example a full-length play or Broadway-style musical such as Spontaneous Broadway . Longform improvisation is especially performed in Chicago and New York City. Perhaps the best-known, and considered the first, longform structure is the Harold, developed by ImprovOlympic cofounder Del Close. Many such longform structures now exist. Origins Improvised performance is as old as performance itself. From the 1500s to the 1700s, Commedia dell'arte performers improvised in the streets of Italy Claudon, David. A Thumbnail History of Commedia Dell' arte. 2003 and in the 1890s theatrical theorists and directors such as Konstantin Stanislavski and Jacques Copeau, founders of two major streams of acting theory, both heavily utilised improvisation in acting training and rehearsal. Twentieth Century Acting Training. ed. Alison Hodge. New York: Routledge, 2000. While some people credit Dudley Riggs as the first vaudevillian to use audience suggestions to create improvised sketches, modern theatrical improvisation is generally accepted to have taken form in the classroom with the theatre games of Viola Spolin in the 1940s and Keith Johnstone in the 1950s. These rehearsal-room activities evolved quickly to an independent artform worthy of presentation before a paying audience. Viola Spolin can probably be considered the American Grandmother of Improv. She influenced the first generation of Improv at The Compass Players in Chicago, which led to The Second City. Her son, Paul Sills, along with David Shepherd, started The Compass Players and Second City. They were among the first organized troupes in Chicago, Illinois and from their success, the modern Chicago improvisational comedy movement was spawned. Much of the current "rules" of comedic improv were first formalized in Chicago in the late 1950s and early 1960s, initially among The Compass Players troupe. From most accounts Elaine May was central to this intellectual effort. Mike Nichols, Ted Flicker, and Del Close were her most frequent collaborators in this regard. When Second City opened its doors on December 16th, 1959, Viola Spolin began training new improvisers through a series of classes and exercises which became the cornerstone of modern improv training. By the mid 1960s, Viola's classes were handed over to her protégé, Jo Forsberg who further developed Viola's methods into a one-year course, which eventually became Players Workshop, the first official school of improvisation in the country. During this time Jo Forsberg trained many of the performers who went on to star on Second City stage. Many of the original cast of Saturday Night Live came from The Second City and the franchise has produced such comedy stars as Mike Myers, Chris Farley and John Belushi. Simultaneously, Keith Johnstone's group The Theatre Machine, which originated in London, was touring Europe. This work gave birth to Theatresports, at first secretly in Keith's workshops, and eventually in public when Keith moved to Canada. Toronto has been home to a rich improv tradition. In 1984 Dick Chudnow (Kentucky Fried Theater) founded ComedySportz in Milwaukee, WI. Expansion began with the addition of ComedySportz-Madison (WI), in 1985. The first Comedy League of America National Tournament was held in 1988, with 10 teams participating. The league is now known as World Comedy League and boasts a roster of 19 international cities. In San Francisco, The Committee theater was active during the 1960s. Modern political improvisation's roots include Jerzy Grotowski's work in Poland during the late 1950s and early 1960s, Peter Brook's "happenings" in England during the late 1960s, Augusto Boal's "Forum Theatre" in South America in the early 1970s, and San Francisco's The Diggers' work in the 1960s. Some of this work led to pure improvisational performance styles, while others simply added to the theatrical vocabulary and were, on the whole, avant garde experiments. Joan Littlewood, the English actress and director who was active from the 1930s to 1970s, made extensive use of improv in developing plays for performance. However she was successfully prosecuted twice for allowing her actors to improvise in performance. Until 1968, British law required scripts to be approved by the Lord Chamberlain's Office. The department also sent inspectors to some performances to check that the approved script was complied with exactly. Improvisational comedy on film and television Many silent filmmakers such as Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton used improvisation in the making of their films, developing their gags while filming and altering the plot to fit. The Marx Brothers were notorious for deviating from the script they were given, their ad libs often becoming part of the standard routine and making their way into their films. Improv comedy techniques have also been used in film, television and stand-up comedy, notably the mockumentary films of director Christopher Guest, the recent HBO television show Curb Your Enthusiasm created by Larry David, the UK Channel 4 and ABC television series Whose Line Is It Anyway, Nick Cannon's improv comedy show Wild 'N Out, and most recently, Thank God You're Here. In Canada, the long-running series Train 48 was improvised from scripts which contained a minimal outline of each scene. Improv as a tool for corporate entertainment and corporate training Major companies such as Second City begin using their improv skill to design new interesting corporate entertainment format and powerful corporate training tool . It as been found that one the major element that generate dysfunctions in a team is the lack of trust, all the improv trust techniques that have been imagined by Viola Spolin, Paul Sills, Del Close, Keith Johnstone and Jonathan Fox are directly applicable to corporate training. Participants to improv corporate workshops learn a new way of thinking, a new respect for others in any negotiation or transactional relationship, how to be “in the moment“, how to make positive choices that keep doors open, proactive listening as opposed to passive or even responsive listening, trusting one another to do the right thing and the benefits from watching the other guy’s back. Psychology of improvisational theatre In the field of the Psychology of Consciousness, Eberhard Scheiffele explored the altered state of consciousness experienced by actors and improvisers in his scholarly paper: Acting: an altered state of consciousness. According to G. WIlliam Farthing in "The Psychology of Consciousness"(see comparative study), actors (in performance, drama classes, or in psychodrama) routinely enter into an altered state of consciousness (ASC). Acting is seen as altering most of the 14 dimensions of changed subjective experience which characterize ASCs according to Farthing, namely: attention, perception, imagery and fantasy, inner speech, memory, higher-level thought processes, meaning or significance of experiences, time experience, emotional feeling and expression, level of arousal, self-control, suggestibility, body image, and sense of personal identity. Improv process Improvisational theatre allows an interactive relationship with the audience. Improv groups frequently solicit suggestions from the audience as a source of inspiration, a way of getting the audience involved, and as a means of proving that the performance is not scripted. That charge is sometimes aimed at the masters of the art, whose performances can seem so detailed that viewers may suspect the scenes were planned. In order for an improvised scene to be successful, the actors involved must work together responsively to define the parameters and action of the scene, in a process of co-creation. With each spoken word or action in the scene, an actor makes an offer, meaning that he or she defines some element of the reality of the scene. This might include giving another character a name, identifying a relationship, location, or using mime to define the physical environment. These activities are also known as endowment. It is the responsibility of the other actors to accept the offers that their fellow performers make; to not do so is known as blocking, negation, or denial, which usually prevents the scene from developing. Some performers may deliberately block (or otherwise break out of character) for comedic effect -- this is known as gagging -- but this generally prevents the scene from advancing and is frowned upon by many improvisers. Accepting an offer is usually accompanied by adding a new offer, often building on the earlier one; this is a process improvisers refer to as "Yes, And..." and is considered the cornerstone of improvisational technique. Every new piece of information added helps the actors to refine their characters and progress the action of the scene. The unscripted nature of improv also implies no predetermined knowledge about the props that might be useful in a scene. Improv companies may have at their disposal some number of readily accessible props that can be called upon at a moment's notice, but many improvisers eschew props in favor of the infinite possibilities available through mime. In improv, this is more commonly known as 'space object work' or 'space work', not 'mime'. And the props and locations created by this technique, as 'space objects'. As with all improv offers, actors are encouraged to respect the validity and continuity of the imaginary environment defined by themselves and their fellow performers; this means, for example, taking care not to walk through the table or "miraculously" survive multiple bullet wounds from another improviser's gun. In tune with the unscripted nature, several techniques have arisen with which help improvisational actors to avoid prescripted jokes to arise in their scenes. One such technique is known as "rolphing." This is the process which is sometimes referred to as "vomiting words," and consists of starting with a sound as opposed to a full word. Once the sound is projected, the actor is forced to come up with a word related to the sound, often surprising even the speaker himself. This technique is not so often used in scene however, as it may break the reality of a scene. Instead, it is often used in preliminary work, setting up a scene, giving the actors an unexpected and unpredictable scene. Because improv actors may be required to play a variety of roles without preparation, they need to be able to construct characters quickly with physicality, gestures, accents, voice changes, or other techniques as demanded by the situation. The actor may be called upon to play a character of a different age or sex. Character motivations are an important part of successful improv scenes, and improv actors must therefore attempt to act according to the objectives that they believe their character seeks. Community Many theatre troupes are devoted to staging improvisational performances and growing the improv community through their training centres. One of the most widespread is the international organization Theatresports, which was founded by Keith Johnstone, an English director who wrote what many consider to be the seminal work on the relationship between status, story telling and improvisational acting, Impro. There are also many independent Improv groups around the world; a non-exhaustive but lengthy list is available here. In addition to for-profit theatre troupes, there are several college-based improv groups in the United States that are becoming popularized as a result of programs such as Whose Line is it Anyway?. In Europe the special contribution to the theatre of the abstract, the surreal, the irrational and the subconscious have been part of the stage tradition for centuries. From the 1990s onwards a growing number of European Improv groups have been set up specifically to explore the possibilities offered by the use of the abstract in improvised performance, including dance, movement, sound, music, mask work, lighting, and so on. These groups are not especially interested in comedy, either as a technique or as an effect, but rather in expanding the improv genre so as to incorporate techniques and approaches that have long been a legitimate part of European theatre. Improv luminaries Some key figures in the development of improvisational theatre are Avery Schreiber, Viola Spolin and her son Paul Sills, founder of Chicago's famed Second City troupe and originator of Theater Games, and Del Close, founder of ImprovOlympic (along with Charna Halpern) and creator of the longform improv known as The Harold. Other luminaries include Keith Johnstone, the British teacher and writer–author of Impro, who founded the Theatre Machine and whose teachings form the foundation of the popular shortform Theatresports format, and Dick Chudnow, founder of ComedySportz which evolved its family-friendly show format from Johnstone's Theatersports. In 1975 Jonathan Fox founded Playback Theatre, a form of improvised community theatre which is often not comedic and replays stories as shared by members of the audience. The Groundlings is a popular and influential improv theatre and training center in Los Angeles, California. In the late 1990s, Matt Besser, Matt Walsh, Ian Roberts, and Amy Poehler founded the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre in New York and later they founded one in Los Angeles. The two theatres host a large improv school. David Shepherd, with Paul Sills, founded the The Compass Players in Chicago. Shepherd was intent on developing a true "people's Theatre", and hoped to bring political drama to the stockyards. The Compass went on to play in numerous forms and companies, in a number of cities including NY and Hyannis, after the founding of The Second City. A number of Compass members were also founding members of The Second City. In the 1970s, Shepherd began experimenting with group-created videos. He is the author of "That Movie In Your Head", about these efforts. See Coleman, Janet, The Compass: The Improvisational Theatre that Revolutionized American Comedy Chicago, University Of Chicago Press; Reprint edition (November 1, 1991) References See also Ad lib Atellan Farce Busking Commedia dell'arte Improvisation List of improvisational theatre companies List of improvisational theater festivals Guerrilla improv Further reading Coleman, Janet. 1991. The Compass: The Improvisational Theatre that Revolutionized American Comedy. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press. Johnstone, Keith. 1981. Impro: Improvisation and the Theatre Rev. ed. London: Methuen, 2007. ISBN 0713687010. Nachmanovitch, Stephen. 1990. Free Play: Improvisation in Life and Art New York: Penguin-Tarcher. ISBN 0874776317. Spolin, Viola. 1967. Improvisation for the Theater. Third rev. ed. Evanston, Il.: Northwestern University Press, 1999. ISBN 081014008X. External links The Living Playbook: online collection of improvisational games, by Seattle troupe Unexpected Productions. How to Be a Better Improviser: an excellent primer on some of the basic precepts ("ground rules") of improv, by improviser and teacher Daniel Goldstein. How To Improvise Shakespeare A quick crash course on how to better improvise in the style of Shakespeare. Improvoker features stories, thoughts, and ideas about longform improvisational comedy by improvisers. YesAnd.com features improv news, resources and message boards. The Improv Resource Center has a very large and active message board and its own improv wiki. Learn Improv List of improv warm-ups, exercises, and handles. Tips for New Improv Troupes This page includes both improv and business advice for comedians who want to start an improv troupe. The Far Games Improv games and workshops formats to get wise or laugh trying forum improvisation Platform for international improvisational theatre around the world, possibility to add own data. 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2,382 | Discworld | Cover of an early edition of The Colour of Magic; art by Josh Kirby Discworld is a comedic fantasy book series by the British author Terry Pratchett, set on the Discworld, a flat world balanced on the backs of four elephants which, in turn, stand on the back of a giant turtle, Great A'Tuin. The books frequently parody, or at least take inspiration from, J. R. R. Tolkien, Robert E. Howard, H. P. Lovecraft and William Shakespeare, as well as mythology, folklore and fairy tales, often using them for satirical parallels with current cultural, political and scientific issues. Since the first novel, The Colour of Magic (1983), the series has expanded, spawning several related books and maps, four short stories, cartoons, theatre adaptations, computer games, and music inspired by the series. The first live-action screen adaptation for television (Terry Pratchett's Hogfather) was broadcast over Christmas 2006. A second, two-part TV adaptation of The Colour of Magic was broadcast in March 2008 in the UK. Newly released Discworld books regularly top The Sunday Times best-sellers list, making Pratchett the UK's best-selling author in the 1990s, although he has since been overtaken by Harry Potter author J.K. Rowling. Discworld novels have also won awards such as the Prometheus Award and the Carnegie Medal. In the BBC's Big Read, five Discworld books were in the top 100, and a total of fifteen in the top 200. As of 2008, there have been 36 Discworld novels published, four of which are marketed as children's or "young adult" (YA) books. The original British editions of the first 26 novels, up to Thief of Time (2001), had distinctive cover art by Josh Kirby; the American editions, published by HarperCollins, used their own cover art. Since Kirby's death in October 2001, the covers have been designed by Paul Kidby. Recent British editions of Pratchett's older novels no longer reuse Kirby's art. There have also been six short stories (some only loosely related to the Discworld), three popular science books, and a number of supplementary books and reference guides. Very few of the Discworld novels have chapter divisions, instead featuring interweaving story-lines. Pratchett is quoted as saying that he "just never got into the habit of chapters", later adding that "I have to shove them in the putative YA books because my editor screams until I do". However, the first Discworld novel, The Colour of Magic, was divided into "books", as is Pyramids. Additionally, Going Postal and Making Money do indeed have chapters, prologue, epilogue, and brief teasers of what is to come in each chapter, in the style of A. A. Milne, Jules Verne and Jerome K. Jerome. A shelf full of Terry Pratchett's Discworld work. Storylines To a greater or lesser degree, Discworld stories stand alone as independent works set in the same fantasy universe. However, a number of novels and stories can be grouped together into grand story arcs dealing with a set number of characters and events. The main threads within the Discworld series are: Rincewind Rincewind was the first protagonist of Discworld; a wizard with no skill, no wizardly qualifications and no interest in heroics. He is the archetypal coward but is constantly thrust into adventures. Other characters in the Rincewind story arc include: Cohen the Barbarian, an aging hero of the old fantasy tradition, out of touch with the modern world and still fighting despite his advanced age; Twoflower, a naive tourist from the Agatean Empire (inspired by cultures of the Far East, particularly Japan and China); and The Luggage, a magical, semi-sentient and exceptionally vicious multi-legged travelling accessory. Rincewind has appeared in six Discworld novels as well as the three Science of Discworld supplementary books. Death Death is the closest thing the Discworld series has to a main character, in that he appears in every novel except The Wee Free Men, although sometimes with only a few lines, if any. As dictated by tradition, he is a seven-foot-tall skeleton with a black robe and a scythe who sits astride a pale horse (called Binky). His dialogue is always depicted in , a trait that other characters often remark upon. The anthropomorphic personification of death, his job is to guide souls onward from this world into the next. Over millennia in the role, Death has developed a fascination with humanity, even going so far as to create a house for himself in his personal dimension. Characters that often appear with Death include his butler Albert; his granddaughter Susan Sto Helit; the Death of Rats, the part of Death in charge of gathering the souls of rodents; Quoth, a talking raven (a parody of The Raven who is "only in it for the eye balls"); and the Auditors of Reality, personifications of the orderly laws of nature, who have declared war on life itself, believing that it is "messy". Since Death cannot exist without life, he finds himself taking its side against the machinations of the Auditors. Death or Susan appear as the main characters in five Discworld novels. He also appears in the short stories Death and What Comes Next, Theatre of Cruelty and Turntables of the Night. The Witches Witches in Pratchett's universe are largely stripped of their modern occultist, Wiccan associations (though Pratchett does frequently use his stories to lampoon such conceptions of witchcraft), and act as herbalists, adjudicators and wise women. That is not to say that witches on the Disc cannot use magic; they simply prefer not to, finding simple but cunningly applied psychology (often referred to as "headology", or sometimes "boffo") far more effective. The principal witch in the series is Granny Weatherwax, who at first glance seems to be a taciturn, bitter old crone, from the small mountain country of Lancre. She largely despises people but takes on the role of their healer and protector because no one else can do the job as well as she can. Her closest friend is Nanny Ogg, a jolly, personable witch with the "common touch" who enjoys a smoke and a pint of beer. The two take on apprentice witches, initially Magrat Garlick, then Agnes Nitt, and then Tiffany Aching, who in turn grow on to become accomplished witches in their own right, or, in Magrat's case, Queen of Lancre. Other characters in the Witches series include: King Verence II of Lancre, a onetime Fool who as a result takes his job as king very seriously; Jason Ogg, Nanny Ogg's eldest son and local blacksmith (and also, like the smiths of old, something of a magician himself); Shawn Ogg, Nanny's youngest son who serves as his country's entire army; and Nanny's murderous cat Greebo. The witches have appeared in numerous Discworld books, but have featured as main protagonists in seven. They have also appeared in the short story The Sea and Little Fishes. Their stories frequently draw on ancient European folklore and fairy tales, and also parody famous works of literature, particularly by Shakespeare. The City Watch The stories featuring the Ankh-Morpork City Watch are urban-set, and frequently show the clashes that result when a traditional, magically run fantasy world such as the Disc comes into contact with modern technology and civilization. They centre around the growth of the Ankh-Morpork City Watch from a hopeless gang of three to a fully equipped and efficient police force. The stories are largely police procedurals, featuring a mystery that frequently has political or societal overtones. The main character is Sam Vimes (later His Grace, Sir Samuel Vimes, The Duke of Ankh), a haggard, cynical street copper who finds himself swept up in history as his inept cadre of law enforcement officials (comprising nominally human petty thief Nobby Nobbs and perennially lazy Sergeant Colon) grows and takes on new recruits, particularly from the Disc's "minority groups", such as dwarfs, trolls, and the undead. Other main characters include Carrot Ironfoundersson, (possibly) the rightful heir to the redundant throne of Ankh-Morpork, who thus has a traditional hero's destiny thrust upon him but chooses to ignore it; his girlfriend Angua, a werewolf; Detritus, a troll who in himself represents an entire army; Cuddy, a Dwarf who appears in Men at Arms; Golem Constable Dorfl, the brute strength of the watch; Cheery Littlebottom, the Watch's forensics expert, who is one of the first dwarfs to be openly female; Sam's wife, Lady Sybil Vimes; and his boss, Havelock Vetinari, the Patrician of Ankh-Morpork. The City Watch have starred in eight Discworld stories, and have cameoed in a number of others, including the children's book, Where's My Cow? and the short story Theatre of Cruelty. The Wizards The Wizards of the Unseen University (UU) have represented a strong thread through many of the Discworld novels, although the only books that they star in exclusively are the Science of the Discworld series. In the early books, the faculty of UU changed frequently, as rising to the top usually involved assassination. However, with the ascension of the bombastic Mustrum Ridcully to the position of Archchancellor, the hierarchy has settled and characters have been given the chance to develop. The earlier books featuring the wizards also frequently dealt with the possible invasion of the Discworld by the creatures from the Dungeon Dimensions, Lovecraftian monsters that hunger for the magic and potential of the Discworld. The wizards of UU employ the traditional "whizz-bang" type of magic seen in Dungeons & Dragons games, but also investigate the rules and structure of magic in terms highly reminiscent of particle physics. Prominent members include Ponder Stibbons, a geeky young wizard who, unlike the more orthodox members of the staff, actually wants to learn about the universe; Hex, the Disc's first computer; the Librarian, who was turned into an orangutan by magical accident, an incident mentioned in passing in The Light Fantastic, and has refused all attempts to be turned back; and the Bursar, the clinically insane savant who crunches UU's numbers and subsists on a diet of his own nerves and dried frog pills. In later novels, Rincewind also joins their group. The Wizards have featured prominently in eight Discworld books and have also starred in the Science of Discworld series and the short story A Collegiate Casting-Out of Devilish Devices. Tiffany Aching Tiffany Aching is a young apprentice witch and star of a series of Discworld books aimed at young adults. Her stories often parallel mythic heroes' quests, but also deal with Tiffany's difficulties as a young girl maturing into a responsible woman. She is aided in her task by the Nac Mac Feegle, a gang of hard-drinking, loudmouthed pictsie creatures who serve as her guardians. Both Granny Weatherwax and Nanny Ogg have also appeared in her stories. She has to date appeared in three novels. Moist von Lipwig Moist von Lipwig is a professional criminal and con man to whom Havelock Vetinari gives a "second chance" after staging his execution, recognising the advantages his jack-of-all-trades abilities would have to the development of the city. After setting him in charge of the Ankh-Morpork Post Office in Going Postal, to good result, Vetinari ordered him to clear up the city's corrupt financial sector in Making Money, to which he rather ironically acquitted himself well. A third book, in which Lipwig is ordered to organise the city's taxation system, is planned. Other characters in this series include Adora Belle Dearheart, Lipwig's acerbic, chain-smoking lover, Gladys, a golem who develops a strange crush on Lipwig, and Stanley Howler, a mildly autistic young man who was raised by peas (by, not on) and becomes the Disc's first stamp collector. The History Monks The History Monks are a group of vaguely Taoist-like monks who have taken on the job of ensuring that history passes smoothly. They perform their task in two ways: first, their monastery is home to the History Books; 20,000 ten-foot long, lead-bound volumes that record every event of historical relevance as it occurs. Second, they manage and control the flow of time, pumping it from the places where it's wasted (the sea or the desert) to places like cities where there's never enough time. The principal History Monk in the novels is Lu-Tze, nominally the monastery's sweeper but in fact one of the highest ranking monks in the establishment. The History Monks have appeared in three Discworld novels to date. Themes Villains Discworld has a relative lack of recurring or overarching villains. Many of Pratchett's potential villains, such as Lord Vetinari and Lord Downey, are too complex or multifaceted to be simplistically characterised as "evil", while other more standard villains, such as Lord Rust, are depicted merely as egocentric dullards. Principal villains in Discworld novels tend to die or be put similarly out of action by the story's end. The Lovecraftian creatures from the Dungeon Dimensions cannot be considered evil in the traditional sense, since they are utterly amoral. Elves and Auditors There are, however, two groups of villains that feature prominently in many of the stories and have, in their own ways, come to represent the force of 'wrongness' in the Discworld: the Auditors of Reality and the Elves. The Auditors, cosmic bureaucrats who prefer a universe where electrons spin, rocks float in space and imagination is dead, represent the perils of handing yourself over to a completely materialist and deterministic vision of reality, devoid of the myths and stories that make us human. The Elves, innately psychopathic beings who seek to dominate people by usurping their free will with glamour and false magic, represent the dangers of giving yourself over completely to stories and superstition. Together they appear to reflect the philosophy Pratchett expresses in Hogfather and is a recurring theme throughout the series: that while the stories we weave may not be true, we still need them to continue our existence. However, it would be wrong to categorise the Auditors or Elves simply as 'evil'. While their actions cause misery, it is merely incidental. Elves do not understand the suffering they cause as they have no empathy, while the Auditors are simply a form of supernatural bureaucrat who think humans cause too much inefficiency. Humans His good witch, Granny Weatherwax, takes the form of an archetypal evil crone: Mrs Earwig would definitely have objected to the cottage. It was out of storybook. The walls leaned against one another for support, the thatched roof was slipping off like a bad wig, and the chimneys were corkscrewed. If you thought a gingerbread house would be too fattening, this was the next worst thing. "In a cottage deep in the forest lived the wicked old witch ..." It was a cottage out of the nastier kind of fairytale. – A Hat Full of Sky His good public servant, Lord Havelock Vetinari, is an assassin and a tyrant, but acting in his city's best interests as a benevolent dictator nonetheless. It is speculated that he is based on one of the Medici rulers of Renaissance Florence, or perhaps Machiavelli. In general, Pratchett presents the notion that to be good quite often results in being perceived as bad or evil by the very people you're doing good for, and in many of his stories image is eventually overcome, without fanfare, by substance. , said Death. – Hogfather In the Elf books, as elsewhere, he presents the notion that our "world" is subjective, and is constructed internally. In particular, that it is constructed out of stories. Related to this is the idea that most of our experience is filtered out before it reaches consciousness: You build little worlds, little stories, little shells around your mind and that keeps infinity at bay and allows you to wake up in the morning without screaming! – A Hat Full of Sky "All right," said Susan, "I'm not stupid. You're saying humans need ... fantasies to make life bearable." "Tooth fairies? Hogfathers?" "So we can believe the big ones?" "They're not the same at all!" "Yes. But people have got to believe that or what's the point — " – Hogfather Also in the Elf books, Pratchett presents elves as nasty, evil creatures. This follows original English and Scottish folk songs and stories e.g. Tam Lin, quite in contrast with how they were portrayed by Tolkien which is more commonly known these days. Elves are wonderful. They provoke wonder. Elves are marvellous. They cause marvels. Elves are fantastic. They create fantasies. Elves are glamorous. They project glamour. Elves are enchanting. They weave enchantment. Elves are terrific. They beget terror. The thing about words is that meanings can twist just like a snake, and if you want to find snakes look for them behind words that have changed their meaning. Nobody said elves were nice. Elves are bad. – Lords and Ladies A large portion of Carpe Jugulum is about "internal struggles", and how pieces of our mind do not always agree with other pieces of our mind (and how some of us feel we have "Darker" selves within us, that we keep deep, deep down). Aside from the obviously "split" mind character (Perdita and Agnes, Good Oats and Bad Oats), it is shown that even characters as decisive as Granny Weatherwax have inner "selves" with whom they struggle. While central human villains do not recur from novel to novel, the individuals often share certain personality traits. The most prominent of these traits is the lack of the aforementioned "internal struggle". They are villains not because their bad self has won the struggle, but because they never had a conception of good and bad in the first place. This results in a person who is completely dispassionate, egocentric, and lacking most recognizable human emotions. This is very similar to the character of the elves, but portrayed in a more negative light, since such characteristics are inherent in elves as a species, while the reason for a human to act in such a manner is less clear cut. These amoral human villains are often highly intelligent and develop schemes to shape society or the world to conform to their views of how things should work. While the description may not apply to every central villain, many of them could be described as sociopaths. Examples include Mr. Pin("The Truth"), Vorbis (Small Gods) and Mr Teatime (Hogfather). In the book Night Watch Commander Vimes considers that the book's villain, Carcer, is not a madman but is actually dangerously sane, having realised that the laws and conventions most people follow don't have to apply to him if he doesn't want them to. The theme of racial hatred is touched upon often when Trolls and Dwarfs are present, and forms a significant plot pillar in Thud!, in which the most ardent proponents of racial hatred are the clear villains. In Pratchett's universe, this is termed speciesism: "Racism was not a problem on the Discworld, because — what with trolls and dwarfs and so on — speciesism was more interesting. Black and white lived in perfect harmony and ganged up on green." The problems of racial integration, multiculturalism, and racial hatred are also a topic of Jingo, which also echoes the long held divisions and superstitions between rival great powers, using the metaphor of "two big men in a small room". Such group conflicts in Pratchett's books are often portrayed as pointless contests of power among a ruling class, manufactured for propaganda purposes, with little relevance for the ordinary people involved, as demonstrated in Monstrous Regiment, Jingo, and Night Watch. Heroes In several books, characters or narration bring up the question of precisely what constitutes a "hero" and whether there's anything really "heroic" about gung-ho violence. This is generally the basis for Cohen the Barbarian and the actions of his Silver Horde, as shown in The Last Hero, in which the Patrician points out that when people say that heroes defeat tyrants, steal things from the gods, seduce women and kill monsters, they are, in fact, saying, that heroes murder, steal, rape, and wipe out endangered species. Lord Vetinari also asks the question, "When a tyrant is defeated or a monster killed, who is the person defining the monstrousness of the monster, or the tyranny of the tyrant? The hero. In fact, when a hero kills someone, he is in fact saying that, if you have been killed by a hero, then you are a person who is suitable to be killed by a hero." Many Discworld stories feature Rincewind, a dour and ill-fated wizard who specialises in the art of the escape. Any 'heroic' actions on Rincewind's part are, for the most part, caused by accident or sheer bad luck, which often puts him straight back into the very situation he was running from in the first place. Rincewind is categorically not a 'hero' in the traditional sense, since he merely wants to be left alone and worships the state of boredom above all others. Many Discworld protagonists share this trait, such as Moving Pictures Victor Tugelbend and The Truth'''s William de Worde. In particular, The Fifth Elephant raises the point of view that if someone can kill a villain and then joke about it, they are no less a murderer than the villain himself. This thought is had by Commander Vimes, who actually considers several possible "quips" after tricking the villain to his death, but declines to say them out loud, raising the prospect (dealt with at greater length in Night Watch, among many other books) that the most effective heroes are natural villains who choose to act in accordance with a particular system of ethics. Bibliography Novels {| class="wikitable sortable" id="noveltable" border="1" !width=2%|N° !Name !width=8%|Published !Group !Notes !Motifs and Allusions |- align="left" |1 |The Colour of Magic|1983 |Rincewind |Came 93rd in the Big Read. |Fantasy clichés, H. P. Lovecraft, tourism, insurance, Dungeons & Dragons, Anne McCaffrey's The Dragonriders of Pern, Fritz Leiber's Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser series |- |2 |The Light Fantastic|1986 |Rincewind | |Tourism, apocalypse, Conan the Barbarian |- align="left" |3 |Equal Rites|1987 |The Witches, The Wizards | |Gender equality, quantum physics |- |4 |Mort|1987 |Death |Came 65th in the Big Read |Death and its personification, Apprenticeship |- |5 |Sourcery|1988 |Rincewind, The Wizards | |Apocalypse, Kubla Khan, Aladdin, Sourcery annotations at lspace.org Arabian Nights|- align="left" |6 |Wyrd Sisters|1988 |The Witches |Came 135th in the Big Read |Shakespeare (especially Macbeth and Hamlet), the Globe Theatre, Sleeping Beauty |- align="left" |7 |Pyramids|1989 |Miscellaneous | |Egyptian mythology, quantum physics, British Public Schools, Greek philosophy (including Zeno's paradoxes), United Kingdom driving test Pyramids annotations at lspace.org |- |8 |Guards! Guards!|1989 |The City Watch |Came 69th in the Big Read |Dragons, secret societies, fraternal organisations, aristocracy, Cop novels, show dogs, |- align="left" |9 |Faust Eric|1990 |Rincewind |First published 1990 in a larger format, fully illustrated by Josh Kirby; reissued as a paperback without illustrations. |Faust, The Aztecs, Fountain of Youth, Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Creation, Dante's Inferno, Office environment, Bureaucracy, Persephone, The punishments of Prometheus and Sisyphus |- |10 |Moving Pictures|1990 |Miscellaneous | |Hollywood (especially silent movies and the early years of the studio system), the Cthulhu Mythos, celebrities, King Kong, Gone with the Wind and many other films |- |11 |Reaper Man|1991 |Death, The Wizards |Came 126th in the Big Read |Death and its personification, alien invasion SF, Life force, Man with No Name, westerns, The Undead, minority rights movements, mediumship, Morris dancing, consumerism, cities |- |12 |Witches Abroad|1991 |The Witches |Came 197th in the Big Read |The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, fairy tales (especially fairy godmothers), The Hobbit, Voodoo, tourism, Esperanto |- |13 |Small Gods|1992 |Miscellaneous |Came 102nd in the Big Read |Abrahamic religions, Religious belief, the Spanish Inquisition (with thematic references to Nietzsche), ancient philosophy, Archimedes, Brecht's play Life of Galileo, Destruction of the Library of Alexandria |- |14 |Lords and Ladies|1992 |The Witches, The Wizards | |Shakespeare (especially A Midsummer Night's Dream), crop circles, high fantasy, fairy lore, the mythopoetic men's movement |- align="left" |15 |Men at Arms|1993 |The City Watch |Came 148th in the Big Read |Cop novels, gun politics, racism, "kings in hiding" |- align="left" |16 |Soul Music|1994 |Death, Susan Sto Helit, The Wizards |Came 151st in the Big Read |Rock music, Beatlemania, punk subculture, Woodstock Festival , Welsh language, The Blues Brothers|- |17 |Interesting Times|1994 |Rincewind, the Wizards | |Imperial China, Maoism, Lemmings Interesting Times annotations at lspace.org |- |18 |Maskerade|1995 |The Witches | |Opera, gothic novel, The Phantom of the Opera|- |19 |Feet of Clay|1996 |The City Watch | |Golem mythology, Cop novels, I Robot, robots, robocop, atheism, race relations, heraldry, slavery and serfdom |- align="left" |20 |Hogfather|1996 |Death, Susan, The Wizards |Came 137th in the Big Read |Christmas, mythology, Mary Poppins Hogfather annotations at lspace.org , Religious belief/Anthropomorphic Personification, Child art, The Tooth Fairy |- |21 |Jingo|1997 |The City Watch | |, diplomacy, imperialism, xenophobia, multiculturalism, Lawrence of Arabia, jingoism, Captain Nemo, the Cthulhu Mythos, the John F. Kennedy assassination, Parallel Worlds |- |22 |The Last Continent|1998 |Rincewind, The Wizards | |Australia (Mad Max; The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert, Aborigines, Dreamtime) The Last Continent annotations at lspace.org , evolution, creation |- align="left" |23 |Carpe Jugulum|1998 |The Witches | |Vampires, existentialism |- |24 |The Fifth Elephant|1999 |The City Watch |Came 153rd in the Big Read |Diplomacy, Eastern European folklore and literature, Political-conspiracy novels, global economy, national myths, The Fifth Element |- |25 |The Truth|2000 |Miscellaneous |Came 193rd in the Big Read |Watergate scandal, newspapers, organized crime, yellow journalism, oligarchy, Pulp Fiction|- align="left" |26 |Thief of Time|2001 |Death, Susan, the History Monks |Came 152nd in the Big Read |Time, Martial arts, Eastern monastic mysticism, quantum physics, teaching, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (& the Beatles), chocolate lovers, James Bond (especially Q the gadgeteer) |- |27 |The Last Hero|2001 |Rincewind |Published in a larger format and fully illustrated by Paul Kidby |Legends, Prometheus, Dungeons & Dragons, Apollo program |- |28 |The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents|2001 | |A YA (young adult or children's) Discworld book; winner of the 2001 Carnegie Medal |The Pied Piper of Hamelin, Mrs. Frisby and the Rats of NIMH, Beatrix Potter The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents annotations at lspace.org |- |29 |Night Watch |2002 |The City Watch, the History Monks |Received the Prometheus Award in 2003; came 73rd in the Big Read |Cop novels, Les Misérables, Night Watch annotations at lspace.org time travel, revolutions |- |30 |The Wee Free Men |2003 |Tiffany Aching |The second YA Discworld book |Folklore, mythic Scotland (e.g. Braveheart), The Wee Free Men annotations at lspace.org The Smurfs |- |31 |Monstrous Regiment |2003 |Miscellaneous |The title is a reference to The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women Monstrous Regiment annotations at lspace.org |Folk songs, Joan of Arc, crossdressing during wartime, the Napoleonic and other wars, single mothers, Taliban, feminism, pacifism, the song Pretty Polly Oliver |- align="left" |32 |A Hat Full of Sky |2004 |Tiffany Aching, Witches |The third YA Discworld book |The history and folklore of witches in Britain, mind controlling aliens in science fiction |- |33 |Going Postal |2004 |Moist von Lipwig | |The postal system, Politics, cons, corporate crime and business practices, monopolies, libertarianism, stamp collecting, the Internet, Optical telegraph, cracking and phreaking, fraternal organizations, alternative medicine, golem and pins |- |34 |Thud! |2005 |The City Watch | |Tafl games and Chess, Cop novels, politics, affirmative action, race relations, The Da Vinci Code, The Racławice Panorama |- |35 |Wintersmith |2006 |Tiffany Aching, Witches |The fourth YA book. |The Snow Queen, Orpheus, Persephone, Sleeping Beauty, The Snow Maiden |- |36 |Making Money |2007 |Moist von Lipwig | |Banking, Gold standard vs. fiat currency, computer simulation, fraud, golems |- |37 |The Unseen Academicals |2009 Unseen Academicals at Amazon.co.uk |the Wizards, Rincewind | |Association football |} Possible future novels Pratchett has occasionally hinted at other possible future Discworld novels. These include I Shall Wear Midnight a possible future Tiffany Aching novel confirmed by the author at the Cheltenham Literature Festival on October 6, 2007 Raising Taxes The third book in Moist's series, announced on 21 September 2007 at the book signing in Torrance, CA. Scouting for Trolls Alternative Nation interview the title of which would parody Scouting for Boys. Short stories There are five short stories by Pratchett based in the Discworld, and an additional short story ("Turntables of the Night"), that is based in the United Kingdom and Death has a featured role: "Turntables of the Night" (1989); available online Turntables of the Night "Troll Bridge" - in After The King: Stories in honour of J. R. R. Tolkien (1992); reprinted in The Mammoth Book of Comic Fantasy edited by Mike Ashley (1998) ; available online Troll Bridge "Theatre of Cruelty" (1993); available online Theatre of Cruelty and Death and What Comes Next at Lspace.org "The Sea and Little Fishes" - in Legends (1998), anthology of novellas taking place within popular fantasy cycles edited by Robert Silverberg "Death and What Comes Next" (2002); available online "A Collegiate Casting-Out of Devilish Devices" (2005); available online A Collegiate Casting-Out of Devilish Devices Four of the short stories along with Discworld miscellany (e.g. the history of Thud and the Ankh-Morpork national anthem) have been collected in a compilation of the majority of Pratchett's known short work named Once More* With Footnotes. The Mapps Furthermore, there are four "Mapps": The Streets of Ankh-Morpork (1993) The Discworld Mapp (1995) A Tourist Guide to Lancre (1998) Death's Domain (1999) The first two were drawn by Stephen Player, based on plans by Pratchett and Stephen Briggs, the third is a collaboration between Briggs and Kidby, and the last is by Paul Kidby. All also contain booklets written by Pratchett and Briggs. Terry Pratchett also admitted: "There are no maps. You can't map a sense of humour." Several Discworld locations have been twinned with real world towns and cities. Wincanton, in Somerset, UK, for example is twinned with Ankh-Morpork, and the town is the first to even name streets after their fictional equivalents Wincanton in Somerset - streets named after Discworld locations - Into Somerset website A magic idea - Sir Terry Pratchett's Discworld inspiration street names - Daily Mail 6th April 2009 . Science books Pratchett has also collaborated with Ian Stewart and Jack Cohen on three books using the Discworld to illuminate popular science topics. Each book alternates chapters of a Discworld story and notes on real science related to it. The books are: The Science of Discworld (1999) The Science of Discworld II: The Globe (2002) The Science of Discworld III: Darwin's Watch (2005) Quiz books Two Discworld Quiz books have been compiled by David Langford: The Unseen University Challenge (1996), parodying the TV quiz show University Challenge The Wyrdest Link (2002), parodying the TV quiz show The Weakest Link Diaries Most years see the release of a Discworld Diary and Calendar, both usually following a particular theme. The diaries feature background information about their themes. Some topics are later used in the series; the concept of female assassins and the character of Miss Alice Band were two notable ideas that first appeared in the Assassins' Guild Yearbook. The Discworld Almanak - The Year of The Prawn has a similar format and general contents to the diaries. Other books Other Discworld publications include: The Discworld Portfolio (a collection of Paul Kidby's artwork, with notes by Pratchett) The Discworld Companion (an encyclopaedia of Discworld information, compiled by Pratchett and Briggs. An updated version was released in 2003, titled The New Discworld Companion.) Nanny Ogg's Cookbook (a collection of Discworld recipes, combined with etiquette, language of flowers etc., written by Pratchett with Stephen Briggs and Tina Hannan) The Art of Discworld (another collection of Paul Kidby's art) The Discworld Almanak (an almanac for the Discworld year, in the style of the Diaries and the Cookbook, written by Pratchett with Bernard Pearson) Where's My Cow? (a Discworld picture book referenced in Thud! and Wintersmith, written by Pratchett with illustrations by Melvyn Grant) The Unseen University Cut Out Book (Build your own Unseen University, written by Pratchett with Alan Batley and Bernard Pearson, published 1 October 2006). Wit and Wisdom of Discworld (a collection of quotations from the series) The Folklore of Discworld (a collaboration with British folklorist Jacqueline Simpson, discussing the myths and folklore used in Discworld) Reading orders Reading order is not restricted to publication order; however, each arc may be best read chronologically. The Discworld Reading Order Guide 1.5 - PDF showing the interrelationships between the books and series within Discworld, with suggested starts. Some main characters may make cameo appearances in other books where they are not the primary focus; for example, Carrot Ironfoundersson and Angua von Überwald appear briefly in Going Postal and Making Money. The books take place roughly in real-time and the characters' ages change to reflect the passing of years. No distinction will ever be clear-cut. Many stories (such as The Truth and Monstrous Regiment) nominally stand alone but, nonetheless, tie in heavily with main story-lines. A number of characters, such as members of staff of Unseen University, Lord Vetinari, appear prominently in many different story-lines without having titles of their own. As it is, many of these "standalone" stories deal with the development of the city of Ankh-Morpork into a technologically and magically advanced metropolis that readers will find analogous to real-world cities: for example, The Truth catalogues the rise of a newspaper service for the city, the Ankh-Morpork Times, and Going Postal similarly deals with the development of a postal service and the rise of the Discworld's telecommunications system, called "the clacks". Adaptations Stage Stage adaptations of 15 Discworld novels have been published. The adaptations are by Stephen Briggs (apart from Lords and Ladies by Irana Brown), and were first produced by the Studio Theatre Club in Abingdon, Oxfordshire. They include adaptations of The Truth, Maskerade, Mort, Wyrd Sisters and Guards! Guards! Stage adaptations of Discworld novels have been performed on every continent in the world, including Antarctica. Film & Television Due in part to the complexity of the novels, Discworld has been difficult to adapt to film – Pratchett is fond of an anecdote of a producer attempting to pitch an adaptation of Mort in early 1990s but told to "lose the Death angle" by US backers. A list of completed adaptations include: Terry Pratchett's The Colour of Magic (based on both The Colour of Magic and The Light Fantastic): David Jason played 'Rincewind'. This adaptation aired in the UK over Easter 2008 and also features Terry Pratchett in a brief cameo role as an Astrozoologist. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1079959/fullcredits#cast Terry Pratchett's Hogfather: In the , Sky One commissioned a £6 million 'made for television' adaptation of Hogfather with David Jason playing the role of Albert, which premiered 17/18 December 2006. Lords and Ladies: A fan movie adaptation by Almost No Budget Films was completed in Germany. Run Rincewind Run!: A Snowgum Films original story created for Nullus Anxietas. Stars Troy Larkin as Rincewind, and features Terry Pratchett himself. Cosgrove Hall produced 6x30 minute adaptations of two books for Channel 4 in 1996. These were made available on DVD and VHS in the US from Acorn Media, though they are now out of print. Both series are available on a DVD boxset in Region 2 Soul Music - Starring Christopher Lee as Death, also featuring Neil Morrissey and Graham Crowden. First episode broadcast on 18 May 1997. The soundtrack to Soul Music was also released on CD. Wyrd Sisters - Starring Christopher Lee as Death, also featuring Annette Crosbie, June Whitfield, Jane Horrocks and Les Dennis. First episode broadcast on 28 December 1998. A list of adaptations in pre-production include: Troll Bridge: Australian group Snowgum Films has completed principal photography and is working through post-production. The Wee Free Men: In January 2006 it was announced that Sam Raimi would direct this adaptation for Sony Pictures but he then moved on to other projects. Terry Pratchett's Going Postal, to be produced by Sky1 Radio There have been several BBC radio adaptations of Discworld stories, including Wyrd Sisters, Guards! Guards! (narrated by Martin Jarvis), The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents, Mort and Small Gods. On 27 February 2008, BBC Radio 4 aired the first of a five-part, weekly adaptation of Night Watch. Audio books Most of Pratchett's novels have been released as audio books. For the unabridged recordings, books 1-23 in the above list, except for books 3, 6 and 9, are read by Nigel Planer. Books 3 and 6 are read by Celia Imrie. Book 9 and most of the books from 24 onward are read by Stephen Briggs. Abridged versions are read by Tony Robinson. Comic books The Colour of Magic, The Light Fantastic, Mort and Guards! Guards! have been adapted into graphic novels. Merchandise Various other types of related merchandise have been produced by cottage industries with an interest in the books, including Stephen Briggs, Bernard Pearson, Bonsai Trading and Clarecraft. Music Dave Greenslade: Terry Pratchett's From the Discworld, 1994 (Virgin CDV 2738.7243 8 39512 2 2). Amazon.co.uk page Keith Hopwood: Soul Music - Terry Pratchett's Discworld, 1998 (Proper Music Distribution / Pluto Music TH 030746), soundtrack to the animated adaptation of Soul Music. Games Pratchett co-authored with Phil Masters two role-playing game supplements for Discworld, utilising the GURPS system: GURPS Discworld (republished as The Discworld Roleplaying Game) GURPS Discworld Also Video games: The Colour of Magic (Sinclair ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64) Discworld MUD (Internet) Discworld (PC/DOS, Macintosh, PlayStation, Saturn) Discworld II: Missing, Presumed...!? (Discworld II: Mortality Bytes! in North America) (PC/Windows, PC/DOS, PlayStation, Saturn) Discworld Noir (PC/Windows, PlayStation) ''Discworld: The Colour of Magic (Mobile phone) The board game, Thud was created by puzzle compiler Trevor Truran. The card game Cripple Mr Onion is adapted from the novels. See also Discworld characters Discworld geography Other dimensions of the Discworld References External links Discworld & Pratchett Wiki Discworld Covers Wiki Book covers collection from all over the world. Discworld Convention The UK Discworld Convention The Turtle Moves! 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2,383 | History_of_Eritrea | Eritrea after the independence in 1993 Eritrea is an ancient name, associated in the past with its Greek form Erythraía (Greek alphabet Ερυθραία), and its derived Latin form Erythræa. In the past, Eritrea had given its name to the Red Sea, then called the Erythræan Sea. The Italians created the colony of Eritrea in the XIX century around Asmara, and named it with the actual name. After World War II Eritrea was annexed to Ethiopia.In 1991 the People's Liberation Front defeated the Ethiopian government. Eritrea officially celebrated its independence on May 24, 1993. Prehistory In 1995 One of the oldest hominids, representing a possible link between Homo erectus and an archaic Homo sapiens was found in Buya, Eritrea by Italian scientists dated to over 1 million years old (the oldest of its kind), providing a link between hominids and the earliest humans. It is also believed that Eritrea was on the route out of Africa that was used by early man to colonize the rest of the Old World. Furthermore, the Eritrean Research Project Team composed of Eritrean, Canadian, American, Dutch and French scientists, discovered in 1999 a site with stone and obsidian tools dated to over 125 000 years old (from the paleolithic) era near the Bay of Zula south of Massawa along the Red Sea coast. The tools are believed to have been used by early humans to harvest marine resources like clams and oysters. Furthermore it is believed that the Eritrean section of the Denakil Depression was a major player in terms of human evolution and may "document the entire evolution of Homo erectus up to the transition to anatomically modern humans." Cave paintings in central and northwestern Eritrea were also discovered by Italian colonialists indicating a population of hunter gatherers from the Epipaleolithic era in the region. Early history Eritrean history is one of the oldest of Africa and even the world. Together with the western Red Sea coast of Sudan, it is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt (or "Ta Netjeru," meaning land of the Gods), whose first mention dates to the 25th century BC. The earliest known reference to the Sea of Eritrea (referring to the Red Sea, "Eritrea" meaning "red") from which the modern state takes its name is from Aeschylus (Fragment 67) in which he refers to the "Mare Erythreum" ("Red Sea") as "the lake that is the jewel of Ethiopia" (though Ethiopia in this case most probably meant Nubia or Africa south of Egypt in general). Around the 8th century BC, a kingdom known as D'mt was established in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, with its capital at Yeha in northern Ethiopia. Its successor, the Kingdom of Aksum, emerged around the 1st century BC or 1st century AD and grew to be, according to Mani, one of the four greatest civilizations in the world, along with China, Persia, and Rome. Central areas of Eritrea and most tribes in today's northern Ethiopia share a common background and cultural heritage in the Kingdom of Aksum (and its successor dynasties) of the first millennium (as well as the first millennium BC kingdom of D’mt), and in its Ethiopian Orthodox Christian Church (today, with an autocephalous Eritrean branch), as well as in its Ge'ez language. Around 90% of today's Eritreans speak languages (Tigrinya and Tigre) that are closely related to the now-extinct Geez language - as do Tigrinya-speakers in northern Ethiopia and Amharic-speakers of Ethiopia, among others. Recent discoveries, in and around the area of Sembel, near the capital Asmara, show evidence of a society that predated Aksum. These permanent villages and towns predate those of southern Eritrea and northern Ethiopia suggesting, according to Peter Schmidt, "...it is they, not sites in Arabia that were the vital precursors to urban developments...likewise students of evolution and distribution of languages now believe that Semitic and Cushitic languages are of African origin." Medieval history With the rise of Islam in the 7th century the power of Aksum declined and the Kingdom became isolated, the Dahlak archipelago, northern and western Eritrea, came under increasing control of Islamic powers based in Yemen and Beja lands in Sudan.The Beja were often in alliance with the Umayyads of Arabia who themselves established footholds along stretches of the Eritrean coastline and the Dahlak archipelago while the Funj of Sudan exacted tribute from the adjacent western lowlands of Eritrea. The culmination of Islamic dominance in the region occurred in 1557 when an Ottoman invasion during the time of Suleiman I and under Özdemir Pasha (who had declared the province of Habesh in 1555) took the port city of Massawa and the adjacent city of Arqiqo, even taking Debarwa, then capital of the local ruler Bahr negus Yeshaq (ruler of Midri Bahri). They administered this area as the province of Habesh. Yeshaq rallied his peasants and recaptured Debarwa, taking all the gold the invaders had piled within. In 1560 Yeshaq, disillusioned with the new Emperor of Ethiopia, revolted with Ottoman support but pledged his support again with the crowning of Emperor Sarsa Dengel. However, not long after, Yeshaq revolted once again with Ottoman support but was defeated once and for all in 1578, leaving the Ottomans with domain over Massawa, Arqiqo and some of the nearby coastal environs, which were soon transferred to the control of Beja Na'ibs (deputies). The Ottoman state maintained control over much of the northern coastal areas for nearly three hundred years, leaving their possessions (the province of Habesh, to their Egyptian heirs in 1865 before being given to the Italians in 1885. In the southeast of Eritrea, the Sultanate of Awsa, an Afar sultanate, came to dominate the coastline after its founding in 1577, becoming vassal to the Emperor of Ethiopia under the reign of Susenyos. Meanwhile the central highlands of Eritrea preserved their Orthodox Christian Aksumite heritage. "There was no administration that connected Hamasin and Serai to the centre of the Ethiopian Kingdom. Indeed, there was little sense in which the Bahr Negash could be said to "control" the area. The parts of the region were under the domain of Bahr Negash ruled by the Bahr Negus. The region was first referred to as Ma'ikele Bahr ("between the seas/rivers," i.e. the land between the Red Sea and the Mereb river), Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia (1270-1527) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p.74. , renamed under Emperor Zara Yaqob as the domain of the Bahr Negash, called Midri Bahri (Tigrinya: "Sea land," though it included some areas like Shire on the other side of the Mereb, today in Ethiopia) Daniel Kendie, The Five Dimensions of the Eritrean Conflict 1941 – 2004: Deciphering the Geo-Political Puzzle. United States of America: Signature Book Printing, Inc., 2005, pp.17-8. until the modern day, when its name was changed to Mereb Mellash (beyond the river Mereb) under the rule of Yohannes IV The locals referred to this area as Midri Bahri (Land of the Sea) as well as Hamasien as it was almost entirely composed of a province with that name (the Hamasien province later shrank in size during the 19th century to merely surround a ~50 km radius around the colonial capital Asmara, with other areas becoming Akkele Guzay and Seraye). Medri Bahri was an area distinguished by a very weak feudal structure, with virtually no serfdom and a strong and democratic landowning peasantry unique for the entire region at this time. Italian colonization The boundaries of modern Eritrea and the entire region were established during the European colonial period between Italian, British and French colonialists as well as the lone landlocked African Empire of Ethiopia which found itself surrounded and its boundaries defined by said colonial powers. Ethiopia was, for a time until the Italian conquest of Ethiopia in 1935, the only independent country in Africa (with the exception of Liberia). The Kingdom of Italy created Eritrea at the end of the nineteenth century, using the classical name for the Red Sea. Italian occupation of Massawa and formation of the colony Later, as the Egyptians retreated out of Sudan during the Mahdist rebellion, the British brokered an agreement whereby the Egyptians could retreat through Ethiopia, and in exchange they would allow the Emperor to occupy those lowland districts that he had disputed with the Turks and Egyptians. Emperor Yohannes IV believed this included Massawa, but instead, the port was handed by the Egyptians and the British to the Italians, who united it with the already colonised port of Asseb to form a coastal Italian possession. The Italians took advantage of disorder in northern Ethiopia following the death of Emperor Yohannes IV in 1889 to occupy the highlands and established their new colony, henceforth known as Eritrea, and received recognition from Menelik II, Ethiopia's new Emperor. The Italian possession of maritime areas previously claimed by Abyssinia/Ethiopia was formalized in 1889 with the signing of the Treaty of Wuchale with Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia (r. 1889–1913) after the defeat of Italy by Ethiopia at the battle of Adua where Italy launched an effort to expand its possessions from Eritrea into the more fertile Abyssinian hinterland. Menelik would later renounce the Wuchale Treaty as he had been tricked by the translators to agree to making the whole of Ethiopia into an Italian protectorate. However, he was forced by circumstance to live by the tenets of Italian sovereignty over Eritrea. Catholic Cathedral of Asmara, built by the Italians in 1922 The Italians brought to Eritrea a huge development of Catholicism and by the 1940 nearly half the Eritrean population was catholic, mainly in Asmara where many churches were built. Italian administration of Eritrea brought improvements in the medical and agricultural sectors of Eritrean society. Furthermore, the Italians employed many Eritreans in public service (in particular in the police and public works departments) and oversaw the provision of urban amenities in Asmara and Massawa. In a region marked by cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity, a succession of Italian governors maintained a notable degree of unity and public order. The Italians also built many major infrastructural projects in Eritrea, including the Asmara-Massawa Cableway and the Eritrean Railway. Benito Mussolini's rise to power in Italy in 1922 brought profound changes to the colonial government in Eritrea. Mussolini established the Italian Empire in May 1936. The fascists imposed harsh rule that stressed the political and racial superiority of Italians. Eritreans were demoted to menial positions in the public sector in 1938. Map of the Italian Empire (1936 - 1941), that included Eritrea, Somalia and Ethiopia Eritrea was chosen by the Italian government to be the industrial center of the Italian East Africa. The Italian government continued to implement agricultural reforms but primarily on farms owned by Italian colonists. The Mussolini government regarded the colony as a strategic base for future aggrandizement and ruled accordingly, using Eritrea as a base to launch its 1935–1936 campaign to colonize Ethiopia. The best Italian colonial troops were the Eritrean "Ascari", as stated by Italian Marshall Rodolfo Graziani and legendary officer Amedeo Guillet . Asmara development Asmara was populated by a numerous Italian community and the city acquired an Italian architectural look. Today Asmara is worldwide known for its early twentieth century Italian buildings, including the Art Deco Cinema Impero, "Cubist" Africa Pension, eclectic Orthodox Cathedral and former Opera House, the futurist Fiat Tagliero Building, neo-Romanesque Roman Catholic Cathedral, and the neoclassical Governor's Palace. The city is littered with Italian colonial villas and mansions. Most of central Asmara was built between 1935 and 1941, so effectively the Italians managed to build almost an entire city, in just six short years. The city of Asmara had a population of 98,000, of which 53,000 were Italians according to the Italian census of 1939. This fact made Asmara the main "Italian town" of the Italian empire in Africa.In all Eritrea the Italians were 75,000 in that year. Many industrial investments were done by the Italians in the area of Asmara and Massawa, but the beginning of World War II stopped the blossoming industrialization of Eritrea. When the British army conquered Eritrea from the Italians in spring 1941, most of the infrastructures and the industrial areas were extremely damaged. The biggest extension of Eritrea was reached during the Italian empire (1936-1941), when northern parts of conquered Ethiopia were assigned to Eritrea by the Italians as a reward for the Eritrean "Ascaris'" help in the conquest of Ethiopia The following Italian guerrilla war was supported by many Eritrean colonial troops until the Italian armistice in September 1943. Eritrea was placed under British military administration after the Italian surrender in World War II. British administration and federalization British forces defeated the Italian army in Eritrea in 1941 at the Battle of Keren and placed the colony under British military administration until Allied forces could determine its fate. The first thing the British did was to remove the Eritrean industries (of Asmara and Massawa) to Kenya, as a war compensation. They dismantled even parts of the Eritrean Railway system. In the absence of agreement amongst the Allies concerning the status of Eritrea, British administration continued for the remainder of World War II and until 1950. During the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious lines and parceled off to Sudan and Ethiopia. The Soviet Union, anticipating a communist victory in the Italian polls, initially supported returning Eritrea to Italy under trusteeship or as a colony. Arab states, seeing Eritrea and its large Muslim population as an extension of the Arab world, sought the establishment of an independent state. Ethiopian ambition in the Horn was apparent in the expansionist ambition of its monarch when Haile Selassie claimed Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. He made this claim in a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt, at the Paris Peace Conference and at the First Session of the United Nations. In the United Nations the debate over the fate of the former Italian colonies continued. The British and Americans preferred to cede Eritrea to the Ethiopians as a reward for their support during World War II. "The United States and the United Kingdom have (similarly) agreed to support the cession to Ethiopia of all of Eritrea except the Western province. The United States has given assurances to Ethiopia in this regard." Top Secret Memorandum of 1949-03-05, written with the UN Third Session in view, from Mr. Rusk to the Secretary of State. The Independence Bloc of Eritrean parties consistently requested from the UN General Assembly that a referendum be held immediately to settle the Eritrean question of sovereignty. A United Nations (UN) commission was dispatched to the former colony in February 1950 in the absence of Allied agreement and in the face of Eritrean demands for self-determination. It was also at this juncture that the US Ambassador to the UN, John Foster Dulles, said, "From the point of view of justice, the opinions of the Eritrean people must receive consideration. Nevertheless the strategic interest of the United States in the Red Sea basin and the considerations of security and world peace make it necessary that the country has to be linked with our ally Ethiopia." The Ambassador's word choice, along with the estimation of the British Ambassador in Addis Ababa, makes quite clear the fact that the Eritrea aspiration was for Independence. The commission proposed the establishment of some form of association with Ethiopia, and the UN General Assembly adopted that proposal along with a provision terminating British administration of Eritrea no later than September 15, 1952. The British, faced with a deadline for leaving, held elections on March 16, 1952, for a representative Assembly of 68 members, evenly divided between Christians and Muslims. This body in turn accepted a draft constitution put forward by the UN commissioner on July 10. On September 11, 1952, Emperor Haile Selassie ratified the constitution. The Representative Assembly subsequently became the Eritrean Assembly. In 1952 the United Nations resolution to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia went into effect. The resolution ignored the wishes of a sizable minority of Eritreans for independence, but guaranteed the population some democratic rights and a measure of autonomy. Some scholars have contended that the issue was a religious issue, between the Muslim lowland population desiring independence while the highland Christian population sought a union with Ethiopia. Other scholars, including the former Attorney-General of Ethiopia, Bereket Habte Selassie, contend that, "religious tensions here and there...were exploited by the British, [but] most Eritreans (Christians and Moslems) were united in their goal of freedom and independence." Almost immediately after the federation went into effect, however, these rights began to be abridged or violated. These pleas for independence and referendum augured poorly for the US, Britain and Ethiopia, as a confidential American estimate of Independence Party support amounted to 75% of Eritrea. Department of State, Incoming Telegram, received 1949-08-22, From Addis Ababa, signed MERREL, to Secretary of State, No. 171, 1949-08-19 The details of Eritrea's association with Ethiopia were established by the UN General Assembly resolution of September 15, 1952. It called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the Emperor. Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police, local administration, and taxation. The federal government, which for all intents and purposes was the existing imperial government, was to control foreign affairs (including commerce), defense, finance, and transportation. As a result of a long history of a strong landowning peasantry and the virtual absence of serfdom in most parts of Eritrea, the bulk of Eritreans had developed a distinct sense of cultural identity and superiority vis-à-vis Ethiopians. This combined with the introduction of modern democracy into Eritrea by the British administration gave Eritreans a desire for political freedoms alien to Ethiopian political tradition. From the start of the federation, however, Haile Selassie attempted to undercut Eritrea’s independent status, a policy that alienated many Eritreans. The Emperor pressured Eritrea’s elected chief executive to resign, made Amharic the official language in place of Arabic and Tigrinya, terminated the use of the Eritrean flag, imposed censorship, and moved many businesses out of Eritrea. Finally, in 1962 Haile Selassie pressured the Eritrean Assembly to abolish the Federation and join the Imperial Ethiopian fold, much to the dismay of those in Eritrea who favored a more liberal political order. War for independence Map of Eritrea attached to Ethiopia. Militant opposition to the incorporation of Eritrea into Ethiopia had begun in 1958 with the founding of the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM), an organization made up mainly of students, intellectuals, and urban wage laborers. The ELM, under the leadership of Hamid Idris Awate, engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralizing policies of the imperial Ethiopian state. By 1962, however, the ELM had been discovered and destroyed by imperial authorities. Emperor Haile Selassie unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and annexed the country in 1962. The war continued after Haile Sellassie was ousted in a coup in 1974. The Derg, the new Ethiopian government, was a Marxist military junta led by strongman Mengistu Haile Mariam. During the 1960s, the Eritrean independence struggle was led by the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF). In 1960 Eritrean exiles in Cairo founded the Eritrean Liberation Front. In contrast to the ELM, from the outset the ELF was bent on waging armed struggle on behalf of Eritrean independence. The ELF was composed mainly of Eritrean Muslims from the rural lowlands on the western edge of the territory. In 1961 the ELF's political character was vague, but radical Arab states such as Syria and Iraq sympathized with Eritrea as a predominantly Muslim region struggling to escape Ethiopian oppression and imperial domination. These two countries therefore supplied military and financial assistance to the ELF. The ELF initiated military operations in 1961 and intensified its activities in response to the dissolution of the federation in 1962. By 1967 the ELF had gained considerable support among peasants, particularly in Eritrea's north and west, and around the port city of Massawa. Haile Selassie attempted to calm the growing unrest by visiting Eritrea and assuring its inhabitants that they would be treated as equals under the new arrangements. Although he doled out offices, money, and titles mainly to Christian highlanders in the hope of co-opting would-be Eritrean opponents in early 1967, the imperial secret police of Ethiopia also set up a wide network of informants in Eritrea and conducted disappearances, intimidations and assassinations among the same populace driving several prominent political figures into exile. Imperial police fired live ammunition killing scores of youngsters during several student demonstrations in Asmara in this time. The imperial army also actively perpetrated massacres until the ousting of the Emperor by the Derg in 1974. By 1971 ELF activity had become enough of a threat that the emperor had declared martial law in Eritrea. He deployed roughly half of the Ethiopian army to contain the struggle. Internal disputes over strategy and tactics eventually led to the ELF's fragmentation and the founding in 1972 of the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF). The leadership of this multi-ethnic movement came to be dominated by leftist, Christian dissidents who spoke Tigrinya, Eritrea's predominant language. Sporadic armed conflict ensued between the two groups from 1972 to 1974, even as they fought Ethiopian forces. By the late 1970s, the EPLF had become the dominant armed Eritrean group fighting against the Ethiopian Government, and Isaias Afewerki had emerged as its leader. Much of the material used to combat Ethiopia was captured from the army. By 1977 the EPLF was poised to drive the Ethiopians out of Eritrea. However, that same year a massive airlift of Soviet arms to Ethiopia enabled the Ethiopian Army to regain the initiative and forced the EPLF to retreat to the bush. Between 1978 and 1986 the Derg launched eight unsuccessful major offensives against the independence movement. In 1988 the EPLF captured Afabet, headquarters of the Ethiopian Army in northeastern Eritrea, putting approximately a third of the Ethiopian Army out of action, prompting the Ethiopian Army to withdraw from its garrisons in Eritrea's western lowlands. EPLF fighters then moved into position around Keren, Eritrea's second-largest city. Meanwhile, other dissident movements were making headway throughout Ethiopia. At the end of the 1980s the Soviet Union informed Mengistu that it would not be renewing its defense and cooperation agreement. With the withdrawal of Soviet support and supplies, the Ethiopian Army's morale plummeted, and the EPLF, along with other Ethiopian rebel forces, began to advance on Ethiopian positions. In 1980 the Permanent Peoples' Tribunal determined that the right of the Eritrean people to self-determination does not represent a form of secession. Establishing an independent country The United States played a facilitative role in the peace talks in Washington during the months leading up to the May 1991 fall of the Mengistu regime. In mid-May, Mengistu resigned as head of the Ethiopian Government and went into exile in Zimbabwe, leaving a caretaker government in Addis Ababa. Having defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea, EPLF troops took control of their homeland. Later that month, the United States chaired talks in London to formalize the end of the war. These talks were attended by the four major combatant groups, including the EPLF. A high-level U.S. delegation was also present in Addis Ababa for the July 1-5, 1991 conference that established a transitional government in Ethiopia. The EPLF attended the July conference as an observer and held talks with the new transitional government regarding Eritrea's relationship to Ethiopia. The outcome of those talks was an agreement in which the Ethiopians recognized the right of the Eritreans to hold a referendum on independence. Although some EPLF cadres at one time espoused a Marxist ideology, Soviet support for Mengistu had cooled their ardor. The fall of communist regimes in the former Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc convinced them it was a failed system. The EPLF now says it is committed to establishing a democratic form of government and a free-market economy in Eritrea. The United States agreed to provide assistance to both Ethiopia and Eritrea, conditional on continued progress toward democracy and human rights. In May 1991 the EPLF established the Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE) to administer Eritrean affairs until a referendum was held on independence and a permanent government established. EPLF leader Afewerki became the head of the PGE, and the EPLF Central Committee served as its legislative body. Eritreans voted overwhelmingly in favor of independence on April 23-25, 1993 in a UN-monitored referendum. The Eritrean authorities declared Eritrea an independent state on April 27. The government was reorganized and after a national election the National Assembly was expanded to include both EPLF and non-EPLF members. The assembly chose Isaias Afewerki as President. The EPLF reorganized itself as a political party, the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ). 1990s In July 1996 the Eritrean Constitution was ratified, but it has yet to be implemented. In 1998 a border dispute with Ethiopia led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War in which thousands of soldiers from both countries died. Eritrea suffered from significant economic and social stress, including massive population displacement, reduced economic development, and one of Africa's more severe land mine problems. The border war ended in 2000 with the signing of the Algiers Agreement. One of the terms of the agreement was the establishment of a UN peacekeeping operation, known as the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE); over 4,000 UN peacekeepers remain as of April 2006. Another term of the Algiers agreement was the final demarcation of the disputed border area between Eritrea and Ethiopia. After extensive study, an independent, UN-associated Eritrean-Ethiopian Boundary Commission (EEBC) issued a final border ruling in 2003, but its decision was rejected by Ethiopia. the border question remains in dispute, while a tentative peace remains in place. Roughly 10% of the population works in the public sector, fuel is strictly rationed, and all media outlets are state-run. Health care is cheaply available where it exists, there are state-run campaigns concerning issues such as HIV infection and female genital mutilation. References External links Background Note: Eritrea History of Eritrea The Eritrean railway (in Italian) Photos of Italian Eritrea, from the website of the Italians of Eritrea (in Italian) Further reading Peter R. Schmidt, Matthew C. Curtis and Zelalem Teka, The Archaeology of Ancient Eritrea. 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2,384 | Foreign_relations_of_Greece | Prominent issues in Greek foreign policy include the enduring dispute over Cyprus and differences with Turkey over the Aegean, the dispute over the name of the Republic of Macedonia (recognized by Greece under the provisional denomination the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia), and relations with the United States. Relations by country Diplomatic relations of Greece. Dark blue: Greece; Blue: Embassy level; The Greek embassy in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, is expected to open in 2007 Light blue: Consulate level. Liaison Office in Skopje, Republic of Macedonia Greece is represented in most of the rest states by either parallel accreditation of another Greek embassy or by embassies of other European Union member states Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs Turkey Flag of Turkey After more than a century of strained relations and intercepted fighting Greece and Turkey agreed under the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 to a population exchange as an attempt to reduce tensions between the two countries in the future. A significant 300,000 strong Greek community in Istanbul and a 100,000 Muslim one in Western Thrace were excluded from the transfer, with each one supposed to be working as counter-weights to any anti-minority policy that either Turkey or Greece may sought to apply in the future. The good relations between the two neighbors lasted until mid-1950s when the Cyprus problem surfaced. In 1955 an anti-Greek Istanbul pogrom was initiated by Turkish mobs against the Greek community of Istanbul, which led to the gradual extinction of the community. Similar policies occurred in the islands of Imbros and Tenedos. Up to late 1990s strained relations almost led to an open war in 1974, 1987 and 1996. Since the earthquake diplomacy in 1999 relations have once again began improving. Cyprus dispute As the island of Cyprus was heading towards independence from the United Kingdom the 82% strong Greek and 18% strong Turkish communities began embroiled to a bitter inter-communal fighting, partly sponsored by the two "motherlands". EOKA-B and the Turkish Resistance Organization (TMT) were responsible for many atrocities which resulted in cementing tensions and led to total isolation of the communities with Turkish Cypriots withdrawn into enclaves. In 1974 the US-backed Greek junta - in power since 1967 - partly in a move to draw attention away from internal turmoil and partly unsatisfied with Makarios' policy in Cyprus, on 13 July attempted a coup to replace him with Nikos Sampson and declare union with Greece. Seven days later, Turkey launched an invasion of Cyprus allegedly to reinstate the constitution but which resulted in blooded conflict, partition of the island and mass ethnic cleansing. The overwhelming Turkish land, naval and air superiority against island's weak defenses led to the bringing of 37% of the land under Turkish control. 170,000 Greek Cypriots were evicted from their homes in the north with 50,000 Turks following the opposite path concluding the de facto division of Cyprus. In 1983 Turkish Cypriots proclaimed independence unilaterally with only Turkey recognizing them. As of today the north is under an embargo as a measure against the illegal partition of the island. Ever since both countries along with the two communities of the island are engages into a vicious cycle of negotiations which led to little. In 2004 the Annan Plan for Cyprus was put to vote but whilst it was accepted by the north, it was rejected by the Greek-Cypriots as it meant in their eyes, endorsing a confederal state with a weak central government and considerable local autonomy. The Republic of Cyprus is a constitutional democracy which has reached great levels of prosperity, with a booming economy and good infrastructures, part of the United Nations, European Union and several others organizations by whom it is recognized as the sole legitimate government of the whole island. Greece calls for the removal of Turkish troops from Cyprus and the restoration of a unified state. The Republic of Cyprus is receiving strong support from Greece in international forums with the latter maintaining a military contingent on the island, and Greek officers filling key positions in the Cypriot National Guard. Aegean dispute Other issues dividing Greece and Turkey involve the delimitation of the continental shelf in the Aegean Sea, territorial waters and airspace. In March 1987 a dispute concerning oil drilling rights, almost led to war between the countries with Greece advocating the dispute to be decided by the International Court of Justice. In early 1988, the Turkish and Greek Prime Ministers met at Davos, Switzerland, and later in Brussels. They agreed on various measures to reduce bilateral tensions and to encourage cooperation. Tensions over the Aegean Sea surfaced again in November 1994, when Greece claimed under the Law of the Sea Treaty states which both countries are signatories, that it reserved the right to declare an expansion of its continental shelf from 6 to 12 nautical mile around its Aegean islands. Turkey which has itself expanded its continental shelf in the Black Sea shore, stated that it would consider any such action a cause for war. New technical-level bilateral discussions began in 1994 but soon fizzled-out. In January 1996, Greece and Turkey came close to an armed confrontation over the question of which country had sovereignty over an islet in the Aegean. In July 1997, on the sidelines of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) summit in Madrid, Greek and Turkish leaders reached agreement on six principles to govern their bilateral relations. Within a few months, however, the two countries were again at odds over Aegean airspace and sovereignty issues. Tensions remained high for months, although various confidence-building measures were discussed to reduce the risk of military accidents or conflict in the Aegean, under the auspices of the NATO Secretary General. Turkey and the EU Greece has come out in support of Turkey's bid for European Union membership, and supports its full integration to the union when conditions for its acceptance are met. On 6 May 2004, Turkey's Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan became the first Turkish leader to visit Greece in fifty years. On 24 January 2008, Greece's premier Costas Karamanlis visited Turkey a full 48 years after the last Greek premier and uncle of his Constantine Karamanlis had visited the neighboring country. Republic of Macedonia Flag of the Republic of Macedonia. Refusal to recognize the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia under its constitutional name has become an important issue in Greek politics since 1992, when the neighboring country became independent. Greece was adamantly opposed to any use of the word Macedonia to its name, claiming that it represented an irridentist agenda directed against Greece's own province of Macedonia, and an appropriation of Greek historical heritage. The dispute led to a Greek trade embargo against the Republic of Macedonia in February 1994 which ended when mediation efforts by the UN, U.S.A., and EU resulted in an interim solution in September 1995. The republic agreed to be recognised internationally under the provisional reference "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" while retaining "Republic of Macedonia" as its constitutional name, until a conclusive deal was to be brokered between the two countries. The Republic of Macedonia also changed its national flag - which used to be the Vergina sun - and constitution to eliminate any irredentist articles. Since the signing of the interim accord, the two governments have concluded agreements designed to facilitate the movement of people and goods across their common border and improve bilateral relations. By 2008 Greece is recognized as the biggest investor in the country with 20,000 jobs being created Interview of FM Ms. Bakoyannis in Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, with journalist Michael Martens by Greek businesses alone. Talks on remaining issues are still being held under UN auspices in New York. Greece accused the government in Skopje of a counter-productive stance during UN talks with the aim to have the name issue solved by simply have other countries recognize it as "Republic of Macedonia". Until September 2007, 118 countries have done so. On the eve of April NATO summit in Bucharest, Romania where the bid by the Republic of Macedonia was to be discussed, Greek urged the neighboring country to come and reach an agreement. Greek foreign minister Dora Bakoyannis said that Greece was willing to come to the half of the road by accepting a "composite name solution" which would include the word Macedonia for all international purposes and was expecting the Republic of Macedonia to walk the other half. Following the Republic of Macedonia's refusal to compromise Greece vetoed its accession to NATO. In the long term, Greece strongly supports the Republic of Macedonia's integration into NATO and the European Union, as a part of the long-term process of integration of the majority of Balkan states into the EU. However, as of 2008, Greece is determined to veto any application until the name dispute is resolved. Relations between the two states therefore continue to be strained. Serbia The two nations are traditionally, historically, religiously and culturally close and their friendly relations are confirmed by a regular political dialogue. Greece is supporting quick implementation of the Stabilisation and Association Agreement (SAA) between the EU and Serbia and easing visa regime EU towards Serbia. Greece is among the states that have not recognized the Kosovo Unilateral Declaration of Independence. Greece is one of the most important economic investors in Serbia, mainly in financial, telecommunication, energy and construction sector. Greece will participate in financing construction of the Corridor 10 highway in Serbia with 100 mil. EUR in total which is a part of its Hellenic Plan for the Economic Reconstruction of the Balkans. Albania Flag of Albania. Greece and Albania - even though diplomatic relations were restored in 1971 http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3395.htm http://www.osaarchivum.org/files/holdings/300/8/3/text/101-4-123.shtml - normalized relations only in 1987 as till then both countries were officially - in a cease-fire - but nevertheless under the state of war since Albania and Italy had declared war on Greece on 28 October 1940. During rule of dictator Enver Hoxha relations were strained because of the part that Albania played during World War II against Greece and also because of the material help that they provided to Greek communists during the Greek civil war. In addition there was controversy about the treatment of the Greek minority in southern Albania and the Cham issue. After the fall of the Albanian socialist regime in 1991, relations between the two countries got better but soon begun to deteriorate with accusations about mistreatment of minorities vice versa. To the latter problem it was added the widespread phenomenon of waves of illegal immigration from Albania towards Greece. High criminality numbers from one hand and alleged police brutality from the other became familiar subjects on the news of both neighbors, increasing eventually tensions. According to official Greek data around 450,000 Albanian immigrants work in Greece and it is believed the number will almost double if illegal immigrants are accounted too. This is a brand new situation, for both countries as Greece for the first time become a destination country for immigrants and Albanians for the first time got out of their country after the total isolation that the communist regime had imposed. Today, relations between the two countries are relatively good, and, at the Albanian Government's request, about 250 Greek military personnel are stationed in Albania to assist with the training and restructuring the Albanian Armed Forces. Albania's economy is overdependent to the money immigrants from Greece sent back home while Greece is the second larger trading partner with more than USD $400 million worth of investments. Moreover Greek products account for 21% of Albania's imports with Greece absorbing 12% of its neighboring country's exports. Bilateral Relations Between Greece And Albania At the same time low cost labor from Albania propelled Greek economy's growth especially in the construction and agriculture sectors. Armenia Flag of Armenia. Greece was one of the first countries to recognize Armenia's independence on 21 September 1991 and one of those that have officially recognized the Armenian Genocide. Since the independence of Armenia the two countries have been partners within the framework of international organizations (United Nations, OSCE, Council of Europe, BSEC), whilst Greece firmly supports the community programs aimed at further developing relations between the EU and Armenia. Continuous visits of the highest level have shown that both countries want to continue to improve the levels of friendship and cooperation (Visit by the President of Armenia Levon Ter-Petrossian to Greece in 1996, visit by the President of the Hellenic Republic Costis Stephanopoulos in 1999, visit by the President of Armenia Robert Kocharyan to Greece in 2000 and 2005 and visit by Greek president Karolos Papoulias to Armenia in June 2007). Greece is, after Russia, the major military partner of Armenia. Armenian officers are trained in Greek military academies, and various technical assistance is supplied by Greece. Since 2003, an Armenian platoon has been deployed in Kosovo as part of KFOR, where they operate as a part of the Greek battalion of KFOR. United States of America Flag of the United States. The United States and Greece have long-standing historical, political, and cultural ties based on the shared democratic values, history of Greek immigration to the States and participation as Allies during World War II, the Korean conflict, and the Cold War. The U.S. is the largest foreign investor in Greece and has helped the reconstruction of post-war Greece through the Marshall plan and various other aids culminating at about $11.1 billion in economic and security assistance since 1946. The current mutual defense cooperation agreement (MDCA) provides for continued U.S. military assistance to Greece and the operation by the U.S. of a military facility at Souda Bay, Crete. About three million Americans are of Greek ancestry. United States Department of State: Background Note: Greece Greek-Americans are an established, well-organized community in the U.S. (several notable politicians, including former Vice-President Spiro Agnew, and Senators Olympia Snowe and Paul Sarbanes are of Greek ancestry), and they help cultivate close political and cultural ties with Greece. Greece has the seventh-largest population of U.S. Social Security beneficiaries in the world. However, there is also a strong sentiment against USA policies towards Greece and the Balkans in general. Critics also charge the United States for supporting the 1967-1974 military junta in Greece a fact that was acknowledged by Bill Clinton in his visit to Athens “When the junta took over in 1967 here, the United States allowed its interests in prosecuting the Cold War to prevail over its interests - I should say its obligation - to support democracy, which was, after all, the cause for which we fought the Cold War. It is important that we acknowledge that.” This American support for the military regime led to left-wing terrorist groups, most notably 17 November, attacking US targets such as the killing of the Central Intelligence Agency's station chief in Athens, Richard Welch in 1975. The populist PASOK leader Andreas Papandreou had also a very strong anti-Western rhetoric, fueling the negative sentiments towards USA, even though it wasn't followed by actions. The backing of Turkish invasion of Cyprus by Henry Kissinger, the Kosovo war and the invasion of Iraq CNN - Greeks angered by NATO strikes clash with riot police - March 26, 1999 have tarnished the image of the United States in the eyes of their European ally. More recently, the strong support of President George W. Bush towards the Republic of Macedonia in the naming dispute, evident in his recognition of the state as Macedonia in 2004 and in his full backing to the country's accession to NATO didn't do the United States' image in the country any good. Africa Greece enjoys close historic relations with many members of the African Union, such as South Africa, Sudan, and Ethiopia. The Middle East Greece has a special interest in the Middle East because of its geographic position and its economic and historic ties to the area. The country cooperated with allied forces during the 1990-1991 Gulf War. Since 1994, Greece has signed defense cooperation agreements with Israel and Egypt and in recent years, Greek leaders have made numerous trips to the region in order to strengthen bilateral ties and encourage the Middle East Peace Process. In July 1997, December 1997, and July 1998 Greece hosted meetings of Israeli and Palestinian politicians to contribute to the peace process. Greece also maintains diplomatic relations with the General Palestinian Delegation while enjoying cordial relations with Syria. Other countries Country Formal Relations BeganNotes see Albanian–Greek relations Relations between the two countries have been traditionally friendly since Algeria's first years of independence. Greece maintains an embassy in Algiers Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Algeria Algeria is represented in Greece by its embassy in Athens. Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean. see Argentine–Greek relations 1991-09-21 see Armenian-Greek relations Relations between the two states are close: both country were allies during both World Wars, there are a large Greek community in Australia (dating back from the 1950s and 1960s). Both country has an embassy in the other capital. Greece also has Consulates General in Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide, as well as a Consulate in Perth, Honorary Consulates General in Brisbane and Darwin, and Honorary Consulates in Newcastle and Hobart. Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with Greece Australia embassy in Athens Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Australia Greek embassy in Canberra Both countries has diplomatic relation since the 19th century, after Greece independance. Greece has an embassy in Vienna and an honorary consulate in Salzburg. Austria has an embassy in Athens and 6 honorary consulates (in Heraklion, Hermoupolis, Korfu, Patras, Rhodos and Thessaloniki). Both countries are full members of the European Union. There is also a Greek community living in Austria. List of bilateral treaties between both countries: Austria Ministry of Foreign Affairs (in German only) Austrian embassy in Athens (in German and Greek only) Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Austria Greek embassy in Vienna (in Greek and German only) 1992 see Azerbaijani-Greek relations 1973-08-28 Bahrain does not have any representation in Greece. Greece has an honorary consulates in Manama. Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction of the Greek honorary consulate in Manama 1992 Belarus is represented in Greece through its embassy in Sofia (Bulgaria). Until 2003, Greece had an embassy in Minsk, today it is represented through its embassy in Moscow (Russia). Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Belarus 1874 Belgium has an embassy in Athens and 7 honorary consulates in Corfu, Iraklion, Mytilini, Patras, Piraeus, Rhodos and Thessaloniki. Belgian embassy in Athens Since 1945, Greece has an embassy in Brussels. Greek embassy in Brussels Both countries are full members of NATO, of the European Union. There are between 15,000 and 26,000 Greeks who live in Belgium. Belgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Cooperation for Development about relations with Greece (in French only) Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Belgium 1995-11-30 Greece recognized Bosnia and Herzegovina’s independence in 1992. Since 1998, Bosnia and Herzegovina has an embassy in Athens. Since 1996, Greece has an embassy in Sarajevo. Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean, of the Southeast European Cooperation Process, of the Southeast European Cooperative Initiative, of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and of the Council of Europe. Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Bosnia and Herzegovina see Greco-Brazilian relations 1908 see Greco-Bulgarian relations Greece is represented in Burma through its embassy in Bangkok (Thailand). Greek interests in Burma are represented by the Italian embassy in Yangon. Burma is represented in Greece through its embassy in Rome (Italy). Burmese Ministry of Foreign Affairs Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Burma The Cambodian embassy in Belgium is also accredited to Greece The Greek embassy in Bangkok (Thailand) is also accredited to Cambodia. Both countries are full members of the Francophonie. Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Cambodia 1937 The nations first exchanged ambassadors in 1942. Both countries are members of the United Nations, the Human Security Network, the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe, and NATO. Greece has an embassy in Ottawa, as well as a Consulate-General in Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver. Canada has an Embassy with a Consular Office in Athens and an Honorary Consulate in Thessaloniki. Canadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Greece Greek Ministry of Foreign Affaires about relations with Canada Greek embassy in Ottawa Canadian embassy in Athens see Chilean–Greek relations see Colombia–Greece relations see Croatia–Greece relations see Cuba–Greece relations see Cyprus–Greece relations see Czech–Greek relations see Democratic Republic of the Congo – Greece relations see Denmark–Greece relations see Egypt–Greece relations see Estonia–Greece relations see Franco-Greek relations see Germany–Greece relations see Greece – Holy See relations see Greece–Hungary relations see Greek–Icelandic relations see Greece–India relations see Greece–Indonesia relations see Greece–Iran relations see Greece-Iraq relations see Greece–Ireland relations see Greece–Israel relations see Greece–Italy relations see Greece–Japan relations see Greece–Kazakhstan relations see Greece-Kyrgyzstan relations Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1992. Greece is represented in Kyrgyzstan through its embassy in Almaty (Kazakhstan). Kyrgyzstan is represented in Greece through a non resident ambassador based in Bishkek (in the Foreign Ministry). Kyrgyz consular representation in Greece is made by the Kazakh consulate in Athens. On November 1 2004, Kyrgyz President Askar Akayev made an official visit to Greece. A Foreign Ministry delegation from Greece visited Dushanbe for talks, and had meetings with Tajikistans Foreign Minister Zarifi and First Deputy Foreign Minister Youldashev in 2008. Foreign Minister Dora Bakoyannis met with Tajikistans Foreign Minister Zarifi during the 1st EU-Central Asia Forum on security issues in Paris in September 2008. There are between 650 and 700 people of Greek descent living in Kyrgyzstan. However, the data of the General Secretariat For Greeks Abroad give an even lower number (50 people). In 2004 Greece and Kyrgyzstan signed a bilateral agreement for air transports, tourism and diplomacy during Kyrgyz president Askar Akayev's visit to Greece. see Greece–Latvia relations see Greek–Lebanese relations see Greek-Libyan relations see Greece–Lithuania relations see Greece–Luxembourg relations see Greek-Malaysian relations. see Greece–Malta relations Greece has an Embassy in Mexico City, along with Honorary Consulates in Mérida and Monterrey. Mexico has an Embassy in Athens. Relations between Greece and the Countries of Latin America and the Caribbean Greek Missions Abroad 1986-02-21 Greece is represented in Mongolia through its embassy in Beijing (China). Mongolia is represented in Greece through its embassy in Sofia (Bulgaria) and an honorary consulate in Athens. l Mongolian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Greece (in Mongolian only) 2006-12-18 Greece recognized the Republic of Montenegro June 13, 2006. Greece has an embassy in Podgorica. Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Montenegro see Greek–Morocco relations see Greece – New Zealand relations see Greek-Nigerian relations see Greece–Norway relations see Greece–Pakistan relations see People's Republic of China – Greece relations see Greece–Philippines relations see Greece–Poland relations see Greek-Portuguese relations see Greece–Qatar relations see Greco–Romanian relations see Greece–Russia relations see Greece – Saudi Arabia relations see Greek–Serbian relations see Greece–Singapore relations 1993-01-01 Greece opened its embassy in Bratislava in September 1996. Greek embassy in Bratislava Slovakia also has an embassy in Athens. Both countries are full members of NATO and the European Union. Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Slovakia Slovakian Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Greece see Greece–Slovenia relations see Greek – South African relations see Greece – South Korea relations see Greece–Spain relations see Greek-Sudanese relations see Greek-Swedish relations see Greece–Syria relations 1958-05-26 The Greek Embassy in Bangkok was opened in November 1989. Thailand has an embassy in Athens. Greek Ministry of Foreign Affaires about relations with Thailand Thai embassy in Athens Thai deputy premier, UN sec. gen. candidate, meets with premier Karamanlis, FM see Greco-Turkish relations see Greek-Ukrainian relations see Greece – United Arab Emirates relations see Greece – United Kingdom relations see Greek – American relations see Greece–Vietnam relations see Greek-Zimbabwean relations Terms Northern Epirus The territorial expansion of modern Greece. Northern Epirus is the name used generally by Greeks to refer to the southern part of Albania, home to a Greek minority Country Studies US: Greeks and Other Minorities which after 1989 keeps reducing due to immigration to Greece. The Greek minority was subject to oppression and harassment during Enver Hoxha's communist rule and along with the rest of Albanians was hit hardly by the isolation that the regime imposed and from the economic hardship that followed the fall of communism as well. The treatment of the minority by the Albanian government is strongly linked with the status of Greco-Albanian relations. The Greek minority is organized under the Unity for Human Rights Party which is the continuation of the former banned party called "Omonoia" (Unity in Greek) and has since 1997 joined the Socialist coalition. At the last elections the Greek minority party received 4,1% of the vote and two seats in parliament. The party leader is Vangjel Dule, while party member Vasilis Bolanos is the current mayor of the town of Himara. The party is represented in the ELDR group in the Council of Europe. Strong Greek presence exists in Gjirokastër (Argyrocastro), Korçë (Korytsa), Sarandë (Ag.Saranta), Himara (Xeimara) and the nearby areas. The former CIA director George J. Tenet, Pyrros Dimas, Sotiris Ninis and former Greek president Kostis Stefanopoulos have ancestral links to the Greek minority. Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople The entrance of the Patriarchal Cathedral of St. George in the Phanar. The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, protected under the treaty of Lausanne is a point of controversy between Greece and Turkey as the latter refuses to recognize the Ecumenical character of the Patriarchate thus requiring the Patriarch himself to be a Turkish citizen. Moreover the biggest part of the Patriarchate's property - known as Vakoufia - had been confiscated by Turkish authorities and the Theological school of Halki which is the traditional school out of which the Eastern Orthodox Church, draws its clergy is closed since 1971. To no avail numerous Greek, European Union and USA officials have criticized Turkey's attitude and even president Bill Clinton during his visit in Greece asked for the theological school to open. During Greek prime-minister's Kostas Karamanlis historic visit to Turkey in 2007, Recep Tayyip Erdogan promised to reconsider his country's stance on the matter. Black Sea The Black Sea is a region heavily colonized by Greeks throughout history and used to have a heavy presence of Greek population up to the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923. Nowadays there is still Greek presence in the shores of Black Sea mainly in Mariupol (Ukraine), Crimea, Russia and Georgia despite immigration to Greece after the dissolution of Soviet Union. Today Greeks in the region are estimated to be around 215,000 according to official Greek diaspora figures. Greece is a founding member of the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation. International organization participation Greece is a major participant in most large scale international bodies, with the geographic significance of the region proving advantageous for diplomatic, trade and political crossroads. BIS, BSEC, CCC, CE, EAPC, EBRD, ECA (associate), ECE, ECLAC, EIB, EMU, EU, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, International Maritime Organization, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, NATO, OECD, OSCE, UN, UN Security Council, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, WEU,WHO, WIPO, WMO. Most recently, Greece was elected by the United Nations General Assembly to the United Nations Security Council, on 15 October 2004, as a non-permanent member for 2005 and 2006. Ambassadors Vassili Dendramis See also Diplomatic missions of Greece List of diplomatic missions in Greece Foreign relations of the European Union References Further reading "Θέματα Ιστορίας: το Μακεδονικό ζήτημα, Ελληνοαλβανικές Σχέσεις, Ελληνοτουρκικές Σχέσεις, το Κυπριακό ζήτημα, Ελλάδα και Ευρωπαϊκή Ένωση, ο Ελληνισμός της Διασποράς", Μαρία Νυσταζοπούλου-Πελεκίδου, Ευάγγελος Κωφός, Κωνσταντίνος Αιλιανός, Αλέξανδρος Αλεξανδρής, Πασχάλης Κιτρομιλίδης, Παναγιώτης Ιωακειμίδης, Ιωάννης Χασιώτης, Οργανισμός Εκδόσεως Διδακτικών Βιβλίων, Έκδοση Α', Αθήνα 1998 External links Greece's foreign policy, via the Greek Ministry of Foreign affairs Ethnic groups in Albania, via CIA - The World Factbook Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs | Foreign_relations_of_Greece |@lemmatized prominent:1 issue:8 greek:105 foreign:34 policy:6 include:3 endure:1 dispute:9 cyprus:13 difference:1 turkey:18 aegean:8 name:8 republic:23 macedonia:20 recognize:12 greece:147 provisional:2 denomination:1 former:7 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2,385 | Sandy_Woodward | Admiral Sir John Forster "Sandy" Woodward GBE, KCB (born 1 May 1932) is a British Admiral who joined the Royal Navy in 1946 at age thirteen. He became a submariner. In 1960 he passed the Royal Navy's rigorous Submarine Command Course known as The Perisher, http://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/usw/issue_18/perisher.htm Perisher Submarine Command Training in the Royal Navy] and received his first command, the T Class submarine HMS Tireless. He then commanded HMS Grampus before becoming the second in command of the nuclear fleet submarine HMS Valiant. In 1967 he was promoted to Commander and became the Instructor (known as "Teacher") of the The Perisher Course. He took command of HMS Warspite in December 1969. He was promoted to the rank of Captain in 1972. In 1976 He took command of HMS Sheffield. Between these sea-going postings he served several tours ashore, including work at the the Royal Naval College Greenwich and in various Naval Staff appointments, including Head of Naval Plans in the Ministry of Defence. In July 1981 he was promoted to Rear Admiral and appointed as Flag Officer First Flotilla. In 1982 he commanded the South Atlantic Task Groups in the Falklands War under the Commander-in-Chief Admiral Sir John Fieldhouse. For his efforts during the war Woodward was knighted. His book One Hundred Days, co-authored by Patrick Robinson, describing his Falklands experiences, is a candid account of the pressures of high command in wartime and the impact on the individual commander. In 1983 Woodward was appointed Flag Officer Submarines and NATO Commander Submarines Eastern Atlantic. In 1984 he was promoted to Vice Admiral, and in 1985 he was a Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff. Before retirement in 1989 he also served as Commander-in-Chief Naval Home Command and Flag Aide-de-Camp to the Queen. Publications External links 1982: Argentina invades Falklands Footnotes | Sandy_Woodward |@lemmatized admiral:5 sir:2 john:2 forster:1 sandy:1 woodward:3 gbe:1 kcb:1 born:1 may:1 british:1 join:1 royal:4 navy:4 age:1 thirteen:1 become:3 submariner:1 pass:1 rigorous:1 submarine:6 command:10 course:2 know:2 perisher:4 http:1 www:1 mil:1 navydata:1 cno:1 usw:1 htm:1 training:1 receive:1 first:2 class:1 hm:3 tireless:1 grampus:1 second:1 nuclear:1 fleet:1 valiant:1 promote:4 commander:5 instructor:1 teacher:1 take:2 hms:2 warspite:1 december:1 rank:1 captain:1 sheffield:1 sea:1 go:1 posting:1 serve:2 several:1 tour:1 ashore:1 include:2 work:1 naval:4 college:1 greenwich:1 various:1 staff:2 appointment:1 head:1 plan:1 ministry:1 defence:2 july:1 rear:1 appoint:2 flag:3 officer:2 flotilla:1 south:1 atlantic:2 task:1 group:1 falklands:3 war:2 chief:3 fieldhouse:1 effort:1 knight:1 book:1 one:1 hundred:1 day:1 co:1 author:1 patrick:1 robinson:1 describe:1 experience:1 candid:1 account:1 pressure:1 high:1 wartime:1 impact:1 individual:1 nato:1 eastern:1 vice:1 deputy:1 retirement:1 also:1 home:1 aide:1 de:1 camp:1 queen:1 publication:1 external:1 link:1 argentina:1 invades:1 footnote:1 |@bigram http_www:1 rear_admiral:1 commander_chief:2 vice_admiral:1 external_link:1 |
2,386 | Frisians | The Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117-38), showing the location of the Frisii Germanic tribe, inhabiting a region corresponding roughly to the coastal Netherlands The Frisians are an ethnic group of Germanic people living in coastal parts of The Netherlands and Germany. They are concentrated in the Dutch provinces of Friesland and Groningen and, in Germany, East Frisia and North Frisia Interfriesischer Rat / Ynterfryske Rie - Start . They inhabit an area known as Frisia. They have a reputation for being tall, big-boned and light-haired people Carleton S. Coon, The Races of Europe,1939 (New York: Knopf, 1962), Chapter XII, section 4 :"The hair is blond to medium brown, especially the latter (Saller-Fischer chart A-O), in over 60 per cent, except for the North Frisian parish of Bökingharde, where it is darker; red hair runs as high as 7 per cent on Spiekeroog. The eyes are pure blue or light-mixed in 70 per cent to 80 per cent of instances. The Frisians are among the blondest people in the world." and they have a rich history and folklore. History Pre Roman times The Frisian origins are obscure. Archeologically, Frisians share a local development with other people in northwest continental regions, dating to the Elp culture (1800-800 BC). The Elp culture shows local continuity, starting with the emergence of the neolithic Corded Ware culture (2900 BC onwards until 2450) and running through Bell-Beaker cultures (2700–2100), Bronze Age Barbed Wire Beakers (2100-1800 BC). The Elp Culture itself began with a Hügelgräber phase, showing a close relationship to other Northern European Hügelgräber groups (sharing low-quality pottery called "Kümmerkeramik"). This phase transitioned smoothly and locally to Urnfields (1200-800 BC). Apparently, the local tradition was only broken around 800 BC, by the Iron Age Hallstatt culture and later by La Tene, which originated south and south east of Central Europe. It was thought that this change was caused by immigration, but it is now attributed to a local development stimulated by external influences. Op Zoek naar de Kelten, Nieuwe archeologische ontdekkingen tussen Noordzee en Rijn - Leo Verhart, ISBN 90 5345 303 2, 2006, p67 The Hallstatt elites may have had little social influence in Frisia, because there is no evidence of royal burials there. Social stability and international contacts became disturbed by power shifts towards the southern Hallstatt regions in the C-period. This caused a decay in the superstratum elite in the D-period that thus never achieved the same privileged and dominant position like in SW Germany and Eastern France. The same process of quick decay was observed at the subsequent intruding La Tene elite. Archeologically, this Iron Age period continued without breaks towards Roman times, showing that continental Germanic cultures participated in an otherwise Celtic European culture. Thus it is not clear whether most Northern European Iron Age findings are from Celtic or Germanic tribes. About 750 BC, the coastal flood plains were populated for the first time, when adjacent higher grounds (Drenthe) became more populated and their soil was exhausted. Leo Verhart - Op zoek naar de Kelten, 2006,ISBN 90 5345 303 2, p81-82 The Frisian ancestors may have immigrated in the Iron Age from Germanic areas to the north or even Scandinavia, but archeological evidence is ambiguous. Genetic evidence points to a close relationship between all Germanic groups, including Frisians, although a possible Scandinavian link is hard to prove with the occurrence of genetic drift, local developments and eastern additions confined to Scandinavian areas. European Journal of Human Genetics - Different genetic components in the Norwegian population revealed by the analysis of mtDNA and Y chromosome polymorphisms, Giuseppe Passarino1 et al. The Frisians emerge as a Germanic tribe named by Roman writers. Nowadays the region shows one of the few examples in prehistory of Bronze Age culture to have continuity with recent building practices as demonstrated by Elp culture influences in present day Frisian and Low Saxon territory. 1979: Nederland in de bronstijd, J.J. Butler Roman times The Frisians were able to form a treaty with the Romans at the River Rhine in 28 AD, thus avoiding conquest. But sixteen years later, when taxes became repressive, they hanged the tax collector and defeated the Romans under Tiberius at the Battle of Baduhennawood. The Frisii were known and respected by the Romans and written about by several sources. Tacitus wrote a treatise about the Germanic peoples in 69, describing the habits of the Germanic people, as well as listing numerous tribes by name. i-Friesland: Tacitus - Characteristics of Germanic people Of the many tribes he mentioned, the name 'Frisii' is the only one still in use to refer unequivocally to the same ethnic group. i-Friesland: History: Tacitus - Tribes of Germania Friesland had been settled early, with evidence of terp-building, the distinctive raised settlements, starting in 700 BC. Frisii were mentioned by Roman historian Tacitus http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/tacitus-germ-latin.html Tacitus mentions two different sections of Frisians, maioribus minoribusque frisii (major and minor Frisians), both having settled downstream the Rhine: Publius Cornelius Tacitus - Germania, paragraph 34 and earlier by Pliny the Elder Pliny the Elder mentions Frisii and Frisiavones in book IV of his encyclopedic compilation Naturalis Historia (77 AD) . According to inscriptions found in Roman Britain http://www.roman-britain.org/military/coh1fri.htm Inscriptions dated between 103-249 AD mention the "Cohors Primae Frisiavonum" - "First Cohort of the Frisiavones" some of them served the Roman Army and used Frisiavones as a synonym. Expansion to the south-west occurred probably as early as 70 AD, when the westernmost parts of the rivermouth were abandoned by the Canninefates in the aftermath of the Batavian revolt by Julius Civilis. Emigration to Flanders Frisian "Tritzum" pottery from Roman times has been found in Zele-Kamershoek, Belgium and Kent Early Frisian pottery has been found in Kent: Looijenga T., Runes around the North Sea and on the Continent A.D. 150-700, SSG Groningen, 1997 happened peacefully within Roman jurisdiction and probably reached a height in the 250s, due to heavy flooding. Around 290 AD Constantius Chlorus mentioned Frisians among the pirates that were raiding Roman Britain, but in the records the Saxons took over this reputation in the fourth century. This coincides with archeological evidence that habitation of the original area remained scarce for about 150 years and only recovered in the 400s. It has been suggested that by then a part of the Frisians had already merged with the Saxons, to whom they were closely related. The Frisian languages remain the closest surviving languages to English. Y Chromosome Evidence for Anglo-Saxon Mass Migration - Weale et al. 19 (7): 1008 - Molecular Biology and Evolution The Roman historian Tacitus, in his Germania, mentioned the Frisians among people he grouped together as the Ingvaeones. Tacitus mentions two types, or classes of Frisians—the maiores Frisii and the minores Frisii—divided by the soil of their farmlands. The maiores Frisii or Clay Frisians populated fertile clay soil, increasing the size of their harvests, livestock and even their posture. The small and relatively unhealthy minores Frisii (Sand Frisians) farmed on sand lands, so their crops were smaller and fewer than those of the maiores Frisii. The armies of the maiores were also larger and better equipped. They were probably a people of seafarers, the North Sea spanning from Britain to Eastern Denmark, was referred to as the Mare Frisia at that time. Small groups of Frisians settled the surrounding lands and their settlements have been traced to England, Scotland, Norway, Germany, Belgium, France, and obviously in Denmark and The Netherlands. Their territory followed the coast of the North Sea from the mouth of the Rhine river up to that of the Ems, their eastern border according to Ptolemy's Geographica. Pliny the Elder states in Belgica that they were conquered by the Roman general Drusus in 12 BC, after several uprisings that were mentioned by Tacitus. The most noted of these is their partaking in the Batavian rebellion. Thereafter the Frisians largely sank into historical obscurity, until coming into contact with the expanding Merovingian and Carolingian empires. In the 5th century, during this period of historical silence, many of them no doubt joined the migration of the Angles and Saxons who went through Frisian territory to invade Great Britain, while those who stayed on the continent expanded into the newly-emptied lands previously occupied by the Anglo-Saxons. By the end of the sixth century the Frisians occupied the coast all the way to the mouth of the Weser and spread farther still in the seventh century, southward down to Dorestad and even Bruges (Westhoek). This farthest extent of Frisian territory is known as Frisia Magna. The empire that came in to being after the fall of the Western Roman Empire was governed by a king or a duke. The earliest document referring to an independent state ruled by a king is dated 678. Early attempts to Christianize Frisia were unsuccessful in converting the fiercely pagan Frisians, and various monks were murdered or banished, such as the legendary example of the murder of Saint Boniface near Dokkum. King Radbod was even able to beat the mighty Charles Martel in 714 to preserve independence. Twenty years later Charles Martel got his revenge and effectively subjugated the entire Frisian empire. Christianity was also enforced by the Christian Franks and in Utrecht a Bishop was installed to see to Christian affairs in Frisia. Not until the early 800s did they fully reclaim their independence from the Frankish grip. Christianity had however taken root and had been adopted by most Frisians. Benedictine monk Saint Willibrord is considered to be the "Apostle of the Frisians". Catholic Encyclopedia on Saint Willibrord Kings or Dukes of Friesland The princes of the Frisians in the early Middle Ages were: Folcwald Finn Sibbelt Ritzard Aldegisel (d. 680) Radbod, also known as Redbad (680–719) Poppo (719–734) The last three were certainly historical figures. The first four may be only legendary. What their exact title was depends on the source. Frankish sources tend to call them dukes; other sources often call them kings. Friesland in the Middle Ages Freedom of the Frisian People, Frisian Law Frisian crusaders capturing Damietta, Egypt. In the 8th century, Charlemagne freed the people of Friesland from swearing fealty to foreign overlords "That all Frisians would be fully free, the born and the unborn, so long as the wind blows from heaven and the child cries, grass grows green and flowers bloom, as far as the sun rises and the world stands". This is from a 12th century law text i-Friesland: History: Freedom and Frisian Law written in Old Frisian using the poetic saga-style of Scandinavian epics. There are a substantial number of existing Frisian law texts and some of these have yet to be studied. There is currently a Frisia Project at the University of Amsterdam that is studying the ancient history of Friesland. But the bits of Frisian history that are already known reveal a people not much given to making their mark on history, except when provoked, and then fighting with a fierceness to protect their freedom. Frisian Migrations The Frisian people also migrated to other areas in Europe. Migrations to Great Britain during the early Middle Ages (along with the Angles, Saxons and Jutes) where they founded (along with the other Germanic tribes mentioned) England or Angla-lond; this has been particularly well characterized through genetics, linguistics, and archeology. AS-26-11-03b The Frisian language has much in common with Old English. In the Faorese island of Suðuroy people refer to 'Frísarnir í Akrabergi' (the Frisians of Akraberg), indicating that the Frisians might have had some sort of settlement there. It's somehow believed the Frisians had settled across Scandinavia, Poland, the Baltic States and farther inland across Central Europe. Frisian seafarers may been invited to Ireland, the Spanish provinces of Asturias and Galicia near Portugal and the few might joined the Normans when they occupied Sicily in Southern Italy. Modern history Satellite view of the German Bight. The modern remnants of Frisia Magna are small and scattered. Most of it became dominated by its expanding neighbours: the Saxons (who were moving north and west) and the Franks (who were pushing north and east). Western and Middle Frisia are solidly within the modern state of the Netherlands, which now includes the "heartland" of the Frisians from the North Sea coast from Alkmaar in the modern province of North Holland, along the coasts of the modern provinces of Friesland and Groningen, and up to the mouth of the Ems. Culturally, it has shrunk down to the province of Friesland alone. The West Frisian language is now spoken there and in parts of the Wadden Sea islands of Terschelling and Schiermonnikoog, Saterland Frisian is spoken in the German municipality of Saterland just south of East Frisia, and North Frisian is spoken in the German region of North Frisia (within the Kreis of Nordfriesland) on the west coast of Jutland. The North Frisian language is under heavy pressure from Low German and Standard German and faces possible extinction. A total of 29 schools in Southern Schleswig offer courses in Frisian. http://www.grenzlandportal.eu/default.asp?objtype=artikel1&func=showdetail&id=2051&ilanguage=dansk&menuItem=menuItemA_a_7311_a_&curMenu=A Frisian is not spoken in Denmark any more De vergeten Friezen in Denemarken - Voorpagina . The East Frisian Low Saxon (a dialect of the Low Saxon) is spoken in East Frisia. Notable Frisians Bernard Fokke - on which the Flying Dutchman is said to be based Ygo Gales Galama (1443-1493)- an infamous medieval warlord, Galama-family patriarch. Pier Gerlofs Donia (1480-1520), Frisian freedom fighter and folk hero, founder of the Arumer Black Heap Menno Simons, (1496–January 311561) was an Anabaptist religious leader from Friesland whose followers became known as Mennonites. Wijard Jelckama (1490-1523), Frisian freedom fighter, nephew of Pier Gerlofs Donia and who later led the Frisian rebellion Gemma Frisius (1508-1555), mathematician and cartographer Jan van der Meulen (Molanus) (1533-1585), theologian Wiebbe Hayes (born around 1608), a Colonial soldier hero from Winschoten Matthias Petersen (1632-1706), whaling captain from Föhr. In his lifetime he caught 373 whales. Hark Olufs (1708-1754), sailor from Amrum. He was enslaved by Algerian pirates and eventually became Commander in Chief of the Bey of Constantine's cavalry. Magnus Forteman Eise Eisinga (1744 - 1828), Frisian amateur astronomer and builder of the oldest working planetarium in the world. Oluf Braren (1787-1839), painter from Föhr. Jens Jacob Eschels (1757-1842), seafarer and entrepreneur. He became known by his autobiography. Statue to Frisian priest Prof. Dr. Titus Brandsma, O.Carm. in Nijmegen. Stine Andresen (1849-1927), poet from Föhr who also wrote in Fering. Befriended poet Friedrich Hebbel. Mata Hari, (born as Margaretha Geertruida Zelle, August 7, 1876, in Leeuwarden (Friesland)) infamous dancer, courtesan and executed as a spy in France Frederik Paulsen (1909-1997), physician. Founder of Ferring Pharmaceuticals. Friede Springer (born 1942), widow of publisher Axel Springer and major shareholder of Axel Springer AG. Jouke de Vries - Dutch PVDA politician Lenny Dykstra - Major League baseball player for the New York Mets (1985-1989) and Philadelphia Phillies (1989-1996). Anna-Marie Lampe - Playboy magazine (U.S. Edition) 40th Anniversary Playmate/Playmate of the Month for January 1994; Playboy magazine (Dutch Edition) Playmate of the year for 1995. Famke Janssen (born 1964), model, actress Amsterdam. Doutzen Kroes, (born January 23, 1985, in Eastermar (Friesland)) is a Dutch supermodel. Titus Brandsma, Carmelite priest of the Roman Catholic Church, anti-Nazi Dutch resistance voice († 1942) Piter Wilkens, (1959-) is a Frisian folk and pop singer. Theodor Mommsen He received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1902, and was also a prominent German politician, as a member of the Prussian and German parliaments. Grant Hayunga (born 1970), painter and musician. Jane Fonda, actress with Frisian ancestry Jack Lousma, astronaut with Frisian ancestry Fred Eaglesmith, Canadian folk singer, original last name, Elgersma Dieter Eilts, football (soccer) player, Nickname: the Alemão of East Frisia, won the UEFA European Championship: 1996 with Germany. Alvin Plantinga, American philosopher of Frisian descent. Hayley Westenra, an internationally renowned singer from New Zealand is of some Frisian descent. Hayley Westenra International Forum Otto Waalkes is of Frisian ancestry too. Maurits Cornelis Escher Born in Leeuwarden and famous for his artwork. See also Frisia Frisian languages Frisian Islands List of Frisian Given Names Willibrord Frisian church External links The Frisian Meeting Place Lex Frisionum in Latin, Dutch and English References | Frisians |@lemmatized roman:19 empire:5 hadrian:1 rule:2 show:5 location:1 frisii:11 germanic:11 tribe:7 inhabit:2 region:5 correspond:1 roughly:1 coastal:3 netherlands:4 frisian:71 ethnic:2 group:6 people:14 live:1 part:4 germany:5 concentrate:1 dutch:6 province:5 friesland:14 groningen:3 east:7 frisia:16 north:13 interfriesischer:1 rat:1 ynterfryske:1 rie:1 start:3 area:5 know:7 reputation:2 tall:1 big:1 boned:1 light:2 haired:1 carleton:1 coon:1 race:1 europe:4 new:3 york:2 knopf:1 chapter:1 xii:1 section:2 hair:2 blond:2 medium:1 brown:1 especially:1 latter:1 saller:1 fischer:1 chart:1 per:4 cent:4 except:2 parish:1 bökingharde:1 darker:1 red:1 run:3 high:2 spiekeroog:1 eye:1 pure:1 blue:1 mixed:1 instance:1 among:3 world:3 rich:1 history:8 folklore:1 pre:1 time:6 origin:1 obscure:1 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2,387 | Leaf_by_Niggle | Niggle redirects here. For other meanings, see wikt:niggle. Italian edition of Tree and Leaf "Leaf by Niggle" is a short story written by J. R. R. Tolkien in 1938–39 Tolkien, J.R.R. "Tree and Leaf." George Allen & Unwin, 1964. and first published in the Dublin Review in January 1947. It can be found, most notably, in Tolkien's book titled Tree and Leaf, and in other places (including the collections The Tolkien Reader, Poems & Stories, A Tolkien Miscellany, and Tales from the Perilous Realm). This is notable because the book, consisting of a seminal essay called "On Fairy-Stories" and "Leaf by Niggle," offers the underlying philosophy (Creation and Sub-Creation, see below) of much of Tolkien's fantastical writings. "Leaf by Niggle" is very much an allegory of Tolkien's own creative process, and, to an extent, of his own life. Plot summary In this story, an artist, named Niggle, lives in a society that does not much value art. Working only to please himself, he paints a canvas of a great Tree with a forest in the distance. He invests each and every leaf of his tree with obsessive attention to detail, making every leaf uniquely beautiful. Niggle ends up discarding all his other artworks, or tacks them onto the main canvas, which becomes a single vast embodiment of his vision. However, there are many mundane chores and duties that prevent Niggle from giving his work the attention it deserves, so it remains incomplete and is not fully realized. At the back of his head, Niggle knows that he has a great trip looming, and he must pack and prepare his bags. Also, Niggle's next door neighbour, a gardener named Parish, is the sort of neighbour who always drops by whining about the help he needs with this and that. Moreover, Parish is lame and has a sick wife, and honestly needs help — Niggle, having a good heart, takes time out to help. And Niggle has other pressing work duties that require his attention. Then Niggle himself catches a chill doing errands for Parish in the rain. Eventually, Niggle is forced to take his trip, and cannot get out of it. He has not prepared, and as a result ends up in a kind of institution, in which he must perform menial labour each day. In time he is paroled from the institution, and he is sent to a place 'for a little gentle treatment'. But he discovers that the new country he is sent to is in fact the country of the Tree and Forest of his great painting, now long abandoned and all but destroyed (except for the one perfect leaf of the title which is placed in the local museum) in the home to which he cannot return — but the Tree here and now in this place is the true realization of his vision, not the flawed and incomplete form of his painting. Niggle is reunited with his old neighbour, Parish, who now proves his worth as a gardener, and together they make the Tree and Forest even more beautiful. Finally, Niggle journeys farther and deeper into the Forest, and beyond into the great mountains that he only faintly glimpsed in his painting. Analysis A religious reading of Leaf by Niggle could lead to the conclusion that the allegory of "Leaf by Niggle" is life, death, purgatory and paradise. In this allegorical view, Niggle is not prepared for his unavoidable trip, as humans often are not prepared for death. His time in the institution and subsequent discovery of his Tree represent purgatory and heaven. But Leaf by Niggle can also be interpreted as an illustration of Tolkien's religious philosophy of creation and sub-creation. In this philosophy, true creation is the exclusive province of God, and those who aspire to creation can only make echoes (good) or mockeries (evil) of truth. The sub-creation of works that echo the true creations of God is one way that mortals honour God. This philosophy is evident in Tolkien's other works, especially The Silmarillion — one Vala, Morgoth, creates the Orc race as a foul mockery of the elf. Another Vala, Aulë, creates the Dwarf race as an act of subcreation that honoured Eru Ilúvatar (The equivalent of God in Tolkien's writings), and which Eru accepted and made real, just as Niggle's Tree was made real. Niggle's yearnings after truth and beauty (God's creations) are echoed in his great painting; after death, Niggle is rewarded with the realization (the making-real) of his yearning. Or, if you prefer, Niggle's Tree always existed — he simply echoed it in his art. From a metanarrative viewpoint, Tolkien's Arda is itself a subcreation designed to honour the true stories of the real world. Thus, the Middle-earth legendarium, despite its lack of overt religious elements, can be interpreted as a profoundly religious work. An autobiographical interpretation places Tolkien himself as Niggle — in mundane matters as well as spiritual ones. Tolkien was compulsive in his writing, his revision, his desire for perfection in form and in the "reality" of his invented world, its languages, its chronologies, its existence. Like Niggle, Tolkien came to abandon other projects or graft them onto his "Tree," Middle-earth. Like Niggle, Tolkien faced many chores and duties that kept him from the work he loved. And like Niggle, Tolkien was a horrible procrastinator — late in life, he spent hours playing Patience instead of working on The Silmarillion. Carpenter, Humphrey J R R Tolkien: A Biography (HarperCollins, London, 2002), Part Seven, Chapter I: "Headington". Tolkien himself might have disagreed with an allegorical interpretation. He wrote, in Letter 131 of The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien, "I dislike Allegory." In specific reference to Niggle, he wrote in Letter 241, "It is not really or properly an 'allegory' so much as 'mythical'." On the other hand, in Letter 153 he said, "I tried to show allegorically how [subcreation] might come to be taken up into Creation in some plane in my 'purgatorial' story Leaf by Niggle." Footnotes External links Leaf by Niggle - a symbolic story about a small painter Essay on "Leaf by Niggle" | Leaf_by_Niggle |@lemmatized niggle:32 redirects:1 meaning:1 see:2 wikt:1 italian:1 edition:1 tree:12 leaf:15 short:1 story:7 write:3 j:4 r:8 tolkien:19 george:1 allen:1 unwin:1 first:1 publish:1 dublin:1 review:1 january:1 find:1 notably:1 book:2 title:2 place:5 include:1 collection:1 reader:1 poems:1 miscellany:1 tale:1 perilous:1 realm:1 notable:1 consist:1 seminal:1 essay:2 call:1 fairy:1 offer:1 underlie:1 philosophy:4 creation:10 sub:3 much:4 fantastical:1 writing:3 allegory:4 creative:1 process:1 extent:1 life:3 plot:1 summary:1 artist:1 name:2 live:1 society:1 value:1 art:2 work:8 please:1 paint:1 canvas:2 great:5 forest:4 distance:1 invest:1 every:2 obsessive:1 attention:3 detail:1 make:6 uniquely:1 beautiful:2 end:2 discard:1 artwork:1 tack:1 onto:2 main:1 become:1 single:1 vast:1 embodiment:1 vision:2 however:1 many:2 mundane:2 chore:2 duty:3 prevent:1 give:1 deserve:1 remain:1 incomplete:2 fully:1 realize:1 back:1 head:1 know:1 trip:3 looming:1 must:2 pack:1 prepare:3 bag:1 also:2 next:1 door:1 neighbour:3 gardener:2 parish:4 sort:1 always:2 drop:1 whine:1 help:3 need:2 moreover:1 lame:1 sick:1 wife:1 honestly:1 good:2 heart:1 take:3 time:3 press:1 require:1 catch:1 chill:1 errand:1 rain:1 eventually:1 force:1 cannot:2 get:1 result:1 kind:1 institution:3 perform:1 menial:1 labour:1 day:1 parole:1 send:2 little:1 gentle:1 treatment:1 discover:1 new:1 country:2 fact:1 painting:4 long:1 abandon:2 destroy:1 except:1 one:4 perfect:1 local:1 museum:1 home:1 return:1 true:4 realization:2 flawed:1 form:2 reunite:1 old:1 prove:1 worth:1 together:1 even:1 finally:1 journey:1 farther:1 deeper:1 beyond:1 mountain:1 faintly:1 glimpse:1 analysis:1 religious:4 reading:1 could:1 lead:1 conclusion:1 death:3 purgatory:2 paradise:1 allegorical:2 view:1 unavoidable:1 human:1 often:1 prepared:1 subsequent:1 discovery:1 represent:1 heaven:1 interpret:2 illustration:1 exclusive:1 province:1 god:5 aspire:1 echo:4 mockery:2 evil:1 truth:2 way:1 mortals:1 honour:3 evident:1 especially:1 silmarillion:2 vala:2 morgoth:1 create:2 orc:1 race:2 foul:1 elf:1 another:1 aulë:1 dwarf:1 act:1 subcreation:3 eru:2 ilúvatar:1 equivalent:1 accept:1 real:4 yearning:2 beauty:1 reward:1 prefer:1 exist:1 simply:1 metanarrative:1 viewpoint:1 arda:1 design:1 world:2 thus:1 middle:2 earth:2 legendarium:1 despite:1 lack:1 overt:1 element:1 profoundly:1 autobiographical:1 interpretation:2 matter:1 well:1 spiritual:1 compulsive:1 revision:1 desire:1 perfection:1 reality:1 invented:1 language:1 chronology:1 existence:1 like:3 come:2 project:1 graft:1 face:1 keep:1 love:1 horrible:1 procrastinator:1 late:1 spend:1 hour:1 play:1 patience:1 instead:1 carpenter:1 humphrey:1 biography:1 harpercollins:1 london:1 part:1 seven:1 chapter:1 headington:1 might:2 disagree:1 letter:4 dislike:1 specific:1 reference:1 really:1 properly:1 mythical:1 hand:1 say:1 try:1 show:1 allegorically:1 plane:1 purgatorial:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 symbolic:1 small:1 painter:1 |@bigram leaf_niggle:9 allen_unwin:1 paint_canvas:1 catch_chill:1 allegorical_interpretation:1 external_link:1 |
2,388 | Auguste_Rodin | Auguste Rodin (born François-Auguste-René Rodin; 12 November 1840 – 17 November 1917) was a French artist, most famous as a sculptor. He was the preeminent French sculptor of his time, and remains one of the few sculptors widely recognized outside the visual arts community. Although Rodin is generally considered the progenitor of modern sculpture, Tucker, 16. he did not set out to rebel against the past. He was schooled traditionally, took a craftsman-like approach to his work, and desired academic recognition, Hale, 76. although he was never accepted into Paris's foremost school of art. Sculpturally, he possessed a unique ability to model a complex, turbulent, deeply pocketed surface in clay. Many of Rodin's most notable sculptures were roundly criticized during his lifetime. They clashed with the predominant figure sculpture tradition, in which works were decorative, formulaic, or highly thematic. Rodin's most original work departed from traditional themes of mythology and allegory, modeled the human body with realism, and celebrated individual character and physicality. Rodin was sensitive to the controversy about his work, but did not change his style, and successive works brought increasing favor from the government and the artistic community. From the unexpected realism of his first major figure—inspired by his 1875 trip to Italy—to the unconventional memorials whose commissions he later sought, Rodin's reputation grew. By 1900, he was a world-renowned artist. Wealthy private clients sought Rodin's work after his World's Fair exhibit, and he kept company with a variety of high-profile intellectuals and artists. He married his life-long companion, Rose Beuret, in the last year of both their lives. His sculpture suffered a decline in popularity after his death in 1917, but within a few decades his legacy solidified. Biography Formative years Rodin's signature on The Thinker. Rodin was born in 1840 into a working-class family in Paris, the second child of Marie Cheffer and Jean-Baptiste Rodin, who was a police department clerk. He was largely self-educated, "(François) Auguste (René) Rodin." International Dictionary of Art and Artists. St. James Press, 1990. Reproduced in Biography Resource Center. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. 2006. and began to draw at ten. Between ages 14 and 17, Rodin attended the Petite École, a school specializing in art and mathematics, where he studied drawing and painting. His drawing teacher, Horace Lecoq de Boisbaudran, believed in first developing the personality of his students such that they observed with their own eyes and drew from their recollections. Rodin still expressed appreciation for his teacher much later in life. Jianou & Goldscheider, 31. There he first meet Jules Dalou and Alphonse Legros. Rodin submitted a clay model of a companion to the Grand École in 1857 in an attempt to win entrance; he did not succeed, and two further applications were also denied. Given that entrance requirements at the Grand École were not particularly high, Hale, 40. the rejections were considerable setbacks. Rodin's inability to gain entrance may have been due to the judges' Neoclassical tastes, while Rodin had been schooled in light, eighteenth-century sculpture. Leaving the Petite École in 1857, Rodin would earn a living as a craftsman and ornamenter for most of the next two decades, producing decorative objects and architectural embellishments. Rodin's sister Maria, two years his senior, died of peritonitis in a convent in 1862. Her brother was anguished, and felt guilty because he had introduced Maria to an unfaithful suitor. Turning away from art, Rodin briefly joined a Catholic order. Father Peter Julian Eymard recognized Rodin's talent and, sensing his lack of suitability for the order, encouraged Rodin to continue with his sculpture. He returned to work as a decorator, while taking classes with animal sculptor Antoine-Louis Barye. The teacher's attention to detail—his finely rendered musculature of animals in motion—significantly influenced Rodin. In 1864, Rodin began to live with a young seamstress named Rose Beuret, with whom he would stay—with ranging commitment—for the rest of his life. The couple bore a son, Auguste-Eugène Beuret (1866–1934). Date of death from Elsen, 206. That year, Rodin offered his first sculpture for exhibition, and entered the studio of Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse, a successful mass producer of objets d'art. Rodin worked as Carrier-Belleuse' chief assistant until 1870, designing roof decorations and staircase and doorway embellishments. With the arrival of the Franco-Prussian War, Rodin was called to serve in the National Guard, but his service was brief due to his near-sightedness. Jianou & Goldscheider, 34. Decorators' work had dwindled because of the war, yet Rodin needed to support his family—poverty was a continual difficulty for Rodin until about the age of 30. Jianou & Goldscheider, 35. Carrier-Belleuse soon asked Rodin to join him in Belgium, where they would work on ornamentation for Brussels' bourse. Rodin planned to stay in Belgium a few months, but he spent the next six years abroad. It was a pivotal time in Rodin's life. He had acquired skill and experience as a craftsman, but no one had yet seen his art, which sat in his workshop, since Rodin could not afford castings. Though his relationship with Carrier-Belleuse deteriorated, he found other employment in Brussels, displayed some works at salons, and his companion Rose soon joined him there. Having saved enough money to travel, Rodin visited Italy for two months in 1875, where he was drawn to the work of Donatello and Michelangelo. Their work had a profound effect on his artistic direction. Hale, 49–50. Rodin said, "It is Michelangelo who has freed me from academic sculpture." Taillandier, 91. Returning to Belgium, he began work on The Age of Bronze, a life-size male figure whose realism brought Rodin attention but led to accusations of sculptural cheating. Rodin in 1893. Artistic independence Rose Beuret and Rodin returned to Paris in 1877, moving into a small flat on the Left Bank. Misfortune surrounded Rodin: his mother, who had wanted to see her son marry, was dead, and his father was blind and senile, cared for by Rodin's sister-in-law, Aunt Thérèse. Rodin's eleven-year-old son Auguste, possibly developmentally delayed, was also in the ever-helpful Thérèse's care. Rodin had essentially abandoned his son for six years, Hale, 65. and would have a very limited relationship with him throughout his life. Father and son now joined the couple in their flat, with Rose as caretaker. The charges of fakery surrounding The Age of Bronze continued. Rodin increasingly sought more soothing female companionship in Paris, and Rose stayed in the background. Rodin earned his living collaborating with more established sculptors on public commissions, primarily memorials and neo-baroque architectural pieces in the style of Carpeaux. Janson, 638. In competitions for commissions he submitted models of Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Lazare Carnot, all to no avail. On his own time, he worked on studies leading to the creation of his next important work, St. John the Baptist Preaching. In 1880, Carrier-Belleuse—now art director of the Sèvres national porcelain factory—offered Rodin a part-time position as a designer. The offer was in part a gesture of reconciliation, and Rodin accepted. That part of Rodin which appreciated eighteenth-century tastes was aroused, and he immersed himself in designs for vases and table ornaments that brought the factory renown across Europe. Hale, 70. The artistic community appreciated his work in this vein, and Rodin was invited to Paris Salons by such friends as writer Léon Cladel. During his early appearances at these social events, Rodin seemed shy; Hale, 71. in his later years, as his fame grew, he displayed the loquaciousness and temperament for which he is better known. French statesman Leon Gambetta expressed a desire to meet Rodin, and the sculptor impressed him when they met at a salon. Gambetta spoke of Rodin in turn to several government ministers, likely including Edmund Turquet, the Undersecretary of the Ministry of Fine Arts, whom Rodin eventually met. Rodin's relationship with Turquet was rewarding: through him, he won the 1880 commission to create a portal for a planned museum of decorative arts. Rodin dedicated much of the next four decades to his elaborate Gates of Hell, an unfinished portal for a museum that was never built. Many of the portal's figures became sculptures in themselves, including Rodin's most famous, The Thinker and The Kiss. With the museum commission came a free studio, granting Rodin a new level of artistic freedom. Soon, he stopped working at the porcelain factory; his income came from private commissions. Camille Claudel (1864–1943) In 1883, Rodin agreed to supervise a course for sculptor Alfred Boucher in his absence, where he met the 18-year-old Camille Claudel. The two formed a passionate but stormy relationship and influenced each other artistically. Claudel inspired Rodin as a model for many of his figures, and she was a talented sculptor, assisting him on commissions. Although busy with The Gates of Hell, Rodin won other commissions. He pursued an opportunity to create an historical monument for the town of Calais. For a monument to French author Honoré de Balzac, Rodin was chosen in 1891. His execution of both sculptures clashed with traditional tastes, and met with varying degrees of disapproval from the organizations that sponsored the commissions. Still, Rodin was gaining support from diverse sources that propelled him toward fame. In 1889, the Paris Salon invited Rodin to be a judge on its artistic jury. Though Rodin's career was on the rise, Claudel and Beuret were becoming increasingly impatient with Rodin's "double life". Claudel and Rodin shared an atelier at a small old castle, but Rodin refused to relinquish his ties to Beuret, his loyal companion during the lean years, and mother of his son. During one absence, Rodin wrote to Beuret, "I think of how much you must have loved me to put up with my caprices…I remain, in all tenderness, your Rodin." Hale, 75. Claudel and Rodin parted in 1898. Claudel suffered a nervous breakdown several years later and was confined to an institution by her family until her death. Works In 1864, Rodin submitted his first sculpture for exhibition, The Man with the Broken Nose, to the Paris Salon. The subject was an elderly neighbourhood street porter. The unconventional bronze piece was not a traditional bust, but instead the head was "broken off" at the neck, the nose was flattened and crooked, and the back of the head was absent, having fallen off the clay model in an accident. The work emphasized texture and the emotional state of the subject; it illustrated the "unfinishedness" that would characterize many of Rodin's later sculptures. Janson, 637. The Salon rejected the piece. The Age of Bronze (1877) Early figures: the inspiration of Italy In Brussels, Rodin created his first full-scale work, The Age of Bronze, having returned from Italy. Modelled by a Belgian soldier, the figure drew inspiration from Michelangelo's Dying Slave, which Rodin had observed at the Louvre. Attempting to combine Michelangelo's mastery of the human form with his own sense of human nature, Rodin studied his model from all angles, at rest and in motion; he mounted a ladder for additional perspective, and made clay models, which he studied by candlelight. The result was a life-size, well-proportioned nude figure, posed unconventionally with his right hand atop his head, and his left arm held out at his side, forearm parallel to the body. In 1877, the work debuted in Brussels and then was shown at the Paris Salon. The statue's apparent lack of a theme was troubling to critics—commemorating neither mythology nor a noble historical event—and it is not clear whether Rodin intended a theme. Hale, 50. He first titled the work The Vanquished, in which form the left hand held a spear, but he removed the spear because it obstructed the torso from certain angles. After two more intermediary titles, Rodin settled on The Age of Bronze, suggesting the Bronze Age, and in Rodin's words, "man arising from nature". Hale, 51. Later, however, Rodin said that he had had in mind "just a simple piece of sculpture without reference to subject". Its mastery of form, light, and shadow made the work look so realistic that Rodin was accused of surmoulage—having taken a cast from a living model. Rodin vigorously denied the charges, writing to newspapers and having photographs taken of the model to prove how the sculpture differed. He demanded an inquiry and was eventually exonerated by a committee of sculptors. Leaving aside the false charges, the piece polarized critics. It had barely won acceptance for display at the Paris Salon, and criticism likened it to "a statue of a sleepwalker" and called it "an astonishingly accurate copy of a low type". Others rallied to defend the piece and Rodin's integrity. The government minister Turquet admired the piece, and The Age of Bronze was purchased by the state for 2,200 francs—what it had cost Rodin to have it cast in bronze. St. John the Baptist Preaching (1878) A second male nude, St. John the Baptist Preaching, was completed in 1878. Rodin sought to avoid another charge of surmoulage by making the statue larger than life: St. John stands almost 6' 7'' (2 m). While the The Age of Bronze is statically posed, St. John gestures and seems to move toward the viewer. The effect of walking is achieved despite the figure having both feet firmly on the ground—a physical impossibility, and a technical achievement that was lost on most contemporary critics. Hale, 80. Rodin chose this contradictory position to, in his words, "display simultaneously…views of an object which in fact can be seen only successively". Hale, 68. Despite the title, St. John the Baptist Preaching did not have an obviously religious theme. The model, an Italian peasant who presented himself at Rodin's studio, possessed an idiosyncratic sense of movement that Rodin felt compelled to capture. Rodin thought of John the Baptist, and carried that association into the title of the work. In 1880, Rodin submitted the sculpture to the Paris Salon. Critics were still mostly dismissive of his work, but the piece finished third in the Salon's sculpture category. Regardless of the immediate receptions of St. John and The Age of Bronze, Rodin had achieved a new degree of fame. Students sought him at his studio, praising his work and scorning the charges of surmoulage. The artistic community knew his name. The Gates of Hell The Gates of Hell (unfinished), Musée Rodin A commission to create a portal for Paris' planned Museum of Decorative Arts was awarded to Rodin in 1880. Although the museum was never built, Rodin worked throughout his life on The Gates of Hell, a monumental sculptural group depicting scenes from Dante's Inferno in high relief. Often lacking a clear conception of his major works, Rodin compensated with hard work and a striving for perfection. Elsen, 35. He conceived The Gates with the surmoulage controversy still in mind: "…I had made the St. John to refute [the charges of casting from a model], but it only partially succeeded. To prove completely that I could model from life as well as other sculptors, I determined…to make the sculpture on the door of figures smaller than life." Laws of composition gave way to the Gates''' disordered and untamed depiction of Hell. The figures and groups in this, Rodin's meditation on the condition of man, are physically and morally isolated in their torment. Jianou & Goldscheider, 41. The Gates of Hell comprised 186 figures in its final form. Many of Rodin's best-known sculptures started as designs of figures for this composition, such as The Thinker, The Three Shades, and The Kiss, and were only later presented as separate and independent works. Other well-known works derived from The Gates are Ugolino, Fugit Amor, The Falling Man, and The Prodigal Son.The Thinker (originally titled The Poet, after Dante) was to become one of the most well-known sculptures in the world. The original was a -high bronze piece created between 1879 and 1889, designed for the Gates' lintel, from which the figure would gaze down upon Hell. While The Thinker most obviously characterizes Dante, aspects of the Biblical Adam, the mythological Prometheus, and Rodin himself have been ascribed to him. Other observers de-emphasize the apparent intellectual theme of The Thinker, stressing the figure's rough physicality and the emotional tension emanating from it. Taillandier, 42, 46, 48. The Burghers of Calais (1884–c. 1889) in Victoria Tower Gardens, London, England The Burghers of Calais The town of Calais had contemplated an historical monument for decades when Rodin learned of the project. He pursued the commission, interested in the medieval motif and patriotic theme. The mayor of Calais was tempted to hire Rodin on the spot upon visiting his studio, and soon the memorial was approved, with Rodin as its architect. It would commemorate the six townspeople of Calais who offered their lives to save their fellow citizens. During the Hundred Years' War, the army of King Edward III besieged Calais, and Edward ordered that the town's population be killed en masse. He agreed to spare them if six of the principal citizens would come to him prepared to die, bareheaded and barefooted and with ropes around their necks. When they came, he ordered that they be executed, but pardoned them when his queen, Philippa of Hainault, begged him to spare their lives. The Burghers of Calais depicts the men as they are leaving for the king's camp, carrying keys to the town's gates and citadel. Rodin began the project in 1884, inspired by the chronicles of the siege by Jean Froissart. Though the town envisioned an allegorical, heroic piece centered on Eustache de Saint-Pierre, the eldest of the six men, Rodin conceived the sculpture as a study in the varied and complex emotions under which all six men were laboring. One year into the commission, the Calais committee was not impressed with Rodin's progress. Rodin indicated his willingness to end the project rather than change his design to meet the committee's conservative expectations, but Calais said to continue. In 1889, The Burghers of Calais was first displayed to general acclaim. It is a bronze sculpture weighing two tons (1814 kg), and its figures are 2 metres tall. The six men portrayed do not display a united, heroic front; rather, each is isolated from his brothers, individually deliberating and struggling with his expected fate. Rodin soon proposed that the monument's high pedestal be eliminated, wanting to move the sculpture to ground level so that viewers could "penetrate to the heart of the subject". Hale, 117. At ground level, the figures' positions lead the viewer around the work, and subtly suggest their common movement forward. Hale, 115 The committee was incensed by the untraditional proposal, but Rodin would not yield. In 1895, Calais succeeded in having Burghers displayed in their preferred form: the work was placed in front of a public garden on a high platform, surrounded by a cast-iron railing. Rodin had wanted it located near the town hall, where it would engage the public. Only after damage during the First World War, subsequent storage, and Rodin's death was the sculpture displayed as he had intended. It is one of Rodin's most well-known and acclaimed works. Commissions and controversy Rodin observing work on the monument to Victor Hugo at the studio of his assistant Henri Lebossé in 1896 Commissioned to create a monument to French writer Victor Hugo in 1889, Rodin dealt extensively with the subject of artist and muse. Like many of Rodin's public commissions, Monument to Victor Hugo met with resistance because it did not fit conventional expectations. Commenting on Rodin's monument to Victor Hugo, The Times in 1909 expressed that "there is some show of reason in the complaint that [Rodin's] conceptions are sometimes unsuited to his medium, and that in such cases they overstrain his vast technical powers". The 1897 plaster model was not cast in bronze until 1964. The Société des Gens des Lettres, a Parisian organization of writers, planned a monument to French novelist Honoré de Balzac immediately after his death in 1850. The society commissioned Rodin to create the memorial in 1891, and Rodin spent years developing the concept for his sculpture. Challenged in finding an appropriate representation of Balzac given the author's rotund physique, Rodin produced many studies: portraits, full-length figures in the nude, wearing a frock coat, or in a robe—a replica of which Rodin had requested. The realized sculpture displays Balzac cloaked in the drapery, looking forcefully into the distance with deeply gouged features. Rodin's intent had been to show Balzac at the moment of conceiving a work —to express courage, labor, and struggle. Hale, 136. Monument to Balzac (1891–1898) When Balzac was exhibited in 1898, the negative reaction was not surprising. The Société rejected the work, and the press ran parodies. Criticizing the work, Morey (1918) reflected, "there may come a time, and doubtless will come a time, when it will not seem outre to represent a great novelist as a huge comic mask crowning a bathrobe, but even at the present day this statue impresses one as slang." A modern critic, indeed, indicates that Balzac is one of Rodin's masterpieces. The monument had its supporters in Rodin's day; a manifesto defending him was signed by Monet, Debussy, and future Premier Georges Clemenceau, among many others. Hale, 122. Rather than try to convince skeptics of the merit of the monument, Rodin repaid the Société his commission and moved the figure to his garden. After this experience, Rodin did not complete another public commission. Only in 1939 was Monument to Balzac cast in bronze. Other works The popularity of Rodin's most famous sculptures tends to obscure his total creative output. A prolific artist, he created thousands of busts, figures, and sculptural fragments over more than five decades. He painted in oils (especially in his thirties) and in watercolors. The Musée Rodin holds 7,000 of his drawings and prints, in chalk and charcoal, and 13 vigorous drypoints. Hale, 12. He also produced a single lithograph. Portraiture was an important component of Rodin's oeuvre, helping him to win acceptance and financial independence. Hale, 82. His first sculpture was a bust of his father in 1860, and he produced at least 56 portraits between 1877 and his death in 1917. Early subjects included fellow sculptor Jules Dalou (1883) and companion Camille Claudel (1884). Later, with his reputation established, Rodin made busts of prominent contemporaries such as English politician George Wyndham (1905), Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw (1906), Austrian composer Gustav Mahler (1909), former Argentinian president Domingo Faustino Sarmiento and French statesman Georges Clemenceau (1911). Aesthetic A famous "fragment": The Walking Man Rodin was a naturalist, less concerned with monumental expression than with character and emotion. Departing with centuries of tradition, he turned away from the idealism of the Greeks, and the decorative beauty of the Baroque and neo-Baroque movements. His sculpture emphasized the individual and the concreteness of flesh, and suggested emotion through detailed, textured surfaces, and the interplay of light and shadow. To a greater degree than his contemporaries, Rodin believed that an individual's character was revealed by his physical features. Rodin's talent for surface modeling allowed him to let every part of the body speak for the whole. The male's passion in The Kiss is suggested by the grip of his toes on the rock, the rigidness of his back, and the differentiation of his hands. Speaking of The Thinker, Rodin illuminated his aesthetic: "What makes my Thinker think is that he thinks not only with his brain, with his knitted brow, his distended nostrils and compressed lips, but with every muscle of his arms, back, and legs, with his clenched fist and gripping toes." </blockquote> Sculptural fragments to Rodin were autonomous works, and he considered them the essence of his artistic statement. His fragments—perhaps lacking arms, legs, or a head—took sculpture further from its traditional role of portraying likenesses, and into a realm where forms existed for their own sake. Hale, 69. Notable examples are The Walking Man, Meditation without Arms, and Iris, Messenger of the Gods. Rodin saw suffering and conflict as hallmarks of modern art. "Nothing, really, is more moving than the maddened beast, dying from unfulfilled desire and asking in vain for grace to quell its passion." Charles Baudelaire echoed those themes, and was among Rodin's favorite poets. Rodin enjoyed music, especially the opera composer Gluck, and wrote a book about French cathedrals. He owned a work by the as-yet-unrecognized Van Gogh, and admired the forgotten El Greco. Method A plaster of The Age of Bronze Instead of copying traditional academic postures, Rodin preferred to work with amateur models, street performers, acrobats, strong men and dancers. In the atelier, his models moved about and took positions without manipulation. Very devoted to his craft, Rodin worked constantly but not feverishly. The sculptor made quick sketches in clay that were later fine-tuned, cast in plaster, and forged into bronze or carved in marble. Rodin was fascinated by dance and spontaneous movement. As France's best-known sculptor, he had a large staff of pupils, craftsmen, and stone cutters working for him, including the Czech sculptors Josef Maratka and Joseph Kratina. Through his method of marcottage (layering), he used the same sculptural elements time and time again, under different names and in different combinations. Disliking the formality of pedestals, Rodin placed many of his subjects around rough rock to emphasize their immediacy and provide contrast. Taillandier, 31. George Bernard Shaw sat for a portrait and gave an idea of Rodin's technique: "While he worked, he achieved a number of miracles. At the end of the first fifteen minutes, after having given a simple idea of the human form to the block of clay, he produced by the action of his thumb a bust so living that I would have taken it away with me to relieve the sculptor of any further work." He described the evolution of his bust over a month, passing through "all the stages of art's evolution": first, a "Byzantine masterpiece", then "Bernini intermingled", then an elegant Houdon. "The hand of Rodin worked not as the hand of a sculptor works, but as the work of Elan Vital. The Hand of God is his own hand." Quoted in Jianou & Goldscheider, 62. Later years A portrait of Rodin by his friend Alphonse Legros By 1900, Rodin's artistic reputation was entrenched. Gaining exposure from a pavilion of his artwork set up near the 1900 World's Fair (Exposition Universelle) in Paris, he received requests to make busts of prominent people internationally, while his assistants at the atelier produced duplicates of his works. His income from portrait commissions alone totalled probably 200,000 francs a year. Hale, 147. As Rodin's fame grew, he attracted many followers, including the German poet Rainer Maria Rilke, and authors Octave Mirbeau, Joris-Karl Huysmans, and Oscar Wilde. Rilke stayed with Rodin in 1905 and 1906, and did administrative work for him; he would later write a laudatory monograph on the sculptor. Rodin and Beuret's modest country estate in Meudon, purchased in 1897, was a host to such visitors as King Edward, dancer Isadora Duncan, and harpsichordist Wanda Landowska. Rodin moved to the city in 1908, renting the main floor of the Hôtel Biron, an eighteenth-century townhouse. He left Beuret in Meudon, and began an affair with the American-born Duchesse de Choiseul. Among Rodin's overseas admirers were the transit magnate Charles Tyson Yerkes and the historian Henry Brooks Adams; Yerkes is reputed to have been the first American to own a Rodin sculpture. Franch, John (2006). Robber Baron: The Life of Charles Tyson Yerkes. Urbana: University of Illinois Press; p. 209. After the turn of the century, Rodin was a regular visitor to Great Britain, where he developed a loyal following by the beginning of the First World War. He first visited England in 1881, where his friend, the artist Alphonse Legros, had introduced him to the poet William Ernest Henley. With his personal connections and enthusiasm for Rodin's art, Henley was most responsible for Rodin's reception in Britain. Through Henley, Rodin met Robert Louis Stevenson and Robert Browning, in whom he found further support. Hale, 73. Encouraged by the enthusiasm of British artists, students, and high society for his art, Rodin donated a significant selection of his works to the nation in 1914. After the revitalization of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts in 1890, Rodin served as the body's vice-president. In 1903, Rodin was elected president of the International Society of Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers. He replaced its former president, James Abbott McNeill Whistler, upon Whistler's death. His election to the prestigious position was largely due to the efforts of Albert Ludovici, father of English philosopher Anthony Ludovici. During his later creative years, Rodin's work turned increasingly toward the female form, and themes of more overt masculinity and femininity. He concentrated on small dance studies, and produced numerous erotic drawings, sketched in a loose way, without taking his pencil from the paper or his eyes from the model. Rodin met American dancer Isadora Duncan in 1900, attempted to seduce her, Hale, 10. and the next year sketched studies of her and her students. In July 1906, Rodin was also enchanted by dancers from the Royal Ballet of Cambodia, and produced some of his most famous drawings from the experience. Fifty-three years into their relationship, Rodin married Rose Beuret. The wedding was 29 January 1917, and Beuret died two weeks later, on 16 February. Rodin was ill that year; in January, he suffered weakness from influenza, and on 16 November his physician announced that "congestion of the lungs has caused great weakness. The patient's condition is grave." Rodin died the next day, age 77, at his villa in Meudon, Île-de-France, on the outskirts of Paris. A cast of The Thinker was placed next to his tomb in Meudon; it was Rodin's wish that the figure serve as his headstone and epitaph. Elsen, 52. In 1923, Marcell Tirel, Rodin's secretary, published a book alleging that Rodin's death was largely due to cold, and the fact that he had no heat at Meudon. Rodin requested permission to stay in the Hotel Biron, a museum of his works, but the director of the museum refused to let him stay there. Legacy The grounds of Musée Rodin Rodin willed to the state his studio and the right to make casts from his plasters. Because he encouraged the reproduction of his work, Rodin's sculptures are represented in many collections. The Musée Rodin was founded in 1919 at the Hôtel Biron, where Rodin had lived, and it holds the largest Rodin collection. The relative ease of making reproductions has also encouraged many forgeries: a survey of expert opinion placed Rodin in the top ten most-faked artists. To deal with unauthorized reproductions, the Musée in 1956 set twelve casts as the maximum number that could be made from Rodin's plasters and still be considered his work. (As a result of this limit, The Burghers of Calais, for example, is found in 14 cities.) In the market for sculpture, which is plagued by fakes, the value of a piece is significantly increased if its authenticity can be proved by its provenance. A Rodin work with a verified history sold for US$4.8 million in 1999, and Rodin's bronze Eve, grand modele—version sans rocher sold for $18.9 million at a 2008 Christie's auction in New York. Art critics concerned about authenticity have argued that taking a cast does not equal reproducing a Rodin sculpture—especially given the importance of surface treatment in Rodin's work. The Thinker (1879–1889) is among the most recognized works in all of sculpture. During his lifetime, Rodin was compared to Michelangelo, and was widely recognized as the greatest artist of the era. In the three decades following his death, his popularity waned with changing aesthetic values. Since the 1950s, Rodin's reputation has re-ascended; he is recognized as the most important sculptor of the modern era, and has been the subject of much scholarly work. The sense of incompletion offered by some of his sculpture, such as The Walking Man, influenced the increasingly abstract sculptural forms of the twentieth century. Taillandier, 23. Though highly honoured for his artistic accomplishments, Rodin did not spawn a significant, lasting school of followers. His notable students included Antoine Bourdelle, Charles Despiau, the American Malvina Hoffman, and his mistress Camille Claudel, whose sculpture received praise in France. The French order Légion d'honneur made him a Commander, and he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford. Rodin restored an ancient role of sculpture—to capture the physical and intellectual force of the human subject—and he freed sculpture from the repetition of traditional patterns, providing the foundation for greater experimentation in the twentieth century. His popularity is ascribed to his emotion-laden representations of ordinary men and women—to his ability to find the beauty and pathos in the human animal. His most popular works, such as The Kiss and The Thinker'', are widely used outside the fine arts as symbols of human emotion and character. Notes References External links Musée Rodin, Paris Rodin Museum, Philadelphia A 26min film about Auguste Rodin and the Gates of Hell Views of the Musée Rodin Rodin-Web.org: Academic site on Rodin Rodin: Academic View Points Auguste Rodin: The Burghers of Calais Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000 Rodin at the Victoria and Albert Museum Gilles Perrault Website of the Art Expert at the Supreme Court of France in charge of the Guy Hain case, who analysed more than 580 works of Auguste Rodin - Art Analysis Laboratory 2009 Exhibition of Rodin as a Portraitist. 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2,389 | Language_game | A language game (also called secret language or ludling) is a system of manipulating spoken words to render them incomprehensible to the untrained ear. Language games are used primarily by groups attempting to conceal their conversations from others. Some common examples are Pig Latin, which is used all over the globe; the Gibberish family, prevalent in the United States and Sweden; and Verlan, spoken in France. Each of these language games involves a usually simple standard transformation to speech, thus encoding it. The languages can be easily mentally encoded and decoded by a skilled speaker at the rate of normal speech, while those who either don't know the key or aren't practiced in rapid speech are left hearing nothing but gibberish. A common difficulty with language games is that they are usually passed down orally. While written translations can be made, they are often imperfect, and thus spelling can vary widely. Some factions argue that words in these spoken tongues should simply be written the way they are pronounced, while others insist that the purity of language demands that the transformation remain visible when the words are imparted to paper. Contrary to what proponents of either side may say, there is no one definitive written lexicon for language games, but it is rather a matter of dialect. Use Language games are primarily used by children, to disguise their speech from others. Some language games, such as Pig Latin, are so widely known that privacy is nearly impossible, as most people at least know how it works, even if they can't speak it themselves. Although language games are not usually used in everyday conversation, some words from language games have made their way into normal speech, such as ixnay in English (from Pig Latin), and loufoque in French (from Louchébem). Classification One way in which language games could be organized is by language, for example, Pig Latin, Ubbi Dubbi, and Tutnese could all be in the "English" category, and Jeringonza could be in the "Spanish" category. An alternate method of classifying language games is by their function. For example, Ubbi Dubbi, Bicycle, and Allspråket all work by inserting a code syllable before the vowel in each syllable. Therefore, these could be classified in the Gibberish family. Also, Double Talk, Língua do Pê, Jeringonza, and B-Sprache all work by adding a consonant after the vowel in each syllable, and then repeating the vowel. Thus, these could be classified in the Double Talk family. Another common type of language game is the spoonerism, in which the onsets of two words are exchanged. Using a standard word for each transformation gives another type, for example, the Finnish "kontinkieli", where kontti is added after each word, and spoonerism applied (kondäntti koonerismspontti koppliedäntti). List of common language games + Host Language Name Basic Rules Notes Afrikaans Emmer-taal Insert "mer" at the end of each word. Longer words that consists of joined words are often broken into two or more words with the "mer" sound inserted in the middle and at the end. Example.Daar onder in die vlei stap 'n mannetjie → Damer ommer immer diemer vleimer stammer immer mammer-tjiemmer. Afrikaans P-taal Insert "Əp" before the first vowel of each syllable. Syllables with stacked consonants may follow additional rules. Writing generally depicts the sounds instead the original letters.Daar onder in die vlei stap 'n mannetjie → Depaar epondeper epen depie velepetei stepatepap epe mepannepekie. Bulgarian Pileshki Insert "pi" before each syllable. Though simple, when spoken quickly words become nearly incomprehensible. Often called "chicken language" because it mimicks the sounds fledgelings make. Pileshko means chicken in Bulgarian ျမန္မာစာ ဗန္းစကား / Ban Zaga Thor Zagar, Put Thor at end of any word and change the consonant of the first and last word. Example: achit → achor thit Cantonese S-language Repeat each syllable changing the initial consonant to /s/ Used by children and teenagers to avoid understanding by adults. Cebuano Kinabayo ('Horse language') Mimics the sound of a horse's gallop. For every occurrence of a vowel, the following rule is followed: (the vowel)+'g'+(the vowel)+'d'+(the vowel). "Ani-a ang salapi" becomes "Agadanigidi-agada agadang sagadalagadapigidi" Chinese Huizongyu or Qiekou or Fanqie Split one syllable into two: the first syllable represents the onset of the original word, the second represents the final Derives from the fanqie system (a traditional way of indicating the pronunciation of a Chinese character through using two other characters). Example: ni hao → ningni heng hao Dutch Reversed elements and words. A mercantile code Dutch P-taal Insert "Əp" before the first vowel of each syllable. Syllables with stacked consonants may follow additional rules. Writing generally depicts the sounds instead the original letters.Daar op straat staat een mannetje → Depaar epop epin depie strepaat stepaat epen mepannepetjepe. Dutch Okki-taal Add -okki to any consonant, and replace vowels with a number corresponding to the order of vowels in the alphabet (eg. a → 1, e → 2, etc.)Ex. example → 2 xokki 1 mokki pokki lokki 2. Popular children's game. Dutch Panovese Kal Mixing characters in a particular way. Used in Kortessen, Limburg, ca. 1900.Ex. "Onze vader die in de hemelen zijt" → "Onze zeder die in de vamelen hijt". English (etc.) Frank (language game) Spell out the word, but pronounce the vowels with an accent and the consonants with an 'oss' sound at the end. Add 'spak' in between words. Somewhat slow English (etc.) Pig Latin Move the onset of the first syllable to the end of each word, and add "ay" (). When a word starts with a vowel (there is no onset), you simply add "ay", "way", "yay", or "hay" (depending on the variant) at the end. English (etc.) Random Latin Move the first letter of the word to the end of each word, and add two random letters that look good. Thus "The rain in Spain" becomes "Hetru ainrog niba painsax", "Hetlö ainriz nigm painsår", or any variant thereof. Best for written text. English (etc.) Ubbi Dubbi (or Obby Dobby) Insert "ob" () or "ub" () before the rime of each syllable. Also called Pig Greek; part of the Gibberish family English Bicycle Insert "es" () after each consonant sound. Hello - Heselleso English (etc.) Elephant Insert "eleph" or "elef" before every vowel sound. "How are you doing?" → Helefow elefare yelefoo delefoo-elefing? English Cockney rhyming slang Canonical rhyming word pairs; speakers often drop the second word of common pairs. wife → trouble [and strife]; stairs → apples [and pears] English Dong Spelling out words, using plain vowel sounds and '-ong' at the end of each consonant. "Let's go" → "Long ee tong song, gong oh." English Bop Talk Spelling out words, using plain vowel sounds and '-op' at the end of each consonant. "Let's go" → "Lop ee top sop, gop oh." English Eggy-Peggy, Eggy-Egg language or Egg Latin Insert "egg" or "ag" before the rime of each syllable. Inserting at the beginning of a word which starts with a vowel seems to be a matter of preference. In another variation, "eggy" is also added to the end of each word that ends in a vowel sound. "How are you doing?" → Heggow eggare yeggou deggoegging? Alternative: "How are you doing?" → Heggoweggy eggare yegoueggy deggoegging? English Double Talk/B-Language German B-Language in English. "How are you doing?" → "Hobow abare yobou doboibing?" English Gibberish Insert "itherg", "itug" or "idig" after the first consonant in each syllable. Gibberish is also a family of related language games. English Inflationary English Any time a number is present within a word, inflate its value by one. "Anyone up for tennis?" becomes "Anytwo up five elevennis?" Originally part of a comedy sketch by Victor Borge. English -izzle Insert "-izzle" after a word's last pre-vowel consonant while discarding the remaining letters. Popularized by rappers English Ovugoo Insert "ovug" after the first consonant or constanant group (i.e ch, st, sc, pl etc) in each syllable. If the word or syllable begins with a vowel "ovug" is added as a prefix only. "This was first used in Essex, England" becomes "Thovugis wovugas fovugirst ovugused ovugin ovuges-sovugex, ovugeng-lovugand" English Rechtub klat (Australia) or backslang (UK) Formed by speaking words backwards; where necessary, anagrams may be employed to aid pronunciation. Used by butchers in Australia to conceal details of shop talk from customers. English Spoonerism Formed by swapping prominent sounds, usually the first letters, of consecutive words. For example, "The pig is sick" becomes "The sig is pick", "she nicked my pose" becomes "she picked my nose", "light a fire" becomes "fight a liar". English Turkey Irish Formed by inserting "-ab" before every vowel phoneme. Reported by Dr. James Bender in the December 31, 1944 edition of the New York Times Magazine. Has limited use today except in parts of Eastern Canada. English Tutnese Spell out words using a lexicon of names for consonants, and special rules for double letters. How are you? - Hashowack arure yuckou? English Zambuda Long vowels became short; c pronounced s when should have been k. Esperanto Esperant' Substitutes the accusative by the preposition je and the final -o of nouns by an apostrophe, all while keeping to the letter of official grammar if not actual usage. "Oni ĉiam obeu la Fundamenton" becomes "Ĉiamu onia obe' je l' Fundament'" Filipino / Tagalog Binaliktad ('Inverted') Exchange first and last syllable of any two-syllable word. Prefix last syllable onto first syllable and affix the first syllable after the second to last one in any word more than two syllables. Sometimes "s" is added to certain words for stylistic effect. Ex: Hindi (No) becomes Dehins (e and i are allophones in Philippine languages). S added as stylistic feature. Sigarilyo (taken from Spanish term Cigarillo) becomes Yosi (last and first syllable, middle syllables omitted). Katulong (Domestic helper) becomes Lóngkatuts (last syllable prefixed, other syllables moved along. t affixed as means of differentiating word from subsequent ones. s is added as stylistic feature. Also applicable to English words like Father and Mother, which become Erpats and Ermats. Finnish Sananmuunnos Spoonerism: swap first morae of words Apply vowel harmony according to the initial syllable, repair "broken diphthongs" into permitted diphthongs Finnish Kontinkieli Add word 'kontti' after each word and apply the same conversion as in sananmuunnos. Finnish counterpart of Pig Latin. This game is also called siansaksa ('Pig German'), which is a common expression for unintelligible gibberish.FinnishA-Kieli (A-language) Replace every vowel with the vowel "a". For example: "Mitä sä teet" becomes "Mata sa taat" French Louchebem Move the initial consonant to the end and add '-em' (the suffix may be different in other varieties). Prepend 'l' ('L') to the base word. Initially a Parisian/Lyonnaise butchers' cant. example: parler → larlepem French Verlan Inverted nouns syllables order. Examples: arabe → beur; femme → meufeu French Jargon Each vowel is replaced by "adaga" for A, "edegue" for E, "odogo" for O etc... French Javanais Insertion of 'av' between consonants and vowels... French Loght el V After every vowel, insertion of 'v', then the vowel. An Egyptian "dialect" of Javanais, used by children and teenagers in French speaking schools in Cairo to avoid understanding by adults (specially by teachers). German 'Lav' inserted after some vowel sounds. German B-Language Each vowel or diphthong is reduplicted with a leading 'b'. "Deutsche Sprache" → "Deubeutschebe Sprabachebe" German Löffelsprache (spoon language) Each (spoken) vowel or diphthong is reduplicted with a leading 'lef', 'lew' or 'lev'. "Hallo! Wie geht es dir?" → "Halewallolewo! Wielewie geleweht elewes dilewir?" Also possible with other languages: "Don't try to take me to New York!" → "Dolevon't trylevy tolevo tailevaik meleve tolevo Newlevew/Newlevoo Yolevork!" Greek Podana Similar to the Spanish vesre. Greek Korakistika Insert "ko" before each syllable "Kalimera" → "Kokakolikomekora" Greek Splantziana The vowels of each word are place before the consonants Examples: στόμα → όσταμ ; άριστα → άϊραστAlso used in Crete and Khania Hakka Yuantang dialect Each consonant and vowel is replaced by a Hakka word. Similar to fanqie spellings. 食饭 [sit fan] → 手习花散 [siu jit fa san] → [s(iu) (j)it f(a) (s)an] Hebrew Bet-Language Identical to the German B-Language described above. A song that won the Eurovision Song Contest was titled "A-Ba Ni-Bi", based on this game. Hungarian Madárnyelv (birds' language) Repeat each vowel and add 'v' A variety of Gibberish (eg. látok I see → lávátovok) Hungarian madárnyelv (birds' language) Repeat each vowel and add 'rg' (eg. látok I see → lárgátorgok) Hungarian Kongarian Add 'ko' before each syllable (eg. látok I see → kolákotok) Hungarian Verzin Syllable order is inverted. Hungarian version of "verlan". (eg. hátra backwards → rahát) Indonesian Bahasa G Repeat each vowel and add G. For example, the sentence "Muke lo kayak anjing" becomes "Mugukege logo kagayagak aganjiging." Indonesian Bahasa Oke Take only the first syllable of a word and replace the vowel with oke, oka or oki. For example, "Coli" becomes ""Cokil", "Berak" becomes "Boker", "Cina" becomes "Cokin", "Gila" becomes "Gokil", Bahasa "Preman" becomes Bahasa "Prokem", "Pembantu" becomes "Pembokat" and "Bapak becomes "Bokap". Italian Latino Maccheronico (see below: Romance languages, Macaronic Latin) Italian Alfabeto farfallino Add 'Fx' after all syllables. x is the vowel in the corresponding syllable of the real word. ex.: ciao → cifiafaofo (ci-FI-a-FA-o-FO) By applying the same 'rule' to the English word hello, we would obtain: he-FE-llo-FO Japanese Ba-bi-bu-be-bo Same as Double Talk or Spanish Idioma FExample: put "b" plus vowel between syllables, "waba taba shibi waba" instead of "watashi-wa" Korean Gwisin Mal (귀신말; ghost language) / Dokkaebi Mal (도깨비말; Ogre language) Put "s plus vowel" or "b plus vowel" between syllables Example 1: "Yasa! Neoseo! Jasal gasa (야사! 너서! 자살 가사)" instead of "Ya! Neo! Jal ga (야! 너! 잘 가; Hey! You! Good bye)"Example 2: "Neoseo neoseomusu yeseppeoseo (너서 너서무수 예세뻐서)" instead of "Neo neomu yeppeo (너 너무 예뻐; you are so pretty)" Macedonian Папагалски / Parrotish Put "P" in front of every vowel; Example: "Ова е Википедиа." becomes "Оповапа епе Випикипипедипијапа"; Malay Ke-an Add the circumfix "ke-...-an" to every word rendering them all nouns or noun-like. Words with affixes are stripped to their root words first. Used for amusement rather than to encrypt, as results are easily understood and some changes drastically affect meaning. "Kenapa kau selalu buat begitu? Kau tidak rasa malukah?" → "Kekenapaan kekauan keselaluan kebuatan kebegituan? Kekauan ketidakan kerasaan kemaluan?" ("malu": shame; "kemaluan": private parts) Malay "Half lang" The last syllable, excluding its first consonant, is dropped from a 2- or 3-syllable word; similarly, the last two are dropped from a 4- or 5-syllable word. Variation: Add an 's' to each "halved" word as well. "susu besar" → "sus bes"; "gunung tinggi" → "gun ting"; "Kenapa kau selalu buat begitu?" → "Kenaps kau selals buat begits?" Mandarin Fanqie Norwegian Røverspråk Take the first letter of each word, put it at the end of the word, then ad "al" at the very end of the new word. No: "Slik snakker man røverspråk på norsk." → Liksal nakkersal anmal øverspråkral åpal orsknal. En: "This is how you speak røverspråk in Norwegian." → Histhal sial owhal ouyal peaksal øverspråkral nial orwegiannal. Persian Zargari Insert the sound [z] somewhere into every syllable. In monosyllabic words, the [zV] is inserted between the initial and final phonemes; e.g., mazan < man 'I'; azaz < az 'from, of'; tozo < to 'thou' (singular 'you'), etc. Portuguese Sima Portuguese Língua do Pê After each silable of every word in a phrase add "p" plus the preceding vowel (and a few consonants - like m, n, r, s...) "Olá, tudo bem com você?" would rather be: "Opôlapa, tupudopô bempem compom vopocêpe?" Portuguese Língua do "i" Each vowel is changed for an "i". "Olá, tudo bem?" would rather be: "Ili, tidi bim?" Romance languages Macaronic Latin Romance vocabulary is given Latinate endings. "de Don Quijote de la Mancha" becomes "Domini Quijoti Manchegui" Romanian păsărească (birds' language) After each syllable, add 'p' and repeat last vowel "maşină" becomes "mapaşipinăpă" Russian Fufajskij yazyk Insert "pe" before each syllable. Russian Porosyachia Latin Serbian Šatrovački Various styles of reordering syllables "zdravo" becomes "vozdra" Serbian Utrovački Words are formed using: U + last part + ZA + first part + NJE "zdravo" becomes uvozazdranje Serbian Pig Latin "us", "um" or other common Latin endings appended to Serbian words; extremely uncommon Serbian Pig-Italian "are" is appended to words or their roots "krava pase travu" becomes "kravare pasare travare" Slovene papajščina After each vowel insert P followed by the same vowel; popular among young children "zdravo" becomes "zdrapavopo". Identical to Spanish jeringonza described below. Somali Af Jinni (Pig Latin) Add a consonant of your choice followed by the preceding vowel after each vowel in the word. Example: Ahlan (meaning Hallo) has two syllables, so when used with B, it will be abahlaban (aBAh-laBAn). En: enjoying → eBEnjoBOyiBIng, eben-jobo-yibing. Spanish Idioma F Each vowel is reduplicated with a separating 'F'. A variant of Jeringonza Spanish Mexico City slang Substitute a word for another that begins the same Unas caguamas bien heladas → unas Kawasakis bien elásticas Spanish Add a certain syllable before every original syllable. "Perro" → "Tipetirro" Spanish Jeringonza Each vowel is reduplicated with a separating 'p'. "No sabe nada" → "Nopo sapabepe napadapa" Spanish Rosarigasino (a.k.a. Gasó) Add gas after stressed vowel and repeat stressed vowel. "Don Quijote de la Mancha" → "Don Quijogasote de la Magasancha" Spanish Vesre Syllable order is inverted. "Muchacho" → "Chochamu"Used in Argentina, Uruguay, and Peru Swedish Allspråket The first consonant in each word ends with 'all'. Sv: "Hur är läget?" → Hallur ärall lalläget? En: "How are you doing?" → Hallow aralle yallou dalloing? Swedish Fikonspråket Each word is split in two halves (or each syllable). The parts are then put in reverse order to form a new word (sometimes written as two words) started with "fi" and ended with "kon" ("Fikon" is Swedish for fig). Sv: "Hur är läget?" → Fir hukon fir äkon figet läkon? En: "How are you doing?" → Fiw hokon fir(e) akon fio(u) ykon fiing dokon? Swedish I-sprikit All vowels are changed to 'i'. "Can I go to the mall?" → "Cin I gi ti thi mill?" Swedish "P-language" All vowels are doubled, and a 'p' inserted between the doubled vowels. Example: Rövarspråket → Röpövaparspråpåkepet Swedish Rövarspråket Consonants are changed to '<consonant> o <consonant>'. The 'o' is pronounced as in "hot". Sv: "Hur är läget?" → Hohuror äror lolägogetot? En: "How are you doing?" → Hohowow arore yoyou dodoinongog? Turkish Kuş Dili (birds' language) After each syllable, add 'ga', 'ge', 'gi', 'go' or 'gu' "Ben okula gidiyorum" (I am going to the school) becomes "Begen ogokugulaga gigidigiyogorugum" Urdu (Pakistan) Fay ki Boli Insert "fay"(Urdu language Alphabet corresponding to the sound of 'F' in English) after each syllable in each word. Spoken and understood widely in Karachi(Pakistan) and Native Urdu Speakers Vietnamese Choose a vowel. Suffix each word with the initial consonant, if any, and then the vowel. Using 'a', 'co bic' → 'coca bicba'. En: "How are you doing?" → Howha arera youya doingda? See also Word game Word play Cant (language) References External links Language Games A long summary on language games, including descriptions of many games, and an extensive bibliography. Free language games software Language Games - Part 2 A follow-up summary with additional descriptions and bibliography. Nevbosh – a language game used by J. R. R. 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2,390 | Jerome_Kern | Jerome David Kern (January 27, 1885 – November 11, 1945) was an American composer of popular music. He wrote around 700 songs, including such classics as "Ol' Man River", "Can't Help Lovin' Dat Man", "A Fine Romance", "Smoke Gets in Your Eyes", "All the Things You Are", "The Way You Look Tonight", and "Who?", a 6-week number 1 hit for George Olsen & his Orchestra in 1925. His career spanned dozens of Broadway musicals and Hollywood films from 1902 until his death. Although Kern wrote almost exclusively for musical theatre and musical film, the harmonic richness of his compositions lends them well to the jazz idiom (which typically emphasizes improvisation based on a harmonic structure) and many Kern melodies have been adopted by jazz musicians to become standard tunes. Early life and career Jerome Kern was born in New York City to Fanny and Henry Kern, both German Jews. They named him Jerome because they lived near Jerome Park, a favorite place of theirs. (Jerome Park was named after Leonard Jerome, who was the father of Jennie Jerome, mother of British Prime Minister Winston Churchill.) Kern grew up on East 56th Street in Midtown Manhattan, where he attended public schools. Fanny Kern encouraged her son to take piano lessons. Henry Kern was a merchandiser and sold pianos among other items. Although Henry wanted his son to go into business with him, Jerome insisted on staying with music. Kern studied at the New York College of Music and then briefly in 1904, in Heidelberg, Germany. From 1905 on, Kern spent large blocks of time in London, contributing songs to numerous London shows and marrying Eva Leale in Walton-on-Thames in 1910. In New York, he started working as a rehearsal pianist, initially contributing numbers for interpolation into other composers' scores. On May 1, 1915, Kern was supposed to accompany Charles Frohman to London on board the RMS Lusitania, but overslept after being kept up late playing requests at a party. Frohman died in the sinking of the ship. At the end of 1915, Kern was contracted by producer George Kleine to supply the music for an early movie serial, Gloria's Romance from 1916. (One of the first starring vehicles for Billie Burke, this 16-part serial is now considered a lost film.) In the style of silent film music, he supplied a series of themes for basic characters and turns of plot. Kern's biggest hit of his early career was the song "They Didn't Believe Me" (lyric by Herbert Reynolds) that was interpolated into the 1914 production The Girl from Utah. Kenrick, John. "Jerome Kern: 'They Didn't Believe Me'", History of The Musical Stage, 1910-1919: Part I, The Cyber Encyclopedia of Musical Theatre, TV and Film (2008) "The Girl from Utah", American Theater Guide, The Oxford Companion to American Theatre. Oxford University Press (2004) The Princess Theatre musicals Kern composed sixteen Broadway scores between 1915 and 1920, with the most notable being the shows he wrote for the Princess Theatre, a small (299-seat) house built by Ray Comstock. Comstock and agent Elizabeth Marbury joined forces to produce intimate, small-cast, low-budget musicals and hired Kern and librettist Guy Bolton. These shows were unique on Broadway not only for their small size, but their coherent plots, integrated scores and naturalistic acting. After a modest success adapting a London operetta (Nobody Home in 1915), the team created an original piece, Very Good Eddie. British lyricist-librettist P.G. Wodehouse joined the Princess team in 1917, adding his impeccable humor to the succeeding shows: Oh, Boy! (1917), Leave It To Jane (1917), Oh, Lady! Lady! (1918), Vocal score for Oh, Lady! Lady! and Oh, My Dear! (1918), the last of which had music by Louis Hirsch. The 1920s The 1920s were an extremely productive period in American Musical Theatre and Kern created at least one show per year for the entire decade. In 1920, Kern wrote the entire score for the musical Sally, with book and lyrics by Otto Harbach. This popular show introduced song "Look for the Silver Lining", performed by the rising Broadway star Marilyn Miller. 1925 was a major turning point in Kern's career when he met Oscar Hammerstein II with whom he would entertain a lifelong friendship and collaboration. Their first show (written together with Harbach) was Sunny, which featured the song "Who (Stole My Heart Away)?". The by-now renowned Marilyn Miller played the title role in Sunny, as she had in Sally. In 1927, Kern and Hammerstein wrote Show Boat, which musical theatre historian Miles Kreuger has hailed as, "the greatest single step forward in American musical theatre, enabling composers, lyricists and librettists to introduce more mature subject matter into their shows." Based on the book of the same name by Edna Ferber, the sprawling work featured an unusually serious plot highlighting racism and miscegenation. The score is, arguably, Kern's greatest and includes the well-known songs "Ol' Man River" and "Can't Help Lovin' Dat Man" as well as "Make Believe", "You Are Love", "Life Upon the Wicked Stage", "Why Do I Love You", and "Bill". Although Ferber's novel was filmed unsuccessfully as a part-talkie in 1929 (using few songs from the Kern score), the musical itself was filmed twice, in 1936, and, with Technicolor, in 1951. Both the 1936 and 1951 films were box-office successes ; the 1936 film was especially acclaimed by critics. While most Kern musicals have largely been forgotten except for their songs, Show Boat remains well-remembered and frequently seen. It is a staple of stock productions and has been revived numerous times on Broadway and in London. A 1946 revival integrated choreography into the show, in the manner of Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II, as did the 1993 Harold Prince revival. Several of the songs from Show Boat were arranged by Charles Miller into the orchestral work Scenario for Orchestra: Themes from Show Boat in 1941 and premiered by the Cleveland Orchestra conducted by Artur Rodziński, a unique honor for a Broadway. Kern as book collector In January 1929, at the height of the Jazz Age and with Show Boat still playing on Broadway, Kern sold at auction at New York's Anderson Galleries the splendid collection of English and American literature he had been forming for more than a decade. The collection, rich in inscribed first editions and manuscript material of eighteenth and nineteenth century authors, sold for a total of $1,729,462.50 -- a record for a single - owner sale which stood for over fifty years. Kern in Hollywood In 1930, Kern was placed under contract by Warner Brothers to produce a series of musicals. The first product of that contract was Men of the Sky which was released in 1931 but largely ignored due to public backlash against the early glut of film musicals that greeted the advent of film sound. Consequently, Warner Bros. bought out his contract and he returned to the stage. In 1935, when musical films had become popular once again, Kern relocated to Hollywood, although he continued working on Broadway productions as well. This second phase of Kern's Hollywood career was greeted with considerably greater artistic and commercial success. For Swing Time (starring Ginger Rogers and Fred Astaire), he wrote "The Way You Look Tonight" (with lyrics by Dorothy Fields), which won the Academy Award in 1936 for the best song. Other songs in the film include "A Fine Romance", "Pick Yourself Up", and "Never Gonna Dance". In 1941, Kern and Hammerstein wrote "The Last Time I Saw Paris", in homage to the French city just recently occupied by the Germans. The song was used in the film Lady Be Good and won another Oscar for Best Song - the only time a song not written for the film it appears in won the Oscar. In 1944, Kern teamed up with Ira Gershwin to write the songs for one of his best-remembered film musicals, Cover Girl, starring Rita Hayworth and Gene Kelly. It featured the classic song "Long Ago and Far Away", and an unusual instrumental musical number in which Kelly, through trick photography, danced with himself. That same year Kern also wrote the music for songs in Universal Pictures' Deanna Durbin musical comedy, Can't Help Singing. Later Broadway work Kern and Otto Harbach's The Cat and the Fiddle (1931), about a composer and an opera singer, featured the songs "She Didn't Say Yes" and "The Night Was Made for Love". Eddie Foy, Jr. played a role in it. Music in the Air (1932) was another Kern-Hammerstein collaboration that is best remembered today for the song "The Song Is You". Another tune from the show, "In Egern on the Tegern See", is parodied by the song "In Izzenschnooken on the Lovely Essenzook Zee" in Rick Besoyan's satirical 1959 musical Little Mary Sunshine. Roberta (1933) by Kern and Otto Harbach included the songs "Smoke Gets in Your Eyes" and "Yesterdays" and featured, among others, Bob Hope, Fred MacMurray, George Murphy and Sydney Greenstreet all in the early stages of their careers. The 1935 film adaptation of the show was another Astaire/Rogers vehicle that jettisoned much of the Broadway score but added "Lovely to Look At" and "I Won't Dance". A 1952 Technicolor remake, entitled "Lovely to Look At", included more of the score, including the two added numbers written for the 1935 film version, but was not as successful as the earlier one. Roberta is the only one of Kern's shows to have been adapted twice for television, both times especially as a vehicle for Bob Hope. Kern's last Broadway show was the rather unsuccessful Very Warm for May (1939), although the score included another Kern/Hammerstein classic, "All The Things You Are". In 1985, the centenary of his birth, a rediscovered recording of a radio production featuring the original cast received a Grammy Nomination as Best Cast Show Album. "All the Things You Are" has been recorded countless times as a jazz standard, including a flamboyant 1949 version by high-note trumpeter Maynard Ferguson that enraged Kern's widow and was withdrawn from sale. Kern suffered a heart attack in 1939 and was told by his doctors to concentrate on film scores - a less stressful task since Hollywood songwriters were not as deeply involved with the production of films as Broadway songwriters were with the production of stage musicals. Tragedies and death In the Fall of 1945, Kern returned to New York City to oversee auditions for a new revival of Show Boat, and begin work on the score for what would become the musical Annie Get Your Gun. On November 5, 1945, Jerome Kern suffered a cerebral hemorrhage while walking at the south west corner of Park Avenue and 57th street, apparently in search of a drugstore for the pills he depended on, but had forgotten to bring with him. Identifiable only by his ASCAP card, Kern was initially taken to the indigent ward at City Hospital, later being transferred to Doctors Hospital in Manhattan. Collaborator Oscar Hammerstein II was at his side when Kern's breathing stopped. Hammerstein hummed or sung the song "I've Told Ev'ry Little Star" (a personal favorite of the composer's) into Kern's ear. Receiving no response, Hammerstein knew Kern had died.</blockquote> Hugh Fordin, "Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II", page 237 Kern is interred at Ferncliff Cemetery in Westchester County, New York. Kern was survived by his wife Eva and a daughter, Betty. At the time of Kern's death, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer was filming a fictionalized version of his life, Till the Clouds Roll By, which was released in 1946 starring Robert Walker as Kern. The task of writing the score for Annie Get Your Gun was given to veteran Broadway composer Irving Berlin, who proceeded to create an American masterpiece. Academy Award Nominations and Wins Jerome Kern was nominated 8 times for an Academy Award, and won twice: he was nominated 7 times for Best Original Song; these included a posthumous nomination in each of 1945 and 1946 he was posthumously nominated in 1945 for Best Original Music Score. Best Original Song 1935 - Nominated for "Lovely to Look at" (lyrics by Dorothy Fields and Jimmy McHugh) from Roberta 1936 - Won for "The Way You Look Tonight" (lyrics by Dorothy Fields) from Swing Time 1941 - Won for "The Last Time I Saw Paris" (lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II) from Lady Be Good 1942 - Nominated for "Dearly Beloved" (lyrics by Johnny Mercer) from You Were Never Lovelier. (The winner that year was Irving Berlin's White Christmas) 1944 - Nominated for "Long Ago and Far Away" (lyrics by Ira Gershwin) from Cover Girl 1945 - Posthumously nominated for "More and More" (lyrics by E Y Harburg) from Can't Help Singing 1946 - Posthumously nominated for "All Through the Day" (lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II) from Centennial Summer. Best Original Music Score 1945 - Posthumously nominated for Can't Help Singing (with H. J. Salter). Complete work for Broadway Note: All shows are musical comedies for which Kern was the sole composer unless otherwise specified. During his first phase of work for Broadway theater (1904-11), Kern wrote songs that were featured in revues or other collaborative musicals and occasionally co-wrote comic musicals with one or two other composers. In some cases, the show had opened in London, and Kern contributed additional music for songs interpolated into the New York production. During visits to London in 1905-10 he also composed songs that were first performed in London shows.Mr. Wix of Wickham (1904) - co-composer and co-lyricistThe Catch of the Season (1905) - contributing composerThe Earl and the Girl (1905) - featured songwriterThe Rich Mr. Hoggenheimer (1906) - featured songwriterThe Dairymaids (1907) - featured songwriterThe Girls of Gottenberg (1908) - featured songwriter for "I Can't Say That You're The Only One" Fluffy Ruffles (1908) - co-composer (for eight out of ten songs, including "Fluffly Ruffles")Kitty Grey (1909) - featured composer for "If The Girl Wants You (Never Mind the Color of Her Eyes)" and "Just Good Friends"King of Cadonia (1910) - co-composerLa Belle Paree (1911) - revue - co-composerZiegfeld Follies of 1911 (1911) - revue - featured composer for "I'm a Crazy Daffy-Dill (Daffydil)" Beginning in 1912, the more-experienced Kern began to work on dramatically-concerned shows, including music for plays, and for the first time in his young career, he wrote musicals as the sole composer. His regular lyricist collaborators during this period were Guy Bolton, P. G. Wodehouse, Harry B. Smith, Anne Caldwell, and Howard Dietz.The Girl from Montmartre (1912) - play - co-incidental music composerThe "Mind-the-Paint" Girl (1912) - play - incidental music composerThe Red Petticoat (1912) Oh, I Say! (1913)When Claudia Smiles (1914) - featured co-lyricist for "Ssh! You'll Waken Mr. Doyle"The Girl from Utah (1914) - Added five songs to the American production of this Paul Rubens musical, including the classic "They Didn't Believe Me"90 in the Shade (1915)Nobody Home (1915)Cousin Lucy (1915) - play - incidental music composerMiss Information (1915) - play - incidental music composerVery Good Eddie (1915) Revived in 1975Ziegfeld Follies of 1916 (1916) - revue - featured composer for "When the Lights Are Low", "My Lady of the Nile", and "Ain't It Funny What a Difference Just a Few Drinks Make?"Have a Heart (1917) Vocal score for Have a Heart Love o' Mike (1917)Oh, Boy! (1917)Ziegfeld Follies of 1917 (1917) - featured composer for "Because You Are Just You (Just Because You're You)"Leave It to Jane (1917) revived in 1958Oh, Lady! Lady! (1918) Toot-Toot! (1918)Rock-a-Bye Baby (1918)Head Over Heels (1918)She's a Good Fellow (1919)The Night Boat (1920)Hitchy-Koo of 1920 (1920) - revueSally (1920) Revived in 1923, 1948Good Morning Dearie (1921) Vocal score for Good Morning Dearie The Cabaret Girl (London 1922)The Bunch and Judy (1922)Stepping Stones (1923)Sitting Pretty (1924)Dear Sir (1924) During the last phase of his life, Jerome Kern continued to work with his previous collaborators but also met Oscar Hammerstein II and Otto Harbach, with whom Kern wrote his most lasting, memorable, and well-known works.Sunny (1925)The City Chap (1925) revised version of the UK The Cabaret GirlCriss Cross (1926)Lucky (1927) - co-composerShow Boat (1927) - (2 out of 19 songs were written by others; the music for the song Bill was by Kern, but the lyric was co-written by P.G. Wodehouse) Revived in 1932, 1946, 1954, 1961, 1966, 1976, 1983, 1994Sweet Adeline (1929)The Cat and the Fiddle (1931) - co-composer, co-lyricist, co-bookwriter, and outliner of orchestrations which were done by Robert Russell Bennett)Music in the Air (1932) - composer and co-director Revived in 1951Roberta (1933) Mamba's Daughters (1939) - play - featured songwriter Revived in 1940Very Warm for May (1939) In addition to revivals of his most popular shows, the music of Jerome Kern was posthumously featured in a variety of revues, musicals, and concerts on and off Broadway.Jerome Kern Goes to Hollywood (1986) - revue consisting solely of songs composed by Kern and with lyrics by twelve different writersBig Deal (1986) - dance revue - featured composer for "Pick Yourself Up"Something Wonderful (1995) - concert celebrating Oscar Hammerstein II's 100th birthday - featured composerPaul Robeson (1995) - one-man play - featured composer for "Ol' Man River"Dream (1997) - revue - featured composer for "You Were Never Lovelier", "I'm Old Fashioned", and "Dearly Beloved"Swing! (1999) - dance revue - featured songwriter for "I Won't Dance"Elaine Stritch at Liberty (2002) - one-woman show - featured songwriter for "All In Fun"Never Gonna Dance (2003) - musical consisting solely of songs composed by Kern and with lyrics by nine different writersJerome Kern: All The Things You Are'' (2008) - biography of Jerome Kern featuring songs composed by Kern Kern's songs References External links Jerome Kern's biography at the "Songwriters Hall of Fame". Jerome Kern at the Internet Broadway Database "Dorothy Fields on Kern" at the Dorothy Fields website; describes circumstances of the composer's sudden demise. | Jerome_Kern |@lemmatized jerome:17 david:1 kern:69 january:2 november:2 american:8 composer:21 popular:4 music:19 write:19 around:1 song:36 include:12 classic:4 ol:3 man:6 river:3 help:5 lovin:2 dat:2 fine:2 romance:3 smoke:2 get:5 eye:3 thing:4 way:3 look:7 tonight:3 week:1 number:4 hit:2 george:3 olsen:1 orchestra:3 career:7 span:1 dozen:1 broadway:17 musical:29 hollywood:6 film:21 death:3 although:5 almost:1 exclusively:1 theatre:8 harmonic:2 richness:1 composition:1 lend:1 well:6 jazz:4 idiom:1 typically:1 emphasize:1 improvisation:1 base:2 structure:1 many:1 melody:1 adopt:1 musician:1 become:3 standard:2 tune:2 early:6 life:4 bear:1 new:8 york:7 city:5 fanny:2 henry:3 german:2 jew:1 name:3 live:1 near:1 park:3 favorite:2 place:2 leonard:1 father:1 jennie:1 mother:1 british:2 prime:1 minister:1 winston:1 churchill:1 grow:1 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2,391 | Genetics | DNA, the molecular basis for inheritance. Each strand of DNA is a chain of nucleotides, matching each other in the center to form what look like rungs on a twisted ladder. Genetics (from Ancient Greek , “genitive” and that from , “origin” Genetikos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus Genesis, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus Online Etymology Dictionary ), a discipline of biology, is the science of heredity and variation in living organisms. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 1 (Genetics and the Organism): Introduction Hartl D, Jones E (2005) The fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. However, the modern science of genetics, which seeks to understand the process of inheritance, only began with the work of Gregor Mendel in the mid-nineteenth century. Although he did not know the physical basis for heredity, Mendel observed that organisms inherit traits via discrete units of inheritance, which are now called genes. Genes correspond to regions within DNA, a molecule composed of a chain of four different types of nucleotides—the sequence of these nucleotides is the genetic information organisms inherit. DNA naturally occurs in a double stranded form, with nucleotides on each strand complementary to each other. Each strand can act as a template for creating a new partner strand—this is the physical method for making copies of genes that can be inherited. The sequence of nucleotides in a gene is translated by cells to produce a chain of amino acids, creating proteins—the order of amino acids in a protein corresponds to the order of nucleotides in the gene. This relationship between nucleotide sequence and amino acid sequence is known as the genetic code. The amino acids in a protein determine how it folds into a three-dimensional shape; this structure is, in turn, responsible for the protein's function. Proteins carry out almost all the functions needed for cells to live. A change to the DNA in a gene can change a protein's amino acids, changing its shape and function: this can have a dramatic effect in the cell and on the organism as a whole. Although genetics plays a large role in the appearance and behavior of organisms, it is the combination of genetics with what an organism experiences that determines the ultimate outcome. For example, while genes play a role in determining a person's height, the nutrition and health that person experiences in childhood also have a large effect. History Morgan's observation of sex-linked inheritance of a mutation causing white eyes in Drosophila led him to the hypothesis that genes are located upon chromosomes. Although the science of genetics began with the applied and theoretical work of Gregor Mendel in the mid-1800s, other theories of inheritance preceded Mendel. A popular theory during Mendel's time was the concept of blending inheritance: the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents. Mendel's work disproved this, showing that traits are composed of combinations of distinct genes rather than a continuous blend. Another theory that had some support at that time was the inheritance of acquired characteristics: the belief that individuals inherit traits strengthened by their parents. This theory (commonly associated with Jean-Baptiste Lamarck) is now known to be wrong—the experiences of individuals do not affect the genes they pass to their children. Lamarck, J-B (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from Encyclopædia Britannica Online on 2008-03-16. Other theories included the pangenesis of Charles Darwin (which had both acquired and inherited aspects) and Francis Galton's reformulation of pangenesis as both particulate and inherited. Peter J. Bowler, The Mendelian Revolution: The Emergency of Hereditarian Concepts in Modern Science and Society (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989): chapters 2 & 3. Mendelian and classical genetics The modern science of genetics traces its roots to Gregor Johann Mendel, a German-Czech Augustinian monk and scientist who studied the nature of inheritance in plants. In his paper "Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden" ("Experiments on Plant Hybridization"), presented in 1865 to the Naturforschender Verein (Society for Research in Nature) in Brünn, Mendel traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and described them mathematically. (in English in 1901, J. R. Hortic. Soc. 26: 1–32) English translation available online Although this pattern of inheritance could only be observed for a few traits, Mendel's work suggested that heredity was particulate, not acquired, and that the inheritance patterns of many traits could be explained through simple rules and ratios. The importance of Mendel's work did not gain wide understanding until the 1890s, after his death, when other scientists working on similar problems re-discovered his research. William Bateson, a proponent of Mendel's work, coined the word genetics in 1905. genetics, n., Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. . Note that the letter was to an Adam Sedgwick, a zoologist at Trinity College, Cambridge, not "Alan", and not to be confused with the renown British geologist, Adam Sedgwick, who lived some time earlier. (The adjective genetic, derived from the Greek word genesis - γένεσις, "origin" and that from the word genno - γεννώ, "to give birth", predates the noun and was first used in a biological sense in 1860.) genetic, adj., Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. Bateson popularized the usage of the word genetics to describe the study of inheritance in his inaugural address to the Third International Conference on Plant Hybridization in London, England, in 1906. Initially titled the "International Conference on Hybridisation and Plant Breeding", Wilks changed the title for publication as a result of Bateson's speech. After the rediscovery of Mendel's work, scientists tried to determine which molecules in the cell were responsible for inheritance. In 1910, Thomas Hunt Morgan argued that genes are on chromosomes, based on observations of a sex-linked white eye mutation in fruit flies. In 1913, his student Alfred Sturtevant used the phenomenon of genetic linkage to show that genes are arranged linearly on the chromosome. PDF from Electronic Scholarly Publishing Molecular genetics James D. Watson (pictured) and Francis Crick determined the structure of DNA in 1953. Although genes were known to exist on chromosomes, chromosomes are composed of both protein and DNA—scientists did not know which of these is responsible for inheritance. In 1928, Frederick Griffith discovered the phenomenon of transformation (see Griffith's experiment): dead bacteria could transfer genetic material to "transform" other still-living bacteria. Sixteen years later, in 1944, Oswald Theodore Avery, Colin McLeod and Maclyn McCarty identified the molecule responsible for transformation as DNA. 35th anniversary reprint available The Hershey-Chase experiment in 1952 also showed that DNA (rather than protein) is the genetic material of the viruses that infect bacteria, providing further evidence that DNA is the molecule responsible for inheritance. James D. Watson and Francis Crick determined the structure of DNA in 1953, using the X-ray crystallography work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins that indicated DNA had a helical structure (i.e., shaped like a corkscrew). Their double-helix model had two strands of DNA with the nucleotides pointing inward, each matching a complementary nucleotide on the other strand to form what looks like rungs on a twisted ladder. This structure showed that genetic information exists in the sequence of nucleotides on each strand of DNA. The structure also suggested a simple method for duplication: if the strands are separated, new partner strands can be reconstructed for each based on the sequence of the old strand. Although the structure of DNA showed how inheritance works, it was still not known how DNA influences the behavior of cells. In the following years, scientists tried to understand how DNA controls the process of protein production. It was discovered that the cell uses DNA as a template to create matching messenger RNA (a molecule with nucleotides, very similar to DNA). The nucleotide sequence of a messenger RNA is used to create an amino acid sequence in protein; this translation between nucleotide and amino acid sequences is known as the genetic code. With this molecular understanding of inheritance, an explosion of research became possible. One important development was chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger: This technology allows scientists to read the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule. In 1983, Kary Banks Mullis developed the polymerase chain reaction, providing a quick way to isolate and amplify a specific section of a DNA from a mixture. Through the pooled efforts of the Human Genome Project and the parallel private effort by Celera Genomics, these and other techniques culminated in the sequencing of the human genome in 2003. Features of inheritance Discrete inheritance and Mendel's laws A Punnett square depicting a cross between two pea plants heterozygous for purple (B) and white (b) blossoms At its most fundamental level, inheritance in organisms occurs by means of discrete traits, called genes. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 2 (Patterns of Inheritance): Introduction This property was first observed by Gregor Mendel, who studied the segregation of heritable traits in pea plants. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 2 (Patterns of Inheritance): Mendel's experiments In his experiments studying the trait for flower color, Mendel observed that the flowers of each pea plant were either purple or white - and never an intermediate between the two colors. These different, discrete versions of the same gene are called alleles. In the case of pea, which is a diploid species, each individual plant has two alleles of each gene, one allele inherited from each parent. Many species, including humans, have this pattern of inheritance. Diploid organisms with two copies of the same allele of a given gene are called homozygous at that gene locus, while organisms with two different alleles of a given gene are called heterozygous. The set of alleles for a given organism is called its genotype, while the observable traits of the organism are called its phenotype. When organisms are heterozygous at a gene, often one allele is called dominant as its qualities dominate the phenotype of the organism, while the other allele is called recessive as its qualities recede and are not observed. Some alleles do not have complete dominance and instead have incomplete dominance by expressing an intermediate phenotype, or codominance by expressing both alleles at once. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 4 (Gene Interaction): Interactions between the alleles of one gene When a pair of organisms reproduce sexually, their offspring randomly inherit one of the two alleles from each parent. These observations of discrete inheritance and the segregation of alleles are collectively known as Mendel's first law or the Law of Segregation. Notation and diagrams Genetic pedigree charts help track the inheritance patterns of traits. Geneticists use diagrams and symbols to describe inheritance. A gene is represented by a letter (or letters)—the capitalized letter represents the dominant allele and the recessive is represented by lowercase. Often a "+" symbol is used to mark the usual, non-mutant allele for a gene. In fertilization and breeding experiments (and especially when discussing Mendel's laws) the parents are referred to as the "P" generation and the offspring as the "F1" (first filial) generation. When the F1 offspring mate with each other, the offspring are called the "F2" (second filial) generation. One of the common diagrams used to predict the result of cross-breeding is the Punnett square. When studying human genetic diseases, geneticists often use pedigree charts to represent the inheritance of traits. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 2 (Patterns of Inheritance): Human Genetics These charts map the inheritance of a trait in a family tree. Interactions of multiple genes Human height is a complex genetic trait. Francis Galton's data from 1889 shows the relationship between offspring height as a function of mean parent height. While correlated, remaining variation in offspring heights indicates environment is also an important factor in this trait. Organisms have thousands of genes, and in sexually reproducing organisms assortment of these genes are generally independent of each other. This means that the inheritance of an allele for yellow or green pea color is unrelated to the inheritance of alleles for white or purple flowers. This phenomenon, known as "Mendel's second law" or the "Law of independent assortment", means that the alleles of different genes get shuffled between parents to form offspring with many different combinations.(Some genes do not assort independently, demonstrating genetic linkage, a topic discussed later in this article.) Often different genes can interact in a way that influences the same trait. In the Blue-eyed Mary (Omphalodes verna), for example, there exists a gene with alleles that determine the color of flowers: blue or magenta. Another gene, however, controls whether the flowers have color at all: color or white. When a plant has two copies of this white allele, its flowers are white - regardless of whether the first gene has blue or magenta alleles. This interaction between genes is called epistasis, with the second gene epistatic to the first. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 4 (Gene Interaction): Gene interaction and modified dihybrid ratios Many traits are not discrete features (eg. purple or white flowers) but are instead continuous features (eg. human height and skin color). These complex traits are the product of many genes. The influence of these genes is mediated, to varying degrees, by the environment an organism has experienced. The degree to which an organism's genes contribute to a complex trait is called heritability. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 25 (Quantitative Genetics): Quantifying heritability Measurement of the heritability of a trait is relative - in a more variable environment, the environment has a bigger influence on the total variation of the trait. For example, human height is a complex trait with a heritability of 89% in the United States. In Nigeria, however, where people experience a more variable access to good nutrition and health care, height has a heritability of only 62%. Abstract from NCBI Molecular basis for inheritance DNA and chromosomes The molecular structure of DNA. Bases pair through the arrangement of hydrogen bonding between the strands. The molecular basis for genes is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is composed of a chain of nucleotides, of which there are four types: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). Genetic information exists in the sequence of these nucleotides, and genes exist as stretches of sequence along the DNA chain. Viruses are the only exception to this rule—sometimes viruses use the very similar molecule RNA instead of DNA as their genetic material. DNA normally exists as a double-stranded molecule, coiled into the shape of a double-helix. Each nucleotide in DNA preferentially pairs with its partner nucleotide on the opposite strand: A pairs with T, and C pairs with G. Thus, in its two-stranded form, each strand effectively contains all necessary information, redundant with its partner strand. This structure of DNA is the physical basis for inheritance: DNA replication duplicates the genetic information by splitting the strands and using each strand as a template for synthesis of a new partner strand. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 8 (The Structure and Replication of DNA): Mechanism of DNA Replication Genes are arranged linearly along long chains of DNA sequence, called chromosomes. In bacteria, each cell has a single circular chromosome, while eukaryotic organisms (which includes plants and animals) have their DNA arranged in multiple linear chromosomes. These DNA strands are often extremely long; the largest human chromosome, for example, is about 247 million base pairs in length. free full text available The DNA of a chromosome is associated with structural proteins that organize, compact, and control access to the DNA, forming a material called chromatin; in eukaryotes, chromatin is usually composed of nucleosomes, repeating units of DNA wound around a core of histone proteins. Alberts et al. (2002), II.4. DNA and chromosomes: Chromosomal DNA and Its Packaging in the Chromatin Fiber The full set of hereditary material in an organism (usually the combined DNA sequences of all chromosomes) is called the genome. While haploid organisms have only one copy of each chromosome, most animals and many plants are diploid, containing two of each chromosome and thus two copies of every gene. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 3 (Chromosomal Basis of Heredity): Mendelian genetics in eukaryotic life cycles The two alleles for a gene are located on identical loci of sister chromatids, each allele inherited from a different parent. Walther Flemming's 1882 diagram of eukaryotic cell division. Chromosomes are copied, condensed, and organized. Then, as the cell divides, chromosome copies separate into the daughter cells. An exception exists in the sex chromosomes, specialized chromosomes many animals have evolved that play a role in determining the sex of an organism. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 2 (Patterns of Inheritance): Sex chromosomes and sex-linked inheritance In humans and other mammals, the Y chromosome has very few genes and triggers the development of male sexual characteristics, while the X chromosome is similar to the other chromosomes and contains many genes unrelated to sex determination. Females have two copies of the X chromosome, but males have one Y and only one X chromosome - this difference in X chromosome copy numbers leads to the unusual inheritance patterns of sex-linked disorders. Reproduction When cells divide, their full genome is copied and each daughter cell inherits one copy. This process, called mitosis, is the simplest form of reproduction and is the basis for asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction can also occur in multicellular organisms, producing offspring that inherit their genome from a single parent. Offspring that are genetically identical to their parents are called clones. Eukaryotic organisms often use sexual reproduction to generate offspring that contain a mixture of genetic material inherited from two different parents. The process of sexual reproduction alternates between forms that contain single copies of the genome (haploid) and double copies (diploid). Haploid cells fuse and combine genetic material to create a diploid cell with paired chromosomes. Diploid organisms form haploids by dividing, without replicating their DNA, to create daughter cells that randomly inherit one of each pair of chromosomes. Most animals and many plants are diploid for most of their lifespan, with the haploid form reduced to single cell gametes. Although they do not use the haploid/diploid method of sexual reproduction, bacteria have many methods of acquiring new genetic information. Some bacteria can undergo conjugation, transferring a small circular piece of DNA to another bacterium. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 7 (Gene Transfer in Bacteria and Their Viruses): Bacterial conjugation Bacteria can also take up raw DNA fragments found in the environment and integrate them into their genome, a phenomenon known as transformation. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 7 (Gene Transfer in Bacteria and Their Viruses): Bacterial transformation These processes result in horizontal gene transfer, transmitting fragments of genetic information between organisms that would be otherwise unrelated. Recombination and linkage Thomas Hunt Morgan's 1916 illustration of a double crossover between chromosomes The diploid nature of chromosomes allows for genes on different chromosomes to assort independently during sexual reproduction, recombining to form new combinations of genes. Genes on the same chromosome would theoretically never recombine, however, were it not for the process of chromosomal crossover. During crossover, chromosomes exchange stretches of DNA, effectively shuffling the gene alleles between the chromosomes. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 5 (Basic Eukaryotic Chromosome Mapping): Nature of crossing-over This process of chromosomal crossover generally occurs during meiosis, a series of cell divisions that creates haploid cells. The probability of chromosomal crossover occurring between two given points on the chromosome is related to the distance between the points. For an arbitrarily long distance, the probability of crossover is high enough that the inheritance of the genes is effectively uncorrelated. For genes that are closer together, however, the lower probability of crossover means that the genes demonstrate genetic linkage - alleles for the two genes tend to be inherited together. The amounts of linkage between a series of genes can be combined to form a linear linkage map that roughly describes the arrangement of the genes along the chromosome. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 5 (Basic Eukaryotic Chromosome Mapping): Linkage maps Gene expression Genetic code The genetic code: DNA, through a messenger RNA intermediate, codes for protein with a triplet code. Genes generally express their functional effect through the production of proteins, which are complex molecules responsible for most functions in the cell. Proteins are chains of amino acids, and the DNA sequence of a gene (through RNA intermediate) is used to produce a specific protein sequence. This process begins with the production of an RNA molecule with a sequence matching the gene's DNA sequence, a process called transcription. This messenger RNA molecule is then used to produce a corresponding amino acid sequence through a process called translation. Each group of three nucleotides in the sequence, called a codon, corresponds to one of the twenty possible amino acids in protein - this correspondence is called the genetic code. I. 5. DNA, RNA, and the Flow of Genetic Information: Amino Acids Are Encoded by Groups of Three Bases Starting from a Fixed Point The flow of information is unidirectional: information is transferred from nucleotide sequences into the amino acid sequence of proteins, but it never transfers from protein back into the sequence of DNA—a phenomenon Francis Crick called the central dogma of molecular biology. Crick, F (1970): Central Dogma of Molecular Biology (PDF). Nature 227, 561–563. PMID 4913914 The dynamic structure of hemoglobin is responsible for its ability to transport oxygen within mammalian blood. A single amino acid change causes hemoglobin to form fibers. The specific sequence of amino acids results in a unique three-dimensional structure for that protein, and the three-dimensional structures of protein are related to their function. Alberts et al. (2002), I.3. Proteins: The Shape and Structure of Proteins Alberts et al. (2002), I.3. Proteins: Protein Function Some are simple structural molecules, like the fibers formed by the protein collagen. Proteins can bind to other proteins and simple molecules, sometimes acting as enzymes by facilitating chemical reactions within the bound molecules (without changing the structure of the protein itself). Protein structure is dynamic; the protein hemoglobin bends into slightly different forms as it facilitates the capture, transport, and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian blood. A single nucleotide difference within DNA can cause a single change in the amino acid sequence of a protein. Because protein structures are the result of their amino acid sequences, some changes can dramatically change the properties of a protein by destabilizing the structure or changing the surface of the protein in a way that changes its interaction with other proteins and molecules. For example, sickle-cell anemia is a human genetic disease that results from a single base difference within the coding region for the β-globin section of hemoglobin, causing a single amino acid change that changes hemoglobin's physical properties. Sickle-cell versions of hemoglobin stick to themselves, stacking to form fibers that distort the shape of red blood cells carrying the protein. These sickle-shaped cells no longer flow smoothly through blood vessels, having a tendency to clog or degrade, causing the medical problems associated with this disease. Some genes are transcribed into RNA but are not translated into protein products - these are called non-coding RNA molecules. In some cases, these products fold into structures which are involved in critical cell functions (eg. ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA). RNA can also have regulatory effect through hybridization interactions with other RNA molecules (eg. microRNA). Nature versus nurture Although genes contain all the information an organism uses to function, the environment plays an important role in determining the ultimate phenotype—a dichotomy often referred to as "nature vs. nurture." The phenotype of an organism depends on the interaction of genetics with the environment. One example of this is the case of temperature-sensitive mutations. Often, a single amino acid change within the sequence of a protein does not change its behavior and interactions with other molecules, but it does destabilize the structure. In a high temperature environment, where molecules are moving more quickly and hitting each other, this results in the protein losing its structure and failing to function. In a low temperature environment, however, the protein's structure is stable and functions normally. This type of mutation is visible in the coat coloration of Siamese cats, where a mutation in an enzyme responsible for pigment production causes it to destabilize and lose function at high temperatures. The protein remains functional in areas of skin that are colder—legs, ears, tail, and face—and so the cat has dark fur at its extremities. Environment also plays a dramatic role in effects of the human genetic disease phenylketonuria. The mutation that causes phenylketonuria disrupts the ability of the body to break down the amino acid phenylalanine, causing a toxic build-up of an intermediate molecule that, in turn, causes severe symptoms of progressive mental retardation and seizures. If someone with the phenylketonuria mutation follows a strict diet that avoids this amino acid, however, they remain normal and healthy. Gene regulation The genome of a given organism contains thousands of genes, but not all these genes need to be active at any given moment. A gene is expressed when it is being transcribed into mRNA (and translated into protein), and there exist many cellular methods of controlling the expression of genes such that proteins are produced only when needed by the cell. Transcription factors are regulatory proteins that bind to the start of genes, either promoting or inhibiting the transcription of the gene. Within the genome of Escherichia coli bacteria, for example, there exists a series of genes necessary for the synthesis of the amino acid tryptophan. However, when tryptophan is already available to the cell, these genes for tryptophan synthesis are no longer needed. The presence of tryptophan directly affects the activity of the genes—tryptophan molecules bind to the tryptophan repressor (a transcription factor), changing the repressor's structure such that the repressor binds to the genes. The tryptophan repressor blocks the transcription and expression of the genes, thereby creating negative feedback regulation of the tryptophan synthesis process. Alberts et al. (2002), II.3. Control of Gene Expression – The Tryptophan Repressor Is a Simple Switch That Turns Genes On and Off in Bacteria Transcription factors bind to DNA, influencing the transcription of associated genes. Differences in gene expression are especially clear within multicellular organisms, where cells all contain the same genome but have very different structures and behaviors due to the expression of different sets of genes. All the cells in a multicellular organism derive from a single cell, differentiating into variant cell types in response to external and intercellular signals and gradually establishing different patterns of gene expression to create different behaviors. As no single gene is responsible for the development of structures within multicellular organisms, these patterns arise from the complex interactions between many cells. Within eukaryotes there exist structural features of chromatin that influence the transcription of genes, often in the form of modifications to DNA and chromatin that are stably inherited by daughter cells. These features are called "epigenetic" because they exist "on top" of the DNA sequence and retain inheritance from one cell generation to the next. Because of epigenetic features, different cell types grown within the same medium can retain very different properties. Although epigenetic features are generally dynamic over the course of development, some, like the phenomenon of paramutation, have multigenerational inheritance and exist as rare exceptions to the general rule of DNA as the basis for inheritance. Genetic change Mutations Gene duplication allows diversification by providing redundancy: one gene can mutate and lose its original function without harming the organism. During the process of DNA replication, errors occasionally occur in the polymerization of the second strand. These errors, called mutations, can have an impact on the phenotype of an organism, especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene. Error rates are usually very low—1 error in every 10–100 million bases—due to the "proofreading" ability of DNA polymerases. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 16 (Mechanisms of Gene Mutation): Spontaneous mutations (Without proofreading error rates are a thousand-fold higher; because many viruses rely on DNA and RNA polymerases that lack proofreading ability, they experience higher mutation rates.) Processes that increase the rate of changes in DNA are called mutagenic: mutagenic chemicals promote errors in DNA replication, often by interfering with the structure of base-pairing, while UV radiation induces mutations by causing damage to the DNA structure. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 16 (Mechanisms of Gene Mutation): Induced mutations Chemical damage to DNA occurs naturally as well, and cells use DNA repair mechanisms to repair mismatches and breaks in DNA—nevertheless, the repair sometimes fails to return the DNA to its original sequence. In organisms that use chromosomal crossover to exchange DNA and recombine genes, errors in alignment during meiosis can also cause mutations. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 17 (Chromosome Mutation I: Changes in Chromosome Structure): Introduction Errors in crossover are especially likely when similar sequences cause partner chromosomes to adopt a mistaken alignment; this makes some regions in genomes more prone to mutating in this way. These errors create large structural changes in DNA sequence—duplications, inversions or deletions of entire regions, or the accidental exchanging of whole parts between different chromosomes (called translocation). Natural selection and evolution Mutations produce organisms with different genotypes, and those differences can result in different phenotypes. Many mutations have little effect on an organism's phenotype, health, and reproductive fitness. Mutations that do have an effect are often deleterious, but occasionally mutations are beneficial. Studies in the fly Drosophila melanogaster suggest that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, this will probably be harmful, with about 70 percent of these mutations having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial. An evolutionary tree of eukaryotic organisms, constructed by comparison of several orthologous gene sequences Population genetics research studies the distributions of these genetic differences within populations and how the distributions change over time. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 24 (Population Genetics): Variation and its modulation Changes in the frequency of an allele in a population can be influenced by natural selection, where a given allele's higher rate of survival and reproduction causes it to become more frequent in the population over time. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 24 (Population Genetics): Selection Genetic drift can also occur, where chance events lead to random changes in allele frequency. Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 24 (Population Genetics): Random events Over many generations, the genomes of organisms can change, resulting in the phenomenon of evolution. Mutations and the selection for beneficial mutations can cause a species to evolve into forms that better survive their environment, a process called adaptation. . Related earlier ideas were acknowledged in New species are formed through the process of speciation, a process often caused by geographical separations that allow different populations to genetically diverge. The application of genetic principles to the study of population biology and evolution is referred to as the modern synthesis. As sequences diverge and change during the process of evolution, these differences between sequences can be used as a molecular clock to calculate the evolutionary distance between them. Genetic comparisons are generally considered the most accurate method of characterizing the relatedness between species, an improvement over the sometimes deceptive comparison of phenotypic characteristics. The evolutionary distances between species can be combined to form evolutionary trees - these trees represent the common descent and divergence of species over time, although they cannot represent the transfer of genetic material between unrelated species (known as horizontal gene transfer and most common in bacteria). Research and technology Model organisms and genetics The common fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) is a popular model organism in genetics research. Although geneticists originally studied inheritance in a wide range of organisms, researchers began to specialize in studying the genetics of a particular subset of organisms. The fact that significant research already existed for a given organism would encourage new researchers to choose it for further study, and so eventually a few model organisms became the basis for most genetics research. Common research topics in model organism genetics include the study of gene regulation and the involvement of genes in development and cancer. Organisms were chosen, in part, for convenience—short generation times and easy genetic manipulation made some organisms popular genetics research tools. Widely used model organisms include the gut bacterium Escherichia coli, the plant Arabidopsis thaliana, baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, the common fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster), and the common house mouse (Mus musculus). Medical genetics research Medical genetics seeks to understand how genetic variation relates to human health and disease. When searching for an unknown gene that may be involved in a disease, researchers commonly use genetic linkage and genetic pedigree charts to find the location on the genome associated with the disease. At the population level, researchers take advantage of Mendelian randomization to look for locations in the genome that are associated with diseases, a technique especially useful for multigenic traits not clearly defined by a single gene. Once a candidate gene is found, further research is often done on the same gene (called an orthologous gene) in model organisms. In addition to studying genetic diseases, the increased availability of genotyping techniques has led to the field of pharmacogenetics—studying how genotype can affect drug responses. Although it is not an inherited disease, cancer is also considered a genetic disease. Chapter 18: Cancer Genetics The process of cancer development in the body is a combination of events. Mutations occasionally occur within cells in the body as they divide. While these mutations will not be inherited by any offspring, they can affect the behavior of cells, sometimes causing them to grow and divide more frequently. There are biological mechanisms that attempt to stop this process; signals are given to inappropriately dividing cells that should trigger cell death, but sometimes additional mutations occur that cause cells to ignore these messages. An internal process of natural selection occurs within the body and eventually mutations accumulate within cells to promote their own growth, creating a cancerous tumor that grows and invades various tissues of the body. Research techniques DNA can be manipulated in the laboratory. Restriction enzymes are a commonly used enzyme that cuts DNA at specific sequences, producing predictable fragments of DNA. Lodish et al. (2000), Chapter 7: 7.1. DNA Cloning with Plasmid Vectors DNA fragments can be visualized through use of gel electrophoresis, which separates fragments according to their length. The use of ligation enzymes allows DNA fragments to be reconnected, and by ligating fragments of DNA together from different sources, researchers can create recombinant DNA. Often associated with genetically modified organisms, recombinant DNA is commonly used in the context of plasmids - short circular DNA fragments with a few genes on them. By inserting plasmids into bacteria and growing those bacteria on plates of agar (to isolate clones of bacteria cells), researchers can clonally amplify the inserted fragment of DNA (a process known as molecular cloning). (Cloning can also refer to the creation of clonal organisms, through various techniques.) E coli colonies on a plate of agar, an example of cellular cloning and often used in molecular cloning. DNA can also be amplified using a procedure called the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Lodish et al. (2000), Chapter 7: 7.7. Polymerase Chain Reaction: An Alternative to Cloning By using specific short sequences of DNA, PCR can isolate and exponentially amplify a targeted region of DNA. Because it can amplify from extremely small amounts of DNA, PCR is also often used to detect the presence of specific DNA sequences. DNA sequencing and genomics One of the most fundamental technologies developed to study genetics, DNA sequencing allows researchers to determine the sequence of nucleotides in DNA fragments. Developed in 1977 by Frederick Sanger and coworkers, chain-termination sequencing is now routinely used to sequence DNA fragments. Section 2, Chapter 6: 6.1. The Methodology for DNA Sequencing With this technology, researchers have been able to study the molecular sequences associated with many human diseases. As sequencing has become less expensive, researchers have sequenced the genomes of many organisms, using computational tools to stitch together the sequences of many different fragments (a process called genome assembly). Brown (2002), Section 2, Chapter 6: 6.2. Assembly of a Contiguous DNA Sequence These technologies were used to sequence the human genome, leading to the completion of the Human Genome Project in 2003. New high-throughput sequencing technologies are dramatically lowering the cost of DNA sequencing, with many researchers hoping to bring the cost of resequencing a human genome down to a thousand dollars. The large amount of sequence data available has created the field of genomics, research that uses computational tools to search for and analyze patterns in the full genomes of organisms. Genomics can also be considered a subfield of bioinformatics, which uses computational approaches to analyze large sets of biological data. Notes References External links | Genetics |@lemmatized dna:92 molecular:12 basis:9 inheritance:41 strand:21 chain:12 nucleotide:22 match:3 center:1 form:20 look:3 like:5 rung:2 twisted:2 ladder:2 genetics:30 ancient:1 greek:4 genitive:1 origin:2 genetikos:1 henry:2 george:2 liddell:2 robert:2 scott:2 english:6 lexicon:2 perseus:2 genesis:2 online:3 etymology:1 dictionary:3 discipline:1 biology:4 science:5 heredity:4 variation:5 living:2 organism:50 griffith:21 et:26 al:26 chapter:26 introduction:3 hartl:1 jones:1 e:3 fact:2 live:3 thing:1 inherit:18 trait:25 parent:12 use:35 since:1 prehistoric:1 time:8 improve:1 crop:1 plant:15 animal:5 selective:1 breeding:4 however:8 modern:4 seek:2 understand:3 process:22 begin:4 work:10 gregor:4 mendel:19 mid:2 nineteenth:1 century:1 although:12 know:12 physical:4 observe:5 organisms:5 via:1 discrete:6 unit:2 call:31 gene:103 correspond:3 region:5 within:17 molecule:22 compose:5 four:2 different:22 type:5 sequence:49 genetic:39 information:11 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2,392 | Hammerhead_shark | The hammerhead sharks are a group of sharks in the family Sphyrnidae, so named for the unusual and distinctive structure of their heads, which are flattened and laterally extended into a "hammer" shape called a "cephalofoil". Most hammerhead species are placed in the genus Sphyrna; some authorities place the winghead shark in its own genus, Eusphyra. Many, not necessarily mutually exclusive, functions have been proposed for the cephalofoil, including sensory reception, maneuvering, and prey manipulation. Hammerheads are found worldwide in warmer waters along coastlines and continental shelves. Physical description The nine known species of hammerhead range from 0.9 to 6 m long (3 to 20 feet). All the species have a projection on each side of the head that gives it a resemblance to a flattened hammer. The shark's eyes and nostrils are at the tips of the extensions. The hammer shape of the head was thought to help sharks find food, aiding in close-quarters maneuverability and allowing the shark to turn sharply without losing stability. However, it was found that the unusual structure of its vertebrae allowed it to make the turns correctly, more than its head. But as the hammer would also shift and provide lift; hammerheads are one of the most negatively buoyant of sharks. Like all sharks, hammerheads have electroreceptory sensory pores called ampullae of Lorenzini. By distributing the receptors over a wider area, hammerheads can sweep for prey more effectively. These sharks have been able to detect an electrical signal of half a billionth of a volt. The hammer-shaped head also gives these sharks larger nasal tracts, increasing the chance of finding a particle in the water by at least 10 times as against the ability of other 'classical' sharks. Wider spacing between sensory organs better enables an organism to detect gradients and therefore the location of a gradient source such as food or a mate. The peculiar head of this shark can be thought of as analogous to the antennae of an insect. Hammerheads have disproportionately small mouths and seem to do a lot of bottom-hunting. They are also known to form schools during the day, sometimes in groups of over 100. In the evening, like other sharks, they become solitary hunters. Hammerheads are notably one of the few creatures in the animal kingdom to acquire a tan from prolonged exposure to sunlight, a feature shared by pigs and humans. Tanning occurs when a hammerhead is in shallow waters or close to the surface for long periods. Taxonomy and evolution Since sharks do not have mineralized bones and rarely fossilize, it is their teeth alone that are commonly found as fossils. The hammerheads seem closely related to the carcharhinid sharks that evolved during the mid-Tertiary Period. Because the teeth of hammerheads resemble those of some carcharhinids, it has been difficult to determine when hammerheads first appeared. It is probable that the hammerheads evolved during the late Eocene, Oligocene or early Miocene. Geneticist Andrew Martin used mitochondrial DNA to study all of the hammerhead species and he concluded that the first hammer appeared on the winghead shark, which has the largest hammer, and the rest of the hammerhead sharks evolved one at a time from the original winghead shark each with a smaller hammer. Reproduction Reproduction in the hammerhead shark occurs once a year with each litter containing 30 to 50 pups. Hammerhead shark mating courtship is a violent affair. The male will bite the female until she acquiesces, allowing mating to occur. The hammerhead shark has internal fertilization which creates a safe environment for the sperm to unite with the egg. The embryo develops within the female inside a placenta and is fed through an umbilical cord, their viviparity making them similar to mammals. The gestation period is 10 to 12 months. Once the pups are born the parents do not stay with them and they are left to fend for themselves. Young hammerheads are often born headfirst, with the tip of their hammerhead folded backward to make them more streamlined for birth. A world-record 1,280 pound (580 kg) pregnant female was caught off Boca Grande, Florida on May 23, 2006. The shark was carrying 55 pups, which suggests scientists had previously underestimated the number of pups per gestation. In late 2007 scientists discovered that hammerhead sharks can reproduce asexually through a rare method known as parthenogenesis (a direct development without the need of a sperm, similar to how social insects can reproduce). At first the announcement was considered skeptically, because a female shark can store sperm inside her for months, even years, but it was confirmed through DNA testing that the pup lacked any paternal DNA. This is the first documented case of any shark doing this. Species School of scalloped hammerheads, Wolf Island, Galapagos Islands Genus Sphyrna Subgenus Sphyrna Scalloped hammerhead, Sphyrna (Sphyrna) lewini (Griffith & Smith, 1834) "Cryptic scalloped hammerhead" - Scalloped hammerheads are two separate species, which have not yet been officially reclassified with separate names. Great hammerhead, Sphyrna (Sphyrna) mokarran (Rüppell, 1837) Smooth hammerhead, Sphyrna (Sphyrna) zygaena (Linnaeus, 1758) Whitefin hammerhead, Sphyrna (Sphyrna) couardi Cadenat, 1951 Subgenus Mesozygaena Scalloped bonnethead, Sphyrna (Mesozygaena) corona Springer, 1940 Winghead shark Sphyrna (Mesozygaena) sp. listed on elasmo-research's list Subgenus Platysqualus Scoophead, Sphyrna (Platysqualus) media Springer, 1940 Bonnethead or shovelhead, Sphyrna (Platysqualus) tiburo (Linnaeus, 1758) Smalleye hammerhead, Sphyrna (Platysqualus) tudes (Valenciennes, 1822) Announcements in June, 2006 reported the discovery of a possible new species of hammerhead off the shores of South Carolina. The possible new species is referred to simply as a cryptic species until it receives an official designation. This is prolonged, in part, because the discovery is really that the "scalloped hammerhead" is possibly two different species, not that a new species has been sighted, in the normal way. The discovery that scalloped hammerheads are possibly two species is purely a result of genetic testing, not identification of physical differences. Relationship to humans A hammerhead shark at Atlantis Paradise Island. Of the nine known species of hammerhead, three can be dangerous to humans: the scalloped, great, and smooth hammerheads. The great and the scalloped hammerhead are listed on the World Conservation Union's (IUCN) 2008 Red List as endangered, whereas the smalleye hammerhead is listed as vulnerable. The status given to these sharks is as a result of over-fishing and demand for their fins, an expensive delicacy. Among others, scientists expressed their concern about the plight of the scalloped hammerhead at the American Association for the Advancement of Science annual meeting in Boston. The young swim mostly in shallow waters along shores all over the world to avoid predators. See also List of prehistoric cartilaginous fish References External links Video of divers with hammerhead sharks in the Red Sea Animal Diversity Web Genus Sphyrna with species sub-pages Hammerhead Shark! web directory, with pictures Hammerhead Shark Facts fact sheet, general info, shark diving info Scaloped Hammerhead Shark Fact Sheet Scalloped Hammerhead Shark Fact Sheet Hammerhead Photos and Profile "Electroreception in juvenile scalloped hammerhead and sandbar sharks" by Stephen M. Kajiura and Kim N. Holland, The Journal of Experimental Biology (2002). Attempts to explain the "hammer" shape. MarineBio: Great hammerhead shark, Sphyrna mokarran BBC News announcement of new Hammerhead species | Hammerhead_shark |@lemmatized hammerhead:48 shark:36 group:2 family:1 sphyrnidae:1 name:2 unusual:2 distinctive:1 structure:2 head:6 flatten:2 laterally:1 extend:1 hammer:9 shape:4 call:2 cephalofoil:2 specie:14 place:2 genus:4 sphyrna:18 authority:1 winghead:4 eusphyra:1 many:1 necessarily:1 mutually:1 exclusive:1 function:1 propose:1 include:1 sensory:3 reception:1 maneuvering:1 prey:2 manipulation:1 find:5 worldwide:1 warmer:1 water:4 along:2 coastline:1 continental:1 shelf:1 physical:2 description:1 nine:2 know:4 range:1 long:2 foot:1 projection:1 side:1 give:3 resemblance:1 eye:1 nostril:1 tip:2 extension:1 think:2 help:1 food:2 aid:1 close:2 quarter:1 maneuverability:1 allow:3 turn:2 sharply:1 without:2 lose:1 stability:1 however:1 vertebra:1 make:3 correctly:1 would:1 also:4 shift:1 provide:1 lift:1 one:3 negatively:1 buoyant:1 like:2 electroreceptory:1 pore:1 ampulla:1 lorenzini:1 distribute:1 receptor:1 wide:1 area:1 sweep:1 effectively:1 able:1 detect:2 electrical:1 signal:1 half:1 billionth:1 volt:1 large:2 nasal:1 tract:1 increase:1 chance:1 particle:1 least:1 time:2 ability:1 classical:1 wider:1 space:1 organ:1 well:1 enable:1 organism:1 gradient:2 therefore:1 location:1 source:1 mate:1 peculiar:1 analogous:1 antenna:1 insect:2 disproportionately:1 small:2 mouth:1 seem:2 lot:1 bottom:1 hunting:1 form:1 school:2 day:1 sometimes:1 evening:1 become:1 solitary:1 hunter:1 notably:1 creature:1 animal:2 kingdom:1 acquire:1 tan:2 prolonged:1 exposure:1 sunlight:1 feature:1 share:1 pig:1 human:2 occurs:1 shallow:2 surface:1 period:3 taxonomy:1 evolution:1 since:1 mineralize:1 bone:1 rarely:1 fossilize:1 teeth:2 alone:1 commonly:1 fossil:1 closely:1 relate:1 carcharhinid:1 evolve:3 mid:1 tertiary:1 resemble:1 carcharhinids:1 difficult:1 determine:1 first:4 appear:2 probable:1 late:2 eocene:1 oligocene:1 early:1 miocene:1 geneticist:1 andrew:1 martin:1 use:1 mitochondrial:1 dna:3 study:1 conclude:1 rest:1 original:1 reproduction:2 occur:2 year:2 litter:1 contain:1 pup:5 mat:2 courtship:1 violent:1 affair:1 male:1 bite:1 female:4 acquiesce:1 internal:1 fertilization:1 create:1 safe:1 environment:1 sperm:3 unite:1 egg:1 embryo:1 develop:1 within:1 inside:2 placenta:1 feed:1 umbilical:1 cord:1 viviparity:1 similar:2 mammal:1 gestation:2 month:2 bear:2 parent:1 stay:1 leave:1 fend:1 young:2 often:1 headfirst:1 fold:1 backward:1 streamlined:1 birth:1 world:3 record:1 pound:1 kg:1 pregnant:1 catch:1 boca:1 grande:1 florida:1 may:1 carry:1 suggest:1 scientist:3 previously:1 underestimate:1 number:1 per:1 discover:1 reproduce:2 asexually:1 rare:1 method:1 parthenogenesis:1 direct:1 development:1 need:1 social:1 announcement:3 consider:1 skeptically:1 store:1 even:1 confirm:1 testing:2 lack:1 paternal:1 documented:1 case:1 species:1 scalloped:3 wolf:1 island:3 galapagos:1 subgenus:3 scallop:9 lewini:1 griffith:1 smith:1 cryptic:2 two:3 separate:2 yet:1 officially:1 reclassify:1 great:4 mokarran:2 rüppell:1 smooth:2 zygaena:1 linnaeus:2 whitefin:1 couardi:1 cadenat:1 mesozygaena:3 bonnethead:2 corona:1 springer:2 sp:1 list:6 elasmo:1 research:1 platysqualus:4 scoophead:1 medium:1 shovelhead:1 tiburo:1 smalleye:2 tudes:1 valenciennes:1 june:1 report:1 discovery:3 possible:2 new:4 shore:2 south:1 carolina:1 refer:1 simply:1 receive:1 official:1 designation:1 prolong:1 part:1 really:1 possibly:2 different:1 sight:1 normal:1 way:1 purely:1 result:2 genetic:1 identification:1 difference:1 relationship:1 humans:1 atlantis:1 paradise:1 three:1 dangerous:1 conservation:1 union:1 iucn:1 red:2 endanger:1 whereas:1 vulnerable:1 status:1 fishing:1 demand:1 fin:1 expensive:1 delicacy:1 among:1 others:1 express:1 concern:1 plight:1 american:1 association:1 advancement:1 science:1 annual:1 meeting:1 boston:1 swim:1 mostly:1 avoid:1 predator:1 see:1 prehistoric:1 cartilaginous:1 fish:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 video:1 diver:1 sea:1 diversity:1 web:2 sub:1 page:1 directory:1 picture:1 fact:4 sheet:3 general:1 info:2 dive:1 scaloped:1 photo:1 profile:1 electroreception:1 juvenile:1 sandbar:1 stephen:1 kajiura:1 kim:1 n:1 holland:1 journal:1 experimental:1 biology:1 attempt:1 explain:1 marinebio:1 bbc:1 news:1 |@bigram hammerhead_shark:13 mutually_exclusive:1 continental_shelf:1 prolonged_exposure:1 exposure_sunlight:1 closely_relate:1 eocene_oligocene:1 mitochondrial_dna:1 umbilical_cord:1 pound_kg:1 reproduce_asexually:1 galapagos_island:1 scallop_hammerhead:8 hammerhead_sphyrna:5 iucn_red:1 association_advancement:1 cartilaginous_fish:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 |
2,393 | Möbius_inversion_formula | In mathematics, the classic Möbius inversion formula was introduced into number theory during the 19th century by August Ferdinand Möbius. Other Möbius inversion formulas are obtained when different local finite partially ordered sets replace the classic case of the natural numbers ordered by divisibility; for an account of those, see incidence algebra. Definition The classic version states that if g(n) and f(n) are arithmetic functions satisfying then where μ is the Möbius function and the sums extend over all positive divisors d of n. In effect, the original f(n) can be determined given g(n) by using the inversion formula. The two sequences are said to be Möbius transforms of each other. The formula is also correct if f and g are functions from the positive integers into some abelian group (viewed as a Z-module). In the language of Dirichlet convolutions , the first formula may be written as where * denotes the Dirichlet convolution, and 1 is the constant function . The second formula is then written as Many specific examples are given in the article on multiplicative functions. Repeated transformations Given an arithmetic function, one can generate a bi-infinite sequence of other arithmetic functions by repeatedly applying the first summation. For example, if one starts with Euler's totient function , and repeatedly applies the transformation process, one obtains: the totient function where is the identity function , the divisor function If the starting function is the Möbius function itself, the list of functions is: , the Möbius function where is the unit function , the constant function , where is the number of divisors of n, (see divisor function). Both of these lists of functions extend infinitely in both directions. The Möbius inversion formula enables these lists to be traversed backwards. The generated sequences can perhaps be more easily understood by considering the corresponding Dirichlet series: each repeated application of the transform corresponds to multiplication by the Riemann zeta function. Generalizations An equivalent formulation of the inversion formula more useful in combinatorics is as follows: suppose F(x) and G(x) are complex-valued functions defined on the interval [1,∞) such that then Here the sums extend over all positive integers n which are less than or equal to x. This in turn is a special case of a more general form. If is an arithmetic function possessing a Dirichlet inverse , then if one defines then The previous formula arises in the special case of the constant function , whose Dirichlet inverse is . Multiplicative notation As Möbius inversion applies to any abelian group, it makes no difference whether the group operation is written as addition or as multiplication. This gives rise to the following notational variant of the inversion formula: See also Lambert series References K. Ireland, M. Rosen. A Classical Introduction to Modern Number Theory, (1990) Springer-Verlag. | Möbius_inversion_formula |@lemmatized mathematics:1 classic:3 möbius:9 inversion:7 formula:10 introduce:1 number:4 theory:2 century:1 august:1 ferdinand:1 obtain:2 different:1 local:1 finite:1 partially:1 order:2 set:1 replace:1 case:3 natural:1 divisibility:1 account:1 see:3 incidence:1 algebra:1 definition:1 version:1 state:1 g:4 n:7 f:4 arithmetic:4 function:23 satisfy:1 μ:1 sum:2 extend:3 positive:3 divisor:4 effect:1 original:1 determine:1 give:4 use:1 two:1 sequence:3 say:1 transforms:1 also:2 correct:1 integer:2 abelian:2 group:3 view:1 z:1 module:1 language:1 dirichlet:5 convolution:2 first:2 may:1 write:3 denote:1 constant:3 second:1 many:1 specific:1 example:2 article:1 multiplicative:2 repeat:1 transformation:2 one:4 generate:1 bi:1 infinite:1 repeatedly:2 apply:2 summation:1 start:1 euler:1 totient:2 process:1 identity:1 starting:1 list:3 unit:1 infinitely:1 direction:1 enable:1 traverse:1 backwards:1 generated:1 perhaps:1 easily:1 understand:1 consider:1 corresponding:1 series:2 repeated:1 application:1 transform:1 correspond:1 multiplication:2 riemann:1 zeta:1 generalization:1 equivalent:1 formulation:1 useful:1 combinatorics:1 follow:1 suppose:1 x:3 complex:1 value:1 define:2 interval:1 less:1 equal:1 turn:1 special:2 general:1 form:1 possess:1 inverse:2 previous:1 arises:1 whose:1 notation:1 applies:1 make:1 difference:1 whether:1 operation:1 addition:1 rise:1 following:1 notational:1 variant:1 lambert:1 reference:1 k:1 ireland:1 rosen:1 classical:1 introduction:1 modern:1 springer:1 verlag:1 |@bigram möbius_inversion:4 dirichlet_convolution:2 euler_totient:1 totient_function:2 riemann_zeta:1 zeta_function:1 springer_verlag:1 |
2,394 | House_of_della_Rovere | Coat of arms of the Della Rovere. The name means of the oak tree. Della Rovere is a noble historical family of Italy. Coming from modest beginnings in Savona, Liguria, the family rose to prominence through nepotism and ambitious marriages arranged by two Della Rovere popes, Francesco della Rovere, who ruled as Pope Sixtus IV (1471-1484) and his nephew Giuliano (Pope Julius II, 1503-1513). Pope Sixtus IV is known for having built the Sistine Chapel, which is named for him. The Basilica San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome is the family church of the della Rovere. The most successful match established a line of dukes of Urbino. That dynasty ended in 1626 when Pope Urban VIII incorporated Urbino into the papal dominions, the gift of the weary last duke, Francesco Maria II, in retirement after the death of his heir, Francesco Ubaldo. When the Fascists took over Italy, the Della Rovere family villa was stormed and many Della Roveres were killed. A Della Rovere family member, the third oldest son, escaped to New York after hiding in a well for four days. Family tree Dotted lines indicate aliases (where a person appears more than once in the tree. Small caps text indicates the surname of the children (regardless of number) of a union. All persons have the surname della Rovere unless otherwise indicated. References Genealogy of Leonardo della Rovere | House_of_della_Rovere |@lemmatized coat:1 arm:1 della:10 rovere:9 name:2 mean:1 oak:1 tree:3 noble:1 historical:1 family:6 italy:2 come:1 modest:1 beginning:1 savona:1 liguria:1 rise:1 prominence:1 nepotism:1 ambitious:1 marriage:1 arrange:1 two:1 popes:1 francesco:3 rule:1 pope:4 sixtus:2 iv:2 nephew:1 giuliano:1 julius:1 ii:2 know:1 build:1 sistine:1 chapel:1 basilica:1 san:1 pietro:1 vincoli:1 rome:1 church:1 successful:1 match:1 establish:1 line:2 duke:2 urbino:2 dynasty:1 end:1 urban:1 viii:1 incorporate:1 papal:1 dominion:1 gift:1 weary:1 last:1 maria:1 retirement:1 death:1 heir:1 ubaldo:1 fascist:1 take:1 villa:1 storm:1 many:1 roveres:1 kill:1 member:1 third:1 old:1 son:1 escape:1 new:1 york:1 hide:1 well:1 four:1 day:1 dot:1 indicate:3 alias:1 person:2 appear:1 small:1 cap:1 text:1 surname:2 child:1 regardless:1 number:1 union:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 reference:1 genealogy:1 leonardo:1 |@bigram coat_arm:1 della_rovere:9 pope_sixtus:2 sixtus_iv:2 sistine_chapel:1 san_pietro:1 francesco_maria:1 unless_otherwise:1 |
2,395 | Amway | Headquarters in Ada, Michigan Amway is a multi-level marketing (MLM) company that sells a wide variety of products, primarily in the health & beauty industry. About Amway - Global Leader in Direct Selling The Times 100 Business Case Studies: Amway - Direct selling and supply chain Amway was founded in 1959 by Jay Van Andel and Richard DeVos. Based in Ada, Michigan, the company and family of companies under Alticor reported sales growth of 15%, reaching US$8.2 billion for the year ending December 31, 2008. Its product lines include home care products, personal care products, jewelry, electronics, Nutrilite dietary supplements, water purifiers, air purifiers, insurance and cosmetics. In 2004, Health & Beauty products accounted for nearly 60% of worldwide sales. NBJ's 2004 Business Achievement Awards & Executive Review Amway conducts business through a number of affiliated companies in more than ninety countries and territories around the world. Amway (uk) - Who is Amway? It is ranked by Forbes as one of the largest private companies in the United States Forbes.com - America's largest Private Companies and by Deloitte as one of the largest retailers in the world. Deloitte 2008 Global Powers of Retailing History Founding Jay Van Andel and Richard DeVos, friends since school days, had been business partners in various endeavors including a hamburger stand, air charter service, and a sailing business. In 1949 they were introduced by Neil Maaskant (Van Andel's second cousin) to the Nutrilite Products Corporation. Nutrilite was a California-based direct sales company founded by Dr. Carl Rhenborg, developer of the first multivitamin marketed in the United States. In August 1949, after a night-long talk, DeVos and Van Andel signed up to become distributors for Nutrilite food supplements. They sold their first box the next day for $19.50, but lost interest for the next two weeks. Shortly thereafter, at the urging of Maaskant, who had become their sponsor, they traveled to Chicago to attend a Nutrilite seminar. The meeting was at a downtown hotel, with over a hundred people in attendance. After seeing promotional filmstrips and listening to talks by company representatives and successful distributors, they decided to pursue the Nutrilite business opportunity with enthusiasm. They sold their second box of supplements on their return trip to Michigan, and rapidly proceeded to develop their new business further. In 1949, DeVos and Van Andel had formed Ja-Ri Corporation (abbreviated from their respective first names) for importing wooden goods from South American countries; after their trip to the Nutrilite seminar, they dropped this business and Ja-Ri became their Nutrilite distributorship. In addition to profits on each product sold, Nutrilite also offered commission on the sales of products by new distributors introduced to the company by existing distributors—a system today known as multi-level marketing or network marketing. By 1958, DeVos and Van Andel had built an organization of over 5,000 distributors. However, following concerns about the stability of Nutrilite, in April 1959 they and some of their top distributors formed The American Way Association to represent the distributors and look for additional products to market. Their first product was called Frisk, a concentrated organic cleaner developed by a scientist in Ohio. DeVos and Van Andel bought the rights to manufacture and distribute Frisk, and later changed the name to LOC (Liquid Organic Concentrate). They subsequently formed Amway Sales Corporation to procure and inventory products and to handle the sales and marketing plan, and Amway Services Corporation to handle insurance and other benefits for distributors (Amway being an abbreviation of American Way Interview with Bill Hybels at the Willow Creek Association Global Leadership Summit in 2000 ). In 1960 they purchased a 50% share in Atco Manufacturing Company in Detroit, the original manufacturers of LOC, and changed its name to Amway Manufacturing Corporation. In 1964 the Amway Sales Corporation, Amway Services Corporation, and Amway Manufacturing Corporation merged to form a single entity, Amway Corporation From MLM Law Library: FTC Final Order from May 8, 1979 (93 F.T.C. 618). Amway bought control of Nutrilite in 1972 and full ownership in 1994. Orange County, Calif., Firm Goes Back to Dawn of Vitamin Age. International expansion Amway expanded overseas to Australia in 1971, to Europe in 1973, to parts of Asia in 1974, to Japan in 1979, to Latin America in 1985, to China in 1995, to Africa in 1997, to India and Scandinavia in 1998, to Russia in 2005, and to Vietnam in 2008. In 2008 two thirds of Amway's 58 markets reported sales increases, including strong growth in the China, Russia and India markets. Amway Parent hits 50th year running recording 15% sales growth Amway India sales grew 40% to 1128 crore (US$230million). Amway India records turnover of Rs.1128 crore in 2008 Amway China Amway grew quickly in China from its market launch in 1995. In 1998, after abuses of illegal pyramid schemes led to riots, the Chinese Government enacted a ban on all direct selling companies, including Amway. "Chinese officials ban direct marketing", April 22, 1998 Associated Press, The Associated Press After negotiations, some companies like Amway, Avon, and Mary Kay continued to operate through a network of retail stores promoted by an independent sales force. "Once-barred Amway becomes booming business in China", Leslie Chang, March 12, 2003, Wall Street Journal China introduced new direct selling laws in December 2005, and in December 2006 Amway was one of the first companies to receive a license to resume direct sales. At the time they had a reported 180,000 sales representatives, 140 stores, and $2 billion in annual sales. "Amway, Mary Kay get long-awaited direct-selling licenses in China" Rob Kirkbride, December 24, 2006, Kalamazoo Gazette In 2007 Amway Greater China and South-east Asia Chief Executive Eva Cheng was ranked #88 by Forbes magazine in its list of the World's Most Powerful Women. Forbes' The 100 Most Powerful Women; #88 Eva Cheng In 2008 Amway Greater China was Amway's largest market, reporting 28% growth and sales of ¥17 billion (US$2.5billion). 安利中国销售额增28% Quixtar In 1999 the founders of the Amway corporation established a new holding company, named Alticor, and launched three new companies, 1) a sister (and separate) Internet-focused company named Quixtar, 2) Access Business Group, and 3) Pyxis Innovations. Pyxis, later replaced by Fulton Innovation, pursued research and development and Access Business Group handled manufacturing and logistics, for Amway, Quixtar, and third party clients. Amway marque to be revived; Quixtar label scrapped After virtually all Amway distributors in North America switched to Quixtar, Alticor elected to close Amway North America after 2001. The main difference was that all distributors could order directly, rather than from their upline "direct distributor". The Amway name continued being used in the rest of the world, and the home of the Orlando Magic was named the Amway Arena in 2005. The Orlando Magic is owned by Amway founder Richard DeVos. In June 2007 it was announced that the Quixtar brand would be phased out over an 18 to 24 month period in favor of a unified Amway brand worldwide. Products Amway's product line grew from LOC, with the laundry detergent SA8 added in 1960, and later the hair care product Satinique (1965) and Artistry(1968). Today Amway manufactures over 450 products, with manufacturing facilities in Ada, Michigan, China, and India, as well as Nutrilite organic farms in California, Washington State, Mexico, and Brazil. In addition Amway affiliates market products from hundreds of other manufacturers offering everything from books (eg Barnes & Noble, North America) to wine (World of Wine, Europe). Household cleaners Amway is best known in North America for its original cleaning products, LOC, SA8 clothes washing products and Dish Drops dish cleaning products. In the January 2007 issue of Consumer Reports, SA8 with Bioquest was rated as the best performing laundry detergent, scoring 99 out of a possible 100. Consumer Reports - Laundry Detergents Consumer Reports did however criticise SA8's pricing, which was disputed by Amway. In 2008, Amway's cleaning products were named Favourite of Experts by an independent consumer survey in Ukraine. Favourite of Experts Health & beauty The majority of Amway's sales today come from the Health & Beauty sector and in North America the Amway Global/Quixtar website is ranked the #1 Health & Beauty website by Internet Retailer. Internet Retailer In South Korea Amway is ranked one of the top two companies in tolietries and cosmetics. Amway's health & beauty brands include Artistry, Time Defiance, Satinique, Tolsom, Body Series, Glister, Moiskin (South America) Amway do Brasil , Nutrilite, Nutriway (Scandinavia and Australia/New Zealand),eSpring, Atmosphere and iCook as well as XS Energy drinks. Artistry Amway's Artistry products include skin care, cosmetics, and anti-aging creams and serums. Euromonitor International, an independent researcher and publisher of market reports, business reference books and online information databases, ranks Artistry as one of the world's top 5 best selling brands in the prestige brand category, alongside Clinique, Estee Lauder, Lancome, and Shiseido. The World Market for Cosmetics and Toiletries The World of Artistry Artistry is the only direct sales brand classifed in the "prestige" category. Artistry - Beauty, Science, Synergy Nutrilite Amway's largest selling brand is the Nutrilite range of health supplements (marketed as Nutriway in some countries), and in 2008 Nutrilite sales exceeded US$3billion globally NUTRILITE™ passes $3 billion mark in annual sales Nutrilite products incorporate organically grown whole-plant concentrates. Euromonitor has for several years ranked Nutrilite the world's best selling nutritional brand in tablet or capsule form. In 2001, five Nutrilite products were the first dietary supplements to be certified by NSF International. NSF International Announces Dietary Supplements Certification Program Surveys by independent group Consumerlab.com since 2002 have rated Nutrilite as having the highest customer satisfaction rating (96% in 2006). ConsumerLab.com Survey Consumerlab.com 2009 Report on Vitamin & Supplement Users In 2006, 2007, and 2008 in the nutrient and health food category, Nutrilite won "Platinum" and "Gold" awards in Malaysia, China, Taiwan, Thailand, and Asia overall in the Reader's Digest "Trusted Brands of Asia" survey. Reader's Digest Trusted Brands Asia In 2008 Nutrilite scientists, in partnership with Alticor subsidiary Interleukin Genetics won the 12th John M. Kinney Award for Nutrition and Metabolism for their research into the interaction between nutrition and genetics. John M Kinney Winners 2008 eSpring Amway's eSpring water filter, introduced in 2000, was the first home water treatment system to incorporate a carbon block filter and Ultraviolet disinfection unit, becoming the first home system to achieve certification for ANSI/NSF Standards 42, 53 and 55. NSF International: Who they are what they do The unit was also the first commercial product to include sister company Fulton Innovations eCoupled wireless power induction technology. Fulton Innovation introduced the technology in other consumer electronic products at the 2007 International Consumer Electronics Show. Companies licensing this technology include General Motors, Motorola and Visteon. In-Vehicle Wireless Power Transfer Unveiled Startup Jump-Starts Wireless Power In 2006 eSpring was named Product of the Year by the Poland-based non-profit World Foundation of Health, Heart and Mind. Amway Poland receives "Product of the Year" for eSpring eSpring has won numerous Gold and Platinum awards in the Reader's Digest Most Trusted Brand Asia surveys. Reader's Digest Trusted Brands Asia Atmosphere In 2008 Amway's HEPA air filtration system became the first air cleaner certified asthma & allergy friendly by the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America. Helping to Clear the Air for Consumers - New Certification Standard for HEPA Filters Will Help Millions of People Make More Educated Choices Ditto Delivery Amway owns a patent on the online shopping method of Ditto Delivery, which allows consumers to specify an automatic monthly delivery of each product. Patent 7,359,871 It has been called the most convenient shopping method that exists. In May, 2001, Ditto Delivery accounted for 30% of Quixtar's North American sales. Amway.com Business Model Amway combines direct selling with a multi-level marketing strategy. IBOs may both market the products directly to potential customers and also recruit (sponsor) and train other people who become IBOs themselves and in turn have the same opportunity. Each IBO may earn income both from the retail markup on any products they sell personally, plus a performance bonus based on the sales volume they and their downline have generated. People may also register as IBOs to buy products at a discounted rate. Amway in China: factory in Guangzhou Definitions IBO/ABO/AIE — Independent Business Owner/Amway Business Owner/Amway Independent Entrepreneur is a business partner of Amway who is authorized to market and distribute products and services available from Amway. Different names are used in different markets. Distributor - an older term for IBO PV — Point Value is a value assigned to each product or service sold by Amway. An IBOs monthly performance bonus bracket depends on total PV in a month. BV — Business Volume is typically the wholesale cost of the product or service sold by Amway. Performance bonuses are multiplied by the groups total BV. Performance bonus is the monthly bonus paid by Amway to IBO's. The higher the PV, the greater the percentage earned. In North America the Performance bonus ranges from 3% to 25%. In other markets it ranges from 3% to 21%. Retail Profit is the markup earned by an IBO when they sell a product to a consumer, either personally or through an Amway website. Recommended retail markup ranges fro 20%-35%. Sponsor is an IBO who refers (sponsors) a new IBO to Amway. Upline is the term used to refer all the IBOs up in the line of sponsorship of an IBO. Downline is the term used to refer all the IBOs down in the line of sponsorship of an IBO. They are collectively also known as group Leg refers to a personally sponsored IBO and all of their downline. Silver Producer is an IBO who has reached the maximum bonus level for one month. Gold Producer is an IBO who has reached the maximum bonus level for three months. Platinum or Direct is an IBO who has reached the maximum bonus level for six months. Originally this was the first point at which a distributor could purchase products directly from Amway, and not from their sponsor or upline. In North America a Platinum is generating a minimum of approximately $30,000 in sales volume per month. Emerald a distributor with at least three legs generating Silver Producer volume for at least 6 months of a year. Diamond a distributor with at least six legs generating Silver Producer volume for at least 6 months of a year. Q-12 is a Platinum or higher IBO that qualifies every month for 12 months of a year. Other Interests Radio Amway bought the Mutual Broadcasting System radio network in 1977 and sold it in 1985. Orlando Arena naming rights In December 2006, Alticor secured the naming rights for the 17,000-seat basketball arena in Orlando, Florida - home of the Orlando Magic, which are owned by the family of Rich DeVos. The arena, formerly known as the TD Waterhouse Centre, is now called Amway Arena. San Jose Earthquakes Prior to the 2009 Major League Soccer season, Amway Global signed a three-year deal with the San Jose Earthquakes to become the team's official jersey sponsor. A major part of the partnership is focused on community initiatives in the Bay Area. As a result, Amway Global is now also the official sponsor of the team's Kicks for Kids program that focuses on fitness and healthy lifestyles, as well as bringing underprivileged children to Earthquakes games. The partnership also saw the creation of the Amway Global Street Team, which appears at all Earthquakes home games and at a number of soccer and non-soccer events throughout the Bay Area. The members of the Amway Global Street Team give away Earthquakes-branded merchandise and provide soccer skills demonstrations at each event. Los Angeles Sol In March 2009, Amway Global signed a multi-year deal to become the official presenting partner of the Los Angeles Sol of Women's Professional Soccer. Politics and culture Commentators have identified Amway as supporting the U.S. Republican Party, and its founders contributed $4,000,000 to a conservative 527 group in the 2004 election cycle. From opensecrets.org: Progress for America - Top Contributors, 2004 Cycle Amway states that its business opportunity is open to people regardless of their religious and political beliefs. Amway Corporation Website - Frequently Asked Questions Rolling Stone's Bob Moser has contended that former Amway CEO and co-founder Richard DeVos is connected with the dominionist political movement in the United States. Moser states that DeVos was a supporter of the late D. James Kennedy, giving more than $5 million to Kennedy's ministry. "The Crusaders" Bob Moser, April 7, 2005, Rolling Stone Multiple high-ranking Amway leaders such as Richard DeVos and Dexter Yager are also owners and members of the board of Gospel Films, a producer of movies and books geared towards conservative Christians as well as co-owner (along with Salem Communications) of Gospel Communications. One of Amway's most successful distributors, Dexter Yager, has criticized Democratic President Bill Clinton. Mother Jones reported that Yager stated in voice mail to his downline network of distributors, "If you analyze Bill Clinton's entire inaugural address, it is nothing but a New Age pagan ritual. If you go back and look at how it was arranged and how it was orchestrated, he talked about forcing the spring. So what they're trying to do is...force the emergence of deviant lifestyles, of a socialist agenda, and force that on us as American people." Yager also allowed Republican George W. Bush to send messages through that voicemail system to thousands of distributors. Doug Wead, who was a Special Assistant to U.S. President George H. W. Bush, is a successful IBO who is a regular speaker at group rallies. In 2000, President George W. Bush appointed Timothy Muris, a former anti-trust lawyer whose largest client was Amway to head the FTC, which has direct federal regulatory oversight over multi-level marketing plans. Amway co-founder, the late Jay Van Andel (in 1980), and later his son Steve Van Andel (in 2001) were elected by the board of directors of the United States Chamber of Commerce as chairman of that organization. Steve Van Andel Bio - U.S. Chamber of Commerce Board of Directors In May 2005, former Amway President Dick DeVos, one of the wealthiest men in Michigan, announced that he would run against Governor Jennifer Granholm in Michigan's 2006 gubernatorial election. DeVos, running as a Republican, won 42% of the popular vote, while Granholm won 56%. Amway touts the environmental benefits of many of its products, and in June 1989 the United Nations Environmental Program's Regional Office for North America recognized it for its contributions to the cause of the environment. Controversy Pyramid Scheme Accusations Amway has several times been accused of being a pyramid scheme. A 1979 FTC investigation in the United States and a 2008 court judgement in the United Kingdom dismissed these claims. FTC Investigation In a 1979 ruling, "Pyramid Schemes" the Federal Trade Commission found that Amway does not qualify as a pyramid scheme since Amway compensation system is based on retail sales to consumers, not payments for recruiting It did, however, order Amway to stop retail price fixing and allocating customers among distributors and prohibited the company from misrepresenting the amount of profit, earnings or sales its distributors are likely to achieve with the business. Amway was ordered to accompany any such statements with the actual averages per distributor, pointing out that more than half of the distributors do not make any money, with the average distributor making less than $100 per month. The order was violated with a 1986 ad campaign, resulting in a $100,000 fine. Amway Corp. To Pay $100,000 Civil Penalty, Settling FTC Charges UK BERR v. Amway UK In 2007, following investigations that lasted more than a year, the United Kingdom's Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) (and its successor, the Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR) issued petitions against Amway as well as two IBO organizations Britt World Wide (BWW) and Network 21<ref>UK threatens to ban Amway, by Rob Kirkbride, The Grand Rapids Press, Michigan, July 1 2007</ref>, and initiated civil court proceedings. According to Amway, the DTI's objections include misrepresentation of the financial rewards expected from the Amway business, excessive promotion of BSMs (Business Support Materials like books, tapes, CDs, meetings, websites) and Amway's failure to prevent these abuses, and that the Amway business model was a "lottery". Subsequently, Amway imposed a ban on sale of BSM in UK that are not authorized and distributed by Amway. It further announced significant price changes for a range of products, modifications to its compensation plan, and an indefinite moratorium on registration of new IBOs in UK. It would also initiate a thorough review of its business practices globally. OK, let’s talk UK, on Amway Media Blog You asked for it, on Amway Media Blog The case against BWW was dropped after BWW elected to close their operations in the UK market. BERR also dropped their case against Network 21 however Network 21 remains in operation in the United Kingdom. The case against Amway was dismissed 14 May 2008, after Amway agreed to maintain the changes to their business model implemented in 2007, and to publish statistics on the average incomes and numbers of qualifiers at different levels of the business. Amway Media Blog - A sufficient salutary lesson BERR submitted two appeals in the case alleging procedural irregularities. Justice Norris refused an application by BERR to restrict Amway from resuming sponsorship activity whilst the appeals were pending . Amway UK released statistics on earnings of distributors on July 21, 2008 and sponsoring resumed. Amway Business Opportunity, on Amway UK website On January, 29, 2009 the appeals were dismissed. Amway Media blog - Upheld Amway Andhra Pradesh The Andhra Pradesh state high court has declared that Amway's Indian subsidiary is in violation of an act prohibiting "Money Circulation Scheme[s]". After a number of raids and seizures against Amway distributors in the state, the company filed a petition to stop the Andhra Pradesh state police's investigation. On August 14, 2007 the Supreme Court of India ordered the state police to complete the investigation against Amway in 6 months. SC asks Andhra to finish Amway probe in 6mths Canadian Tax case In 1983, Amway pleaded guilty to criminal tax evasion and customs fraud in Canada, resulting in a fine of $25 million CAD, the largest fine ever imposed in Canada at the time. In 1989 the company settled the outstanding customs duties for $45 million CAD. In a 1994 interview, Amway co-founder Rich DeVos stated that this incident had been his greatest "moral or spiritual challenge", first in "soul searching as to whether they had done anything wrong" and then for pleading guilty for technical reasons, despite believing they were innocent of the charges. DeVos stated he believed that the case had been motivated by "political reasons". Capitalism with Compassion, Religion and Liberty,Volume 4,Number 5 RIAA lawsuit The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), as part of its anti-piracy efforts, sued Amway and several distributors in 1996, allegeding that copyrighted music was used on "highly profitable" training videotapes. Record Labels Sue Amway over its videos Amway denied wrong doing, blaming the case on a misunderstanding by distributors, and settled the case out of court for $9 million. Amway pays $9 million to settle copyright infringement suit In a related lawsuit initiated by the distributors involved, the Court established that Mahaleel Lee Luster, who had been contracted to make the videotapes, had violated copyright without the knowledge of three of the five of those distributors. Foley v Luster Procter & Gamble Some Amway distributors were involved with an urban legend that the (old) Procter & Gamble service mark was in fact a Satanic symbol or that the CEO of P&G is himself a practicing Satanist. (In some variants of the urban legend, it is also claimed that the CEO of Procter & Gamble donated "satanic tithes" to the Church of Satan.) Urban Legends Reference Pages: Procter and Gamble and Satanism Rumor Procter & Gamble alleged that several Amway distributors were behind a resurgence of the urban legend in the 1990s and sued several independent Amway distributors and the parent company for defamation and slander. The distributors had used Amway's Amvox voice messaging service to send the rumor to their downline distributors in April 1995. After more than a decade of lawsuits in multiple states, by 2003 all allegations against Amway and Amway distributors had been dismissed. In October 2005 a Utah appeals court reversed part of the decision dismissing the case against the four Amway distributors, and remanded it to the lower court for further proceedings. 03-4234 - Procter & Gamble Co. V. Haugen - 10/19/2005 On 20 March 2007, Procter & Gamble was awarded $19.25M by a U.S. District Court jury in Salt Lake City, in the lawsuit against the four former Amway distributors. On November 24, 2008 the case was officially settled. Other issues A Dateline NBC report from 2004 picked up the criticism against some Amway distributor groups. Amway subsequently published a website with a response to the Dateline report. Quixtar - Dateline Quixtar Response to NBC Dateline Quixtar Story Some Amway distributor groups have been accused of using cult-like tactics to attract new distributors and keep them involved and committed. Amway: the cult of free enterprise, by Stephen Butterfield, South End Press, 1985 Dangerous persuaders by Louise Samways. Penguin books, 1994 Hidden persuaders, by Tony Thompson. Time Out, June 22-29, 1994 The power of positive inspiration by Paul Klebnikov. Forbes, December 9, 1991 Allegations include resemblance to a Big Brother organization with paranoid attitude to insiders critical of the organization, seminars and rallies resembling religious revival meetings and enormous involvement of distributors despite minimal incomes. An examination of the 1979-1980 tax records in the state of Wisconsin showed that the Direct Distributors, comprising less than 1% of all distributors, reported a net loss of $918 on average. Quasi religious corporations: A new integration of religion and capitalism? by David G. Bromley. In Religion and the Transformations of Capitalism: Comparative Approaches, edited by Richard H. Roberts, pages 135-160. Routledge, 1995 Sociologist David G. Bromley calls Amway a quasi-religious corporation having sectarian characteristics. Transformative movements and quasi-religious corporations: the case of Amway, by David G. Bromley. In Sacred Companies: Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organizations, edited by Nicholas Jay Demerath, Peter Dobkin Hall, Terry Schmitt and Rhys H. Williams, pages 349-363. Oxford University Press, 1998 Bromley and Shupe view Amway as preaching the Gospel of Prosperity. Rebottling the Elixir: The Gospel of Prosperity in America's Religioeconomic Corporations, by David G. Bromley and Anson Shupe. In In Gods we trust: new patterns of religious pluralism in America, edited by Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony, pages 233-254. Transaction Publishers, 1990 Economists Bhattacharya and Mehta propose an alternative economic explanation to the cultism claims, concluding that distributors' continued involvement despite minimal economic return results from social satisfaction compensating for less economic satisfaction. Socialization in network marketing organizations: is it cult behavior? by Patralekha Bhattacharya and Krishna Kumar Mehta, Journal of Socio-Economics, Volume 29, Issue 4, pages 361-374. Amway disputes cultism charges, and states that meetings with enthusiasm, excitement and energy are a proven way to motivate sales people. FAQ on Amway's website See also Alticor Quixtar eCoupled Direct selling Multi-level marketing Artistry (cosmetics) Nutrilite SA8 (detergent) XS Energy Drink Network TwentyOne References Books American Victory: The Real Story of Today's Amway published April, 1997 by Chapel & Croft Publishing; ISBN 0-96451716-7 Amway: The Cult of Free Enterprise published December 1, 1985 by South End Press; ISBN 0-96487951-4 Amway: The True Story of the Company That Transformed the Lives of Millions published September 1, 1999 by Berkley Publishing Group; ISBN 0-42517040-3 An Enterpising Life published 1998 by HarperCollins; ISBN 0-88730-997-6 An Uncommon Freedom, the Amway Experience and Why It Grows published 1982 by Revell; ASIN B000HFJE1Y Commitment to excellence: The remarkable Amway story published 1986 by Benjamin; ISBN 0-875021360 Compassionate Capitalism: People Helping People Help Themselves published September, 1994 by Penguin Books; ISBN 0-452-27051-0 Empire of Freedom: The Amway Story and What It Means to You published September 3, 1997 by Prima Lifestyles; ISBN 0761510885 How to Be Like Rich Devos. Succeeding with Integrity in Business and Life published 2004 by Health Communications, Inc; ISBN 0-7573-0158-4 The First Eleven — The growth of Amway in Britain through the lives of its local heroes published 1984 by AM Publishing; ISBN 0-9509593-0-8 Promises to Keep: The Amway Phenomenon and How It Works published 1986 by Berkley Books; ISBN 0425098567 The Direct Selling Revolution: Understanding the Growth of the Amway Corporation published 1993 by WileyBlackwell; ISBN 978-0631192299 The Possible Dream: A Candid Look At Amway published 1977 by Revell; ISBN 0800708571 Documentaries Profiles of the American Dream: Rich DeVos and Jay Van Andel and the Remarkable Beginnings of Amway'' 1997 by Premiere Films; ASIN: B000OK0YRA External links Amway Media Blog Amway Corporation Alticor Inc. (Amway & Quixtar Parent Company) Independent Business Owners Association International Quixtar Corporation Government documents Prepared Statement of Debra A. Valentine, General Counsel for the U.S. FTC, on "Pyramid Schemes" Profiles Alticor Inc. 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2,396 | Elliptic_integral | In integral calculus, elliptic integrals originally arose in connection with the problem of giving the arc length of an ellipse. They were first studied by Giulio Fagnano and Leonhard Euler. Modern mathematics defines an elliptic integral as any function f which can be expressed in the form where R is a rational function of its two arguments, P is the square root of a polynomial of degree 3 or 4 with no repeated roots, and c is a constant. In general, elliptic integrals cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions. Exceptions to this general rule are when P has repeated roots, or when R(x,y) contains no odd powers of y. However, with the appropriate reduction formula, every elliptic integral can be brought into a form that involves integrals over rational functions and the three canonical forms (i.e. the elliptic integrals of the first, second and third kind). Besides the forms given below, the elliptic integrals may also be expressed in Legendre form and Carlson symmetric form. Additional insight into the theory of the elliptic integral may be gained through the study of the Schwarz-Christoffel mapping. Historically, elliptic functions were discovered as inverse functions of elliptic integrals. In particular, we have F (sn(z;k);k) = z, where sn is one of Jacobi's elliptic functions. Notation Elliptic integrals are often expressed as functions for a variety of different arguments. These different arguments are completely equivalent (they give the same elliptic integral), but they can be confusing due to their different appearance. Most texts adhere to a canonical naming scheme. Before defining the integrals, we review the naming conventions for the arguments: the modular angle; the elliptic modulus; the parameter; Note that the above three conventions are completely determined by one another. Specifying one is the same as specifying another. The elliptic integrals also depend on another argument, which can be specified in a number of different ways: the amplitude x where u, where x = sn u and sn is one of the Jacobian elliptic functions Specifying any one of these arguments determines the others. Thus, they may be used interchangeably in the notation. Note that u also depends on m. Some additional relationships involving u include and The latter is sometimes called the delta amplitude and written as . Sometimes the literature also refers to the complementary parameter, the complementary modulus, or the complementary modular angle. These are further defined in the article on quarter periods. Incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind The incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind F is defined as Equivalently, using notation in Jacobi's form, one sets ; then where it is understood that when there is a vertical bar used, the argument following the vertical bar is the parameter (as defined above); and, when a backslash is used, it is followed by the modular angle. In this sense, , with the notations directly borrowed from the reference book of standards, Abramowitz and Stegun. The use of the delimiters ; | \ is traditional in elliptic integrals. However, there remain different conventions for the notation of elliptic integrals! The differences can be very confusing, especially to a novice . The functions that evaluate the elliptic integrals do not have standard and unique names and meanings (like sqrt, sin and erf have). Even the literatures on the subject use differentiated notations. Gradstein, Ryzhik ISBN 0122947576 Eq.(8.111) and the Wikipedia article "Legendre form" use . The notation is equivalent to our ; also below. Accordingly, if one translates the code from the Mathematica language into the language used by Maple, one should replace the argument of the EllipticK function with its square root. Correspondingly, in the translation from Maple to Mathematica, the argument should be replaced by its square. EllipticK(x) in Maple is almost equivalent to EllipticK[x^2] in Mathematica; one may expect to get the same result in both systems, at least while 0<x<1. Note that with u as defined above: thus, the Jacobian elliptic functions are inverses to the elliptic integrals. Incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind The incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind E is Equivalently, using an alternate notation (substituting ), Additional relations include Incomplete elliptic integral of the third kind The incomplete elliptic integral of the third kind is or or The number n is called the characteristic and can take on any value, independently of the other arguments. Note though that the value is infinite, for any . Complete elliptic integral of the first kind Elliptic Integrals are said to be 'complete' when the amplitude is pi/2 and thus x=1. The complete elliptic integral of the first kind K may be defined as or It is a special case of the incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind: The special case can be expressed as a power series which is equivalent to where denotes the Double Factorial. In terms of the Gauss hypergeometric function, the complete elliptic integral of the first kind can be expressed as The complete elliptic integral of the first kind is sometimes called the quarter period. It can be computed in terms of the arithmetic-geometric mean. Special values The derivative of the complete elliptic integral of the first kind Complete elliptic integral of the second kind The complete elliptic integral of the second kind E may be defined as or It is a special case of the incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind: that can be expressed as a power series which is In terms of the Gauss hypergeometric function, the complete elliptic integral of the second kind can be expressed as Special values The derivative of the complete elliptic integral of the second kind Complete elliptic integral of the third kind The complete elliptic integral of the third kind can be defined as Note that sometimes the elliptic integral of the third kind is defined with an inverse sign in , i.e. The partial derivatives of the complete elliptic integral of the third kind See also Elliptic curve Schwarz-Christoffel map References Milton Abramowitz and Irene A. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions, (1964) Dover Publications, New York. ISBN 0-486-61272-4. (See chapter 17). Harris Hancock Lectures on the theory of Elliptic functions (New York, J. Wiley & sons, 1910) Alfred George Greenhill The applications of elliptic functions (New York, Macmillan, 1892) Louis V. King On The Direct Numerical Calculation Of Elliptic Functions And Integrals (Cambridge University Press, 1924) | Elliptic_integral |@lemmatized integral:41 calculus:1 elliptic:46 originally:1 arise:1 connection:1 problem:1 give:3 arc:1 length:1 ellipse:1 first:10 study:2 giulio:1 fagnano:1 leonhard:1 euler:1 modern:1 mathematics:1 define:10 function:18 f:3 express:8 form:8 r:2 rational:2 two:1 argument:10 p:2 square:3 root:4 polynomial:1 degree:1 repeated:1 c:1 constant:1 general:2 cannot:1 term:4 elementary:1 exception:1 rule:1 repeat:1 x:7 contain:1 odd:1 power:3 however:2 appropriate:1 reduction:1 formula:1 every:1 bring:1 involve:2 three:2 canonical:2 e:4 second:8 third:7 kind:22 besides:1 may:6 also:6 legendre:2 carlson:1 symmetric:1 additional:3 insight:1 theory:2 gain:1 schwarz:2 christoffel:2 mapping:1 historically:1 discover:1 inverse:2 particular:1 sn:4 z:2 k:3 one:9 jacobi:2 notation:8 often:1 variety:1 different:5 completely:2 equivalent:4 confuse:1 due:1 appearance:1 texts:1 adhere:1 naming:2 scheme:1 review:1 convention:3 modular:3 angle:3 modulus:2 parameter:3 note:5 determine:2 another:3 specify:4 depend:2 number:2 way:1 amplitude:3 u:5 jacobian:2 others:1 thus:3 use:9 interchangeably:1 relationship:1 include:2 latter:1 sometimes:4 call:3 delta:1 write:1 literature:2 refer:1 complementary:3 far:1 article:2 quarter:2 period:2 incomplete:8 equivalently:2 set:1 understood:1 vertical:2 bar:2 follow:2 backslash:1 sense:1 directly:1 borrow:1 reference:2 book:1 standard:2 abramowitz:2 stegun:2 delimiters:1 traditional:1 remain:1 difference:1 confusing:1 especially:1 novice:1 evaluate:1 unique:1 name:1 meaning:1 like:1 sqrt:1 sin:1 erf:1 even:1 subject:1 differentiate:1 gradstein:1 ryzhik:1 isbn:2 eq:1 wikipedia:1 accordingly:1 translate:1 code:1 mathematica:3 language:2 maple:3 replace:2 elliptick:3 correspondingly:1 translation:1 almost:1 expect:1 get:1 result:1 system:1 least:1 inverses:1 alternate:1 substitute:1 relation:1 n:1 characteristic:1 take:1 value:4 independently:1 though:1 infinite:1 complete:13 say:1 pi:1 special:5 case:3 series:2 denote:1 double:1 factorial:1 gauss:2 hypergeometric:2 compute:1 arithmetic:1 geometric:1 mean:1 derivative:3 sign:1 partial:1 see:2 curve:1 map:1 milton:1 irene:1 handbook:1 mathematical:1 dover:1 publication:1 new:3 york:3 chapter:1 harris:1 hancock:1 lecture:1 j:1 wiley:1 son:1 alfred:1 george:1 greenhill:1 application:1 macmillan:1 louis:1 v:1 king:1 direct:1 numerical:1 calculation:1 cambridge:1 university:1 press:1 |@bigram elliptic_integral:37 leonhard_euler:1 naming_convention:1 incomplete_elliptic:8 hypergeometric_function:2 arithmetic_geometric:1 elliptic_curve:1 dover_publication:1 wiley_son:1 |
2,397 | Operational_amplifier | Various op-amp ICs in 8-pin dual in-line packages ("DIPs") An operational amplifier, which is often called an op-amp, is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with differential inputs and, usually, a single output. MAXIM Application Note 1108: Understanding Single-Ended, Pseudo-Differential and Fully-Differential ADC Inputs — Retrieved November 10, 2007 Typically the output of the op-amp is controlled either by negative feedback, which largely determines the magnitude of its output voltage gain, or by positive feedback, which facilitates regenerative gain and oscillation. High input impedance at the input terminals (ideally infinite) and low output impedance (ideally zero) are important typical characteristics. Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a few cents in moderate production volume; however some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost over $100 US in small quantities. Modern designs are electronically more rugged than earlier implementations and some can sustain direct short circuits on their outputs without damage. The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with 2 outputs), the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from 3 op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but which works fine with common-mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier (usually built from 1 or more op-amps and a resistive feedback network). Circuit notation Circuit diagram symbol for an op-amp The circuit symbol for an op-amp is shown to the right, where: : non-inverting input : inverting input : output : positive power supply : negative power supply The power supply pins ( and ) can be labeled in different ways (See IC power supply pins). Despite different labeling, the function remains the same — to provide additional power for amplification of signal. Often these pins are left out of the diagram for clarity, and the power configuration is described or assumed from the circuit. Operation The amplifier's differential inputs consist of input and a input, and generally the op-amp amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two. This is called the differential input voltage. Operational amplifiers are usually used with feedback loops where the output of the amplifier would influence one of its inputs. The output voltage and the input voltage it influences settles down to a stable voltage after being connected for some time, when they satisfy the internal circuit of the op amp. In its most common use, the op-amp's output voltage is controlled by feeding a fraction of the output signal back to the inverting input. This is known as negative feedback. If that fraction is zero (i.e., there is no negative feedback) the amplifier is said to be running open loop and its output is the differential input voltage multiplied by the total gain of the amplifier, as shown by the following equation: where is the voltage at the non-inverting terminal, is the voltage at the inverting terminal and G is the total open-loop gain of the amplifier. Since the magnitude of the open-loop gain is typically very large, open-loop operation results in op-amp saturation (see below in Nonlinear imperfections) unless the differential input voltage is extremely small. Finley's law states that "When the inverting and non-inverting inputs of an op-amp are not equal, its output is in saturation." Additionally, the precise magnitude of this gain is not well controlled by the manufacturing process, and so it is impractical to use an operational amplifier as a stand-alone differential amplifier. Instead, op-amps are usually used in negative-feedback configurations. Most single, dual and quad op-amps available have a standardized pin-out which permits one type to be substituted for another without wiring changes. A specific op-amp may be chosen for its open loop gain, bandwidth, noise performance, input impedance, power consumption, or a compromise between any of these factors. Ideal op-amp Equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier. Shown on the right is an example of an ideal operational amplifier. The main part in an amplifier is the dependent voltage source that increases in relation to the voltage drop across , thus amplifying the voltage difference between and . Many uses have been found for operational amplifiers and an ideal op-amp seeks to characterize the physical phenomena that make op-amps useful. Supply voltages and are used internally to implement the dependent voltage sources. The positive source acts as an upper bound on the output, and the negative source acts as a lower bound on the output. The internal and connections are not shown here and will vary by implementation of the operational amplifier. For any input voltages, an ideal op-amp has the following properties: Infinite open-loop gain (i.e., when doing theoretical analysis, limit should be taken as open loop gain goes to infinity) Infinite bandwidth (i.e., the frequency magnitude response is flat everywhere with zero phase shift). Infinite input impedance (i.e., , and so zero current flows from to ) Zero input current (i.e., there is no leakage or bias current into the device) Zero input offset voltage (i.e., when the input terminals are shorted so that , the output is a virtual ground). Infinite slew rate (i.e., the rate of change of the output voltage is unbounded) and power bandwidth (full output voltage and current available at all frequencies). Zero output impedance (i.e., , and so output voltage does not vary with output current) Zero noise Infinite Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) Infinite Power supply rejection ratio for both power supply rails. Because of these properties, an op-amp can be modeled as a nullor. "Golden rules" of negative feedback When connected in a negative-feedback configuration, large differences between the two input voltages lead the output of the operational amplifier to respond to minimize those differences. As a result, the ideal output quickly stabilizes on whatever voltage is necessary to make the two input voltages equal. This state of equilibrium combined with the key characteristic that the amplifier has very low input leakage current forms the two so-called golden rules Paul Horowitz, Winfield Hill, The Art of Electronics, page 177, Cambridge University Press, 1989 ISBN 0521370957. of op-amp design for negative-feedback circuits. No current will flow into the inputs. The input voltages will be nearly equal. As a consequence of the second rule, the input impedance of the two inputs will be nearly infinite. That is, even if the open-loop impedance between the two inputs is low, the closed-loop input impedance will be high because the inputs will be held at nearly the same voltage. These rules can only be applied if the voltage required is within the range of the op-amp's supply voltages. Otherwise, the output signal may be clipped near the power supply rails, or (see below in Nonlinear imperfections). An example of how the output voltage is calculated when negative feedback exists is shown below for the basic non-inverting amplifier circuit. History GAP/R's K2-W: a vacuum-tube op-amp (1953). ADI's HOS-050: a high speed hybrid IC op-amp (1979). An op-amp in a modern DIP package. 1941: First (vacuum tube) op-amp An op-amp, defined as a general-purpose, DC-coupled, high gain, inverting feedback amplifier, is first found in US Patent 2,401,779 "Summing Amplifier" filed by Karl D. Swartzel Jr. of Bell labs in 1941. This design used three vacuum tubes to achieve a gain of 90dB and operated on voltage rails of ±350V. In contrast to modern day op-amps, it had a single inverting input and an output instead of the modern two differential inputs where one is inverting and the other is not. Throughout World War II, Swartzel's design proved its value by being liberally used in the M9 artillery director designed at Bell Labs. This artillery director worked with the SCR584 radar system to achieve extraordinary hit rates (near 90%) that would not have been possible otherwise. 1947: First op-amp with an explicit non-inverting input In 1947, the operational amplifier was first formally defined and named in a paper by Professor John R. Ragazzini of Columbia University. In this same paper a footnote mentioned an op-amp design by a student that would turn out to be quite significant. This op-amp, designed by Loebe Julie, was superior in a variety of ways. It had two major innovations. Its input stage used a long-tailed triode pair with loads matched to reduce drift in the output and, far more importantly, it was the first op-amp design to have two inputs (one inverting, the other non-inverting). The differential input made a whole range of new functionality possible, but it would not be used for a long time due to the rise of the chopper-stabilized amplifier. 1948: First chopper-stabilized op-amp In 1949, Edwin A. Goldberg designed a chopper-stabilized op-amp. This set-up uses a normal op-amp with an additional AC amplifier that goes alongside the op-amp. The chopper gets an AC signal from DC by switching between the DC voltage and ground at a fast rate (60 Hz or 400 Hz). This signal is then amplified, rectified, filtered and fed into the op-amp's non-inverting input. This vastly improved the gain of the op-amp while significantly reducing the output drift and DC offset. Unfortunately, any design that used a chopper couldn't use their non-inverting input for any other purpose. Nevertheless, the much improved characteristics of the chopper-stabilized op-amp made it the dominant way to use op-amps. Techniques that used the non-inverting input regularly would not be very popular until the 1960s when op-amp ICs started to show up in the field. In 1953, vacuum tube op-amps became commercially available with the release of the model K2-W from George A. Philbrick Researches, Incorporated. The designation on the devices shown, GAP/R, is a contraction for the complete company name. Two nine-pin 12AX7 vacuum tubes were mounted in an octal package and had a model K2-P chopper add-on available that would effectively "use up" the non-inverting input. This op-amp was based on a descendant of Loebe Julie's 1947 design and, along with its successors, would start the widespread use of op-amps in industry. 1961: First discrete IC op-amps GAP/R's model P45: a solid-state, discrete op-amp (1961). With the birth of the transistor in 1947, and the silicon transistor in 1954, the concept of ICs became a reality. The introduction of the planar process in 1959 made transistors and ICs stable enough to be commercially useful. By 1961, solid-state, discrete op-amps were being produced. These op-amps were effectively small circuit boards with packages such as edge-connectors. They usually had hand-selected resistors in order to improve things such as voltage offset and drift. The P45 (1961) had a gain of 94 dB and ran on ±15 V rails. It was intended to deal with signals in the range of ±10 V. 1962: First op-amps in potted modules GAP/R's model PP65: a solid-state op-amp in a potted module (1962). By 1962, several companies were producing modular potted packages that could be plugged into printed circuit boards. These packages were crucially important as they made the operational amplifier into a single black box which could be easily treated as a component in a larger circuit. 1963: First monolithic IC op-amp In 1963, the first monolithic IC op-amp, the μA702 designed by Bob Widlar at Fairchild Semiconductor, was released. Monolithic ICs consist of a single chip as opposed to a chip and discrete parts (a discrete IC) or multiple chips bonded and connected on a circuit board (a hybrid IC). Almost all modern op-amps are monolithic ICs; however, this first IC did not meet with much success. Issues such as an uneven supply voltage, low gain and a small dynamic range held off the dominance of monolithic op-amps until 1965 when the μA709 A.P. Malvino, Electronic Principles (2nd Ed. 1979. ISBN 0-07-039867-4) p. 476. (also designed by Bob Widlar) was released. 1968: Release of the μA741 – would be seen as a nearly ubiquitous chip The popularity of monolithic op-amps was further improved upon the release of the LM101 in 1967, which solved a variety of issues, and the subsequent release of the μA741 in 1968. The μA741 was extremely similar to the LM101 except that Fairchild's facilities allowed them to include a 30 pF compensation capacitor inside the chip instead of requiring external compensation. This simple difference has made the 741 the canonical op-amp and many modern amps base their pinout on the 741s.The μA741 is still in production, and has become ubiquitous in electronics—many manufacturers produce a version of this classic chip, recognizable by part numbers containing 741. 1966: First varactor bridge op-amps Since the 741, there have been many different directions taken in op-amp design. Varactor bridge op-amps started to be produced in the late 1960s; they were designed to have extremely small input current and are still amongst the best op-amps available in terms of common-mode rejection with the ability to correctly deal with hundreds of volts at their inputs. 1970: First high-speed, low-input current FET design In the 1970s high speed, low-input current designs started to be made by using FETs. These would be largely replaced by op-amps made with MOSFETs in the 1980s. During the 1970s single sided supply op-amps also became available. 1972: Single sided supply op-amps being produced A single sided supply op-amp is one where the input and output voltages can be as low as the negative power supply voltage instead of needing to be at least 2 volts above it. The result is that it can operate in many applications with the negative supply pin on the op-amp being connected to the signal ground, thus eliminating the need for a separate negative power supply. The LM324 (released in 1972) was one such op-amp that came in a quad package and became an industry standard. In addition to packaging multiple op-amps in a single package, the 1970s also saw the birth of op-amps in hybrid packages. These op-amps were generally improved versions of existing monolithic op-amps and were without a doubt the best op-amps available. As the properties of monolithic op-amps improved, the more complex hybrid ICs were quickly relegated to systems that are required to have extremely long service lives or other specialty systems. Recent trends Recently supply voltages in analog circuits have decreased (as they have in digital logic) and low-voltage opamps have been introduced reflecting this. Supplies of ±5V and increasingly 5V are common. To maximize the signal range modern opamps commonly have rail-to-rail inputs (the input signals can range from the lowest supply voltage to the highest) and sometimes rail-to-rail outputs. Applications DIP pinout for 741-type operational amplifier Use in electronics system design The use of op-amps as circuit blocks is much easier and clearer than specifying all their individual circuit elements (transistors, resistors, etc.), whether the amplifiers used are integrated or discrete. In the first approximation op-amps can be used as if they were ideal differential gain blocks; at a later stage limits can be placed on the acceptable range of parameters for each op-amp. Circuit design follows the same lines for all electronic circuits. A specification is drawn up governing what the circuit is required to do, with allowable limits. For example, the gain may be required to be 100 times, with a tolerance of 5% but drift of less than 1% in a specified temperature range; the input impedance not less than 1 megohm; etc. A basic circuit is designed, often with the help of circuit modeling (on a computer). Specific commercially available op-amps and other components are then chosen that meet the design criteria within the specified tolerances at acceptable cost. If not all criteria can be met, the specification may need to be modified. A prototype is then built and tested; changes to meet or improve the specification, alter functionality, or reduce the cost, may be made. Positive feedback configurations Another typical configuration of op-amps is the positive feedback, which takes a fraction of the output signal back to the non-inverting input. An important application of it is the comparator with hysteresis (i.e., the Schmitt trigger). Basic single stage amplifiers Non-inverting amplifier An op-amp connected in the non-inverting amplifier configuration The general op-amp has two inputs and one output. The output voltage is a multiple of the difference between the two inputs (some are made with floating, differential outputs): G is the open-loop gain of the op-amp. The inputs are assumed to have very high impedance; negligible current will flow into or out of the inputs. Op-amp outputs have very low source impedance. If the output is connected to the inverting input, after being scaled by a voltage divider: then: , where Solving for , we see that the result is a linear amplifier with gain: If is very large, comes close to . Inverting amplifier Because it does not require a differential input, this negative feedback connection was the most typical use of an op-amp in the days of analog computers. It remains very popular, but many different configurations are possible, making it one of the most versatile of all electronic building blocks. An op-amp connected in the inverting amplifier configuration By applying KCL at the inverting input, However, because the input current into any operational amplifier is assumed to be zero, and so By applying KVL at the output, However, because the operational amplifier is in a negative-feedback configuration, the inverting input can be assumed to match the non-inverting input . In particular, and so is a virtual ground. Therefore, Hence, closed loop gain Electronic Circuits (Fifth edition) by Sedra/Smith Some Variations: A resistor is often inserted between the non-inverting input and ground (so both inputs "see" similar resistances), reducing the input offset voltage due to different voltage drops due to bias current, and may reduce distortion in some op-amps. A DC-blocking capacitor may be inserted in series with the input resistor when a frequency response down to DC is not needed and any DC voltage on the input is unwanted. That is, the capacitive component of the input impedance inserts a DC zero and a low-frequency pole that gives the circuit a bandpass or high-pass characteristic. Other applications audio- and video-frequency pre-amplifiers and buffers voltage comparators differential amplifiers differentiators and integrators filters precision rectifiers precision peak detectors voltage and current regulators analog calculators analog-to-digital converters digital-to-analog converter voltage clamps oscillators and waveform generators Limitations of real op-amps Real op-amps can only approach this ideal: in addition to the practical limitations on slew rate, bandwidth, offset and so forth mentioned above, real op-amp parameters are subject to drift over time and with changes in temperature, input conditions, etc. Modern integrated FET or MOSFET op-amps approximate more closely the ideal op-amp than bipolar ICs where large signals must be handled at room temperature over a limited bandwidth; input impedance, in particular, is much higher, although the bipolar op-amps usually exhibit superior (i.e., lower) input offset drift and noise characteristics. Where the limitations of real devices can be ignored, an op-amp can be viewed as a black box with gain; circuit function and parameters are determined by feedback, usually negative. IC op-amps as implemented in practice are moderately complex integrated circuits; see the internal circuitry for the relatively simple 741 op-amp below, for example. DC imperfections Real operational amplifiers suffer from several non-ideal effects: Finite gain Open-loop gain is defined as the amplification from input to output without any feedback applied. For mathematical calculations, the ideal open-loop gain is infinite; however, it is finite in real operational amplifiers. Typical devices exhibit open-loop DC gain ranging from 100,000 to over 1 million. So long as the loop gain (i.e., the product of open-loop and feedback gains) is very large, the circuit gain will be determined entirely by the amount of negative feedback (i.e., it will be independent of open-loop gain). In cases where closed-loop gain must be very high, the feedback gain will be very low, and the low feedback gain causes low loop gain; in these cases, the operational amplifier will cease to behave ideally. Finite input impedance The input impedance of the operational amplifier is defined as the impedance between its two inputs. It is not the impedance from each input to ground. In the typical high-gain negative-feedback applications, the feedback ensures that the two inputs sit at the same voltage, and so the impedance between them is made artificially very high. Hence, this parameter is rarely an important design parameter. Because MOSFET-input operational amplifiers often have protection circuits that effectively short circuit any input differences greater than a small threshold, the input impedance can appear to be very low in some tests. However, as long as these operational amplifiers are used in a typical high-gain negative feedback application, these protection circuits will be inactive and the negative feedback will render the input impedance to be practically infinite. The input bias and leakage currents described below are a more important design parameter for typical operational amplifier applications. Non-zero output impedance Low output impedance is important for low resistance loads; for these loads, the voltage drop across the output impedance of the amplifier will be significant. Hence, the output impedance of the amplifier reflects the maximum power that can be provided. Similarly, low-impedance outputs typically require high quiescent (i.e., idle) current in the output stage and will dissipate more power. So low-power designs may purposely sacrifice low-impedance outputs. Input current Due to biasing requirements or leakage, a small amount of current (typically ~10 nanoamperes for bipolar op-amps, tens of picoamperes for JFET input stages, and only a few pA for MOSFET input stages) flows into the inputs. When large resistors or sources with high output impedances are used in the circuit, these small currents can produce large unmodeled voltage drops. If the input currents are matched and the impedance looking out of both inputs are matched, then the voltages produced at each input will be equal. Because the operational amplifier operates on the difference between its inputs, these matched voltages will have no effect (unless the operational amplifier has poor CMRR, which is described below). It is more common for the input currents (or the impedances looking out of each input) to be slightly mismatched, and so a small offset voltage' can be produced. This offset voltage can create offsets or drifting in the operational amplifier. It can often be nulled externally; however, many operational amplifiers include offset null or balance pins and some procedure for using them to remove this offset. Some operational amplifiers attempt to nullify this offset automatically. Input offset voltage This voltage, which is what is required across the op-amp's input terminals to drive the output voltage to zero, D.F. Stout Handbook of Operational Amplifier Circuit Design (McGraw-Hill, 1976, ISBN 007061797X ) pp. 1–11. This definition hews to the convention of measuring op-amp parameters with respect to the zero voltage point in the circuit, which is usually half the total voltage between the amplifier's positive and negative power rails. is related to the mismatches in input bias current. In the perfect amplifier, there would be no input offset voltage. However, it exists in actual op-amps because of imperfections in the differential amplifier that constitutes the input stage of the vast majority of these devices. Input offset voltage creates two problems: First, due to the amplifier's high voltage gain, it virtually assures that the amplifier output will go into saturation if it is operated without negative feedback, even when the input terminals are wired together. Second, in a closed loop, negative feedback configuration, the input offset voltage is amplified along with the signal and this may pose a problem if high precision DC amplification is required or if the input signal is very small. Many older designs of operational amplifiers have offset null inputs to allow the offset to be manually adjusted away. Modern precision op-amps can have internal circuits that automatically cancel this offset using choppers or other circuits that measure the offset voltage periodically and subtract it from the input voltage. Common mode gain A perfect operational amplifier amplifies only the voltage difference between its two inputs, completely rejecting all voltages that are common to both. However, the differential input stage of an operational amplifier is never perfect, leading to the amplification of these identical voltages to some degree. The standard measure of this defect is called the common-mode rejection ratio (denoted CMRR). Minimization of common mode gain is usually important in non-inverting amplifiers (described below) that operate at high amplification. Temperature effects All parameters change with temperature. Temperature drift of the input offset voltage is especially important. Power-supply rejection The output of a perfect operational amplifier will be completely independent from ripples that arrive on its power supply inputs. Every real operational amplifier has a specified power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) that reflects how well the op-amp can reject changes in its supply voltage. Copious use of bypass capacitors can improve the PSRR of many devices, including the operational amplifier. AC imperfections The op-amp gain calculated at DC does not apply at higher frequencies. To a first approximation, the gain of a typical op-amp is inversely proportional to frequency. This means that an op-amp is characterized by its gain-bandwidth product. For example, an op-amp with a gain bandwidth product of 1 MHz would have a gain of 5 at 200 kHz, and a gain of 1 at 1 MHz. This low-pass characteristic is introduced deliberately, because it tends to stabilize the circuit by introducing a dominant pole. This is known as frequency compensation. Typical low cost, general purpose op-amps exhibit a gain bandwidth product of a few megahertz. Specialty and high speed op-amps can achieve gain bandwidth products of hundreds of megahertz. For very high-frequency circuits, a completely different form of op-amp called the current-feedback operational amplifier is often used. Other imperfections include: Finite bandwidth — all amplifiers have a finite bandwidth. This creates several problems for op amps. First, associated with the bandwidth limitation is a phase difference between the input signal and the amplifier output that can lead to oscillation in some feedback circuits. The internal frequency compensation used in some op amps to increase the gain or phase margin intentionally reduces the bandwidth even further to maintain output stability when using a wide variety of feedback networks. Second, reduced bandwidth results in lower amounts of feedback at higher frequencies, producing higher distortion, noise, and output impedance and also reduced output phase linearity as the frequency increases. Input capacitance — most important for high frequency operation because it further reduces the open loop bandwidth of the amplifier. Common mode gain — See DC imperfections, above. Nonlinear imperfections Saturation — output voltage is limited to a minimum and maximum value close to the power supply voltages. That the output cannot reach the power supply voltages is usually the result of limitations of the amplifier's output stage transistors. See "Output stage," below. Saturation occurs when the output of the amplifier reaches this value and is usually due to: In the case of an op-amp using a bipolar power supply, a voltage gain that produces an output that is more positive or more negative than that maximum or minimum; or In the case of an op-amp using a single supply voltage, either a voltage gain that produces an output that is more positive than that maximum, or a signal so close to ground that the amplifier's gain is not sufficient to raise it above the lower threshold. The output of older op-amps can reach to within one or two volts of the supply rails. The output of newer so-called "rail to rail" op-amps can reach to within millivolts of the supply rails when providing low output currents. Slewing — the amplifier's output voltage reaches its maximum rate of change. Measured as the slew rate, it is usually specified in volts per microsecond. When slewing occurs, further increases in the input signal have no effect on the rate of change of the output. Slewing is usually caused by internal capacitances in the amplifier, especially those used to implement its frequency compensation. Non-linear transfer function — The output voltage may not be accurately proportional to the difference between the input voltages. It is commonly called distortion when the input signal is a waveform. This effect will be very small in a practical circuit if substantial negative feedback is used. Power considerations Limited output current — the output current must obviously be finite. In practice, most op-amps are designed to limit the output current so as not to exceed a specified level — around 25 mA for a type 741 IC op-amp — thus protecting the op-amp and associated circuitry from damage. Limited dissipated power — an opamp is a linear amplifier. It therefore dissipates some power as heat, proportional to the output current, and to the difference between the output voltage and the supply voltage. If the opamp dissipates too much power, then its temperature will increase above some safe limit. The opamp may enter thermal shutdown, or it may be destroyed. Internal circuitry of 741 type op-amp Though designs vary between products and manufacturers, all op-amps have basically the same internal structure, which consists of three stages: A component level diagram of the common 741 op-amp. Dotted lines outline: current mirrors (red); differential amplifier (blue); class A gain stage (magenta); voltage level shifter (green); output stage (cyan). Differential amplifier – provides low noise amplification, high input impedance, usually a differential output. Voltage amplifier – provides high voltage gain, a single-pole frequency roll-off, usually single-ended output. Output amplifier – provides high current driving capability, low output impedance, current limiting and short circuit protection circuitry. Input stage Constant-current stabilization system The input stage DC conditions are stabilized by a high-gain negative feedback system whose main parts are the two current mirrors on the left of the figure, outlined in red. The main purpose of this negative feedback system—to supply the differential input stage with a stable constant current—is realized as follows. The current through the 39 kΩ resistor acts as a current reference for the other bias currents used in the chip. The voltage across the resistor is equal to the voltage across the supply rails () minus two transistor diode drops (i.e., from Q11 and Q12), and so the current has value . The Widlar current mirror built by Q10, Q11, and the 5 kΩ resistor produces a very small fraction of at the Q10 collector. This small constant current through Q10's collector supplies the base currents for Q3 and Q4 as well as the Q9 collector current. The Q8/Q9 current mirror tries to make Q9's collector current the same as the Q3 and Q4 collector currents. Thus Q3 and Q4's combined base currents (which are of the same order as the overall chip's input currents) will be a small fraction of the already small Q10 current. So, if the input stage current increases for any reason, the Q8/Q9 current mirror will draw current away from the bases of Q3 and Q4, which reduces the input stage current, and vice versa. The feedback loop also isolates the rest of the circuit from common-mode signals by making the base voltage of Q3/Q4 follow tightly below the higher of the two input voltages. Differential amplifier The blue outlined section is a differential amplifier. Q1 and Q2 are input emitter followers and together with the common base pair Q3 and Q4 form the differential input stage. In addition, Q3 and Q4 also act as level shifters and provide voltage gain to drive the class A amplifier. They also help to increase the reverse Vbe rating on the input transistors (the emitter-base junctions of the npn transistors Q1 and Q2 break down at around 7 V but the pnp transistors Q3 and Q4 have breakdown voltages around 50 V) The uA741 Operational Amplifier . The differential amplifier formed by Q1–Q4 drives a current mirror active load formed by transistors Q5–Q7 (actually, Q6 is the very active load). Q7 increases the accuracy of the current mirror by decreasing the amount of signal current required from Q3 to drive the bases of Q5 and Q6. This configuration provides differential to single ended conversion as follows: The signal current of Q3 is the input to the current mirror while the output of the mirror (the collector of Q6) is connected to the collector of Q4. Here, the signal currents of Q3 and Q4 are summed. For differential input signals, the signal currents of Q3 and Q4 are equal and opposite. Thus, the sum is twice the individual signal currents. This completes the differential to single ended conversion. The open circuit signal voltage appearing at this point is given by the product of the summed signal currents and the paralleled collector resistances of Q4 and Q6. Since the collectors of Q4 and Q6 appear as high resistances to the signal current, the open circuit voltage gain of this stage is very high. It should be noted that the base current at the inputs is not zero and the effective (differential) input impedance of a 741 is about 2 MΩ. The "offset null" pins may be used to place external resistors in parallel with the two 1 kΩ resistors (typically in the form of the two ends of a potentiometer) to adjust the balancing of the Q5/Q6 current mirror and thus indirectly control the output of the op-amp when zero signal is applied between the inputs. Class A gain stage The section outlined in magenta is the class A gain stage. The top-right current mirror Q12/Q13 supplies this stage by a constant current load, via the collector of Q13, that is largely independent of the output voltage. The stage consists of two NPN transistors in a Darlington configuration and uses the output side of a current mirror as its collector load to achieve high gain. The 30 pF capacitor provides frequency selective negative feedback around the class A gain stage as a means of frequency compensation to stabilise the amplifier in feedback configurations. This technique is called Miller compensation and functions in a similar manner to an op-amp integrator circuit. It is also known as 'dominant pole compensation' because it introduces a dominant pole (one which masks the effects of other poles) into the open loop frequency response. This pole can be as low as 10 Hz in a 741 amplifier and it introduces a −3 dB loss into the open loop response at this frequency. This is done to achieve unconditional stability of the amplifier down to unity closed loop gain using non-reactive feedback networks and makes this type of internally compensated amplifier easier to use. Output bias circuitry The green outlined section (based around Q16) is a voltage level shifter or rubber diode (i.e., a multiplier); a type of voltage source. In the circuit as shown, Q16 provides a constant voltage drop between its collector and emitter regardless of the current through the circuit. If the base current to the transistor is assumed to be zero, and the voltage between base and emitter (and across the 7.5 kΩ resistor) is 0.625 V (a typical value for a BJT in the active region), then the current through the 4.5 kΩ resistor will be the same as that through the 7.5 kΩ, and will produce a voltage of 0.375 V across it. This keeps the voltage across the transistor, and the two resistors at 0.625 + 0.375 = 1 V. This serves to bias the two output transistors slightly into conduction reducing crossover distortion. In some discrete component amplifiers this function is achieved with (usually two) silicon diodes. Output stage The output stage (outlined in cyan) is a Class AB push-pull emitter follower (Q14, Q20) amplifier with the bias set by the multiplier voltage source Q16 and its base resistors. This stage is effectively driven by the collectors of Q13 and Q19. Variations in the bias with temperature, or between parts with the same type number, are common so crossover distortion and quiescent current may be subject to significant variation. The output range of the amplifier is about 1 volt less than the supply voltage, owing in part to of the output transistors Q14 and Q20. The 25 Ω resistor in the output stage acts as a current sense to provide the output current-limiting function which limits the current in the emitter follower Q14 to about 25 mA for the 741. Current limiting for the negative output is done by sensing the voltage across Q19's emitter resistor and using this to reduce the drive into Q15's base. Later versions of this amplifier schematic may show a slightly different method of output current limiting. The output resistance is not zero, as it would be in an ideal op-amp, but with negative feedback it approaches zero at low frequencies.Note: while the 741 was historically used in audio and other sensitive equipment, such use is now rare because of the improved noise performance of more modern op-amps. Apart from generating noticeable hiss, 741s and other older op-amps may have poor common-mode rejection ratios and so will often introduce cable-borne mains hum and other common-mode interference, such as switch 'clicks', into sensitive equipment. The "741" has come to often mean a generic op-amp IC (such as uA741, LM301, 558, LM324, TBA221 - or a more modern replacement such as the TL071). The description of the 741 output stage is qualitatively similar for many other designs (that may have quite different input stages), except: Some devices (uA748, LM301, LM308) are not internally compensated (require an external capacitor from output to some point within the operational amplifier, if used in low closed-loop gain applications). Some modern devices have rail-to-rail output capability (output can be taken to positive or negative power supply rail within a few millivolts). See also Operational amplifier applications Instrumentation amplifier Active filter Current-feedback operational amplifier Operational transconductance amplifier George A. Philbrick Notes References External links Introduction to op-amp circuit stages, second order filters, single op-amp bandpass filters, and a simple intercom Hyperphysics – descriptions of common applications Single supply op-amp circuit collection Op-amp circuit collection Another introduction Op-Amp Handbook Opamps for everyone Downloadable book. Can also be bought MOS op amp design: A tutorial overview Op Amp Applications Downloadable book. Can also be bought Operational Amplifier Noise Prediction (All Op Amps) using spot noise Operational Amplifier Basics History of the Op-amp from vacuum tubes to about 2002. Lots of detail, with schematics. IC part is somewhat ADI-centric. IC Op-Amps Through the Ages ECE 209: Operational amplifier basics – Brief document explaining zero error by naive high-gain negative feedback. 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2,398 | New_wave_music | New Wave is an inexact term for a rock genre that originated in 1976. The term started as applying to punk rock music. It evolved to cover punk based acts that mixed in other elements. During the 1980's in the United States New Wave became a catch all term that applied to new acts in general and synthpop acts in particular. New Wave was basically the reinvention of rock 'n' roll of the 1960s but it also incorporated various influences as well as aspects of mod subculture, electronic music, disco, and funk. Overview The term New Wave itself is a source of much confusion. It was introduced in 1976 in Great Britain by Sex Pistols manager Malcolm McLaren as an alternative label for what was also being called "punk". The term referenced the avant-garde French New Wave film movement of the 1960s. The label was soon picked up by British punk fanzines such as Sniffin' Glue and then the professional music press. Gendron, Bernard (2002). Between Montmartre and the Mudd Club: Popular Music and the Avant-Garde (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press), pp. 269–270. For a period of time in 1976 and 1977 the two terms were interchangeable. ; By the end of 1977, "New Wave" had replaced "Punk" as the definition for new underground music in the United Kingdom. In the United States, Sire Records needed a term by which it could market its newly signed bands, who had frequently played the club CBGB. Because radio consultants in the U.S. had advised their clients that punk rock was a fad (and because many stations that had embraced disco had been hurt by the backlash), they settled on the term "New Wave". Like those film makers, its new artists, such as The Ramones and Talking Heads, were anti-corporate, experimental, and from a generation that had grown up as critical consumers of the art they now practiced. At first most American writers exclusively used the term "New Wave" to describe British Punk acts. Starting in December 1976 The New York Rocker which was suspicious of the term "Punk" became the first American journal to enthusiastically use the term starting with British acts, and later appropriating it to acts associated with the CBGB scene. Soon, listeners began to differentiate some of these musicians from "true punks". The music journalist Charles Shaar Murray, in writing about the Boomtown Rats, has indicated that the term New Wave became an industry catch-all for musicians affiliated with the punk movement, but in some way different from it: Murray, Charles Shaar. Sleevenotes to CD reissue of The Boomtown Rats, reproduced at . Accessed January 21, 2007. Music that followed the anarchic garage band ethos of the Sex Pistols was distinguished as "punk", while music that tended toward experimentation, lyrical complexity, or more polished production, was categorized as "New Wave". This came to include musicians who had come to prominence in the British pub rock scene of the mid-1970s, such as Ian Dury, Nick Lowe, Eddie and the Hot Rods and Dr Feelgood; Adams, Bobby. Nick Lowe: A Candid Interview, Bomp magazine, January 1979, reproduced at . Accessed January 21, 2007. acts associated with the New York club CBGBs, such as Television, Patti Smith, Mink DeVille and Blondie; and singer-songwriters who were noted for their barbed lyrical wit, such as Elvis Costello, Tom Robinson and Joe Jackson. Furthermore, many artists who would have originally been classified as punk were also termed New Wave. A 1977 Phonogram Records compilation album of the same name (New Wave) features US artists including the Dead Boys, Ramones, Talking Heads and The Runaways. Savage, Jon. (1991) England's Dreaming, Faber & Faber Later still, "New Wave" came to imply a less noisy, often synthesizer-based, more pop sound, and to include acts manufactured by record labels. In this context Spandau Ballet Flock of Seagulls, Depeche Mode, and Soft Cell were all called New Wave. The term post-punk was coined to describe the darker, less pop-influenced groups, such as Siouxsie & the Banshees, The Cure, and The Psychedelic Furs. Although distinct, punk, New Wave, and post-punk all shared common ground: an energetic reaction to the supposedly overproduced, uninspired popular music of the 1970s. The term fell out of favour in The United Kingdom during the early 1980s because its usage had become too general. Encyclopedia of Contemporary British Culture Page 365 Reception in The United States In the summer of 1977 both Time Anthems of the Blank Generation Time Magazine July 11,1977 issue and Newsweek magazines wrote favorable lead stories on the "Punk/new wave" movement. Rock critics had mixed opinions. Acts associated with the movement received little or no radio airplay or music industry support. Small scenes developed in major cities. Continuing into the next year public support remained limited to select elements of the artistic, bohemian and intellectual population as arena rock and disco dominated the charts. Around 1979, acts associated with punk and acts that mixed punk with other genres began to make chart appearances. Blondie, Talking Heads, The Knack and The Cars would chart that year. The release during this period of Gary Numan's album The Pleasure Principle would be the pop chart breakthrough for gender bending synthpop acts with a cool detached stage presence St. James enclipedia of Pop Culture . New Wave music scenes developed in Ohio and Athens, Georgia American Punk Rock Allmusic . The arrival of MTV in the early 1980s would usher in New Wave's most successful era and one of the most democratic periods in American Pop history. British artists unlike many of their American counterparts had learned how to use video early on Rip It Up and Start Again Postpunk 1978-1984 by Simon Reynolds Pages 340,342-343 . Several British acts signed to independent labels were able to outmarket and outsell American artists that were signed with major labels. Journalists labeled this phenomenon a "Second British Invasion" 1986 Knight Ridder news article . 'The music had strayed far from New Wave's punk roots. Starting in this period and continuing until around 1988, the term "New Wave" was used in America to describe nearly every new pop or pop rock artist that largely used synthesizers or who did not have long hair. New Wave is still used today to describe these acts Where Are They Now: '80s New Wave Musicians ABC News 29 November 2007 . Fans and artists would rebel against this catchall definition by inventing dozens of genre names. Synthpop was a broad subgenre that saw groups such as The Human League, Depeche Mode, a-ha ,Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark , and the Pet Shop Boys. chart. The period saw a number of one hit wonders. "New Wave" soundtracks were used in Brat Pack films such as Valley Girl, Sixteen Candles and The Breakfast Club. Critics would describe the MTV acts as shallow or vapid, but the danceable quality of the music and quirky fashion sense associated with New Wave artists appealed to audiences. The use of synthesizers by New Wave acts influenced the development of the House music in Chicago and Techno in Detroit. New Wave’s indie spirit would be crucial to the development college rock and grunge/alternative rock in the latter half of the 1980s and beyond. Post 1980's influence During the 1990s, in the aftermath of grunge rock, the British Music press launched a campaign to promote New wave of new wave. This campaign involved overtly punk and new wave influenced acts such as Elastica and Smash. This movement would be eclipsed by Britpop. No Doubt an American act that arrived in 1996 POP REVIEW; Knowing Just How Hard It Is to Be a Teen-Ager New York Times April 18, 1996 as well as Gwen Stefani in her solo career have been described as New Wave influenced. Gwen Stefani's New Video Hits YouTube People November 15,2007 Gwen Stefani MTV biography In 2004 a number of acts with a new wave influenced sound were popular. Some of these were Scissor Sisters, Franz Ferdinand , The Killers, Interpol, The Faint, and Bloc Party. New wave is back — in hot new bands MSNBC September 17, 2004 The Ting Tings and Santogold are more recent acts of note. Daily Disc: The Ting Tings, We Started Nothing CanWest New Service June 17, 2008 Download this: Ting Tings Minneapolis Star Tribune June 7, 2008 Critics’ Choice New CDs New York Times April 28, 2008 New Wave styles 2 Tone Pub rock Synthpop Electropop Mod Revival Power pop La Movida Madrileña Parallel movements Coldwave Dark Wave Neue Deutsche Welle No Wave Minimal wave See also List of New Wave bands and artists References External links About.com Profile of the New Wave Genre Encyclopedia Britannica Definition St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture Article Essay about New Wave's definition and list of essential New Wave Records from allmusic Punk 2 New Wave Top 100 list and short reviews Rolling Stone Magazine's Rock and Roll Daily blog'' Favorite 1980s New Wave Lists Reporters, Readers | New_wave_music |@lemmatized new:51 wave:42 inexact:1 term:16 rock:14 genre:4 originate:1 start:6 apply:2 punk:22 music:15 evolve:1 cover:1 base:2 act:20 mix:1 element:2 united:5 state:3 become:4 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2,399 | The_Funniest_Joke_in_the_World | "The Funniest Joke in the World" is the title most frequently used for written references to a Monty Python's Flying Circus comedy sketch, which is also known by two other phrases that appear within it, "Joke Warfare" and "Killer Joke", the latter being the most commonly used spoken title used to refer to it. The premise of the sketch is fatal hilarity: the joke is simply so funny that anyone who reads or hears it promptly dies laughing. Broadcast The sketch appeared in the first episode of the television show Monty Python's Flying Circus ("Whither Canada"), first shown on October 5, 1969. The sketch was later remade in a shorter version for the film And Now For Something Completely Different; it is also available on the CD-ROM game of Monty Python's The Meaning of Life. Summary The sketch is set in Finchley during World War II, when Ernest Scribbler, a British "manufacturer of jokes" (Michael Palin), creates the funniest joke in the world and promptly dies laughing. His mother (Eric Idle) enters the room and finds her son dead. Horrified, she carefully takes the crumpled paper from his hand and reads it, believing it to be a suicide note. She then begins laughing hysterically, falls over and dies. A Scotland Yard inspector (Graham Chapman) retrieves the joke, but despite somber music and the chanting of laments by other officers (John Cleese, Eric Idle, and Michael Palin) to create a depressing mood, reads it and also dies laughing. It is finally given over to the British Army which sends a motorcycle courier to collect it. The joke is then tested on a dim-witted and bespectacled army lance corporal (Terry Jones) on Salisbury Plain. After a few seconds he comprehends it, sniggers, and promptly falls over dead. This impresses the senior officers, observing in a bunker at safe distance. The joke is then translated into German. The narrator says that the German version was over 60,000 times more powerful than Britain's "great pre-war joke", upon which the scene cuts to the famous newsreel shot of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain returning to the United Kingdom holding the Munich Agreement, in reference to its failure to prevent Hitler from annexing any more land. During the winter of 1943, the joke was translated, with each word being translated by a different person — because seeing too much of the joke would prove fatal. The narrator (Chapman) adds that one translator accidentally caught a glimpse of two words and was hospitalized for weeks. The translation is given to British soldiers who do not speak German, because not understanding what they are saying is the only way to survive reading the joke aloud. The joke is used for the first time on 8 July, 1944 in the Ardennes by the soldiers, who read the German version aloud on the battlefield, and the German soldiers simply fall over dead from laughter. In the television version, a British soldier (Palin) is captured and forced to tell the joke to the Germans. Initially, Palin tells his German captors, "How do you make a Nazi Cross?" Upon the Schutzstaffel officer saying he does not know, Palin steps on his foot as he says "tread on his corns". Then in order to gain the information, a Gestapo officer tickles Palin into telling the joke. However, as hearing the joke proves deadly, his captors (John Cleese, Chapman, and Terry Gilliam) die laughing and he escapes. The Germans work to produce an equally deadly joke. In the movie version, another scene of the joke being tested in open warfare is shown, with doughboys running through an open field amid artillery fire shouting the joke at the Germans, who fall over dead laughing in response. Afterward, a German field hospital is shown with several dozen German soldiers with bandages on their heads with blood stains, laughing incessantly. German doctors, attending to their "wounds", have gauze balls inserted in their ears to block out the laughter. The Germans soon formulate a counter-joke, which is translated into English and played over the radio to London, but with no success. Different jokes are used in the television and film versions of the sketch. Footage from Triumph of the Will is used where it seems like Adolf Hitler is announcing the counter-joke to his party members: "My dog has no nose." "How does it smell?" "Awful!" The joke is finally laid to rest when "peace broke out" at the end of the war. All countries agree to a Joke Warfare ban at a "special session of the Geneva convention". The last paper copy of the joke is under a monument bearing the inscription "To the Unknown Joke" (as compared with the British Unknown Warrior and the American Unknown Soldier). See also World's funniest joke External links Script of the sketch, www.jumpstation.ca | The_Funniest_Joke_in_the_World |@lemmatized funny:4 joke:28 world:4 title:2 frequently:1 use:6 write:1 reference:2 monty:3 python:3 fly:2 circus:2 comedy:1 sketch:7 also:4 know:2 two:2 phrase:1 appear:2 within:1 warfare:3 killer:1 latter:1 commonly:1 spoken:1 refer:1 premise:1 fatal:2 hilarity:1 simply:2 anyone:1 read:5 hear:2 promptly:3 die:4 laugh:6 broadcast:1 first:3 episode:1 television:3 show:4 whither:1 canada:1 october:1 later:1 remake:1 short:1 version:6 film:2 something:1 completely:1 different:3 available:1 cd:1 rom:1 game:1 meaning:1 life:1 summary:1 set:1 finchley:1 war:3 ii:1 ernest:1 scribbler:1 british:5 manufacturer:1 michael:2 palin:6 create:2 mother:1 eric:2 idle:2 enter:1 room:1 find:1 son:1 dead:4 horrify:1 carefully:1 take:1 crumpled:1 paper:2 hand:1 believe:1 suicide:1 note:1 begin:1 hysterically:1 fall:4 dy:1 scotland:1 yard:1 inspector:1 graham:1 chapman:3 retrieve:1 despite:1 somber:1 music:1 chanting:1 lament:1 officer:4 john:2 cleese:2 depressing:1 mood:1 finally:2 give:2 army:2 send:1 motorcycle:1 courier:1 collect:1 test:2 dim:1 witted:1 bespectacled:1 lance:1 corporal:1 terry:2 jones:1 salisbury:1 plain:1 second:1 comprehend:1 snigger:1 impress:1 senior:1 observe:1 bunker:1 safe:1 distance:1 translate:4 german:13 narrator:2 say:4 time:2 powerful:1 britain:1 great:1 pre:1 upon:2 scene:2 cut:1 famous:1 newsreel:1 shot:1 prime:1 minister:1 neville:1 chamberlain:1 return:1 united:1 kingdom:1 hold:1 munich:1 agreement:1 failure:1 prevent:1 hitler:2 annex:1 land:1 winter:1 word:2 person:1 see:2 much:1 would:1 prove:2 add:1 one:1 translator:1 accidentally:1 catch:1 glimpse:1 hospitalize:1 week:1 translation:1 soldier:6 speak:1 understand:1 way:1 survive:1 aloud:2 july:1 ardennes:1 battlefield:1 laughter:2 capture:1 force:1 tell:3 initially:1 captor:2 make:1 nazi:1 cross:1 schutzstaffel:1 step:1 foot:1 tread:1 corn:1 order:1 gain:1 information:1 gestapo:1 tickle:1 however:1 deadly:2 gilliam:1 laughing:1 escape:1 work:1 produce:1 equally:1 movie:1 another:1 open:2 doughboy:1 run:1 field:2 amid:1 artillery:1 fire:1 shout:1 response:1 afterward:1 hospital:1 several:1 dozen:1 bandage:1 head:1 blood:1 stain:1 incessantly:1 doctor:1 attend:1 wound:1 gauze:1 ball:1 insert:1 ear:1 block:1 soon:1 formulate:1 counter:2 english:1 play:1 radio:1 london:1 success:1 footage:1 triumph:1 seem:1 like:1 adolf:1 announce:1 party:1 member:1 dog:1 nose:1 smell:1 awful:1 lay:1 rest:1 peace:1 break:1 end:1 country:1 agree:1 ban:1 special:1 session:1 geneva:1 convention:1 last:1 copy:1 monument:1 bear:1 inscription:1 unknown:3 compare:1 warrior:1 american:1 external:1 link:1 script:1 www:1 jumpstation:1 ca:1 |@bigram funny_joke:3 monty_python:3 fly_circus:2 cd_rom:1 michael_palin:2 eric_idle:2 graham_chapman:1 dim_witted:1 lance_corporal:1 terry_jones:1 salisbury_plain:1 prime_minister:1 neville_chamberlain:1 catch_glimpse:1 cleese_chapman:1 terry_gilliam:1 adolf_hitler:1 geneva_convention:1 external_link:1 |
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