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2,200 | Force | Forces are often described as pushes or pulls. They can be due to phenomena such as gravity, magnetism, or anything else that causes a mass to accelerate. In physics, force is that external physical agent,which either changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of an object. Force is a push or pull that can cause an object with mass to change its velocity. Force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. Newton's second law states that an object with a constant mass will accelerate in proportion to the net force acting upon and in inverse proportion to its mass. Equivalently, the net force on an object equals the rate at which its momentum changes. See for example pages 9-1 and 9-2 of Feynman, Leighton and Sands (1963). See also thrust. Forces acting on three-dimensional objects may also cause them to rotate or deform, or result in a change in pressure or even change volume in some cases. The tendency of a force to cause changes in rotational speed about an axis is called torque. Deformation and pressure are the result of stress forces within an object. e.g. ; . University Physics, Sears, Young & Zemansky, pp18–38 Since antiquity, scientists have used the concept of force in the study of stationary and moving objects. However, descriptions of forces by Aristotle incorporated fundamental misunderstandings, which, despite advances made by the third century BC philosopher Archimedes from studies of simple machines, persisted for many centuries. By the seventeenth century, Sir Isaac Newton corrected these misunderstandings with mathematical insight that remained unchanged for nearly three hundred years. By the early 20th century, Einstein in his theory of general relativity successfully predicted the failure of Newton's model for gravity by ushering in the concept of a space-time continuum. The recent theory of particle physics known as the Standard Model associate forces at the level of quantum mechanics. The Standard Model predicts that exchange particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed. Only four main interactions are known: in order of decreasing strength, they are: strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational. High-energy particle physics observations made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental electroweak interaction. Pre-Newtonian concepts Aristotle famously described a force as anything which causes an object to undergo "unnatural motion" Since antiquity, the concept of force has been recognized as integral to the functioning of each of the simple machines. The mechanical advantage given by a simple machine allowed for less force to be used in exchange for that force acting over a greater distance. Analysis of the characteristics of forces ultimately culminated in the work of Archimedes who was especially famous for formulating a treatment of buoyant forces inherent in fluids. Aristotle provided a philosophical discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of Aristotelian cosmology. In Aristotle's view, the natural world held four elements that existed in "natural states". Aristotle believed that it was the natural state of objects with mass on Earth, such as the elements water and earth, to be motionless on the ground and that they tended towards that state if left alone. He distinguished between the innate tendency of objects to find their "natural place" (e.g., for heavy bodies to fall), which led to "natural motion", and unnatural or forced motion, which required continued application of a force. Land, Helen The Order of Nature in Aristotle's Physics: Place and the Elements (1998) This theory, based on the everyday experience of how objects move, such as the constant application of a force needed to keep a cart moving, had conceptual trouble accounting for the behavior of projectiles, such as the flight of arrows. The place where forces were applied to projectiles was only at the start of the flight, and while the projectile sailed through the air, no discernible force acts on it. Aristotle was aware of this problem and proposed that the air displaced through the projectile's path provided the needed force to continue the projectile moving. This explanation demands that air is needed for projectiles and that, for example, in a vacuum, no projectile would move after the initial push. Additional problems with the explanation include the fact that air resists the motion of the projectiles. These shortcomings would not be fully explained and corrected until the seventeenth century work of Galileo Galilei, who was influenced by the late medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of impetus. Galileo constructed an experiment in which stones and cannonballs were both rolled down an incline to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion early in the seventeenth century. He showed that the bodies were accelerated by gravity to an extent which was independent of their mass and argued that objects retain their velocity unless acted on by a force, for example friction. Drake, Stillman (1978). Galileo At Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-16226-5 Newtonian mechanics Sir Isaac Newton sought to describe the motion of all objects using the concepts of inertia and force, and in doing so, he found that they obey certain conservation laws. In 1687, Newton went on to publish his thesis Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. This is a recent translation into English by I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, with help from Julia Budenz. In this work, Newton set out three laws of motion that to this day are the way forces are described in physics. The general definition of net force can be found in Newton's second law of motion, and it is equal to rate of change of momentum: . Newton's first law Newton's first law of motion states that objects continue to move in a state of constant velocity unless acted upon by an external net force or resultant force. This law is an extension of Galileo's insight that constant velocity was associated with a lack of net force (see a more detailed description of this below). Newton proposed that every object with mass has an innate inertia that functions as the fundamental equilibrium "natural state" in place of the Aristotelian idea of the "natural state of rest". That is, the first law contradicts the intuitive Aristotelian belief that a net force is required to keep an object moving with constant velocity. By making rest physically indistinguishable from non-zero constant velocity, Newton's first law directly connects inertia with the concept of relative velocities. Specifically, in systems where objects are moving with different velocities, it is impossible to determine which object is "in motion" and which object is "at rest". In other words, to phrase matters more technically, the laws of physics are the same in every inertial frame of reference, that is, in all frames related by a Galilean transformation. For example, while traveling in a moving vehicle at a constant velocity, the laws of physics do not change from being at rest. A person can throw a ball straight up in the air and catch it as it falls down without worrying about applying a force in the direction the vehicle is moving. This is true even though another person who is observing the moving vehicle pass by also observes the ball follow a curving parabolic path in the same direction as the motion of the vehicle. It is the inertia of the ball associated with its constant velocity in the direction of the vehicle's motion that ensures the ball continues to move forward even as it is thrown up and falls back down. From the perspective of the person in the car, the vehicle and every thing inside of it is at rest: It is the outside world that is moving with a constant speed in the opposite direction. Since there is no experiment that can distinguish whether it is the vehicle that is at rest or the outside world that is at rest, the two situations are considered to be physically indistinguishable. Inertia therefore applies equally well to constant velocity motion as it does to rest. The concept of inertia can be further generalized to explain the tendency of objects to continue in many different forms of constant motion, even those that are not strictly constant velocity. The rotational inertia of planet Earth is what fixes the constancy of the length of a day and the length of a year. Albert Einstein extended the principle of inertia further when he explained that reference frames subject to constant acceleration, such as those free-falling toward a gravitating object, were physically equivalent to inertial reference frames. This is why, for example, astronauts experience weightlessness when in free-fall orbit around the Earth, and why Newton's Laws of Motion are more easily discernible in such environments. If an astronaut places an object with mass in mid-air next to herself, it will remain stationary with respect to the astronaut due to its inertia. This is the same thing that would occur if the astronaut and the object were in intergalactic space with no net force of gravity acting on their shared reference frame. This principle of equivalence was one of the foundational underpinnings for the development of the general theory of relativity. Though Sir Isaac Newton's most famous equation is , he actually wrote down a different form for his second law of motion that did not use differential calculus. Newton's second law A modern statement of Newton's second law is a vector differential equation: Newton's Principia Mathematica actually used a finite difference version of this equation based upon impulse. See Impulse. where is the momentum of the system, and is the net (vector sum) force. In equilibrium, there is zero net force by definition, but (balanced) forces may be present nevertheless (say, resulting in opposite and equal change of momentum). In contrast, the second law states an unbalanced force acting on an object will result in the object's momentum changing over time. By the definition of momentum, where m is the mass and is the velocity. The product rule shows that . For closed systems (systems of constant total mass), the time derivative of mass is zero and the equation becomes . By substituting the definition of acceleration, the algebraic version of Newton's second law is derived: It is sometimes called the "second most famous formula in physics". For example, by Rob Knop PhD in his Galactic Interactions blog on February 26, 2007 at 9:29 a.m. Newton never explicitly stated the formula in the final form above. Newton's second law asserts the proportionality of acceleration and mass to force. Accelerations can be defined through kinematic measurements. However, while kinematics are well-described through reference frame analysis in advanced physics, there are still deep questions that remain as to what is the proper definition of mass. General relativity offers an equivalence between space-time and mass, but lacking a coherent theory of quantum gravity, it is unclear as to how or whether this connection is relevant on microscales. With some justification, Newton's second law can be taken as a quantitative definition of mass by writing the law as an equality; the relative units of force and mass then are fixed. The use of Newton's second law as a definition of force has been disparaged in some of the more rigorous textbooks, One exception to this rule is: Translated by: J. B. Sykes, A. D. Petford, and C. L. Petford. Library of Congress Catalog Number 67-30260. In section 7, pages 12–14, this book defines force as dp/dt. because it is essentially a mathematical truism. The equality between the abstract idea of a "force" and the abstract idea of a "changing momentum vector" ultimately has no observational significance because one cannot be defined without simultaneously defining the other. What a "force" or "changing momentum" is must either be referred to an intuitive understanding of our direct perception, or be defined implicitly through a set of self-consistent mathematical formulas. Notable physicists, philosophers and mathematicians who have sought a more explicit definition of the concept of "force" include Ernst Mach, Clifford Truesdell and Walter Noll. e.g. W. Noll, “On the Concept of Force”, in part B of Walter Noll's website.. Newton's second law can be used to measure the strength of forces. For instance, knowledge of the masses of planets along with the accelerations of their orbits allows scientists to calculate the gravitational forces on planets. Newton's third law Newton's third law is a result of applying symmetry to situations where forces can be attributed to the presence of different objects. For any two objects (call them 1 and 2), Newton's third law states that any force that is applied to object 1 due to the action of object 2 is automatically accompanied by a force applied to object 2 due to the action of object 1. This law implies that forces always occur in action-and-reaction pairs. If object 1 and object 2 are considered to be in the same system, then the net force on the system due to the interactions between objects 1 and 2 is zero since . This means that in a closed system of particles, there are no internal forces that are unbalanced. That is, action-and-reaction pairs of forces shared between any two objects in a closed system will not cause the center of mass of the system to accelerate. The constituent objects only accelerate with respect to each other, the system itself remains unaccelerated. Alternatively, if an external force acts on the system, then the center of mass will experience an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the external force divided by the mass of the system. Combining Newton's second and third laws, it is possible to show that the linear momentum of a system is conserved. Using and integrating with respect to time, the equation: is obtained. For a system which includes objects 1 and 2, which is the conservation of linear momentum. Using the similar arguments, it is possible to generalizing this to a system of an arbitrary number of particles. This shows that exchanging momentum between constituent objects will not affect the net momentum of a system. In general, as long as all forces are due to the interaction of objects with mass, it is possible to define a system such that net momentum is never lost nor gained. Descriptions Free-body diagrams of an object on a flat surface and an inclined plane. Forces are resolved and added together to determine their magnitudes and the resultant. Since forces are perceived as pushes or pulls, this can provide an intuitive understanding for describing forces. As with other physical concepts (e.g. temperature), the intuitive understanding of forces is quantified using precise operational definitions that are consistent with direct observations and compared to a standard measurement scale. Through experimentation, it is determined that laboratory measurements of forces are fully consistent with the conceptual definition of force offered by Newtonian mechanics. Forces act in a particular direction and have sizes dependent upon how strong the push or pull is. Because of these characteristics, forces are classified as "vector quantities". This means that forces follow a different set of mathematical rules than physical quantities that do not have direction (denoted scalar quantities). For example, when determining what happens when two forces act on the same object, it is necessary to know both the magnitude and the direction of both forces to calculate the result. If both of these pieces of information are not known for each force, the situation is ambiguous. For example, if you know that two people are pulling on the same rope with known magnitudes of force but you do not know which direction either person is pulling, it is impossible to determine what the acceleration of the rope will be. The two people could be pulling against each other as in tug of war or the two people could be pulling in the same direction. In this simple one-dimensional example, without knowing the direction of the forces it is impossible to decide whether the net force is the result of adding the two force magnitudes or subtracting one from the other. Associating forces with vectors avoids such problems. Historically, forces were first quantitatively investigated in conditions of static equilibrium where several forces canceled each other out. Such experiments demonstrate the crucial properties that forces are additive vector quantities: they have magnitude and direction. When two forces act on an object, the resulting force, the resultant, can be determined by following the parallelogram rule of vector addition: the addition of two vectors represented by sides of a parallelogram, gives an equivalent resultant vector which is equal in magnitude and direction to the transversal of the parallelogram.. The magnitude of the resultant varies from the difference of the magnitudes of the two forces to their sum, depending on the angle between their lines of action. Free-body diagrams can be used as a convenient way to keep track of forces acting on a system. Ideally, these diagrams are drawn with the angles and relative magnitudes of the force vectors preserved so that graphical vector addition can be done to determine the resultant. As well as being added, forces can also be resolved into independent components at right angles to each other. A horizontal force pointing northeast can therefore be split into two forces, one pointing north, and one pointing east. Summing these component forces using vector addition yields the original force. Resolving force vectors into components of a set of basis vectors is often a more mathematically clean way to describe forces than using magnitudes and directions. This is because, for orthogonal components, the components of the vector sum are uniquely determined by the scalar addition of the components of the individual vectors. Orthogonal components are independent of each other; forces acting at ninety degrees to each other have no effect on each other. Choosing a set of orthogonal basis vectors is often done by considering what set of basis vectors will make the mathematics most convenient. Choosing a basis vector that is in the same direction as one of the forces is desirable, since that force would then have only one non-zero component. Force vectors can also be three-dimensional, with the third component at right-angles to the two other components. Equilibria Equilibrium occurs when the resultant force acting on a point particle is zero (that is, the vector sum of all forces is zero). When dealing with an extense body, it is also necessary that the net torque in it is 0. There are two kinds of equilibrium: static equilibrium and dynamic equilibrium. Static equilibrium Static equilibrium was understood well before the invention of classical mechanics. Objects which are at rest have zero net force acting on them. The simplest case of static equilibrium occurs when two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. For example, an object on a level surface is pulled (attracted) downward toward the center of the Earth by the force of gravity. At the same time, surface forces resist the downward force with equal upward force (called the normal force). The situation is one of zero net force and no acceleration. Pushing against an object on a frictional surface can result in a situation where the object does not move because the applied force is opposed by static friction, generated between the object and the table surface. For a situation with no movement, the static friction force exactly balances the applied force resulting in no acceleration. The static friction increases or decreases in response to the applied force up to an upper limit determined by the characteristics of the contact between the surface and the object. A static equilibrium between two forces is the most usual way of measuring forces, using simple devices such as weighing scales and spring balances. For example, an object suspended on a vertical spring scale experiences the force of gravity acting on the object balanced by a force applied by the "spring reaction force" which equals object's weight. Using such tools, some quantitative force laws were discovered: that the force of gravity is proportional to volume for objects of constant density (widely exploited for millennia to define standard weights); Archimedes' principle for buoyancy; Archimedes' analysis of the lever; Boyle's law for gas pressure; and Hooke's law for springs. These were all formulated and experimentally verified before Isaac Newton expounded his three laws of motion. Dynamical equilibrium Galileo Galilei was the first to point out the inherent contradictions contained in Aristotle's description of forces. Dynamical equilibrium was first described by Galileo who noticed that certain assumptions of Aristotelian physics were contradicted by observations and logic. Galileo realized that simple velocity addition demands that the concept of an "absolute rest frame" did not exist. Galileo concluded that motion in a constant velocity was completely equivalent to rest. This was contrary to Aristotle's notion of a "natural state" of rest that objects with mass naturally approached. Simple experiments showed that Galileo's understanding of the equivalence of constant velocity and rest to be correct. For example, if a mariner dropped a cannonball from the crow's nest of a ship moving at a constant velocity, Aristotelian physics would have the cannonball fall straight down while the ship moved beneath it. Thus, in an Aristotelian universe, the falling cannonball would land behind the foot of the mast of a moving ship. However, when this experiment is actually conducted, the cannonball always falls at the foot of the mast, as if the cannonball knows to travel with the ship despite being separated from it. Since there is no forward horizontal force being applied on the cannonball as it falls, the only conclusion left is that the cannonball continues to move with the same velocity as the boat as it falls. Thus, no force is required to keep the cannonball moving at the constant forward velocity. Moreover, any object traveling at a constant velocity must be subject to zero net force (resultant force). This is the definition of dynamical equilibrium: when all the forces on an object balance but it still moves at a constant velocity. A simple case of dynamical equilibrium occurs in constant velocity motion across a surface with kinetic friction. In such a situation, a force is applied in the direction of motion while the kinetic friction force exactly opposes the applied force. This results in a net zero force, but since the object started with a non-zero velocity, it continues to move with a non-zero velocity. Aristotle misinterpreted this motion as being caused by the applied force. However, when kinetic friction is taken into consideration it is clear that there is no net force causing constant velocity motion. Feynman diagrams A Feynman diagram for the decay of a neutron into a proton. The W boson is between two vertices indicating a repulsion. In modern particle physics, forces and the acceleration of particles are explained as the exchange of momentum-carrying gauge bosons. With the development of quantum field theory and general relativity, it was realized that "force" is a redundant concept arising from conservation of momentum (4-momentum in relativity and momentum of virtual particles in quantum electrodynamics). The conservation of momentum, from Noether's theorem, can be directly derived from the symmetry of space and so is usually considered more fundamental than the concept of a force. Thus the currently known fundamental forces are considered more accurately to be "fundamental interactions". Weinberg, S. (1994). Dreams of a Final Theory. Vintage Books USA. ISBN 0-679-74408-8 When particle A emits (creates) or absorbs (annihilates) particle B, a force accelerates particle A in response to the momentum of particle B, thereby conserving momentum as a whole. This description applies for all forces arising from fundamental interactions. While sophisticated mathematical descriptions are needed to predict, in full detail, the nature of such interactions, there is a conceptually simple way to describe such interactions through the use of Feynman diagrams. In a Feynman diagram, each matter particle is represented as a straight line (see world line) traveling through time which normally increases up or to the right in the diagram. Matter and anti-matter particles are identical except for their direction of propagation through the Feynman diagram. World lines of particles intersect at interaction vertices, and the Feynman diagram represents any force arising from an interaction as occurring at the vertex with an associated instantaneous change in the direction of the particle world lines. Gauge bosons are emitted away from the vertex as wavy lines (similar to waves) and, in the case of virtual particle exchange, are absorbed at an adjacent vertex. The utility of Feynman diagrams is that other types of physical phenomena that are part of the general picture of fundamental interactions but are conceptually separate from forces can also be described using the same rules. For example, a Feynman diagram can describe in succinct detail how a neutron decays into an electron, proton, and neutrino, an interaction mediated by the same gauge boson that is responsible for the weak nuclear force. Special relativity In the special theory of relativity mass and energy are equivalent (as can be seen by calculating the work required to accelerate an object). When an object's velocity increases so does its energy and hence its mass equivalent (inertia). It thus requires more force to accelerate it the same amount than it did at a lower velocity. Newton's second law remains valid due to the fact that it is a mathematical definition. But in order to be conserved, relativistic momentum must be redefined as: where is the velocity and is the speed of light. The relativistic expression relating force and acceleration for a particle with constant non-zero rest mass moving in the direction is: where the Lorentz factor In some cases, rest mass is not held constant. The relativistic force in these situations can be derived using the Product Rule for 3 factors and the Chain Rule. The result is that the force in the direction of the velocity is given by However, this equation is not actually applicable because force can only be used for calculations in closed systems. Relativistic force does not produce a constant acceleration, but an ever decreasing acceleration as the object approaches the speed of light. Note that is undefined for an object with a non zero rest mass at the speed of light, and the theory yields no prediction at that speed. One can however restore the form of for use in relativity through the use of four-vectors. This relation is correct in relativity when is the four-force, m is the invariant mass, and is the four-acceleration. Fundamental models All the forces in the universe are based on four fundamental forces. The strong and weak forces act only at very short distances, and are responsible for holding certain nucleons and compound nuclei together. The electromagnetic force acts between electric charges and the gravitational force acts between masses. All other forces are based on the existence of the four fundamental interactions. For example, friction is a manifestation of the electromagnetic force acting between the atoms of two surfaces, and the Pauli Exclusion Principle, which does not allow atoms to pass through each other. The forces in springs, modeled by Hooke's law, are also the result of electromagnetic forces and the Exclusion Principle acting together to return the object to its equilibrium position. Centrifugal forces are acceleration forces which arise simply from the acceleration of rotating frames of reference. The development of fundamental theories for forces proceeded along the lines of unification of disparate ideas. For example, Isaac Newton unified the force responsible for objects falling at the surface of the Earth with the force responsible for the orbits of celestial mechanics in his universal theory of gravitation. Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic forces were unified through one consistent theory of electromagnetism. In the twentieth century, the development of quantum mechanics led to a modern understanding that the first three fundamental forces (all except gravity) are manifestations of matter (fermions) interacting by exchanging virtual particles called gauge bosons. This standard model of particle physics posits a similarity between the forces and led scientists to predict the unification of the weak and electromagnetic forces in electroweak theory subsequently confirmed by observation. The complete formulation of the standard model predicts an as yet unobserved Higgs mechanism, but observations such as neutrino oscillations indicate that the standard model is incomplete. A grand unified theory allowing for the combination of the electroweak interaction with the strong force is held out as a possibility with candidate theories such as supersymmetry proposed to accommodate some of the outstanding unsolved problems in physics. Physicists are still attempting to develop self-consistent unification models that would combine all four fundamental interactions into a theory of everything. Einstein tried and failed at this endeavor, but currently the most popular approach to answering this question is string theory. Gravity An initially stationary object which is allowed to fall freely under gravity drops a distance which is proportional to the square of the elapsed time. An image was taken 20 flashes per second. During the first 1/20th of a second the ball drops one unit of distance (here, a unit is about 12 mm); by 2/20ths it has dropped a total of 4 units; by 3/20ths, 9 units and so on. What we now call gravity was not identified as a universal force until the work of Isaac Newton. Before Newton, the tendency for objects to fall towards the Earth was not understood to be related to the motions of celestial objects. Galileo was instrumental in describing the characteristics of falling objects by determining that the acceleration of every object in free-fall was constant and independent of the mass of the object. Today, this acceleration due to gravity towards the surface of the Earth is usually designated as and has a magnitude of about 9.81 meters per second squared (this measurement is taken from sea level and may vary depending on location), and points toward the center of the Earth. This observation means that the force of gravity on an object at the Earth's surface is directly proportional to the object's mass. Thus an object that has a mass of will experience a force: In free-fall, this force is unopposed and therefore the net force on the object is its weight. For objects not in free-fall, the force of gravity is opposed by the reactions of their supports. For example, a person standing on the ground experiences zero net force, since his weight is balanced by a normal force exerted by the ground. Newton's contribution to gravitational theory was to unify the motions of heavenly bodies, which Aristotle had assumed were in a natural state of constant motion, with falling motion observed on the Earth. He proposed a law of gravity that could account for the celestial motions that had been described earlier using Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion. University Physics, Sears, Young & Zemansky, pp59–82 Newton came to realize that the effects of gravity might be observed in different ways at larger distances. In particular, Newton determined that the acceleration of the Moon around the Earth could be ascribed to the same force of gravity if the acceleration due to gravity decreased as an inverse square law. Further, Newton realized that the acceleration due to gravity is proportional to the mass of the attracting body. Combining these ideas gives a formula that relates the mass () and the radius () of the Earth to the gravitational acceleration: where the vector direction is given by , the unit vector directed outward from the center of the Earth. In this equation, a dimensional constant is used to describe the relative strength of gravity. This constant has come to be known as Newton's Universal Gravitation Constant, though its value was unknown in Newton's lifetime. Not until 1798 was Henry Cavendish able to make the first measurement of using a torsion balance; this was widely reported in the press as a measurement of the mass of the Earth since knowing the could allow one to solve for the Earth's mass given the above equation. Newton, however, realized that since all celestial bodies followed the same laws of motion, his law of gravity had to be universal. Succinctly stated, Newton's Law of Gravitation states that the force on a spherical object of mass due to the gravitational pull of mass is where is the distance between the two objects' centers of mass and is the unit vector pointed in the direction away from the center of the first object toward the center of the second object. This formula was powerful enough to stand as the basis for all subsequent descriptions of motion within the solar system until the twentieth century. During that time, sophisticated methods of perturbation analysis were invented to calculate the deviations of orbits due to the influence of multiple bodies on a planet, moon, comet, or asteroid. The formalism was exact enough to allow mathematicians to predict the existence of the planet Neptune before it was observed. It was only the orbit of the planet Mercury that Newton's Law of Gravitation seemed not to fully explain. Some astrophysicists predicted the existence of another planet (Vulcan) that would explain the discrepancies; however, despite some early indications, no such planet could be found. When Albert Einstein finally formulated his theory of general relativity (GR) he turned his attention to the problem of Mercury's orbit and found that his theory added a correction which could account for the discrepancy. This was the first time that Newton's Theory of Gravity had been shown to be less correct than an alternative. Since then, and so far, general relativity has been acknowledged as the theory which best explains gravity. In GR, gravitation is not viewed as a force, but rather, objects moving freely in gravitational fields travel under their own inertia in straight lines through curved space-time – defined as the shortest space-time path between two space-time events. From the perspective of the object, all motion occurs as if there were no gravitation whatsoever. It is only when observing the motion in a global sense that the curvature of space-time can be observed and the force is inferred from the object's curved path. Thus, the straight line path in space-time is seen as a curved line in space, and it is called the ballistic trajectory of the object. For example, a basketball thrown from the ground moves in a parabola, as it is in a uniform gravitational field. Its space-time trajectory (when the extra ct dimension is added) is almost a straight line, slightly curved (with the radius of curvature of the order of few light-years). The time derivative of the changing momentum of the object is what we label as "gravitational force". Electromagnetic forces The electrostatic force was first described in 1784 by Coulomb as a force which existed intrinsically between two charges. The properties of the electrostatic force were that it varied as an inverse square law directed in the radial direction, was both attractive and repulsive (there was intrinsic polarity), was independent of the mass of the charged objects, and followed the law of superposition. Coulomb's Law unifies all these observations into one succinct statement. Subsequent mathematicians and physicists found the construct of the electric field to be useful for determining the electrostatic force on an electric charge at any point in space. The electric field was based on using a hypothetical "test charge" anywhere in space and then using Coulomb's Law to determine the electrostatic force. Thus the electric field anywhere in space is defined as where is the magnitude of the hypothetical test charge. Meanwhile, the Lorentz force of magnetism was discovered to exist between two electric currents. It has the same mathematical character as Coulomb's Law with the proviso that like currents attract and unlike currents repel. Similar to the electric field, the magnetic field can be used to determine the magnetic force on an electric current at any point in space. In this case, the magnitude of the magnetic field was determined to be where is the magnitude of the hypothetical test current and is the length of hypothetical wire through which the test current flows. The magnetic field exerts a force on all magnets including, for example, those used in compasses. The fact that the Earth's magnetic field is aligned closely with the orientation of the Earth's axis causes compass magnets to become oriented because of the magnetic force pulling on the needle. Through combining the definition of electric current as the time rate of change of electric charge, a rule of vector multiplication called Lorentz's Law describes the force on a charge moving in an magnetic field. The connection between electricity and magnetism allows for the description of a unified electromagnetic force that acts on a charge. This force can be written as a sum of the electrostatic force (due to the electric field) and the magnetic force (due to the magnetic field). Fully stated, this is the law: where is the electromagnetic force, is the magnitude of the charge of the particle, is the electric field, is the velocity of the particle which is crossed with the magnetic field (). The origin of electric and magnetic fields would not be fully explained until 1864 when James Clerk Maxwell unified a number of earlier theories into a succinct set of four equations. These "Maxwell Equations" fully described the sources of the fields as being stationary and moving charges, and the interactions of the fields themselves. This led Maxwell to discover that electric and magnetic fields could be "self-generating" through a wave that traveled at a speed which he calculated to be the speed of light. This insight united the nascent fields of electromagnetic theory with optics and led directly to a complete description of the electromagnetic spectrum. However, attempting to reconcile electromagnetic theory with two observations, the photoelectric effect, and the nonexistence of the ultraviolet catastrophe, proved troublesome. Through the work of leading theoretical physicists, a new theory of electromagnetism was developed using quantum mechanics. This final modification to electromagnetic theory ultimately led to quantum electrodynamics (or QED), which fully describes all electromagnetic phenomena as being mediated by wave particles known as photons. In QED, photons are the fundamental exchange particle which described all interactions relating to electromagnetism including the electromagnetic force. For a complete library on quantum mechanics see Quantum_mechanics#References It is a common misconception to ascribe the stiffness and rigidity of solid matter to the repulsion of like charges under the influence of the electromagnetic force. However, these characteristics actually result from the Pauli Exclusion Principle. Since electrons are fermions, they cannot occupy the same quantum mechanical state as other electrons. When the electrons in a material are densely packed together, there are not enough lower energy quantum mechanical states for them all, so some of them must be in higher energy states. This means that it takes energy to pack them together. While this effect is manifested macroscopically as a structural "force", it is technically only the result of the existence of a finite set of electron states. Nuclear forces There are two "nuclear forces" which today are usually described as interactions that take place in quantum theories of particle physics. The strong nuclear force is the force responsible for the structural integrity of atomic nuclei while the weak nuclear force is responsible for the decay of certain nucleons into leptons and other types of hadrons. The strong force is today understood to represent the interactions between quarks and gluons as detailed by the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD). The strong force is the fundamental force mediated by gluons, acting upon quarks, antiquarks, and the gluons themselves. The strong interaction is the most powerful of the four fundamental forces. The strong force only acts directly upon elementary particles. However, a residual of the force is observed between hadrons (the best known example being the force that acts between nucleons in atomic nuclei) as the nuclear force. Here the strong force acts indirectly, transmitted as gluons which form part of the virtual pi and rho mesons which classically transmit the nuclear force (see this topic for more). The failure of many searches for free quarks has shown that the elementary particles affected are not directly observable. This phenomenon is called colour confinement. The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy W and Z bosons. Its most familiar effect is beta decay (of neutrons in atomic nuclei) and the associated radioactivity. The word "weak" derives from the fact that the field strength is some 1013 times less than that of the strong force. Still, it is stronger than gravity over short distances. A consistent electroweak theory has also been developed which shows that electromagnetic forces and the weak force are indistinguishable at a temperatures in excess of approximately 1015 Kelvin. Such temperatures have been probed in modern particle accelerators and show the conditions of the universe in the early moments of the Big Bang. Non-fundamental forces Some forces are consequences of fundamental. In such situations, idealized models can be utilized to gain physical insight. Normal force FN represents the normal force exerted on the object. The normal force is the repulsive force of interaction between atoms at close contact. When their electron clouds overlap, Pauli repulsion (due to fermionic nature of electrons) follows resulting in the force which acts normal to the surface interface between two objects. The normal force, for example, is responsible for the structural integrity of tables and floors as well as being the force that responds whenever an external force pushes on a solid object. An example of the normal force in action is the impact force on an object crashing into an immobile surface. Friction Friction is a surface force that opposes motion. The frictional force is directly related to the normal force which acts to keep two solid objects separated at the point of contact. There are two broad classifications of frictional forces: static friction and kinetic friction. The static friction force () will exactly oppose forces applied to an object parallel to a surface contact up to the limit specified by the coefficient of static friction () multiplied by the normal force (). In other words the magnitude of the static friction force satisfies the inequality: . The kinetic friction force () is independent of both the forces applied and the movement of the object. Thus, the magnitude of the force equals: , where is the coefficient of kinetic friction. For most surface interfaces, the coefficient of kinetic friction is less than the coefficient of static friction. Tension Tension forces can be modeled using ideal strings which are massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and unstretchable. They can be combined with ideal pulleys which allow ideal strings to switch physical direction. Ideal strings transmit tension forces instantaneously in action-reaction pairs so that if two objects are connected by an ideal string, any force directed along the string by the first object is accompanied by a force directed along the string in the opposite direction by the second object. By connecting the same string multiple times to the same object through the use of a set-up that uses movable pulleys, the tension force on a load can be multiplied. For every string that acts on a load, another factor of the tension force in the string acts on the load. However, even though such machines allow for an increase in force, there is a corresponding increase in the length of string that must be displaced in order to move the load. These tandem effects result ultimately in the conservation of mechanical energy since the work done on the load is the same no matter how complicated the machine. Elastic force Fk is the force that responds to the load on the spring. An elastic force acts to return a spring to its natural length. An ideal spring is taken to be massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and infinitely stretchable. Such springs exert forces that push when contracted, or pull when extended, in proportion to the displacement of the spring from its equilibrium position. This linear relationship was described by Robert Hooke in 1676, for whom Hooke's law is named. If is the displacement, the force exerted by an ideal spring equals: where is the spring constant (or force constant), which is particular to the spring. The minus sign accounts for the tendency of the elastic force to act in opposition to the applied load. Continuum mechanics When the drag force () associated with air resistance becomes equal in magnitude to the force of gravity on a falling object (), the object reaches a state of dynamical equilibrium at terminal velocity. Newton's laws and Newtonian mechanics in general were first developed to describe how forces affect idealized point particles rather than three-dimensional objects. However, in real life, matter has extended structure and forces that act on one part of an object might affect other parts of an object. For situations where lattice holding together the atoms in an object is able to flow, contract, expand, or otherwise change shape, the theories of continuum mechanics describe the way forces affect the material. For example, in extended fluids, differences in pressure result in forces being directed along the pressure gradients as follows: where is the volume of the object in the fluid and is the scalar function that describes the pressure at all locations in space. Pressure gradients and differentials result in the buoyant force for fluids suspended in gravitational fields, winds in atmospheric science, and the lift associated with aerodynamics and flight. A specific instance of such a force that is associated with dynamic pressure is fluid resistance: a body force that resists the motion of an object through a fluid due to viscosity. For so-called "Stokes' drag" the force is approximately proportional to the velocity, but opposite in direction: where: is a constant that depends on the properties of the fluid and the dimensions of the object (usually the cross-sectional area), and is the velocity of the object. More formally, forces in continuum mechanics are fully described by a stress tensor with terms that are roughly defined as where is the relevant cross-sectional area for the volume for which the stress-tensor is being calculated. This formalism includes pressure terms associated with forces that act normal to the cross-sectional area (the matrix diagonals of the tensor) as well as shear terms associated with forces that act parallel to the cross-sectional area (the off-diagonal elements). The stress tensor accounts for forces that cause all deformations including also tensile stresses and compressions. Fictitious forces There are forces which are frame dependent, meaning that they appear due to the adoption of non-Newtonian (that is, non-inertial) reference frames. Such forces include the centrifugal force and the Coriolis force. These forces are considered fictitious because they do not exist in frames of reference that are not accelerating. In general relativity, gravity becomes a fictitious force that arises in situations where spacetime deviates from a flat geometry. As an extension, Kaluza-Klein theory and string theory ascribe electromagnetism and the other fundamental forces respectively to the curvature of differently scaled dimensions, which would ultimately imply that all forces are fictitious. Rotations and torque Relationship between force (F), torque (τ), and momentum vectors (p and L) in a rotating system. Forces that cause extended objects to rotate are associated with torques. Mathematically, the torque on a particle is defined as the cross-product: where is the particle's position vector relative to a pivot is the force acting on the particle. Torque is the rotation equivalent of force in the same way that angle is the rotational equivalent for position, angular velocity for velocity, and angular momentum for momentum. All the formal treatments of Newton's Laws that applied to forces equivalently apply to torques. Thus, as a consequence of Newton's First Law of Motion, there exists rotational inertia that ensures that all bodies maintain their angular momentum unless acted upon by an unbalanced torque. Likewise, Newton's Second Law of Motion can be used to derive an alternative definition of torque: where is the moment of inertia of the particle is the angular acceleration of the particle. This provides a definition for the moment of inertia which is the rotational equivalent for mass. In more advanced treatments of mechanics, the moment of inertia acts as a tensor that, when properly analyzed, fully determines the characteristics of rotations including precession and nutation. Equivalently, the differential form of Newton's Second Law provides an alternative definition of torque: where is the angular momentum of the particle. Newton's Third Law of Motion requires that all objects exerting torques themselves experience equal and opposite torques, and therefore also directly implies the conservation of angular momentum for closed systems that experience rotations and revolutions through the action of internal torques. Centripetal force For an object accelerating in circular motion, the unbalanced force acting on the object equals: where is the mass of the object, is the velocity of the object and is the distance to the center of the circular path and is the unit vector pointing in the radial direction outwards from the center. This means that the unbalanced centripetal force felt by any object is always directed toward the center of the curving path. Such forces act perpendicular to the velocity vector associated with the motion of an object, and therefore do not change the speed of the object (magnitude of the velocity), but only the direction of the velocity vector. The unbalanced force that accelerates an object can be resolved into a component that is perpendicular to the path, and one that is tangential to the path. This yields both the tangential force which accelerates the object by either slowing it down or speeding it up and the radial (centripetal) force which changes its direction. Kinematic integrals Forces can be used to define a number of physical concepts by integrating with respect to kinematic variables. For example, integrating with respect to time gives the definition of impulse: which, by Newton's Second Law, must be equivalent to the change in momentum (yielding the Impulse momentum theorem). Similarly, integrating with respect to position gives a definition for the work done by a force: Feynman, Leighton & Sands (1963), vol. 1, p. 13-3. which is equivalent to changes in kinetic energy (yielding the work energy theorem). Power P is the rate of change dW/dt of the work W, as the trajectory is extended by a position change in a time interval dt: Feynman, Leighton & Sands (1963), vol. 1, p. 13-2. with the velocity. Potential energy Instead of a force, often the mathematically related concept of a potential energy field can be used for convenience. For instance, the gravitational force acting upon an object can be seen as the action of the gravitational field that is present at the object's location. Restating mathematically the definition of energy (via the definition of work), a potential scalar field is defined as that field whose gradient is equal and opposite to the force produced at every point: Forces can be classified as conservative or nonconservative. Conservative forces are equivalent to the gradient of a potential while non-conservative forces are not. Conservative forces A conservative force that acts on a closed system has an associated mechanical work that allows energy to convert only between kinetic or potential forms. This means that for a closed system, the net mechanical energy is conserved whenever a conservative force acts on the system. The force, therefore, is related directly to the difference in potential energy between two different locations in space, and can be considered to be an artifact of the potential field in the same way that the direction and amount of a flow of water can be considered to be an artifact of the contour map of the elevation of an area. Conservative forces include gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the spring force. Each of these forces has models which are dependent on a position often given as a radial vector emanating from spherically symmetric potentials. Examples of this follow: For gravity: where is the gravitational constant, and is the mass of object n. For electrostatic forces: where is electric permittivity of free space, and is the electric charge of object n. For spring forces: where is the spring constant. Nonconservative forces For certain physical scenarios, it is impossible to model forces as being due to gradient of potentials. This is often due to macrophysical considerations which yield forces as arising from a macroscopic statistical average of microstates. For example, friction is caused by the gradients of numerous electrostatic potentials between the atoms, but manifests as a force model which is independent of any macroscale position vector. Nonconservative forces other than friction include other contact forces, tension, compression, and drag. However, for any sufficiently detailed description, all these forces are the results of conservative ones since each of these macroscopic forces are the net results of the gradients of microscopic potentials. The connection between macroscopic non-conservative forces and microscopic conservative forces is described by detailed treatment with statistical mechanics. In macroscopic closed systems, nonconservative forces act to change the internal energies of the system, and are often associated with the transfer of heat. According to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, nonconservative forces necessarily result in energy transformations within closed systems from ordered to more random conditions as entropy increases. Units of measurement The unit of force is the newton (symbol N), which is the force required to accelerate a one kilogram mass at a rate of one meter per second squared, or kg·m·s−2. The corresponding CGS unit is the dyne, the force required to accelerate a one gram mass by one centimeter per second squared, or g·cm·s−2. A newton is thus equal to 100,000 dyne. The gravitational foot-pound-second English unit of force is the pound-force (lbf), defined as the force exerted by gravity on a pound-mass in the standard gravitational field of 9.80665 m·s−2. The pound-force provides an alternate unit of mass: one slug is the mass that will accelerate by one foot per second squared when acted on by one pound-force. An alternate unit of force in a different foot-pound-second system, the absolute fps system, is the poundal, defined as the force required to accelerate a one pound mass at a rate of one foot per second squared. The units of slug and poundal are designed to avoid a constant of proportionality in Newton's Second Law. The pound-force has a metric counterpart, less commonly used than the newton: the kilogram-force (kgf) (sometimes kilopond), is the force exerted by standard gravity on one kilogram of mass. The kilogram-force leads to an alternate, but rarely used unit of mass: the metric slug (sometimes mug or hyl) is that mass which accelerates at 1 m·s−2 when subjected to a force of 1 kgf. The kilogram-force is not a part of the modern SI system, and is generally deprecated; however it still sees use for some purposes as expressing jet thrust, bicycle spoke tension, torque wrench settings and engine output torque. Other arcane units of force include the sthène which is equivalent to 1000 N and the kip which is equivalent to 1000 lbf. See also central force Modified Newtonian dynamics References Bibliography External links Video lecture on Newton's three laws by Walter Lewin from MIT OpenCourseWare A Java simulation on vector addition of forces Force Unit Converter | Force |@lemmatized force:339 often:7 describe:26 push:8 pull:11 due:20 phenomena:1 gravity:31 magnetism:3 anything:2 else:1 cause:12 mass:52 accelerate:16 physic:17 external:6 physical:8 agent:1 either:4 change:24 tends:1 state:22 rest:17 uniform:2 motion:41 object:120 velocity:40 magnitude:22 direction:31 make:6 vector:35 quantity:5 newton:53 second:30 law:58 constant:37 proportion:3 net:23 act:46 upon:8 inverse:3 equivalently:3 equal:14 rate:6 momentum:30 see:12 example:25 page:2 feynman:11 leighton:3 sand:3 also:12 thrust:2 three:8 dimensional:5 may:3 rotate:3 deform:1 result:22 pressure:9 even:5 volume:4 case:6 tendency:5 rotational:5 speed:10 axis:2 call:11 torque:16 deformation:2 stress:5 within:3 e:4 g:5 university:3 sears:2 young:2 zemansky:2 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2,201 | Church_of_the_Holy_Sepulchre | Church of the Holy Sepulchre (1885). Other than some restoration work, it appears essentially the same today. Note the exact same small ladder is visible below the top-right window in both pictures - this has remained in the same position for over a century due to a disagreement on moving it. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre (), also called the Church of the Resurrection (, Naos tis Anastaseos; , Kanīsat al-Qiyāma; , Surp Harutyun) by Eastern Christians, is a Christian church within the walled Old City of Jerusalem. The site is venerated by most Christians as Golgotha, Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem (the Hill of Calvary), where the New Testament says that Jesus was crucified, and is said to also contain the place where Jesus was buried (the sepulchre). The church has been an important pilgrimage destination since at least the 4th century, as the purported site of the death and resurrection of Jesus. Today it also serves as the headquarters of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, while control of the building is shared between several Christian churches and secular entities in complicated arrangements essentially unchanged for centuries. History Construction In the early second century, the site of the present Church had been a temple of Aphrodite; several ancient writers alternatively describe it as a temple to Venus, the Roman equivalent to Aphrodite. Eusebius claims, in his Life of Constantine NPNF2-01. Eusebius Pamphilius: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine | Christian Classics Ethereal Library , that the site of the Church had originally been a Christian place of veneration, but that Hadrian had deliberately covered these Christian sites with earth, and built his own temple on top, due to his alleged hatred for Christianity Eusebius, Life of Constantine, 3:26 (the authenticity/inaccuracy of this claim is discussed below). Although Eusebius does not say as much, the temple of Aphrodite was probably built as part of Hadrian's reconstruction of Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina in 135, following the destruction of the Jewish Revolt of 70 and Bar Kokhba's revolt of 132–135. Emperor Constantine I ordered in about 325/326 that the temple be demolished and the soil - which had provided a flat surface for the temple - be removed, instructing Macarius of Jerusalem, the local Bishop, to build a church on the site. The Pilgrim of Bordeaux reports in 333: There, at present, by the command of the Emperor Constantine, has been built a basilica, that is to say, a church of wondrous beauty Itinerarium Burdigalense, page 594 . Constantine directed his mother, Helena,to build churches upon sites which commemorated the life of Jesus Christ; she was present in 326 at the construction of the church on the site, and involved herself in the excavations and construction. During the excavation of the earth, Helena is alleged to have rediscovered of the True Cross, and a tomb, which according to Eusebius exhibited a clear and visible proof that it was the tomb of Jesus, was also discovered Eusebius, Life of Constantine, Chapter 28 NPNF2-01. Eusebius Pamphilius: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine | Christian Classics Ethereal Library ; several scholars have criticised Eusebius' account for an uncritical use of sources, and for being thoroughly dishonest Jacob Burckhardt (1853), The Age of Constantine the Great, page 283 Burgess, R. W., and Witold Witakowski. 1999. Studies in Eusebian and Post-Eusebian chronography 1. The "Chronici canones" of Eusebius of Caesarea: structure, content and chronology, AD 282-325 -- 2. The "Continuatio Antiochiensis Eusebii": a chronicle of Antioch and the Roman Near East during the Reigns of Constantine and Constantius II, AD 325-350. Historia (Wiesbaden, Germany), Heft 135. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. Page 69. , with Edward Gibbon, for example, pointing out that Eusebius' own chapter headings Eusebius, Preparation for the Gospel, 12:31 claims that fictions are lawful and fitting for him to use . Socrates Scholasticus (born c. 380), in his Ecclesiastical History, gives a full description of the discovery NPNF2-02. Socrates and Sozomenus Ecclesiastical Histories | Christian Classics Ethereal Library (that was repeated later by Sozomen and by Theodoret) which emphasizes the role played in the excavations and construction by Helena; just as the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem (also founded by Constantine and Helena) commemorated the birth of Jesus, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre would commemorate his death and resurrection. The Edicule of the Holy Sepulchre (The Tomb of Christ) with the dome of the rotunda visible above. Constantine's church was built as two connected churches over the two different holy sites, including a great basilica (the Martyrium visited by the nun Egeria in the 380s), an enclosed colonnaded atrium (the Triportico) with the traditional site of Golgotha in one corner, and a rotunda, called the Anastasis ("Resurrection"), which contained the remains of a rock-cut room that Helena and Macarius had identified as the burial site of Jesus. The rockface at the west end of the building was cut away, although it is unclear how much remained in Constantine's time, as archaeological investigation has revealed that the temple of Aphrodite reached far into the current rotunda area Virgilio Corbo, The Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem (1981) , and the temple enclosure would therefore have reached even further to the west. According to Christian tradition, Constantine arranged for the rockface to be removed from around the tomb, without harming it, in order to isolate the tomb; in the centre of the rotunda is a small building called the Kouvouklion (Kουβούκλιον; Modern Greek for small compartment) or Aedicule Americans spell this as Edicule (from Latin: aediculum, small building), which supposedly encloses this tomb, although it is not currently possible to verify the claim, as the alleged remains are completely enveloped by a marble sheath. The discovery of the kokhim tombs just beyond the west end of the Church, and more recent archaeological investigation of the rotunda floor, suggest that a narrow spur of at least ten yards length would have had to jut out from the rock face if the contents of the Aedicule were once inside it. The dome of the rotunda was completed by the end of the 4th century. Each year, the Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates the anniversary of the consecration of the Church of the Resurrection (Holy Sepulchre) on September 13 (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, September 13 currently falls on September 26 of the modern Gregorian Calendar). Damage and destruction Floor plan of the site in the 4th Century This building was damaged by fire in 614 when the Persians under Khosrau II invaded Jerusalem and captured the Cross. In 630, Emperor Heraclius marched triumphantly into Jerusalem and restored the True Cross to the rebuilt Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Under the Muslims it remained a Christian church. The early Muslim rulers protected the city's Christian sites, prohibiting their destruction and their use as living quarters. In 966 the doors and roof were burnt during a riot. On October 18, 1009, under Fatimid caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, orders for the complete destruction of the Church were carried out. It is believed that Al-Hakim "was aggrieved by the scale of the Easter pilgrimage to Jerusalem, which was caused specially by the annual miracle of the Holy Fire within the Sepulchre. The measures against the church were part of a more general campaign against Christian places of worship in Palestine and Egypt, which involved a great deal of other damage: Adhemar of Chabannes recorded that the church of St George at Lydda 'with many other churches of the saints' had been attacked, and the 'basilica of the Lord's Sepulchre destroyed down to the ground'. ...The Christian writer Yahya ibn Sa'id reported that everything was razed 'except those parts which were impossible to destroy or would have been too difficult to carry away'." The Church's foundations were hacked down to bedrock. The Edicule and the east and west walls and the roof of the cut-rock tomb it encased were destroyed or damaged (contemporary accounts vary), but the north and south walls were likely protected by rubble from further damage. The "mighty pillars resisted destruction up to the height of the gallery pavement, and are now effectively the only remnant of the fourth-century buildings." Some minor repairs were done to the section believed to be the tomb of Jesus almost immediately after 1009, but a true attempt at restoration would have to wait for decades. European reaction was of shock and dismay, with far-reaching and intense consequences. For example, Clunaic monk Raoul Glaber blamed the Jews, with the result that Jews were expelled from Limoges and other French towns. Ultimately, this destruction provided an impetus to the later Crusades. Reconstruction In wide ranging negotiations between the Fatimids and the Byzantine Empire in 1027-8 an agreement was reached whereby the new Caliph Ali az-Zahir (Al-Hakim's son) allowed the Emperor Constantine VIII to finance the rebuilding and redecoration of the Church (thereby acknowledging his patronage over it). As a concession, the mosque in Constantinople was re-opened and sermons were to be pronounced in az-Zahir's name. Muslim sources say a by-product of the agreement was the recanting of Islam by many Christians who had been forced to convert under Al-Hakim's persecutions. In addition the Byzantines, while releasing 5,000 Muslim prisoners, made demands for the restoration of other churches destroyed by Al-Hakim and the re-establishment of a Patriarch in Jerusalem. Contemporary sources credit the emperor with spending vast sums in an effort to restore the Church of the Holy Sepulchre after this agreement was made. The rebuilding project continued under stringent conditions imposed by the caliphate, and was completed in 1048 by Constantine IX Monomachos and Patriarch Nicephorus of Constantinople. Despite the Byzantines spending vast sums on the project, "a total replacement was far beyond available resources. The new construction was concentrated on the rotunda and its surrounding buildings: the great basilica remained in ruins." The rebuilt church site consisted of "a court open to the sky, with five small chapels attached to it." The chapels were "to the east of the court of resurrection, where the wall of the great church had been. They commemorated scenes from the passion, such as the location of the prison of Christ and of his flagellation, and presumably were so placed because of the difficulties for free movement among shrines in the streets of the city. The dedication of these chapels indicates the importance of the pilgrims' devotion to the suffering of Christ. They have been described as 'a sort of Via Dolorosa in miniature'... since little or no rebuilding took place on the site of the great basilica. Western pilgrims to Jerusalem during the eleventh century found much of the sacred site in ruins." Control of Jerusalem, and thereby the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, continued to change hands several times between the Fatimids and the Seljuk Turks (loyal to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad) until the arrival of the Crusaders in 1099. Crusader and later periods Many historians still maintain that the main concern of Pope Urban II, when calling for the First Crusade, was the threat to Constantinople from the Turkish invasion of Asia Minor in response to the appeal of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. Still, historians agree that the fate of Jerusalem and thereby the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was of concern if not the immediate goal of papal policy in 1095. The idea of taking Jerusalem gained more focus as the Crusade was underway. The rebuilt church site was taken from the Fatimids (who had recently taken it from the Abassids) by the knights of the First Crusade on 15 July 1099. The First Crusade was envisioned as an armed pilgrimage, and no crusader could consider his journey complete unless he had prayed as a pilgrim at the Holy Sepulchre. Crusader Prince Godfrey of Bouillon, who became the first crusader monarch of Jerusalem, decided not to use the title "king" during his lifetime, and declared himself Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri (Protector (or Defender) of the Holy Sepulchre). By the crusader period, a cistern under the former basilica was rumoured to have been the location that Helena had found the True Cross, and began to be venerated as such; although the cistern later became the Chapel of the Invention of the Cross, there is no evidence for the rumour prior to the 11th century, and modern archaeological investigation has now dated the cistern to the 11th century repairs by Monomachos. The church, after its 1808 restoration. The chronicler William of Tyre reports on the renovation of the Church in the mid-12th century. The crusaders investigated the eastern ruins on the site, occasionally excavating through the rubble, and while attempting to reach the cistern, they discovered part of the original ground level of Hadrian's temple enclosure; they decided to transform this space into a chapel dedicated to Helena (the Chapel of Saint Helena), widening their original excavation tunnel into a proper staircase. The crusaders began to refurnish the church in a Romanesque style and added a bell tower. These renovations unified the small chapels on the site and were completed during the reign of Queen Melisende in 1149, placing all the Holy places under one roof for the first time. The church became the seat of the first Latin Patriarchs, and was also the site of the kingdom's scriptorium. The church was lost to Saladin, along with the rest of the city, in 1187, although the treaty established after the Third Crusade allowed for Christian pilgrims to visit the site. Emperor Frederick II regained the city and the church by treaty in the 13th century, while he himself was under a ban of excommunication, leading to the curious result of the holiest church in Christianity being laid under interdict. Both city and church were captured by the Khwarezmians in 1244. The Franciscan friars renovated it further in 1555, as it had been neglected despite increased numbers of pilgrims. The Franciscans rebuilt the Aedicule, extending the structure to create an ante-chamber Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, The Holy Land, (2008), page 56 . A fire severely damaged the structure again in 1808, causing the dome of the Rotunda to collapse and smashing the Edicule's exterior decoration. The Rotunda and the Edicule's exterior were rebuilt in 1809–1810 by architect Komminos of Mytilene in the then current Ottoman Baroque style. The fire did not reach the interior of the Aedicule, and the marble decoration of the Tomb dates mainly to the 1555 restoration, although the interior of the ante-chamber, now known as the Chapel of the Angel, was partly re-built to a square ground-plan, in place of the previously semi-circular western end. The cladding of red marble applied to the Aedicule by Komminos has deteriorated badly and is detaching from the underlying structure; since 1947 it has been held in place with an exterior scaffolding of iron girders installed by the British Mandate. No plans have been agreed upon for its renovation. The current dome dates from 1870, although it was restored during 1994–1997, as part of extensive modern renovations to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which have been ongoing since 1959. During 1973–1978 restoration works and excavations inside the building, and under the nearby Muristan, it was found that the area was originally a quarry, from which white Meleke limestone was struck . To the east of the Chapel of St. Helena, the excavators discovered a void containing a second century drawing of a roman ship , two low walls which supported the platform of Hadrian's 2nd century temple, and a higher 4th century wall built to support Constantine's basilica Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, The Holy Land, (1998), page 59 the height difference can be easily seen - the yellowish wall on the left is the 4th century wall, the pinkish wall on the right is the 2nd century wall ; the Armenian authorities have recently converted this archaeological space into the Chapel of Saint Vartan, and created an artificial walkway over the quarry on the north of the chapel, so that the new Chapel could be accessed (by permission) from the Chapel of St. Helena. Status quo The immovable ladder. Detail from photograph of main entrance above, 2005 The ladder in 1892 After the renovation of 1555, control of the church oscillated between the Franciscans and the Orthodox, depending on which community could obtain a favorable firman from the Sublime Porte at a particular time, often through outright bribery, and violent clashes were not uncommon. In 1767, weary of the squabbling, the Porte issued a firman that divided the church among the claimants. This was confirmed in 1852 with another firman that made the arrangement permanent, establishing a status quo of territorial division among the communities. The primary custodians are the Eastern Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, and Roman Catholic Churches, with the Greek Orthodox Church having the lion's share. In the 19th century, the Coptic Orthodox, the Ethiopian Orthodox and the Syriac Orthodox acquired lesser responsibilities, which include shrines and other structures within and around the building. Times and places of worship for each community are strictly regulated in common areas. Establishment of the status quo did not halt the violence, which continues to break out every so often even in modern times. On a hot summer day in 2002, the Coptic monk who is stationed on the roof to express Coptic claims to the Ethiopian territory there moved his chair from its agreed spot into the shade. This was interpreted as a hostile move by the Ethiopians, and eleven were hospitalized after the resulting fracas. Christian History Corner: Divvying up the Most Sacred Place | Christianity Today | A Magazine of Evangelical Conviction In another incident in 2004 during Orthodox celebrations of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, a door to the Franciscan chapel was left open. This was taken as a sign of disrespect by the Orthodox and a fistfight broke out. Some people were arrested, but no one was seriously injured. Punch-up at tomb of Jesus | World news | The Guardian On Palm Sunday, in April 2008, a brawl broke out due to a Greek monk being ejected from the building by a rival faction. Police were called to the scene but were also attacked by the enraged brawlers. Armenian, Greek worshippers come to blows at Jesus' tomb - Haaretz - Israel News A clash erupted between Armenian and Greek monks on Sunday 9 November 2008, during celebrations for the Feast of the Holy Cross. Under the status quo, no part of what is designated as common territory may be so much as rearranged without consent from all communities. This often leads to the neglect of badly needed repairs when the communities cannot come to an agreement among themselves about the final shape of a project. Just such a disagreement has delayed the renovation of the edicule, where the need is now dire, but also where any change in the structure might result in a change to the status quo disagreeable to one or more of the communities. A less grave sign of this state of affairs is located on a window ledge over the church's entrance. Someone placed a wooden ladder there sometime before 1852, when the status quo defined both the doors and the window ledges as common ground. The ladder remains there to this day, in almost exactly the same position. It can be seen to occupy the ledge in century-old photographs and engravings. None of the communities controls the main entrance. In 1192, Saladin assigned responsibility for it to two neighboring Muslim families. The Joudeh were entrusted with the key, and the Nusseibeh, who had been the custodians of the church since the days of Caliph Omar in 637, retained the position of keeping the door. This arrangement has persisted into modern times. Twice each day, a Joudeh family member brings the key to the door, which is locked and unlocked by a Nusseibeh. Modern arrangement of the church The Stone of the Anointing. The innermost chamber of the Aedicule, covered in medieval marble. The entrance to the church is through a single door in the south transept. This narrow way of access to such a large structure has proven to be hazardous at times. For example, when a fire broke out in 1840, dozens of pilgrims were trampled to death. In 1999 the communities agreed to install a new exit door in the church, but there was never any report of this door being completed. Just inside the entrance is The Stone of Anointing, also known as the The Stone of Unction, which tradition claims to be the spot where Jesus' body was prepared for burial by Joseph of Arimathea. However, this tradition is only attested since the crusader era, and the present stone was only added in the 1810 reconstruction. The wall behind the stone was a temporary addition to support the arch above it, which had been weakened after the damage in the 1808 fire; the wall blocks the view of the rotunda, sits on top of the graves of four 12th century kings, and is no longer structurally necessary. There is a difference of opinion as to whether it is the 13th Station of the Cross, which others identify as the lowering of Jesus from the cross and locate between the 11th and 12th station up on Calvary. The lamps that hang over the stone are contributed by Armenians, Copts, Greeks and Latins. To the left, or west, is The Rotunda of the Anastasis beneath the larger of the church's two domes, in the center of which is The Edicule of the Holy Sepulchre itself. The Edicule has two rooms. The first one holds The Angel's Stone, a fragment of the stone believed to have sealed the tomb after Jesus' burial. The second one is the tomb itself. Under the status quo the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Armenian Apostolic Churches all have rights to the interior of the tomb, and all three communities celebrate the Divine Liturgy or Holy Mass there daily. It is also used for other ceremonies on special occasions, such as the Holy Saturday ceremony of the Holy Fire celebrated by the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem. To its rear, within a chapel constructed of iron latticework upon a stone base semicircular in plan, lies the altar used by the Coptic Orthodox. Beyond that to the rear of the Rotunda is a very rough hewn chapel, containing an opening to a rock-cut chamber, from which several kokh-tombs radiate. Although this space was discovered comparatively recently, and contains no identifying marks, many Christians believe it to be to be the tomb of Joseph of Arimathea in which the Syriac Orthodox celebrate their Liturgy on Sundays. To the right of the sepulchre on the southeastern side of the Rotunda is the Chapel of the Apparition which is reserved for Roman Catholic use. The "Holy Prison", or Prison of Christ In the north-east side of the complex there is The Prison of Christ, alleged by the Franciscans to be where Jesus was held. The Greek Orthodox allege that the real place that Jesus was held was the similarly-named Prison of Christ, within their Monastery of the Praetorium, located near the Church of Ecce Homo, at the first station on the Via Dolorosa. The Armenians regard a recess in the Monastery of the Flagellation, a building near the second station on the Via Dolorosa, as the Prison of Christ. A cistern among the ruins near the Church of St. Peter in Gallicantu is also alleged to have been the Prison of Christ. On the east side opposite the Rotunda is the Crusader structure housing the main altar of the Church, today the Greek Orthodox catholicon. The second, smaller dome sits directly over the center of the transept crossing of the choir where the compas, an omphalos once thought to be the center of the world (associated to the site of the Crucifixion and the Resurrection), is situated. East of this is a large iconostasis demarcating the Greek Orthodox sanctuary before which is set the Patriarchal throne and a throne for visiting episcopal celebrants. On the south side of the altar via the ambulatory is a stairway climbing to Calvary (Golgotha), traditionally regarded as the site of Jesus' crucifixion and the most lavishly decorated part of the church. The main altar there belongs to the Greek Orthodox, which contains The Rock of Calvary (12th Station of the Cross). The rock can be seen under glass on both sides of the altar, and beneath the altar there is a hole said to be the place where the cross was raised. The Roman Catholics (Franciscans) have an altar to the side, The Chapel of the Nailing of the Cross (11th Station of the Cross). On the left of the altar, towards the Eastern Orthodox chapel, there is a statue of Mary, believed to be working wonders (the 13th Station of the Cross, where Jesus' body was removed from the cross and given to his family). Beneath the Calvary and the two chapels there, on the main floor, there is The Chapel of Adam. According to tradition, Jesus was crucified over the place where Adam's skull was buried. The Rock of Calvary is seen cracked through a window on the altar wall, the crack traditionally being said to be caused by the earthquake that occurred when Jesus died on the cross, and being said by more critical scholars to be the result of quarrying against a natural flaw in the rock . From The Chapel of Adam, a door leads to The Treasure Room, underneath the Roman Catholic Chapel on the Calvary, holding holy relics and the True Cross. The room is usually closed, and opened on special occasions. Further to the east in the ambulatory are three chapels (from south to north): Greek Chapel of the Derision, Armenian Chapel of Division of Robes and Greek Chapel of St. Longinus. Between the first two chapels are stairs descending to The Chapel of St. Helena, belonging to the Armenians. From there, another set of 42 stairs leads down to the Roman Catholic Chapel of the Invention of the Holy Cross, believed to be the place where the True Cross was found. On the north side of the Chapel of St. Helena is an ornate wrought iron door, beyond which a raised artificial platform affords views of the Quarry, and which leads to the Chapel of St. Vartan. The latter Chapel contains archaeological remains from Hadrian's temple and Constantine's basilica. These areas are usually closed. Challenges to Authenticity Relationship to the Temple of Aphrodite As noted above, the site had been a temple of Aphrodite prior to Constantine's aedifice being built, a detail that Christian tradition puts down to Hadrian deliberately siting the temple over Jesus' tomb (while taking care to avoid destroying it) as a slight against Christianity. However, Hadrian's temple had actually been located there simply because it was the junction of the main north-south road (which is now the Suq Khan-ez-Zeit, etc.) with one of the two main east-west roads (which is now the Via Dolorosa), and directly adjacent to the forum (which is now the location of the (smaller) Muristan); the forum itself had been placed, as is traditional in Roman towns, at the junction of the main north-south road with the (other) main east-west road (which is now El-Bazar/David Street). The temple and forum together took up the entire space between the two main east-west roads (a few above-ground remains of the east end of the temple precinct still survive in the Russian Mission in Exile). From the archaeological excavations in the 1970s, it is clear that construction took over most of the site of the earlier temple enclosure, and that the Triportico and Rotunda roughly overlapped with the temple building itself; the excavations indicate that the temple extended at least as far back as the Aedicule, and the temple enclosure would have reached back slightly further. Virgilio Canio Corbo, a Franciscan priest and archaeologist, who was present at the excavations, estimated from the archaeological evidence that the western retaining wall, of the temple itself, would have passed extremely close to the east side of the supposed tomb; if the wall had been any further west any tomb would have been crushed under the weight of the wall (which would be immediately above it), if it had not already been destroyed when foundations for the wall were made. Other archaeologists have criticised Corbo's reconstructions. Dan Bahat, the former official City Archaeologist of Jerusalem, regards them as unsatisfactory, as there is no known Temple of Aphrodite matching Corbo's design, and no archaeological evidence for Corbo's suggestion that the Temple Building was on a platform raised high enough to avoid including anything sited where the Aedicule is now Dan Bahat, Does the Holy Sepulchre Church Mark the Burial of Jesus?, in Biblical Archaeology Review May/June 1986 ; indeed Bahat notes that many temples to Aphrodite have a rotunda-like design, and argues that there is no archaeological reason to assume that the present rotunda wasn't based on a rotunda in the temple previously on the site. Relationship of the site to the city The Bible describes Jesus' tomb as being outside the city wall for example, , but the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is in the heart of Hadrian's city, well within the Old City walls. Christian tradition has responded to this issue by claiming that the city had been much narrower in Jesus' time, with the site then having been outside the walls; since Herod Agrippa (41–44) is recorded by history as extending the city to the north (beyond the present northern walls), the required repositioning of the western wall is traditionally attributed to him as well. However, a wall would imply the existence of a defensive ditch outside it, so an earlier wall couldn't be immediately adjacent to site of the tomb, which combined with the presence of the Temple Mount would make the city inside the wall quite thin; essentially for the traditional site to have been outside the wall, the city would have had to be limited to the lower parts of the Tyropoeon Valley, rather than including the defensively advantageous western hill. Since these geographic considerations imply that not including the hill within the walls would be willfully making the city prone to attack from it, some scholars, including the late 19th century surveyors of the Palestine Exploration Fund, consider it unlikely that a wall would ever have been built which would cut the hill off from the city in the valley Colonel Claude R. Conder, The City of Jerusalem (1909), (republished 2004); for details about Conder himself, see Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener#Survey of Western Palestine ; archaeological evidence for the existence an earlier city wall in such a location has never been found. Although, in 2007, Dan Bahat stated that Six graves from the first century were found on the area of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. That means, this place [was] outside of the city, without any doubt, .... Dan Bahat in German television ZDF, April 11, 2007 , the dating of the tombs is based on the fact that they are in the kokh style, which was common in first century; however, the kokh style of tomb was also common in the first to third centuries BC Rachel Hachlili, (2005) Jewish Funerary Customs, Practices and Rites in the Second Temple Period . The likelihood of a first century tomb being built to the west of the city is questionable, as according to the late first century Rabbinic leader, Akiba ben Joseph, quoted in the Mishnah, tombs should not built to the west of the city, as the wind in Jerusalem generally blows from the west, and would blow the smell of the corpses and their impurity over the city, and the Temple Mount Baba Batra 25a . Additionally, the Aedicule would be quite close to the city even the west wall of the city had been to its east; yet Akiba remarks that Jewish law insists that tombs should not be built within 50 cubits of a city. The archaeological record indicates that the instructions reported by Akiba, for choosing a burial location, were rigidly adhered to; almost all of the tombs from classical Jerusalem are to the east of the city, on the Mount of Olives, except for a few located over a kilometre to the west, and those in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre Ephraim Stern, (editor), New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, 1993 Other possible sites Although the identification of the Aedicule as the site of Jesus' tomb is not a tenet of faith for any major Christian denomination, many Catholic and Orthodox Christians hold fast to this traditional location. However, due to the many issues the site raises, several scholars have rejected its validity. Additionally many Protestants have often opposed the traditional location simply because it has previously received support from Catholics. International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, entry on Jerusalem After time spent in Palestine in 1882–83, Charles George Gordon (General Gordon) found a location outside the old city walls, which he suggested to have been the real location of Golgotha. Although the Church of the Holy Sepulchre has its tomb just a few yards away from its Golgotha, there is no particular reason to regard this close juxtaposition as a necessity; however, Gordon followed this principle, concluding that his site for Golgotha must also be the approximate location for Jesus' burial, and therefore identified a nearby tomb, now called the Garden Tomb, as the location for the event. Pottery and archaeological findings in the area have subsequently been dated to the seventh century BC, so in the opinion of archaeologists the Garden Tomb site would have been abandoned by the first century Gabriel Barkay, The Garden Tomb, published in Biblical Archaeology Review March/April 1986 . Despite the archaeological discoveries, the Garden Tomb has become a popular place of pilgrimage among Protestants. Mormon leaders have been more hesitant to formally commit to the identification even thought many Mormons regard the Garden Tomb as the correct location of Jesus' tomb. Currently, no other potential site for the tomb has received much attention or academic support. Influence Plan of Santo Stefano in Bologna. (4) is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, inspired in the Anastasis. From the 9th century, the construction of churches inspired in the Anastasis was extended across Europe. Monastero di Santo Stefano: Basilica Santuario Santo Stefano: Storia, Bologna. One example is Santo Stefano in Bologna, Italy, an agglomeration of seven churches recreating shrines of Jerusalem. Several churches and monasteries in Russia have been modelled on the Church of the Resurrection, some even reproducing other Holy Places for the benefit of pilgrims who could not travel to the Holy Land. Image gallery See also Tomb of Jesus Burial places of founders of world religions Order of the Holy Sepulchre, initiated by Godfrey of Bouillon Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem History of the Eastern Orthodox Church Temple Church in London Early Christian art and architecture Constantine I and Christianity Art of the Crusades Garden Tomb Talpiot Tomb Church of the Nativity References Bibliography Further reading External links General sites OrthodoxWiki (article) Sacred Destinations (article, interactive plan, photo gallery) History Channel site (article) The Reconstruction of the Tower of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem (article) The Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem (article, photos & video) Custodians Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land (Roman Catholic custodians) Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre (Greek Orthodox custodians) Joudeh family (Muslim custodian) Nuseibeh family (Muslim custodian) Homily of John Paul II in the church of the Holy Sepulchre Primary sources and scholarly articles Egeria's description in the 380s The Church of the Resurrection (EHR 7:417‑436, 669‑684) Photo galleries Jerusalem Shots Holy Sepulchre Virtual Tour & Video (unique technology) Photo Gallery of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 2007 Virtual tour Full HD December 2007 VR Panoramic Images of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre Miscellaneous The Wall Street Journal on factional disputes over the Church Miracle of the Holy Fire Commemoration of the Founding of the Church of the Resurrection (Holy Sepulchre) at Jerusalem Orthodox icon and synaxarion for September 13 "Divvying up the Most Sacred Place by Chris Armstrong, Christianity Today, Week of July 29, 2002, retrieved February 28, 2006. | Church_of_the_Holy_Sepulchre |@lemmatized church:82 holy:49 sepulchre:34 restoration:6 work:3 appear:1 essentially:3 today:5 note:3 exact:1 small:8 ladder:5 visible:3 top:3 right:4 window:4 picture:1 remain:6 position:3 century:29 due:4 disagreement:2 move:3 also:14 call:6 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2,202 | Isaac_Asimov | Isaac Asimov (c. January 2, 1920 – April 6, 1992; originally Исаак Озимов but now transcribed into Russian as Айзек Азимов), born in Russia to Jewish parents, was an American author and professor of biochemistry, best known for his works of science fiction and for his popular science books. Asimov was one of the most prolific writers of all time, having written or edited more than 500 books and an estimated 9,000 letters and postcards. His works have been published in nine of the ten major categories of the Dewey Decimal System (the sole exception being the 100s; philosophy and psychology). Asimov is widely considered a master of the science-fiction genre and, along with Robert A. Heinlein and Arthur C. Clarke, was considered one of the "Big Three" science-fiction writers during his lifetime. Asimov's most famous work is the Foundation Series ; his other major series are the Galactic Empire series and the Robot series, both of which he later tied into the same fictional universe as the Foundation Series to create a unified "future history" for his stories much like those pioneered by Robert A. Heinlein and previously produced by Cordwainer Smith and Poul Anderson . He penned numerous short stories, among them "Nightfall", which in 1964 was voted by the Science Fiction Writers of America the best short science fiction story of all time, an accolade that many still find persuasive. Asimov wrote the Lucky Starr series of juvenile science-fiction novels using the pen name Paul French. The prolific Asimov also wrote mysteries and fantasy, as well as a great amount of non-fiction. Most of his popularized science books explain scientific concepts in a historical way, going as far back as possible to a time when the science in question was at its simplest stage. He often provides nationalities, birth dates, and death dates for the scientists he mentions, as well as etymologies and pronunciation guides for technical terms. Examples include his Guide to Science, the three volume set Understanding Physics, Asimov's Chronology of Science and Discovery, as well as numerous works on astronomy, mathematics, the Bible, William Shakespeare's works and, of course, chemistry subjects. Asimov was a long-time member and Vice President of Mensa International, albeit reluctantly; he described some members of that organization as "brain-proud and aggressive about their IQs", but also said that the only two people he had ever met who he would admit were more intelligent than he was were Marvin Minsky and Carl Sagan. He took more joy in being president of the American Humanist Association . The asteroid 5020 Asimov, a crater on the planet Mars , the magazine Asimov's Science Fiction, a Brooklyn, NY elementary school, and two different and distinctive awards are named in his honor. Biography Asimov was born sometime between October 4, 1919 and January 2, 1920 in Petrovichi in Smolensk Oblast, RSFSR (now Russia) to Anna Rachel Berman Asimov and Judah Asimov, a Jewish family of millers. His exact date of birth is uncertain because of differences in the Gregorian and Hebrew calendars and a lack of records. Asimov himself celebrated his birthday on January 2. The family name derives from озимые (ozimiye), a Russian word for a winter grain in which his great-grandfather dealt, to which a patronymic suffix was added. His name was originally Isaak Ozimov (Russian: Исаак Озимов); but later in Russia was known as Ayzyek Azimov (Айзек Азимов ). This is a Russian Cyrillic adaptation of the American English pronunciation. Asimov had two younger siblings; a sister, Marcia (born Manya, Isaac Asimov FAQ, asimovonline.com June 17, 1922), and a brother, Stanley (born July 25, 1929). His family emigrated to the United States when he was three years old. Since his parents always spoke Yiddish and English with him, he never learned Russian. Growing up in Brooklyn, New York, Asimov taught himself to read at the age of five, and remained fluent in Yiddish as well as English. His parents owned a succession of candy stores, and everyone in the family was expected to work in them. Education and career Asimov began reading science fiction pulp magazines at a young age. His father, as a matter of principle, forbade reading the pulps, but Asimov persuaded him that magazines with "Science" in the title were educational. Around the age of eleven, he began to write his own stories, and, by age nineteenafter he discovered science fiction fandomhe was selling stories to the science fiction magazines. John W. Campbell, then editor of Astounding Science Fiction, had a strong formative influence on Asimov and eventually became a personal friend. Asimov attended New York City Public Schools, including Boys' High School, in Brooklyn, New York. From there he went on to Columbia University, from which he graduated in 1939, eventually returning to earn a Ph.D. in biochemistry in 1948. In between, he spent three years during World War II working as a civilian at the Philadelphia Navy Yard's Naval Air Experimental Station. After the war ended, he was drafted into the U.S. Army, serving for just under nine months before receiving an honorable discharge. In the course of his brief military career, he rose to the rank of corporal on the basis of his typing skills, and narrowly avoided participating in the 1946 atomic bomb tests at Bikini Atoll. Robert A. Heinlein, L. Sprague de Camp, and Isaac Asimov, Philadelphia Navy Yard, 1944. After completing his doctorate, Asimov joined the faculty of the Boston University School of Medicine, with which he remained associated thereafter. Isaac Asimov Interview with Don Swaim (1987) From 1958, this was in a non-teaching capacity, as he turned to writing full-time (his writing income had already exceeded his academic salary). Being tenured meant that he retained the title of associate professor, and in 1979 the university honored his writing by promoting him to full professor of biochemistry. Asimov's personal papers from 1965 are archived at the university's Mugar Memorial Library, to which he donated them at the request of curator Howard Gottlieb. The collection fills 464 boxes, on seventy-one metres of shelf space. Personal life and quirks Asimov married Gertrude Blugerman (1917, Canada–1990, Boston) on July 26, 1942. They had two children, David (b. 1951) and Robyn Joan (b. 1955). After a separation in 1970, he and Gertrude divorced in 1973, and Asimov married Janet O. Jeppson later that year. Asimov was a claustrophile; he enjoyed small, enclosed spaces. In the first volume of his autobiography, he recalls a childhood desire to own a magazine stand in a New York City Subway station, within which he could enclose himself and listen to the rumble of passing trains while reading. Asimov was afraid of flying, only doing so twice in his entire life (once in the course of his work at the Naval Air Experimental Station, and once returning home from the army base in Oahu in 1946) He seldom traveled great distances, partly because his aversion to flying complicated the logistics of long-distance travel. This phobia influenced several of his fiction works, such as the Wendell Urth mystery stories and the Robot novels featuring Elijah Baley. In his later years, he found he enjoyed traveling on cruise ships, and on several occasions he became part of the cruises' "entertainment," giving science-themed talks on ships such as the RMS Queen Elizabeth 2. Asimov was an able public speaker, and enjoyed doing so. Asimov was a frequent fixture at science fiction conventions, where he remained friendly and approachable. He patiently answered tens of thousands of questions and other mail with postcards, and was pleased to give autographs. He was of medium height, stocky, with muttonchop whiskers and a distinct Brooklyn accent. His physical dexterity was very poor. He never learned to swim or ride a bicycle; however, he did learn to drive a car after he moved to Boston. In his humor book Asimov Laughs Again, he describes Boston driving as "anarchy on wheels." Asimov's wide interests included his participation in his later years in organizations devoted to the comic operas of Gilbert and Sullivan and in The Wolfe Pack, See NeroWolfe.org a group of devotees of the Nero Wolfe mysteries written by Rex Stout. Indeed, his interest in Gilbert and Sullivan inspired his Foundation Series, and many of his short stories mention or quote G&S. White (2005), pp. 83 and 219–20 He was a prominent member of the Baker Street Irregulars, the leading Sherlock Holmes society. He was also a member of the all-male literary banqueting club the Trap Door Spiders, which served as the basis of his fictional group of mystery solvers the Black Widowers. Asimov, Isaac. I. Asimov, a Memoir, New York, Doubleday, 1994, pages 376-377. In 1984, the American Humanist Association (AHA) named him the Humanist of the Year. From 1985 until his death in 1992, he served as president of the AHA; his successor was his friend and fellow writer Kurt Vonnegut. He was also a close friend of Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry, and earned a screen credit on Star Trek: The Motion Picture for advice he gave during production (generally, confirming to Paramount Pictures that Roddenberry's ideas were legitimate science-fictional extrapolation). Illness and death Asimov died on April 6, 1992, in New York City. He was survived by his second wife, Janet, and his children from his first marriage. Ten years after his death, Janet Asimov's edition of Asimov's autobiography, It's Been a Good Life, revealed that his death was a result of the AIDS virus. He had contracted HIV from a blood transfusion that he received as a necessary part of coronary-artery bypass operation in December 1983. The specific cause of death was heart and kidney failure, as complications of an HIV infection. Janet Asimov wrote in the epilogue of It's Been a Good Life that Asimov had wanted to "go public," but his doctors convinced him to remain silent, warning that the anti-AIDS prejudice would likely extend to his family members. Asimov's family considered disclosing his condition after his death, but the controversy that erupted when Arthur Ashe announced his own AIDS infection (also contracted from a blood transfusion during heart surgery) convinced them otherwise. Ten years later, after most of Dr. Asimov's doctors had died, Janet and Robyn Asimov agreed that the AIDS story should be made public. Intellectual positions Isaac Asimov was a humanist and a rationalist. Isaac Asimov, "The Way of Reason," in In Pursuit of Truth: Essays on the Philosophy of Karl Popper on the Occasion of his 80th Birthday,, ed. Paul Levinson, Humanities Press, 1982, pp. ix-x. He did not oppose religious conviction in others, but he frequently railed against superstitious and pseudoscientific beliefs that tried to pass themselves off as genuine science. During his childhood, his father and mother observed Orthodox Jewish traditions, though not as stringently as they had in Petrovichi; they did not, however, force their beliefs upon young Isaac. Thus he grew up without strong religious influences, coming to believe that the Bible represented Hebrew mythology in the same way that the Iliad recorded Greek mythology. (For a brief while his father worked in the local synagogue to enjoy the familiar surroundings and "shine as a learned scholar" versed in the sacred writings. This experience had little effect upon Isaac beyond teaching him the Hebrew alphabet). For many years, Asimov called himself an atheist; however, he considered the term somewhat inadequate, as it described what he did not believe rather than what he did. Eventually, he described himself as a "humanist" and considered that term more practical. In his last volume of autobiography, Asimov wrote, "If I were not an atheist, I would believe in a God who would choose to save people on the basis of the totality of their lives and not the pattern of their words. I think he would prefer an honest and righteous atheist to a TV preacher whose every word is God, God, God, and whose every deed is foul, foul, foul." The same memoir states his belief that Hell is "the drooling dream of a sadist" crudely affixed to an all-merciful God; if even human governments were willing to curtail cruel and unusual punishments, wondered Asimov, why would punishment in the afterlife not be restricted to a limited term? Asimov rejected the idea that a human belief or action could merit infinite punishment. If an afterlife of just deserts existed, he claimed, the longest and most severe punishment would be reserved for those who "slandered God by inventing Hell" . As his books Treasury of Humor and Asimov Laughs Again record, Asimov was willing to tell jokes involving the Judeo-Christian God, Satan, the Garden of Eden, Jerusalem, and other religious topics, expressing the viewpoint that a good joke can do more to provoke thought than hours of philosophical discussion. Asimov became a staunch supporter of the Democratic Party during the New Deal, and thereafter remained a political liberal. He was a vocal opponent of the Vietnam War in the 1960s and, in a television interview during the early 1970s, he publicly endorsed George McGovern. He was unhappy about what he considered an "irrationalist" viewpoint taken by many liberal political activists from the late 1960s and onwards. In his second volume of autobiography In Joy Still Felt, Asimov recalled meeting the counterculture figure Abbie Hoffman; Asimov's impression was that the 1960s' counterculture heroes had ridden an emotional wave which, in the end, left them stranded in a "no-man's land of the spirit" from which he wondered if they would ever return. (This attitude is echoed by The Wave Speech in Hunter S. Thompson's Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas.) His defense of civil applications of nuclear power even after the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant incident damaged his relations with some of his fellow liberals. In a letter reprinted in Yours, Isaac Asimov, Asimov, Isaac (1996). Yours, Isaac Asimov, edited by Stanley Asimov. ISBN 0-385-47624-8. he states that although he would prefer living in "no danger whatsoever" than near a nuclear reactor, he would still prefer a home near a nuclear power plant than in a slum on Love Canal or near "a Union Carbide plant producing methyl isocyanate" (referring to the Bhopal disaster). He issued many appeals for population control, reflecting a perspective articulated by people from Thomas Malthus through Paul R. Ehrlich. Asimov considered himself a feminist even before Women's Liberation became a widespread movement; he joked that he wished women to be free "because I hate it when they charge". More seriously, he argued that the issue of women's rights was closely connected to that of population control. Furthermore, he believed that homosexuality must be considered a "moral right" on population grounds, as must all consenting adult sexual activity that does not lead to reproduction. In the closing years of his life, Asimov blamed the deterioration of the quality of life that he perceived in New York City on the shrinking tax base caused by the middle class flight to the suburbs. His last non-fiction book, Our Angry Earth (1991, co-written with his long-time friend science fiction author Frederik Pohl), deals with elements of the environmental crisis such as global warming and the destruction of the ozone layer. Writing Overview Rowena Morrill depicts Asimov enthroned with symbols of his life's work Asimov's career can be divided into several time periods. His early career, dominated by science fiction, began with short stories in 1939 and novels in 1950. This lasted until about 1958, all but ending after publication of The Naked Sun. He began publishing nonfiction in 1952, co-authoring a college-level textbook called Biochemistry and Human Metabolism. Following the brief orbit of the first man-made satellite Sputnik I by the USSR in 1957, his production of nonfiction, particularly popular science books, greatly increased, with a consequent drop in his science fiction output. Over the next quarter century, he wrote only four science fiction novels. Starting in 1982, the second half of his science fiction career began with the publication of Foundation's Edge. From then until his death, Asimov published several more sequels and prequels to his existing novels, tying them together in a way he had not originally anticipated, making a unified series. There are, however, many inconsistencies in this unification, especially in his earlier stories. Asimov believed that his most enduring contributions would be his "Three Laws of Robotics" and the Foundation Series (see Yours, Isaac Asimov, p. 329). Furthermore, the Oxford English Dictionary credits his science fiction for introducing the words positronic (an entirely fictional technology), psychohistory (which is also used for a different study on historical motivations) and robotics into the English language. Asimov coined the term robotics without suspecting that it might be an original word; at the time, he believed it was simply the natural analogue of words such as mechanics and hydraulics, but for robots. Unlike his word psychohistory, the word robotics continues in mainstream technical use with Asimov's original definition. Star Trek: The Next Generation featured androids with "positronic brains" giving Asimov full credit for 'inventing' this fictional technology. His fictional writings for space and time are similar to the writings of Brian W Aldiss, Poul Anderson and Gregory Benford. He is considered one of few authors who have the potential to bring older teenagers in to the realm of adult fiction. Science fiction Asimov first began reading the science fiction pulp magazines sold in his family's confectionery store in 1929. He came into contact with science fiction fandom in the mid-1930s, particularly the circle which became the Futurians. He began writing his first science fiction story, "Cosmic Corkscrew", in 1937, but failed to finish it until June 1938, when he was inspired to do so after a visit to the offices of Astounding Science Fiction. He finished "Cosmic Corkscrew" on June 19, and submitted the story in person to Astounding editor John W. Campbell two days later. Campbell rejected "Cosmic Corkscrew", but encouraged Asimov to keep trying, and Asimov did so. Asimov sold his third story, "Marooned Off Vesta", to Amazing Stories magazine in October, and it appeared in the March 1939 issue. He continued to write and sometimes sell stories to the science fiction pulps. In 1941, he published his 32nd story, "Nightfall", which has been described as one of "the most famous science-fiction stories of all time". In 1968 the Science Fiction Writers of America voted "Nightfall" the best science fiction short story ever written. In his short story collection Nightfall and Other Stories he wrote, "The writing of 'Nightfall' was a watershed in my professional career ... I was suddenly taken seriously and the world of science fiction became aware that I existed. As the years passed, in fact, it became evident that I had written a 'classic'". "Nightfall" is an archetypal example of social science fiction, a term coined by Asimov to describe a new trend in the 1940s, led by authors including Asimov and Heinlein, away from gadgets and space opera and toward speculation about the human condition. By 1941 Asimov had begun selling regularly to Astounding, which was then the field's leading magazine. From 1943 to 1949, all of his published science fiction appeared in Astounding. In 1942 he published the first of his Foundation stories—later collected in the Foundation Trilogy: Foundation (1951), Foundation and Empire (1952), and Second Foundation (1953)—which recount the collapse and rebirth of a vast interstellar empire in a universe of the future. Taken together, they are his most famous work of science fiction, along with the Robot Series. Many years later, due to pressure by fans on Asimov to write another, he continued the series with Foundation's Edge (1982) and Foundation and Earth (1986), and then went back to before the original trilogy with Prelude to Foundation (1988) and Forward the Foundation (1992). The series features his fictional science of Psychohistory in which the future course of the history of large populations can be predicted. His positronic robot stories—many of which were collected in I, Robot (1950)—were begun at about the same time. They promulgated a set of rules of ethics for robots (see Three Laws of Robotics) and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers and thinkers in their treatment of the subject. One such short story, "The Bicentennial Man", was made into a film starring Robin Williams. The 2004 film I, Robot, starring Will Smith, was based on a script by Jeff Vintar entitled Hardwired, with Asimov's ideas incorporated later after acquiring the rights to the I, Robot title. It is not related to the I, Robot script by Harlan Ellison, who collaborated with Asimov himself to create a version that captured the spirit of the original. Asimov is quoted as saying that Ellison's screenplay would lead to "the first really adult, complex, worthwhile science fiction movie ever made". The screenplay was published in book form in 1994, after hopes of seeing it in film form were becoming slim. Besides movies, his Foundation and Robot stories have inspired other derivative works of science fiction literature, many by well-known and established authors such as Roger MacBride Allen, Greg Bear, Gregory Benford and David Brin. These appear to have been done with the blessing, and often at the request of, Asimov's widow Janet Asimov. In 1948 he also wrote a spoof chemistry article, "The Endochronic Properties of Resublimated Thiotimoline". At the time, Asimov was preparing his own doctoral dissertation, and for the oral examination to follow that. Fearing a prejudicial reaction from his graduate school evaluation board at Columbia University, Asimov asked his editor that it be released under a pseudonym, yet it appeared under his own name, anyway, because of a mistake by the publisher. During his oral examination shortly thereafter, Asimov grew concerned at the scrutiny he received. At the end of the examination, one evaluator turned to him, smiling, and said "Mr. Asimov, tell us something about the thermodynamic properties of the compound thiotimoline". The stuttering Asimov was sent out of the room then. After a 20-minute or so wait, he was summoned back into the Examination Room and congratulated as "Dr. Asimov." In 1949, the book publisher Doubleday's science fiction editor Walter I. Bradbury accepted Asimov's unpublished novelette "Grow Old Along With Me" (40,000 words) for publication, but requested that it be extended to a full novel of 70,000 words. The book appeared under the Doubleday imprint in January 1950 with the title of Pebble in the Sky. The Doubleday company went on to publish five more original science fiction novels by Asimov in the 1950s, along with the six juvenile Lucky Starr novels, under the pseudonym of "Paul French". Doubleday also published collections of Asimov's short stories, beginning with The Martian Way and Other Stories in 1955. The early 1950s also saw the Gnome Press company publishing one collection of Asimov's positronic robot stories as I, Robot and his Foundation stories and novelettes as the three books of the Foundation Trilogy. More positronic robot stories were republished in book form as The Rest of the Robots. When new science fiction magazines, notably Galaxy Magazine and The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, appeared in the 1950s, Asimov began publishing short stories in them as well. He would later refer to the 1950s as his "golden decade". A number of these stories are included in his Best of anthology, including The Last Question (1956), on the ability of humankind to cope with and potentially reverse the process of entropy. It was his personal favorite and considered by many to be equal to Nightfall. Asimov wrote of it in 1973: In December 1974, the former Beatle Paul McCartney approached Asimov and asked him if he could write the screenplay for a science-fiction movie musical. McCartney had a vague idea for the plot and a small scrap of dialogue; he wished to make a film about a rock band whose members discover they are being impersonated by a group of extraterrestrials. The band and their impostors would likely be played by McCartney's group Wings, then at the height of their career. Intrigued by the idea, although he was not generally a fan of rock music, Asimov quickly produced a "treatment" or brief outline of the story. He adhered to McCartney's overall idea, producing a story he felt to be moving and dramatic. However, he did not make use of McCartney's brief scrap of dialogue, and probably as a consequence, McCartney rejected the story. The treatment now exists only in the Boston University archives. Beginning in 1977, Asimov lent his name to Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine (now Asimov's Science Fiction) and penned an editorial for each issue. There was also a short-lived Asimov's SF Adventure Magazine and a companion Asimov's Science Fiction Anthology reprint series, published as magazines (in the same manner as the stablemates Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine's and Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine's "anthologies"). Popular science During the late 1950s and 1960s, Asimov shifted gears somewhat, and substantially decreased his fiction output (he published only four adult novels between 1957's The Naked Sun and 1982's Foundation's Edge, two of which were mysteries). At the same time, he greatly increased his non-fiction production, writing mostly on science topics; the launch of Sputnik in 1957 engendered public concern over a "science gap", which Asimov's publishers were eager to fill with as much material as he could write. Meanwhile, the monthly Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction invited him to continue his regular non-fiction column, begun in the now-folded bimonthly companion magazine Venture Science Fiction Magazine, ostensibly dedicated to popular science, but with Asimov having complete editorial freedom. The first of the F&SF columns appeared in November 1958, and they followed uninterrupted thereafter, with 399 entries, until Asimov's terminal illness. These columns, periodically collected into books by his principal publisher, Doubleday, helped make Asimov's reputation as a "Great Explainer" of science, and were referred to by him as his only pop-science writing in which he never had to assume complete ignorance of the subjects at hand on the part of his readers. The popularity of his first wide-ranging reference work, The Intelligent Man's Guide to Science, also allowed him to give up most of his academic responsibilities and become essentially a full-time freelance writer. Asimov wrote several essays on the social contentions of his time, including "Thinking About Thinking" and "Science: Knock Plastic" (1967). The great variety of information covered in Asimov's writings once prompted Kurt Vonnegut to ask, "How does it feel to know everything?" Asimov replied that he only knew how it felt to have the reputation of omniscience—"Uneasy". (See In Joy Still Felt, chapter 30.) In the introduction to his story collection Slow Learner, Thomas Pynchon admitted that he relied upon Asimov's science popularizations (and the Oxford English Dictionary) to provide his knowledge of entropy. It is a mark of the friendship and respect accorded Asimov by Arthur C. Clarke that the so-called "Asimov-Clarke Treaty of Park Avenue", put together as they shared a cab ride along Park Avenue in New York, stated that Asimov was required to insist that Clarke was the best science fiction writer in the world (reserving second best for himself), while Clarke was required to insist that Asimov was the best science writer in the world (reserving second best for himself). Thus the dedication in Clarke's book Report on Planet Three (1972) reads: "In accordance with the terms of the Clarke-Asimov treaty, the second-best science writer dedicates this book to the second-best science-fiction writer." Other writing In addition to his interest in science, Asimov was also greatly interested in history. Starting in the 1960s, he wrote 14 popular history books, most notably The Greeks: A Great Adventure (1965), The Roman Republic (1966), The Roman Empire (1967), The Egyptians (1967) and The Near East: 10,000 Years of History (1968). He published Asimov's Guide to the Bible in two volumes— covering the Old Testament in 1967 and the New Testament in 1969— and then combined them into one 1,300-page volume in 1981. Complete with maps and tables, the guide goes through the books of the Bible in order, explaining the history of each one and the political influences that affected it, as well as biographical information about the important characters. His interest in literature manifested itself in several annotations of literary works, including Asimov's Guide to Shakespeare (1970), Asimov's Annotated Paradise Lost (1974), and The Annotated Gulliver's Travels (1980). Asimov was also a noted mystery author and a frequent contributor to Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine. He began by writing science fiction mysteries such as his Wendall Urth stories but soon moved on to writing "pure" mysteries. He only published two full-length mystery novels but he wrote several stories about the Black Widowers, a group of men who met monthly for dinner, conversation, and a puzzle. He got the idea for the Widowers from his own association in a stag group called the Trap Door Spiders and all of the main characters (with the exception of the waiter, Henry, who he admitted resembled Wodehouse's Jeeves) were modeled after his closest friends. Toward the end of his life, Asimov published a series of collections of limericks, mostly written by himself, starting with Lecherous Limericks, which appeared in 1975. Limericks: Too Gross, whose title displays Asimov's love of puns, contains 144 limericks by Asimov and an equal number by John Ciardi. He even created a slim volume of Sherlockian limericks (and embarrassed one fan by autographing her copy with an impromptu limerick that rhymed 'Nancy' with 'romancy'). Asimov featured Yiddish humor in Azazel, The Two Centimeter Demon. The two main characters, both Jewish, talk over dinner, or lunch, or breakfast, about anecdotes of "George" and his friend Azazel. Asimov's Treasury of Humor is both a working joke book and a treatise propounding his views on humor theory. According to Asimov, the most essential element of humor is an abrupt change in point of view, one that suddenly shifts focus from the important to the trivial, or from the sublime to the ridiculous. Particularly in his later years, Asimov to some extent cultivated an image of himself as an amiable lecher. In 1971, as a response to the popularity of sexual guidebooks such as The Sensuous Woman (by "J") and The Sensuous Man (by "M"), Asimov published The Sensuous Dirty Old Man under the byline "Dr. 'A'", but with his full name prominently displayed on the cover. Asimov published two volumes of autobiography: In Memory Yet Green (1979) and In Joy Still Felt (1980). A third autobiography, I. Asimov: A Memoir, was published in April 1994. The epilogue was written by his widow Janet Asimov a decade after his death. It's Been a Good Life (2002), edited by Janet, is a condensed version of his three autobiographies. He also published three volumes of retrospectives of his writing, Opus 100 (1969), Opus 200 (1979), and Opus 300 (1984). Asimov and Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry developed a unique relationship during Star Trek's initial launch in the late 1960s. Asimov wrote a critical essay on Star Trek's scientific accuracy for TV Guide magazine. Roddenberry retorted respectfully with a personal letter explaining the limitations of accuracy when writing a weekly series. Asimov corrected himself with a follow-up essay to TV Guide claiming despite its inaccuracies, that Star Trek was a fresh and intellectually challenging science fiction television show. The two remained friends to the point where Asimov even served as an advisor on a number of Star Trek projects. Literary themes Much of Asimov's fiction dealt with themes of paternalism. His first robot story, "Robbie", concerned a robotic nanny. "Lenny" deals with the capacity of robopsychologist Susan Calvin to feel maternal love towards a robot whose positronic brain capacities are those of a 3-year-old. As the robots grew more sophisticated, their interventions became more wide-reaching and subtle. In "Evidence", the story revolves around a candidate who successfully runs for office who may be a robot masquerading as a human. In "The Evitable Conflict", the robots run humanity from behind the scenes, acting as nannies to the whole species. Later, in The Robots of Dawn and Robots and Empire, a robot develops what he calls the Zeroth Law of Robotics, which states that: "A robot may not injure humanity, nor, through inaction, allow humanity to come to harm". He also decides that robotic presence is stifling humanity's freedom, and that the best course of action is for the robots to phase themselves out. A non-robot, time travel novel, The End of Eternity, features a similar conflict and resolution. The significance of the Zeroth Law is that it outweighs and supersedes all other Laws of Robotics: if a robot finds himself in a situation whereby he must murder one or more humans (a direct violation of the First Law of Robotics) in order to protect all of humanity (and preserve the Zeroth Law), then the robot's positronic programming will require him to commit murder for humanity's sake. Only highly advanced robots (such as Daneel and Giskard) could comprehend this law. In The Foundation Series (which did not originally have robots), a scientist implements a semi-secret plan to create a new galactic empire over the course of 1,000 years. This series has its version of Platonic guardians, called the Second Foundation, to perfect and protect the plan. When Asimov stopped writing the series in the 1950s, the Second Foundation was depicted as benign protectors of humanity. When he revisited the series in the 1980s, he made the paternalistic themes even more explicit. Foundation's Edge introduced the planet Gaia, obviously based on the Gaia hypothesis. Every animal, plant, and mineral on Gaia participated in a shared consciousness, forming a single super-mind working together for the greater good. In Foundation and Earth, the protagonist starts searching for the Earth, thinking that there he could find the answer of why he decided, in Foundation's Edge, that Galaxia was the right choice to take. Gaia is one of Asimov's best attempts at exploring the possibility of a collective awareness, and is compounded further in Nemesis, in which the planet Erythro composed primarily of prokaryotic life has a mind of its own and seeks communion with human beings. Foundation and Earth introduces robots to the Foundation universe. Two of Asimov's last novels, Prelude to Foundation and Forward the Foundation, explore their behavior in fuller detail. The robots are depicted as covert operatives, acting for the benefit of humanity. Another frequent theme, perhaps the reverse of paternalism, is social oppression. The Currents of Space takes place on a planet where a unique plant fiber is grown; the agricultural workers there are exploited by the aristocrats of a nearby planet. In The Stars, Like Dust, the hero helps a planet that is oppressed by an arrogant interplanetary empire, the Tyranni. Often the victims of oppression are either Earth people (as opposed to colonists on other planets) or robots. In "The Bicentennial Man", a robot fights prejudice to be accepted as a human. In The Caves of Steel, the people of Earth resent the wealthier "Spacers" and in turn treat robots (associated with the Spacers) in ways reminiscent of how whites treated blacks, such as addressing robots as "boy". Pebble in the Sky shows an analogous situation: the Galactic Empire rules Earth and its people use such terms as "Earthie-squaw", but Earth is a theocratic dictatorship that enforces euthanasia of anyone older than 60. One hero is Bel Arvardan, an upper-class Galactic archaeologist who must overcome his prejudices. The other is Joseph Schwartz, a 62-year-old 20th century American who had emigrated from Europe, where his people were persecuted (he is quite possibly Jewish), and is accidentally transported forward in time to Arvardan's period. He must decide whether to help a downtrodden society that thinks he should be dead. Yet another frequent theme in Asimov is rational thought. He invented the science-fiction mystery with the novel The Caves of Steel and the stories in Asimov's Mysteries, usually playing fair with the reader by introducing early in the story any science or technology involved in the solution. Later, he produced non-SF mysteries, including the novel Murder at the ABA (1976) and the "Black Widowers" and "Union Club" short stories, in which he followed the same rule. In his fiction, important scenes are often essentially debates, with the more rational, humane—or persuasive—side winning. Awards 1957Thomas Alva Edison Foundation Award, for Building Blocks of the Universe 1960Howard W. Blakeslee Award from the American Heart Association for The Living River 1962Boston University's Publication Merit Award 1963special Hugo Award for "adding science to science fiction" for essays published in the Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction 1965James T. Grady Award of the American Chemical Society (now called the James T. Grady-James H. Stack Award for Interpreting Chemistry) 1966Best All-time Novel Series Hugo Award for the Foundation series 1967Westinghouse Science Writing Award 1972Nebula Award for Best Novel for The Gods Themselves 1973Hugo Award for Best Novel for The Gods Themselves 1977Hugo Award for Best Novelette for The Bicentennial Man 1977Nebula Award for Best Novelette for The Bicentennial Man 1981An asteroid, 5020 Asimov, was named in his honor 1987Nebula Grandmaster award, a lifetime achievement award 1983Hugo Award for Best Novel for Foundation's Edge 1992Hugo Award for Best Novelette for Gold 1995Hugo Award for Best Nonfiction for I. Asimov: A Memoir 1996A 1946 Retro-Hugo for Best Novel of 1945 was given at the 1996 WorldCon to The Mule, the 7th Foundation story published in Astounding Science Fiction 1997Posthumous induction into the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame 2009A crater on the planet Mars, Asimov, was named in his honor 14 honorary doctorate degrees from various universities Criticisms One of the most common impressions of Asimov's fiction work is that his writing style is extremely unornamented. In 1980, science fiction scholar James Gunn, professor emeritus of English at the University of Kansas wrote of I, Robot: Gunn observes that there are places where Asimov's style rises to the demands of the situation; he cites the climax of "Liar!" as an example. Sharply drawn characters occur at key junctures of his storylines: In addition to Susan Calvin in "Liar!" and "Evidence", we find Arkady Darell in Second Foundation, Elijah Baley in The Caves of Steel and Hari Seldon in the Foundation prequels. Asimov was also criticized for the general absence of sexuality and of extraterrestrial life in his science fiction. Asimov once explained that his reluctance to write about aliens came from an incident early in his career when Astoundings editor John Campbell rejected one of his early science fiction stories because the alien characters were portrayed as superior to the humans. He decided that, rather than write weak alien characters, he would not write about aliens at all. Nevertheless, in response to these criticisms he wrote The Gods Themselves, which contains aliens, sex, and alien sex. Asimov said that of all his writings, he was most proud of the middle section of The Gods Themselves, the part which deals with those themes. In the Hugo Award-winning novella "Gold", Asimov describes an author clearly based on himself who has one of his books (The Gods Themselves) adapted into a "compu-drama", essentially photo-realistic computer animation. The director criticizes the fictionalized Asimov ("Gregory Laborian") for having an extremely nonvisual style making it difficult to adapt his work, and the author explains that he relies on ideas and dialogue rather than description to get his points across. Others have criticised him for a lack of strong female characters in his early work. In his autobiographical writings he acknowledges this, and responds by pointing to inexperience. His later novels, written with more female characters but in essentially the same prose style as his early SF stories, brought this matter to a wider audience. For example, the August 25, 1985 Washington Post's "Book World" section reports of Robots and Empire as follows: Be that as it may, a considerable portion of such criticism boils down to the charge that Asimov's works are simply dated. More precisely, some details of Asimov's imaginary future technology as he described in the 1940s and 1950s have not aged well. He, for example, described powerful robots and computers from the distant future as still using punch cards or punched tape and engineers using slide rules. In one dramatic scene in Foundation and Empire, a character gets the news by buying a paper at a vending machine. Of course, this charge could be leveled at virtually any writer of science fiction (note the technology of the original Starship Enterprise in Gene Roddenberry's universe) and has little critical impact. In addition, his stories also have occasional internal contradictions: names and dates given in The Foundation Series do not always agree with one another, for example. Some such errors may plausibly be due to mistakes the characters make, since characters in Asimov stories are seldom fully informed about their own situations. Other contradictions resulted from the many years elapsed between the time Asimov began the Foundation series and when he resumed work on it; occasionally, advances in scientific knowledge forced him to revise his own fictional history. Other than books by Gunn and Patrouch, there is a relative dearth of "literary" criticism on Asimov (particularly when compared to the sheer volume of his output). Cowart and Wymer's Dictionary of Literary Biography (1981) gives a possible reason: In fairness, Gunn's and Patrouch's respective studies of Asimov both take the stand that a clear, direct prose style is still a style. Gunn's 1982 book goes into considerable depth commenting upon each of Asimov's novels published to that date. He does not praise all of Asimov's fiction (nor does Patrouch), but he does call some passages in The Caves of Steel "reminiscent of Proust". When discussing how that novel depicts night falling over futuristic New York City, Gunn says that Asimov's prose "need not be ashamed anywhere in literary society". Although he prided himself on his unornamented prose style (for which he credited Clifford Simak as an early influence), Asimov also enjoyed giving his longer stories complicated narrative structures, often by arranging chapters in non-chronological ways. Some readers have been put off by this, complaining that the nonlinearity is not worth the trouble and adversely affects the clarity of the story. For example, the first third of The Gods Themselves begins with Chapter 6, then backtracks to fill in earlier material. (John Campbell advised Asimov to begin his stories as late in the plot as possible. This advice helped Asimov create "Reason," one of the early Robot stories. See In Memory Yet Green for details of that time period.) Patrouch found that the interwoven and nested flashbacks of The Currents of Space did serious harm to that novel, to such an extent that only a "dyed-in-the-kyrt Asimov, Isaac (1952), The Currents of Space, explanation of "kyrt" Asimov fan" could enjoy it. Asimov's tendency to contort his timelines is perhaps most apparent in his later novel Nemesis, in which one group of characters live in the "present" and another group starts in the "past", beginning fifteen years earlier and gradually moving toward the time period of the first group. In 2002, Donald Palumbo, an English professor at East Carolina University, published Chaos Theory, Asimov's Foundations and Robots, and Herbert’s Dune: The Fractal Aesthetic of Epic Science Fiction. This includes a review of Asimov's narrative structures that compares them with the scientific concepts of fractals and chaos. Palumbo finds that though the traditional interests of literature (such as symbolism and characterization) are often somewhat lacking or even absent, a fascination with the Foundation and Robot metaseries remains. He determines that the purposeful complexities of the narrative build unusual symmetric and recursive structures to be perceived by the mind's eye. This volume contains some of the most scholarly and in-depth criticism of Asimov to date. John Jenkins, who has reviewed the vast majority of Asimov's written output, once observed: Selected bibliography Including all titles, charts, and edited collections, there are currently 515 items in Asimov's bibliography--not counting his individual short stories, individual essays, and criticism. For his 100th, 200th, and 300th books (based on his personal count), Asimov published Opus 100 (1969), Opus 200 (1979), and Opus 300 (1984), celebrating his writing; he did not choose to do this for his 400th book, however. Asimov's writings span across all major categories of the Dewey Decimal Classification except for Philosophy. For a listing of Asimov's books in chronological order within his future history, see the Foundation Series list of books. Science fiction Fantastic Voyage series Fantastic Voyage (1966) (a novelization of the movie) Fantastic Voyage II: Destination Brain (1987) (not a sequel to Fantastic Voyage, but a similar, independent story) "Greater Foundation" series The Robot series was originally separate from the Foundation series. The Galactic Empire novels were originally published as independent stories. Later in life, Asimov synthesized them into a single coherent 'history' that appeared in the extension of the Foundation series. The Robot series: The Caves of Steel (1954), ISBN 0-553-29340-0 (first Elijah Baley SF-crime novel) The Naked Sun (1957), ISBN 0-553-29339-7 (second Elijah Baley SF-crime novel) The Robots of Dawn (1983), ISBN 0-553-29949-2 (third Elijah Baley SF-crime novel) Robots and Empire (1985) (sequel to the Elijah Baley trilogy) Galactic Empire series: Pebble in the Sky (1950), ISBN 0-553-29342-7 The Stars, Like Dust (1951), ISBN 0-553-29343-5 The Currents of Space (1952), ISBN 0-553-29341-9 Original Foundation trilogy: Foundation (1951), ISBN 0-553-29335-4 Foundation and Empire (1952), ISBN 0-553-29337-0, Published with the title 'The Man Who Upset the Universe' as a 35c Ace paperback, D-125, in about 1952. Second Foundation (1953), ISBN 0-553-29336-2 Extended Foundation series: Foundation's Edge (1982), ISBN 0-553-29338-9 Foundation and Earth (1986), ISBN 0-553-58757-9 (last of the Foundation series) Prelude to Foundation (1988), ISBN 0-553-27839-8 (occurs before "Foundation") Forward the Foundation (1993), ISBN 0-553-40488-1 (occurs after "Prelude to Foundation" and before "Foundation") Further Extended Foundation series — Second Foundation trilogy: [With approval of the Estate of Isaac Asimov]: Foundation's Fear (1997), ISBN 0-06-105243-4 hardcover (by Gregory Benford) Foundation and Chaos (1998), ISBN 0-06-105242-6 hardcover (by Greg Bear) Foundation's Triumph (1999), ISBN 0-06-105241-8 hardcover (by David Brin) Lucky Starr series (as Paul French) David Starr, Space Ranger (1952) Lucky Starr and the Pirates of the Asteroids (1953) Lucky Starr and the Oceans of Venus (1954) Lucky Starr and the Big Sun of Mercury (1956) Lucky Starr and the Moons of Jupiter (1957) Lucky Starr and the Rings of Saturn (1958) Norby Chronicles (with Janet Asimov) Norby, the Mixed-Up Robot (1983) Norby's Other Secret (1984) Norby and the Lost Princess (1985) Norby and the Invaders (1985) Norby and the Queen's Necklace (1986) Norby Finds a Villain (1987) Norby Down to Earth (1988) Norby and Yobo's Great Adventure (1989) Norby and the Oldest Dragon (1990) Norby and the Court Jester (1991) Novels not part of a series Novels marked with an asterisk * have minor connections to the Foundation series. The End of Eternity (1955) * The Gods Themselves (1972) Nemesis (1989) * Nightfall (1990), with Robert Silverberg The Ugly Little Boy (1992), with Robert Silverberg (aka: Child of Time) The Positronic Man (1993), with Robert Silverberg Short story collections See also List of short stories by Isaac Asimov I, Robot (1950), ISBN 0-553-29438-5 The Martian Way and Other Stories (1955), ISBN 0-837-60463-X Earth Is Room Enough (1957), ISBN 0-449-24125-4 Nine Tomorrows (1959), ISBN 0-449-24084-3 The Rest of the Robots (1964), ISBN 0-385-09041-2 Through a Glass, Clearly (1967), ISBN 0-860-25124-1 Nightfall and Other Stories (1969), ISBN 0-449-01969-1 The Early Asimov (1972), ISBN 0-449-02850-X The Best of Isaac Asimov (1973), ISBN 0-722-11256-4 Buy Jupiter and Other Stories (1975, ISBN 0-385-05077-1 The Bicentennial Man and Other Stories (1976), ISBN 0-575-02240-X The Complete Robot (1982) The Winds of Change and Other Stories (1983), ISBN 0-385-18099-3 The Alternate Asimovs (1986), ISBN 0-385-19784-5 The Best Science Fiction of Isaac Asimov (1986) Robot Dreams (1986), ISBN 0-441-73154-6 Azazel (1988) Robot Visions (1990) ISBN 0-451-45064-7 Gold (1995), ISBN 0-553-28339-1 Magic (1995), ISBN 0-002-24622-8 Mysteries Novels The Death Dealers (1958), republished as A Whiff of Death Murder at the ABA (1976), also published as Authorized Murder Short story collections Black Widowers series Tales of the Black Widowers (1974) More Tales of the Black Widowers (1976) Casebook of the Black Widowers (1980) Banquets of the Black Widowers (1984) Puzzles of the Black Widowers (1990) The Return of the Black Widowers (2003) Other mysteries Asimov's Mysteries (1968) The Union Club Mysteries (1983) The Disappearing Man and Other Mysteries (1985) The Best Mysteries of Isaac Asimov (1986) Nonfiction Popular scienceCollections of Asimov's essaysoriginally published as monthly columns in the Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction Fact and Fancy (1962) View from a Height (1963) Adding a Dimension (1964) Of Time, Space, & Other Things (1965) From Earth to Heaven (1966) Science, Numbers and I (1968) The Solar System and Back (1970) The Stars in Their Courses (1971) The Left Hand of the Electron (1972) The Tragedy of the Moon (1973) Of Matters Great & Small (1975) The Planet that Wasn't (1976) Asimov On Physics (1976) Quasar, Quasar, Burning Bright (1977) Road to Infinity (1979) The Sun Shines Bright (1981) Counting the Eons (1983) X Stands for Unknown (1984) The Subatomic Monster (1985) Far as Human Eye Could See (1987) The Relativity of Wrong (1988) Out of the Everywhere (1990) The Secret of The Universe (1990) Atom: Journey Across the Subatomic Cosmos (1991)Other Science Books by Asimov''' The Chemicals of Life (1954) Inside the Atom (1956) Only a Trillion (1957) The World of Carbon (1958) The World of Nitrogen (1958) Words of Science and the History Behind Them (1959) The Clock We Live On (1959) Asimov on Numbers (1959) The Wellsprings of Life (1960) Life and Energy (1962) The Human Body: Its Structure and Operation (1963) The Human Brain (1964) The Intelligent Man's Guide to Science (1965) Planets for Man (with Stephen H. Dole) The title varied with each of the four editions, the last being Asimov's New Guide to Science (1984) The Universe: From Flat Earth to Quasar (1966) The Neutrino (1966) Photosynthesis (1968) Isaac Asimov's Treasury of Humor (1971) Our World in Space (1974) The Collapsing Universe (1977), ISBN 0-671-81738-8 Extraterrestrial Civilizations (1979) Views of the Universe (1981) Exploring the Earth and the Cosmos (1982) Understanding Physics (1988) [1966] Vol. I, Motion, Sound, and Heat Vol. II, Light, Magnetism, and Electricity Vol. III, The Electron, Proton, and Neutron Asimov's Chronology of Science and Discovery (1989), second edition adds content thru 1993 Asimov's Chronology of the World (1991) Isaac Asimov's Guide to Earth and Space (1991) Asimov Laughs Again (1992) Quasars, Pulsars and Black Holes(1992) The Sun (2003), revised by Richard Hantula Jupiter (2004), revised by Richard Hantula The Earth (2004), revised by Richard Hantula Venus (2004), revised by Richard Hantula Annotations Asimov's Annotated "Don Juan" Asimov's Annotated "Paradise Lost" Asimov's Annotated "Gilbert and Sullivan" Asimov's The Annotated "Gulliver's Travels"Guides Asimov's Guide to the Bible, vols I and II (1981), ISBN 0-517-34582-X Asimov's Guide to Shakespeare, vols I and II (1970), ISBN 0-517-26825-6 Autobiography In Memory Yet Green, (1979, Doubleday) In Joy Still Felt, (1980, Doubleday) I. Asimov: A Memoir, (1994, Doubleday) Other nonfiction Opus 100 (1969), ISBN 0-395-07351-0 The Sensuous Dirty Old Man (A collection of limericks)(1971), ISBN 0-451-07199-9 Limericks, Two Gross (More limericks) Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology (1972), ISBN 0-385-17771-2 Opus 200 (1979), ISBN 0-395-27625-X Our Federal Union (1975), ISBN 0-395-2283-3 Isaac Asimov's Book of Facts (1979), ISBN 0-517-36111-6 The Roving Mind (1983) (collection of essays). New edition published by Prometheus Books, 1997, ISBN 1-573-92181-5 Opus 300 (1984), ISBN 0-395-36108-7 TV and film appearances Stranieri in America 1988 Oltre New York 1986 Voyage to the Outer Planets and Beyond 1986 Target... Earth? 1980 The Dick Cavett Show 1970 The Nature of Things 1969 "ABC News" coverage of Apollo 11, 1969, with Fred Pohl, interviewed by Rod Serling "To Tell The Truth", CBS, approximately 1968, playing the "real" Isaac Asimov. ARTS Network talk show hosted by Studs Terkel and Calvin Trillin, approximately 1982. Other guests included Harlan Ellison and James Gunn. "David Frost" interview program, August 1969. This is the show in which Frost asked Asimov if he had ever tried to find God and, after some initial evasion, Asimov answered, "God is much more intelligent than I—let him try to find me." References Sources Asimov, Isaac. In Memory Yet Green (1979, ISBN 0-380-75432-0). In Joy Still Felt (1980, ISBN 0-380-53025-2).I. Asimov: A Memoir (1994). ISBN 0-385-41701-2 (hc), ISBN 0-553-56997-X (pb).Yours, Isaac Asimov (1996), edited by Stanley Asimov. ISBN 0-385-47624-8.It's Been a Good Life (2002), edited by Janet Asimov. ISBN 1-57392-968-9. Goldman, Stephen H., "Isaac Asimov", in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 8, Cowart and Wymer eds., (Gale Research, 1981), pp. 15–29. Gunn, James. "On Variations on a Robot", IASFM, July 1980, pp. 56–81. Isaac Asimov: The Foundations of Science Fiction (1982). ISBN 0-19-503060-5.The Science of Science-Fiction Writing'' (2000). ISBN 1-57886-011-3. External links Isaac Asimov Home Page Isaac Asimov Wikia Page that contains overview to most of his books {Work in Progress} 15-Book Reading Order as Suggested by Asimov From "Author's Note" of "Prelude to Foundation" Doubleday 1988 hardcover edition Guardian Books "Author Page", with profile and links to further articles. 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2,203 | Metrization_theorem | In topology and related areas of mathematics, a metrizable space is a topological space that is homeomorphic to a metric space. That is, a topological space is said to be metrizable if there is a metric such that the topology induced by d is . Metrization theorems are theorems that give sufficient conditions for a topological space to be metrizable. Properties Metrizable spaces inherit all topological properties from metric spaces. For example, they are Hausdorff paracompact spaces (and hence normal and Tychonoff) and first-countable. Metrization theorems The first really useful metrization theorem was Urysohn's metrization theorem. This states that every second-countable regular Hausdorff space is metrizable. So, for example, every second-countable manifold is metrizable. (Historical note: The form of the theorem shown here was in fact proved by Tychonoff in 1926. What Urysohn had shown, in a paper published posthumously in 1925, was that every second-countable normal Hausdorff space is metrizable.) Several other metrization theorems follow as simple corollaries to Urysohn's Theorem. For example, a compact Hausdorff space is metrizable if and only if it is second-countable. Urysohn's Theorem can be restated as: A topological space is separable and metrizable if and only if it is regular, Hausdorff and second-countable. The Nagata-Smirnov metrization theorem extends this to the non-separable case. It states that a topological space is metrizable if and only if it is regular, Hausdorff and has a σ-locally finite base. A σ-locally finite base is a base which is a union of countably many locally finite collections of open sets. For a closely related theorem see the Bing metrization theorem. Separable metrizable spaces can also be characterized as those spaces which are homeomorphic to a subspace of the Hilbert cube , i.e. the countably infinite product of the unit interval (with its natural subspace topology from the reals) with itself, endowed with the product topology. A space is said to be locally metrizable if every point has a metrizable neighbourhood. Smirnov proved that a locally metrizable space is metrizable if and only if it is Hausdorff and paracompact. In particular, a manifold is metrizable if and only if it is paracompact. Examples of non-metrizable spaces Non-normal spaces cannot be metrizable; important examples include the Zariski topology on an algebraic variety or on the spectrum of a ring, used in algebraic geometry, the topological vector space of all functions from the real line R to itself, with the topology of pointwise convergence. The real line with the lower limit topology is not metrizable. The usual distance function is not a metric on this space because the topology it determines is the usual topology, not the lower limit topology. This space is Hausdorff, paracompact and first countable. The long line is locally metrizable but not metrizable; in a sense it is "too long". See also Uniformizability, the property of a topological space of being homeomorphic to a uniform space, or equivalently the topology being defined by a family of pseudometrics Moore space (topology) | Metrization_theorem |@lemmatized topology:12 related:2 area:1 mathematics:1 metrizable:21 space:25 topological:8 homeomorphic:3 metric:4 say:2 induce:1 metrization:7 theorem:10 theorems:2 give:1 sufficient:1 condition:1 property:3 inherit:1 example:5 hausdorff:8 paracompact:4 hence:1 normal:3 tychonoff:2 first:3 countable:7 really:1 useful:1 urysohn:4 state:2 every:4 second:5 regular:3 manifold:2 historical:1 note:1 form:1 show:2 fact:1 prove:2 paper:1 publish:1 posthumously:1 several:1 follow:1 simple:1 corollary:1 compact:1 restate:1 separable:3 nagata:1 smirnov:2 extend:1 non:3 case:1 σ:2 locally:6 finite:3 base:3 union:1 countably:2 many:1 collection:1 open:1 set:1 closely:1 see:2 bing:1 also:2 characterize:1 subspace:2 hilbert:1 cube:1 e:1 infinite:1 product:2 unit:1 interval:1 natural:1 real:3 endow:1 point:1 neighbourhood:1 particular:1 cannot:1 important:1 include:1 zariski:1 algebraic:2 variety:1 spectrum:1 ring:1 use:1 geometry:1 vector:1 function:2 line:3 r:1 pointwise:1 convergence:1 low:2 limit:2 usual:2 distance:1 determine:1 long:2 sense:1 uniformizability:1 uniform:1 equivalently:1 define:1 family:1 pseudometrics:1 moore:1 |@bigram metrizable_space:5 topological_space:6 metrization_theorem:6 publish_posthumously:1 compact_hausdorff:1 closely_related:1 countably_infinite:1 subspace_topology:1 zariski_topology:1 algebraic_geometry:1 pointwise_convergence:1 |
2,204 | Mobile_Suit_Gundam_Wing | Mobile Suit Gundam Wing, known in Japan as , The translation New Mobile Report Gundam Wing is used by the R2 DVD releases in Japan, and thus is used extensively by the English-language fanbase in order to differentiate it from the Universal Century Gundam series. While the use of the term "report" in the title is not necessarily incorrect, it does not convey the full meaning of the original-language terminology. The Japanese word senki (戦記) has a specific meaning of "military history." Some official translations in the past have used the translation New Mobile War Chronicle Gundam Wing as well, and some of the official art uses The New Mobile History Gundam Wing, and at least one Japanese book has used Mobile Suit Gundam Wing. was an anime series in the mecha genre, and is one of the alternate universe Gundam series, taking place in the After Colony timeline. It is the second alternate universe in the Gundam media franchise, following Mobile Fighter G Gundam. The plot centers around a war between Earth and its colonies in space; however, in contrast to the Universal Century continuity, the Gundams in Wing are more closely allied to each other than they are to any particular side in the conflict unfolding around them. The series aired across Japan on the terrestrial TV Asahi network and the anime satellite television network, Animax. The series ran for forty-nine half-hour episodes, beginning on April 7, 1995 and ending on March 29, 1996. Masashi Ikeda was the overall director of the series. Katsuyuki Sumizawa (Yoroiden Samurai Troopers) wrote the scenario for the series and was one of three official script-writers, along with Akemi Omode and Katsuhiko Chiba. Ikeda wrote one script himself and one with Omode and one with Sumizawa. Toshifumi Kawase also wrote three scripts in the latter part of the first half of the series. Kō Ōtani composed the music. The series was loosely based on the original 1979 Gundam series, Mobile Suit Gundam, created by Yoshiyuki Tomino and Hajime Yatate. Also, Gundam Wing was the first anime in the Gundam franchise to be dubbed and released in Tagalog, airing on GMA 7 in the Philippines during the late 1999 to 2000 period. It then aired on Cartoon Network in the United States and is credited with single-handedly popularizing the Gundam metaseries among the Western audiences. Since then, the series has also been dubbed into French, Italian, German, Arabic, Spanish, Indonesian, Malay and Portuguese. Plot Mankind has colonized space (with clusters of colonies at each of the five Earth-Moon Lagrange points), and, down on the Earth, the nations have united as the United Earth Sphere Alliance. The Alliance rules the colonies with an iron fist. The colonies desire a peaceful resolution to the situation, joining together in a movement headed by the pacifist Heero Yuy. In the year After Colony 175, Yuy is shot dead by an assassin (believed to be Odin Lowe), forcing the colonies to search for other paths to peace. The assassination also prompts five disaffected scientists from the Organization of Zodiac, much more commonly referred to as OZ, to turn rogue after the completion of the mobile suit prototype Tallgeese. The story of Gundam Wing begins with the start of "Operation: Meteor," the scientists' plan for revenge against the OZ military organization. The operation involves five young boys who have each been chosen and trained by one of the five rogue scientists, then sent to Earth independently in extremely advanced mobile suits, one designed by each of the scientists, known as "Gundams". Their mobile suits are called Gundams because they are constructed from a rare and astonishingly durable material known as Gundanium alloy, which can only be created in outer space. In the After Colony timeline there are generally few explanations about the technology, as the series focuses more on character development. Most technology is assumed to work in at least similar fashion to the mobile weapon technology from Gundam's Universal Century. Some minor difference occurs, those are explained below. Characters The five Gundam Pilots—Heero Yuy (an alias, not to be confused with the assassinated leader), Duo Maxwell (also an alias), Trowa Barton (another alias, he was previously known as Nanashi (No-Name)), Quatre Raberba Winner, and Chang Wufei—originally have no knowledge of each others' existence. On first meeting any of the other five, each pilot believes the others to be enemy pilots in new OZ mobile suit designs. Once the young pilots realize that they have the same objective of destroying OZ (and in some cases the same mission), they band together to help each other complete their goals. Media information Anime Gundam Wing was very popular in Japan during its run. After the show ended, two OVAs, compiling various scenes from the series along with a few minutes of new footage, were released in 1996 as Gundam Wing: Operation Meteor I and II. A three-volume OVA series, Gundam Wing: Endless Waltz, was produced in 1997 as a sequel to the TV series; plot-wise, it brought the After-Colony saga to a close. In 1998 a movie version of the OAV series was made, with new footage and a different ending theme (Last Impression). Gundam had a run on Cartoon Network's Toonami, premiering on Monday, March 6, 2000 at 5:30 PM EST. In the promos leading up to the broadcast, Peter Cullen narrated the back story, evoking memories of Voltron's opening credits. The promo was said to be so riveting that Bandai decided to use it as the official promo for the series. It was broadcast in two formats; an edited version shown in the daytime and an uncut version aired at night. Examples of the edits included the removal of blood, obscene language, and the word kill being replaced by the word destroy, though the word "death" was mostly left intact. (This was extended to Duo's nickname, "The God of Death", with it being changed to "The Great Destroyer", forcing the alteration of two episode titles.) The uncut version, shown at midnight, was completely unedited - a first for Cartoon Network, which at the time had never shown an unedited anime. Reception for the uncut version was a factor in the eventual creation of Adult Swim, which joined the network on September 2, 2001. Despite the editing, Gundam Wing was a huge success in North America, and along with Dragon Ball Z, led to a rise of popularity in anime throughout the early 2000s. All Gundam Wing episodes have been released on VHS and DVD in the US. Differences between the two video systems is that the episodes on VHS contain the edited version shown on Cartoon Network while the episodes on DVD contain the unedited version and each volume is labeled "Operation 1-10." Endless Waltz was also dubbed and shown on Cartoon Network and was later released on a DVD that contains both the OVA and movie versions. Cast Character Japanese Actor English Actor Heero Yuy Hikaru Midorikawa Mark Hildreth Relena Peacecraft Akiko Yajima Lisa Ann Beley Duo Maxwell Toshihiko Seki Scott McNeil Trowa Barton Shigeru Nakahara Kirby Morrow Quatre Raberba Winner Ai Orikasa Brad Swaile Chang Wufei Ryuuzou Ishino Ted Cole Zechs Marquise Takehito Koyasu Brian Drummond Treize Khushrenada Ryotaro Okiayu David Kaye Lucrezia Noin Chisa Yokoyama Saffron Henderson Lady Une Sayuri Yamauchi Enuka Okuma Catherine Bloom Saori Suzuki Moneca Stori & Cathy Weseluck Moneca Stori voices Catherine Bloom throughout the series. Cathy Weseluck voices the character in Endless Waltz. Sally Po Yumi Touma Moneca Stori & Samantha Ferris Moneca Stori voiced Sally Po throughout episodes 3 to 12 of the English dub. Samantha Ferris, who had previously voiced minor characters in the anime, voiced the character from episode 20 until the end of the series, and in Endless Waltz. Hilde Schbeiker Kae Araki Marcy Goldberg Dorothy Catalonia Naoko Matsui Cathy Weseluck Duke Dermail Osamu Kato Jim Byrnes Quinze Osamu Ichikawa David Mackay Howard Hiroshi Ishida Ward Perry Doctor J Minoru Inaba Dave Ward Narrator Akio Ohtsuka Campbell Lane Music Openings JUST COMMUNICATION by Two-Mix (ep. 1-40) (YTV Broadcast: 1-49) RHYTHM EMOTION by Two-Mix (ep. 41-49) Ending It's Just Love! by Rumi Onishi (ep. 1-49) Just Communication (Instrumental Version) by Kō Ōtani (Toonami Broadcast, ep. 1-49; the credits aired over an amended version of the show's first opening) Insert songs JUST COMMUNICATION by Two-Mix (eps. 3 & 49) RHYTHM EMOTION by Two-Mix (eps. 36, 38, 39, and 41) Manga Manga sidestories have also been produced. A prequel, detailing the events leading up to the launch of the Gundams to Earth, is Episode Zero. A coincident storyline is presented in Last Outpost (G-Unit). Several sequel manga, occurring between Gundam Wing and Endless Waltz have been written: Gundam Wing: Blind Target, Gundam Wing: Ground Zero, and Battlefield of Pacifists. The Gundam Wing, Battlefield of Pacifists, and Endless Waltz manga series are published in English by Tokyopop, while Blind Target, Ground Zero, and Episode Zero are published by Viz Communications. Another sequel manga detailing the future of the colonies entitled New Mobile Report Gundam Wing Sidestory: Tiel's Impulse was printed in 1998 and has not been published in the United States. Other media In 1996 a fighting video game called Gundam Wing: Endless Duel was released for the Super Famicom in Japan. The game was never released in the United States or Europe, but has gained some popularity through the emulation of older video games. Since then, Gundam Wing had appeared in several entries in the Super Robot Wars series, its number of appearances are second only to the Universal Century. Gundam Wing also appeared in all of the titles of Another Century's Episode, with all five Gundam pilots and Zechs Merquise using their respective machines in Another Century's Episode 1 and 2, and Heero Yuy being the only one present in Another Century's Episode 3. Reception Mobile Suit Gundam Wing was ranked number 2 in Animage magazine's Anime Grand Prix in 1996. It was also ranked number 76 in the publication's top 100 anime of all time. Just over a week after its premiere on Cartoon Network in North America, the series was the top rated program in all age groups. The initial airing of the OVA Endless Waltz on November 10, 2000 was the channel's second highest rated program ever at the time, only being topped by the season three premiere of Dragon Ball Z. See also List of Mobile Suit Gundam Wing nations and factions List of Mobile Suit Gundam Wing mobile units Footnotes External links The official website of Mobile Suit Gundam Wing (English) New Mobile Report Gundam Wing Official Web (Japanese) AboutGundamWing.com - An archive of Gundam Wing transcript and reference information | Mobile_Suit_Gundam_Wing |@lemmatized mobile:19 suit:11 gundam:38 wing:27 know:4 japan:5 translation:3 new:8 report:4 use:8 dvd:4 release:7 thus:1 extensively:1 english:5 language:3 fanbase:1 order:1 differentiate:1 universal:4 century:7 series:22 term:1 title:3 necessarily:1 incorrect:1 convey:1 full:1 meaning:2 original:2 terminology:1 japanese:4 word:4 senki:1 戦記:1 specific:1 military:2 history:2 official:6 past:1 war:3 chronicle:1 well:1 art:1 least:2 one:9 book:1 anime:9 mecha:1 genre:1 alternate:2 universe:2 take:1 place:1 colony:10 timeline:2 second:3 medium:3 franchise:2 follow:1 fighter:1 g:2 plot:3 center:1 around:2 earth:6 space:3 however:1 contrast:1 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2,205 | Andrew_Carnegie | Andrew Carnegie (properly , but commonly or ) MacKay Little Boss: A life of Andrew Carnegie p.29. (25 November 1835 – 11 August 1919) was a Scottish-born American industrialist, businessman, and a major philanthropist. He was an immigrant as a child with his parents. He built Pittsburgh's Carnegie Steel Company, which was later merged with Elbert H. Gary's Federal Steel Company and several smaller companies to create U.S. Steel. With the fortune he made from business, he turned to philanthropy and interests in education, founding the Carnegie Corporation of New York, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, and Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh and the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh. Carnegie gave away most of his money to establish many libraries, schools, and universities in America, the United Kingdom and other countries, as well as a pension fund for former employees. He is often regarded as the second-richest man in history after John D. Rockefeller. Carnegie started as a telegrapher and by the 1860s had investments in railroads, railroad sleeping cars, bridges and oil derricks. He built further wealth as a bond salesman raising money for American enterprise in Europe. Steel was where he made his fortune. In the 1870s, he founded the Carnegie Steel Company, a step which cemented his name as one of the “Captains of Industry”. By the 1890s, the company was the largest and most profitable industrial enterprise in the world. Carnegie sold it to J.P. Morgan in 1901, who created US Steel. Carnegie devoted the remainder of his life to large-scale philanthropy, with special emphasis on local libraries, world peace, and education and scientific research. His life has often been referred to as a true "rags to riches" story. Biography Early life Birthplace of Andrew Carnegie in Dunfermline, Scotland Andrew Carnegie was born on November 25 1835 in Dunfermline, Scotland in a typical weaver's cottage with only one main room consisting of half the ground floor which was shared with the neighbouring weaver's family. MacKay Little Boss: A life of Andrew Carnegie pp.23-24. The main room would serve as a living room, dining room and bedroom. He was named after his paternal grandfather. In 1836, the family moved to a larger house in Edgar Street (opposite Reid's Park), following the demand for more heavy damask which his father, William Carnegie benefited from. His uncle, George Lauder to whom he referred to as "dod" introduced him to the writings of Robert Burns and such historical Scottish heroes as Robert the Bruce, William Wallace, and Rob Roy. Falling on hard times as a handloom weaver and with the country in starvation, William Carnegie decided to emigrate with his family to Allegheny, Pennsylvania in the United States in 1848 for the prospect of a better life. MacKay Little Boss:A life of Andrew Carnegie pp.37-38. Andrew's family had to borrow money in order to emigrate. Allegheny was a very poor area. His first job at age 13 in 1848 was as a bobbin boy, changing spools of thread in a cotton mill twelve hours a day, six days a week. His wages were $1.25 per week, plus another 80 cents for firing the furnace. Andrew's father, William Carnegie, started off working in a cotton mill but then would earn money weaving and peddling linens. His mother, Margaret Morrison Carnegie, earned money by binding shoes. In 1850, Carnegie became a telegraph messenger boy in the Pittsburgh Office of the Ohio Telegraph Company, at $2.50 per week, following the recommendation of his uncle. His new job gave him many benefits including free admission to the local theater. This made him appreciate Shakespeare's work. He was a very hard worker and would memorize all of the locations of Pittsburgh's businesses and the faces of important men. He made many connections this way. He also paid close attention to the telegraph's instruments and within a year was promoted as an operator. Carnegie's education and passion for reading was given a great boost by Colonel James Anderson, who opened his personal library of 400 volumes to working boys each Saturday night. Carnegie was a consistent borrower and a "self-made man" in both his economic development and his intellectual and cultural development. His capacity and willingness for hard work, his perseverance, and his alertness soon brought forth opportunities. At work, Carnegie quickly taught himself to distinguish the differing sounds the incoming telegraph signals produced and learned to transcribe signals by ear, without having to write them down. Starting in 1853, Thomas A. Scott of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company employed Carnegie as a secretary/telegraph operator at a salary of $4.00 per week. At age eighteen, the youth began a rapid advancement through the company, becoming the superintendent of the Pittsburgh Division. Scott also helped him with his first investments. In 1855 Carnegie invested $500 in a successful firm called Adams Express. Later he invested money in Pullman sleeping cars for the Pennsylvania Railroad Company and bought part of the Pullman Company. This turned out to be a very profitable investment. Reinvesting his money in railroad-related industries: (iron, bridges, and rails), Carnegie slowly accumulated capital, the basis for his later success. 1860–1865: Civil War Before the Civil War, Carnegie formed a partnership with George M Pullman, the inventor of a sleeping car for first-class travel which facilitated business travel at distances over . The investment proved a great success and a source of profit for Woodruff and Carnegie. The young Carnegie worked for the superintendent of the Pennsylvania Railroad's Western Division Tom Scott, and introduced several improvements in the service. In spring 1861 Carnegie was appointed by Scott, who was now Assistant Secretary of War in charge of military transportation, as Superintendent of the Military Railways and the Union Government's telegraph lines in the East. Carnegie helped open the rail lines into Washington that the rebels had cut; he rode the locomotive pulling the first brigade of Union troops to reach Washington. Following the defeat of Union forces at Bull Run, he personally supervised the transportation of the defeated forces. Under his organization, the telegraph service rendered efficient service to the Union cause and significantly assisted in the eventual victory. Carnegie later joked that he was "the first casualty of the war" when he gained a scar on his cheek from freeing a trapped telegraph wire. Defeat of the Confederacy required vast supplies of munitions, as well as railroads (and telegraph lines) to deliver the goods. The war demonstrated how integral the industries were to American success. In 1864, Carnegie invested $40,000 in Storey Farm on Oil Creek in Venango County, Pennsylvania. In one year, the farm yielded over $1,000,000 in cash dividends, and petroleum from oil wells on the property sold profitably. The demand for iron products, such as armor for gunboats, cannon, and shells, as well as a hundred other industrial products, made Pittsburgh a center of wartime production. Carnegie worked with others in establishing a steel rolling mill and steel production and control of industry became the source of his fortune. Carnegie had some investments in the iron industry before the war. After the war, Carnegie left the railroads to devote all his energies to the ironworks trade. Carnegie worked to develop several iron works, eventually forming The Keystone Bridge Works and the Union Ironworks, in Pittsburgh. Although he had left the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, he did not totally sever his links with the railroads. As the Keystone Bridge Company's superintendent, Carnegie had noticed the weakness of the traditional wooden structures. These were replaced in large numbers with iron bridges made in his works. As well as having good business sense, Carnegie possessed charm and literary knowledge. He was invited to many important social functions—functions that Carnegie exploited to his own advantage. Carnegie, circa 1878 Carnegie believed in using his fortune for others and doing more than making money. He wrote: 1880–1900: Scholar and activist Carnegie continued his business career; some of his literary intentions were fulfilled. He befriended English poet Matthew Arnold and English philosopher Herbert Spencer as well as being in correspondence and acquaintance with most of the U.S. Presidents, John K. Winkler Incredible Carnegie, p. 172, Read Books, 2006 ISBN 978-1406729467 statesmen, and notable writers. John K. Winkler Incredible Carnegie, p. 13, Read Books, 2006 ISBN 978-1406729467 Carnegie erected commodious swimming-baths for the people of his hometown in Dunfermline, Scotland in 1879. In the following year, Carnegie gave $40,000 for the establishment of a free library in Dunfermline. In 1884, he gave $50,000 to Bellevue Hospital Medical College (now part of New York University Medical Center) to found a histological laboratory, now called the Carnegie Laboratory. In 1881, Carnegie took his family, including his mother at age 70, on a trip to the United Kingdom. They toured Scotland by coach, and enjoyed several receptions en-route. The highlight for them all was a triumphal return to his native town of Dunfermline, where Carnegie's mother laid the foundation stone of a Carnegie Library for which he donated the money. Carnegie's criticism of British society did not mean dislike; on the contrary, one of Carnegie's ambitions was to act as a catalyst for a close association between the English-speaking peoples. To this end, in the early 1880s, he purchased numerous newspapers in England, all of which were to advocate the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of "the British Republic". Carnegie's charm aided by his great wealth meant that he had many British friends, including Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone. In 1886, Andrew Carnegie's younger brother Thomas died at age 43. Success in the business continued, however. While owning steel works, Carnegie had purchased at low cost the most valuable of the iron ore fields around Lake Superior. The same year Carnegie became a figure of controversy. Following his tour of the UK, he wrote about his experiences in a book entitled An American Four-in-hand in Britain. Although still actively involved in running his many businesses, Carnegie had become a regular contributor to numerous magazines, most notably the Nineteenth Century, under the editorship of James Knowles, and the influential North American Review, led by editor Lloyd Bryce. In 1886 Carnegie wrote his most radical work to date, entitled Triumphant Democracy. Liberal in its use of statistics to make its arguments, the book argued his view that the American republican system of government was superior to the British monarchical system. It gave a highly favorable and idealized view of American progress and criticized the British royal family. The cover depicted an upended royal crown and a broken scepter. The book created considerable controversy in the UK. The book made many Americans appreciate their country's economic progress and sold over 40,000 copies, mostly in the U.S. In 1889, Carnegie published "Wealth" in the June issue of the North American Review. After reading it, Gladstone requested its publication in England, where it appeared as "The Gospel of Wealth" in the Pall Mall Gazette. The article was the subject of much discussion. Carnegie argued that the life of a wealthy industrialist should comprise two parts. The first part was the gathering and the accumulation of wealth. The second part was for the subsequent distribution of this wealth to benevolent causes. The philanthropy was key to making the life worthwhile. Carnegie was also known to be a great journalist. This came about from his experience in constantly writing to newspapers and to their editors. His knowldge in reading newspapers stems from a habit from his childhood. Swetnam, George (1980) Andrew Carnegie. Twayne Publishers. He also would go on to publish three books on travel. One of them entitled "Round the world" he began writing while travel England and Scotland. Livesay, Harold (2000) "Andrew Carnegie and the rise of big business". Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers.( In 1898, Carnegie tried to arrange for independence for the Philippines. As the end of the Spanish American War neared, the United States bought the Philippines from Spain for $20 million USD. To counter what he perceived as imperialism on the part of the United States, Carnegie personally offered $20 million USD to the Philippines so that the Filipino people could buy their independence from the United States. Andrew Carnegie timeline of events at PBS.org However, nothing came of this gesture and the Philippine-American War ensued. Carnegie opposed the annexation of Cuba by the United States and in this, was successful with many other conservatives who founded an anti-imperialist league that included former presidents of the United States, Grover Cleveland and Benjamin Harrison, and literary figures like Mark Twain. Robert P. Porter Industrial Cuba, p. 43, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1899 Katherine Hirschfeld Health, Politics and Revolution in Cuba, p. 117, Transaction Publishers, 2008 ISBN 978-1412808637 Industrial Cuba Industrialist 1885–1900: Empire of Steel Carnegie made his fortune in the steel industry, controlling the most extensive integrated iron and steel operations ever owned by an individual in the United States. One of his two great innovations was in the cheap and efficient mass production of steel rails for railroad lines. The second was in his vertical integration of all suppliers of raw materials. In the late 1880s, Carnegie Steel was the largest manufacturer of pig iron, steel rails, and coke in the world, with a capacity to produce approximately 2,000 tons of pig metal per day. In 1888, Carnegie bought the rival Homestead Steel Works, which included an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a 425-mile (685 km) long railway, and a line of lake steamships. Carnegie combined his assets and those of his associates in 1892 with the launching of the Carnegie Steel Company. By 1889, the U.S. output of steel exceeded that of the UK, and Carnegie owned a large part of it. Carnegie's empire grew to include the J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works, (named for John Edgar Thomson, Carnegie's former boss and president of the Pennsylvania Railroad), Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works, the Lucy Furnaces, the Union Iron Mills, the Union Mill (Wilson, Walker & County), the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines. Carnegie, through Keystone, supplied the steel for and owned shares in the landmark Eads Bridge project across the Mississippi River at St. Louis, Missouri (completed 1874). This project was an important proof-of-concept for steel technology, which marked the opening of a new steel market. 1901: U.S. Steel In 1901, Carnegie was 66 years old and considering retirement. He reformed his enterprises into conventional joint stock corporations as preparation to this end. John Pierpont Morgan was a banker and perhaps America's most important financial deal maker. He had observed how efficiently Carnegie produced profit. He envisioned an integrated steel industry that would cut costs, lower prices to consumers, produce in greater quantities and raise wages to workers. To this end, he needed to buy out Carnegie and several other major producers and integrate them into one company, thereby eliminating duplication and waste. He concluded negotiations on 2 March 1901, and formed the United States Steel Corporation. It was the first corporation in the world with a market capitalization over $1 billion. The buyout, secretly negotiated by Charles M. Schwab (no relation to Charles R. Schwab), was the largest such industrial takeover in United States history to date. The holdings were incorporated in the United States Steel Corporation, a trust organized by Morgan, and Carnegie retired from business. His steel enterprises were bought out at a figure equivalent to twelve times their annual earnings—$480 million (approximately $297 billion in 2007 dollars using the relative share of GDP)—which at the time was the largest ever personal commercial transaction. Carnegie's share of this amounted to $225,639,000, which was paid to Carnegie in the form of 5%, 50-year gold bonds. The letter agreeing to sell his share was signed on 26 February 1901. On 2 March, the circular formally filing the organization and capitalization (at $1,400,000,000—4% of U.S. national wealth at the time) of the United States Steel Corporation actually completed the contract. The bonds were to be delivered within two weeks to the Hudson Trust Company of Hoboken, New Jersey, in trust to Robert A. Franks, Carnegie's business secretary. There, a special vault was built to house the physical bulk of nearly $230,000,000 worth of bonds. It was said that "...Carnegie never wanted to see or touch these bonds that represented the fruition of his business career. It was as if he feared that if he looked upon them they might vanish like the gossamer gold of the leprechaun. Let them lie safe in a vault in New Jersey, safe from the New York tax assessors, until he was ready to dispose of them..." Retirement 1901–1919: Philanthropist Carnegie, right, with James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce. A Carnegie library, Macomb, Illinois Carnegie spent his last years as a philanthropist. From 1901 forward, public attention was turned from the shrewd business acumen which had enabled Carnegie to accumulate such a fortune, to the public-spirited way in which he devoted himself to utilizing it on philanthropic projects. He had written about his views on social subjects and the responsibilities of great wealth in Triumphant Democracy (1886) and Gospel of Wealth (1889). Carnegie bought Skibo Castle, in Sutherland, Scotland, and made his home partly there and partly in New York. He then devoted his life to providing the capital for purposes of public interest and social and educational advancement. He was a powerful supporter of the movement for spelling reform as a means of promoting the spread of the English language. Among his many philanthropic efforts, the establishment of public libraries throughout the United States, the United Kingdom, and other English-speaking countries was especially prominent. Carnegie libraries, as they were commonly called, were built in many places. The first was opened in 1883 in Dunfermline, Scotland. His method was to build and equip, but only on condition that the local authority matched that by providing the land and a budget for operation and maintenance. To secure local interest, in 1885, he gave $500,000 to Pittsburgh for a public library, and in 1886, he gave $250,000 to Allegheny City for a music hall and library; and $250,000 to Edinburgh, Scotland, for a free library. In total Carnegie funded some 3,000 libraries, located in 47 states. Carnegie also built libraries in Canada and overseas in the United Kingdom including the Republic of Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, the West Indies, and Fiji. He also donated £50,000 to help set up the University of Birmingham in 1899. The Carnegie Committee, Cornell Alumni News, II(10), 29 November 1899, p. 6 Syracuse University As VanSlyck (1991) showed, the last years of the 19th century saw acceptance of the idea that free libraries should be available to the American public. But the design of the idealized free library was the subject of prolonged and heated debate. On one hand, the library profession called for designs that supported efficiency in administration and operation; on the other, wealthy philanthropists favored buildings that reinforced the paternalistic metaphor and enhanced civic pride. Between 1886 and 1917, Carnegie reformed both library philanthropy and library design, encouraging a closer correspondence between the two. The Broome County Public Library in New York opened in October 1904. Originally called the Binghamton Public Library, it was created with a gift of $75,000 from Andrew Carnegie. The building was designed to serve as both a public library and a community center. He gave $2 million in 1901 to start the Carnegie Institute of Technology (CIT) at Pittsburgh, and the same amount in 1902 to found the Carnegie Institution at Washington, D.C. He later contributed more to these and other schools. CIT is now part of Carnegie Mellon University. Carnegie served on the Board of Cornell University. In 1911, Andrew Carnegie became a sympathetic benefactor to George Ellery Hale, who was trying to build the 100 inch (2.5 m) Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson, and donated an additional ten million dollars to the Carnegie Institution with the following suggestion to expedite the construction of the telescope: "I hope the work at Mount Wilson will be vigorously pushed, because I am so anxious to hear the expected results from it. I should like to be satisfied before I depart, that we are going to repay to the old land some part of the debt we owe them by revealing more clearly than ever to them the new heavens." The telescope saw successful first light on November 2, 1917, Carnegie still alive. History of Mount Wilson Observatory - Building the 100-Inch Telescope. Article was written by Mike Simmons in 1984 for the Mount Wilson Observatory Association (MWOA) In Scotland, he gave $10 million in 1901 to establish the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, a fund to assist education at Scottish universities. He was subsequently elected Lord Rector of University of St. Andrews. He also donated large sums of money to Dunfermline, the place of his birth. In addition to a library, Carnegie also bought what is known as Pittencrief Park and opened it to all members of the public. It had previously been closed to the public. A statue of him stands there today.Carnegie was a large benefactor of the Tuskegee Institute under Booker T. Washington for African-American education. He helped Booker T. Washington create the National Negro Business League. Carnegie also established large pension funds in 1901 for his former employees at Homestead and, in 1905, for American college professors. The latter fund evolved into TIAA-CREF. One critical requirement was that church-related schools had to sever their religious connections to get his money. His interest in music led him to fund construction of 7,000 church organs. He built and owned Carnegie Hall in New York City. He founded the Carnegie Hero Fund for the United States and Canada in 1904 (a few years later also established in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, and Germany) for the recognition of deeds of heroism. Carnegie contributed $1,500,000 in 1903 for the erection of the Peace Palace at The Hague; and he donated $150,000 for a Pan-American Palace in Washington as a home for the International Bureau of American Republics. Carnegie was honored for his philanthropy and support of the arts by initiation as an honorary member of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia Fraternity on October 14, 1917 at the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston, Massachusetts. The fraternity's mission reflects Carnegie's values by developing young men to share their talents to create harmony in the world. By the standards of 19th century tycoons, Carnegie was not a particularly ruthless man but a Christian humanitarian with enough acquisitiveness to go in the ruthless pursuit of money; Paul Krause The Battle for Homestead 1880-1892, p. 233, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992 ISBN 978-0822954668 on the other hand, the contrast between his life and the lives of many of his own workers and of the poor, in general, was stark. "Maybe with the giving away of his money," commented biographer Joseph Wall, "he would justify what he had done to get that money." The American Experience | Andrew Carnegie | Program Description Andrew Carnegie represents to some what is the idea of the American dream. He was an immigrant from Scotland who came to America and became successful. He is not only known for his successes but his enormous amounts of philanthropist works, not only to charities but also to promote democracy and independence to colonized countries. Swetnam, George. (1980) Twayne Publishers. Death Carnegie died on 11 August 1919 in Lenox, Massachusetts of bronchial pneumonia. He had already given away $350,695,653 (approximately $4.3 billion, adjusted to 2005 figures) of his wealth. At his death, his last $30,000,000 was given to foundations, charities, and to pensioners. He was buried at the Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in North Tarrytown, New York. The grave site is located on the Arcadia Hebron plot of land at the corner of Summit Avenue and Dingle Road. Controversies 1889: Johnstown Flood Carnegie was one of more than 50 members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, which was blamed for the Johnstown Flood that killed more than 2,200 people in 1889. At the suggestion of his friend Benjamin Ruff, Carnegie's partner Henry Clay Frick had formed the exclusive South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club high above Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The charter members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club were: Benjamin Ruff; T. H. Sweat; Charles J. Clarke; Thomas Clark; Walter F. Fundenberg; Howard Hartley; Henry C. Yeager; J. B. White; Henry Clay Frick; E. A. Myers; C. C. Hussey; D. R. Ewer; C. A. Carpenter; W. L. Dunn; W. L. McClintock; and A. V. Holmes. The sixty-odd club members were the leading business tycoons of Western Pennsylvania and included among their number Frick’s best friend, Andrew Mellon, his attorneys Philander Knox and James Hay Reed, as well as Frick's business partner Andrew Carnegie. The Club members created what would then be the world's largest earthen dam, behind which formed a private lake called Lake Conemaugh. Less than 20 miles downstream from the dam sat the city of Johnstown, and Carnegie Steel's chief competitor (from whom Carnegie had hired away steelmaking expert Bill Jones), the Cambria Iron and Steel Company, which boasted the world's largest annual steel production. Poor maintenance, unusually high snowmelt and heavy spring rains combined to cause the dam to give way on May 31, 1889 resulting in the Johnstown Flood. When word of the dam's failure was telegraphed to Pittsburgh, Frick and other members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club gathered to form the Pittsburgh Relief Committee for assistance to the flood victims as well as determining never to speak publicly about the club or the flood. This strategy was a success, and Knox and Reed were able to fend off all lawsuits that would have placed blame upon the club’s members. Although Cambria Iron and Steel's facilities were heavily damaged by the flood, they returned to full production within a year and a half. By that time, Carnegie's steel production had outstripped Cambria's. After the flood, Carnegie built Johnstown a new library to replace the one built by Cambria's chief legal counsel Cyrus Elder, which was destroyed in the flood. The Carnegie-donated library is now owned by the Johnstown Area Heritage Association, and houses the Flood Museum. 1892: Homestead Strike The Homestead Strike The Homestead Strike was a bloody labor confrontation lasting 143 days in 1892, one of the most serious in U.S. history. The conflict was centered around Carnegie Steel's main plant in Homestead, Pennsylvania, and grew out of a dispute between the National Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers of the United States and the Carnegie Steel Company. Carnegie left on a trip to Scotland before the unrest peaked. In doing so, Carnegie left mediation of the dispute in the hands of his associate and partner Henry Clay Frick. Frick was well known in industrial circles for maintaining staunch anti-union sensibilities. After a recent increase in profits by 60%, the company refused to raise worker's pay by more than 30%. When some of the workers demanded the full 60%, management locked the union out. Workers considered the stoppage a "lockout" by management and not a "strike" by workers. As such, the workers would have been well within their rights to protest, and subsequent government action would have been a set of criminal procedures designed to crush what was seen as a pivotal demonstration of the growing labor rights movement, strongly opposed by management. Frick brought in thousands of strikebreakers to work the steel mills and Pinkerton agents to safeguard them. On 6 July, the arrival of a force of 300 Pinkerton agents from New York City and Chicago resulted in a fight in which 10 men—seven strikers and three Pinkertons—were killed and hundreds were injured. Pennsylvania Governor Robert Pattison ordered two brigades of state militia to the strike site. Then, allegedly in response to the fight between the striking workers and the Pinkertons, anarchist Alexander Berkman shot at Frick in an attempted assassination, wounding Frick. While not directly connected to the strike, Berkman was tied in for the assassination attempt. According to Berkman, "...with the elimination of Frick, responsibility for Homestead conditions would rest with Carnegie." Alexander Berkman Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist, p. 67, Mother Earth Publishing Association, 1912 Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist by Alexander Berkman Afterwards, the company successfully resumed operations with non-union immigrant employees in place of the Homestead plant workers, and Carnegie returned to the United States. However, Carnegie's reputation was permanently damaged by the Homestead events. Philosophy Andrew Carnegie Dictum A) To spend the first third of one's life getting all the education one can. B) To spend the next third making all the money one can. C) To spend the last third giving it all away for worthwhile causes. Robert A. Cole Issues in Web-based Pedagogies, p. 4, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001 ISBN 978-0313321580 On wealth Carnegie at Skibo Castle, 1914 Stained glass window dedicated to Andrew Carnegie in the National Cathedral As early as 1868, at age 33, he drafted a memo to himself. He wrote: "...The amassing of wealth is one of the worse species of idolatry. No idol more debasing than the worship of money." Maury Klein The Change Makers, p. 57, Macmillan, 2004 ISBN 978-0805075182 In order to avoid degrading himself, he wrote in the same memo he would retire at age 35 to pursue the practice of philanthropic giving for "...the man who dies thus rich dies disgraced." However, he did not begin his philanthropic work in all earnest until 1881, with the gift of a library to his hometown of Dunfermline, Scotland. Dwight Burlingame Philanthropy in America, p. 60, ABC-CLIO, 2004 ISBN 978-1576078600 Carnegie wrote "The Gospel of Wealth", Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie pp. 255-67 an article in which he stated his belief that the rich should use their wealth to help enrich society. The following is taken from one of Carnegie's memos to himself: In 1908, he commissioned (at no pay) Napoleon Hill, then a journalist, to interview more than 500 wealthy achievers to find out the common threads of their success. Hill eventually became a Carnegie collaborator. Their work was published in 1928 after Carnegie's death in Hill's book The Law of Success (ISBN 0-87980-447-5) and in 1937, Think and Grow Rich (ISBN 1-59330-200-2). The latter has not been out of print since it was first published and has sold more than 30 million copies worldwide. In 1960, Hill published an abridged version of the book containing the Andrew Carnegie formula for wealth creation. For years it was the only version generally available. In 2004, Ross Cornwell published Think and Grow Rich!: The Original Version, Restored and Revised (Second Printing 2007), which restored the book to its original content, with slight revisions, and added comprehensive end notes, an index, and an appendix. Religion and world view Witnessing the sectarianism and strife in 19th century Scotland regarding religion and philosophy, Carnegie kept his distance from organized religion and theism. Nasaw, David. Andrew Carnegie (New York: The Penguin Press, 2006) Carnegie instead preferred to see things through naturalistic and scientific terms stating, "Not only had I got rid of the theology and the supernatural, but I had found the truth of evolution." Carnegie, Andrew. Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie (1920, 2006). ISBN 1-59986-967-5 (p. 339) Carnegie eventually came to identify himself as a positivist. He held much hope for humanity in what may be termed a humanistic view on life, shaped also by the Scottish values with which he was raised. After the outbreak of the First World War and its slaughter, Carnegie underwent a crisis of ideology in his positivist views. Later in life, Carnegie seems to have changed his mind on religion, going so far as to donate organs to churches. World peace Influenced by "his favorite living hero in public life", the British liberal, John Bright, Carnegie started his efforts in pursuit of world peace at a young age. Carnegie, Andrew. Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie (Boston, 1920), pp. 282-283 His motto, "All is well since all grows better", served not only as a good rationalization of his successful business career, and also as his view of international relations. Despite his love and efforts towards international peace, Carnegie faced many dilemmas on his quest for world peace. These dilemmas are often regarded as conflicts between his view on international relations and his other loyalties. Throughout the 1880s and 1890s, by example, Carnegie allowed his steel works to fill large orders of armor plate for the building of an enlarged and modernized United States Navy; while he opposed American oversea expansion. Carnegie, Andrew. An American Four-in-Hand in Britain (New York, 1883), pp. 14-15 And he also had controversial criticisms of the British class structure which seemed to conflict with his promotion of Anglo-American friendship. Carnegie, Andrew. Triumphant Democracy, passim On the matter of American annexation, Carnegie had always thought it is an unwise gesture for the United States. He did not oppose the annexation of the Hawaiian islands, Cuba and Puerto Rico, but Carnegie stood still on his opposition towards the annexation of the Philippines. Because unlike the Hawaiians, Cubans and Puerto Ricans, the Filipinos were willing to fight for their independence, Carnegie believed that the conquest of the islands is a denial of the fundamental democratic principle, and he also urged William McKinley to withdraw American troops and allow the Filipinos to live with their independence. Carnegie, Andrew. "American Versus Imperialism," esp. pp.12-13 This act well impressed the other American anti-imperialists, who soon elected him vice-president of the Anti-Imperialist League. After he sold his steel company in 1901, Carnegie was able to get fully involved into the acts for the peace cause, both financially and personally. He gave away most of his fortunes to various peace keeping agencies in order to keep them growing. When his friend, the British publicist William T. Stead, asked him to create a new organization for the goal of a peace and arbitration society, his reply was as such: Carnegie believes that it is the efforts and wills of the people that maintain the peace in international relations. Money is just a push for the act, if it is solely depended on the financial supports, world peace will not be seemed as a goal, but more like a act of pity. The creation of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace at 1910 was regarded as a milestone on the road to the ultimate abolition of war. Despite a gift of $10 million for peace promotion, Carnegie also encourage the "scientific" investigation of the various causes of war and the adoption of judicial methods that would eventually eliminate them. He believes that the Endowment is there to promote information on the nations' rights and responsibilities under existing international law and encourage other conferences to codify this law. Patterson, David S. Andrew Carnegie's Quest for World Peace. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 114, No. 5 (October 20, 1970), pp. 371-383 The outbreak of the First World War was clearly a shock to Carnegie and his optimistic view on world peace. Although his promotion of anti-imperialism and world peace had all failed, and the Carnegie Endowment had not fulfilled his expectations; but his beliefs and ideas on international relations had helped build the foundation of the League of Nations after his death, which takes world peace to another level. Writings Carnegie was a frequent contributor to periodicals on labor issues. In addition to Triumphant Democracy (1886), and The Gospel of Wealth (1889), he also wrote An American Four-in-hand in Britain (1883), Round the World (1884), The Empire of Business (1902), James Watt (1905), Problems of Today (1907), and his posthumously published autobiography Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie (1920). Legacy and honors The Statue of Andrew Carnegie in his home town of Dunfermline, Fife, Scotland The dinosaur Diplodocus carnegiei (Hatcher) was named for Andrew Carnegie after he sponsored the expedition that discovered its remains in the Morrison Formation (Jurassic) of Utah. Carnegie was so proud of “Dippi” that he had casts made of the bones and plaster replicas of the whole skeleton donated to several museums in Europe. The original fossil skeleton is assembled and stands in the Hall of Dinosaurs at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh. After the Spanish American War, Carnegie offered to donate $20 million USD to the Philippines so they could buy their independence. Carnegie, Pennsylvania, and Carnegie, Oklahoma, were named in his honor. The Saguaro cactus's scientific name, Carnegiea, is named after him. The Carnegie Medal for the best children's literature published in the UK was established in his name. The Carnegie Faculty of Sport and Education, at Leeds Metropolitan University, UK, is named after him. This has filtered out to include the Carnegie Challenge Cup, and it seems likely, in September 2009, that the university will be renamed 'Leeds Carnegie University'. Carnegie Hall in New York was named after Andrew Carnegie in his lifetime. At the height of his career, Carnegie was the second-richest person in the world, behind only John D. Rockefeller of Standard Oil. Andrew Carnegie's personal papers reside at the Library of Congress Manuscript Division. The Carnegie Collections of the Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library consist of the archives of the following organizations founded by Andrew Carnegie: The Carnegie Corporation of New York (CCNY); The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (CEIP); the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (CFAT);The Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs (CCEIA). These collections deal primarily with Carnegie philanthropy and have very little personal material related to Mr. Carnegie. See also List of most wealthy historical figures American Anti-Imperialist League, an organization to which Carnegie belonged Carnegie library Carnegie Institution for Science List of universities named after people Napoleon Hill Think and Grow Rich Gospel of Wealth Harry Watts References Further reading Primary sources Carnegie, Andrew. Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie (1920, 2006). ISBN 1-59986-967-5. Carnegie, Andrew. "Gospel of Wealth" (1888, 1998). ISBN 1-55709-471-3 Hill, Napoleon. Think and Grow Rich (1937, 2004). ISBN 1-59330-200-2. (Contains Hill's reminiscences about his long relationship with Carnegie and extensive endnotes about him.) The History of Theta Xi Secondary sources Josephson; Matthew. The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists, 1861-1901 (1938, 1987). ISBN 99918-47-99-5. Morris, Charles R. The Tycoons: How Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, Jay Gould, and J. P. Morgan Invented the American Supereconomy (2005). ISBN 0-8050-7599-2. Krass, Peter. Carnegie (2002). ISBN 0-471-38630-8. Livesay, Harold C. Andrew Carnegie and the Rise of Big Business, 2nd Edition (1999). short biography ISBN 0-321-43287-8. Lorenzen, Michael. (1999). Deconstructing the Carnegie Libraries: The Sociological Reasons Behind Carnegie's Millions to Public Libraries. Illinois Libraries 81, no. 2, 75-78. Nasaw, David. Andrew Carnegie (New York: The Penguin Press, 2006), along with Wall the most detailed scholarly biography Rees, Jonathan. "Homestead in Context: Andrew Carnegie and the Decline of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers." Pennsylvania History 1997 64(4): 509-533. Issn: 0031-4528 Ritt Jr., Michael J., and Landers, Kirk. A Lifetime of Riches. ISBN 0-525-94146-0. VanSlyck, Abigail A. "'The Utmost Amount of Effective Accommodation': Andrew Carnegie and the Reform of the American Library." Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 1991 50(4): 359-383. Issn: 0037-9808 Fulltext: in Jstor Wall, Joseph Frazier. Andrew Carnegie (1989). ISBN 0-8229-5904-6. along with Nasaw the most detailed scholarly biography Whaples, Robert. "Andrew Carnegie", EH.Net Encyclopedia of Economic and Business History. Patterson, David S. "Andrew Carnegie's Quest for World Peace" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 114, No. 5 (October 20, 1970), pp. 371–383 External links Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie by Andrew Carnegie (ebook) PBS: Carnegie LOC: Carnegie Carnegie Corporation of New York Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh: Andrew Carnegie: A Tribute Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching Carnegie Birthplace Museum website Carnegie Corporation archives at Columbia University Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh website Carnegie Mellon University Andrew Carnegie - His Scottish Connections Deconstructing the Philanthropic Library Online Books by Andrew Carnegie Andrew Carnegie - His Relationship with Napoleon Hill and Think and Grow Rich The Homestead Strike 1892 by Cheri Goldner Andrew Carnegie - Important Scots The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace The Carnegie Institution for Science “Carnegie Libraries: The Future Made Bright”, a 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short:1 lorenzen:1 michael:2 deconstruct:2 sociological:1 reason:1 libraries:1 along:2 detailed:2 scholarly:2 rees:1 jonathan:1 context:1 decline:1 issn:2 ritt:1 jr:1 lander:1 kirk:1 abigail:1 utmost:1 effective:1 accommodation:1 journal:1 architectural:1 historian:1 fulltext:1 jstor:1 frazier:1 whaples:1 eh:1 net:1 encyclopedia:1 external:1 ebook:1 loc:1 tribute:1 website:2 online:1 cheri:1 goldner:1 scot:1 future:1 historic:1 twhp:1 lesson:1 plan:1 |@bigram andrew_carnegie:45 carnegie_endowment:5 carnegie_mellon:3 pension_fund:2 dunfermline_scotland:5 paternal_grandfather:1 rob_roy:1 saturday_night:1 herbert_spencer:1 en_route:1 prime_minister:1 william_ewart:1 iron_ore:1 nineteenth_century:1 pall_mall:1 mall_gazette:1 accumulation_wealth:1 twayne_publisher:2 addison_wesley:1 anti_imperialist:4 grover_cleveland:1 mark_twain:1 raw_material:1 mile_km:1 pierpont_morgan:1 market_capitalization:1 billion_dollar:1 west_indie:1 heated_debate:1 tuskegee_institute:1 booker_washington:2 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2,206 | Politics_of_Mayotte | Politics of Mayotte takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic French overseas collectivity, whereby the President of the General Council is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. The status of Mayotte was changed in 2001 towards one very close to the status of the départements of mainland France, with the particular designation of collectivité départementale, although the island is still claimed by the Comoros. This change was approved by 73% at a referendum on Mayotte. After the constitutional reform of 2003 it became a collectivité d'outre-mer while keeping the title collectivité départementale de Mayotte. Executive branch The head of state is President Nicolas Sarkozy of France as represented by prefect Philippe Boisadam. The head of government is President of the General Council Ahmed Attoumani Douchina. Legislative branch The General Council (Conseil Général) has 19 members, elected for a three year term in single seat constituencies. Political parties and elections | Politics_of_Mayotte |@lemmatized politics:1 mayotte:4 take:1 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:1 representative:1 democratic:1 french:1 overseas:1 collectivity:1 whereby:1 president:3 general:3 council:3 head:3 government:3 multi:1 party:2 system:1 executive:2 power:1 exercise:1 status:2 change:2 towards:1 one:1 close:1 départements:1 mainland:1 france:2 particular:1 designation:1 collectivité:3 départementale:2 although:1 island:1 still:1 claim:1 comoros:1 approve:1 referendum:1 constitutional:1 reform:1 become:1 outre:1 mer:1 keep:1 title:1 de:1 branch:2 state:1 nicolas:1 sarkozy:1 represent:1 prefect:1 philippe:1 boisadam:1 ahmed:1 attoumani:1 douchina:1 legislative:1 conseil:1 général:1 member:1 elect:1 three:1 year:1 term:1 single:1 seat:1 constituency:1 political:1 election:1 |@bigram overseas_collectivity:1 outre_mer:1 nicolas_sarkozy:1 legislative_branch:1 conseil_général:1 seat_constituency:1 |
2,207 | Neogene | The Neogene is a geologic period and system starting 23.03 ± 0.05 million years ago and lasting either until today or ending 2.588 million years ago with the beginning of the Quaternary The ending of the Neogene and the Quaternary's right to exist is still debated among scientists. . The Neogene Period follows the Paleogene Period of the Cenozoic Era. Under the current proposal of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), the Neogene would consist of the Miocene and Pliocene epochs. Lourens, L., Hilgen, F., Shackleton, N.J., Laskar, J., Wilson, D., (2004) “The Neogene Period”. In: Gradstein, F., Ogg, J., Smith, A.G. (Eds.), Geologic Time Scale Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. The terms Neogene System (formal) and upper Tertiary System (informal) describe the rocks deposited during the Neogene Period. The Neogene covers roughly 23 million years. During the Neogene mammals and birds evolved considerably. Most other forms were relatively unchanged. Some continental motion took place, the most significant event being the connection of North and South America in the late Pliocene. Climates cooled somewhat over the duration of the Neogene culminating in continental glaciations in the Quaternary period that follows, and that saw the dawn of the genus Homo. Controversy The Neogene traditionally ended at the end of the Pliocene epoch, just before the older definition of the beginning of the Quaternary Period; many time scales show this division. However, there is a movement amongst geologists (particularly Neogene Marine Geologists) to also include ongoing geological time (Quaternary) in the Neogene, while others (particularly Quaternary Terrestrial Geologists) insist the Quaternary to be a separate period of distinctly different record. The somewhat confusing terminology and disagreement amongst geologists on where to draw what hierarchical boundaries, is due to the comparatively fine divisibility of time units as time approaches the present, and due to geological preservation that causes the youngest sedimentary geological record to be preserved over a much larger area and to reflect many more environments, than the older geological record. Tucker, M. E. (2001) Sedimentary Petrology (3rd ed.) Blackwell Science, Osney Nead, Oxford, UK, ISBN 0-632-05735-1 By dividing the Cenozoic era into three (arguably two) periods (Paleogene, Neogene, Quaternary) instead of 7 epochs, the periods are more closely comparable to the duration of periods in the Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras. The ICS once proposed that the Quaternary be considered a sub-era (sub-erathem) of the Neogene, with a beginning date of 2.588 Ma, namely the start of the Gelasian Stage. The International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA) counterproposed that the Neogene and the Pliocene end at 2.588 Ma, that the Gelasian be transferred to the Pleistocene, and the Quaternary be recognized as the third period in the Cenozoic, citing the key changes in Earth's climate, oceans, and biota that occurred 2.588 Ma and its correspondence to the Gauss-Matuyama magnetostratigraphic boundary. Clague, John et al. (2006) "Open Letter by INQUA Executive Committee" Quaternary Perspective, the INQUA Newsletter International Union for Quaternary Research 16(1) 2006 ICS and INQUA reached a compromise that made Quaternary a subera, subdividing Cenozoic into the old classical Tertiary and Quaternary, a compromise that was rejected by International Union of Geological Sciences because it split both Neogene and Pliocene in two. ICS: Consolidated Annual Report for 2006, last retrieved in 15 June 2007 References | Neogene |@lemmatized neogene:17 geologic:2 period:12 system:3 start:2 million:3 year:3 ago:2 last:2 either:1 today:1 end:5 beginning:2 quaternary:15 right:1 exist:1 still:1 debate:1 among:1 scientist:1 follow:2 paleogene:2 cenozoic:4 era:4 current:1 proposal:1 international:4 commission:1 stratigraphy:1 ic:4 would:1 consist:1 miocene:1 pliocene:5 epoch:3 lourens:1 l:1 hilgen:1 f:2 shackleton:1 n:1 j:3 laskar:1 wilson:1 gradstein:1 ogg:1 smith:1 g:1 eds:1 time:5 scale:2 cambridge:2 university:1 press:1 term:1 formal:1 upper:1 tertiary:2 informal:1 describe:1 rock:1 deposit:1 cover:1 roughly:1 mammal:1 bird:1 evolve:1 considerably:1 form:1 relatively:1 unchanged:1 continental:2 motion:1 take:1 place:1 significant:1 event:1 connection:1 north:1 south:1 america:1 late:1 climate:2 cool:1 somewhat:2 duration:2 culminating:1 glaciation:1 saw:1 dawn:1 genus:1 homo:1 controversy:1 traditionally:1 old:3 definition:1 many:2 show:1 division:1 however:1 movement:1 amongst:2 geologist:4 particularly:2 marine:1 also:1 include:1 ongoing:1 geological:5 others:1 terrestrial:1 insist:1 separate:1 distinctly:1 different:1 record:3 confusing:1 terminology:1 disagreement:1 draw:1 hierarchical:1 boundary:2 due:2 comparatively:1 fine:1 divisibility:1 unit:1 approach:1 present:1 preservation:1 cause:1 young:1 sedimentary:2 preserve:1 much:1 large:1 area:1 reflect:1 environment:1 tucker:1 e:1 petrology:1 ed:1 blackwell:1 science:2 osney:1 nead:1 oxford:1 uk:1 isbn:1 divide:1 three:1 arguably:1 two:2 instead:1 closely:1 comparable:1 mesozoic:1 paleozoic:1 propose:1 consider:1 sub:2 erathem:1 begin:1 date:1 namely:1 gelasian:2 stage:1 union:3 research:2 inqua:4 counterproposed:1 transfer:1 pleistocene:1 recognize:1 third:1 cite:1 key:1 change:1 earth:1 ocean:1 biota:1 occur:1 correspondence:1 gauss:1 matuyama:1 magnetostratigraphic:1 clague:1 john:1 et:1 al:1 open:1 letter:1 executive:1 committee:1 perspective:1 newsletter:1 reach:1 compromise:2 make:1 subera:1 subdivide:1 classical:1 reject:1 split:1 consolidated:1 annual:1 report:1 retrieve:1 june:1 reference:1 |@bigram paleogene_period:1 cenozoic_era:2 commission_stratigraphy:1 miocene_pliocene:1 pliocene_epoch:2 genus_homo:1 somewhat_confusing:1 paleozoic_era:1 et_al:1 tertiary_quaternary:1 |
2,208 | Girth_(graph_theory) | In graph theory, the girth of a graph is the length of a shortest cycle contained in the graph. R. Diestel, Graph Theory, p.8. 3rd Edition, Springer-Verlag, 2005 If the graph does not contain any cycles, its girth is defined to be infinity. For example, a 4-cycle (square) has girth 4. A grid has girth 4 as well, and a triangular mesh has girth 3. A graph with girth ≥ 4 is triangle-free. Cages A cubic graph of girth that is as small as possible is known as a -cage. The Petersen graph is the unique 5-cage (it is the smallest cubic graph of girth 5), the Heawood graph is the unique 6-cage, and the Tutte eight cage is the unique 8-cage. . Electronic supplement to the book Distance-Regular Graphs (Brouwer, Cohen, and Neumaier 1989, Springer-Verlag). Girth and graph coloring For any positive integers g and χ, there exists a graph with girth at least g and chromatic number at least χ; for instance, the Grötzsch graph is triangle-free and has chromatic number 4, and repeating the Mycielskian construction used to form the Grötzsch graph produces triangle-free graphs of arbitrarily large chromatic number. Paul Erdős was the first to prove the general result, using the probabilistic method. . More precisely, he showed that a random graph on n vertices, formed by choosing independently whether to include each edge with probability n(1 − g)/g, has, with probability tending to 1 as n goes to infinity, at most n/2 cycles of length g or less, but has no independent set of size n/2k. Therefore, removing one vertex from each short cycle leaves a smaller graph with girth greater than g, in which each color class of a coloring must be small and which therefore requires at least k colors in any coloring. Generalisations The odd girth and even girth of a graph are the lengths of a shortest odd cycle and shortest even cycle respectively. Thought of as the least length of a non-trivial cycle, the girth admits natural generalisations as the 1-systole or higher systoles in Systolic geometry. References | Girth_(graph_theory) |@lemmatized graph:19 theory:2 girth:14 length:4 short:3 cycle:8 contain:2 r:1 diestel:1 p:1 edition:1 springer:2 verlag:2 define:1 infinity:2 example:1 square:1 grid:1 well:1 triangular:1 mesh:1 triangle:3 free:3 cage:6 cubic:2 small:4 possible:1 know:1 petersen:1 unique:3 heawood:1 tutte:1 eight:1 electronic:1 supplement:1 book:1 distance:1 regular:1 brouwer:1 cohen:1 neumaier:1 color:3 positive:1 integer:1 g:6 χ:2 exist:1 least:4 chromatic:3 number:3 instance:1 grötzsch:2 repeat:1 mycielskian:1 construction:1 use:2 form:2 produce:1 arbitrarily:1 large:1 paul:1 erdős:1 first:1 prove:1 general:1 result:1 probabilistic:1 method:1 precisely:1 show:1 random:1 n:5 vertex:2 choose:1 independently:1 whether:1 include:1 edge:1 probability:2 tend:1 go:1 less:1 independent:1 set:1 size:1 therefore:2 remove:1 one:1 leave:1 great:1 class:1 coloring:2 must:1 require:1 k:1 generalisation:2 odd:2 even:2 shortest:1 respectively:1 thought:1 non:1 trivial:1 admit:1 natural:1 systole:2 high:1 systolic:1 geometry:1 reference:1 |@bigram springer_verlag:2 graph_girth:5 paul_erdős:1 |
2,209 | Joke | A joke is a short story or ironic depiction of a situation communicated with the intent of being humorous. These jokes will normally have a punchline that will end the sentence to make it humorous. A joke can also be a single phrase or statement that employs sarcasm. The word joke can also be used as a slang term for a person or thing which is not taken seriously by others in general. A practical joke or prank differs from a spoken one in that the major component of the humour is physical rather than verbal (for example placing salt in the sugar bowl). Jokes are typically for the entertainment of friends and onlookers. The desired response is generally laughter; when this does not happen the joke is said to have "fallen flat". Antiquity of jokes Jokes have been a part of human culture since at least 1900 BCE. A fart joke from ancient Sumer is currently believed to be the world's oldest known joke 'World's oldest joke' traced back to 1900 BC. A recent discovery of a document called Philogelos (The Laughter Lover) gives us an insight into ancient humour. Written in Greek by Hierocles and Philagrius, it dates to the third or fourth century AD, and contains some 260 jokes. Considering humour from our own culture as recent as the 19th century is at times baffling to us today, the humour is surprisingly familiar. They had different Stereotypes, the Absent-minded professor, the eunuch, and people with hernias or bad breath were favourites. A lot of the jokes play on the idea of knowing who you are:a barber, a bald man and an absent minded professor take a journey together. They have to camp overnight, so decide to take turns watching the luggage. When it's the barber's turn, he gets bored, so amuses himself by shaving the head of the professor. When the professor is woken up for his shift, he feels his head, and says "How stupid is that barber? He's woken up the bald man instead of me. Another joke goes: "A man tells a well-known wit: "I had your wife, without paying a penny". The husband replies: "It's my duty as a husband to couple with such a monstrosity. What made you do it?" There is even a version of Monty Python's Dead Parrot sketch: a man buys a slave, who dies shortly afterwards. When he complains to the slave merchant, he is told: "He didn't die when I owned him." Comic Jim Bowen has presented them to a modern audience. "One or two of them are jokes I've seen in people's acts nowadays, slightly updated. They put in a motor car instead of a chariot - some of them are Tommy Cooper-esque." Classic gags discovered in ancient Roman joke book March 13, 2009 Psychology of jokes Why we laugh has been the subject of serious academic study, examples being: Immanuel Kant, in Critique of Judgement (1790) states that "Laughter is an effect that arises if a tense expectation is transformed into nothing." Here is Kant's 219-year old joke and his analysis: "An Englishman at an Indian's table in Surat saw a bottle of ale being opened, and all the beer, turned to froth, rushed out. The Indian, by repeated exclamations, showed his great amazement. - Well, what's so amazing in that? asked the Englishman. - Oh, but I'm not amazed at its coming out, replied the Indian, but how you managed to get it all in. - This makes us laugh, and it gives us a hearty pleasure. This is not because, say, we think we are smarter than this ignorant man, nor are we laughing at anything else here that it is our liking and that we noticed through our understanding. It is rather that we had a tense expectation that suddenly vanished..." Henri Bergson, in his book Le rire (Laughter, 1901), suggests that laughter evolved to make social life possible for human beings. Sigmund Freud's "Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious". (Der Witz und seine Beziehung zum Unbewußten). Arthur Koestler, in The Act of Creation (1964), analyses humour and compares it to other creative activities, such as literature and science. Marvin Minsky in Society of Mind (1986). Marvin Minsky suggests that laughter has a specific function related to the human brain. In his opinion jokes and laughter are mechanisms for the brain to learn nonsense. For that reason, he argues, jokes are usually not as funny when you hear them repeatedly. Edward de Bono in "The Mechanism of the Mind" (1969) and "I am Right, You are Wrong" (1990). Edward de Bono suggests that the mind is a pattern-matching machine, and that it works by recognizing stories and behaviour and putting them into familiar patterns. When a familiar connection is disrupted and an alternative unexpected new link is made in the brain via a different route than expected, then laughter occurs as the new connection is made. This theory explains a lot about jokes. For example: Why jokes are only funny the first time they are told: once they are told the pattern is already there, so there can be no new connections, and so no laughter. Why jokes have an elaborate and often repetitive set up: The repetition establishes the familiar pattern in the brain. A common method used in jokes is to tell almost the same story twice and then deliver the punch line the third time the story is told. The first two tellings of the story evoke a familiar pattern in the brain, thus priming the brain for the punch line. Why jokes often rely on stereotypes: the use of a stereotype links to familiar expected behaviour, thus saving time in the set-up. Why jokes are variants on well-known stories (e.g. the genie and a lamp and a man walks into a bar): This again saves time in the set up and establishes a familiar pattern. In 2002, Richard Wiseman conducted a study intended to discover the world's funniest joke . Humour and Jokes have also been concluded to be logic that is completely random or vice versa. Laughter, the intended human reaction to jokes, is healthy in moderation, uses the stomach muscles, and releases endorphins, natural "feel good" chemicals, into the brain. Jokes in organizations Jokes can be employed by workers as a way to identify with their jobs. For example, 9-1-1 operators often crack jokes about incongruous, threatening, or tragic situations they deal with on a daily basis. "Tracy, S. J., Myers, K. K., & Scott, C. W. (2006). Cracking jokes and crafting selves: Sensemaking and identity management among human service workers. Communication Monographs, 73,283-308." This use of humor and cracking jokes helps employees differentiate themselves from the people they serve while also assisting them in identifying with their jobs. "Lynch, O. H. (2002). Humorous communication: Finding a place for humor in communication research. Communication Theory, 4,423-445." In addition to employees, managers use joking, or jocularity, in strategic ways. Some managers attempt to suppress joking and humor use because they feel it relates to lower production, while others have attempted to manufacture joking through pranks, pajama or dress down days, and specific committees that are designed to increase fun in the workplace. "Collinson, D. L. (2002). Managing humour. Journal of Management Studies, 39,269-288." Rules The rules of humour are analogous to those of poetry. These common rules are mainly timing, precision, synthesis, and rhythm. French philosopher Henri Bergson has said in an essay: "In every wit there is something of a poet." In this essay Bergson views the essence of humour as the encrustation of the mechanical upon the living. He used as an instance a book by an English humorist, in which an elderly woman who desired a reputation as a philanthropist provided "homes within easy hail of her mansion for the conversion of atheists who have been specially manufactured for her, so to speak, and for a number of honest folk who have been made into drunkards so that she may cure them of their failing, etc." This idea seems funny because a genuine impulse of charity as a living, vital impulse has become encrusted by a mechanical conception of how it should manifest itself. Precision To reach precision, the comedian must choose the words in order to provide a vivid, in-focus image, and to avoid being generic as to confuse the audience, and provide no laughter. To properly arrange the words in the sentence is also crucial to get precision. An example by Woody Allen (from Side Effects, "A Giant Step for Mankind" story ): Synthesis That a joke is best when it expresses the maximum level of humour with a minimal number of words, is today considered one of the key technical elements of a joke. An example from Woody Allen: Though, the familiarity of the pattern of "brevity" has led to numerous examples of jokes where the very length is itself the pattern breaking "punchline". Numerous examples from Monty Python exist, for instance, the song "I Like Traffic Lights", and more modernly, Family Guy contains numerous such examples, most notably, in the episode Wasted Talent, Peter Griffin bangs his shin, a classic slapstick routine, and tenderly nurses it whilst inhaling and exhaling to quiet the pain. This goes on for considerably longer than expected. Certain versions of the popular vaudevillian joke The Aristocrats can go on for several minutes, and it is considered an anti-joke, as the humour is more in the set-up than the punchline. Rhythm The joke's content (meaning) is not what provokes the laugh, it just makes the salience of the joke and provokes a smile. What makes us laugh is the joke mechanism. Milton Berle demonstrated this with a classic theatre experiment in the 1950s: if during a series of jokes you insert phrases that are not jokes, but with the same rhythm, the audience laughs anyway. A classic is the ternary rhythm, with three beats: Introduction, premise, antithesis (with the antithesis being the punch line). In regards to the Milton Berle experiment, they can be taken to demonstrate the concept of "breaking context" or "breaking the pattern". It is not necessarily the rhythm that caused the audience to laugh, but the disparity between the expectation of a "joke" and being instead given a non-sequitur "normal phrase." This normal phrase is, itself, unexpected, and a type of punchline. Comic In the comic field plays the 'economy of ideative expenditure'; in other words excessive energy is wasted or action-essential energy is saved. The profound meaning of a comic gag or a comic joke is "I'm a child"; the comic deals with the clumsy body of the child. Laurel and Hardy are a classic example. An individual laughs because he recognizes the child that is in himself. In clowns stumbling is a childish tempo. In the comic, the visual gags may be translated into a joke. For example in Side Effects (By Destiny Denied story) by Woody Allen: The typical comic technique is the disproportion. Wit In the wit field plays the "economy of censorship expenditure" (Freud literally calls it "the economy of psychic expenditure".); usually censorship prevents some 'dangerous ideas' from reaching the conscious mind, or helps us avoid saying everything that comes to mind; adversely, the wit circumvents the censorship and brings up those ideas. Different wit techniques allow one to express them in a funny way. The profound meaning behind a wit joke is "I have dangerous ideas". An example from Woody Allen: Or, when a bagpipe player was asked "How do you play that thing?" his answer was: Wit is a branch of rhetoric, and there are about 200 techniques (technically they are called tropes, a particular kind of figure of speech) that can be used to make jokes. Irony can be seen as belonging to this field. Humour In the comedy field, humour induces an "economized expenditure of emotion" (Freud literally calls it "economy of affect" or "economy of sympathy". Freud produced this final part of his interpretation many years later, in a paper later supplemented to the book.). In other words, the joke erases an emotion that should be felt about an event, making us insensitive to it.e.g: "yo momma" jokes. The profound meaning of the void feeling of a humour joke is "I'm a cynic". An example from Woody Allen: This field of jokes is still a grey area, being mostly unexplored. Extensive use of this kind of humour can be found in the work of British satirist Chris Morris, like the sketches of the Jam television program. Black humour and sarcasm belong to this field. Cycles Folklorists, in particular (but not exclusively) those who study the folklore of the United States, collect jokes into joke cycles. A cycle is a collection of jokes with a particular theme or a particular "script". (That is, it is a literature cycle.) Folklorists have identified several such cycles: the elephant joke cycle that began in 1962 the Helen Keller Joke Cycle that comprises jokes about Helen Keller Viola jokes the NASA, Challenger, or Space Shuttle Joke Cycle that comprises jokes relating to the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster the Chernobyl Joke Cycle that comprises jokes relating to the Chernobyl disaster the Polish Pope Joke Cycle that comprises jokes relating to Pope John Paul II the Essex girl and the Stupid Irish joke cycles in the United Kingdom the Dead Baby Joke Cycle the Dingo Joke Cycle that comprises jokes relating to the Azaria Chamberlain disappearance the Newfie Joke Cycle that comprises jokes made by Canadians about Newfoundlanders the Little Willie Joke Cycle, and the Quadriplegic Joke Cycle the Jew Joke Cycle and the Polack Joke Cycle the Rastus and Liza Joke Cycle, which Dundes describes as "the most vicious and widespread white anti-Negro joke cycle" the Jewish American Princess and Jewish American Mother joke cycles the Wind-Up Doll Joke Cycle Chuck Norris facts Tom Swifties In Soviet Russia... Aggie jokes honor Texas A&M University and its students' lack of intelligence. Gruner discusses several "sick joke" cycles that occurred upon events surrounding Gary Hart, Natalie Wood, Vic Morrow, Jim Bakker, Richard Pryor, and Michael Jackson, noting how several jokes were recycled from one cycle to the next. For example: A joke about Vic Morrow ("We now know that Vic Morrow had dandruff: they found his head and shoulders in the bushes") was subsequently recycled about Admiral Mountbatten after his murder by Irish Republican terrorists in 1980, and again applied to the crew of the Challenger space shuttle ("How do we know that Christa McAuliffe had dandruff? They found her head and shoulders on the beach."). Berger asserts that "whenever there is a popular joke cycle, there generally is some widespread kind of social and cultural anxiety, lingering below the surface, that the joke cycle helps people deal with". Types of jokes Jokes often depend on the humour of the unexpected, the mildly taboo (which can include the distasteful or socially improper), or playing off stereotypes and other cultural beliefs. Many jokes fit into more than one category. Subjects Political jokes are usually a form of satire. They generally concern politicians and heads of state, but may also cover the absurdities of a country's political situation. A prominent example of political jokes would be political cartoons. Two large categories of this type of jokes exist. The first one makes fun of a negative attitude to political opponents or to politicians in general. The second one makes fun of political clichés, mottoes, catch phrases or simply blunders of politicians. Some, especially the "you have two cows" genre, derive humour from comparing different political systems. Professional humour includes caricatured portrayals of certain professions such as lawyers, and in-jokes told by professionals to each other. Mathematical jokes are a form of in-joke, generally designed to be understandable only by insiders. Ethnic jokes exploit ethnic stereotypes. They are often racist and frequently considered offensive. For example, the British tell jokes starting "An Englishman, an Irishman and a Scotsman..." which exploit the supposed parsimony of the Scot, stupidity of the Irish or rigid conventionality of the English. Such jokes exist among numerous peoples. Racially offensive humour is often considered unacceptable, but similar jokes based on other stereotypes (such as blonde jokes) are often considered acceptable. Religious jokes fall into several categories: Jokes based on stereotypes associated with people of religion (e.g. nun jokes, priest jokes, or rabbi jokes) Jokes on classical religious subjects: crucifixion, Adam and Eve, St. Peter at The Gates, etc. Jokes that collide different religious denominations: "A rabbi, a medicine man, and a pastor went fishing..." Letters and addresses to God. Self-deprecating or self-effacing humour is superficially similar to racial and stereotype jokes, but involves the targets laughing at themselves. It is said to maintain a sense of perspective and to be powerful in defusing confrontations. Probably the best-known and most common example is Jewish humour. The egalitarian tradition was strong among the Jewish communities of Eastern Europe in which the powerful were often mocked subtly. Prominent members of the community were kidded during social gatherings, part a good-natured tradition of humour as a levelling device. A similar situation exists in the Scandinavian "Ole and Lena" joke. Self-deprecating humour has also been used by politicians, who recognize its ability to acknowledge controversial issues and steal the punch of criticism - for example, when Abraham Lincoln was accused of being two-faced he replied, "If I had two faces, do you think this is the one I’d be wearing?". Dirty jokes are based on taboo, often sexual, content or vocabulary. Other taboos are challenged by sick jokes and gallows humour; to joke about disability is considered in this group. Surrealist or minimalist jokes exploit semantic inconsistency, for example: Q: What's red and invisible? A: No tomatoes.. Anti-jokes are jokes that are not funny in regular sense, and often can be decidedly unfunny, but rely on the let-down from the expected joke to be funny in itself. A question was: 'What is the difference between a dead bird ?. The answer came: "His right leg is as different as his left one'. An elephant joke is a joke, almost always a riddle or conundrum and often a sequence of connected riddles, that involves an elephant. Jokes involving non-sequitur humour, with parts of the joke being unrelated to each other; e.g. "My uncle once punched a man so hard his legs became trombones", from the Mighty Boosh TV series. Styles The question / answer joke, sometimes posed as a common riddle, has a supposedly straight question and an answer which is twisted for humorous effect; puns are often employed. Of this type are knock-knock joke, light bulb joke, the many variations on "why did the chicken cross the road?", and the class of "What's the difference between a _______ and a ______" joke, where the punch line is often a pun or a spoonerism linking two apparently entirely unconnected concepts. Some jokes require a double act, where one respondent (usually the straight man) can be relied on to give the correct response to the person telling the joke. This is more common in performance than informal joke-telling. A shaggy dog story is an extremely long and involved joke with an intentionally weak or completely non-existent punchline. The humour lies in building up the audience's anticipation and then letting them down completely. The longer the story can continue without the audience realising it is a joke, and not a serious anecdote, the more successful it is. Shaggy jokes appear to date from the 1930s, although there are several competing variants for the "original" shaggy dog story. According to one, an advertisement is placed in a newspaper, searching for the shaggiest dog in the world. The teller of the joke then relates the story of the search for the shaggiest dog in extreme and exaggerated detail (flying around the world, climbing mountains, fending off sabre-toothed tigers, etc); a good teller will be able to stretch the story out to over half an hour. When the winning dog is finally presented, the advertiser takes a look at the dog and states: "I don't think he's so shaggy." Some shaggy dog stories are actually cleverly constructed stories, frequently interesting in themselves, that culminate in one or more puns whose first meaning is reasonable as part of the story but whose second meaning is a common aphorism, commercial jingle, or other recognizable word or phrase. As with other puns, there may be multiple separate rhyming meanings. Such stories treat the listener or reader with respect. (See: "Upon My Word!", a book by Frank Muir and Denis Norden, spun off from their long-running BBC radio show My Word!.) See also Anecdote Comedy Comedy genres Computational humor Feghoot Funny Humor Internet humour Joke chess problem Mathematical joke Polish joke Pun Punch line Russian jokes The Funniest Joke in the World World's funniest joke Notes References Mary Douglas “Jokes.” in Rethinking Popular Culture: Contemporary Perspectives in Cultural Studies. [1975] Ed. Chandra Mukerji and Michael Schudson. Berkeley: U of California P, 1991. Further reading External links Dictionary of the History of ideas: Sense of the Comic – An active listing of links to jokes. | Joke |@lemmatized joke:141 short:1 story:17 ironic:1 depiction:1 situation:4 communicate:1 intent:1 humorous:4 normally:1 punchline:5 end:1 sentence:2 make:14 also:8 single:1 phrase:6 statement:1 employ:3 sarcasm:2 word:9 use:11 slang:1 term:1 person:2 thing:2 take:5 seriously:1 others:2 general:2 practical:1 prank:2 differs:1 spoken:1 one:13 major:1 component:1 humour:28 physical:1 rather:2 verbal:1 example:18 placing:1 salt:1 sugar:1 bowl:1 typically:1 entertainment:1 friend:1 onlooker:1 desired:1 response:2 generally:4 laughter:11 happen:1 say:6 fall:2 flat:1 antiquity:1 part:5 human:5 culture:3 since:1 least:1 bce:1 fart:1 ancient:3 sumer:1 currently:1 believe:1 world:7 old:3 know:7 trace:1 back:1 bc:1 recent:2 discovery:1 document:1 call:4 philogelos:1 lover:1 give:4 u:8 insight:1 write:1 greek:1 hierocles:1 philagrius:1 date:2 third:2 fourth:1 century:2 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2,210 | Elliptic_curve | A catalog of elliptic curves. Region shown is [-3,3]² (For a=0 and b=0 it's not smooth and therefore not an elliptic curve.) In mathematics, an elliptic curve is a smooth, projective algebraic curve of genus one, on which there is a specified point O. An elliptic curve is in fact an abelian variety — that is, it has a multiplication defined algebraically with respect to which it is an abelian group — and O serves as the identity element. Often the curve itself, without O specified, is called an elliptic curve. Any elliptic curve can be written as a plane algebraic curve defined by an equation of the form which is non-singular; that is, its graph has no cusps or self-intersections. (When the characteristic of the coefficient field is equal to 2 or 3, the above equation is not quite general enough to comprise all non-singular cubic curves; see below for a more precise definition.) The point O is actually the "point at infinity" in the projective plane. If y2 = P(x), where P is any polynomial of degree three in x with no repeated roots, then we obtain a nonsingular plane curve of genus one, which is thus also an elliptic curve. If P has degree four and is squarefree this equation again describes a plane curve of genus one; however, it has no natural choice of identity element. More generally, any algebraic curve of genus one, for example from the intersection of two three-dimensional quadric surfaces, is called an elliptic curve, provided that it has at least one rational point. Using the theory of elliptic functions, it can be shown that elliptic curves defined over the complex numbers correspond to embeddings of the torus into the complex projective plane. The torus is also an abelian group, and in fact this correspondence is also a group isomorphism. Elliptic curves are especially important in number theory, and constitute a major area of current research; for example, they were used in the proof, by Andrew Wiles (assisted by Richard Taylor), of Fermat's Last Theorem. They also find applications in cryptography (see the article elliptic curve cryptography) and integer factorization. An elliptic curve is not an ellipse: see elliptic integral for the origin of the term. Elliptic curves over the real numbers Although the formal definition of an elliptic curve is fairly technical and requires some background in algebraic geometry, it is possible to describe some features of elliptic curves over the real numbers using only high school algebra and geometry. Graphs of curves and In this context, an elliptic curve is a plane curve defined by an equation of the form where a and b are real numbers. This type of equation is called a Weierstrass equation. The definition of elliptic curve also requires that the curve be non-singular. Geometrically, this means that the graph has no cusps or self-intersections. Algebraically, this involves calculating the discriminant The curve is non-singular if the discriminant is not equal to zero. (Although the factor −16 seems irrelevant here, it turns out to be convenient in more advanced study of elliptic curves.) The graph of a non-singular curve has two components if its discriminant is positive, and one component if it is negative. For example, in the graphs shown above, the discriminant in the first case is 64, and in the second case is −368. The group law By adding a "point at infinity", we obtain the projective version of this curve. If P and Q are two points on the curve, then we can uniquely describe a third point which is the intersection of the curve with the line through P and Q. If the line is tangent to the curve at a point, then that point is counted twice; and if the line is parallel to the y-axis, we define the third point as the point "at infinity". Exactly one of these conditions then holds for any pair of points on an elliptic curve. image:ECClines.svg It is then possible to introduce a group operation, "+", on the curve with the following properties: we consider the point at infinity to be 0, the identity of the group; and if a straight line intersects the curve at the points P, Q and R, then we require that P + Q + R = 0 in the group. One can check that this turns the curve into an abelian group, and thus into an abelian variety. It can be shown that the set of K-rational points (including the point at infinity) forms a subgroup of this group. If the curve is denoted by E, then this subgroup is often written as E(K). The above group can be described algebraically as well as geometrically. Given the curve y2 = x3 − px − q over the field K (whose characteristic we assume to be neither 2 nor 3), and points P = (xP, yP) and Q = (xQ, yQ) on the curve, assume first that xP ≠ xQ. Let s = (yP − yQ)/(xP − xQ); since K is a field, s is well-defined. Then we can define R = P + Q = (xR, - yR) by If xP = xQ, then there are two options: if yP = −yQ, including the case where yP = yQ = 0, then the sum is defined as 0; thus, the inverse of each point on the curve is found by reflecting it across the x-axis. If yP = yQ ≠ 0, then R = P + P = 2P = (xR, - yR) is given by Elliptic curves over the complex numbers The formulation of elliptic curves as the embedding of a torus in the complex projective plane follows naturally from a curious property of Weierstrass's elliptic functions. These functions and their first derivative are related by the formula Here, and are constants; is the Weierstrass elliptic function and its derivative. It should be clear that this relation is in the form of an elliptic curve (over the complex numbers). The Weierstrass functions are doubly-periodic; that is, they are periodic with respect to a lattice Λ; in essence, the Weierstrass functions are naturally defined on a torus . This torus may be embedded in the complex projective plane by means of the map This map is a group isomorphism, carrying the natural group structure of the torus into the projective plane. It is also an isomorphism of Riemann surfaces, and so topologically, a given elliptic curve looks like a torus. If the lattice Λ is related to a lattice cΛ by multiplication by a non-zero complex number c, then the corresponding curves are isomorphic. Isomorphism classes of elliptic curves are specified by the j-invariant. The isomorphism classes can be understood in a simpler way as well. The constants and , called the modular invariants, are uniquely determined by the lattice, that is, by the structure of the torus. However, the complex numbers are the splitting field for polynomials, and so the elliptic curve may be written as One finds that and so that the modular discriminant is Here, λ is sometimes called the modular lambda function. Note that the uniformization theorem states that every compact Riemann surface of genus one can be represented as a torus. Elliptic curves over a general field Elliptic curves can be defined over any field K; the formal definition of an elliptic curve is a non-singular projective algebraic curve over K with genus 1 with a given point defined over K. If the characteristic of K is neither 2 nor 3, then every elliptic curve over K can be written in the form where p and q are elements of K such that the right hand side polynomial x3 − px − q does not have any double roots. If the characteristic is 2 or 3, then more terms need to be kept: in characteristic 3, the most general equation is of the form for arbitrary constants such that the polynomial on the right-hand side has distinct roots (the notation is chosen for historical reasons). In characteristic 2, even this much is not possible, and the most general equation is provided that the variety it defines is nonsingular. If characteristic were not an obstruction, each equation would reduce to the previous ones by a suitable change of variables. One typically takes the curve to be the set of all points (x,y) which satisfy the above equation and such that both x and y are elements of the algebraic closure of K. Points of the curve whose coordinates both belong to K are called K-rational points. Isogeny Let E and D be elliptic curves over a field k. An isogeny between E and D is a finite morphism of varieties that preserves basepoints (in other words, maps the given point on E to that on D). The two curves are called isogenous if there is an isogeny between them. This is an equivalence relation, symmetry being due to the existence of the dual isogeny. Every isogeny is an algebraic homomorphism and thus induces homomorphisms of the groups of the elliptic curves for -valued points. See also Abelian varieties up to isogeny. Connections to number theory The Mordell-Weil theorem states that if the underlying field K is the field of rational numbers (or more generally a number field), then the group of K-rational points is finitely generated. This means that the group can be expressed as the direct sum of a free abelian group and a finite torsion subgroup. While it is relatively easy to determine the torsion subgroup of E(K), no general algorithm is known to compute the rank of the free subgroup. A formula for this rank is given by the Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture. The recent proof of Fermat's last theorem proceeded by proving a special case of the deep Taniyama-Shimura conjecture relating elliptic curves over the rationals to modular forms; this conjecture has since been completely proved. While the precise number of rational points of an elliptic curve E over a finite field Fp is in general rather difficult to compute, Hasse's theorem on elliptic curves tells us This fact can be understood and proven with the help of some general theory; see local zeta function, Étale cohomology. The number of points on a specific curve can be computed with Schoof's algorithm. For further developments see arithmetic of abelian varieties. Algorithms that use elliptic curves Elliptic curves over finite fields are used in some cryptographic applications as well as for integer factorization. Typically, the general idea in these applications is that a known algorithm which makes use of certain finite groups is rewritten to use the groups of rational points of elliptic curves. For more see also: Elliptic curve cryptography Elliptic Curve DSA Lenstra elliptic curve factorization Elliptic curve primality proving See also Riemann-Hurwitz formula Nagell–Lutz theorem Complex multiplication Arithmetic dynamics References Serge Lang, in the introduction to the book cited below, stated that "It is possible to write endlessly on elliptic curves. (This is not a threat.)" The following short list is thus at best a guide to the vast expository literature available on the theoretical, algorithmic, and cryptographic aspects of elliptic curves. External links The Mathematical Atlas: 14H52 Elliptic Curves The Arithmetic of Elliptic Curves from PlanetMath Matlab code for implicit function plotting - Can be used to plot elliptic curves. Interactive introduction to elliptic curves and elliptic curve cryptography | Elliptic_curve |@lemmatized catalog:1 elliptic:52 curve:77 region:1 show:4 b:2 smooth:2 therefore:1 mathematics:1 projective:8 algebraic:7 genus:6 one:12 specified:1 point:28 fact:3 abelian:8 variety:6 multiplication:3 define:12 algebraically:3 respect:2 group:18 serf:1 identity:3 element:4 often:2 without:1 specify:2 call:7 write:5 plane:9 equation:10 form:7 non:7 singular:6 graph:5 cusp:2 self:2 intersection:4 characteristic:7 coefficient:1 field:12 equal:2 quite:1 general:8 enough:1 comprise:1 cubic:1 see:8 precise:2 definition:4 actually:1 infinity:5 p:12 x:5 polynomial:4 degree:2 three:2 repeated:1 root:3 obtain:2 nonsingular:2 thus:5 also:9 four:1 squarefree:1 describe:4 however:2 natural:2 choice:1 generally:2 example:3 two:5 dimensional:1 quadric:1 surface:3 provide:2 least:1 rational:8 use:8 theory:4 function:9 complex:9 number:14 correspond:1 embeddings:1 torus:9 correspondence:1 isomorphism:5 especially:1 important:1 constitute:1 major:1 area:1 current:1 research:1 proof:2 andrew:1 wile:1 assist:1 richard:1 taylor:1 fermat:2 last:2 theorem:6 find:3 application:3 cryptography:4 article:1 integer:2 factorization:3 ellipse:1 integral:1 origin:1 term:2 real:3 although:2 formal:2 fairly:1 technical:1 require:3 background:1 geometry:2 possible:4 feature:1 high:1 school:1 algebra:1 context:1 type:1 weierstrass:5 geometrically:2 mean:3 involve:1 calculate:1 discriminant:5 zero:2 factor:1 seem:1 irrelevant:1 turn:2 convenient:1 advanced:1 study:1 component:2 positive:1 negative:1 first:3 case:4 second:1 law:1 add:1 version:1 q:9 uniquely:2 third:2 line:4 tangent:1 count:1 twice:1 parallel:1 axis:2 exactly:1 condition:1 hold:1 pair:1 image:1 ecclines:1 svg:1 introduce:1 operation:1 follow:3 property:2 consider:1 straight:1 intersect:1 r:4 check:1 set:2 k:17 include:2 subgroup:5 denote:1 e:7 well:4 give:6 px:2 whose:2 assume:2 neither:2 xp:4 yp:5 xq:4 yq:5 let:2 since:2 xr:2 yr:2 option:1 sum:2 inverse:1 reflect:1 across:1 formulation:1 embedding:1 naturally:2 curious:1 derivative:2 relate:3 formula:3 constant:3 clear:1 relation:2 doubly:1 periodic:2 lattice:4 λ:3 essence:1 may:2 embed:1 map:3 carry:1 structure:2 riemann:3 topologically:1 look:1 like:1 cλ:1 c:1 corresponding:1 isomorphic:1 class:2 j:1 invariant:2 understand:1 simple:1 way:1 modular:4 determine:2 splitting:1 sometimes:1 lambda:1 note:1 uniformization:1 state:3 every:3 compact:1 represent:1 right:2 hand:2 side:2 double:1 need:1 keep:1 arbitrary:1 distinct:1 notation:1 choose:1 historical:1 reason:1 even:1 much:1 obstruction:1 would:1 reduce:1 previous:1 suitable:1 change:1 variable:1 typically:2 take:1 satisfy:1 closure:1 coordinate:1 belong:1 isogeny:6 finite:5 morphism:1 preserve:1 basepoints:1 word:1 isogenous:1 equivalence:1 symmetry:1 due:1 existence:1 dual:1 homomorphism:2 induces:1 value:1 connection:1 mordell:1 weil:1 underlying:1 finitely:1 generate:1 express:1 direct:1 free:2 torsion:2 relatively:1 easy:1 algorithm:4 know:2 compute:3 rank:2 birch:1 swinnerton:1 dyer:1 conjecture:3 recent:1 proceed:1 prove:3 special:1 deep:1 taniyama:1 shimura:1 completely:1 fp:1 rather:1 difficult:1 hasse:1 tell:1 u:1 understood:1 proven:1 help:1 local:1 zeta:1 étale:1 cohomology:1 specific:1 schoof:1 development:1 arithmetic:3 cryptographic:2 idea:1 make:1 certain:1 rewrite:1 dsa:1 lenstra:1 primality:1 hurwitz:1 nagell:1 lutz:1 dynamic:1 reference:1 serge:1 lang:1 introduction:2 book:1 cite:1 endlessly:1 threat:1 short:1 list:1 best:1 guide:1 vast:1 expository:1 literature:1 available:1 theoretical:1 algorithmic:1 aspect:1 external:1 link:1 mathematical:1 atlas:1 planetmath:1 matlab:1 code:1 implicit:1 plot:2 interactive:1 |@bigram elliptic_curve:48 projective_plane:5 andrew_wile:1 curve_cryptography:3 integer_factorization:2 elliptic_integral:1 algebraic_geometry:1 tangent_curve:1 isomorphic_isomorphism:1 uniquely_determine:1 algebraic_closure:1 equivalence_relation:1 finitely_generate:1 birch_swinnerton:1 swinnerton_dyer:1 dyer_conjecture:1 proof_fermat:1 zeta_function:1 étale_cohomology:1 external_link:1 |
2,211 | Examples_of_differential_equations | Differential equations arise in many problems in physics, engineering, etc. The following examples show how to solve differential equations in a few simple cases when an exact solution exists. Separable first order linear ordinary differential equations A separable linear ordinary differential equation of the first order has the general form: where is some known function. We may solve this by separation of variables (moving the y terms to one side and the t terms to the other side), Antidifferentiating, we find where C is a constant. Then, by exponentiation, we obtain with A another arbitrary constant. It is easy to confirm that this is a solution by plugging it into the original differential equation: Some elaboration is needed because is not in necessarily a constant—indeed, it might not even be integrable. Arguably, one must also assume something about the domains of the functions involved before the equation is fully defined. Are we talking about complex functions, or just real, for example? The usual textbook approach is to discuss forming the equations well before considering how to solve them. Non-separable first order linear ordinary differential equations Some first order linear ODEs (ordinary differential equations) are not separable like in the above example. In order to solve non-separable first order linear ODEs one must use what is known as an integrating factor. Consider first order linear ODEs of the general form: The method for solving this equation relies on a special integrating factor, μ: We choose this integrating factor because it has the special property that its derivative is itself times the function we are integrating, that is: Multiply both sides of the original differential equation by μ to get: Because of the special μ we picked, we may substitute for , simplifying the equation to: Using the product rule in reverse, we get: Integrating both sides: Finally, to solve for we divide both sides by : Since μ is a function of x, we cannot simplify any further directly. A simple example Suppose a mass is attached to a spring which exerts an attractive force on the mass proportional to the extension/compression of the spring. For now, we may ignore any other forces (gravity, friction, etc). We shall write the extension of the spring at a time as . Now, using Newton's second law we can write (using convenient units): If we look for solutions that have the form , where is a constant, we discover the relationship , and thus must be one of the complex numbers or . Thus, using Euler's theorem we can say that the solution must be of the form: To determine the unknown constants and , we need initial conditions, i.e. equalities that specify the state of the system at a given time (usually ). For example, if we suppose at the extension is a unit distance (), and the particle is not moving (). We have and so . and so . Therefore . This is an example of simple harmonic motion. A more complicated model The above model of an oscillating mass on a spring is plausible but not very realistic: in practice, friction will tend to decelerate the mass and have magnitude proportional to its velocity (i.e. ). Our new differential equation, expressing the balancing of the acceleration and the forces, is where is our coefficient of friction, and . Again looking for solutions of the form , we find that This is a quadratic equation which we can solve. If we have complex roots , and the solution (with the above boundary conditions) will look like this: (We can show that ) This is a damped oscillator, and the plot of displacement against time would look something like this: which does resemble how one would expect a vibrating spring to behave as friction removed the energy from the system. See also Exact form Ordinary differential equation Bibliography A. D. Polyanin and V. F. Zaitsev, Handbook of Exact Solutions for Ordinary Differential Equations, 2nd Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2003; ISBN 1-58488-297-2. External links Ordinary Differential Equations at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations. | Examples_of_differential_equations |@lemmatized differential:12 equation:18 arise:1 many:1 problem:1 physic:1 engineering:1 etc:2 following:1 example:6 show:2 solve:7 simple:3 case:1 exact:3 solution:7 exists:1 separable:5 first:6 order:7 linear:6 ordinary:7 general:2 form:7 known:1 function:5 may:3 separation:1 variable:1 move:2 term:2 one:5 side:5 antidifferentiating:1 find:2 c:1 constant:5 exponentiation:1 obtain:1 another:1 arbitrary:1 easy:1 confirm:1 plug:1 original:2 elaboration:1 need:2 necessarily:1 indeed:1 might:1 even:1 integrable:1 arguably:1 must:4 also:2 assume:1 something:2 domain:1 involve:1 fully:1 define:1 talk:1 complex:3 real:1 usual:1 textbook:1 approach:1 discuss:1 well:1 consider:2 non:2 ode:3 like:3 use:5 know:1 integrating:4 factor:3 method:1 rely:1 special:3 μ:4 choose:1 property:1 derivative:1 time:4 integrate:1 multiply:1 get:2 pick:1 substitute:1 simplify:2 product:1 rule:1 reverse:1 finally:1 divide:1 since:1 x:1 cannot:1 directly:1 suppose:2 mass:4 attach:1 spring:5 exert:1 attractive:1 force:3 proportional:2 extension:3 compression:1 ignore:1 gravity:1 friction:4 shall:1 write:2 newton:1 second:1 law:1 convenient:1 unit:2 look:4 discover:1 relationship:1 thus:2 number:1 euler:1 theorem:1 say:1 determine:1 unknown:1 initial:1 condition:2 e:2 equality:1 specify:1 state:1 system:2 give:1 usually:1 distance:1 particle:1 therefore:1 harmonic:1 motion:1 complicated:1 model:2 oscillate:1 plausible:1 realistic:1 practice:1 tend:1 decelerate:1 magnitude:1 velocity:1 new:1 express:1 balancing:1 acceleration:1 coefficient:1 quadratic:1 root:1 boundary:1 damped:1 oscillator:1 plot:1 displacement:1 would:2 resemble:1 expect:1 vibrate:1 behave:1 remove:1 energy:1 see:1 bibliography:1 polyanin:1 v:1 f:1 zaitsev:1 handbook:1 edition:1 chapman:1 hall:1 crc:1 press:1 boca:1 raton:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 eqworld:1 world:1 mathematical:1 |@bigram differential_equation:12 ordinary_differential:7 coefficient_friction:1 quadratic_equation:1 polyanin_v:1 crc_press:1 boca_raton:1 external_link:1 |
2,212 | Chemist | A chemist pours from a round-bottom flask. A chemist is a scientist trained in the science of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties such as density, acidity, size and shape. Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, reaction rates, and other chemical properties. Chemists use this knowledge to learn the composition, and properties of unfamiliar substances, as well as to reproduce and synthesize large quantities of useful naturally occurring substances and create new artificial substances and useful processes. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry. Materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. Chemical engineers are concerned with the physical processes necessary to carry out industrial reactions (heating, cooling, mixing, diffusion etc) and to separate and purify the products, and work with industrial chemists on the development of new processes. History The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of burning. Fire was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of iron and glass. After gold was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the protoscience called Alchemy. The word chemist is derived from the New Latin noun chimista, an abbreviation of alchimista (alchemist). Alchemists discovered many chemical processes that led to the development of modern chemistry. Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by Antoine Lavoisier with his law of Conservation of mass in 1783. The discoveries of the chemical elements has a long history culminating in the creation of the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleyev. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery since the start of the 20th century. Education Jobs for chemists usually require at least a bachelor's degree, but many positions, especially those in research, require a Ph.D. Most undergraduate programs emphasize mathematics and physics as well as chemistry, partly because chemistry is also known as "the central science", thus chemists ought to have a well-rounded knowledge about science. At the Master's level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field. Fields of specialization include biochemistry, nuclear chemistry, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry, theoretical chemistry, quantum chemistry, environmental chemistry and physical chemistry. Postdoctoral experience may be required for certain positions. Employment The three major employers of chemists are academic institutions, industry, especially the chemical industry and the pharmaceutical industry, and government laboratories. Chemistry typically is divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry. There is a great deal of overlap between different branches of chemistry, as well as with other scientific fields such as biology, medicine, physics, and several engineering disciplines. Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry. Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, for example, in medicinal chemistry. A chemist prepares a new fuel cell for testing. Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry. Inorganic chemistry is also the study of atomic and molecular structure and bonding. Medicinal chemistry is the science involved with designing, synthesizing and developing pharmaceutical drugs. Medicinal chemistry involves the identification, synthesis and development of new chemical entities suitable for therapeutic use. It also includes the study of existing drugs, their biological properties, and their quantitative structure-activity relationships. Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and chemical reaction of organic compounds. Physical chemistry is the study of the physical fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, and spectroscopy. Physical chemistry has large overlap with theoretical chemistry and molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of calculus in deriving equations. Theoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry via theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the second world war, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with condensed matter physics and molecular physics.See Reductionism. All the above major areas of chemistry employ chemists. Other fields where chemical degrees are useful include Astrochemistry, Atmospheric chemistry, Chemical Engineering, Chemo-informatics, Electrochemistry, Environmental science, Forensic science, Geochemistry, Green chemistry, History of chemistry, Materials science, Medical science, Molecular Biology, Molecular genetics, Nanotechnology, Nuclear chemistry, Oenology, Organometallic chemistry, Petrochemistry, Pharmacology, Photochemistry, Phytochemistry, Polymer chemistry, Supramolecular chemistry and Surface chemistry. It has been suggested that chemists going into employment in scientific research should honour a Hippocratic Oath for Scientists which is required as a Professional Chemist. See also Pharmacist List of chemistry topics List of chemists List of important publications in chemistry List of scientific journals in chemistry List of Chemistry Societies References American Chemical Society website Chemical Abstracts Service indexes and abstracts the world's chemistry-related literature and patents Chemists and Materials Scientists from the U.S. Department of Labor's Occupational Outlook Handbook Royal Society of Chemistry website History of Chemistry links for chemists Luminaries of the Chemical Sciences accomplishments, biography, and publications from 44 of the most influential chemists Selected Classic Papers from the History of Chemistry Links for Chemists guide to web sites related to chemistry | Chemist |@lemmatized chemist:21 pours:1 round:2 bottom:1 flask:1 scientist:4 train:1 science:9 chemistry:61 study:10 composition:4 matter:2 property:7 density:1 acidity:1 size:1 shape:1 carefully:2 describe:1 term:1 quantity:2 detail:1 level:2 molecule:1 component:1 atom:1 measure:1 substance:6 proportion:1 reaction:5 rate:1 chemical:21 use:4 knowledge:2 learn:1 unfamiliar:1 well:4 reproduce:1 synthesize:2 large:3 useful:3 naturally:1 occur:1 create:2 new:5 artificial:1 process:6 may:3 specialize:2 number:1 subdisciplines:2 material:4 metallurgist:1 share:1 much:2 education:2 skill:1 engineer:1 concern:1 physical:7 necessary:1 carry:1 industrial:2 heating:1 cooling:1 mixing:1 diffusion:1 etc:1 separate:1 purify:1 product:1 work:1 development:5 history:5 root:1 trace:1 phenomenon:1 burning:1 fire:2 mystical:1 force:1 transform:1 one:1 another:1 thus:2 primary:1 interest:2 mankind:1 lead:3 discovery:3 iron:1 glass:1 gold:2 discover:2 become:1 precious:1 metal:1 many:3 people:1 interested:1 find:1 method:3 could:1 convert:1 protoscience:1 call:2 alchemy:1 word:1 derive:2 latin:1 noun:1 chimista:1 abbreviation:1 alchimista:1 alchemist:2 modern:1 know:2 today:1 invent:1 antoine:1 lavoisier:1 law:1 conservation:1 mass:1 element:1 long:1 culminating:1 creation:1 periodic:1 table:1 dmitri:1 mendeleyev:1 nobel:1 prize:1 give:1 excellent:1 overview:1 since:2 start:1 century:1 job:1 usually:2 require:4 least:1 bachelor:1 degree:2 position:2 especially:2 research:2 ph:1 undergraduate:1 program:2 emphasize:1 mathematics:2 physic:6 partly:1 also:5 central:1 chemists:2 ought:1 master:1 high:1 student:1 tend:1 particular:3 field:5 specialization:1 include:4 biochemistry:3 nuclear:2 organic:5 inorganic:5 analytical:3 theoretical:6 quantum:4 environmental:2 postdoctoral:1 experience:1 certain:1 employment:2 three:1 major:3 employer:1 academic:1 institution:1 industry:3 pharmaceutical:2 government:1 laboratory:1 typically:1 divide:1 several:3 sub:2 discipline:4 main:1 cross:1 disciplinary:1 specialized:1 great:1 deal:1 overlap:4 different:1 branch:1 scientific:3 biology:2 medicine:1 engineering:2 analysis:1 sample:1 gain:1 understanding:1 structure:4 incorporate:1 standardized:1 experimental:1 exclude:1 purely:1 interaction:1 take:1 place:1 living:1 organism:1 closely:1 related:2 example:1 medicinal:3 prepare:1 fuel:1 cell:1 test:1 compound:2 distinction:1 absolute:1 importantly:1 organometallic:2 atomic:1 molecular:5 bonding:1 involve:3 designing:1 develop:2 drug:2 identification:1 synthesis:1 entity:1 suitable:1 therapeutic:1 exist:1 biological:1 quantitative:1 activity:1 relationship:1 mechanism:1 fundamental:1 basis:1 system:2 energetics:1 dynamic:1 important:2 area:2 thermodynamics:1 kinetics:1 electrochemistry:2 statistical:1 mechanic:2 spectroscopy:1 calculus:1 equation:1 via:1 reasoning:1 within:1 application:1 end:1 second:1 world:2 war:1 computer:2 allow:1 systematic:1 computational:1 art:1 apply:1 solve:1 problem:1 condensed:1 see:2 reductionism:1 employ:1 astrochemistry:1 atmospheric:1 chemo:1 informatics:1 forensic:1 geochemistry:1 green:1 medical:1 genetics:1 nanotechnology:1 oenology:1 petrochemistry:1 pharmacology:1 photochemistry:1 phytochemistry:1 polymer:1 supramolecular:1 surface:1 suggest:1 go:1 honour:1 hippocratic:1 oath:1 professional:1 pharmacist:1 list:5 topic:1 publication:2 journal:1 society:3 reference:1 american:1 website:2 abstract:2 service:1 index:1 literature:1 patent:1 u:1 department:1 labor:1 occupational:1 outlook:1 handbook:1 royal:1 link:2 luminary:1 accomplishment:1 biography:1 influential:1 select:1 classic:1 paper:1 guide:1 web:1 site:1 relate:1 |@bigram heating_cooling:1 precious_metal:1 antoine_lavoisier:1 periodic_table:1 nobel_prize:1 bachelor_degree:1 organic_chemistry:3 inorganic_chemistry:3 analytical_chemistry:3 closely_related:1 inorganic_compound:1 organic_inorganic:1 organometallic_chemistry:2 organic_compound:1 statistical_mechanic:1 quantum_mechanic:1 computational_chemistry:1 condensed_matter:1 molecular_biology:1 supramolecular_chemistry:1 hippocratic_oath:1 occupational_outlook:1 |
2,213 | Leather | Modern leather-working tools Leather is a material created through the tanning of hides and skins of animals, primarily cattlehide. The tanning process converts the putrescible skin into a durable, long-lasting and versatile natural material for various uses. Together with wood, leather formed the basis of much ancient technology. The leather industry and the industry are distinct industries that are differentiated by the importance of their raw materials. In the leather industry the raw materials are by-products of the meat industry, with the meat having higher value than the skin. The fur industry uses raw materials that are higher in value than the meat and hence the meat is classified as a by-product. Taxidermy also makes use of the skin of animals, but generally the head and part of the back are used. Hides and skins are also used in the manufacture of glue and gelatin. Forms of leather There are a number of processes whereby the skin of an animal can be formed into a supple, strong material commonly called leather. Vegetable-tanned leather is tanned using tannin and other ingredients found in vegetable matter, tree bark, and other such sources. It is supple and brown in color, with the exact shade depending on the mix of chemicals and the color of the skin. It is the only form of leather suitable for use in leather carving or stamping. Vegetable-tanned leather is not stable in water; it tends to discolor, and if left to soak and then dry it will shrink and become less supple and harder. In hot water, it will shrink drastically and partly gelatinize, becoming rigid and eventually brittle. Boiled leather is an example of this where the leather has been hardened by being immersed in hot water, or in boiled wax or similar substances. Historically, it was occasionally used as armor after hardening, and it has also been used for book binding. Chrome-tanned leather, invented in 1858, is tanned using chromium sulfate and other salts of chromium. It is more supple and pliable than vegetable-tanned leather, and does not discolor or lose shape as drastically in water as vegetable-tanned. It is also known as wet-blue for its color derived from the chromium. More esoteric colors are possible using chrome tanning. Aldehyde-tanned leather is tanned using glutaraldehyde or oxazolidine compounds. This is the leather that most tanners refer to as wet-white leather due to its pale cream or white color. It is the main type of "chrome-free" leather, often seen in shoes for infants, and automobiles. Formaldehyde tanning (being phased out due to its danger to workers and the sensitivity of many people to formaldehyde) is another method of aldehyde tanning. Brain-tanned leathers fall into this category and are exceptionally water absorbent. Brain tanned leathers are made by a labor-intensive process which uses emulsified oils, often those of animal brains. They are known for their exceptional softness and their ability to be washed. Chamois leather also falls into the category of aldehyde tanning and like brain tanning produces a highly water absorbent leather. Chamois leather is made by using oils (traditionally cod oil) that oxidize easily to produce the aldehydes that tan the leather to make the fabric the color it is. Synthetic-tanned leather is tanned using aromatic polymers such as the Novolac or Neradol types. This leather is white in color and was invented when vegetable tannins were in short supply, i.e. during the Second World War. Melamine and other amino-functional resins fall into this category as well and they provide the filling that modern leathers often require. Urea-formaldehyde resins were also used in this tanning method until dissatisfaction about the formation of free formaldehyde was realized. Alum-tanned leather is tanned using aluminium salts mixed with a variety of binders and protein sources, such as flour, egg yolk, etc. Purists argue that alum-tanned leather is technically "tawed" and not tanned, as the resulting material will rot in water. Very light shades of leather are possible using this process, but the resulting material is not as supple as vegetable-tanned leather. Rawhide is made by scraping the skin thin, soaking it in lime, and then stretching it while it dries. Like alum-tanning, rawhide is not technically "leather", but is usually lumped in with the other forms. Rawhide is stiffer and more brittle than other forms of leather, and is primarily found in uses such as drum heads where it does not need to flex significantly; it is also cut up into cords for use in lacing or stitching, or for making many varieties of dog chews. Leather—usually vegetable-tanned leather—can be oiled to improve its water resistance. This supplements the natural oils remaining in the leather itself, which can be washed out through repeated exposure to water. Frequent oiling of leather, with mink oil, neatsfoot oil or a similar material, keeps it supple and improves its lifespan dramatically. Leather with the hair still attached is called hair-on. Leather types In general, leather is sold in three forms: Full-grain leather or top-grain refers to the upper section of a hide that previously contained the epidermis and hair, but were removed from the hide/skin. Full-grain refers to hides that have not been sanded, buffed or snuffed (otherwise known as corrected) in order to remove imperfections (or natural marks) on the surface of the hide, although is never perfect. The grain remains in its natural state which will allow the best fiber strength, resulting in greater durability. The natural grain also has natural breathability, resulting in greater comfort for clothing. Rather than wearing out, it will develop a natural patina and change in its appearance over time with some cracking and spliting. The finest leather furniture and footwear are made from full-grain leather. For these reasons only the best raw hide are used in order to create full-grain or top-grain leather. Full grain leathers can mainly be bought as two finish types: aniline and semi-aniline. Corrected-grain leather is any top-grain leather that has had its surfaces sanded, buffed or snuffed in order to remove any imperfection on the surface due to insect bites, healed scars or brands. Top-grain leather is often wrongly referred to as corrected-grain. Although corrected-grain leather is made from top-grain, as soon as the surface is corrected in any way, the leather is no longer referred to as top-grain leather. The hides used to create corrected leather are hides of inferior quality that do not meet the high standards for use in creating aniline or semi-aniline leather. The imperfections are corrected and an artificial grain applied. Most corrected-grain leather is used to make pigmented leather as the solid pigment helps hide the corrections or imperfections. Corrected grain leathers can mainly be bought as two finish types: semi-aniline and pigmented. Split leather is leather created from the fibrous part of the hide left once the top-grain of the rawhide has been separated from the hide. During the splitting operation, the grain and drop split are separated. The drop split can be further split (thickness allowing) into a middle split and a flesh split. In very thick hides, the middle split can be separated into multiple layers until the thickness prevents further splitting. Split leather then has an artificial layer applied to the surface of the split and is embossed with a leather grain (Bycast leather). Splits are also used to create suede. The strongest suedes are usually made from grain splits (that have the grain completely removed) or from the flesh split that has been shaved to the correct thickness. Suede is "fuzzy" on both sides. Manufacturers use a variety of techniques to make suede from full-grain. For example, in one operation, leather finish is applied to one side of the suede, which is then pressed through rollers; these flatten and even out one side of the material, giving it the smooth appearance of full-grain. Latigo is one of the trade names for this product. A reversed suede is a grained leather that has been designed into the leather article with the grain facing away from the visible surface. It is not a true form of suede. The International Union of Leather Technologists and Chemist Societies has a glossary of leather terms that can be found at IULTCS. Other less-common leathers include: Buckskin or brained leather is a tanning process that uses animal brains or other fatty materials to alter the leather. The resulting supple, suede-like hide is usually smoked heavily to prevent it from rotting. Patent leather is leather that has been given a high-gloss finish. The original process was developed in Newark, New Jersey, by inventor Seth Boyden in 1818. Patent leather usually has a plastic coating. Shagreen is also known as stingray skin/leather. Applications used in furniture production date as far back as the art deco period. The word "shagreen" originates from France and is commonly confused with a shark skin and stingray skin combination. Vachetta leather is used in the trimmings of luggage and handbags, popularized by Louis Vuitton. The leather is left untreated and is therefore susceptible to water and stains. Sunlight will cause the natural leather to darken in shade, called a patina. Slink is leather made from the skin of unborn calves. It is particularly soft, and is valued for use in making gloves. Deerskin is one of the toughest leathers, partially due to adaptations to their thorny and thicket filled habitats. Deerskin has been prized in many societies including indigenous Americans. Most modern deer skin is no longer procured from the wild, with deer farms breeding the animals specifically for the purpose of their skins. Large quantities are still tanned from wild deer hides in historic tanning towns such as Gloversville and Johnstown in upstate New York. Deerskin is used in jackets and overcoats, professional sporting equipment for martial arts such as kendo and bogu, as well as high-quality personal accessories like handbags and wallets. It commands a high price due to its relative rarity and proven durability. Nubuck is top-grain cattle hide leather that has been sanded or buffed on the grain side, or outside, to give a slight nap of short protein fibers, producing a velvet-like surface. There are two other descriptions of leather commonly used in specialty products, such as briefcases, wallets, and luggage. Belting leather is a full-grain leather that was originally used in driving pulley belts and other machinery. It is often found on the surface of briefcases, portfolios, and wallets, and can be identified by its thick, firm feel and smooth finish. Belting leather is the only kind of leather used in luxury products that can retain its shape without the need for a separate frame; it is generally a heavy-weight of full-grain, vegetable-tanned leather. Nappa leather, or Napa leather, is chrome-tanned and is extremely soft and supple and is commonly found in higher quality wallets, toiletry kits, and other personal leather goods. The following are not 'true' leathers, but contain leather material. Depending on jurisdiction, they may still be labeled as "Genuine Leather." Bonded leather , or "reconstituted Leather", is not really a true leather but a man-made material composed of 90% to 100% leather fibers (often scrap from leather tanneries or leather workshops) bonded together with latex binders to create a look and feel similar to that of 'true' leather at a fraction of the cost. Bonded leather is not as durable as other leathers, and is recommended for use only if the product will be used infrequently. One example of bonded leather use is in Bible covers. Bycast leather is a split leather with a layer of polyurethane applied to the surface and then embossed. Bycast was originally made for the shoe industry and recently was adopted by the furniture industry. The original formula created by Bayer was strong, but expensive. Most of the Bycast used today is very strong and durable product. The result is a slightly stiffer product that is cheaper than top grain leather but has a much more consistent texture and is easier to clean and maintain. The vast majority of leather is sold according to its area. The leather is placed through pin-wheel or electronic measuring machines and its surface area is determined. The unit of measurement is square meter, square decimeter or square foot. The thickness is also important, and this is measured using a thickness gauge (the unit of measurement is millimeters, e.g., 1.8 mm is a standard thickness for a school shoe). In some parts of the world, top-grain thicknesses are described using weight units of ounces. Although the statement is in ounces only, it is an abbreviation of ounces per square foot. The thickness value can be obtained by the conversion: 1 oz/ft² = 1/64 inch (0.4 mm). Hence, leather described as 7 to 8 oz is 7/64 to 8/64 inches (2.8 to 3.2 mm) thick. The weight is usually given as a range because the inherent variability of the material makes ensuring a precise thickness very difficult. Other leather manufacturers state the thickness directly in millimeters. Leather from other animals Tanned leather in Marrakech Today, most leather is made of cattle skin, but many exceptions exist. Lamb and deer skin are used for soft leather in more expensive apparels. Deer and elk skin are widely used in work gloves and indoor shoes. Pigskin is used in apparel and on seats of saddles. Kangaroo skin is used to make items which need to be strong but flexible, it is the material most commonly used in high quality bullwhips. Kangaroo leather is favored by some motorcyclists for use in motorcycle leathers specifically because of its lighter weight and higher abrasion resistance compared with cowhide, thus providing greater protection in case of a fall on the roadway. Kangaroo leather is also used for high performance soccer footwear. Leather made from more exotic skins has at different times in history been considered very beautiful. For this reason certain snakes and crocodiles have been hunted to near extinction. In the 1970s, ostrich farming for their feathers became popular, and ostrich leather became available as a side product. There are different processes to produce different finishes for many applications, i.e., upholstery, footwear, automotive products, accessories and clothing. Ostrich leather is considered one of the finest and most durable in the world and is currently used by many major fashion houses such as Hermès, Prada, Gucci, and Louis Vuitton. Ostrich leather has a characteristic "goose bump" look because of the large follicles from which the feathers grew. In Thailand, sting ray leather is used in wallets and belts in the same way as regular bovine leather. Sting ray leather is as tough and durable as hard plastic. The leather is often dyed black and covered with tiny round bumps in the natural pattern of the back ridge of an animal. These bumps are then usually dyed white to highlight the decoration. Leather clothing is also popular in Thailand. Sting ray leather is also used as grips on Japanese katana. In the United States, bison leather has become popular. It is used for gloves, jackets and some baseball gloves. It is rugged but supple and has a waxy feel. Overall, leather comes from a variety of other sources, including the skins of cattle, hogs, goats, sheep, alligators, ostriches, kangaroos, and yaks. There is quite a wide range of different animal leather used both for leather garments as well as leather goods, such as handbags, wallets, purses, belts, bags and other customized leather articles. The most commonly used leather types are cow leather, sheep leather, buffalo leather and ox leather. Of these, the most expensive is cow leather, followed by buffalo leather, ox leather and sheep leather respectively. Sheep leather is quite famous for its softness and mostly used in leather garments; however due to its smaller overall size, it cannot be used for the long coats for which cow leather and buffalo leather are widely used. Leather production processes The leather manufacturing process is divided into three fundamental sub-processes: preparatory stages, tanning and crusting. All true leathers will undergo these sub-processes. A further sub-process, surface coating can be added into the leather process sequence but not all leathers receive surface treatment. Since many types of leather exist, it is difficult to create a list of operations that all leathers must undergo. The preparatory stages are when the hide/skin is prepared for tanning. Preparatory stages may include: preservation, soaking, liming, unhairing, fleshing, splitting, reliming, deliming, bating, degreasing, frizing, bleaching, pickling and depickling. Leather tanning in Fes, Morocco Tanning is the process which converts the protein of the raw hide or skin into a stable material which will not putrefy and is suitable for a wide variety of end applications. The principal difference between raw hides and tanned hides is that raw hides dry out to form a hard inflexible material that when re-wetted (or wetted back) putrefy, while tanned material dries out to a flexible form that does not become putrid when wetted back. There is a large number of different tanning methods and materials that can be used, the choice is ultimately dependent on the end application of the leather. The most commonly used tanning material is chromium, which leaves the leather once tanned a pale blue color (due to the chromium), this product is commonly called “wet blue”. The hides once they have finished pickling will typically be between pH of 2.8-3.2. At this point the hides would be loaded in a drum and immersed in a float containing the tanning liquor. The hides are allowed to soak (while the drum slowly rotates about its axle) and the tanning liquor slowly penetrates through the full substance of the hide. Regular checks will be made to see the penetration by cutting the cross-section of a hide and observing the degree of penetration. Once a good even degree of penetration exists, the pH of the float is slowly raised in a process called basification. This basification process fixes the tanning material to the leather and the more tanning material fixed the higher the hydrothermal stability and increased shrinkage temperature resistance of the leather. The pH of the leather when chrome tanned would typically finish somewhere between 3.8-4.2. Crusting is when the hide/skin is thinned, retanned and lubricated. Often, a coloring operation is included in the crusting sub-process. The chemicals added during crusting have to be fixed in place. The culmination of the crusting sub-process is the drying and softening operations. Crusting may include the following operations: wetting back, sammying, splitting, shaving, rechroming, neutralization, retanning, dyeing, fatliquoring, filling, stuffing, stripping, whitening, fixating, setting, drying, conditioning, milling, staking, and buffing. For some leathers a surface coating is applied. Tanners refer to this as finishing. Finishing operations may include: oiling, brushing, padding, impregnation, buffing, spraying, roller coating, curtain coating, polishing, plating, embossing, ironing, ironing/combing (for hair-on), glazing and tumbling. Role of enzymes in leather production Enzymes like proteases, lipases and amylases have an important role in the soaking, dehairing, degreasing, and bating operations of leather manufacturing. Proteases are the most commonly used enzymes in leather production. The enzyme used should not damage or dissolve collagen or keratin, but should be able to hydrolyze casein, elastin, albumin and globulin-like proteins, as well as non-structured proteins which are not essential for leather making. This process is called bating . Lipases are used in the degreasing operation to hydrolyze fat particles embedded in the skin .. Amylases are used to soften skin, to bring out the grain, and to impart strength and flexibility to the skin. These enzymes are rarely used. Preservation and conditioning of leather The natural fibers of leather will break down with the passage of time. Acidic leathers are particularly vulnerable to red rot, which causes powdering of the surface and a change in consistency. Damage from red rot is aggravated by high temperatures and relative humidities, and is irreversible. Exposure to long periods of low relative humidities (below 40%) can cause leather to become desiccated, irreversibly changing the fibrous structure of the leather. Various treatments are available such as conditioners, but these are not recommended by conservators since they impregnate the structure of the leather artifact with active chemicals, are sticky, and attract stains. Leather in book binding Leather used in book binding has many of the same preservation needs: protection from high temperatures, high relative humidity, low relative humidity, fluctuations in relative humidity, light exposure, dust buildup, pollution, mold, and bug infestation. Mumford, John.“Understanding and Caring for Bookbindings”,NPO Preservation Guidance Occasional Papers,2006-11. Retrieved on 2008-04-05. Fahey, Mary.“The Care and Preservation of Archival Materials”,”The Henry Ford”. Retrieved on 2008-04-06. For books with red rot, acid-free phase boxes and/or polyester dust jackets (Dupont Mylar Type D or ICI Mellinex 516) are recommended to protect the leather from further handling damage and as well as to prevent the residues from getting on hands, clothes, the text block, and nearby books. Library of Congress.“Leather Dressing”. Retrieved on 2008-04-05. The debate on the use of dressings for preservation of book bindings has spanned several decades as research and experimental evidence have slowly accumulated. The main argument is that, done incorrectly, there are multiple disadvantages and that, done correctly, there is little to no preservation advantage. Pamphlets and guidelines give numerous downsides to dressings use, including: the dressing becoming increasingly acidic, discolor and stain the leather, oxidize (penetration and expansion of oils including displacement and weakening of fibers) and stiffen, leave a sticky surface, collect dust, wick into adjacent materials, form unstable surface spews, encourage biological deterioration and mold growth, block surface porosity, impede further treatment, wet and swell the leather, affect surface finishes, and desiccate or dry out the leather. Society of Rocky Mountain Archivists.“Leather Dressing: ‘To Dress or not to Dress’”,”National Park Service Conserve O Gram”, Vol. 9, No.1, 2004-12. Retrieved 2008-04-05. Meanwhile, scientific experiments have shown no great benefits. McCrady, Ellen.“Research on the Dressing and Preservation of Leather”,“Abbey Newsletter”, V.5 No.2, 1981-04. Retrieved 2008-04-05. The main authorities on the subject therefore discourage it, with a caveat for special cases done under the direction of a conservator. Working with leather Leather can be decorated by a variety of methods, including pyrography and beading. Cordwain, "Cordovan" or "Spanish leather" Fragment of Cordwain Cordwain, once a synonym of cordovan (through Old French cordewan) meaning "from Córdoba" describes painted or gilded embossed leather hangings manufactured in panels and assembled for covering walls as an alternative to tapestry. Such "Cordovan leathers" were a north African style that was introduced to Spain in the ninth century (hence it is sometimes referred to as 'Spanish leather'); in Spain such embossed leather hangings were known as guadamecí, from the Libyan town of Ghadames, while cordobanes signified soft goat leather. John Waterer, Spanish Leather (London:Faber & Faber) 1971, outlines the history of this technique Leather was even more proof against draughts and dampness than tapestry, and it was unaffected by insects. From the fourteenth century century the technique, in which panels of wet leather were shaped over wooden moulds, then painted, oil-gilded and lacquered, reached Flanders and Brabant in the Low Countries. Though there were craftsmen in several cities (such as Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent), the major handicraft center for this cordwain was Mechelen, where it was mentioned as early as 1504. Patterns for these panels followed fashions in silk damask, at some lag in time, since the high-relief wooden moulds were laborious to make. After the second half of the 18th century, this luxurious artisan product was no longer made, Article by Susan Koslow, contributor to the Atlas of World Art its placed taken in part by chintz hangings and printed wallpapers. Cordwainer is still used to describe someone in the profession of shoemaking. Leather in modern culture Handmade leather art created by J.C. Velasquez Due to its excellent resistance to abrasion and wind, leather found a use in rugged occupations. The enduring image of a cowboy in leather chaps gave way to the leather-jacketed and leather-helmeted aviator. When motorcycles were invented, some riders took to wearing heavy leather jackets to protect from road rash and wind blast; some also wear chaps or full leather pants to protect the lower body. Many sports still use leather to help in playing the game or protecting players; its flexibility allows it to be formed and flexed. The term leathering is sometimes used in the sense of a physical punishment (such as a severe spanking) applied with a leather whip, martinet, etc. Leather fetishism is the name popularly used to describe a fetishistic attraction to people wearing leather, or in certain cases, to the garments themselves. Many rock groups (particularly heavy metal and punk groups in the 1980s) are well-known for wearing leather clothing. Leather clothing, particularly jackets, almost come as standard in the heavy metal and Punk subculture. Extreme metal bands (especially black metal bands) and Goth rock groups have extensive leather clothing, i.e. leather pants, accessories, etc. Many cars and trucks come with optional or standard 'leather' seating. This can range from cheap vinyl imitation leather, found on some low cost vehicles, to real Nappa leather, found on luxury car brands like Mercedes-Benz, BMW, and Audi. Leather biodegrades slowly, and takes 25–40 years to decompose. Religious sensitivities to leather In religiously diverse countries, leather vendors are typically careful to clarify the kinds of leather used in their products. For example, leather shoes will bear a label identifying the animal from which the leather was taken. In this way, a Muslim would not accidentally purchase pigskin leather, and a Hindu could avoid cow leather. Such taboos increase the demand for religiously neutral leathers like ostrich and deer. Judaism forbids the comfort of wearing shoes made with leather on Yom Kippur, Tisha B'Av, and during mourning. In Muslim countries, products made of leather were normally banned due to religious concerns imposed by some Islamic scholars, but in the mid-20th century, some eminent scholars from the Muslim world have made significant efforts to foster awareness about the origin of leather. Concern for animals and alternatives Some vegan and animal rights activists have boycotted use of all leather items, believing the practice of wearing animal hides is unnecessary and cruel in today's society. Animal rights groups such as PETA have issued pamphlets calling for boycotts and encouraging use of alternative materials such as synthetic leathers, some produced from petrochemicals. Many pseudo-leather materials have been developed, allowing those who wish to wear leather-like garments to do so without actually wearing leather. One example of this is vegan microfiber, which claims to be stronger than leather when manufactured with strength in mind. Vinyl materials, pleather, Naugahyde, Durabuck, NuSuede, Hydrolite, and other alternatives exist, providing some features similar to leather. See also Types of leather Aniline leather,a leather treated with aniline as a dye Artificial leather, a fabric of finish intended to substitute for leather Bicast leather, a synthetic upholstery product Boiled leather, a historical construction material Bonded Leather, man-made material composed of leather fibers Chamois leather, leather made from the skin of the mountain antelope or Chamois Corinthian leather, a marketing term used by Chrysler in the 1970s Morocco leather, a type of goatskin dyed red Nappa leather, a full-grain leather Ostrich leather, leather from an ostrich Patent leather, leather with a high gloss and shiny finish Pleather, a term for artificial leather Poromeric imitation leather, a group of synthetic leather substitutes Vegan leather, an artificial alternative to traditional leather Leather fabrication Leather carving, a process of cutting and stamping to give a three-dimensional appearance Leather crafting, the practice of making leather into crafts or pieces of art Liming (leather processing), a process of treating leather British Museum leather dressing, a conservator's treatment for display items Tanning Other Mink oil, leather treatment Neatsfoot oil, leather treatment Saddle soap, leather cleaning and conditioning Leather subculture Adarga, a hard leather shield Horse tack, various equipment and accessories worn by horses, much of which is made of leather Henry Burk - inventor of the alum and sumac tanning process Leather skirt References | Leather |@lemmatized modern:4 leather:265 working:1 tool:1 material:29 create:10 tanning:10 hide:28 skin:28 animal:14 primarily:2 cattlehide:1 tan:38 process:22 convert:2 putrescible:1 durable:5 long:4 lasting:1 versatile:1 natural:10 various:3 us:2 together:2 wood:1 form:12 basis:1 much:3 ancient:1 technology:1 industry:8 distinct:1 differentiate:1 importance:1 raw:7 product:15 meat:4 high:16 value:4 fur:1 use:73 hence:3 classify:1 taxidermy:1 also:16 make:29 generally:2 head:2 part:4 back:6 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2,214 | Fantasy_film | Fantasy films are films with fantastic themes, usually involving magic, supernatural events, make-believe creatures, or exotic fantasy worlds. The genre is considered to be distinct from science fiction film and horror film, although the genres do overlap. Genre definition The boundaries of the fantasy literary genre are not well-defined, and the same is therefore true for the film genre as well. Categorizing a movie as fantasy may thus require an examination of the themes, narrative approach and other structural elements of the film. For example, much about the Star Wars saga suggests fantasy, yet it has the feel of science fiction, whereas much about Time Bandits (1981) suggests science fiction, yet it has the feel of fantasy. Some film critics borrow the literary term Science Fantasy to describe such hybrids of the two genres. Animated films featuring fantastic elements are not always classified as fantasy, particularly when they are intended for children. Bambi, for example, is not fantasy, nor is 1995's Toy Story, though the latter is probably closer to fantasy than the former. The Secret of NIMH from 1982, however, may be considered to be a fantasy film because there is actual magic involved. Other children's movies, such as Walt Disney's 1937 classic Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs are also difficult to categorize. Snow White features a medieval setting, dwarven characters, the use of sorcery, and other tropes common to fantasy. Yet many fans of the genre do not believe such movies qualify as fantasy, placing them in instead in a separate fairy tale genre. Superhero films also fulfill the requirements of the fantasy or science fiction genres but are often considered to be a separate genre. Some critics, however, classify superhero literature and film as a subgenre of fantasy (Superhero Fantasy) rather than as an entirely separate category. Films that rely on magic primarily as a gimmick, such the 1976 film Freaky Friday and its 2003 re-make in which a mother and daughter magically switch bodies, may technically qualify as fantasy but are nevertheless not generally considered part of the genre. Surrealist film also describes the fantastic, but it dispenses with genre narrative conventions and is usually thought of as a separate category. Finally, many Martial arts films feature medieval settings and incorporate elements of the fantastic (see for example Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon), but fans of such films do not agree if they should also be considered examples of the fantasy genre. Subgenres Several sub-categories of fantasy films can be identified, although the delineations between these subgenres, much as in fantasy literature, are somewhat fluid. The most common fantasy subgenres depicted in movies are High Fantasy and Sword and Sorcery. Both categories typically employ quasi-medieval settings, wizards, magical creatures and other elements commonly associated with fantasy stories. High Fantasy films tend to feature a more richly developed fantasy world, and may also be more character-oriented or thematically complex. Often, they feature a hero of humble origins and a clear distinction between good and evil set against each other in an epic struggle. Many scholars cite J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings novel as the prototypical modern example of High Fantasy in literature, and the recent Peter Jackson film adaptation of the books is a good example of the High Fantasy subgenre on the silver screen. Sword and Sorcery movies tend to be more plot-driven than high fantasy and focus heavily on action sequences, often pitting a physically powerful but unsophisticated warrior against an evil wizard or other supernaturally-endowed enemy. Although Sword and Sorcery films sometimes describe an epic battle between good and evil similar to those found in many High Fantasy movies, they may alternately present the hero as having more immediate motivations, such as the need to protect a vulnerable maiden or village, or even being driven by the desire for vengeance. The 1982 film adaptation of Robert E. Howard's Conan the Barbarian, for example, is a personal (non-epic) story concerning the hero's quest for revenge and his efforts to thwart a single megalomaniac -- while saving a beautiful princess in the process. Some critics refer to such films by the term Sword and Sandal rather than Sword and Sorcery, although others would maintain that the Sword and Sandal label should be reserved only for the subset of fantasy films set in ancient times on the planet Earth, and still others would broaden the term to encompass films that have no fantastic elements whatsoever. To some, the term Sword and Sandal has pejorative connotations, designating a film with a low-quality script, bad acting and poor production values. Another important sub-genre of fantasy films that has become more popular in recent years is Contemporary Fantasy. Such films feature magical effects or supernatural occurrences happening in the "real" world of today. The most prominent example in the early 21st century is the Harry Potter series of films adapted from the novels of J. K. Rowling. Fantasy films set in the afterlife, called Bangsian Fantasy, are less common, although films such as the 1991 Albert Brooks comedy Defending Your Life would likely qualify. Other uncommon subgenres include Historical Fantasy and Romantic Fantasy, although 2003's Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl successfully incorporated elements of both. As noted above, superhero movies and fairy tale films might each be considered subgenres of fantasy films, although most would classify them as altogether separate movie genres. Fantasy movies and the film industry As a cinematic genre, fantasy has traditionally not been regarded as highly as the related genre of science fiction film. Undoubtedly, the fact that until recently fantasy films often suffered from the "Sword and Sandal" afflictions of inferior production values, over-the-top acting and decidedly poor special effects was a significant factor in fantasy film's low regard. Even 1981's Raiders of the Lost Ark, which did much to improve the genre's reputation in public as well critical circles, was still derided in some quarters because of its comic book-like action sequences and tongue in cheek comedy. Since the late 1990s, however, the genre has gained new respectability, driven principally by the successful adaptations of J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings and J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter series. Jackson's The Lord of the Rings trilogy is notable due to its ambitious scope, serious tone and thematic complexity. These pictures achieved phenomenal commercial and critical success, and the third installment of the trilogy became the first fantasy film ever to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. The Harry Potter septology is wildly popular, has a large and loyal fanbase, great box office results and critical acclaim. Following the success of these ventures, Hollywood studios have greenlighted additional big-budget productions in the genre. These have included adaptations of the first and second books in C. S. Lewis' The Chronicles of Narnia series and the teen novel Eragon, as well as adaptations of Susan Cooper's The Dark Is Rising, Cornelia Funke's Inkheart, Phillip Pullman's The Golden Compass, and Holly Black's The Spiderwick Chronicles. Fantasy movies in recent years, such as the Lord of the Rings films, 2005's Narnia adaptation, and the first second and fourth Harry Potter adaptations have most often been released in November and December. This is in contrast to science fiction films, which are often released during the northern hemisphere summer (June - August). The latter two installments of the Pirates of the Caribbean fantasy films, however, were released in July 2006 and May 2007 respectively, and the latest release in the Harry Potter series was released in July, 2007. The huge commercial success of these pictures may indicate a change in Hollywood's approach to big-budget fantasy film releases. History Fantasy films have a history almost as old as the medium itself. However, fantasy films were relatively few and far between until the 1980s, when high-tech filmmaking techniques and increased audience interest caused the genre to flourish. What follows are some notable Fantasy films. For a more complete list see: List of fantasy films Early years In the era of silent film the outstanding fantasy films were Douglas Fairbanks' The Thief of Bagdad (1924) and Fritz Lang's Die Nibelungen (1924). Following the advent of sound films, audiences of all ages embraced what is surely the best loved fantasy film of all time, 1939's The Wizard of Oz. Also notable of the era, the iconic 1933 film King Kong is not a pure example of the genre, but borrows heavily from the Lost World subgenre of fantasy fiction. And Frank Capra's 1937 picture Lost Horizon transported audiences to the Himalayan fantasy kingdom of Shangri-La, where the residents magically never age. 1940s The 1940s then saw several full color fantasy films produced by Alexander Korda, including The Thief of Bagdad (1940) and Jungle Book (1942). In 1946, Jean Cocteau's classic adaptation of Beauty and the Beast won praise for its surreal elements and for transcending the boundaries of the fairy tale genre. Sinbad the Sailor (1947), starring Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., has the feel of a fantasy film though it does not actually have any fantastic elements. Conversely, It's a Wonderful Life and A Matter of Life and Death, both from 1946, do not feel like fantasy films yet both feature supernatural elements and the latter movie could reasonably be cited as an example of Bangsian fantasy. Several other pictures featuring supernatural encounters and aspects of Bangsian fantasy were produced in the 1940s during World War II. These include Beyond Tomorrow, The Devil and Daniel Webster, and Here Comes Mr. Jordan, all from 1941, Heaven Can Wait the musical Cabin in the Sky (1943), the comedy The Horn Blows at Midnight and romances such as The Ghost and Mrs. Muir (1947), One Touch of Venus and Portrait of Jennie, both 1948. Because these movies do not feature elements common to high fantasy or sword and sorcery pictures, some modern critics do not consider them to be examples of the fantasy genre. 1950s In the 1950s there were a few major fantasy films, including Darby O'Gill and the Little People and The 5000 Fingers of Dr. T, the latter penned by Dr. Seuss. Jean Cocteau's Orphic Trilogy, begun in 1930 and completed in 1959, is based on Greek mythology and could be classified either as fantasy or surrealist film, depending on how the boundaries between these genres are drawn. Russian fantasy director Aleksandr Ptushko created three mythological epics from Russian fairytales, Sadko (1953), Ilya Muromets (1956), and Sampo (1959). Other notable pictures from the 1950s that feature fantastic elements and are sometimes classified as fantasy are: Harvey (1950), featuring a púca of Celtic mythology; Scrooge, the 1951 adaptation of Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol; and Ingmar Bergman's 1957 masterpiece, The Seventh Seal. Disney's 1951 animated film Alice in Wonderland is also a fantasy classic. There were also a number of low budget fantasies produced in the 1950s, typically based on Greek or Arabian legend. The most notable of these is probably 1958's The 7th Voyage of Sinbad, featuring special effects by Ray Harryhausen. 1960s and 1970s Harryhausen worked on a series of fantasy films in the 1960s, most importantly Jason and the Argonauts (1963). Many critics have identified this film as Harryhausen's masterwork for its stop-motion animated statues, skeletons, harpies, hydra, and other mythological creatures. Other Harryhausen fantasy and science fantasy collaborations from the decade include the 1961 adaptation of Jules Verne's Mysterious Island, the critically panned One Million Years B.C. starring Raquel Welch, and The Valley of Gwangi (1969). Otherwise, the 1960s were almost entirely devoid of fantasy films. The fantasy picture 7 Faces of Dr. Lao, in which Tony Randall portrayed several characters from Greek mythology, was released in 1964. But the 1967 adaptation of the Broadway musical Camelot removed most of the fantasy elements from T. H. White's classic The Once and Future King, on which the musical had been based. Fantasy elements of Arthurian legend were again featured, albeit absurdly, in 1975's Monty Python and the Holy Grail. Harryhausen also returned to the silver screen in the 1970s with two additional Sinbad fantasies, The Golden Voyage of Sinbad (1974) and Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger (1977). The animated movie Wizards (1977) had limited success at the box office but achieved status as a cult film. Some would consider 1977's Oh God!, starring George Burns to be a fantasy film, and Heaven Can Wait (1978) was a successful Bangsian fantasy remake of 1941's Here Comes Mr. Jordan (not 1943's Heaven Can Wait). A few low budget "Lost World" pictures were made in the 1970s, such as 1975's The Land That Time Forgot. Otherwise, the fantasy genre was largely absent from mainstream movies in this decade, although 1971's Bedknobs and Broomsticks and Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory were two fantasy pictures in the public eye. 1980s The release of the historical fantasy Raiders of the Lost Ark in 1981 began a fantasy explosion which continues into the twenty-first century. The modern sword and sorcery boom also began at this time with 1982's Conan the Barbarian. This is only a partial list. For a more complete list of fantasy films, including those since 1980 see: List of fantasy films. 1990s Edward Scissorhands Ghost Ghost in the Machine Green Mile, The Groundhog Day Indian in the Cupboard, The Jumanji Meet Joe Black Princess Mononoke (Mononoke Hime) Sixth Sense, The 2000s Harry Potter film series / Harry Potter The Lord of the Rings film trilogy / The Lord of the Rings The Chronicles of Narnia film series / The Chronicles of Narnia Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon Pan's Labyrinth Big Fish Corpse Bride Pirates of the Caribbean films The Science of Sleep Nanny McPhee Eragon / Eragon Night Watch / Day Watch Stardust The Seeker: The Dark Is Rising / The Dark Is Rising Sequence The Golden Compass 300 In the Name of the King: A Dungeon Siege Tale Shaolin Soccer The Spiderwick Chronicles (film) / The Spiderwick Chronicles Spirited Away Howl's Moving Castle (film) Twilight (film) / The Twilight Series Inkheart (film) / Inkworld trilogy Coraline (film) Race to Witch Mountain Underworld series See also List of fantasy films Horror film List of horror films Science fiction film List of science fiction films Fantasy television Sword and sorcery films The Matrix series External links The Greatest Films: Fantasy Films Warning: popup site. 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2,215 | Desiderius_Erasmus | Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (sometimes known as Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam) (October 27, 1466/1469, Rotterdam – July 12, 1536, Basel) was a Dutch Renaissance humanist and a Catholic Christian theologian. His scholarly name Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus comprises the following three elements: the Latin noun desiderium ("longing" or "desire"; the name being a genuine Late Latin name); the Greek adjective ἐράσμιος (erásmios) meaning "desired", and, in the form Erasmus, also the name of a saint; and the Latinized adjectival form for the city of Rotterdam (Roterodamus = "of Rotterdam"). Erasmus was a classical scholar who wrote in a "pure" Latin style and enjoyed the sobriquet "Prince of the Humanists." He has been called "the crowning glory of the Christian humanists." Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of Christianity. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1953, p. 661. Using humanist techniques for working on texts, he prepared important new Latin and Greek editions of the New Testament. These raised questions that would be influential in the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation. He also wrote The Praise of Folly, Handbook of a Christian Knight, On Civility in Children, Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style, Julius Exclusus, and many other works. Erasmus lived through the Reformation period and he consistently criticized some contemporary popular Christian beliefs. In relation to clerical abuses in the Church, Erasmus remained committed to reforming the Church from within. He also held to Catholic doctrines such as that of free will, which some Protestant Reformers rejected in favor of the doctrine of predestination. His middle road disappointed and even angered many Protestants, such as Martin Luther, as well as conservative Catholics. He died in Basel in 1536 and was buried in the formerly Catholic cathedral there, recently converted to a Reformed church. “He tried to remain in the fold of the old [Roman] Church, after having damaged it seriously, and renounced the [Protestant] Reformation, and to a certain extent even Humanism, after having furthered both with all his strength.” Johan Huizinga, Erasmus and the Age of Reformation (Tr. F. Hopman and Barbara Flower; New York: Harper and Row, 1924), 190. Biography Bust by Hildo Krop (1950) at Gouda, where Erasmus spent his youth Desiderius Erasmus was born in Rotterdam on October 28, in 1466 or 1469. (The exact year of his birth is unknown.) Historian Johan Huizinga tells us that Erasmus was born on the night of the 27th or 28th and celebrated his birthday on October 28. It is possible he was christened "Erasmus" after the saint of that name. Huizinga, Erasmus, pp. 4 and 6 (Dutch language version) Although associated closely with Rotterdam, he lived there for only four years, never to return. Information on his family and early life comes mainly from vague references in his writings. His parents almost certainly were not legally married. His father, named Roger Gerard, later became a priest and afterwards curate in Gouda. Little is known of his mother other than that her name was Margaret and she was the daughter of a physician. The famous 19th century novel The Cloister and the Hearth, by Charles Reade, is an account of the lives of Erasmus' parents. Although he was born out of wedlock, Erasmus was cared for by his parents until their early deaths from the plague in 1483. He was then given the very best education available to a young man of his day, in a series of monastic or semi-monastic schools, most notably a school run by the Brethren of the Common Life (inspired by Geert Groote) where he gleaned the importance of a personal relationship with God but eschewed the harsh rules and strict methods of the religious brothers and educators. While at the Augustinian monastery Steyn near Gouda around 1487, young Erasmus wrote passionate letters of friendship to a fellow monk, Servatius Rogerus, whom he called "half my soul", writing, "I have wooed you both unhappily and relentlessly"; Collected Works of Erasmus, vol. 1, p. 12 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974) Diarmaid MacCulloch (2003). Reformation: A History. pg. 95. MacCulloch says "he fell in love" and further adds in a footnote "There has been much modern embarrassment and obfuscation on Erasmus and Rogerus, but see the sensible comment in J.Huizinga, Erasmus of Rotterdam (London, 1952), pp. 11-12, and from Geoffrey Nutuall, Journal of Ecclesiastical History 26 (1975), 403". this correspondence contrasts sharply with the generally detached and much more restrained attitude he showed in his later life. Ordination and monastic experience In 1492, poverty forced Erasmus into the monastery. Galli, Mark, and Olsen, Ted. 131 Christians Everyone Should Know. Nashville: Holman Reference, 2000, p. 343. He was ordained to the Catholic priesthood and took vows as an Augustinian canon at Steyn at about the age of 25, but he never seems to have actively worked as a priest for a longer time, and certain tenets of monasticism were among the chief objects of his attack in his lifelong assault upon Church excesses. Soon after his priestly ordination, he got his chance to leave the monastery when offered the post of secretary to the Bishop of Cambray, Henry of Bergen, on account of his great skill in Latin and his reputation as a man of letters. In order to allow him to accept that post, he was given a temporary dispensation from his monastic vows on the grounds of poor health and love of Humanistic studies, though he remained a "secular priest". Pope Leo X later made the dispensation permanent, a considerable privilege at the time. Education and scholarship Bronze statue of Erasmus in Rotterdam. It was created by Hendrick de Keyser in 1622, replacing a stone statue of 1557. In 1495, with the bishop's consent and stipend, he went on to study at the University of Paris, in the Collège de Montaigu, a centre of reforming zeal, under the direction of the ascetic Jan Standonck, of whose rigours Erasmus complained. The University was then the chief seat of Scholastic learning, but already coming under the influence of Renaissance humanism. The chief centers of his activity were Paris, Leuven (Louvain in Brabant), England, and Basel; yet he never belonged firmly in any one of these places. His time in England was fruitful in the making of lifelong friendships with the leaders of English thought in the stirring days of King Henry VIII: John Colet, Thomas More, John Fisher, Thomas Linacre and William Grocyn. At the University of Cambridge, he was the Lady Margaret's Professor of Divinity and had the option of spending the rest of his life as an English professor. He stayed at Queens' College, Cambridge, and may have been an alumnus. In 1499, while in England, Erasmus was particularly impressed by the Bible teaching of John Colet who pursued a style more akin to the church fathers than the scholastics. This prompted him, upon his return from England, to master the Greek language, which would enable him to study theology on a more profound level and to prepare a new edition of Jerome's Bible translation. On one occasion he wrote Colet: "I cannot tell you, dear Colet, how I hurry on, with all sails set, to holy literature. How I dislike everything that keeps me back, or retards me."Despite a chronic shortage of money, he succeeded in learning Greek by an intensive, day-and-night study of three years, continuously begging his friends to send him books and money for teachers in his letters. Huizinga, Dutch edition, pp. 52-53. Discovery in 1506 of Lorenzo Valla's New Testament Notes encouraged Erasmus to continue the study of the New Testament. Erasmus preferred to live the life of an independent scholar and made a conscious effort to avoid any actions or formal ties that might inhibit his freedom of intellect and literary expression. Throughout his life, he was offered many positions of honor and profit throughout the academic world but declined them all, preferring the uncertain but sufficient rewards of independent literary activity. From 1506 to 1509, he was in Italy: in 1506 he graduated at the Turin University, and he spent part of the time at the publishing house of Aldus Manutius in Venice. According to his letters, he was associated with the Venetian natural philosopher, Giulio Camillo, Opus Epistolarum Des. Erasmi Roterdami, Ed. H.M.Allen, (Oxford University Press, 1937), Ep.3032: 219-22; 2682: 8-13. but, apart from this, he had a less active association with Italian scholars than might have been expected. His residence at Leuven, where he lectured at the Catholic University, exposed Erasmus to much criticism from those ascetics, academicians and clerics hostile to the principles of literary and religious reform and the loose norms of the Renaissance adherents to which he was devoting his life. In 1517, he supported the foundation at the University, by his friend Jeroen van Busleyden, of the Collegium Trilingue for the study of Hebrew, Latin, and Greek - after the model of the College of the Three Languages at the University of Alcalá. However, feeling that this lack of sympathy was actually a form of mental persecution, he sought refuge in Basel, where under the shelter of Swiss hospitality he could express himself freely and where he was surrounded by devoted friends. Here he was associated for many years with the great publisher Johann Froben, and to him came the multitude of his admirers from all quarters of Europe. Only when he had mastered Latin did he begin to express himself on major contemporary themes in literature and religion. He felt called upon to use his learning in a purification of the doctrine by returning to the historic documents and original languages of sacred Scripture. He tried to free the methods of scholarship from the rigidity and formalism of medieval traditions, but he was not satisfied with this. His revolt against certain forms of Christian monasticism and scholasticism was not based on doubts about the truth of doctrine, nor from hostility to the organization of the Church itself, nor from rejection of celibacy or monastical lifestyles. He saw himself as a preacher of righteousness by an appeal to reason, applied frankly and without fear of the magisterium. He always intended to remain faithful to Catholic doctrine, and therefore was convinced he could criticize frankly and virtually everyone. Erasmus held himself aloof from entangling obligations, yet he was the center of the literary movement of his time. He corresponded with more than five hundred men in the worlds of politics and of thought. Publication of the Greek New Testament The first New Testament printed in Greek was part of the Complutensian Polyglot. This portion was printed in 1514, but publication was delayed until 1522 by waiting for the Old Testament portion, and the sanction of Pope Leo X. Metzger, Bruce. The Text of the New Testament, p. 96–103. Erasmus had been working for years on two projects: a collation of Greek texts and a fresh Latin New Testament. In 1512, he began his work on this Latin New Testament. He collected all the Vulgate manuscripts he could find to create a critical edition. Then he polished the Latin. He declared, "It is only fair that Paul should address the Romans in somewhat better Latin." "Epistle 695" in Collected Works of Erasmus Vol. 5: Letters 594 to 841, 1517-1518 (tr. R.A.B. Mynors and D.F.S. Thomson; annotated by James K. McConica; Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976), 172. In the earlier phases of the project, he never mentioned a Greek text: "My mind is so excited at the thought of emending Jerome’s text, with notes, that I seem to myself inspired by some god. I have already almost finished emending him by collating a large number of ancient manuscripts, and this I am doing at enormous personal expense." "Epistle 273" in Collected Works of Erasmus Vol. 2: Letters 142 to 297, 1501-1514 (tr. R.A.B. Mynors and D.F.S. Thomson; annotated Wallace K. Ferguson; Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976), 253. While his intentions for publishing a fresh Latin translation are clear, it is less clear why he included the Greek text. Though some speculate that he intended to produce a critical Greek text or that he wanted to beat the Complutensian Polyglot into print, there is no evidence to support this. He wrote, "There remains the New Testament translated by me, with the Greek facing, and notes on it by me." "Epistle 305" in Collected Works of Erasmus. Vol. 3: Letters 298 to 445, 1514-1516 (tr. R.A.B. Mynors and D.F.S. Thomson; annotated by James K. McConica; Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976), 32. He further demonstrated the reason for the inclusion of the Greek text when defending his work: "But one thing the facts cry out, and it can be clear, as they say, even to a blind man, that often through the translator’s clumsiness or inattention the Greek has been wrongly rendered; often the true and genuine reading has been corrupted by ignorant scribes, which we see happen every day, or altered by scribes who are half-taught and half-asleep."<ref>"Epistle 337" in Collected Works of Erasmus Vol. 3, 134.</ref> So he included the Greek text to permit qualified readers to verify the quality of his Latin version. But by first calling the final product "Novum Instrumentum omne" ("All of the New Teaching") and later "Novum Testamentum omne" ("All of the New Testament") he also indicated clearly that he considered a consistently parallelized version of both the Greek and the Latin texts as the essential dual core of the church's New Testament tradition. In a way it is legitimate to say that Erasmus "synchronized" or "unified" the Greek and the Latin traditions of the New Testament by producing an updated (he would say: "purified") version of either simultaneously. Both being part of canonical tradition, he clearly found it necessary to ensure that both were actually presenting the same content. In modern terminology, he made the two traditions "compatible". This is clearly evidenced by the fact that his Greek text is not just the basis for his Latin translation, but also the other way round: there are numerous instances where he edits the Greek text to reflect his Latin version. For instance, since the last six verses of Revelation were missing from his Greek manuscript, Erasmus translated the Vulgate's text back into Greek. Erasmus also translated the Latin text into Greek wherever he found that the Greek text and the accompanying commentaries were mixed up, or where he simply preferred the Vulgate’s reading to the Greek text. E.g. at Acts 9:6. Metzger, The Text of the New Testament, pp. 99-100; Kurt Aland - Barbara Aland, The Text of the New Testament. An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism,Translated by Erroll F. Rhodes. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987. 2nd edition, revised and enlarged, 1989, p. 4 Erasmus's hurried effort (Erasmus said it was "rushed into print rather than edited" "Epistle 694" in Collected Works of Erasmus Volume 5, 167. ) was published by his friend Johann Froben of Basel in 1516 and thence became the first published Greek New Testament, the Novum Instrumentum omne, diligenter ab Erasmo Rot. Recognitum et Emendatum. Erasmus used several Greek manuscript sources because he did not have access to a single complete manuscript. Most of the manuscripts were, however, late Greek manuscripts of the Byzantine textual family and Erasmus used the oldest manuscript the least because "he was afraid of its supposedly erratic text." Bruce Metzger, The Text of the New Testament. Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration, Oxford University Press, 1992, p. 102. He also ignored much older and better manuscripts that were at his disposal. Paul Arblaster, Gergely Juhász, Guido Latré (eds) Tyndale's Testament, Brepols 2002, ISBN 2-503-51411-1, p. 28. In the 2nd (1519) edition the more familiar term Testamentum was used instead of Instrumentum. This edition was used by Martin Luther in making his German translation of Bible for his own religious movement. Together, the first and second editions sold 3,300 copies. Only 600 copies of the Complutensian Polyglot were even printed. The 1st- and 2nd-edition texts did not include the passage (1 John 5:7–8) that has become known as the Comma Johanneum. Erasmus had been unable to find those verses in any Greek manuscript, but one was supplied to him during production of the 3rd edition. That manuscript is now thought to be a 1520 creation from the Latin Vulgate, which likely got the verses from a fifth-century marginal gloss in a Latin copy of I John. The Roman Catholic Church decreed that the Comma Johanneum was open to dispute (June 2, 1927), and it is rarely included in modern scholarly translations. The 3rd edition of 1522 was probably used by Tyndale for the first English New Testament (Worms, 1526) and was the basis for the 1550 Robert Stephanus edition used by the translators of the Geneva Bible and King James Version of the English Bible. Erasmus published a definitive 4th edition in 1527 containing parallel columns of Greek, Latin Vulgate and Erasmus's Latin texts. He used the now available Polyglot Bible to improve this version. In this edition Erasmus also supplied the Greek text of the last six verses of Revelation (which he had translated from Latin back into Greek in his first edition) from Cardinal Ximenez's Biblia Complutensis. In 1535 Erasmus published the 5th (and final) edition which dropped the Latin Vulgate column but was otherwise similar to the 4th edition. Subsequent versions of Erasmus's Greek New Testament became known as the Textus Receptus. Erasmus dedicated his work to Pope Leo X as a patron of learning and regarded this work as his chief service to the cause of Christianity. Immediately afterward, he began the publication of his Paraphrases of the New Testament, a popular presentation of the contents of the several books. These, like all of his writings, were published in Latin but were quickly translated into other languages, with his encouragement. Beginnings of Protestantism Attempts at impartiality in dispute Martin Luther's movement began in the year following the publication of the New Testament and tested Erasmus's character. The issue between European society and the Roman Church had become so clear that few could escape the summons to join the debate. Erasmus, at the height of his literary fame, was inevitably called upon to take sides, but partisanship was foreign to his nature and his habits. In all his criticism of clerical follies and abuses, he had always protested that he was not attacking church institutions themselves and had no enmity toward churchmen. The world had laughed at his satire, but few had interfered with his activities. He believed that his work so far had commended itself to the best minds and also to the dominant powers in the religious world. Disagreement with Luther "Free will does not exist", Luther's letter to Erasmus translated into German by J. J. Wittenberg in 1526 Initially Erasmus was sympathetic with the main points in the Lutheran criticism of the Church, describing him as "a mighty trumpet of gospel truth" and admitting that, "It is clear that many of the reforms for which Luther calls are urgently needed.” Galli, Mark, andm, Olsen, Ted. 131 Christians Everyone Should Know. Nashville: Holman Reference, 2000, p. 344. He had great respect for Martin Luther, and Luther always spoke with admiration of Erasmus's superior learning. Luther hoped for his cooperation in a work which seemed only the natural outcome of his own. In their early correspondence, Luther expressed boundless admiration for all Erasmus had done in the cause of a sound and reasonable Christianity and urged him to join the Lutheran party. Erasmus declined to commit himself, arguing that to do so would endanger his position as a leader in the movement for pure scholarship which he regarded as his purpose in life. Only as an independent scholar could he hope to influence the reform of religion. When Erasmus hesitated to support him, the straightforward Luther felt that Erasmus was avoiding the responsibility due either to cowardice or a lack of purpose. Erasmus, however, dreaded any change in doctrine and believed that there was room within existing formulas for the kind of reform he valued most. Also, it is said that Erasmus chose to remain a Roman-Catholic because of a lecture he heard from Savonarola, the Dominican friar who ruled Florence for a time.Though he remained firmly neutral, likely because of it, both sides accused him of siding with the other. It was not for lack of fidelity with either side but a desire for fidelity with them both:"I detest dissension because it goes both against the teachings of Christ and against a secret inclination of nature. I doubt that either side in the dispute can be suppressed without grave loss." Galli, Mark, and Olsen, Ted. 131 Christians Everyone Should Know. Nashville: Holman Reference, 2000, p 344. In his Catechism (entitled Explanation of the Apostles' Creed) (1533), Erasmus took stand against Luther's teaching by asserting the unwritten Sacred Tradition as valid source of revelation besides the Bible, by enumerating the Deuterocanonical books in the canon of the Bible and by acknowledging seven sacraments. Opera omnia Desiderii Erasmi Roterodami, vol. V/1, Amsterdam: Norht-Holland, pp. 278-290 He called "blasphemers" anyone who questioned the perpetual virginity of Mary and those who defended the need to occasionally restrict the laity from access to the Bible. Opera omnia Desiderii Erasmi Roterodami, vol. V/1, Amsterdam: Norht-Holland, pp. 245 and 279. In a letter to Nikolaus von Amsdorf, Luther objected to Erasmus’ Catechism and called Erasmus a "viper,", "liar," and "the very mouth and organ of Satan." D. Martin Luthers Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe. Briefwechsel, vol. 7, Weimar: Böhlau, pp. 27-40. Freedom of the will Twice in the course of the great discussion, he allowed himself to enter the field of doctrinal controversy, a field foreign to both his nature and his previous practice. One of the topics he dealt with was the freedom of the will, a crucial point. In his De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio (1524), he lampoons the Lutheran view on free will. He lays down both sides of the argument impartially. The "Diatribe" did not encourage any definite action; this was its merit to the Erasmians and its fault in the eyes of the Lutherans. In response, Luther wrote his De servo arbitrio (On the Bondage of the Will) (1525), which attacks the "Diatribe" and Erasmus himself, going so far as to claim that Erasmus was not a Christian. Erasmus responded with a lengthy, two-part Hyperaspistes (1526–27). In this controversy Erasmus lets it be seen that he would like to claim more for free will than St. Paul and St. Augustine seem to allow. Britannica Online Encyclopedia, Desiderius Erasmus Dutch humanist and scholar, Protestant challenge For Erasmus the essential point is that humans should have the freedom of choice. As the popular response to Luther gathered momentum, the social disorders, which Erasmus dreaded and Luther disassociated himself from, began to appear, including the Peasants' War, the Anabaptist disturbances in Germany and in the Low Countries, iconoclasm and the radicalization of peasants across Europe. If these were the outcomes of reform, he was thankful that he had kept out of it. Yet he was ever more bitterly accused of having started the whole "tragedy" (as the Roman Catholics dubbed Protestantism). When the city of Basel was definitely and officially "reformed" in 1529, Erasmus gave up his residence there and settled in the imperial town of Freiburg im Breisgau. Erasmus by Holbein Sacraments A test of the Reformation was the doctrine of the sacraments, and the crux of this question was the observance of the Eucharist. In 1530, Erasmus published a new edition of the orthodox treatise of Algerus against the heretic Berengar of Tours in the eleventh century. He added a dedication, affirming his belief in the reality of the Body of Christ after consecration in the Eucharist, commonly referred to as transsubstantiation. The anti-sacramentarians, headed by Œcolampadius of Basel, were, as Erasmus says, quoting him as holding views similar to their own in order to try to claim him for their schismatic and "erroneous" movement. Erasmus died of a sudden attack of dysentery http://home.newadvent.org/cathen/05510b.htm in 1536 in Basel and was buried there in the cathedral. His last words, as recorded by his friend Beatus Rhenanus, were "lieve God", Huizinga, Dutch edition, p. 202. Dutch for Dear God. Writings Erasmus wrote both on ecclesiastic subjects and those of general human interest. He seems to have regarded the latter as trifling, a leisure activity. By the 1530’s, the writings of Erasmus accounted for 10 to 20 percent of all book sales. Galli, Mark, and Olsen, Ted. 131 Christians Everyone Should Know. Nashville: Holman Reference, 2000, 343. He is credited with coining the adage, "In the land of the blind, the one-eyed man is king." He formed a collection of adages, commonly called Adagia. Erasmus is also generally credited with originating the English phrase "Pandora's box", arising through an error in his translation of Pandora by Hesiod in which he confused "pithos", storage jar, with "pyxis", box. His more serious writings begin early with the Enchiridion militis Christiani, the "Handbook of the Christian Soldier" (1503) (translated into English a few years later by the young William Tyndale). In this short work, Erasmus outlines the views of the normal Christian life, which he was to spend the rest of his days in elaborating. The chief evil of the day, he says, is formalism, going through the motions of tradition without understanding their basis in the teachings of Christ. Forms can teach the soul how to worship God, or they may hide or quench the spirit. In his examination of the dangers of formalism, Erasmus discusses monasticism, saint worship, war, the spirit of class and the foibles of "society." The Enchiridion is more like a sermon than a satire. With it Erasmus challenged common assumptions, painting the clergy as educators who should share the treasury of their knowledge with the laity. He emphasized personal spiritual disciplines rather than institutional sacraments, and called for a reformation which he characterized as a collective return to the Fathers and Scripture. Most importantly, he extolled the reading of scripture as vital because its power to transform and motivate toward love. Much like the Brethren of the Common Life, he wrote that the New Testament is the law of Christ we are called to obey and Christ is the example we are called to imitate. Erasmus also wrote of the legendary Frisian freedom fighter and rebel Pier Gerlofs Donia (Greate Pier), though more often criticism than praise of his exploits for Erasmus saw him as dumb brutal man preferring physical strength over wisdom. The Age of Erasmus , Lectures Delivered in the Universities of Oxford and London, by P.S.Allen, Clarendon Press 1914 Marginal drawing of Folly by Hans Holbein in the first edition of Erasmus' Praise of Folly, 1515 Erasmus's best-known work was The Praise of Folly (published under the triple title Moriae encomium (Greek, Latinised) and Laus stultitiae (Latin)), and Ego sum aliquantulus cattus atque ego amo piscis (Latinised). http://www.ub.unibas.ch/kadmos/gg/picpage/gg0015_009_tit.htm Early title page a satirical attack on the traditions of the Catholic Church and popular superstitions, written in 1509, published in 1511 and dedicated to his friend, Sir Thomas More. The Institutio principis Christiani (Basel, 1516) (Education of a Christian Prince) was written as advice to the young king Charles of Spain, later Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Erasmus applies the general principles of honor and sincerity to the special functions of the Prince, whom he represents throughout as the servant of the people. The Education of a Christian Prince was published in 1516, sixteen years before Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince. A comparison between the two is worth noting. Machiavelli stated that, to maintain control by political force, it is safer for a prince to be feared than loved. Erasmus, on the other hand, preferred for the prince to be loved and suggested that the prince needed a well-rounded education in order to govern justly and benevolently and avoid becoming a source of oppression. As a result of his reformatory activities, Erasmus found himself at odds with both the great parties. His last years were embittered by controversies with men toward whom he was sympathetic. Notable among these was Ulrich von Hutten, a brilliant but erratic genius, who had thrown himself into the Lutheran cause and had declared that Erasmus, if he had a spark of honesty, would do the same. In his reply, Spongia adversus aspergines Hutteni (1523), Erasmus displays his skill in semantics. He accuses Hutten of having misinterpreted his utterances about reform and reiterates his determination never to break with the Church. The Ciceroniamus came out in 1528, which attacked the style of Latin that was based on Cicero's writing. As Cicero wrote before Christ, Erasmus deemed his Latin pagan, and not suitable for use in the Christian era. Etienne Dolet wrote a reposte titled Erasmiamus in 1535, defending Ciceronian Latin. The most important work of this last period is the Ecclesiastes or "Gospel Preacher" (Basel, 1536), in which he comments on the function of preaching. All of these books are online in full in 16th-century editions in Erasmus Online. Sileni Alcibiadis (1515) Erasmus’s Sileni Alcibiadis is one of his most direct assessments of the need for Church reform. It was seen first in Johann Froben’s revised edition of the Adagia published in Basel in 1515. Then, it was published separately by Froben in 1517. This essay compares to John Colet’s Convocation Sermon, though the styles differ. The term Sileni can be understood as something on the inside is more and different than what one sees on the outside. For instance, something ugly on the outside can be beautiful on the inside. In support of this, Erasmus states: “Anyone who looks closely at the inward nature and essence will find that nobody is further from true wisdom than those people with their grand titles, learned bonnets, splendid sashes and bejeweled rings, who profess to be wisdom’s peak”. Erasmus lists several Sileni and then questions whether Christ is the most noticeable Silenus of them all. The Apostles were Sileni since they were ridiculed by others. He believes that the things which are the least ostentatious can be the most significant. For instance, one cannot see the most special aspects of humans. The Scriptures also have Sileni. Erasmus believes that the Church constitutes all of the Christian people. People call priests, bishops, and popes the Church, but they only serve the Church. He criticizes those that spend the Church’s riches at the people’s expense. Riches should not be held above everything else. The true point of the Church is to help people lead Christian lives. Priests are supposed to be pure, though when they stray away, no one condemns them. He criticizes the riches of the popes, believing that it would be better for the Gospel to be most important. Furthermore, the Word of God should be most important for people. Legacy Cast of a skull presumed to have been that of Erasmus at the Rotterdam library Erasmus collection His books' extraordinary popularity has been shown in the number of editions and translations that have appeared since the sixteenth century, and in the undiminished interest excited by his elusive but fascinating personality. Ten columns of the catalogue of the British Library are taken up with the bare enumeration of the works and their subsequent reprints. The greatest names of the classical and patristic world are among those translated, edited or annotated by Erasmus, including Saint Ambrose, Aristotle, Saint Augustine, Saint Basil, Saint John Chrysostom, Cicero and Saint Jerome. Today in his home town of Rotterdam, the University and Gymnasium Erasmianum have been named in his honor. However, Rotterdam has ignored the life of one of its famous citizens for a long time. Research in 2003 showed that most Rotterdammers believe Erasmus was the designer of the "Erasmusbridge" in Rotterdam. This shocking information led to the founding of the Erasmushuis (Erasmushouse), a house dedicated to celebrate the legacy of Erasmus. Nowadays in Rotterdam, three famous moments in the life of Erasmus are celebrated annually. On April 1, the city celebrates the release of his best-known book The Praise of Folly. On October 28, the birthday of Erasmus is celebrated. And, in the summer, the so-called Night of Erasmus celebrates the lasting influence of his work. However, Erasmus's reputation and the interpretations of his work have varied greatly over time. Following his death, there was a long period of time when the citizens of the land all mourned his death. Moderate Catholics felt that he had been a leading figure in attempts to reform the Church, while Protestants recognized his initial support for Luther's ideas and the groundwork he laid for the future Reformation. By the 1560s, however, there was a marked change in reception. Erasmus of Rotterdam censored by the Index Librorum Prohibitorum The Catholic Counter-Reformation movement often condemned Erasmus as having "laid the egg that hatched the Reformation." Their critique of him was based principally on his not being strong enough in his criticism of Luther, not seeing the dangers of a vernacular Bible and dabbling in dangerous scriptural criticism that weakened the Church's arguments against Arianism and other doctrines. All of his works were placed on the Index of Prohibited Books by Paul IV, and some of his works continued to be banned or viewed with caution in the later Index of Pius IV. Protestant views of Erasmus fluctuated largely depending on region and period, with continuous support in his native Netherlands and in cities of the Upper Rhine area. However, following his death and in the late sixteenth century, Reformation supporters see Erasmus's critiques of Luther and lifelong support for the universal Catholic Church as damning. His reception was particularly cold by the Reformed Protestant groups. By the coming of the Age of Enlightenment, however, Erasmus increasingly returned to become a more widely respected cultural symbol and was hailed as an important figure by increasingly broad groups. In a letter to a friend, Erasmus once had written: "That you are patriotic will be praised by many and easily forgiven by everyone; but in my opinion it is wiser to treat men and things as though we held this world the common fatherland of all." Letter 480, to Budé (ed. Allen) Several schools, faculties and universities in The Netherlands and Flanders are named after him, and so is Erasmus Hall in Brooklyn, New York, USA. Representations Holbein's studies of Erasmus' hands, in silverpoint and chalks, ca. 1523. (Louvre) Hans Holbein is considered to be the greatest portraitist of Erasmus, having painted him at least three times, and perhaps as many as seven; some only survive in versions by other artists. His three profile portraits of Erasmus, two (nearly identical) profile portraits and one three-quarters view portrait were all painted in the same year, 1523. Erasmus used the Holbein portraits as gifts for his friends in England, such as William Warham, the Archbishop of Canterbury (as he writes in a letter to Warham regarding the gift portrait, Erasmus quips that "he might have something of Erasmus should God call him from this place.") Erasmus spoke favorably of Holbein as an artist and person, but later criticized Holbein whom he had accused of sponging off of various patrons to whom Erasmus had recommended, for purposes more of monetary gain than artistic endeavor. Albrecht Dürer also produced portraits of Erasmus, whom he met three times, in the form of an engraving of 1526 and a preliminary charcoal sketch. Concerning the former Erasmus was unimpressed, declaring it an unfavorable likeness of him. Nevertheless, Erasmus and Dürer maintained a close friendship, with Dürer going so far as to solicit Erasmus's support for the Lutheran cause, which Erasmus politely declined. Erasmus wrote a glowing encomium about the artist, likening him to famous Greek painter of antiquity Apelles. Erasmus was deeply affected by his death in 1528. Quentin Matsys produced the earliest known portraits of Erasmus, including an oil painting in 1517 and a medallion in 1519. Works Colloquia, which appeared at intervals from 1518 on Apophthegmatum opus Adagia Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style In Praise of FollySee also Rodolphus Agricola ERASMUS programme, which takes its name from this great traveller on the roads of Europe Christian humanism List of Erasmus's correspondents Erasmus University Rotterdam Erasmus Student Network Notes Further reading Starkey, D. 2009. Henry''. Harper Perennial. External links Wikisource| Wikisource has the original Latin text of Praise of Folly. All Works by Erasmus Catholic Encyclopedia Charles L. Cortright, "Luther and Erasmus: The Debate on the Freedom of the Will" Desiderius Erasmus at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (By Johan Huizinga) Erasmus House at Anderlecht (Belgium) Metropolitan Museum of Art The Erasmus Text Project be-x-old:Эразм Ратэрдамскі | Desiderius_Erasmus |@lemmatized desiderius:6 erasmus:136 roterodamus:3 sometimes:1 know:10 rotterdam:15 october:4 july:1 basel:11 dutch:6 renaissance:3 humanist:5 catholic:16 christian:18 theologian:1 scholarly:2 name:11 comprise:1 following:1 three:8 element:1 latin:30 noun:1 desiderium:1 longing:1 desire:3 genuine:2 late:5 greek:34 adjective:1 ἐράσμιος:1 erásmios:1 mean:1 form:7 also:15 saint:8 latinized:1 adjectival:1 city:4 classical:2 scholar:5 write:16 pure:3 style:6 enjoy:1 sobriquet:1 prince:8 call:15 crown:1 glory:1 latourette:1 kenneth:1 scott:1 history:3 christianity:3 new:28 york:3 harper:3 brother:4 p:11 use:11 technique:1 work:26 text:25 prepare:2 important:5 edition:24 testament:23 raise:1 question:4 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2,216 | Jock_Taylor | Jock Taylor (March 9, 1954 - August 15, 1982) was a Scottish World Champion motorcycle sidecar racer. John Robert Taylor was born in Pencaitland, East Lothian, and entered his first sidecar race at the age of 19, as the passenger to Kenny Andrews (1974). The following year he took part in his first race as a driver. Racing career Taylor was Scottish Sidecar Champion in 1977. Most of the races were held at Knockhill. He was British Sidecar Champion in 1979 and 1980 at Donington. In 1980, Taylor and his passenger Benga Johansson won 4 races, and finished on the podium in all seven events. He collected the only "Did Not Finish" of his sidecar TT career on the famous Isle of Man circuit in 1979. He went on to become a four-time TT winner. Two years later, Taylor and Johansson raised the sidecar lap record at the Isle of Man TT to 108.29 mph (ca. 175 km/h), a lap record which stood for 7 years. Death In the 1982 Finnish Grand Prix, held under very wet conditions, Taylor and Johansson's bike slid off the road and collided with a telephone pole along the course. The emergency services were removing him from the wreckage when a second sidecar team slid into them. Taylor was killed in the second accident. He is buried in the cemetery at Pencaitland, and a memorial to him was erected in the village in December 2006. Annual Jock Taylor Memorial Race Every year sidecar racers travel from all over the UK to Knockhill in Scotland to race in the prestigious 'Jock Taylor Memorial Trophy' race. Links Taylor's Rider Profile on the official Isle of Man TT website. Biographical article in Bikesport News, "Scotland's Sidecar Legend". BBC News article on unveiling of memorial, December 2006. | Jock_Taylor |@lemmatized jock:3 taylor:10 march:1 august:1 scottish:2 world:1 champion:3 motorcycle:1 sidecar:9 racer:2 john:1 robert:1 bear:1 pencaitland:2 east:1 lothian:1 enter:1 first:2 race:8 age:1 passenger:2 kenny:1 andrew:1 following:1 year:4 take:1 part:1 driver:1 career:2 hold:2 knockhill:2 british:1 donington:1 benga:1 johansson:3 win:1 finish:2 podium:1 seven:1 event:1 collect:1 tt:4 famous:1 isle:3 man:3 circuit:1 go:1 become:1 four:1 time:1 winner:1 two:1 later:1 raise:1 lap:2 record:2 mph:1 ca:1 km:1 h:1 stand:1 death:1 finnish:1 grand:1 prix:1 wet:1 condition:1 bike:1 slid:1 road:1 collide:1 telephone:1 pole:1 along:1 course:1 emergency:1 service:1 remove:1 wreckage:1 second:2 team:1 slide:1 kill:1 accident:1 bury:1 cemetery:1 memorial:4 erect:1 village:1 december:2 annual:1 every:1 travel:1 uk:1 scotland:2 prestigious:1 trophy:1 link:1 rider:1 profile:1 official:1 website:1 biographical:1 article:2 bikesport:1 news:2 legend:1 bbc:1 unveiling:1 |@bigram grand_prix:1 memorial_trophy:1 bbc_news:1 |
2,217 | Battle_of_Gettysburg | The Battle of Gettysburg (July 1–3, 1863), fought in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, as part of the Gettysburg Campaign, was the battle with the largest number of casualties in the American Civil War The Battle of Antietam, the culmination of Lee's first invasion of the North, had the largest number of casualties in a single day, about 23,000. and is often described as the war's turning point. Rawley, p. 147. Sauers, p. 827. McPherson, p. 665; McPherson cites the combination of Gettysburg and Vicksburg as the turning point. Union Maj. Gen. George Gordon Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, ending Lee's invasion of the North. After his success at Chancellorsville in May 1863, Lee led his army through the Shenandoah Valley for his second invasion of the North, hoping to reach as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or even Philadelphia, and to influence Northern politicians to give up their prosecution of the war. Prodded by President Abraham Lincoln, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker moved his army in pursuit, but was relieved just three days before the battle and replaced by Meade. The two armies began to collide at Gettysburg on July 1, 1863, as Lee urgently concentrated his forces there. Low ridges to the northwest of town were defended initially by a Union cavalry division, which was soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry. However, two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, sending the defenders retreating through the streets of town to the hills just to the south. On the second day of battle, most of both armies had assembled. The Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union left flank, and fierce fighting raged at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil's Den, and the Peach Orchard. On the Union right, demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill. All across the battlefield, despite significant losses, the Union defenders held their lines. On the third day of battle, July 3, fighting resumed on Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south, but the main event was a dramatic infantry assault by 12,500 Confederates against the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. Pickett's Charge was repulsed by Union rifle and artillery fire, at great losses to the Confederate army. Lee led his army on a torturous retreat back to Virginia. Between 46,000 and 51,000 Americans were casualties in the three-day battle. That November, President Lincoln used the dedication ceremony for the Gettysburg National Cemetery to honor the fallen and redefine the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address. Background and movement to battle Gettysburg Campaign (through July 3); cavalry movements shown with dashed lines. Shortly after the Army of Northern Virginia won a major victory over the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Chancellorsville (April 30 May 6, 1863), Robert E. Lee decided upon a second invasion of the North (the first was the unsuccessful Maryland Campaign of September 1862). Such a move would upset Federal plans for the summer campaigning season and possibly reduce the pressure on the besieged Confederate garrison at Vicksburg. It would allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war-ravaged Virginia a much needed rest. In addition, Lee's 72,000-man army Busey and Martin, p. 260. "Engaged strength" at the battle was 71,699. McPherson, p. 648, lists the strength at the start of the campaign as 75,000. could threaten Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and possibly strengthen the growing peace movement in the North. Coddington, pp. 8-9. Eicher, p. 490. Thus, on June 3, Lee's army began to shift northward from Fredericksburg, Virginia. In order to attain more efficiency in his command, Lee had reorganized his two large corps into three new corps. Lt. Gen. James Longstreet retained command of his First Corps. The old corps of deceased Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson was divided into two, with the Second Corps going to Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell and the new Third Corps to Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill. The Cavalry Division was commanded by Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart. Eicher, p. 491. The Union Army of the Potomac, under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, consisted of seven infantry corps, a cavalry corps, and an Artillery Reserve, for a combined strength of about 94,000 men. Busey and Martin, p. 125. "Engaged strength" at the battle was 93,921. However, President Lincoln replaced Hooker with Maj. Gen. George Gordon Meade, a Pennsylvanian, because of Hooker's defeat at Chancellorsville and his timid response to Lee's second invasion north of the Potomac River. The first major action of the campaign took place on June 9 between the opposing cavalry forces at Brandy Station, near Culpeper, Virginia. The 9,500 Confederate cavalrymen under Stuart were surprised by Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton's combined arms force of two cavalry divisions (8,000 troopers) and 3,000 infantry, but Stuart eventually repulsed the Union attack. The inconclusive battle, the largest predominantly cavalry engagement of the war, proved that for the first time, the Union horse soldier was equal to his Southern counterpart. Symonds, p. 36. By mid-June, the Army of Northern Virginia was poised to cross the Potomac River and enter Maryland. After defeating the Federal garrisons at Winchester and Martinsburg, Ewell's Second Corps began crossing the river on June 15. Hill's and Longstreet's corps followed on June 24 and June 25. Hooker's army pursued, keeping between the U.S. capital and Lee's army. The Federals crossed the Potomac from June 25 to June 27. Trudeau, pp. 45, 66. Lee gave strict orders to his army to minimize any negative impacts on the civilian population. Lee's orders from Chambersburg, June 27, 1863 Food, horses, and other supplies were generally not seized outright, although quartermasters reimbursing Northern farmers and merchants using Confederate money were not well received. Various towns, most notably York, Pennsylvania, were required to pay indemnities in lieu of supplies, under threat of destruction. The most controversial of the Confederate actions during the invasion was the seizure of some forty northern African Americans, a few of whom were escaped slaves but most freemen. They were sent south into slavery under guard. Symonds, pp. 49-54. On June 26, elements of Maj. Gen. Jubal Early's division of Ewell's Corps occupied the town of Gettysburg after chasing off newly raised Pennsylvania militia in a series of minor skirmishes. Early laid the borough under tribute but did not collect any significant supplies. Soldiers burned several railroad cars and a covered bridge, and they destroyed nearby rails and telegraph lines. The following morning, Early departed for adjacent York County. Nye, pp. 272-78. This 1863 oval-shaped map depicts Gettysburg Battlefield during July 1-3, 1863, showing troop and artillery positions and movements, relief by hachures, drainage, roads, railroads, and houses with the names of residents at the time of the Battle of Gettysburg. Meanwhile, in a controversial move, Lee allowed J.E.B. Stuart to take a portion of the army's cavalry and ride around the east flank of the Union army. Lee's orders gave Stuart much latitude, and both generals share the blame for the long absence of Stuart's cavalry, as well as for the failure to assign a more active role to the cavalry left with the army. Stuart and his three best brigades were absent from the army during the crucial phase of the approach to Gettysburg and the first two days of battle. By June 29, Lee's army was strung out in an arc from Chambersburg (28 miles (45 km) northwest of Gettysburg) to Carlisle (30 miles (48 km) north of Gettysburg) to near Harrisburg and Wrightsville on the Susquehanna River. Symonds, pp. 41-43. Sears, pp. 103-06. Esposito, text for Map 94 (Map 34b in the online version). Eicher, pp. 504-07. McPherson, p. 649. In a dispute over the use of the forces defending the Harpers Ferry garrison, Hooker offered his resignation, and Abraham Lincoln and General-in-Chief Henry W. Halleck, who were looking for an excuse to get rid of him, immediately accepted. They replaced him early on the morning of June 28 with Maj. Gen. George Gordon Meade, at the time commander of the V Corps. Sears, p. 123. Trudeau, p. 128. On June 29, when Lee learned that the Army of the Potomac had crossed the eponymous river, he ordered a concentration of his forces around Cashtown, located at the eastern base of South Mountain and eight miles (13 km) west of Gettysburg. Coddington, pp. 181, 189. On June 30, while part of Hill's Corps was in Cashtown, one of Hill's brigades, North Carolinians under Brig. Gen. J. Johnston Pettigrew, ventured toward Gettysburg. The memoirs of Maj. Gen. Henry Heth, Pettigrew's division commander, claimed that he sent Pettigrew to search for supplies in town—especially shoes. Eicher, pp. 508-09, discounts Heth's claim because the previous visit by Early to Gettysburg would have made the lack of shoe factories or stores obvious. However, many mainstream historians accept Heth's account: Sears, p. 136; Foote, p. 465; Clark, p. 35; Tucker, pp. 97-98; Martin, p. 25; Pfanz, First Day, p. 25. When Pettigrew's troops approached Gettysburg on June 30, they noticed Union cavalry under Brig. Gen. John Buford arriving south of town, and Pettigrew returned to Cashtown without engaging them. When Pettigrew told Hill and Heth about what he had seen, neither general believed that there was a substantial Federal force in or near the town, suspecting that it had been only Pennsylvania militia. Despite General Lee's order to avoid a general engagement until his entire army was concentrated, Hill decided to mount a significant reconnaissance in force the following morning to determine the size and strength of the enemy force in his front. Around 5 a.m. on Wednesday, July 1, two brigades of Heth's division advanced to Gettysburg. Eicher, p. 508. Tucker, pp. 99-102. First day of battle Map of battle, July 1, 1863 Buford laid out his defenses on three ridges west of Gettysburg: Herr Ridge, McPherson Ridge, and Seminary Ridge. These were appropriate terrain for a delaying action by his small cavalry division against superior Confederate infantry forces, meant to buy time awaiting the arrival of Union infantrymen who could occupy the strong defensive positions south of town at Cemetery Hill, Cemetery Ridge, and Culp's Hill. Buford understood that if the Confederates could gain control of these heights, Meade's army would have difficulty dislodging them. Sears, pp. 155-58. Heth's division advanced with two brigades forward, commanded by Brig. Gens. James J. Archer and Joseph R. Davis. They proceeded easterly in columns along the Chambersburg Pike. Three miles (5 km) west of town, about 7:30 a.m. on July 1, Heth's two brigades met light resistance from vedettes of Union cavalry, and deployed into line. According to the lore, the first Union soldier to fire was Lt. Marcellus Jones. Battle of Gettysburg: "Who Really Fired the First Shot?" In 1886 Lt. Jones returned to Gettysburg to mark the spot where he fired the first shot with a monument. Marcellus Jones Monument at Gettysburg Eventually, Heth's men reached dismounted troopers from Col. William Gamble's cavalry brigade, who raised determined resistance and delaying tactics from behind fence posts with fire from their breechloading carbines. Martin, pp. 80-81. The troopers carried single-shot, breechloading carbines manufactured by Sharps, Burnside, and others. It is a modern myth that they were armed with multi-shot repeating carbines. Nevertheless, they were able to fire two or three times faster than a muzzle-loaded carbine or rifle. By 10:20 a.m., the Confederates had pushed the Union cavalrymen east to McPherson Ridge, when the vanguard of the I Corps (Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds) finally arrived. Symonds, p. 71. Coddington, p. 266. Eicher, pp. 510-11. North of the pike, Davis gained a temporary success against Brig. Gen. Lysander Cutler's brigade but was repulsed with heavy losses in an action around an unfinished railroad bed cut in the ridge. South of the pike, Archer's brigade assaulted through Herbst (also known as McPherson's) Woods. The Federal Iron Brigade under Brig. Gen. Solomon Meredith enjoyed initial success against Archer, capturing several hundred men, including Archer himself. Tucker, pp. 112-17. Early in the fighting, while General Reynolds was directing troop and artillery placements just to the east of the woods, he fell from his horse, killed by a bullet, which struck him behind the right ear. Coddington, p. 269. Other sources, such as Sears, p. 170, quote Reynolds's orderly, Charles Veil, that a "Minnie [sic] ball struck him in the back of the neck." Maj. Gen. Abner Doubleday assumed command. Fighting in the Chambersburg Pike area lasted until about 12:30 p.m. It resumed around 2:30 p.m., when Heth's entire division engaged, adding the brigades of Pettigrew and Col. John M. Brockenbrough. Tucker, p. 184. Symonds, p. 74. Pfanz, First Day, pp. 269-75. As Pettigrew's North Carolina Brigade came on line, they flanked the 19th Indiana and drove the Iron Brigade back. The 26th North Carolina (the largest regiment in the army with 839 men) lost heavily, leaving the first day's fight with around 212 men. By the end of the three-day battle, they had about 152 men standing, the highest casualty percentage for one battle of any regiment, North or South. Busey and Martin, pp. 298, 501. Slowly the Iron Brigade was pushed out of the woods toward Seminary Ridge. Hill added Maj. Gen. William Dorsey Pender's division to the assault, and the I Corps was driven back through the grounds of the Lutheran Seminary and Gettysburg streets. Pfanz, First Day, pp. 275-93. As the fighting to the west proceeded, two divisions of Ewell's Second Corps, marching west toward Cashtown in accordance with Lee's order for the army to concentrate in that vicinity, turned south on the Carlisle and Harrisburg Roads toward Gettysburg, while the Union XI Corps (Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard) raced north on the Baltimore Pike and Taneytown Road. By early afternoon, the Federal line ran in a semi-circle west, north, and northeast of Gettysburg. Clark, p. 53. However, the Federals did not have enough troops; Cutler, who was deployed north of the Chambersburg Pike, had his right flank in the air. The leftmost division of the XI Corps was unable to deploy in time to strengthen the line, so Doubleday was forced to throw in reserve brigades to salvage his line. Pfanz, First Day, p. 158. Around 2:00 p.m., the Second Corps divisions of Maj. Gens. Robert E. Rodes and Jubal Early assaulted and out-flanked the Union I and XI Corps positions north and northwest of town. The brigades of Col. Edward A. O'Neal and Brig. Gen. Alfred Iverson suffered severe losses assaulting the I Corps division of Brig. Gen. John C. Robinson south of Oak Hill. Early's division profited from a blunder made by Brig. Gen. Francis C. Barlow, when he advanced his XI Corps division to Blocher's Knoll (directly north of town and now known as Barlow's Knoll); this represented a salient Pfanz, First Day, p. 230. in the corps line, susceptible to attack from multiple sides, and Early's troops overran his division, which constituted the right flank of the Union Army's position. Barlow was wounded and captured in the attack. Pfanz, First Day, p. 156-238. As Federal positions collapsed both north and west of town, Gen. Howard ordered a retreat to the high ground south of town at Cemetery Hill, where he had left the division of Brig. Gen. Adolph von Steinwehr as a reserve. Pfanz, First Day, p. 294. Maj. Gen. Winfield S. Hancock assumed command of the battlefield, sent by Meade when he heard that Reynolds had been killed. Hancock, commander of the II Corps and his most trusted subordinate, was ordered to take command of the field and to determine whether Gettysburg was an appropriate place for a major battle. Pfanz, First Day, pp. 337-38. Sears, pp. 223-25. Hancock told Howard, who was technically superior in rank, "I think this the strongest position by nature upon which to fight a battle that I ever saw." When Howard agreed, Hancock concluded the discussion: "Very well, sir, I select this as the battle-field." Hancock's determination had a morale-boosting effect on the retreating Union soldiers, but he played no direct tactical role on the first day. Martin, pp. 482-88. Gen. Lee understood the defensive potential to the Union if they held this high ground. He sent orders to Ewell that Cemetery Hill be taken "if practicable." Ewell, who had previously served under Stonewall Jackson, a general well known for issuing peremptory orders, determined such an assault was not practicable and, thus, did not attempt it; this decision is considered by historians to be a great missed opportunity. Pfanz, First Day, p. 344. Eicher, p. 517. Sears, p. 228. Trudeau, p. 253. Both Sears and Trudeau record "if possible." The first day at Gettysburg, more significant than simply a prelude to the bloody second and third days, ranks as the 23rd biggest battle of the war by number of troops engaged. About one quarter of Meade's army (22,000 men) and one third of Lee's army (27,000) were engaged. Martin, p. 9, citing Thomas L. Livermore's Numbers & Losses in the Civil War in America (Houghton Mifflin, 1900). Second day of battle Robert E. Lee's Plan for July 2, 1863 Plans and movement to battle Throughout the evening of July 1 and morning of July 2, most of the remaining infantry of both armies arrived on the field, including the Union II, III, V, VI, and XII Corps. Longstreet's third division, commanded by George Pickett, had begun the march from Chambersburg early in the morning; it did not arrive until late on July 2. Coddington, p. 333. Tucker, p. 327. The Union line ran from Culp's Hill southeast of the town, northwest to Cemetery Hill just south of town, then south for nearly two miles (3 km) along Cemetery Ridge, terminating just north of Little Round Top. Most of the XII Corps was on Culp's Hill; the remnants of I and XI Corps defended Cemetery Hill; II Corps covered most of the northern half of Cemetery Ridge; and III Corps was ordered to take up a position to its flank. The shape of the Union line is popularly described as a "fishhook" formation. The Confederate line paralleled the Union line about a mile (1,600 m) to the west on Seminary Ridge, ran east through the town, then curved southeast to a point opposite Culp's Hill. Thus, the Federal army had interior lines, while the Confederate line was nearly five miles (8 km) in length. Clark, p. 74. Eicher, p 521. Lee's battle plan for July 2 called for Longstreet's First Corps to position itself stealthily to attack the Union left flank, facing northeast astraddle the Emmitsburg Road, and to roll up the Federal line. The attack sequence was to begin with Maj. Gens. John Bell Hood's and Lafayette McLaws's divisions, followed by Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson's division of Hill's Third Corps. The progressive en echelon sequence of this attack would prevent Meade from shifting troops from his center to bolster his left. At the same time, Maj. Gen. Edward "Allegheny" Johnson's and Jubal Early's Second Corps divisions were to make a "demonstration" against Culp's and Cemetery Hills (again, to prevent the shifting of Federal troops), and to turn the demonstration into a full-scale attack if a favorable opportunity presented itself. Sears, p. 255. Clark, p. 69. Lee's plan, however, was based on faulty intelligence, exacerbated by Stuart's continued absence from the battlefield. Instead of moving beyond the Federals' left and attacking their flank, Longstreet's left division, under McLaws, would face Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles's III Corps directly in their path. Sickles was dissatisfied with the position assigned him on the southern end of Cemetery Ridge. Seeing higher ground more favorable to artillery positions a half mile (800 m) to the west, he advanced his corps—without orders—to the slightly higher ground along the Emmitsburg Road. The new line ran from Devil's Den, northwest to the Sherfy farm's Peach Orchard, then northeast along the Emmitsburg Road to south of the Codori farm. This created an untenable salient at the Peach Orchard; Brig. Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys's division (in position along the Emmitsburg Road) and Maj. Gen. David B. Birney's division (to the south) were subject to attacks from two sides and were spread out over a longer front than their small corps could defend effectively. Pfanz, Second Day, pp. 93-97. Eicher, pp. 523-24. Longstreet's attack was to be made as early as practicable; however, Longstreet got permission from Lee to await the arrival of one of his brigades, and while marching to the assigned position, his men came within sight of a Union signal station on Little Round Top. Countermarching to avoid detection wasted much time, and Hood's and McLaws's divisions did not launch their attacks until just after 4 p.m. and 5 p.m., respectively. Pfanz, Second Day, pp. 119-23. Attacks on the Union left flank Map of battle, July 2, 1863 As Longstreet's divisions slammed into the Union III Corps, Meade was forced to send 20,000 reinforcements Harman, p. 59. in the form of the entire V Corps, Brig. Gen. John C. Caldwell's division of the II Corps, most of the XII Corps, and small portions of the newly arrived VI Corps. The Confederate assault deviated from Lee's plan since Hood's division moved more easterly than intended, losing its alignment with the Emmitsburg Road, Harman, p. 57. attacking Devil's Den and Little Round Top. McLaws, coming in on Hood's left, drove multiple attacks into the thinly stretched III Corps in the Wheatfield and overwhelmed them in Sherfy's Peach Orchard. McLaws's attack eventually reached Plum Run Valley (the "Valley of Death") before being beaten back by the Pennsylvania Reserves division of the V Corps, moving down from Little Round Top. The III Corps was virtually destroyed as a combat unit in this battle, and Sickles's leg was amputated after it was shattered by a cannonball. Caldwell's division was destroyed piecemeal in the Wheatfield. Anderson's division assault on McLaws's left, starting around 6 p.m., reached the crest of Cemetery Ridge, but they could not hold the position in the face of counterattacks from the II Corps, including an almost suicidal counterattack by the 1st Minnesota against a Confederate brigade, ordered in desperation by Hancock. Sears, pp. 833-35. Eicher, pp. 530-35. Coddington, p. 423. As fighting raged in the Wheatfield and Devil's Den, Col. Strong Vincent of V Corps had a precarious hold on Little Round Top, an important hill at the extreme left of the Union line. His brigade of four relatively small regiments was able to resist repeated assaults by Brig. Gen. Evander Law's brigade of Hood's division. Meade's chief engineer, Brig. Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren, had realized the importance of this position, and dispatched Vincent's brigade, an artillery battery, and the 140th New York to occupy Little Round Top mere minutes before Hood's troops arrived. The defense of Little Round Top with a bayonet charge by the 20th Maine was one of the most fabled episodes in the Civil War and propelled Col. Joshua L. Chamberlain into prominence after the war. Eicher, pp. 527-30. Clark, pp. 81-85. Attacks on the Union right flank About 7:00 p.m., the Second Corps' attack by Johnson's division on Culp's Hill got off to a late start. Most of the hill's defenders, the Union XII Corps, had been sent to the left to defend against Longstreet's attacks, and the only portion of the corps remaining on the hill was a brigade of New Yorkers under Brig. Gen. George S. Greene. Because of Greene's insistence on constructing strong defensive works, and with reinforcements from the I and XI Corps, Greene's men held off the Confederate attackers, although the Southerners did capture a portion of the abandoned Federal works on the lower part of Culp's Hill. Eicher, pp. 537-38. Sauers, p. 835. Pfanz, Culp's Hill, pp. 205-34. Clark, pp. 115-16. Just at dark, two of Jubal Early's brigades attacked the Union XI Corps positions on East Cemetery Hill where Col. Andrew L. Harris of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, came under a withering attack, losing half his men; however, Early failed to support his brigades in their attack, and Ewell's remaining division, that of Maj. Gen. Robert E. Rodes, failed to aid Early's attack by moving against Cemetery Hill from the west. The Union army's interior lines enabled its commanders to shift troops quickly to critical areas, and with reinforcements from II Corps, the Federal troops retained possession of East Cemetery Hill, and Early's brigades were forced to withdraw. Pfanz, Culp's Hill, pp. 235-83. Clark, pp. 116-18. Eicher, pp. 538-39. Jeb Stuart and his three cavalry brigades arrived in Gettysburg around noon but had no role in the second day's battle. Brig. Gen. Wade Hampton's brigade fought a minor engagement with George Armstrong Custer's Michigan cavalry near Hunterstown to the northeast of Gettysburg. Sears, p. 257. Longacre, pp. 198-99. Third day of battle Map of battle, July 3, 1863 General Lee wished to renew the attack on Friday, July 3, using the same basic plan as the previous day: Longstreet would attack the Federal left, while Ewell attacked Culp's Hill. Harman, p. 63. However, before Longstreet was ready, Union XII Corps troops started a dawn artillery bombardment against the Confederates on Culp's Hill in an effort to regain a portion of their lost works. The Confederates attacked, and the second fight for Culp's Hill ended around 11 a.m., after some seven hours of bitter combat. Pfanz, Culp's Hill, pp. 284-352. Eicher, pp. 540-41. Coddington, pp. 465-75. Lee was forced to change his plans. Longstreet would command Pickett's Virginia division of his own First Corps, plus six brigades from Hill's Corps, in an attack on the Federal II Corps position at the right center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. Prior to the attack, all the artillery the Confederacy could bring to bear on the Federal positions would bombard and weaken the enemy's line. Eicher, p. 542. Coddington, pp. 485-86. The "High Water Mark" on Cemetery Ridge as it appears today. The monument to the 72nd Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiment ("Baxter's Philadelphia Fire Zouaves") appears at right, the Copse of Trees to the left. Around 1 p.m., from 150 to 170 Confederate guns See discussion of varying gun estimates in Pickett's Charge article footnote. began an artillery bombardment that was probably the largest of the war. In order to save valuable ammunition for the infantry attack that they knew would follow, the Army of the Potomac's artillery at first did not return the enemy's fire. After waiting about 15 minutes, about 80 Federal cannons added to the din. The Army of Northern Virginia was critically low on artillery ammunition, and the cannonade did not significantly affect the Union position. Around 3 p.m., the cannon fire subsided, and 12,500 Southern soldiers stepped from the ridgeline and advanced the three-quarters of a mile (1,200 m) to Cemetery Ridge in what is known to history as "Pickett's Charge". As the Confederates approached, there was fierce flanking artillery fire from Union positions on Cemetery Hill and north of Little Round Top, and musket and canister fire from Hancock's II Corps. Nearly one half of the attackers did not return to their own lines. Although the Federal line wavered and broke temporarily at a jog called the "Angle" in a low stone fence, just north of a patch of vegetation called the Copse of Trees, reinforcements rushed into the breach, and the Confederate attack was repulsed. The farthest advance of Brig. Gen. Lewis A. Armistead's brigade of Maj. Gen. George Pickett's division at the Angle is referred to as the "High-water mark of the Confederacy", arguably representing the closest the South ever came to its goal of achieving independence from the Union via military victory. McPherson, pp. 661-63. Clark, pp. 133-44. Symonds, pp. 214-41. Eicher, pp. 543-49. There were two significant cavalry engagements on July 3. Stuart was sent to guard the Confederate left flank and was to be prepared to exploit any success the infantry might achieve on Cemetery Hill by flanking the Federal right and hitting their trains and lines of communications. Three miles (5 km) east of Gettysburg, in what is now called "East Cavalry Field" (not shown on the accompanying map, but between the York and Hanover Roads), Stuart's forces collided with Federal cavalry: Brig. Gen. David McM. Gregg's division and George A. Custer's brigade. A lengthy mounted battle, including hand-to-hand sabre combat, ensued. Custer's charge, leading the 1st Michigan Cavalry, blunted the attack by Wade Hampton's brigade, blocking Stuart from achieving his objectives in the Federal rear. Meanwhile, after hearing news of the day's victory, Brig. Gen. Judson Kilpatrick launched a cavalry attack against the infantry positions of Longstreet's Corps southwest of Big Round Top. Brig. Gen. Elon J. Farnsworth protested against the futility of such a move but obeyed orders. Farnsworth was killed in the attack, and his brigade suffered significant losses. Eicher, pp. 549-50. Longacre, pp. 226-31, 240-44. Sauers, p. 836. Wert, pp. 272-80. Aftermath The Confederate retreat Gettysburg Campaign (July 5 July 14, 1863). The armies stared at one another across the bloody fields on July 4, the same day that the Vicksburg garrison surrendered to Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. Lee reformed his lines into a defensive position, hoping that Meade would attack. The cautious Union commander, however, decided against the risk, a decision for which he would later be criticized. He did order a series of small probing actions, including sending the U.S. Regulars over a mile towards the right of the Confederate lines, but they withdrew under artillery fire and Meade decided not to press an attack. A series of sharp exchanges between the opposing skirmish lines merely added more names to the casualty lists. By mid-afternoon, the firing at Gettysburg had essentially stopped, and both armies began to collect their remaining wounded and bury some of the dead. A proposal by Lee for a prisoner exchange was rejected by Meade. Eicher, p. 550. Coddington, pp. 539-44. Clark, pp. 146-47. Wert, p. 300. On July 5, in a driving rain, the bulk of the Army of Northern Virginia left Gettysburg on the Hagerstown Road; the Battle of Gettysburg was over, and the Confederates headed back to Virginia. Meade's army followed, although the pursuit was half-spirited. The recently rain-swollen Potomac trapped Lee's army on the north bank of the river for a time, but when the Federals finally caught up, the Confederates had forded the river. The rear-guard action at Falling Waters on July 14 ended the Gettysburg Campaign and added some more names to the long casualty lists, including General Pettigrew, who was mortally wounded. Clark, pp. 147-57. Longacre, pp. 268-69. In a brief letter to Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck written on July 7, Lincoln remarked on the two major Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg. He continued: Halleck then relayed the contents of Lincoln's letter to Meade in a telegram. However, despite repeated pleas from Lincoln and Halleck, which continued over the next week, Meade did not pursue Lee's army aggressively enough to destroy it before it crossed back over the Potomac River to safety in the South. Coddington, pp. 535-74. Lincoln complained to Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles that "Our army held the war in the hollow of their hand and they would not close it!" George Meade (1815-1872) - Abraham Lincoln's White House Reaction to the news of the Union victory The news of the Union victory electrified the North. A headline in The Philadelphia Inquirer proclaimed "VICTORY! WATERLOO ECLIPSED!" New York diarist George Templeton Strong wrote: McPherson, p. 664. "The Harvest of Death": Union dead on the battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, photographed July 5 or July 6, 1863, by Timothy H. O'Sullivan. Effect on the Confederacy The Confederates had lost politically as well as militarily. During the final hours of the battle, Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens was approaching the Union lines at Norfolk, Virginia, under a flag of truce. Although his formal instructions from Confederate President Jefferson Davis had limited his powers to negotiations on prisoner exchanges and other procedural matters, historian James M. McPherson speculates that he had informal goals of presenting peace overtures. Davis had hoped that Stephens would reach Washington from the south while Lee's victorious army was marching toward it from the north. President Lincoln, upon hearing of the Gettysburg results, refused Stephens's request to pass through the lines. Furthermore, when the news reached London, any lingering hopes of European recognition of the Confederacy were finally abandoned. Henry Adams wrote, "The disasters of the rebels are unredeemed by even any hope of success. It is now conceded that all idea of intervention is at an end." McPherson, pp. 650, 664. Some economic historians have pointed to the fact that after the loss at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, the market for Confederate war bonds dropped precipitously. "European investors gave Johnny Reb about a 42 percent chance of winning the war in early 1863 prior to the battle of Gettysburg. ... However, news of the severity of costly Confederate defeats at Gettysburg/Vicksburg led to a sell-off in rebel bonds and the probability of a Southern victory fell to about 15 percent by the end of 1863." Oosterlinck and Weidenmier, Did Johnny Reb have a Fighting Chance? A Probabilistic Assessment from European Financial Markets, Lund University School of Economics and Management. Casualties Gettysburg National Cemetery The two armies had suffered between 46,000 and 51,000 casualties. Union casualties were 23,055 (3,155 killed, 14,531 wounded, 5,369 captured or missing). Busey and Martin, p. 125. Confederate casualties are more difficult to estimate. Many authors cite about 28,000 overall casualties, but Busey and Martin's definitive 2005 work, Regimental Strengths and Losses, documents 23,231 (4,708 killed, 12,693 wounded, 5,830 captured or missing). Busey and Martin, p. 260. The casualties for both sides during the entire campaign were 57,225. Sears, p. 513. There was one documented civilian death during the battle: Ginnie Wade, 20 years old, was shot by a stray bullet that passed through her kitchen in town while she was making bread. Sears, p. 391. Nearly 8,000 had been killed outright; these bodies, lying in the hot summer sun, needed to be buried quickly. Over 3,000 horse carcasses Sears, p. 511. were burned in a series of piles south of town; townsfolk became violently ill from the stench. The ravages of war would still be evident in Gettysburg more than four months later when, on November 19, the Soldiers' National Cemetery was dedicated. During this ceremony, President Abraham Lincoln with his Gettysburg Address re-dedicated the Union to the war effort. Today, the Gettysburg National Cemetery and Gettysburg National Military Park are maintained by the U.S. National Park Service as two of the nation's most revered historical landmarks. Historical assessment Assessment of Lee's leadership Throughout the campaign, General Lee seemed to have entertained the belief that his men were invincible; most of Lee's experiences with the army had convinced him of this, including the great victory at Chancellorsville in early May and the rout of the Union troops at Gettysburg on July 1. Since high morale plays an important role in military victory when other factors are equal, Lee did not want to dampen his army's desire to fight. The Army of Northern Virginia's collective blind faith allowed it to ignore the fact that it had new and inexperienced senior commanders (neither Hill nor Ewell, for instance, although capable division commanders, had previously commanded a corps). It had recently lost Stonewall Jackson, one of its most competent offensive generals. Also, Lee's method of giving generalized orders and leaving it up to his lieutenants to work out the details contributed to his defeat. Although this method may have worked with Jackson, it proved inadequate when dealing with corps commanders unused to Lee's style of command. Lee faced dramatic differences in going from the strategic defense to the strategic offense—long supply lines, a hostile local population, and an imperative to force the enemy from its position. Lastly, after July 1, the Confederates were simply not able to coordinate their attacks. Lee faced a new and formidable opponent in George Meade, and the Army of the Potomac stood to the task and fought well on its home territory. It has also been argued that Lee may have felt that Gettysburg represented a last hope for Confederate independence, and he, thus, had little choice but to take the kind of grave risks that he would never have considered before or after. During the spring of 1863, Lee had been sick with what was then termed "rheumatic fever". Based on his symptoms, modern physicians believe this may have actually been the first attack of the heart disease that would eventually kill him in 1870. Given the serious nature of the illness in addition to the death of Stonewall Jackson, it has been argued that Lee, along with seeing the military realities facing the Confederacy, may have also been feeling his own mortality in the aftermath of the Battle of Chancellorsville. Thus, he not only made the case for invading the North, but also, when the battle was joined, he took great risks in an effort to win what he hoped would be a final, climactic battle in the vein of Napolean's masterpiece at Austerlitz. References Busey, John W., and Martin, David G., Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg, 4th Ed., Longstreet House, 2005, ISBN 0-944413-67-6. Clark, Champ, and the Editors of Time-Life Books, Gettysburg: The Confederate High Tide, Time-Life Books, 1985, ISBN 0-8094-4758-4. Coddington, Edwin B., The Gettysburg Campaign; a study in command, Scribner's, 1968, ISBN 0-684-84569-5. Eicher, David J., The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War, Simon & Schuster, 2001, ISBN 0-684-84944-5. Esposito, Vincent J., West Point Atlas of American Wars, Frederick A. Praeger, 1959. Foote, Shelby, The Civil War, A Narrative: Fredericksburg to Meridian, Random House, 1958, ISBN 0-394-49517-9. Harman, Troy D., Lee's Real Plan at Gettysburg, Stackpole Books, 2003, ISBN 0-8117-0054-2. Longacre, Edward G., The Cavalry at Gettysburg, University of Nebraska Press, 1986, ISBN 0-8032-7941-8. Martin, David G., Gettysburg July 1, rev. ed., Combined Publishing, 1996, ISBN 0-938289-81-0. McPherson, James M., Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (Oxford History of the United States), Oxford University Press, 1988, ISBN 0-19-503863-0. Nye, Wilbur S., Here Come the Rebels!, Louisiana State University Press, 1965 (reprinted by Morningside House, 1984), ISBN 0-89029-080-6. Pfanz, Harry W., Gettysburg The First Day, University of North Carolina Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8078-2624-3. Pfanz, Harry W., Gettysburg The Second Day, University of North Carolina Press, 1987, ISBN 0-8078-1749-X. Pfanz, Harry W., Gettysburg: Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1993, ISBN 0-8078-2118-7. Rawley, James A., Turning Points of the Civil War, University of Nebraska Press, 1966, ISBN 0-8032-8935-9. Sauers, Richard A., "Battle of Gettysburg", Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, Heidler, David S., and Heidler, Jeanne T., eds., W. W. Norton & Company, 2000, ISBN 0-393-04758-X. Sears, Stephen W., Gettysburg, Houghton Mifflin, 2003, ISBN 0-395-86761-4. Symonds, Craig L., American Heritage History of the Battle of Gettysburg, HarperCollins, 2001, ISBN 0-06-019474-X. Tagg, Larry, The Generals of Gettysburg, Savas Publishing, 1998, ISBN 1-882810-30-9. Trudeau, Noah Andre, Gettysburg: A Testing of Courage, HarperCollins, 2002, ISBN 0-06-019363-8. Tucker, Glenn, High Tide at Gettysburg, Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1958 (reprinted by Morningside House, 1983), ISBN 0-89029-715-4. Wert, Jeffry D., Gettysburg: Day Three, Simon & Schuster, 2001, ISBN 0-684-85914-9. Notes Further reading Fremantle, Arthur J. L., The Fremantle Diary: A Journal of the Confederacy (Walter Lord, ed.), Burford Books, 1954, (reprinted 2002), ISBN 1-58080-085-8. Gottfried, Bradley M., The Maps of Gettysburg: An Atlas of the Gettysburg Campaign, June 3 June 13, 1863, Savas Beatie, 2007, ISBN 978-1-932714-30-2. Haskell, Frank Aretas, The Battle of Gettysburg, Kessinger Publishing, 2006, ISBN 978-1-4286-6012-0. Huntington, Tom, Pennsylvania Civil War Trails: The Guide to Battle Sites, Monuments, Museums and Towns, Stackpole books, 2007, ISBN 978-0-8117-3379-3. Paris, Louis-Philippe-Albert d'Orléans, The Battle of Gettysburg: A History of the Civil War in America, 1886, (online version by Digital Scanning, Inc., 1999), ISBN 1-58218-066-0. Shaara, Michael, The Killer Angels: A Novel, David McKay Co., 1974, (reprinted by Ballantine Books, 2001), ISBN 978-0345444127. Stackpole, Gen. Edward J., "They Met at Gettysburg", Stackpole Books, 1956, ISBN 0-8117-2089-6. External links Gettysburg National Military Park (National Park Service) Choices and Commitments: The Soldiers at Gettysburg, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan Gettysburg Visitor Information Gettysburg Photographs Interactive Battle Of Gettysburg with Narratives Animated history of the Battle of Gettysburg Military History Online: The Battle of Gettysburg Explanation of Buford's Defense at Gettysburg The Brothers War: The Battle of Gettysburg Gettysburg Discussion Group archives List of 53 Confederate generals at Gettysburg List of 67 US generals at Gettysburg Camp Letterman General Hospital History Under Siege: Gettysburg designated by the CWPT as one of the top 10 most endangered Civil War battlefields in 2009 Civil War Era Digital Collection at Gettysburg College Collection contains digitized paintings, photographs, and pamphlets of the Battle of Gettysburg New York at Gettysburg (Final Report on the Battlefield of Gettysburg) A three-volume account of the positions and movements of troops from New York State on the battlefield of Gettysburg, prepared for the New York Monuments Commission in 1900. 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2,218 | IA-32 | IA-32 (Intel Architecture, 32-bit), often generically called x86, x86-32 or i386, is the instruction set architecture of Intel's most commercially successful microprocessors. It is a 32-bit extension, first implemented in the Intel 80386, of the earlier 16-bit Intel 8086, 80186 and 80286 processors and the common denominator for all subsequent x86 designs. This architecture defines the instruction set for the family of microprocessors installed in the vast majority of personal computers in the world. The longevity is partially due to full backward compatibility and the architecture has also been extended to 64-bits, without breaking compatibility. This extension is called Intel 64 by Intel or AMD64 by AMD (and referred to generically as x86-64 or x64) and is entirely unrelated to the 64-bit IA-64 architecture implemented in Intel's Itanium series. The IA-32 instruction set is usually described as a CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) architecture, though such classifications have become less meaningful with advances in microprocessor design. Modern x86 microarchitectures such as K7, NetBurst, and newer, are often referred to as post-RISC processors. History The IA-32 instruction set was introduced in the Intel 80386 microprocessor in 1986 and remains the basis of most PC microprocessors over twenty years later. Even though the instruction set has remained intact, the successive generations of microprocessors that run it have become much faster. Within various programming language directives, IA-32 is still sometimes referred to as the "i386" architecture. Intel was the inventor and is the biggest supplier of IA-32 processors, but it is not the only supplier. The second biggest supplier is AMD. There are other suppliers, but their volumes are small. As of 2007, Intel is moving to x86-64, but still produces IA-32 processors such as Celeron M for laptops. VIA Technologies continues to produce the VIA C3/C7 family of "pure" IA-32 devices, and AMD still produces the Geode line and mobile IA-32 processors. For a time Transmeta produced IA-32 processors. In 2000, AMD announced a derivative of IA-32 called x86-64 (later renamed AMD64), which added 64-bit computing capabilities. This extended architecture was later also adopted by Intel with minor changes. Succeeding architectures IA-64 Intel's IA-64 ("Intel Architecture, 64-bit") architecture, launched in 1999, is not directly compatible with the IA-32 instruction set, despite having a similar name. It has completely different instruction set and uses a VLIW design instead of out-of-order execution. IA-64 is the architecture used by the Itanium line of processors. Itanium initially also included hardware-support for IA-32 emulation, but it was very slow. Intel shifted to the use of a software emulator instead. Further improvements are: Sixteen times the number of general purpose registers (now 128) Sixteen times the number of floating point registers (now 128) Register rotation mechanism to keep values in registers over function calls x86-64 AMD64 AMD's AMD64 instruction set, initially called x86-64 when it was announced in 2000, is a 64-bit extension to IA-32 and thus maintains the x86 family heritage. While extending the instruction set, AMD took the opportunity to clean up some of the odd behavior of this instruction set that has existed since its earliest 16-bit days, while the processor is operating in 64-bit mode. Further improvements are: Two times the number of general purpose registers (now 16) Two times the number of SSE registers (now 16) The general purpose registers are now truly general-purpose registers and are no longer restricted. Most of the functionality of the segment registers has been deprecated, since their usage has steadily declined even during the IA-32 days. Intel 64 In 2004, Intel announced the EM64T ("Extended Memory 64 Technology") instruction set, formerly codenamed Yamhill or IA-32e, and later renamed Intel 64. It was derived from AMD64 and is generally compatible with code written for AMD64, though it lacks some AMD64 features. Intel started using the set starting with the Xeon Nocona core in late 2004, introducing it to the desktop market with the Pentium 4 E0 revision in early 2005. See also x86 Wintel x86-64 List of AMD microprocessors List of Intel microprocessors Intel P6 NetBurst Intel Core microarchitecture Microarchitecture References External links Free IA-32 documentation, provided by Intel IA-32 Instruction Set Reference, HTML/non-PDF version | IA-32 |@lemmatized ia:21 intel:22 architecture:12 bit:10 often:2 generically:2 call:5 instruction:13 set:14 commercially:1 successful:1 microprocessor:8 extension:3 first:1 implement:2 early:3 processor:8 common:1 denominator:1 subsequent:1 design:3 define:1 family:3 instal:1 vast:1 majority:1 personal:1 computer:2 world:1 longevity:1 partially:1 due:1 full:1 backward:1 compatibility:2 also:4 extend:3 without:1 break:1 amd:7 refer:3 entirely:1 unrelated:1 itanium:3 series:1 usually:1 describe:1 cisc:1 complex:1 though:3 classification:1 become:2 less:1 meaningful:1 advance:1 modern:1 microarchitectures:1 netburst:2 new:1 post:1 risc:1 history:1 introduce:2 remain:2 basis:1 pc:1 twenty:1 year:1 later:4 even:2 intact:1 successive:1 generation:1 run:1 much:1 faster:1 within:1 various:1 program:1 language:1 directive:1 still:3 sometimes:1 inventor:1 big:2 supplier:4 second:1 volume:1 small:1 move:1 produce:4 celeron:1 laptop:1 via:2 technology:2 continue:1 pure:1 device:1 geode:1 line:2 mobile:1 time:5 transmeta:1 announce:3 derivative:1 rename:2 add:1 computing:1 capability:1 extended:1 adopt:1 minor:1 change:1 succeed:1 launch:1 directly:1 compatible:2 despite:1 similar:1 name:1 completely:1 different:1 use:4 vliw:1 instead:2 order:1 execution:1 initially:2 include:1 hardware:1 support:1 emulation:1 slow:1 shift:1 software:1 emulator:1 improvement:2 sixteen:2 number:4 general:4 purpose:4 register:9 float:1 point:1 rotation:1 mechanism:1 keep:1 value:1 function:1 thus:1 maintain:1 heritage:1 take:1 opportunity:1 clean:1 odd:1 behavior:1 exist:1 since:2 day:2 operate:1 mode:1 two:2 sse:1 truly:1 longer:1 restrict:1 functionality:1 segment:1 deprecate:1 usage:1 steadily:1 decline:1 memory:1 formerly:1 codenamed:1 yamhill:1 derive:1 generally:1 code:1 write:1 lack:1 feature:1 start:2 xeon:1 nocona:1 core:2 late:1 desktop:1 market:1 pentium:1 revision:1 see:1 wintel:1 list:2 microarchitecture:2 reference:2 external:1 link:1 free:1 documentation:1 provide:1 html:1 non:1 pdf:1 version:1 |@bigram commercially_successful:1 vast_majority:1 backward_compatibility:1 intel_intel:2 intel_itanium:1 risc_processor:1 intel_microprocessor:2 external_link:1 |
2,219 | Governor_of_New_South_Wales | The Governor of New South Wales is the representative in the Australian state of New South Wales of Australia's monarch, Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia. The Governor performs the same constitutional and ceremonial functions at the state level as does the Governor-General of Australia at the national level. Aside from the Body Politic of the Crown (i.e. the Queen of Australia), the office of Governor of New South Wales is the oldest constitutional office in Australia. Captain Arthur Phillip assumed office as Governor of New South Wales on 7 February 1788, when the Colony of New South Wales, the first British settlement in Australia, was formally founded. The early colonial governors held an almost autocratic power due to the distance from and poor communications with Great Britain, until 1824 when the New South Wales Legislative Council, Australia's first legislative body, was appointed to advise the governor. NSW Parliament. History of the Legislative Council. Accessed 10 August 2007. Between 1850 and 1861, the Governor of New South Wales was titled Governor-General in an early attempt at federalism imposed by Earl Grey. All communication between the Australian colonies and the British Government was meant to go through the Governor-General, and the other colonies had Lieutenant-Governors. As South Australia (1836), Tasmania (January 1855) and Victoria (May 1855) obtained responsible government, their Lieutenant-Governors were replaced by Governors. Although he had ceased acting as a Governor-General, Sir William Denison retained the title until his retirement. In accordance with the conventions of the Westminster system of parliamentary government, the Governor nearly always acts solely on the advice of the head of the elected government, the Premier of New South Wales. Nevertheless, the Governor retains the reserve powers of the Crown, and has the right to dismiss the Premier. This power was last exercised in 1932, when Sir Philip Game dismissed Jack Lang. When the Governor dies, resigns or is absent their duties are carried out by the Lieutenant Governor of New South Wales. The Governor of New South Wales previously used Government House as a residence, office and official reception space. However, in 1996, at the direction of Premier Bob Carr, the Governor has not used it as a residence. The Governor's present day office is the historic Chief Secretary’s Building nearby, at 121 Macquarie Street. See Governors of the Australian states for a description and history of the office of Governor. The first Australian-born Governor of New South Wales (or of any Australian state) was Lieutenant General Sir John Northcott (appointed 1946). All subsequent governors of NSW have been Australian-born except for Gordon Samuels, who was born in the United Kingdom but emigrated to Australia at an early age. Northcott's successor, Lieutenant General Sir Eric Woodward (appointed 1957), was the first born in New South Wales. List of Governors of New South Wales No. Governor From To1 Captain Arthur Phillip RN 23 January 1788 10 December 17922 Captain John Hunter RN 11 September 1795 27 September 18003 Captain Philip King RN 28 September 1800 12 August 18064 Captain William Bligh RN 13 August 1806 26 January 18085 Major-General Lachlan Macquarie CB 1 January 1810 1 December 18216 The Rt Hon. Major-General Sir Thomas Brisbane Bt GCH GCB 1 December 1821 1 December 18257 Lieutenant-General Sir Ralph Darling GCH 19 December 1825 22 October 18318 Major-General Sir Richard Bourke KCB 3 December 1831 5 December 18379 Sir George Gipps 24 February 1838 11 July 184610 Sir Charles Augustus FitzRoy KCH KCB 3 August 1846 January 185511 Sir William Denison KCB 20 January 1855 22 January 186112 The Rt Hon. Lord Lisgar GCB GCMG PC 16 May 1861 24 December 186713 The Rt Hon. Earl Belmore GCMG PC 8 January 1868 21 February 187214 The Rt Hon. Lord Rosmead GCMG 3 June 1872 19 March 187915 The Rt Hon. Lord Augustus Loftus GCB PC 4 August 1879 9 November 188516 The Most Hon. Marquess of Lincolnshire GCMG PC 12 December 1885 3 November 189017 The Rt Hon. Earl of Jersey GCB GCMG PC 15 January 1891 2 March 189318 The Rt Hon. Sir Robert Duff GCMG 29 May 1893 15 March 189519 The Rt Hon. Viscount Hampden GCMG 21 November 1895 5 March 189920 The Rt Hon. Earl Beauchamp KG KCMG PC 18 May 1899 30 April 190121 Admiral Sir Harry Rawson GCB GCMG RN 27 May 1902 27 May 190922 The Rt Hon. Viscount Chelmsford GCMG GCSI GCIE GBE PC 28 May 1909 11 March 191323 The Rt Hon. Lord Strickland GCMG 14 March 1913 27 October 191724 The Rt Hon. Sir Walter Davidson KCMG CBE KStJ 18 February 1918 4 September 192325 The Rt Hon. Admiral Sir Dudley de Chair KCB KBE MVO 28 February 1924 7 April 193026 Air Vice-Marshal Sir Philip Game GCB GCVO GBE KCMG DSO 29 May 1930 15 January 193527 The Rt Hon. The Earl Gowrie VC GCMG CB DSO PC 21 February 1935 22 January 193628 Admiral Sir David Anderson KCB KCMG MVO 6 August 1936 29 October 193629 The Rt Hon. Lord Wakehurst KG GCMG OStJ 8 April 1937 8 January 194630 Lieutenant General Sir John Northcott KCMG KCVO CB 1 August 1946 31 July 195731 Lieutenant General Sir Eric Woodward KCMG KCVO CB CBE DSO 1 August 1957 31 July 196532 Sir Roden Cutler VC AK KCMG KCVO CBE 20 January 1966 19 January 1981 33 Air Marshal Sir James Rowland AC KBE DFC AFC RAAF 20 January 1981 20 January 198934 Rear Admiral Sir David Martin KCMG AO 20 January 1989 7 August 199035 Rear Admiral Peter Sinclair AC 8 August 1990 29 February 199636 The Hon. Gordon Samuels AC CVO QC 1 March 1996 28 February 200137 Professor Marie Bashir, Lady Shehadie AC CVO 1 March 2001 Present Standard of the Governor of New South Wales Living former governors Currently, only one former governor is alive. The most recent governor to die was Gordon Samuels (1996–2001), on 10 December 2007. NameTerm as governorDate of birthPeter Sinclair1990–19961930 References External links The Governor of NSW from the Parliament of NSW website | Governor_of_New_South_Wales |@lemmatized governor:32 new:14 south:15 wale:13 representative:1 australian:6 state:4 australia:9 monarch:1 elizabeth:1 ii:1 queen:2 perform:1 constitutional:2 ceremonial:1 function:1 level:2 general:12 national:1 aside:1 body:2 politic:1 crown:2 e:1 office:6 old:1 captain:5 arthur:2 phillip:2 assume:1 february:8 colony:3 first:4 british:2 settlement:1 formally:1 found:1 early:3 colonial:1 hold:1 almost:1 autocratic:1 power:3 due:1 distance:1 poor:1 communication:2 great:1 britain:1 legislative:3 council:2 appoint:3 advise:1 nsw:4 parliament:2 history:2 access:1 august:10 title:2 attempt:1 federalism:1 impose:1 earl:5 grey:1 government:5 mean:1 go:1 lieutenant:8 tasmania:1 january:17 victoria:1 may:8 obtain:1 responsible:1 replace:1 although:1 cease:1 act:2 sir:21 william:3 denison:2 retain:2 retirement:1 accordance:1 convention:1 westminster:1 system:1 parliamentary:1 nearly:1 always:1 solely:1 advice:1 head:1 elected:1 premier:3 nevertheless:1 reserve:1 right:1 dismiss:2 last:1 exercise:1 philip:3 game:2 jack:1 lang:1 die:2 resigns:1 absent:1 duty:1 carry:1 previously:1 use:2 house:1 residence:2 official:1 reception:1 space:1 however:1 direction:1 bob:1 carr:1 present:2 day:1 historic:1 chief:1 secretary:1 building:1 nearby:1 macquarie:2 street:1 see:1 description:1 born:2 john:3 northcott:3 subsequent:1 except:1 gordon:3 samuel:3 bear:2 united:1 kingdom:1 emigrate:1 age:1 successor:1 eric:2 woodward:2 list:1 wales:1 rn:5 december:10 hunter:1 september:4 king:1 bligh:1 major:3 lachlan:1 cb:4 rt:15 hon:17 thomas:1 brisbane:1 bt:1 gch:2 gcb:6 ralph:1 darling:1 october:3 richard:1 bourke:1 kcb:5 george:1 gipps:1 july:3 charles:1 augustus:2 fitzroy:1 kch:1 lord:5 lisgar:1 gcmg:12 pc:8 belmore:1 rosmead:1 june:1 march:8 loftus:1 november:3 marquess:1 lincolnshire:1 jersey:1 robert:1 duff:1 viscount:2 hampden:1 beauchamp:1 kg:2 kcmg:8 april:3 admiral:5 harry:1 rawson:1 chelmsford:1 gcsi:1 gcie:1 gbe:2 strickland:1 walter:1 davidson:1 cbe:3 kstj:1 dudley:1 de:1 chair:1 kbe:2 mvo:2 air:2 vice:1 marshal:2 gcvo:1 dso:3 gowrie:1 vc:2 david:2 anderson:1 wakehurst:1 ostj:1 kcvo:3 roden:1 cutler:1 ak:1 james:1 rowland:1 ac:4 dfc:1 afc:1 raaf:1 rear:2 martin:1 ao:1 peter:1 sinclair:1 cvo:2 qc:1 professor:1 marie:1 bashir:1 lady:1 shehadie:1 standard:1 live:1 former:2 currently:1 one:1 alive:1 recent:1 nameterm:1 governordate:1 birthpeter:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 |@bigram body_politic:1 arthur_phillip:2 lieutenant_governor:3 william_bligh:1 rt_hon:15 gcmg_pc:4 gcsi_gcie:1 dso_pc:1 rear_admiral:2 external_link:1 |
2,220 | English_Channel | Satellite view of the English Channel Map of the English Channel The English Channel (, "the sleeve") is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that separates England from northern France, and joins the North Sea to the Atlantic. It is about long and varies in width from at its widest, to only in the Strait of Dover. "English Channel". The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2004. It is the smallest of the shallow seas around the continental shelf of Europe, covering an area of some . "English Channel." Encyclopædia Britannica 2007. Geography The length of the Channel is most often defined as the line between Land's End and Ushant at the (arbitrarily defined) western end, and the Strait of Dover at the eastern end. The strait is also the Channel's narrowest point, while its widest point lies between Lyme Bay and the Gulf of Saint Malo near the midpoint of the waterway. It is relatively shallow, with an average depth of about at its widest part, reducing to about between Dover and Calais. From there eastwards the adjoining North Sea continues to shallow to about in the Broad Fourteens where it lies over the watershed of the former land bridge between East Anglia and the Low Countries. It reaches a maximum depth of in the submerged valley of Hurds Deep, west-northwest of Guernsey. "English Channel." The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia including Atlas. 2005. The eastern region along the French coast between Cherbourg and the mouth of the Seine river at Le Havre is frequently referred to as the Bay of the Seine () . Several major islands are situated in the Channel, the most notable being the Isle of Wight off the English coast and the British crown dependencies the Channel Islands off the coast of France. The Isles of Scilly off the far southwest coast of England are not generally counted as being in the Channel. The coastline, particularly on the French shore, is deeply indented. The Cotentin Peninsula in France juts out into the Channel, and the Isle of Wight creates a small parallel channel known as the Solent. The Channel is of geologically recent origins, having been dry land for most of the Pleistocene period. It is thought to have been created between 450,000 and 180,000 years ago by two catastrophic glacial lake outburst floods caused by the breaching of the Weald-Artois Anticline, a ridge which held back a large proglacial lake in the Doggerland region, now submerged under the North Sea. The flood would have lasted several months, releasing as much as one million cubic metres of water per second. The cause of the breach is not known but may have been caused by an earthquake or simply the build-up of water pressure in the lake. As well as destroying the isthmus that connected Britain to continental Europe, the flood carved a large bedrock-floored valley down the length of the English Channel, leaving behind streamlined islands and longitudinal erosional grooves characteristic of catastrophic megaflood events. The Celtic Sea forms its western border. For the UK Shipping Forecast the English Channel is divided into the areas of (from the West): Plymouth Portland Wight Dover Etymology Map with French nomenclature The name "English Channel" has been widely used since the early 18th century, possibly originating from the designation "Engelse Kanaal" in Dutch sea maps from the 16th century onwards. It has also been known as the "British Channel". Jonathan Potter: Map : The British Channel A chart of the British Channel, Jefferys, Thomas, 1787 Prior to then it was known as the British Sea, and it was called the "Oceanus Britannicus" by the 2nd century geographer Ptolemy. The same name is used on an Italian map of about 1450 which gives the alternative name of "canalites Anglie"—possibly the first recorded use of the "Channel" designation. "Map Of Great Britain, Ca. 1450", Collect Britain The French name "La Manche" has been in use since at least the 17th century. The name is usually said to refer to the Channel's sleeve (French: "manche") shape. However, it is sometimes claimed to instead derive from a Celtic word meaning "channel" that is also the source of the name for The Minch, in Scotland. Room A. Placenames of the world: origins and meanings, p. 6. In Spain and most Spanish speaking countries the Channel is referred to as "El Canal de la Mancha". In Portuguese it is known as "O Canal da Mancha". (This is not a translation from French: in Portuguese, as well as in Spanish, "mancha" means "stain", while the word for sleeve is "manga".) Other languages also use this name, such as Greek (Κανάλι της Μάγχης) and Italian (la Manica). In Breton it is known as "Mor Breizh" (the Sea of Brittany), tied to the Latin and indicative in origins for the name Armorica. History The channel has been the key natural defence for Britain, halting invading armies whilst in conjunction with control of the North Sea allowing her to blockade the continent. The most significant failed invasion threats came when the Dutch and Belgian ports were held by a major continental power, e.g. from the Spanish Armada in 1588, Napoleon during the Napoleonic Wars, and Nazi Germany during World War II. Successful invasions include the Roman conquest of Britain, the Norman Conquest in 1066 and the invasion and conquest of Britain by Dutch troops under William III in 1688, whilst the concentration of excellent harbours in the Western Channel on Britain's south coast made possible the largest invasion of all times: the Normandy landings in 1944. Channel naval battles include the Battle of Goodwin Sands (1652), the Battle of Portland (1653), the Battle of La Hougue (1692) and the engagement between USS Kearsarge and CSS Alabama (1864). In more peaceful times the channel served as a link joining shared cultures and political structures, particularly the huge Angevin Empire from 1135–1217. For nearly a thousand years, the Channel also provided a link between the Modern Celtic regions and languages of Cornwall and Brittany. Brittany was founded by Britons who fled Cornwall and Devon after Anglo-Saxon encroachment. In Brittany, there is a region known as "Cornouaille" (Cornwall) in French and "Kernev" in Breton cf. "Kernow", the Cornish for Cornwall. Anciently there was also a "Domnonia" (Devon) in Brittany as well. Route to the British Isles This is the approximate extent of Old Norse and related languages in the early 10th century around the North Sea. The red area is the distribution of the dialect Old West Norse, the orange area is the spread of the dialect Old East Norse and the green area is the extent of the other Germanic languages with which Old Norse still retained some mutual intelligibility Diodorus Siculus and Pliny History Compass both suggest trade between the rebel celtic tribes of Armorica and Iron Age Britain flourished. In 55 BC Julius Caesar invaded claiming that the Britons had aided the Veneti against him the previous year. He was more successful in 54 BC, but Britain was not fully established as part of the Roman Empire until completion of the invasion by Aulus Plautius in 43 AD. A brisk and regular trade began between ports in Roman Gaul and those in Britain. This traffic continued until the Roman departure from Britain in 410 AD, after which we enter early Anglo-Saxons rendered less clear historical records. In the power vacuum left by the retreating Romans, the Germanic Angles, Saxons, and Jutes began the next great migration across the North Sea. Having already been used as mercenaries in Britain by the Romans, many people from these tribes migrated across the North Sea during the Migration Period, conquering and perhaps displacing the native Celtic populations. Norsemen and Normans The Hermitage of Saint Helier lies in the bay off St. Helier and is accessible on foot at low tide The attack on Lindisfarne in 793 is generally considered the beginning of the Viking Age. For the next 250 years the Scandinavian raiders of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark dominated the North Sea, raiding monasteries, homes, and towns along the coast and along the rivers that ran inland. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle they began to settle in Britain in 851. They continued to settle in the British Isles and the continent until around 1050. The fiefdom of Normandy was created for the Viking leader Rollo (also known as Robert of Normandy). Rollo had besieged Paris but in 911 entered vassalage to the king of the West Franks Charles the Simple through the Treaty of St.-Claire-sur-Epte. In exchange for his homage and fealty, Rollo legally gained the territory he and his Viking allies had previously conquered. The name "Normandy" reflects Rollo's Viking (i.e. "Northman") origins. The descendants of Rollo and his followers adopted the local Gallo-Romantic language and intermarried with the area’s previous inhabitants and became the Normans – a Norman French-speaking mixture of Scandinavians, Hiberno-Norse, Orcadians, Anglo-Danish, and indigenous Franks and Gauls. Rollo's descendant William, Duke of Normandy became king of England in 1066 in the Norman Conquest culminating at the Battle of Hastings while retaining the fiefdom of Normandy for himself and his descendants. In 1204, during the reign of King John, mainland Normandy was taken from England by France under Philip II while insular Normandy (the Channel Islands) remained under English control. In 1259, Henry III of England recognized the legality of French possession of mainland Normandy under the Treaty of Paris. His successors, however, often fought to regain control of mainland French Normandy. With the rise of William the Conqueror the North Sea and Channel began to lose some of its importance. The new order oriented most of England and Scandinavia's trade south, toward the Mediterranean and the Orient. Although the British surrendered claims to mainland Normandy and other French possessions in 1801, the monarch of the United Kingdom retains the title Duke of Normandy in respect to the Channel Islands. The Channel Islands (except for Chausey) remain a Crown dependency of the British Crown in the present era. Thus the Loyal Toast in the Channel Islands is La Reine, notre Duc ("The Queen, our Duke"). The British monarch is understood to not be the Duke of Normandy in regards of the French region of Normandy described herein, by virtue of the Treaty of Paris of 1259, the surrender of French possessions in 1801, and the belief that the rights of succession to that title are subject to Salic Law which excludes inheritance through female heirs. French Normandy was occupied by English forces during the Hundred Years' War in 1346–1360 and again in 1415–1450. England & Britain: The naval superpowers From the reign of Elizabeth I, English foreign policy concentrated on preventing invasion across the Channel by ensuring no major European power controlled the potential Dutch and Flemish invasion ports. Her climb to the pre-eminent sea power of the world began in 1588 as the attempted invasion of the Spanish Armada was defeated by the combination of outstanding naval tactics by the English under command of Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham with Sir Francis Drake second in command, and the following stormy weather. The strengthened English Navy waged several wars with their continental neighbours and by the end of the 18th century had erased the Dutch's previously world-spanning empire. The building of the British Empire was possible only because the Royal Navy exercised unquestioned control over the seas around Europe, especially the Channel and the North Sea. The only significant challenge to British domination of the seas came during the Napoleonic Wars. The Battle of Trafalgar took place off the coast of Spain against a combined French and Spanish fleet and was won by Admiral Horatio Nelson, ending Napoleon's plans for a cross-Channel invasion and securing British dominance of the seas for over a century. First World War The exceptional strategic importance of the Channel as a tool for blockade was recognised by the First Sea Lord Admiral Fisher in the years before World War I. "Five keys lock up the world! Singapore, the Cape, Alexandria, Gibraltar, Dover." quoting Fisher, Naval Necessities I, p. 219 However on July 25 1909 Louis Bleriot successfully made the first Channel crossing from Calais to Dover in an airplane. Bleriot's crossing immediately signaled the end of the Channel as a barrier-moat for England against foreign enemies. Because the Kaiserliche Marine's surface fleet could not match the British Grand Fleet, the Germans developed submarine warfare which was to become a far greater threat to Britain. The Dover Patrol was set up just before war started to escort cross-Channel troopships and to prevent submarines from accessing the Channel, thereby obliging them to travel to the Atlantic via the much longer route around Scotland. On land, the German army attempted to capture Channel ports (see "Race to the Sea") but although the trenches are often said to have stretched "from the frontier of Switzerland to the English Channel" in fact they reached the coast at the North Sea. Much of the British war effort in Flanders was a bloody but successful strategy to prevent the Germans reaching the Channel coast. On 31 January 1917, the Germans restarted unrestricted submarine warfare leading to dire Admiralty predictions that submarines would defeat Britain by November, the most dangerous situation Britain faced in either World War. The Battle of Passchendaele in 1917, was fought to reduce the threat by capturing the submarine bases on the Belgian coast though it was the introduction of convoys and not capture of the bases that averted defeat. In April 1918 the Dover patrol carried out the famous Zeebrugge Raid against the U-boat bases. The Naval blockade effected via the Channel and North Sea was one of the decisive factors in the German defeat in 1918. Second World War British radar facilities during the Battle of Britain 1940 During the Second World War, naval activity in the European theatre was primarily limited to the Atlantic. The early stages of the Battle of Britain featured air attacks on Channel shipping and ports, and until the Normandy landings with the exception of the Channel Dash the narrow waters were too dangerous for major warships. However, despite these early successes against shipping, the Germans did not win the air supremacy necessary for a cross Channel invasion. The Channel subsequently became the stage for an intensive coastal war, featuring submarines, minesweepers, and Fast Attack Craft. 150 mm World War II German gun emplacement in Normandy. The town of Dieppe was the site of the ill-fated Dieppe Raid by Canadian and British armed forces. More successful was the later Operation Overlord (also known as D-Day), a massive invasion of German-occupied France by Allied troops. Caen, Cherbourg, Carentan, Falaise and other Norman towns endured many casualties in the fight for the province, which continued until the closing of the so-called Falaise gap between Chambois and Montormel, then liberation of Le Havre. As part of the Atlantic Wall, between 1940 and 1945 the occupying German forces and the Organisation Todt constructed fortifications round the coasts of the Channel Islands such as this observation tower at Les Landes, Jersey The Channel Islands were the only part of the British Commonwealth occupied by Germany (excepting the part of Egypt occupied by the Afrika Korps at the time of the Second Battle of El Alamein). The German occupation 1940–1945 was harsh, with some island residents being taken for slave labour on the Continent; native Jews sent to concentration camps; partisan resistance and retribution; accusations of collaboration; and slave labour (primarily Russians and eastern Europeans) being brought to the islands to build fortifications. The Royal Navy blockaded the islands from time to time, particularly following the liberation of mainland Normandy in 1944. Intense negotiations resulted in some Red Cross humanitarian aid, but there was considerable hunger and privation during the five years of German occupation particularly in the final months when the population was close to starvation. The German troops on the islands surrendered on 9 May 1945 only a few days after the final surrender in mainland Europe. Population The English Channel is densely populated on both shores, on which are situated a number of major ports and resorts possessing a combined population of over 3.5 million people. The most significant towns and cities along the Channel (each with more than 20,000 inhabitants, ranked in descending order; populations are the urban area populations from the 1999 French census, 2001 UK census, and 2001 Jersey census) are as follows: British side The walled city of Saint-Malo was a former stronghold of corsairs The Spinnaker Tower, Portsmouth at night, showing the Tower's uplighting. Brighton–Worthing–Littlehampton: 461,181 inhabitants, made up of: Brighton: 155,919 Worthing: 96,964 Hove: 72,335 Littlehampton: 55,716 Lancing–Sompting: 30,360 Portsmouth: 442,252, including Gosport: 79,200 Bournemouth & Poole: 383,713 Southampton: 304,400 Plymouth: 243,795 Torbay (Torquay): 129,702 Hastings–Bexhill: 126,386 Eastbourne: 106,562 Bognor Regis: 62,141 Folkestone–Hythe: 60,039 Weymouth: 56,043 Dover: 39,078 Exmouth: 32,972 Falmouth–Penryn: 28,801 Ryde: 22,806 St Austell: 22,658 Seaford: 21,851 Falmouth: 21,635 Penzance: 20,255 French side Le Havre: 248,547 inhabitants Calais: 104,852 Boulogne-sur-Mer: 92,704 Cherbourg: 89,704 Saint-Brieuc: 85,849 Saint-Malo: 50,675 Lannion–Perros-Guirec: 48,990 Dieppe: 42,202 Morlaix: 35,996 Dinard: 25,006 Étaples–Le Touquet-Paris-Plage: 23,994 Fécamp: 22,717 Eu–Le Tréport: 22,019 Trouville-sur-Mer–Deauville: 20,406 Berck: 20,113 Channel Islands Saint Helier: 28,310 inhabitants Saint Peter Port: 16,488 inhabitants Shipping The Channel, with traffic in both the UK-Europe and North Sea-Atlantic routes, is one of the world's busiest seaways carrying over 400 ships per day. Following an accident in January 1971 and a series of disastrous collisions with wreckage in February, the Dover Traffic Separation System (TSS) the world's first radar controlled TSS was set up by the International Maritime Organization. In December 2002 the MV Tricolor, carrying £30m of luxury cars sank 32 km (20 mi) northwest of Dunkirk after collision in fog with the container ship Kariba. The cargo ship Nicola ran into the wreckage the next day. However, there was no loss of life. The shore-based long range traffic control system was updated in 2003. Though the system is inherently incapable of reaching the levels of safety obtained from aviation systems such as the Traffic Collision Avoidance System, it has reduced accidents to one or two per year. Marine GPS systems allow ships to be preprogrammed to follow navigational channels accurately and automatically, further avoiding risk of running aground, but following the fatal collision between Dutch Aquamarine and Ash in October 2001, Britain's Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB) issued a safety bulletin saying it believed that in these most unusual circumstances GPS use had actually contributed to the collision. The ships were maintaining a very precise automated course, one directly behind the other, rather than making use of the full width of the traffic lanes as a human navigator would. A combination of radar difficulties in monitoring areas near cliffs, a failure of a CCTV system, incorrect operation of the anchor, the inability of the crew to follow standard procedures of using a GPS to provide early warning of the ship dragging the anchor and reluctance to admit the mistake and start the engine led to the MV Willy running aground in Cawsand bay, Cornwall in January 2002. The Marine Accident Investigation Branch report makes it clear that the harbour controllers were actually informed of impending disaster by shore observers even before the crew were themselves aware. The village of Kingsand was evacuated for 3 days because of the risk of explosion, and the ship was stranded for 11 days. Because of the risk to life from large vessels maneuvering in narrow shipping lanes, unorthodox crossing of the Dover Straits is banned under French Law, the only exception being for Cross Channel swimming attempts organised and approved by the Channel Swimming Association (CSA) and (CS&PF). Ecology As a busy shipping lane, the English Channel experiences environmental problems following accidents involving ships with toxic cargo and oil spills. Indeed over 40% of the UK incidents threatening pollution occur in or very near the Channel. One of the most infamous was the MSC Napoli, which with nearly 1700 tonnes of dangerous cargo was controversially beached in Lyme bay, a protected World Heritage Site coastline. The ship had been damaged and was en route to Portland when much nearer harbours were available. Transportation View of the beach of Le Havre and a part of the rebuilt city Ferry Important ferry routes are: Dover-Calais Dover-Boulogne Newhaven-Dieppe Portsmouth-Caen (Ouistreham) Portsmouth-Cherbourg Portsmouth-Le Havre Poole-Saint Malo Poole-Cherbourg Weymouth-Saint Malo Plymouth-Roscoff Channel Tunnel Many travellers cross beneath the English Channel using the Channel Tunnel. This engineering feat, first proposed in the early 19th century and finally realised in 1994, connects the UK and France by rail. It is now routine to travel between Paris or Brussels and London on the Eurostar train. Cars can also travel on special trains between Folkestone and Calais. Economy Tourism The coastal resorts of the channel, such as Brighton and Deauville, inaugurated an era of aristocratic tourism in the early 19th century, which developed into the seaside tourism that has shaped resorts around the world. Short trips across the channel for leisure purposes are often referred to as Channel Hopping. Culture and languages Kelham's Dictionary of the Norman or Old French Language (1779), dealing with England's Law French, a cross channel relic A streetsign in Merck-Saint-Liévin, Pas-de-Calais, showing Germanic influence in local toponyms. The name Picquendal corresponds to the modern Dutch Pikkendal. The two dominant cultures are English on the north shore of the Channel, and French on the south shore. However, there are also a number of minority languages that are/were found on the shores and islands of the English Channel, which are listed here, with the Channel's name following them. Celtic Languages Breton (Brezhoneg) - "Mor Breizh" (Sea of Brittany) Cornish (Kernewek) - "Chanel" Germanic languages Dutch (West Flemish) - "Het Kanaal" (the Channel) Dutch previously had a larger range, and extended into parts of the modern-day French state. For more information, please see French Flemish. Romance languages French language - "La Manche" Gallo Norman, including the Channel Island vernaculars - Anglo-Norman (extinct, but still fossilised in certain English law phrases) Auregnais (extinct) Cotentinais - Maunche Guernesiais - Ch'nal Jèrriais - Ch'na Sercquais Picard The English Channel has a variety of names in these languages. In Breton, it is known as Mor Breizh meaning the Sea of Brittany; in Norman, the Channel Island dialects use forms of "channel", e.g. Ch'nal, whereas the Mainland dialects tend more towards the French as in Maunche. In Flemish and Dutch it is Het Kanaal (the channel). Most other languages tend towards variants of the French and English forms, but notably Welsh has "Môr Udd" Notable channel crossings As one of the narrowest but most famous international waterways lacking dangerous currents, crossing the Channel has been the first objective of numerous innovative sea, air and human powered technologies. Date Crossing Participant(s) Notes 7 January 1785 First crossing by air (in balloon, from Dover to Calais) Jean-Pierre Blanchard (France)John Jeffries (U.S.) — 15 June 1785 First air crash (in combination hydrogen / hot-air balloon) Pilâtre de Rozier (France) Pierre Romain (France) Attempted crossing similar to Blanchard/Jeffries 10 June 1821 Paddle steamer "Rob Roy", first passenger ferry to cross channel The steamer was purchased subsequently by the French postal administration and renamed "Henri IV". June 1843 First ferry connection through Folkestone-Boulogne Commanding officer Captain Hayward 25 August 1875 First known person to swim the channel (Dover to Calais, 21 hrs, 45 min) Matthew Webb (UK) Attempted crossing on 12 August the same year; forced to abandon swim because of strong winds/rough sea conditions 27 March 1899 First radio transmission across the Channel (from (Wimereux to South Foreland Lighthouse) Guglielmo Marconi (Italy) 25 July 1909 First person to cross the channel in a heavier-than-air aircraft (the Blériot XI) (Calais to Dover, 37 minutes) Louis Blériot (France) Encouraged by £1000 prize being offered by the Daily Mail for first successful flight across the channel 23 August 1910 First aircraft flight with passengers John Bevins Moisant (U.S.) Passengers were mechanic Albert Fileux and Moisant's cat. 16 April 1912 First woman to fly across the English channel (Dover to Calais, 59 minutes) Harriet Quimby (US) Her accomplishment did not receive much media attention, as the Titanic had sunk the evening before. 23 August 1926 First woman to swim across the channel (Cap Gris Nez to Kingsdown, 14 hours 39 minutes) Gertrude Ederle (US) Five men had successfully swum the channel before Ederle. Ederle beat their best time by two hours, creating a record for a female swimmer that stood until Florence Chadwick swam it in 13 hours 20 minutes in 1950. 25 July 1959 Hovercraft crossing (Calais to Dover, 2 hours 3 minutes) SR-N1 Sir Christopher Cockerell was on board 22 August 1972 First solo hovercraft crossing (same route as SR-N1; 2 hours 20 minutes Verifiable in Hovercraft Club of Great Britain Records and Archives. ) Nigel Beale (UK) 12 June 1979 First human-powered aircraft to fly over the channel(in 55-pound (25 kg) Gossamer Albatross) Bryan Allen (U.S.) Won a £100,000 Kremer Prize; Allen pedalled for three hours 14 September 1995Fastest crossing by hovercraft, 22 minutes by "Princess Anne" MCH SR-N4 MkIIICraft was designed to work as a ferry 1997 First vessel to complete a solar-powered crossing using photovoltaic cells. SB Collinda — 14 June 2004 New record time for crossing in amphibious vehicle (the Gibbs Aquada, two-seater open-top sports car) Richard Branson (UK) Completed crossing in 100 min 06 sec. Previous record was 6 hours. 31 July 2003 Crossing in a long freefall using a wingsuit and a carbon-fiber wing Felix Baumgartner (Austria) 26 July 2006 New record time for crossing in hydrofoil car (the Rinspeed Splash, two-seater open-top sports car) Frank M. Rinderknecht (SUI) Completed crossing in 194 min 25 September 2006 First crossing on a towed inflatable object (not a powered inflatable boat) Stephen Preston (UK) Completed crossing in 180 min 26 September 2008 First crossing with a jetpack Yves Rossy (SUI) Crossing completed in less than ten minutes By boat Pierre Andriel crossed the English Channel aboard the Élise in 1815, one of the earliest sea going voyages by steam ship . On June 10, 1821 English built paddle steamer "Rob Roy" was the first passenger ferry to cross channel. The steamer was purchased subsequently by the French postal administration and renamed "Henri IV" and put into regular passenger service a year later. It was able to make the journey across the Straits of Dover in around three hours. The History of the Channel Ferry In June 1843 because of difficulties with Dover harbor, the South Eastern Railway company developed Boulogne-sur-Mer-Folkestone route as an alternative to Calais-Dover. The first ferry crossed under the command of Captain Hayward. Channel ferries & ferry ports The Mountbatten class hovercraft (MCH) entered commercial service in August 1968 initially operated between Dover and Boulogne, but later craft also made the Ramsgate (Pegwell Bay) to Calais route. The journey time, Dover to Boulogne, was roughly 35 minutes, with six trips per day at peak times. The fastest ever crossing of the English Channel by a commercial car-carrying hovercraft was 22 minutes, recorded by the Princess Anne MCH SR-N4 Mk3 on 14 September 1995, for the 10:00 am service . The youngest recorded sailors to cross the channel by boat are Hugo Sunnucks and Guy Harrison aged 15 (formula 18 catamaran). They completed in 4 hours 15 mins in August 2006. By swimming The sport of Channel Swimming traces its origins to the latter part of the 19th century when Captain Matthew Webb made the first observed and unassisted swim across the Strait of Dover swimming from England to France on 24 August 1875 – 25 August 1875 in 21 hours and 45 minutes. In 1927 (at a time when fewer than ten swimmers had managed to emulate the feat and many dubious claims were being made), the Channel Swimming Association (the CSA) was founded to authenticate and ratify swimmers' claims to have swum the English Channel and to verify crossing times. The CSA was dissolved in 1999 and was succeeded by two separate organisations: The CSA (Ltd) and the Channel Swimming and Piloting Federation (CSPF). Both observe and authenticate cross-Channel swims in the Strait of Dover. 24 August 1875 – 25 August 1875 Capt. Matthew Webb made the first crossing of the English Channel from England to France. 12 August 1923 Enrico Tiraboschi made the first crossing of the English Channel from France to England. 6 August 1926, Gertrude Ederle became the first woman to swim the Channel. She did it in 14 hours 31 minutes, breaking the men's record of the time by two hours. However, this swim attracted some controversy. On 16 August, The Westminster Gazette reported locals as saying that "Miss Ederle swam under the lea of one of the accompanying tugs" while another boat "navigated in such a manner as to keep the heavy seas and tides off her" and that "Miss Ederle was drawn along by the suction of the tug so that she was able to swim at about twice the speed she would have been able to swim under ordinary conditions." The Dover Express and East Kent News commented that "So far little information has been given of the detail of Miss Ederle's swim. The most extraordinary thing about it being that she made no westward drift with the ebb tide, which on the day in question ran westward for nearly seven hours." 7 October 1927, Mercedes Gleitze became, at her eighth attempt, the first British woman to swim the channel. She swam from France to England in 15 hours 15 minutes. Because of a claim which was soon proven to be false, by Dr. Dorothy Cochrane Logan (using her professional name, Mona McLennan), to have swum the Channel on 11 October in the faster time of thirteen hours and ten minutes, Gleitze's own claim was cast into doubt. To silence the doubters, Gleitze decided to repeat her feat in what was called "the vindication swim". On 21 October she entered the water at Cap Gris Nez. But this time the water was much colder, and she was unable to complete the crossing. She was pulled semi-conscious from the water after 10 hours 24 minutes, some seven miles (11 km) short of the English shore. She might have been disappointed at not completing the swim, but after witnessing her strength, courage, and determination, nobody doubted the legitimacy of her previous swim, and she was hailed as a heroine. As she sat in the boat, one journalist made an incredible discovery and reported it in The Times as follows: "Hanging round her neck by a riband on this swim, Miss Gleitze carried a small gold watch, which was found this evening to have kept good time throughout." This was one of the first Rolex Oyster waterproof watches which the director of Rolex, Hans Wilsdorf, had asked her to wear during her repeat attempt, and her feat was subsequently used in advertising by Rolex. Mihir Sen became the first Indian to swim the English Channel, from Dover to Calais on September 27 1958. Bose, Anjali, Samsad Bangali Chariutabhidhan, Vol II, p. 268, Sishu Sahitya Samsad Pvt. Ltd., ISBN 81-86806-99-7 In 1961 Antonio Abertondo from Argentina became the first person to swim the channel both ways non-stop. 9 September 1969 Atina Bojadzi, the first Macedonian woman to swim the Channel (the first woman from Yugoslavia, and actually the Balcans). This event was inspiration for the cult Macedonian movie from 1977 "Ispravi se, Delfina" (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0076212/). In July 1972, Lynne Cox became the youngest person to swim the English Channel at age fifteen, breaking both the men's and women's records. She swam the channel again in 1973, setting a new record time of nine hours thirty-six minutes. The oldest verified male swimmer to cross is American George Brunstad, who was aged 70 years and 4 days when he crossed on 27 August and 28 August 2004, taking 15 hours 59 minutes. The oldest male swimmer to cross under the rules of the Channel Swimming Association is Australian Clifford Batt, who was aged 67 years and 240 days when he crossed on 19 August 1987, taking 18 hours 37 minutes. The fastest verified swim of the channel was by Petar Stoychev on 24 August 2007. He crossed the channel in 6 hours 57 minutes 50 seconds. The fastest verified female channel swimmer is Yvetta Hlaváčová in 2006. She crossed the channel in 7 hours 25 minutes and 15 seconds. The fastest verified two way channel swimmer, in a time of 16 hours 10 minutes, is Philip Rush in 1987. The fastest verified female two way channel swimmer, in a time of 17 hours 14 minutes, is Susie Maroney in 1991. The fastest verified three way channel swimmer is Philip Rush in 1987. He crossed the channel (England/France/England/France) in 28 hours 21 mins. The fastest (and only) verified female three way channel swimmer is Alison Streeter in 1990. She crossed the channel (England/France/England/France) in 34 hours 40 mins. The woman with the most crossings, holding the undisputed title of "Queen of the Channel", is Alison Streeter MBE with 43 crossings, including one 3-way and three 2-way swims. The "King of the Channel" title has been awarded to Kevin Murphy (34 crossings, including three doubles) Des Renford swam the Channel 19 times, more than any other Australian. He was born on 25 August 1927, the 52nd anniversary of Matthew Webb's inaugural swim. Other swimming crossings include: Vicki Keith (first butterfly swim crossing); Florence Chadwick (first woman to swim the Channel in both directions); Montserrat Tresserras (first woman to swim the Channel in both directions, as verified by the Channel Swimming Association); Marilyn Bell (youngest person up to 1955); Amelia Gade Corson (first mother and second woman); Mercedes Gleitze (first Englishwoman, 7 October 1927); Brojen Das, the first Asian (23 August 1958); Abhijit Rao, the youngest Asian (6 August 1988); Comedians who have swum the channel Doon Mackichan, and David Walliams. The team with the most number of Channel swims to its credit is the International Sri Chinmoy Marathon Team with 35 crossings by 25 members (by 2005). By the end of 2005, 811 individuals had completed 1,185 verified crossings under the rules of the CSA, the CSA (Ltd), the CSPF and Butlins. The total number of swims conducted under and ratified by the Channel Swimming Association to 2005: 982 successful crossings by 665 people. This includes twenty-four 2-way crossings and three 3-way crossings. Total number of ratified swims to 2004: 948 successful crossings by 675 people (456 by men and 214 by women). There have been sixteen 2-way crossings (9 by men and 7 by women). There have been three 3-way crossings (2 by men and 1 by a woman). (It is unclear whether this last set of data is comprehensive or CSA-only.) See also Phoenix breakwaters Booze cruise References External links A unique and new approach to swimming the channel Information about Dover and Channel Swimming Oceanus Britannicus or British Sea Channel swimmers website Archives of long distance swimming Sponsor David Walliam's Sport Relief swim Channel Swimming and Piloting Federation Channel Swimming Association World War II Eye Witness Account - Audio Recording Air Battle over the English Channel (1940) | English_Channel |@lemmatized satellite:1 view:2 english:35 channel:135 map:6 sleeve:3 arm:2 atlantic:6 ocean:1 separate:2 england:17 northern:1 france:18 join:1 north:14 sea:31 long:5 varies:1 width:2 wide:3 strait:6 dover:28 columbia:1 encyclopedia:2 small:3 shallow:3 around:7 continental:4 shelf:1 europe:5 cover:1 area:8 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 geography:1 length:2 often:4 define:2 line:1 land:4 end:7 ushant:1 arbitrarily:1 western:3 eastern:4 also:12 narrow:4 point:2 lie:3 lyme:2 bay:6 gulf:1 saint:10 malo:5 near:3 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2,221 | Nitrogen | Nitrogen () is a chemical element that has the symbol N and atomic number 7 and atomic mass 14.00674µ. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78% by volume of Earth's atmosphere. Many industrially important compounds, such as ammonia, nitric acid, organic nitrates (propellants and explosives), and cyanides, contain nitrogen. The extremely strong bond in elemental nitrogen dominates nitrogen chemistry, causing difficulty for both organisms and industry in converting the into useful compounds, and releasing large amounts of energy when these compounds burn or decay back into nitrogen gas. The element nitrogen was discovered by Daniel Rutherford, a Scottish physician, in 1772. Nitrogen occurs in all living organisms. It is a constituent element of amino acids and thus of proteins, and of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). It resides in the chemical structure of almost all neurotransmitters, and is a defining component of alkaloids, biological molecules produced by many organisms. History Nitrogen (Latin nitrogenium, where nitrum (from Greek nitron) means "saltpetre" (see nitre), and genes means "forming") is formally considered to have been discovered by Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious air or fixed air. That there was a fraction of air that did not support combustion was well known to the late 18th century chemist. Nitrogen was also studied at about the same time by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley, who referred to it as burnt air or phlogisticated air. Nitrogen gas was inert enough that Antoine Lavoisier referred to it as "mephetic air" or azote, from the Greek word (azotos) meaning "lifeless". Animals died in it, and it was the principal component of air in which animals had suffocated and flames had burned to extinction. Lavoisier's name for nitrogen is used in French and still remains in English in the common names of many compounds, such as hydrazine and compounds of the azide ion. Compounds of nitrogen were known in the Middle Ages. The alchemists knew nitric acid as aqua fortis (strong water). The mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids was known as aqua regia (royal water), celebrated for its ability to dissolve gold (the king of metals). The earliest military, industrial and agricultural applications of nitrogen compounds involved uses of saltpeter (sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate), notably in gunpowder, and much later, as fertilizer. Properties Nitrogen is a nonmetal, with an electronegativity of 3.04. It has five electrons in its outer shell and is therefore trivalent in most compounds. The triple bond in molecular nitrogen () is the strongest in nature. The resulting difficulty of converting () into other compounds, and the ease (and associated high energy release) of converting nitrogen compounds into elemental , have dominated the role of nitrogen in both nature and human economic activities. At atmospheric pressure molecular nitrogen condenses (liquifies) at 77 K (−195.8 °C) and freezes at 63 K (−210.0 °C) into the beta hexagonal close-packed crystal allotropic form. Below 35.4 K (−237.6 °C) nitrogen assumes the alpha cubic crystal allotropic form. Liquid nitrogen, a fluid resembling water, but with 80.8% of the density (the density of liquid nitrogen at its boiling point is 0.808 g/mL), is a common cryogen. Unstable allotropes of nitrogen consisting of more than two nitrogen atoms have been produced in the laboratory, like and . Under extremely high pressures (1.1 million atm) and high temperatures (2000 K), as produced under diamond anvil conditions, nitrogen polymerizes into the single bonded diamond crystal structure, an allotrope nicknamed "nitrogen diamond." Isotopes There are two stable isotopes of nitrogen: 14N and 15N. By far the most common is 14N (99.634%), which is produced in the CNO cycle in stars. Of the ten isotopes produced synthetically, 13N has a half life of ten minutes and the remaining isotopes have half lives on the order of seconds or less. Biologically-mediated reactions (e.g., assimilation, nitrification, and denitrification) strongly control nitrogen dynamics in the soil. These reactions typically result in 15N enrichment of the substrate and depletion of the product. 0.73% of the molecular nitrogen in Earth's atmosphere is comprised of the isotopologue 14N15N and almost all the rest is 14N2. Radioisotope 16N is the dominant radionuclide in the coolant of pressurized water reactors during normal operation. It is produced from 16O (in water) via (n,p) reaction. It has a short half-life of about 7.1 s, but during its decay back to 16O produces high-energy gamma radiation (5 to 7 MeV). Because of this, the access to the primary coolant piping must be restricted during reactor power operation Karl Heinz Neeb, "The Radiochemistry of Nuclear Power Plants with Light Water Reactors", Walter de Gruyter, Berlin-New York, 1997. . 16N is one of the main means used to immediately detect even small leaks from the primary coolant to the secondary steam cycle. Electromagnetic spectrum Molecular nitrogen (14N2) is largely transparent to infrared and visible radiation because it is a homonuclear molecule and thus has no dipole moment to couple to electromagnetic radiation at these wavelengths. Significant absorption occurs at extreme ultraviolet wavelengths, beginning around 100 nanometers. This is associated with electronic transitions in the molecule to states in which charge is not distributed evenly between nitrogen atoms. Nitrogen absorption leads to significant absorption of ultraviolet radiation in the Earth's upper atmosphere as well as in the atmospheres of other planetary bodies. For similar reasons, pure molecular nitrogen lasers typically emit light in the ultraviolet range. Nitrogen also makes a contribution to visible air glow from the Earth's upper atmosphere, through electron impact excitation followed by emission. This visible blue air glow (seen in the polar aurora and in the re-entry glow of returning spacecraft) typically results not from molecular nitrogen, but rather from free nitrogen atoms combining with oxygen to form nitric oxide (NO). Reactions Structure of [Ru(NH3)5(N2)]2+. Nitrogen is generally unreactive at standard temperature and pressure. N2 reacts spontaneously with few reagents, being resilient to acids and bases as well as oxidants and most reductants. When nitrogen reacts spontaneously with a reagent, the net transformation is often called nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen reacts with elemental lithium at STP. Lithium burns in an atmosphere of N2 to give lithium nitride: 6 Li + N2 → 2 Li3N Magnesium also burns in nitrogen, forming magnesium nitride. 3 Mg + N2 → Mg3N2 N2 forms a variety of adducts with transition metals. The first example of a dinitrogen complex is [Ru(NH3)5(N2)]2+ (see figure at right). Such compounds are now numerous, other examples include IrCl(N2)(PPh3)2, W(N2)2(Ph2CH2CH2PPh2)2, and [(η5-C5Me4H)2Zr]2(μ2,η²,η²-N2). These complexes illustrate how N2 might bind to the metal(s) in nitrogenase and the catalyst for the Haber-Bosch Process. A catalytic process to reduce N2 to ammonia with the use of a molybdenum complex in the presence of a proton source was published in 2005. (see nitrogen fixation) The starting point for industrial production of nitrogen compounds is the Haber-Bosch process, in which nitrogen is fixed by reacting and over a ferric oxide () catalyst at about 500 °C and 200 atmospheres pressure. Biological nitrogen fixation in free-living cyanobacteria and in the root nodules of plants also produces ammonia from molecular nitrogen. The reaction, which is the source of the bulk of nitrogen in the biosphere, is catalysed by the nitrogenase enzyme complex which contains Fe and Mo atoms, using energy derived from hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) into adenosine diphosphate and inorganic phosphate (−20.5 kJ/mol). Occurrence Nitrogen is the largest single constituent of the Earth's atmosphere (78.082% by volume of dry air, 75.3% by weight in dry air). It is created by fusion processes in stars, and is estimated to be the 7th most abundant chemical element by mass in the universe. <! The abundance of Neon is very similar and some books quote Neon as 7th and nitrogen 8th.-> Molecular nitrogen and nitrogen compounds have been detected in interstellar space by astronomers using the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer. Molecular nitrogen is a major constituent of the Saturnian moon Titan's thick atmosphere, and occurs in trace amounts in other planetary atmospheres. Nitrogen is present in all living organisms, in proteins, nucleic acids and other molecules. It typically makes up around 4% of the dry weight of plant matter, and around 3% of the weight of the human body. It is a large component of animal waste (for example, guano), usually in the form of urea, uric acid, ammonium compounds and derivatives of these nitrogenous products, which are essential nutrients for all plants that are unable to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Nitrogen occurs naturally in a number of minerals, such as saltpetre (potassium nitrate), Chile saltpetre (sodium nitrate) and sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride). Most of these are relatively uncommon, partly because of the minerals' ready solubility in water. See also Nitrate minerals and Ammonium minerals. Compounds The main neutral hydride of nitrogen is ammonia (NH3), although hydrazine (N2H4) is also commonly used. Ammonia is more basic than water by 6 orders of magnitude. In solution ammonia forms the ammonium ion (NH4+). Liquid ammonia (b.p. 240 K) is amphiprotic (displaying either Brønsted-Lowry acidic or basic character) and forms ammonium and the less common amide ions (NH2-); both amides and nitride (N3-) salts are known, but decompose in water. Singly, doubly, triply and quadruply substituted alkyl compounds of ammonia are called amines (four substitutions, to form commercially and biologically important quaternary amines, results in a positively charged nitrogen, and thus a water-soluble, or at least amphiphilic, compound). Larger chains, rings and structures of nitrogen hydrides are also known, but are generally unstable. N22+ is another polyatomic cation as in hydrazine. Other classes of nitrogen anions (negatively charged ions) are the poisonous azides (N3-), which are linear and isoelectronic to carbon dioxide, but which bind to important iron-containing enzymes in the body in a manner more resembling cyanide. Another molecule of the same structure is the colorless and relatively inert anesthetic gas Nitrous oxide (dinitrogen monoxide, ), also known as laughing gas. This is one of a variety of nitrogen oxides that form a family often abbreviated as NOx. Nitric oxide (nitrogen monoxide, NO), is a natural free radical used in signal transduction in both plants and animals, for example in vasodilation by causing the smooth muscle of blood vessels to relax. The reddish and poisonous nitrogen dioxide contains an unpaired electron and is an important component of smog. Nitrogen molecules containing unpaired electrons show an understandable tendency to dimerize (thus pairing the electrons), and are generally highly reactive. The corresponding acids are nitrous and nitric acid , with the corresponding salts called nitrites and nitrates. The higher oxides dinitrogen trioxide , dinitrogen tetroxide (DTO) and dinitrogen pentoxide , are fairly unstable and explosive, a consequence of the chemical stability of . DTO is one of the most important oxidisers of rocket fuels, used to oxidise hydrazine in the Titan rocket and in the recent NASA MESSENGER probe to Mercury. DTO is an intermediate in the manufacture of nitric acid , one of the few acids stronger than hydronium and a fairly strong oxidizing agent. Nitrogen is notable for the range of explosively unstable compounds that it can produce. Nitrogen triiodide is an extremely sensitive contact explosive. Nitrocellulose, produced by nitration of cellulose with nitric acid, is also known as guncotton. Nitroglycerin, made by nitration of glycerin, is the dangerously unstable explosive ingredient of dynamite. The comparatively stable, but more powerful explosive trinitrotoluene (TNT) is the standard explosive against which the power of nuclear explosions are measured. Nitrogen can also be found in organic compounds. Common nitrogen functional groups include: amines, amides, nitro groups, imines, and enamines. The amount of nitrogen in a chemical substance can be determined by the Kjeldahl method. Applications A computer rendering of the nitrogen molecule, N2. Nitrogen gas is an industrial gas produced by the fractional distillation of liquid air, or by mechanical means using gaseous air (i.e. pressurised reverse osmosis membrane or Pressure swing adsorption). Commercial nitrogen is often a byproduct of air-processing for industrial concentration of oxygen for steelmaking and other purposes. When supplied compressed in cylinders it is often referred to as OFN (oxygen-free nitrogen). Nitrogen gas has a wide variety of applications, including serving as an inert replacement for air where oxidation is undesirable; To preserve the freshness of packaged or bulk foods (by delaying rancidity and other forms of oxidative damage) In ordinary incandescent light bulbs as an inexpensive alternative to argon. On top of liquid explosives as a safety measure The production of electronic parts such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits Dried and pressurized, as a dielectric gas for high voltage equipment The manufacturing of stainless steel Use in military aircraft fuel systems to reduce fire hazard, (see inerting system) Filling automotive and aircraft tires due to its inertness and lack of moisture or oxidative qualities, as opposed to air, though this is not necessary for consumer automobiles. Nitrogen molecules are less likely to escape from the inside of a tire compared with the traditional air mixture used. Air consists mostly of nitrogen and oxygen. Nitrogen molecules have a larger effective diameter than oxygen molecules and therefore diffuse through porous substances more slowly. Nitrogen is commonly used during sample preparation procedures for chemical analysis. Specifically, it is used as a means of concentrating and reducing the volume of liquid samples. Directing a pressurized stream of nitrogen gas perpendicular to the surface of the liquid allows the solvent to evaporate while leaving the solute(s) and un-evaporated solvent behind. Nitrogen tanks are also replacing carbon dioxide as the main power source for paintball guns. The downside is that nitrogen must be kept at higher pressure than CO2, making N2 tanks heavier and more expensive. Nitrogenated beer A further example of its versatility is its use as a preferred alternative to carbon dioxide to pressurize kegs of some beers, particularly stouts and British ales, due to the smaller bubbles it produces, which make the dispensed beer smoother and headier. A modern application of a pressure sensitive nitrogen capsule known commonly as a "widget" now allows nitrogen charged beers to be packaged in cans and bottles. Howstuffworks "How does the widget in a beer can work?" Liquid nitrogen Liquid nitrogen is a cryogenic liquid. At atmospheric pressure, it boils at −195.8 °C. When insulated in proper containers such as dewar flasks, it can be transported without much evaporative loss. Like dry ice, the main use of liquid nitrogen is as a refrigerant. Among other things, it is used in the cryopreservation of blood, reproductive cells (sperm and egg), and other biological samples and materials. It is used in cold traps for certain laboratory equipment and to cool x-ray detectors. It has also been used to cool central processing units and other devices in computers which are overclocked, and which produce more heat than during normal operation. Applications of nitrogen compounds Molecular nitrogen (N2) in the atmosphere is relatively non-reactive due to its strong bond, and N2 plays an inert role in the human body, being neither produced or destroyed. In nature, nitrogen is converted into biologically (and industrially) useful compounds by lightning, and by some living organisms, notably certain bacteria (i.e. nitrogen fixing bacteria – see Biological role below). Molecular nitrogen is released into the atmosphere in the process of decay, in dead plant and animal tissues. The ability to combine or fix molecular nitrogen is a key feature of modern industrial chemistry, where nitrogen and natural gas are converted into ammonia via the Haber process. Ammonia, in turn, can be used directly (primarily as a fertilizer, and in the synthesis of nitrated fertilizers), or as a precursor of many other important materials including explosives, largely via the production of nitric acid by the Ostwald process. The organic and inorganic salts of nitric acid have been important historically as convenient stores of chemical energy. They include important compounds such as potassium nitrate (or saltpeter used in gunpowder) and ammonium nitrate, an important fertilizer and explosive (see ANFO). Various other nitrated organic compounds, such as nitroglycerin and trinitrotoluene, and nitrocellulose, are used as explosives and propellants for modern firearms. Nitric acid is used as an oxidizing agent in liquid fueled rockets. Hydrazine and hydrazine derivatives find use as rocket fuels and monopropellants. In most of these compounds, the basic instability and tendency to burn or explode is derived from the fact that nitrogen is present as an oxide, and not as the far more stable nitrogen molecule (N2) which is a product of the compounds' thermal decomposition. When nitrates burn or explode, the formation of the powerful triple bond in the N2 which results, produces most of the energy of the reaction. Nitrogen is a constituent of molecules in every major drug class in pharmacology and medicine. Nitrous oxide (N2O) was discovered early in the 19th century to be a partial anesthetic, though it was not used as a surgical anesthetic until later. Called "laughing gas", it was found capable of inducing a state of social disinhibition resembling drunkenness. Other notable nitrogen-containing drugs are drugs derived from plant alkaloids, such as morphine (there exist many alkaloids known to have pharmacological effects; in some cases they appear natural chemical defences of plants against predation). Nitrogen containing drugs include all of the major classes of antibiotics, and organic nitrate drugs like nitroglycerin and nitroprusside which regulate blood pressure and heart action by mimicking the action of nitric oxide. Biological role Nitrogen is an essential building block of both amino acids and nucleic acids, essential to life on Earth. Elemental nitrogen in the atmosphere cannot be used directly by either plants or animals, and must converted to a reduced (or 'fixed') state in order to be useful for higher plants and animals. Precipitation often contains substantial quantities of ammonium and nitrate, thought to result from nitrogen fixation by lightning and other atmospheric electric phenomena. However, because ammonium is preferentially retained by the forest canopy relative to atmospheric nitrate, most fixed nitrogen that reaches the soil surface under trees as nitrate. Soil nitrate is preferentially assimilated by these tree roots relative to soil ammonium. Specific bacteria (e.g. Rhizobium trifolium) possess nitrogenase enzymes which can fix atmospheric nitrogen (see nitrogen fixation) into a form (ammonium ion) that is chemically useful to higher organisms. This process requires a large amount of energy and anoxic conditions. Such bacteria may live freely in soil (e.g. Azotobacter) but normally exist in a symbiotic relationship in the root nodules of leguminous plants (e.g. clover, Trifolium, or soybean plant, Glycine max). Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are also symbiotic with a number of unrelated plant species such as alders (Alnus) spp., lichens (Casuarina), Myrica, liverworts, and Gunnera. As part of the symbiotic relationship, the plant converts the 'fixed' ammonium ion to nitrogen oxides and amino acids to form proteins and other molecules, (e.g. alkaloids). In return for the 'fixed' nitrogen, the plant secretes sugars to the symbiotic bacteria. Some plants are able to assimilate nitrogen directly in the form of nitrates which may be present in soil from natural mineral deposits, artificial fertilizers, animal waste, or organic decay (as the product of bacteria, but not bacteria specifically associated with the plant). Nitrates absorbed in this fashion are converted to nitrites by the enzyme nitrate reductase, and then converted to ammonia by another enzyme called nitrite reductase. Nitrogen compounds are basic building blocks in animal biology as well. Animals use nitrogen-containing amino acids from plant sources, as starting materials for all nitrogen-compound animal biochemistry, including the manufacture of proteins and nucleic acids. Plant-feeding insects are dependent on nitrogen in their diet, such that varying the amount of nitrogen fertilizer applied to a plant can affect the reproduction rate of insects feeding on fertilized plants. Soluble nitrate is an important limiting factor in the growth of certain bacteria in ocean waters. In many places in the world, artificial fertilizers applied to crop-lands to increase yields result in run-off delivery of soluble nitrogen to oceans at river mouths. This process can result in eutrophication of the water, as nitrogen-driven bacterial growth depletes water oxygen to the point that all higher organisms die. Well-known "dead zone" areas in the U.S. Gulf Coast and the Black Sea are due to this important polluting process. Many saltwater fish manufacture large amounts of trimethylamine oxide to protect them from the high osmotic effects of their environment (conversion of this compound to dimethylamine is responsible for the early odor in unfresh saltwater fish PMID 15186102 . In animals, free radical nitric oxide (NO) (derived from an amino acid), serves as an important regulatory molecule for circulation. Animal metabolism of NO results in production of nitrite. Animal metabolism of nitrogen in proteins generally results in excretion of urea, while animal metabolism of nucleic acids results in excretion of urea and uric acid. The characteristic odor of animal flesh decay is caused by the creation of long-chain, nitrogen-containing amines, such as putrescine and cadaverine. Decay of organisms and their waste products may produce small amounts of nitrate, but most decay eventually returns nitrogen content to the atmosphere, as molecular nitrogen . The circulation of nitrogen from atmosphere to organic compounds and back is referred to as the nitrogen cycle. Safety Rapid release of nitrogen gas into an enclosed space can displace oxygen, and therefore represents an asphyxiation hazard. This may happen with few warning symptoms, since the human carotid body is a relatively slow and a poor low-oxygen (hypoxia) sensing system. An example occurred shortly before the launch of the first Space Shuttle mission in 1981, when two technicians lost consciousness and died after they walked into a space located in the Shuttle's Mobile Launcher Platform that was pressurized with pure nitrogen as a precaution against fire. The technicians would have been able to exit the room if they had experienced early symptoms from nitrogen-breathing. When inhaled at high partial pressures (more than about 4 bar, encountered at depths below about 30 m in scuba diving) nitrogen begins to act as an anesthetic agent. It can cause nitrogen narcosis, a temporary semi-anesthetized state of mental impairment similar to that caused by nitrous oxide. Nitrogen also dissolves in the bloodstream and body fats. Rapid decompression (particularly in the case of divers ascending too quickly, or astronauts decompressing too quickly from cabin pressure to spacesuit pressure) can lead to a potentially fatal condition called decompression sickness (formerly known as caisson sickness or more commonly, the "bends"), when nitrogen bubbles form in the bloodstream, nerves, joints, and other sensitive or vital areas. Other "inert" gases (those gases other than carbon dioxide and oxygen) cause the same effects from bubbles composed of them, so replacement of nitrogen in breathing gases may prevent nitrogen narcosis, but does not prevent decompression sickness. Direct skin contact with liquid nitrogen will eventually cause severe frostbite (cryogenic burns). This may happen almost instantly on contact, depending on the form of liquid nitrogen. Bulk liquid nitrogen causes less rapid freezing than a spray of nitrogen mist (such as is used to freeze certain skin growths in the practice of dermatology). The extra surface area provided by nitrogen-soaked materials is also important, with soaked clothing or cotton causing far more rapid damage than a spill of direct liquid to skin. Full "contact" between naked skin and large droplets or pools of undisturbed liquid nitrogen may be prevented for a few seconds by a layer of insulating gas from the Leidenfrost effect. However, liquid nitrogen applied to skin in mists, and on fabrics, bypasses this effect. See also Industrial gas Liquid nitrogen Nitrogen asphyxiation Nitrogenomics Nutrient Super triphosphate Tetranitrogen TKN References Further reading External links Etymology of Nitrogen Why high nitrogen density in explosives? WebElements.com – Nitrogen It's Elemental – Nitrogen Schenectady County Community College – Nitrogen Nitrogen N2 Properties, Uses, Applications Handling procedures for liquid nitrogen Material Safety Data Sheet | Nitrogen |@lemmatized nitrogen:145 chemical:8 element:4 symbol:1 n:2 atomic:2 number:3 mass:2 elemental:6 colorless:2 odorless:1 tasteless:1 mostly:2 inert:6 diatomic:1 gas:18 standard:3 condition:4 constitute:1 volume:3 earth:6 atmosphere:15 many:7 industrially:2 important:13 compound:29 ammonia:11 nitric:13 acid:24 organic:7 nitrate:21 propellant:2 explosive:11 cyanide:2 contain:9 extremely:3 strong:6 bond:5 dominates:1 chemistry:2 cause:9 difficulty:2 organism:7 industry:1 convert:9 useful:4 release:4 large:8 amount:7 energy:7 burn:7 decay:7 back:3 discover:3 daniel:2 rutherford:2 scottish:1 physician:1 occur:5 living:4 constituent:4 amino:5 thus:4 protein:5 nucleic:5 dna:1 rna:1 reside:1 structure:5 almost:3 neurotransmitter:1 define:1 component:4 alkaloid:4 biological:5 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2,222 | Cheers | Cheers is an American situation comedy television series that ran for eleven seasons from 1982 to 1993. It was produced by Charles/Burrows/Charles Productions in association with Paramount Television for NBC, having been created by the team of James Burrows, Glen Charles, and Les Charles. The show is set in the Cheers bar (named for the toast "Cheers") in Boston, Massachusetts, where a group of locals meet to drink and have fun. The show's theme song was written by Judy Hart Angelo and Gary Portnoy and performed by Portnoy; Gary Portnoy (2006). Portnoy's personal site its famous refrain, "Where Everybody Knows Your Name" also became the show's tagline. After premiering on September 30, 1982, it was nearly cancelled during its first season when it ranked dead last in ratings (77th out of 77 shows). Toasting Cheers By Dennis A. Bjorklund Blogcritics.org (January 22nd, 2004) (2006). Blog on the History of Cheers However, Cheers eventually became a highly rated television show in the United States, earning a top-ten rating during eight of its eleven seasons, including one season at #1, and spending the bulk of its run on NBC's "Must See Thursday" lineup. Its widely watched series finale was broadcast on May 20, 1993. The show's 273 episodes have been successfully syndicated worldwide, and have earned 26 Emmy Awards from a record 111 nominations. The character Frasier Crane (Kelsey Grammer) was featured in his own successful spin-off, Frasier, which included guest appearances by most of the major Cheers characters. Cast Cheers maintained an ensemble cast, keeping roughly the same set of characters for the entire run. Numerous secondary characters and love interests for these characters appeared intermittently to complement storylines that generally revolved around this core group. The table below summarizes the main cast of Cheers. Character Actor/Actress Role Other occupation(s) Duration Sam Malone Ted Danson Bartender/Owner Former relief pitcher for the Boston Red Sox 1982-1993 Diane Chambers Shelley Long Waitress Author; graduate student 1982-1987,1993 Rebecca Howe Kirstie Alley Manager/Waitress Businesswoman; superintendent 1987-1993 Carla Tortelli Rhea Perlman Waitress Homemaker 1982-1993 "Woody" Boyd Woody Harrelson Assistant Bartender Actor; politician 1985-1993 Norm Peterson George Wendt Customer Accountant; interior decorator; house painter 1982-1993 Cliff Clavin John Ratzenberger Customer Mailman 1982-1993 Frasier Crane Kelsey Grammer Customer Psychiatrist 1984-1993 Ernie "Coach" Pantusso Nicholas Colasanto Assistant Bartender Former baseball player and coach 1982-1985 Lilith Sternin Bebe Neuwirth Customer Psychiatrist 1986-1993 The main cast of Cheers after season 7(from left to right): (top) John Ratzenberger, Roger Rees, Woody Harrelson (middle) Rhea Perlman, Ted Danson, Kirstie Alley, George Wendt (bottom) Kelsey Grammer, Bebe Neuwirth. The character of Sam Malone was originally intended to be a retired football player and was originally supposed to be played by Fred Dryer, but after casting Ted Danson it was decided that a former baseball player (Sam "Mayday" Malone) would be more believable, given Danson's slimmer physique. TV1 (2006). TV1 - Cheers The character of Cliff Clavin was created for John Ratzenberger after he auditioned for the role of "Norm". While chatting with producers afterwards, he asked if they were going to include a "bar know-it-all", the part which he eventually played. Newport Under the Stars (2005)(2006). John Ratzenberger's Newport Under the Stars "Norm" ended up being played by George Wendt, whose day job was an accountant but was a regular fixture in the bar. Kirstie Alley joined the cast when Shelley Long left, and Woody Harrelson joined when Nicholas Colasanto died. Danson, George Wendt, and Rhea Perlman were the only actors to appear in every episode of the series. IMDb (2006). IMDb Trivia for Cheers Guest stars Although Cheers operated largely around that main ensemble cast, guest stars did occasionally supplement them. Notable repeat guests included Jay Thomas as Eddie LeBec, Dan Hedaya as Nick Tortelli, Jean Kasem as Loretta Tortelli, Roger Rees as Robin Colcord, Tom Skerritt as Evan Drake, and Harry Anderson as Harry 'The Hat' Gittes. Other celebrities guest-starred in single episodes as themselves throughout the series. Some sports figures appeared on the show with a connection to Boston or Sam's former team, the Red Sox, such as Luis Tiant, Wade Boggs, and Kevin McHale (star player of the Boston Celtics). Some television stars also made guest appearances as themselves such as Alex Trebek, Arsenio Hall, Dick Cavett, and Johnny Carson. Some political figures even made appearances on Cheers such as then-Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral William J. Crowe, former Colorado Senator Gary Hart, then-Speaker of the House Tip O'Neill, Senator John Kerry, then-Governor Michael Dukakis, and then-Mayor of Boston Raymond Flynn (the last four of whom all represented Cheers' home state and city). Musician Harry Connick, Jr. appeared in an episode as Woody's cousin IMDb (2006) (April 10th, 2006). Full Episode Casts and plays a song from his Grammy winning album We Are in Love (c. 1991). John Cleese won an Emmy for his guest appearance as "Dr. Simon Finch-Royce" in the fifth season episode, "Simon Says". IMDb (2006). Awards for Cheers Emma Thompson guest starred as Nanny Gee/Nanette Guzman, a famous singing nanny and Frasier's ex-wife. Christopher Lloyd guest starred as a tortured artist who wanted to paint Diane. John Mahoney once appeared as an inept jingle writer, which included a brief conversation with Frasier Crane (Kelsey Grammer), whose father he would later play on the spin-off Frasier. Peri Gilpin who later played Roz Doyle on Frasier also appeared in one episode of Cheers, in its 11th season, as Holly Matheson, a reporter who interviews Woody. The Righteous Brothers, Bobby Hatfield and Bill Medley, also guest starred in different episodes.In the final episode of Kirstie Alley's run as Rebecca, she was literally wooed away from Cheers by the guy who came to fix one of the beer keg taps - surprising for a "high-class" lady - but it happened to be Tom Berringer. Recurring characters Paul Willson, who played the recurring barfly character of "Paul", made early appearances in the first season as "Glen", was credited as "Gregg", and also appeared in the show as a character named "Tom". IMDb (2006). Trivia for Paul Willson Thomas Babson played "Tom", a law student often mocked by "Cliff Clavin", for continually failing to pass the Boston Bar exam. "Al", played by Al Rosen, appeared in 38 episodes, and was known for his surly quips. Rhea Perlman's father Philip Perlman played the role of "Phil". Production The concept for Cheers was the end result of a long consideration process. The original idea was a group of workers who interacted like a family, hoping to be similar to The Mary Tyler Moore Show. They considered making an American version of the British Fawlty Towers centered around a hotel or an inn. When the creators settled on a bar as their setting the show began to resemble the radio show Duffy's Tavern. They liked the idea of a tavern as it provided a continuous stream of new people arriving, giving them a constant supply of characters. Picture of Bull & Finch Pub in Boston in 2005. This view is similar to the opening credits of the show. After choosing a plot, the three had to choose a location. Early discussions centered around Barstow, California, then Kansas City, Missouri. They eventually turned to the East Coast and Boston. The Bull & Finch Pub in Boston that Cheers was styled after was originally chosen from a phone book. When Glen Charles asked the owner to shoot initial exterior and interior shots the owner agreed, charging $1. He has since gone on to make millions, licensing the pub's image and selling a variety of Cheers memorabilia, making the Bull & Finch the 42nd busiest outlet in the American food and beverage industry in 1997. Coincidentally, during the casting of Shelley Long (who was in Boston at the time filming A Small Circle of Friends), Long remarked that the bar in the script resembled a bar she had come upon in Boston, which turned out to be the Bull & Finch. Most Cheers episodes were shot before a live studio audience on Paramount Stage 25, generally on Tuesday nights. Scripts for a new episode were issued the Wednesday before for a read-through, Friday was rehearsal day, and final scripts were issued on Monday. Nearly 100 crewmembers were involved in the shooting of any given episode. Burrows, who directed most episodes, insisted on shooting on film rather than videotape. He was also noted for using motion in his directorial style, trying to always keep characters moving rather than standing still. Crew The crew of Cheers numbered in the hundreds; as such, this section only provides a brief summary of the many crewmembers for the show. The three creators — James Burrows, Glen Charles, and Les Charles — stayed on throughout the series as executive producers along with Tom Palmer. IMDb (2006). Full Cast and Crew In fact, the two Charles brothers kept offices on Paramount's lot for the duration of the Cheers run. In the final seasons, however, they handed over much of the show to Burrows. Burrows is regarded as being a factor in the show's longevity, directing 243 of the episodes and supervising the show's production. David Angell was also a part of the crew from the start, writing many Cheers episodes. The show was often noted for its writing, The Museum of Broadcast Communications (2006). which most credit, along with other production factors and the ensemble cast, for the show's success. Awards Over its eleven-season run, Cheers and its cast and crew earned many awards. Cheers earned a record 111 Emmy nominations, with a total of 26 wins. In addition, Cheers has earned 31 Golden Globe nominations, with a total of six wins. All ten of the actors who were regulars on the series received Emmy nominations for their roles. Cheers won the Golden Globe for "Best TV-Series - Comedy/Musical" in 1991 and the Emmy for "Outstanding Comedy Series" in 1983, 1984, 1989 and 1991. Cheers was presented with the "Legend Award" at the 2006 TV Land Awards, with many surviving cast members attending the event. "TV Land Honors Cheers, Dallas, Good Times, and Batman" for SitcomsOnline on February 22, 2006. Retrieved March 21, 2006. The following table summarizes awards won by the Cheers cast and crew. + Winner AwardKirstie AlleyEmmy, Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (1991)Golden Globe, Best Performance by an Actress in a TV-Series - Comedy/Musical (1991)Ted DansonEmmy, Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (1990, 1993)Golden Globe, Best Performance by an Actor in a TV-Series - Comedy/Musical (1990, 1991)Woody HarrelsonEmmy, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series (1989)Shelley LongEmmy, Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (1983)Golden Globe, Best Performance by an Actress in a TV-Series - Comedy/Musical (1985)Golden Globe, Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Series, Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for TV (1983)Bebe NeuwirthEmmy, Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series (1990, 1993)Rhea PerlmanEmmy, Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series (1984, 1985, 1986, 1989)John CleeseEmmy, Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series (1987)Production AwardsEmmy, Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series (1983, 1991)Emmy, Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series (1983, 1984)Emmy, Outstanding Individual Achievement in Graphic Design and Title Sequences (1983)Emmy, Outstanding Film Editing for a Series (1984)Emmy, Outstanding Editing for a Series - Multi-Camera Production (1988, 1993) Emmy, Outstanding Live and Tape Sound Mixing and Sound Effects for a Series (1985)Emmy, Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special (1986, 1987, 1990) Plot Nearly all of Cheers took place in the front room of the bar, but they often went into the rear pool room or the bar's office. Cheers didn't show any action outside the bar until the first episode of the second season, which took the action to Diane's apartment. Cheers had some running gags, such as Norm arriving in the bar greeted by a loud "Norm!" Early episodes generally followed Sam's antics with his various women, following a variety of romantic comedy clichés to get out of whatever relationship troubles he was in for each episode. As the show progressed and Sam got into more serious relationships the general tone switched to comedy on Sam settling down into a monogamous lifestyle. Throughout the series, larger story arcs began to develop that spanned multiple episodes or seasons interspersed with smaller themes and one-off episodes. Romance Sam and Diane kiss The show's main theme in its early seasons was the romance between the intellectual waitress Diane Chambers and bar owner Sam Malone, a former major league baseball pitcher for the Boston Red Sox and a recovering alcoholic. Television Heaven (2002)(2006). Cheers - A Television Heaven Review After Long left the show, the focus shifted to Sam's new relationship with neurotic corporate climber Rebecca. Both relationships featured multi-episode "will they or won't they" sexual tension that drew viewers in. After Sam and Diane's courtship was consummated, the show's popularity grew greatly and subsequent TV shows now very commonly have such "will they or won't they" tensions between opposites. Social issues Many Cheers scripts centered around or touched on a variety of social issues, albeit humorously. As Toasting Cheers puts it: Social class was a subtext of the show. The "upper class" - represented by characters like Diane Chambers, Frasier Crane, Lilith Sternin and (initially) Rebecca Howe — rubbed shoulders with middle and working class characters — Sam Malone, Carla Tortelli, Norm Peterson and Cliff Clavin. An extreme example of this was the relationship between Woody Boyd and millionaire's daughter Kelly Gaines. Many viewers enjoyed Cheers in part because of this focus on character development in addition to plot development. Feminism and the role of women were also recurring themes throughout the show, with some seeing each of the major female characters as a flawed feminist in her own way. Dr. Caren Deming. "Talk: Gender Discourse in Cheers!" in Television Criticism: Approaches and Applications edited by Leah R. Vande Berg and Lawrence A Wenner. White Plains, NY: Longman, 1991. 47–57. The essay is co-authored by Mercilee M. Jenkins, who teaches at San Francisco State University. Diane was a vocal feminist, but Sam was the epitome of everything she hated: a womanizer and a male chauvinist. Their relationship led Diane to several diatribes on Sam's promiscuity, while Carla merely insulted people. Carla was respected because of her power, while Diane was ignored as she commanded little respect. Rebecca was a stereotypical ambitious and golddigging woman, seeking relationships with her superiors at the Lillian Corporation, most notably Robin Colcord, to gain promotions or raises. However, she encountered a glass ceiling and ended the show by marrying a plumber rather than a rich businessman. Homosexuality was dealt with from the very first season, a rare move for American network television in the early 1980s. In the first season episode "The Boys In The Bar" (after the 1970s film The Boys in the Band) a friend and former teammate of Sam's comes out in his autobiography. Some of the male regulars pressure Sam to take action to ensure that Cheers does not become a gay bar. The episode won a GLAAD Media Award, and the script's writers, Ken Levine & David Isaacs, were nominated for an Emmy Award for their writing. Harvey Fierstein would later appear in the 1990s as "Mark Newberger", Rebecca's old high school sweetheart who is gay. Finally, the final episode included a gay man who gets into trouble with his boyfriend (played by Anthony Heald) after agreeing to pose as Diane's husband. Addiction also plays a role in Cheers, almost exclusively through Sam, although some critics believed the issue was never really developed. The Bemusement Park (May 7th, 2004) (2006). The Situation of Comedy Sam was a recovering alcoholic who ended up buying a bar after his baseball career was ruined by his drinking. IMDb (2006). IMDb Plot Summary of Cheers Frasier also has a notable bout of drinking in the fourth season episode "The Triangle", while Woody develops a gambling problem in the seventh season's "Call Me Irresponsible". Some critics believe Sam was a generally addictive personality who had largely conquered his alcoholism but was still a sexual addict, shown through his womanizing. The National Association for Christian Recovery (2006). On Addiction from: STEPS Volume 2, Issue 1, Winter 1990. Cheers owners The Cheers sign in 2005. Cheers obviously had several owners before Sam, as the bar was opened in 1889 (The "Est. 1895" on the bar's sign is a made-up date chosen by Carla for numerological purposes as revealed in the 8th season episode "The Stork Brings a Crane"). In the second episode, "Sam's Women", Norm tells a customer looking for the owner of Cheers that the man he thought was the owner has been replaced, and his replacement was replaced by Sam. Then in a later episode Gus O'Mally, who sold the bar to Sam, comes back from Arizona for one night and helps run the bar. The biggest storyline surrounding the ownership of Cheers begins in the fifth season finale, "I Do, Adieu", when Sam and Diane part ways, Shelley Long leaves the regular cast, and Sam leaves to attempt circumnavigating the Earth. Before he leaves, Sam sells Cheers to the Lillian Corporation. Sam returns in the sixth season premiere, "Home is the Sailor", having sunk his boat, to find the bar under the new management of Rebecca Howe. He begs for his job back and is hired by Rebecca as a bartender. In the seventh season premiere, "How to Recede in Business", Rebecca is fired and Sam is promoted to manager. Rebecca is allowed to keep a job at Lillian vaguely similar to what she had before, but only after Sam had Rebecca "agree" (in absentia) to a long list of demands that the corporation had for her. From there Sam would occasionally attempt to buy the bar back with schemes that usually involved wealthy executive Robin Colcord. Cheers did eventually end up back in Sam's hands in the eighth season finale, when it was sold back to him for eighty-five cents by the Lillian Corporation after he alerted the company of Colcord's insider trading. Fired by the corporation over her keeping quiet, Rebecca earns back a hostess/office manager job from Sam. Other recurring themes Aside from the storylines that spanned across the series, Cheers had several themes that followed no storylines but that recurred throughout the series. There was a heated rivalry between Cheers and the rival bar, Gary's Olde Towne Tavern since fourth season episode "From Beer to Eternity". Starting with the sixth season one episode of every season depicted some wager between Sam and Gary, which resulted in either a sports competition or a battle of wits that devolved into complex practical jokes. Aside from the very first and very last "Bar Wars" episodes, the Cheers gang almost always lost to Gary's superior ingenuity, though they managed to trick him into missing the annual Bloody Mary contest in one episode. Another episode had Sam collaborating with Gary's to get revenge on his co-workers on a prior practical joke. Sam also had a long-running feud with the management of the upscale restaurant situated directly above the bar, Melville's. The restaurant's management found the bar's clientele decidedly uncouth, while Sam regarded the restaurant as snobbish (despite the fact that customers often drifted between the two businesses via a prominent staircase). This conflict escalated in later seasons, when Melville's came under the ownership of John Allen Hill (Keene Curtis), and it emerged that Sam did not technically own the bar's poolroom and bathrooms. Sam subsequently was forced to pay rent for them and often found himself at the mercy of Hill's tyranny. Rebecca eventually bought the back section from Hill, making her and Sam partners in managing the bar. Norm Peterson continually searched for gainful employment as an accountant but spent most of the series unemployed, thereby explaining his constant presence in Cheers at the same stool. The face of his wife, Vera, was never fully seen onscreen, despite a few fleeting appearances and a couple of vocal cameos. She first appeared shortly in the fifth season episode "Thanksgiving Orphans" with her whole face being covered in cake. Cliff Clavin seemed unable to shake the constant presence of his mother, Esther Clavin (Frances Sternhagen). Though she did not appear in every episode, he would refer to her quite often, mostly as both an emotional burden and a smothering parent. Her first onscreen appearance was in the fifth season. Carla Tortelli carried a reputation of being both highly fertile and matrimonially inept. The last husband she had on the show, Eddie LeBec, was a washed-up ice hockey goaltender who ended up dying in an ice show accident involving a zamboni. Carla later discovered that Eddie had cheated on her, marrying another woman after impregnating her. Carla's sleazy first husband, Nick Tortelli, also made frequent appearances, mostly to torment Carla with a new custody battle or legal scam that grew out of their divorce. Carla's eight children (four of whom were "born" during the show's run) were also notoriously ill-behaved, save Lud, who was sired by a prominent academician. Critical reactions Cheers was critically acclaimed in its first season, though it landed a disappointing 74th out of only 74 shows in that year's ratings. TVParty (2006). How NBC got its Groove back This critical support, coupled with early success at the Emmys and the support of the president of NBC's entertainment division Brandon Tartikoff, is thought to be the main reason for the show's survival and eventual success. Variety (May 20th, 2003) (2006). Review - Cheers BBC (July 4th, 2003) (2006). Cheers - the TV Series The cast themselves went across the country on various talk shows to try to further promote the series after its first season. With the growing popularity of Family Ties which ran in the slot ahead of Cheers from January 1984 until Family Ties was moved to Sundays in 1987 and the placement of The Cosby Show in front of both at the start of their third season (1984), the line-up became a runaway ratings success that NBC eventually dubbed "Must See Thursday". The next season, Cheers ratings increased dramatically after Woody Boyd became a regular character as well. By its final season Cheers had a run of eight consecutive seasons in the Top Ten of the Nielsen ratings. Some critics now use Frasier and Cheers as a model of a successful spin-off for a character from an already successful series to compare to modern spin-offs. NBC dedicated a whole night to the final episode of Cheers. The show began with a "pregame" show hosted by Bob Costas, followed by the final 98-minute episode itself. NBC affiliates then aired tributes to Cheers during their local newscasts, and the night concluded with a special Tonight Show broadcast live from the Bull & Finch Pub. Although the episode fell short of its hyped ratings predictions to become the most-watched television episode, it was the most watched show that year, bringing in 80.4 million viewers (64 percent of all viewers that night), and ranked 11th all time in entertainment programming. The episode originally aired in the usual Cheers spot of Thursday night and was then rebroadcast on Sunday. Some estimate that while the original broadcast did not outperform the M*A*S*H finale, the combined non-repeating audiences for the Thursday and Sunday showings did. Toasting Cheers also notes that television had greatly changed between the M*A*S*H and Cheers finales, leaving Cheers with a broader array of competition for ratings. Spin-offs, crossovers and cultural references Woody, Cliff and Norm on The Simpsons Some of the actors and actresses from Cheers brought their characters into other television shows, either in a guest appearance or in a new spin-off. The most successful Cheers spin-off was the show Frasier which directly followed Frasier Crane after he moved back to Seattle, Washington (on the other end of Interstate 90) to live with his recently-disabled father and to host a call-in radio show. Frasier was originally supposed to be a small disliked character who only existed to further Diane and Sam's relationship, but Kelsey Grammer's acting turned what were supposed to be unfunny lines into comedy the audience enjoyed. Poobala (2006). Notes on Cheers / Frasier crossovers Sam, Diane and Woody all had individual crossover appearances on Frasier where they came to visit Frasier, and his ex-wife Lilith was a constant supporting character throughout Frasier. Cliff, Norm, Carla, and two of Cheers' regular background barflies Paul and Phil, had a crossover together in the Frasier episode "Cheerful Goodbyes". In that episode, Frasier, on a trip to Boston, meets the Cheers gang (though not at Cheers itself) and Cliff thinks Frasier has flown out specifically for his (Cliff's) retirement party, which Frasier ends up attending. Rebecca Howe is the only Cheers regular aside from Coach (whose actor, Nicholas Colasanto, had died, after which the character died in the series) to not appear on Frasier. Frasier was on the air for as many seasons as Cheers, going off the air in 2004 after an eleven-season run. Although Frasier was the most successful spin-off, The Tortellis was the first series to spin off from Cheers, premiering in 1987. The show featured Carla's ex-husband Nick Tortelli and his wife Loretta, but was canceled after 13 episodes and drew protests for its stereotypical depictions of Italian Americans. In addition to direct spin-offs, several Cheers characters had guest appearance crossovers with other shows. In The Simpsons episode "Fear of Flying", Homer stumbles into a Cheers-like bar after being kicked out of Moe's. Most of the central cast appears in the episode, including Frasier (though ironically, Frasier does not speak, as Grammer already had a recurring role on The Simpsons as Sideshow Bob). The tagline for Moe's Tavern, "Where nobody knows your name", is also a reference to the theme song of Cheers. Characters also had crossovers with Wings—which was created by Cheers producers–writers—and St. Elsewhere in a somewhat rare comedy–drama crossover. Poobala (2006). Notes on Cheers / St. Elsewhere crossover The Star Trek: Deep Space Nine character Morn, who remained mostly at Quark's Bar, is named (as an anagram) for Norm Peterson. TV Acres (January 24, ????) (2006). Nor-r-rm! The bar and its patrons were also featured in two Disney specials, a scene in The Wonderful World of Disney TV special Mickey's 60th Birthday, and The Magical World of Disney 's Disneyland 35th Anniversaray Special, in which Woody recounts an adventure his young self had on The Haunted Mansion. The opening sequence and theme song has become iconic of the series, leading to parody such as on The Simpsons''' episode "Flaming Moe's". The Simpsons series as also used "Cheers" Opening sequence in the couch gag of the eleventh episode of the twentieth season, along with other famous sitcoms. The Scrubs episode "My Life in Four Cameras" makes numerous jokes about Cheers and multicamera setup laugh track sitcoms. Scrubs is notable for using a single camera setup, having no laugh track, and not being filmed before a live audience. Cheers had all four cameras, a laugh track, and was filmed before a live studio audience, and a dream sequence in "My Life in Four Cameras" was shot with three cameras. In addition, the main patient treated was fictional Cheers writer "Charles James", a mixture of Cheers creators James Burrows, Glen Charles, and Les Charles. The episode makes repeated comments about these "traditional" sitcoms and ends with the opening notes of the Cheers theme playing while J.D. says "Unfortunately, around here things don't always end as neat and tidy as they do in sitcoms." (March 10, 2005) (2006) Chicago Tribune. Cheers to "Scrubs" In the Seinfeld episode "The Ticket", Ted Danson's salary per episode of Cheers comes up as a point of debate between Jerry and George. Additionally, George Wendt appears as himself on a talk show in the episode "The Trip." George Costanza gives him advice on how to improve "Cheers", but George Wendt makes fun of him for it on the air. A full-scale Cheers reproduction was built in Piccadilly Circus in London Licensing Cheers was perhaps the first major TV series outside science fiction or children's television to have an important licensing campaign since I Love Lucy. The show lent itself naturally to the development of "Cheers" bar-related merchandise, culminating in the development of a chain of "Cheers" themed pubs. Paramount's licensing group, led by Tom McGrath, developed the "Cheers" pub concept initially in partnership with Host Marriott which placed "Cheers" themed pubs in 24+ airports around the world. Boston boasts the original Cheers bar, historically known to generations of Boston insiders as the Bull and Finch, as well as a Cheers restaurant in the Faneuil Hall marketplace and Sam's Place, a spin-off sports bar concept also located at Faneuil Hall. The theme song to the show was licensed to a Canadian restaurant, Kelsey's. Kelsey's Launches Ad Campaign with Cheers TV Theme Song: Financial News - Yahoo! Finance Syndication and home videoCheers grew in popularity as it aired on American television and entered into syndication. When the show went off the air in 1993, Cheers was syndicated in 38 countries with 179 American television markets and 83 million viewers. Then, after going off the air, International Real Estate Digest (August 20th, 2001) (2006). Boston Gets a Hollywood Cheers Pub Cheers entered a long, successful, and continuing syndication run on Nick at Nite. While the quality of some earlier footage of Cheers had begun to degrade, it underwent a careful restoration in 2001 due to its continued success. Kodak (October 2001) (2006). Cheers restored for a new generation of laughs Notably, a Cheers rerun replaced Australia's Naughtiest Home Videos on Australia's Nine Network. The latter was cancelled mid-episode on its only broadcast by Kerry Packer, who pulled the plug after a phone call. Cheers was aired by NCRV in the Netherlands. After the last episode, NCRV simply began re-airing the series, and then again, thus airing the show three times in a row, showing an episode nightly. DVD releases Paramount Home Entertainment and CBS DVD have released all 11 seasons of Cheers on DVD in Region 1 and Region 4. In Region 2 only the first 7 seasons have been released on DVD. DVD Name Ep # Release dates Region 1 Region 2* Region 4 The Complete 1st Season 22 May 20, 2003 November 24, 2003 January 15, 2004 The Complete 2nd Season 22 January 6, 2004 June 7, 2004 May 6, 2004 The Complete 3rd Season 25 May 25, 2004 September 6, 2004 September 9, 2004 The Complete 4th Season 26 February 1, 2005 July 18, 2005 July 21, 2005 The Complete 5th Season 26 May 17, 2005 November 27, 2006 January 11, 2007 The Complete 6th Season 25 September 13, 2005 May 14, 2007 May 3, 2007 The Complete 7th Season 22 November 15, 2005 May 18, 2009 April 27, 2009 The Complete 8th Season 26 June 13, 2006 N/A April 27, 2009 The Complete 9th Season 26 April 29, 2008 N/A April 27, 2009 The Complete 10th Season 25 September 2, 2008 N/A April 27, 2009 The Complete 11th Season 26 January 27, 2009 N/A April 27, 2009 Region 2 release dates refer to the United Kingdom market only. Region 4 releases were released exclusive to JB HI-Fi stores Post-Cheers Kelsey Grammer was arguably the most successful with his spin-off Frasier, which lasted for the same eleven-season run Cheers had, as well as a recurring guest role on The Simpsons as Sideshow Bob. By the final season of Frasier, Grammer had become the highest paid actor on television, Yahoo News (2006). Kelsey Grammer's Yahoo biography earning about $1.6 million an episode. Woody Harrelson has also had a successful career following Cheers, including appearances in a number of notable films that have established him as a box-office draw, such as White Men Can't Jump, Indecent Proposal, Kingpin and No Country for Old Men. He also earned an Academy Award nomination in 1997 for The People vs. Larry Flynt. Ted Danson, who had been the highest paid Cheers cast member earning $450,000 an episode in the final season, has starred in the successful sitcom Becker as well as the unsuccessful sitcoms Ink and Help Me Help You and currently appears in the successful drama series Damages. He has starred in a number of movies, including Cousins, Three Men and a Baby and Made in America. Ted and his wife (actress Mary Steenburgen) regularly play themselves on Curb Your Enthusiasm as Larry David's friends. John Ratzenberger has voice acted in all of Pixar's computer-animated feature films and currently hosts the Travel Channel show Made in America. Travel Channel (2006). Made in America - Travel Channel On Made in America he travels around the U.S. showing the stories of small towns and the goods they produce. Coincidentally, Ted Danson starred in a film also called Made in America. Ratzenberger is heavily involved in a charity known as the Nuts, Bolts and Thingamajigs Foundation, which encourages children to get involved with tinkering and mechanical work, as well as to encourage schools to resurrect Industrial Arts programs. He also was on Dancing with the Stars. Bebe Neuwirth has gone on to star in numerous Broadway musicals, most notably the mid-90's Chicago revival, earning two Tony Awards for her work, and co-star in numerous successful films. She also did voice work for All Dogs Go to Heaven 2 and All Dogs Go to Heaven: The Series. Kirstie Alley starred in the TV series Veronica's Closet as well as numerous miniseries and film roles. Although some believe Shelley Long leaving the show was a bad career move, she has gone on to star in several television and film roles, notably The Brady Bunch Movie and its sequels. In addition to continuing careers after Cheers, some of the cast members have had personal problems. In 2004, Shelley Long grew depressed after divorcing her husband of 23 years and appears to have attempted suicide by overdosing on drugs. FemaleFirst (November 25th, 2004) (2006). Shelley Long's overdose Prevent Suicide Now (November 26th, 2004) (2006). Actress Shelley Long Attempts Suicide Kirstie Alley gained a significant amount of weight after Cheers, which somewhat affected her career. She went on to write and star in a sitcom partly based on her life and weight gain, Fat Actress. She formerly was a spokeswoman for Jenny Craig. The Host Marriott Corporation installed 46 bars modeled after Cheers in their hotel and airport lounges. Paramount Pictures licensed the characters and details of the show, allowing the bars to have fake memorabilia such as Sam Malone's supposed jersey while playing for the Red Sox. Among the details Marriott included were two robots, "Bob" and "Hank", one of which was heavy (resembling Norm Peterson), with the other wearing a postal uniform (Cliff Clavin). E News Online (Oct 2th, 2000) (2006). Wendt/Ratzenberger's case is reinstated by the Supreme Court Ratzenberger and Wendt filed a groundbreaking lawsuit against Paramount in 1993 (around the time that Viacom purchased Paramount), claiming that the company was illegally licensing and earning off their images without their permission. E News Online (Sep 25th, 2000) (2006). Wendt and Ratzenberger bring their case to the Supreme Court Ratzenberger and Wendt claimed that Paramount could not earn off their images simply because the robots are dressed like the characters over which Paramount still holds rights. The case was dismissed by a Los Angeles Superior Court judge in 1996, though a federal judge reinstated the case in the Los Angeles court. Paramount tried to bring the case before the Supreme Court of the United States but the court refused to hear the case, instead merely reaffirming the ruling to reinstate the case in the Superior Court. Some believe the case could have had significant implications in Hollywood, as its outcome would have determined whether rights over a character imply rights to reproduce the actor's image with or without his or her permission, so long as the image is of the actor as the character. Rather, Paramount settled with the two before a ruling in the suit was delivered. MarkRoesler.com (2006). Several Intellectual Property cases, including a section on the Cheers case Outside the bar The first year of the show took place entirely within the confines of the bar. (The first location outside the bar ever seen was Diane's apartment.) When the series became a hit, the characters started venturing further afield, first to other sets and eventually to an occasional exterior location. The exterior location shots of the bar were actually of the Bull & Finch Pub, located directly north of the Boston Public Garden, which has become a tourist attraction because of its association with the series and draws in nearly a million visitors annually. It has since been renamed Cheers Beacon Hill, Cheers Boston (2006). Cheers Beacon Hill though its interior is different from the TV bar. To further capitalize on the show's popularity, another bar, Cheers Faneuil Hall, Cheers Boston (2006). Cheers Faneuil Hall was built to be a replica of the show's set to provide tourists with a bar whose interior was closer to the one they saw on TV. It is near Faneuil Hall, about a mile from the Bull & Finch Pub. The official Cheers site is www.cheersboston.com. In 1997 Europe's first officially licensed Cheers bar opened in London's Regent's Street W1. Cheers London (2003). Cheers London Like Cheers Faneuil Hall, Cheers London is an exact replica of the set. The gala opening was attended by James Burrows and cast members George Wendt and John Ratzenberger. USA Today (September 23, 1997). The actual bar set was on display at the Hollywood Entertainment Museum until the museum’s closing in early 2006. Hollywood Entertainment Museum (2006). Hollywood Entertainment Museum References (published date if available) (retrieval date)Cheers''. Created by James Burrows, Glen Charles and Les Charles. 1982–1993. Broadcast and DVD. 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2,223 | Common_kestrel | The Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) is a bird of prey species belonging to the kestrel group of the falcon family Falconidae. It is also known as the European Kestrel, Eurasian Kestrel, or Old World Kestrel. In Britain, where no other brown falcon occurs, it is generally just called "the kestrel". MWBG [2009] This species occurs over a large range. It is widespread in Europe, Asia, and Africa, as well as occasionally reaching the east coast of North America. But although it has colonized a few oceanic islands, vagrant individuals are generally rare; in the whole of Micronesia for example, the species was only recorded twice each on Guam and Saipan in the Marianas. Orta (1994), Wiles et al. (2000, 2004) Description Common Kestrels measure 32-39 cm (13-15 in) from head to tail, with a wingspan of 65-82 cm (26-32 in). Females are noticeably larger, with the adult male weighing 136-252 g (c,5-9 oz), around 155 g (around 5.5 oz) on average; the adult female weighs 154-314 g (about 5.5-11 oz), around 184 g (around 6.5 oz) on average. They are thus small compared with other birds of prey, but larger than most songbirds. Like the other Falco species, they have long wings as well as a distinctive long tail. Orta (1994) Their plumage is mainly light chestnut brown with blackish spots on the upperside and buff with narrow blackish streaks on the underside; the remiges are also blackish. Unlike most hawks, they display sexual colour dimorphism with the male having less black spots and streaks, as well as a blue-grey cap and tail. The tail is brown with black bars in females, and has a black tip with a narrow white rim in both sexes. All Common Kestrels have a prominent black malar stripe like their closest relatives. The cere feet, and a narrow ring around the eye are bright yellow; the toenails, bill and iris are dark. Juveniles look like adult females, but the underside streaks are wider; the yellow of their bare parts is paler. Hatchlings are covered in white down feathers, changing to a buff-grey second down coat before they grow their first true plumage. Behaviour and ecology In the cool-temperate parts of its range, the Common Kestrel migrates south in winter; otherwise it is sedentary, though juveniles may wander around in search for a good place to settle down as they become mature. It is a diurnal animal and prefers open habitat such as fields, heaths, shrubland and marshland. It does not require woodland to be present as longs as there are alternate perching and nesting sites like rocks or buildings. It will thrive in treeless steppe where there are abundant herbaceous plants and shrubs to support a population of prey animals. The Common Kestrel readily adapts to human settlement, as long as sufficient swathes of vegetation are available, and may even be found in wetlands, moorlands and arid savanna. It is found from the sea to the lower mountain ranges, reaching up to 4,500 m (15,000 ft) ASL in the tropical parts of its range. Globally, this species is not considered threatened by the IUCN BLI (2008) . Its stocks were affected by the indiscriminate use of organochlorines and other pesticides in the mid-20th century, but being something of an r-strategist able to multiply quickly under good conditions it was less affected than other birds of prey. The global population is fluctuating considerably over the years but remains generally stable; it is roughly estimated at 1-2 million pairs or so, about 20% of which are found in Europe. Subspecies dacotiae is quite rare, numbering less than 1000 adult birds in 1990, when the ancient western Canarian subspecies canariensis numbered about ten times as many birds. Food and feeding When hunting, the Common Kestrel characteristically hovers about 10-20 m (c.30-70 ft) above the ground, searching for prey, either by flying into the wind or by soaring using ridge lift. Like most birds of prey, Common Kestrels have keen eyesight enabling them to spot small prey from a distance. Once prey is sighted, the bird makes a short, steep dive toward the target. It can often be found hunting along the sides of roads and motorways. This species is able to see near ultraviolet light, allowing the birds to detect the urine trails around rodent burrows as they shine in an ultraviolet colour in the sunlight Viitala et al. (1995) . Another favourite (but less conspicuous) hunting technique is to perch a bit above the ground cover, surveying the area. When the birds spot prey animals moving by, they will pounce on them. They also prowl a patch of hunting ground in a ground-hugging flight, ambushing prey as they happen across it. Common Kestrels eat almost exclusively mouse-sized mammals: typically voles, but also shrews and true mice make up more than three-quarters of most individuals' food. On oceanic islands where mammals are scarce, small birds are important prey items Wiles et al. (2004) ; generally, birds are only important in the form of recently-fledged juveniles for a few weeks each summer. Other suitably-sized vertebrates like bats, frogs and lizards are eaten only on rare occasions. Seasonally, arthropods may be a main prey item. Generally, invertebrates like camel spiders and even earthworms, but mainly sizeable insects such as beetles, orthopterans and winged termites are eaten with delight whenever the birds happen across them. F. tinnunculus requires the equivalent of 4-8 voles a day, depending on energy expenditure (time of the year, amount of hovering, etc). They have been known to catch several voles in succession and cache some for later consumption. Reproduction The Common Kestrel starts breeding in spring (or the start of the dry season in the tropics), i.e. April/May in temperate Eurasia and some time between August and December in the tropics and southern Africa. It is a cavity nester, preferring holes in cliffs, trees or buildings; in built-up areas, Common Kestrels will often nest on buildings, and generally they often reuse the old nests of corvids if are available. The diminutive subspecies dacotiae, the sarnicolo of the eastern Canary Islands is peculiar for nesting occasionally in the dried fronds below the top of palm trees, apparently coexisting rather peacefully with small songbirds which also make their home there Álamo Távio (1975) . In general, Common Kestrels will usually tolerate conspecifics nesting nearby, and sometimes a few dozen pairs may be found nesting in a loose colony. The clutch is normally 3-6 eggs, but may contain any number of eggs up to seven; even more eggs may be laid in total when some are removed during the laying time, which lasts about 2 days per egg laid. The eggs are abundantly patterned with brown spots, from a wash that tinges the entire surface buffish white to large almost-black blotches. Incubation lasts some 4 weeks to one month, and only the female hatches the eggs. The male is responsible for provisioning her with food, and for some time after hatching this remains the same. Later, both parents share brooding and hunting duties until the young fledge, after 4-5 weeks. The family stays close together for a few weeks, up to a month or so, during which time the young learn how to fend for themselves and hunt prey. The young become sexually mature the next breeding season. Data from Britain shows nesting pairs bringing up about 2-3 chicks on average, though this includes is a considerable rate of total brood failures; actually, few pairs that do manage to fledge offspring raise less than 3 or 4. Population cycles of prey, particularly voles, have a considerable influence on breeding success. Most Common Kestrels die before they reach 2 years of age; mortality til the first birthday may be as high as 70%. The biological lifespan to death from senescence can be 16 years or more, however. Evolution and systematics This species is part of a clade that contains the kestrel species with black malar stripes, a feature which apparently was not present in the most ancestral kestrels. They seem to have radiated in the Gelasian (Late Pliocene Possibly to be reclassified as Early Pleistocene. , roughly 2.5-2 mya, probably starting in tropical East Africa, as indicated by mtDNA cytochrome b sequence data analysis and considerations of biogeography. The Common Kestrel's closest living relative is apparently the Nankeen or Australian Kestrel (F. cenchroides), which probably derived from ancestral Common Kestrels settling in Australia and adapting to local conditions less than one million years ago, during the Middle Pleistocene See Groombridge et al. (2002) for a thorough discussion of Common Kestrel and relatives' divergence times. . The Rock Kestrel may be a distinct species F. rupicolus, more distantly related to the Common Kestrel proper than the Nankeen Kestrel; its relationship to the other African and South Asian kestrel taxa remains insufficiently studied. The Canary Islands subspecies are apparently independently derived from Continental birds. The Lesser Kestrel (F. naumanni), which much resembles a small Common Kestrel with no black on the upperside except wing and tail tips, is probably not very closely related to the present species, and the American Kestrel (F. sparverius) is apparently not a true kestrel at all Groombridge et al. (2002) . Both species have much grey in their wings in males, which does not occur in the Common Kestrel or its close living relatives but does in almost all other falcons. Subspecies A number of subspecies of the Common Kestrel are known, though some are hardly distinct and may be invalid. Most of them differ little, and mainly in accordance with Bergmann's and Gloger's Rules. Tropical African forms have less grey in the male plumage. Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linnaeus, 1758 Temperate areas of Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and Asia north of the Hindu Kush-Himalaya mountain ranges to the NW Sea of Okhotsk region. Northern Asian populations migrate south in winter, apparently not crossing the Himalayas but diverting to the west. Female F. t. interstictus wintering in Kinnerasani Wildlife Sanctuary (Andhra Pradesh, India) Falco (tinnunculus) rupicolus Daudin, 1800 – Rock Kestrel NW Angola and S Zaire to S Tanzania, and south to South Africa. Probably a distinct species, but its limits with rufescens require further study. It differs markedly from the other subspecies of the F. tinnunculus complex. In particular, the females have what in other subspecies are typically male characteristics such as a grey head and tail, and spotted rather than barred upperparts. The Rock Kestrel has less heavily marked, brighter chestnut upperparts and its underparts are also a bright chestnut that contrasts with the nearly unmarked white underwings. Females tend to have more black bands in the central tail feathers than males. The open mountain habitat also differs from that its relatives. Falco tinnunculus rufescens Swainson, 1837 Sahel east to Ethiopia, southwards around Congo basin to S Tanzania and NE Angola. Falco tinnunculus interstictus McClelland, 1840 Breeds East Asia from Tibet to Korea and Japan, south into Indochina. Winters to the south of its breeding range, from India to the Philippines (where it is localized, e.g. from Mindanao only two records exist Peterson et al. (2008) ). Falco tinnunculus rupicolaeformis (C. L. Brehm, 1855) Arabian Peninsula except in the desert and across the Red Sea into Africa. Falco tinnunculus neglectus Schlegel, 1873 Northern Cape Verde Islands. Falco tinnunculus canariensis (Koenig, 1890) Madeira and western Canary Islands. The more ancient Canaries subspecies. Falco tinnunculus dacotiae Hartert, 1913 – Local name: sarnicolo Eastern Canary Islands: Fuerteventura, Lanzarote, Chinijo Archipelago. A more recently-evolved subspecies than canariensis. Falco tinnunculus objurgatus (Baker, 1929) Western and Eastern Ghats of India; Sri Lanka. Falco tinnunculus archerii (Hartert & Neumann, 1932) Somalia, coastal Kenya, and Socotra Falco tinnunculus alexandri Bourne, 1955 Southwestern Cape Verde Islands. The Common Kestrels of Europe living during cold periods of the Quaternary glaciation differed slightly in size from the current population; they are sometimes referred to as paleosubspecies Falco tinnunculus atavus (see also Bergmann's Rule). The remains of these birds, which presumably were the direct ancestors of the living F. t. tinnunculus, are found throughout the then-unglaciated parts of Europe, from the Late Pliocene (ELMA Villanyian/ICS Piacenzian, MN16) about 3 million years ago to the Middle Pleistocene Saalian glaciation which ended about 130.000 years ago, when they finally gave way to birds indistinguishable from those living today. Some of the voles the Ice Age Common Kestrels ate – such as European Pine Voles (Microtus subterraneus) – were indistinguishable from those alive today. Other prey species of that time evolved more rapidly (like M. malei, the presumed ancestor of today's Tundra Vole M. oeconomus), while yet again others seem to have gone entirely extinct without leaving any living descendants – for example Pliomys lenki, which apparently fell victim to the Weichselian glaciation about 100.000 years ago. Mlíkovský (2002): pp.222-223, Mourer-Chauviré et al. (2003) Footnotes References (1975): Aves de Fuerteventura en peligro de extinción ["Birds of Fuerteventura threatened with extinction"]. In: : Aves y plantas de Fuerteventura en peligro de extinción: 10-32 [in Spanish]. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. PDF fulltext (2002): A molecular phylogeny of African kestrels with reference to divergence across the Indian Ocean. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 25(2): 267–277. PDF fulltext [2009]: Eurasian Kestrel Falco tinnunculus. Retrieved 2009-JAN-02. (2002): Cenozoic Birds of the World (Part 1: Europe). Ninox Press, Prague. ISBN 80-901105-3-8 PDF fulltext (2003): Position of the palaeontological site Aven I des Abîmes de La Fage, at Noailles (Corrèze, France), in the European Pleistocene chronology. Boreas 32: 521–531. (HTML abstract) (1994): 26. Common Kestrel. In: del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew & Sargatal, Jordi (editors): Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 2 (New World vultures to Guineafowl): 259-260, plates 26. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. ISBN 84-87334-15-6 (2008): The Avifauna of Mt. Kitanglad, Bukidnon Province, Mindanao, Philippines. Fieldiana Zool. New Series 114: 1-43. DOI:10.3158/0015-0754(2008)114[1:TAOMKB]2.0.CO;2 PDF fulltext : Attraction of kestrels to vole scent marks visible in ultraviolet light. Nature 373(6513): 425 - 427 (HTML abstract) (2000): Noteworthy Bird Records for Micronesia, with a Summary of Raptor Sightings in the Mariana Islands, 1988-1999. Micronesica 32(2): 257-284. PDF fulltext (2004): New and Noteworthy Bird Records for Micronesia, 1986–2003. Micronesica 37(1): 69-96. HTML abstract External links ARKive - images and movies of the kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) Kestrels in Israel Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Text of the Hopkins poem Madeira Birds - Kestrel Kestrel photos,information,countings be-x-old:Звычайная пустальга | Common_kestrel |@lemmatized common:22 kestrel:45 falco:16 tinnunculus:19 bird:22 prey:15 specie:10 belong:1 group:1 falcon:3 family:2 falconidae:1 also:8 know:3 european:3 eurasian:2 old:3 world:4 britain:2 brown:4 occur:3 generally:6 call:1 mwbg:1 species:3 large:4 range:6 widespread:1 europe:6 asia:3 africa:6 well:3 occasionally:2 reach:3 east:5 coast:1 north:3 america:1 although:1 colonize:1 oceanic:2 island:9 vagrant:1 individual:2 rare:3 whole:1 micronesia:3 example:2 recorded:1 twice:1 guam:1 saipan:1 marianas:1 orta:2 wile:2 et:7 al:7 description:1 measure:1 cm:2 head:2 tail:7 wingspan:1 female:8 noticeably:1 adult:4 male:7 weigh:2 g:5 c:3 oz:4 around:8 average:3 thus:1 small:5 compare:1 songbird:2 like:8 long:3 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2,224 | Max_Horkheimer | Max Horkheimer (February 14, 1895 – July 7, 1973) was a German philosopher and sociologist, and a founding member of the Frankfurt School). Biography Horkheimer was born in Stuttgart to a Jewish family. Due to parental pressure, he did not initially pursue an academic career, leaving secondary school at the age of sixteen to work in his father's factory. However, after World War I he enrolled at Munich University, where he studied philosophy and psychology. He subsequently moved to Frankfurt am Main, where he studied under Hans Cornelius. There he met Theodor Adorno, several years his junior, with whom he would strike a lasting friendship and a fruitful collaborative relationship. In 1925, Horkheimer was habilitated with a dissertation entitled Kant's Critique of Judgement as Mediation between Practical and Theoretical Philosophy written under Cornelius. He was appointed Privatdozent the following year. When the Institute for Social Research's directorship became vacant in 1930, he was elected to the position. In the same year Horkheimer took over the chair of social philosophy at Frankfurt University. The following year publication of the Institute's Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung began, with Horkheimer as its editor. Biography of Horkheimer at Marxists.org Horkheimer's venia legendi was revoked by the new Nazi government, and the Institute closed in 1933. He emigrated to Switzerland, from where he would leave for the USA the following year, where Columbia University hosted the Institute in exile. Biography of Horkheimer at MIT Press In 1940, Horkheimer received American citizenship and moved to Pacific Palisades, California, where his collaboration with Adorno would yield the Dialectic of Enlightenment. Unlike Adorno, Horkheimer was never a prolific writer and in the following twenty years he published little, although he continued to edit Studies in Philosophy and Social Science as a continuation of the Zeitschrift. In 1949 he returned to Frankfurt, where the Institute reopened in 1950. Between 1951 and 1953 Horkheimer was rector of the University of Frankfurt, Biography of Horkheimer at University of Haifa where he continued to teach until his retirement in the mid-1960s. He returned to America in 1954 and 1959 to lecture at the University of Chicago. He remained an important figure until his death in Nuremberg in 1973. He is buried at the Jewish cemetery in Berne, Switzerland. Philosophy and writings Horkheimer's work is marked by a concern to show the relation between effect (especially suffering) and concepts (understood as action-guiding expressions of reason). In this, he responded critically to what he saw as the one-sidedness of both neo-Kantianism (with its focus on concepts) and Lebensphilosophie (with its focus on expression and world-disclosure). Horkheimer did not think either was wrong, but insisted that the insights of each school could not on their own adequately contribute to the repair of social problems. Eclipse of Reason Horkheimer's book, Eclipse of Reason, deals with the concept of reason within the history of Western philosophy. Horkheimer defines true reason as rationality, which can only be fostered in an environment of free, critical thinking. He details the difference between objective, subjective and instrumental reason, and states that we have moved from the former through the center and into the latter (though subjective and instrumental reason are closely connected). Objective reason deals with universal truths that dictate that an action is either right or wrong. It is a concrete concept, and a force in the world which requires specific modes of behavior. The focus in the objective faculty of reason is on ends, as opposed to means. Subjective reason is an abstract concept of reason, and focuses primarily on ends. Specifically, the reasonable nature of purposes of action are irrelevant - the ends only serve the purpose of the subject (generally self-advancement or preservation). To be "reasonable" in this context is to be suited to a particular purpose, to be "good for something else". This aspect of reason is universally conforming, and easily furnishes ideology. In instrumental reason, the sole criterion of reason is its operational value or purposefulness, and with this, the idea of truth becomes contingent on mere subjective preference (hence the relation with subjective reason). Because subjective/instrumental reason rules, the ideals of a society, for example democratic ideals, become dependent on the "interests" of the people instead of being dependent on objective truths. Nevertheless, Horkheimer admits that objective reason has its roots in Reason ("Logos" in Greek) of the subject. He concludes, "If by enlightenment and intellectual progress we mean the freeing of man from superstitious belief in evil forces, in demons and fairies, in blind fate - in short, the emancipation from fear - then denunciation of what is currently called reason is the greatest service we can render." Eclipse of Reason, Seabury Press, 1974 (Originally 1941). P. 187 Writing in 1941, Horkheimer outlined how the Nazis had been able to make their agenda appear "reasonable", but also issued a warning about the possibility of this happening again. Horkheimer believed that the ills of modern society are caused by misunderstanding of reason: if people use true reason to critique their societies, they will be able to solve problems they may have. Despite the explicit common referrals to "subjective" reason in the book, his frequent connecting of it with relativism could be an indication that by "subjective reason" Horkheimer also means "relativist reason". Select bibliography Authority and the Family (1936) Traditional and Critical Theory (1937) Critique of Instrumental Reason (1967) Dawn & Decline Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947) - with Theodor Adorno Eclipse of Reason (1947) orig. 1941 "The End of Reason" Studies in Philosophy and Social Sciences Vol. IX Egoism and the Freedom Movement The Authoritarian State The Longing for the Totally Other Notes External links Max Horkheimer Internet Archive contains complete texts of Enlightenment as Mass Deception (1944), Theism and Atheism (1963) and Feudal Lord, Customer, and Specialist (1964). Short Description of Eclipse of Reason | Max_Horkheimer |@lemmatized max:2 horkheimer:21 february:1 july:1 german:1 philosopher:1 sociologist:1 founding:1 member:1 frankfurt:5 school:3 biography:4 bear:1 stuttgart:1 jewish:2 family:2 due:1 parental:1 pressure:1 initially:1 pursue:1 academic:1 career:1 leave:2 secondary:1 age:1 sixteen:1 work:2 father:1 factory:1 however:1 world:3 war:1 enrol:1 munich:1 university:6 study:4 philosophy:7 psychology:1 subsequently:1 move:3 main:1 han:1 cornelius:2 meet:1 theodor:2 adorno:4 several:1 year:6 junior:1 would:3 strike:1 lasting:1 friendship:1 fruitful:1 collaborative:1 relationship:1 habilitate:1 dissertation:1 entitle:1 kant:1 critique:3 judgement:1 mediation:1 practical:1 theoretical:1 write:2 appoint:1 privatdozent:1 following:4 institute:5 social:5 research:1 directorship:1 become:2 vacant:1 elect:1 position:1 take:1 chair:1 publication:1 zeitschrift:2 für:1 sozialforschung:1 begin:1 editor:1 marxist:1 org:1 venia:1 legendi:1 revoke:1 new:1 nazi:2 government:1 close:1 emigrate:1 switzerland:2 usa:1 columbia:1 host:1 exile:1 mit:1 press:2 receive:1 american:1 citizenship:1 pacific:1 palisade:1 california:1 collaboration:1 yield:1 dialectic:2 enlightenment:4 unlike:1 never:1 prolific:1 writer:1 twenty:1 publish:1 little:1 although:1 continue:2 edit:1 science:2 continuation:1 return:2 reopen:1 rector:1 haifa:1 teach:1 retirement:1 mid:1 america:1 lecture:1 chicago:1 remain:1 important:1 figure:1 death:1 nuremberg:1 bury:1 cemetery:1 berne:1 writing:1 mark:1 concern:1 show:1 relation:2 effect:1 especially:1 suffer:1 concept:5 understood:1 action:3 guiding:1 expression:2 reason:29 respond:1 critically:1 saw:1 one:1 sidedness:1 neo:1 kantianism:1 focus:4 lebensphilosophie:1 disclosure:1 think:1 either:2 wrong:2 insist:1 insight:1 could:2 adequately:1 contribute:1 repair:1 problem:2 eclipse:5 book:2 deal:2 within:1 history:1 western:1 defines:1 true:2 rationality:1 foster:1 environment:1 free:1 critical:2 thinking:1 detail:1 difference:1 objective:5 subjective:8 instrumental:5 state:2 former:1 center:1 latter:1 though:1 closely:1 connect:1 universal:1 truth:3 dictate:1 right:1 concrete:1 force:2 require:1 specific:1 mode:1 behavior:1 faculty:1 end:4 oppose:1 mean:3 abstract:1 primarily:1 specifically:1 reasonable:3 nature:1 purpose:3 irrelevant:1 serve:1 subject:2 generally:1 self:1 advancement:1 preservation:1 context:1 suit:1 particular:1 good:1 something:1 else:1 aspect:1 universally:1 conforming:1 easily:1 furnishes:1 ideology:1 sole:1 criterion:1 operational:1 value:1 purposefulness:1 idea:1 becomes:1 contingent:1 mere:1 preference:1 hence:1 rule:1 ideal:2 society:3 example:1 democratic:1 dependent:2 interest:1 people:2 instead:1 nevertheless:1 admits:1 root:1 logo:1 greek:1 conclude:1 intellectual:1 progress:1 freeing:1 man:1 superstitious:1 belief:1 evil:1 demon:1 fairy:1 blind:1 fate:1 short:2 emancipation:1 fear:1 denunciation:1 currently:1 call:1 great:1 service:1 render:1 seabury:1 originally:1 p:1 outline:1 able:2 make:1 agenda:1 appear:1 also:2 issue:1 warning:1 possibility:1 happen:1 believe:1 ill:1 modern:1 cause:1 misunderstanding:1 use:1 solve:1 may:1 despite:1 explicit:1 common:1 referral:1 frequent:1 connecting:1 relativism:1 indication:1 relativist:1 select:1 bibliography:1 authority:1 traditional:1 theory:1 dawn:1 decline:1 orig:1 vol:1 ix:1 egoism:1 freedom:1 movement:1 authoritarian:1 longing:1 totally:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 internet:1 archive:1 contain:1 complete:1 text:1 mass:1 deception:1 theism:1 atheism:1 feudal:1 lord:1 customer:1 specialist:1 description:1 |@bigram max_horkheimer:2 theodor_adorno:2 kant_critique:1 zeitschrift_für:1 dialectic_enlightenment:2 berne_switzerland:1 superstitious_belief:1 seabury_press:1 external_link:1 |
2,225 | Estampie | This article is about the medieval dance; for the German band see Estampie (band). The medieval dance and musical form called the estampie in French, the estampida in Occitan, and istampitta (also istanpitta or stampita) in Italian was a popular instrumental style of the 13th and 14th centuries. Musical Form The estampie consists of four to seven sections, called puncta, each of which is repeated, in the form aa, bb, cc, etc.. Different endings (ouvert (open) and clos (closed)) are provided for the first and second statement of each punctum, so that the structure can be a+x, a+y; b+w, b+z; etc.. Sometimes the same two endings are used for all the puncta, producing the structure a+x, a+y; b+x, b+y, c+x, c+y, etc.. A similar structure was shared with the saltarello, another medieval dance. The earliest reported example of this musical form is the song "Kalenda Maya", supposedly written by the troubadour Raimbaut de Vaqueiras (1180-1207) to the melody of an estampida played by French jongleurs. All other known examples are purely instrumental pieces. 14th century examples include estampies with subtitles such as Lamento di Tristano, La Manfredina, Salterello, Isabella, Tre fontane. Though the estampie is generally monophonic, examples of two-voice compositions in the form of an estampie are also reported. Dance Choreography The idealized dance character of all these pieces suggests that the estampie originally was a true dance. There are no surviving dance manuals describing the estampie as a dance. Illuminations and paintings from the period seem to indicate that the estampie involves fairly vigorous hopping. Some estampies, such as the famous Tre fontane ("Three Fountains") estampie, contain florid and virtuosic instrumental writing; they may have been intended as abstract performance music rather than actual dance music. Etymology The etymology of the name is disputed; an alternative name of the dance is stantipes, which suggests that one foot was stationary during the dance; but the more widely accepted etymology relates it to estamper, to stamp the feet. References P. Aubry: "Estampies et danses royales" (1906)- ISBN 2-8266-0603-4 L. Hibberd: "Estampie and Stantipes" (1944) - in: Speculum XIX, 1944, 222 ff. W. Apel: "Harvard Dictionary of Music" (1970) - Heinemann Educational Books Ltd Timothy McGee, "Medieval Instrumental Dances". | Estampie |@lemmatized article:1 medieval:4 dance:12 german:1 band:2 see:1 estampie:10 musical:3 form:5 call:2 french:2 estampida:2 occitan:1 istampitta:1 also:2 istanpitta:1 stampita:1 italian:1 popular:1 instrumental:4 style:1 century:2 consist:1 four:1 seven:1 section:1 puncta:2 repeat:1 aa:1 bb:1 cc:1 etc:3 different:1 ending:2 ouvert:1 open:1 clos:1 closed:1 provide:1 first:1 second:1 statement:1 punctum:1 structure:3 x:4 b:4 w:2 z:1 sometimes:1 two:2 use:1 produce:1 c:2 similar:1 share:1 saltarello:1 another:1 early:1 reported:1 example:4 song:1 kalenda:1 maya:1 supposedly:1 write:1 troubadour:1 raimbaut:1 de:1 vaqueiras:1 melody:1 play:1 jongleur:1 know:1 purely:1 piece:2 include:1 estampies:3 subtitle:1 lamento:1 di:1 tristano:1 la:1 manfredina:1 salterello:1 isabella:1 tre:2 fontane:2 though:1 generally:1 monophonic:1 voice:1 composition:1 report:1 choreography:1 idealized:1 character:1 suggest:2 originally:1 true:1 survive:1 manual:1 describe:1 illumination:1 painting:1 period:1 seem:1 indicate:1 involve:1 fairly:1 vigorous:1 hopping:1 famous:1 three:1 fountain:1 contain:1 florid:1 virtuosic:1 writing:1 may:1 intend:1 abstract:1 performance:1 music:3 rather:1 actual:1 etymology:3 name:2 dispute:1 alternative:1 stantipes:2 one:1 foot:2 stationary:1 widely:1 accept:1 relate:1 estamper:1 stamp:1 reference:1 p:1 aubry:1 et:1 danses:1 royales:1 isbn:1 l:1 hibberd:1 speculum:1 xix:1 ff:1 apel:1 harvard:1 dictionary:1 heinemann:1 educational:1 book:1 ltd:1 timothy:1 mcgee:1 |@bigram dance_choreography:1 heinemann_educational:1 |
2,226 | Pre-Islamic_period_of_Afghanistan | Archaeological exploration of the Pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan began in Afghanistan in earnest after World War II and proceeded until the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan disrupted it in December 1979. Louis Dupree, the University of Pennsylvania, the Smithsonian Institution and others suggests that humans were living in ancient Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities of the country were among the earliest in the world. John Ford Shroder, B.S., M.S., Ph.D. Regents Professor of Geography and Geology, University of Nebraska. Editor, Himalaya to the Sea: Geology, Geomorphology, and the Quaternary and other books. Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006 - Afghanistan...Link Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron ages were found. Nancy Hatch Dupree - An Historical Guide To Afghanistan - Sites in Perspective (Chapter 3)...Link Prehistory It is not yet clear, however, to what extent these periods were contemporaneous with similar stages of development in other geographic regions. The area that is now Afghanistan seems in prehistory, as well as ancient and modern times, to have been closely connected by culture and trade with the neighbouring regions to the east, west, and north. Urban civilization, which includes most of Iran, Afghanistan, North Western Province of Pakistan which are Pashtoons, may have begun as early as 3000 to 2000 BCE (see also Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex and Indus Valley Civilization). The ancient city of Mudigak may have been a provincial colony of the Indus Valley Civilization or closely affiliated, but this remains largely circumstantial and speculative. Archaeological finds also indicate the possible beginnings of the Bronze Age which would ultimately spread throughout the ancient world from Afghanistan. It is also believed that the region had early trade contacts with Mesopotamia. Ancient Afghanistan: From the Aryans to the Medes. 1500 BCE–551 BCE Median Empire Between 2000–1200 BCE, a branch of Indo-European-speaking tribes known as the Aryans began migrating into the region. They appear to have split into old Persian peoples, Nuristani, and Indian groups at an early stage, possibly between 1500 and 1000 BCE in what is today Afghanistan or much earlier as eastern remnants of the Indo-Aryans drifted much further west as with the Mitanni. The Aryans (thought to be ancestors of Pashtoons), Nuristanis, and western Indo-Aryans dominated the modern day plateau, while the Indo-Aryans ultimately headed towards the Indian subcontinent. The western Indo-Aryans stayed in Afghanistan and North Western Province of Pakistan, which is the Pashtoons. The Avesta is believed to have been composed possibly as early as 1800 BCE and written in ancient Ariana (Aryana), the earliest name of Afghanistan which indicates an early link with today's Iranian tribes to the west, or adjacent regions in Central Asia or northeastern Iran in the 6th century BCE. Autochthonous Aryans-corr.doc Due to the similarity between early Avestan and Sanskrit (and other related early Indo-European languages such as Latin and Ancient Greek), it is believed that the split between the old Persians and Indo-Aryan tribes had taken place at least by 1000 BCE. There are striking similarities between the Old Afghan language of Avestan and Sanskrit, which may support the notion that the split was contemporary with the Indo-Aryans living in Afghanistan at a very early stage. Also, the Avesta itself divides into Old and New sections and neither mention the Medes who are known to have ruled Afghanistan starting around 700 BCE. This suggests an early time-frame for the Avesta that has yet to be exactly determined as most academics believe it was written over the course of centuries if not millennia. Much of the archaeological data comes from the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC and indus Valley Civilization) that probably played a key role in early Aryanic civilization in Afghanistan. It has also been surmised by many researchers that the Aryan prophet Zoroaster was born somewhere in ancient Aryana, possibly in the ancient city of Balkh, and the timeframe of his life literally spans millennia from as early 2000 BCE to as late as 600 BCE. Zoroastrianism spread throughout the region alongside early pagan beliefs and centuries later Buddhism. During this early period, the Pashtuns or some of their early Aryan ancestors are believed to have originated near the vicinity of Kandahar and/or the Sulaiman Mountains and possibly begun to expand into other parts of Afghanistan. Herodotus mentions a tribe called the Pactyan as inhabiting much of what is today Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan, and it is speculated by some that these people were the ancient ancestors of the Pashtuns, although, aside from phonetic name similarities, this remains unproven. Others such as Strabo relate the existence of tribes west of the Indus as part of Ariana, whereas the east is referred to as 'India',it is somehow clear abouth the various Pashtun tribes that Strabo is referring to. Arrian's Indica also makes reference to various tribes west of the Indus who may have been ancestors of the Pashtuns. The Rig Veda makes mention of a group called the Pakhat and it is possible that either this is a reference to the ancestors of the Pashtuns or a reference to an Indo-Aryan-speaking group or some other tribe altogether. Though predominantly pagan, some Pashtuns may have adopted Buddhist and Zoroastrian traditions, whereas other eastern Afghans remained pagans not unlike their neighbors the Kafirs of Nuristan as well as the Kalash. The Medes, a Western Persian people, arrived from what is today Kurdistan sometime around the 700s BCE and came to dominate most of ancient Afghanistan. They were an early tribe that forged the first empire on the present Iranian plateau and were rivals of the Persians whom they initially dominated in the province of Fars to the south. Median domination of Afghanistan would last until the Persians challenged and ultimately replaced them from their original base in Fars in southern Iran near ancient Elam. Early Indo-Aryans prior to their move to India In the region around what is today Kabul and eastern Afghanistan, an early Indo-Iranian or specifically some early Indo-Aryan culture may have emerged as eastern Afghanistan could possibly have been either the site of the Vedic civilization, that later came to influence and dominate the culture of northern India, or had links to it somewhere to the east either along the Indus or Ganges river valleys. The Rg-Veda in Afghanistan? A review of Rajesh Kochhar: The Vedic People At some point that has yet to be determined, but possibly between 12th to 8th century BCE, Gandhara - which spans from Kandahar to some of the other Pashtoon provinces in Afghanistan and Pakistan and Kamboja, two of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (in Sanskrit 'Great Kingdoms') frequently referred to in Buddhist and Hindu religious texts are believed to have evolved as important political entities in what is today south-eastern Afghanistan. Many scholars believe that while the Gandharans were early Indo-Aryan-speakers, the Kambojas were either Iranian or Indo-Iranian-speaking. Both groups find frequent mention in numerous ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts, in particular the Mahabharata and numerous Puranic literature. Alexander’s historians refer to the tribal population of Paropamisade as consisting of such clans as the Parsyetae (Parshu/Parshava), Aspasii (Aspasians), Asteknois (Hastiyanas), and Assakenois (Ashvakanas) and others. This nomenclature possibly demonstrates that while most of this tribal population was, there were also some population segments which may have spoken early Indo-Aryan tongues prior to their movements to India. This is because while the tribal name Parsyete implies Old Afghan affinities and the Aspasii (derived from Farsi-Dari also Pashtu word Aspa) also indicates an Aryanic horse culture, the Assakenois (Sanskrit Ashvakan) of the Swat valley, on the other hand, were possibly an Indo-Aryan horsemen culture as their name derives from the Sanskrit Ashva (horse). The Aspasian peoples are believed to be the western branch of the Ashvakas or Assakenians (Political history of Ancient India, 1996, p 216; Cambridge History of India, 352, n 3). The Assakenois and Aspasios of the classical writings or the Ashvakas of the Sanskrit texts are believed by numerous scholars to have been sub-sections of the ancient Kambojas in reference to their equestrian nature. See for this Dr E. Lamotte, Dr K. P. Jayswal, Dr Buddha Parkash, Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee, Dr Romila Thapar, Dr J. L. Kamboj, and several others. The rock edict V of Emperor Ashoka found at Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra prominently refers to the Yonas (Ionian Greeks), Kambojas and Gandharas, while rock edict XIII refers to the Greeks and Kambojas (Yonakambojesu) as people of the western frontiers. It is noteworthy that Ashoka’s rock edicts/inscriptions written exclusively in Aramaic have been discovered only in the Paropamisade (region between river Kabol and Hindukush Mt), whereas those in Greek and Aramaic were discovered in Arachosia (south-east Afghanistan) and in Prakrit and Aramaic in Gandhara region (Peshawer to Rawalpindi). Scholars believe that the Greek version of Ashokan inscriptions was intended for the Yonas (the Greeks or Aryans), the Prakrit version for the Indo-Aryan Gandharas, while the Aramaic version was directed at the Kambojas (See: Aramaic edicts of Ashoka, 1980, p 66, notes 11–13; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, pp 610–13; Scerrato in Pugliese Carratelli and Garbini, 1964, 14–15; Colloque, L’Archeologie de l'empire achemenide, Paris, Nov, 21–22, 2003 etc). This shows that Paropamisade region (an Aramaic territory) was inhabited by early Persian Kambojas as the Aramaic was an official language for the Persian tribes under Achaemenid rulers. Moreover, as a Greco-Aramaic inscription (known as Shar-i-Kuna inscription) was discovered in 1957 in Kandhahar also, this, according to some scholars, may attest that a section of the Aramaic-knowing Kambojas (or other Iranian tribes) were also possibly located north of Kandhahar as neighbors to the Greeks. Dr Michael Witzel identifies the region from Kabol valley to as far as Kandhahar as inhabited by the ancestors of Pashtoons, Persica-9, 1981, pp 86–123). The compound expression Yonakambojesu of Ashoka’s Rock Edict XIII as well as of Buddhist Majjhima Nikaya (43.1.3), powerfully supports this view. It is now generally accepted by many Indic scholars that the Kambojas were an early Pashtoon people who migrated to today's Iran who may have been partially absorbed into larger tribes in Afghanistan and/or else partially forced to move east where they were further absorbed into the populations of what is today northern Pakistan and India http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration_of_Kambojas . Current minuscule population of Kamboj, Kamboh and Kamoz, the modern representatives of ancient Kambojas, in India, Pakistan and Afghanistan is estimated to be approximately around 1.5 millions. The chronology of major events and corresponding archaeology remains highly sporadic as does the religious connotation which remains unverifiable. Achaemenid Rule, and rise of Zoroastrianism ca. 550 BCE–331 BCE Achaemenid empire at its greatest extent The city of Bactria (which later became Balkh), is believed to have been the home of Zarathustra, who founded the Zoroastrian religion. The Avesta refers to eastern Bactria as being the home of the Zoroastrian faith, but this can be a reference to either a region in modern Afghanistan or Border line of Afghan-Pakistan. Regardless of the debate as to where Zoroaster was from, Zoroastrianism spread to become one of the world's most influential religions and became the main faith of the old Aryan people for centuries. It also remained the official religion of Persia until the defeat of the Sassanian ruler Yazdegerd III—over a thousand years after its founding—by Muslim Arab. In what is today southern Iran, the Persians emerged to challenge Median supremacy on the Iranian plateau. By 550 BCE, the Persians had replaced Median rule with their own dominion and even began to expand past previous Median imperial borders. Both Gandhara and Kamboja Mahajanapadas of the Buddhist texts soon fell a prey to the Achaemenian Dynasty during the reign of Achaemenid, Cyrus the Great (558–530 BCE), or in the first year of Darius I. According to Pliny's evidence, Cyrus II had destroyed Kapisa in Capiscene (Naturalis Historia, VI, 25, 92) which was a Kamboja city. The former region of Gandhara and Kamboja (upper Indus) had constituted seventh satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire and annually contributed 170 talents of gold dust as a tribute to the Achaemenids. Bactria had a special position in old Afghanistan, being the capital of a vice-kingdom. By the fourth century BCE, Persian control of outlying areas and the internal cohesion of the empire had become somewhat tenuous. Although distant provinces like Bactriana had often been restless under Achaemenid rule, Bactrian troops nevertheless fought in the decisive Battle of Gaugamela in 330 BCE against the advancing armies of Alexander the Great. The Achaemenids were decisively defeated by Alexander and retreated from his advancing army of Greco-Macedonians and their Iranian allies. Darius III, the last Achaemenid ruler, tried to flee to Bactria, but was assassinated by a subordinate lord, the Bactrian-born Bessus, who proclaimed himself the new ruler of Persia as Artaxerxes, but was unable to mount a successful resistance to the growing military might of Alexander's army. Fleeing to his native Bactria, Bessus attempted to rally local Aryan tribes to his side, but was instead turned over to Alexander who proceeded to have him tortured and executed for having committed regicide. Alexander the Great, Seleucid-Mauryan rivalry, and Greco-Bactrian Rule, 330 BCE–ca. 150 BCE Map of Alexander's empire. It had taken Alexander only six months to conquer Iran, but it took him nearly three years (from about 330 BCE–327 BCE) to subdue the area that is now Afghanistan. Moving eastward from the area of Herat, the Macedonian leader encountered fierce resistance from the local tribes of Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana (now part of Afghanistan, Pakistan and Eastern Iran), Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan) and Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan). In a letter to his mother, Alexander described his encounters with the eastern southern tribes (Afghans) thus: "I am involved in the land of a 'Leonine' (lion-like) and brave people, where every foot of the ground is like a wall of steel, confronting my soldier. You have brought only one son into the world, but everyone in this land can be called an Alexander.” Local resistance and the difficult terrain made it difficult for Alexander's forces to subdue the region as many invaders have found the mountainous terrain of Afghanistan similar to a maze that often trapped outside invaders. Alexander also met his Bactrian/Sogdian bride, Roxana—who was reportedly born in Balkh—while trying to consolidate his rule over ancient Afghanistan and adjacent regions in Central Asia. Their union reportedly produced one sole heir, Alexander IV, who was later killed in Greece by Cassander. Although Alexander's expedition through ancient Afghanistan was brief, he left behind a Hellenic cultural influence that lasted several centuries. Upon Alexander's death in 323 BCE, his empire, which had never been politically consolidated, broke apart as his companions began to divide it amongst themselves. Alexander's cavalry commander, Seleucus, took nominal control of the eastern lands and founded the Seleucid dynasty. Under the Seleucids, as under Alexander, Greek colonists and soldiers colonized Bactria, roughly corresponding to modern Afghanistan's borders. However, the majority of Macedonian soldiers of Alexander the Great wanted to leave the east and return home to Greece. Later, Seleucus sought to guard his eastern frontier and moved Ionian Greeks (also known as Yavanas to many local groups) to Bactria in the third century BCE. Mauryan Period (305-180BCE) While the Diadochi were warring amongst themselves, the Mauryan Empire was developing in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. The founder of the empire, Chandragupta Maurya, confronted a Macedonian invasion force led by Seleucus I in 305 BCE and following a brief conflict, an agreement was reached as Seleucus ceded Gandhara and Arachosia (centered around ancient Kandahar) and areas south of Bagram (corresponding to the extreme south-east of modern Afghanistan) to the Mauryans. During the 120 years of the Mauryans in southern Afghanistan, Buddhism was introduced and eventually become a major religion alongside Zoroastrianism and local pagan beliefs. The ancient Grand Trunk Road was built linking what is now Kabul to various cities in the Punjab and the Gangetic Plain. Commerce, art, and architecture (seen especially in the construction of stupas) developed during this period. It reach its high point under Emperor Ashoka whose edicts, roads, and rest stops were found throughout the subcontinent. Although the vast majority of them throughout the subcontinent were written in Prakrit, Afghanistan is notable for the inclusion of 2 Greek and Aramaic ones alongside the court language of the Mauryans. Bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by Emperor Ashoka, from Kandahar - Afghan National Museum. (Click image for translation). Inscriptions made by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, a fragment of Edict 13 in Greek, as well as a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic has been discovered in Kandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka uses the word Eusebeia ("Piety") as the Greek translation for the ubiquitous "Dharma" of his other Edicts written in Prakrit: "Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety (εὐσέβεια, Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he has made men more pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world. And the king abstains from (killing) living beings, and other men and those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in their power; and obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and more happily." (Trans. by G.P. Carratelli History of Afghanistan ) The last ruler in the region was probably Subhagasena (Sophagasenus of Polybius), who, in a ll probability, belonged to the Ashvaka (q.v.) background. Greco-Bactrian rule Coin of the Greco-Bactrian king Eucratides (171-145 BCE) In the middle of the 3rd century BCE, an independent, Hellenistic state was declared in Bactria and eventually the control of the Seleucids and Mauryans was overthrown in western and southern Afghanistan. Graeco-Bactrian rule spread until it included a large territory which stretched from northeastern Iran in the west to the Punjab in India in the east by about 170 BCE. Graeco-Bactrian rule was eventually defeated by a combination of internecine disputes that plagued Greek and Hellenized rulers to the west, continual conflict with Indian kingdoms, as well as the pressure of two groups of nomadic invaders from Central Asia—the Parthians and Sakas. The Kushan Empire, ca. 150 BCE–300 CE Silver tetradrachm of Kushan king Heraios (1–30 CE) in Greco-Bactrian style, with horseman crowned by the Greek goddess of victory Nike. Greek legend: ΤVΡΑΝΝΟVΟΤΟΣ ΗΛΟV - ΣΛΝΛΒ - ΚΟÞÞΑΝΟΥ "Of the Tyrant Heraios, Sanav, the Kushan" (the meaning of "Sanav" is unknown). In the third and second centuries BC, the Parthians, a nomadic Iranian people, arrived in ancient Afghanistan. The Parthians established control in most of what is Iran as early as the middle of the 3rd century BC; about 100 years later another Indo-European group from the north—the Tocharian Kushans (a subgroup of the tribe called the Yuezhi by the Chinese)—entered the region that is now Afghanistan and established an empire lasting almost four centuries. The Kushan Empire spread from the Kabul River valley to defeat other Central Asian tribes that had previously conquered parts of the northern central Iranian Plateau once ruled by the Parthians. By the middle of the 1st century BCE, the Kushans' base of control became Afghanistan and their empire spanned from the north of the Pamir mountains to the Ganges river valley in India. Early in the 2nd century under Kanishka, the most powerful of the Kushan rulers, the empire reached its greatest geographic and cultural breadth to become a center of literature and art. Kanishka extended Kushan control to the mouth of the Indus River on the Arabian Sea, into Kashmir, and into what is today the Chinese-controlled area north of Tibet. Kanishka was a patron of religion and the arts. It was during his reign that Mahayana Buddhism , imported to northern India earlier by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (ca. 260 BCE–232 BCE), reached its zenith in Central Asia. Though the Kushanas were predominantly Zoroastrian themselves, they also supported local Buddhists and Hindus as well as the worship of various local deities. Sassanian Rule, ca. 300–650 A coin depicting Shapur I who conquered ancient Afghanistan In the 3rd century, Kushan control fragmented into semi-independent kingdoms that became easy targets for conquest by the rising Iranian dynasty, the Sassanians (ca. 224–561) which annexed Afghanistan by 300 CE. Sassanian control was tenuous at times as numerous challenges from Central Asian tribes led to instability and constant warfare in the region. The disunited Kushan and Sassanian kingdoms were in a poor position to meet the threat of a new wave of nomadic, Indo-European invaders from the north. The Hephthalites (or White Huns) swept out of Central Asia around the fourth century into Bactria and to the south, overwhelming the last of the Kushan and Sassanian kingdoms. Some have speculated that the name Afghanistan land of the Afghans derives from which could be an adjective such as brave, chivlarious, valour, which was to use for the people in today's Afghanistan. Historians believe that Hepthalite control continued for a century and was marked by constant warfare with the Sassanians to the west who exerted nominal control over the region. By the middle of the sixth century the Hephthalites were defeated in the territories north of the Amu Darya (the Oxus River of antiquity) by another group of Central Asian nomads, the Göktürks, and by the resurgent Sassanians in the lands south of the Amu Darya. It was the ruler of western Göktürks, Sijin (aka Sinjibu, Silzibul and Yandu Muchu Khan) who led the forces against the Hepthalites who were defeated at the Battle of Chach (Tashkent) and at the Battle of Bukhara. The Shahi Kings Coin of the Shahi king Spalapati Deva, circa 750-900. Obv: Bull, symbol of Shiva. Rev: King mounted on a horse. Kushano-Hephthalite Kingdoms in 600 AD. The Shahi dynasties ruled portions of the Kabul Valley (in eastern Afghanistan) and the old province of Gandhara (northern Pakistan and Kashmir) from the decline of the Kushan Empire in third century to the early ninth century. "Shahi Family." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 October 2006 . They are split into two eras the Buddhist Turk-Shahis (also known as the Kushano-Hephthalites and the later Hindu-Shahis with the change-over occurring around 870, and ruled up until the Islamic conquest of Afghanistan. When Hsüan-tsang visited the region early in the 7th century CE, the Kabul valley region was ruled by a Kshatriya king, who is identified as the Shahi Khingal, and whose name has been found in an inscription found in Gardez. The Turk Shahi regency was overthrown and replaced by a Mohyal Shahi dynasty of Brahmins who began the first phase of the Hindu Shahi dynasty. These Hindu Shahi kings of Kabul and Gandhara may have had links to some ruling families in neighboring Kashmir and other areas to the east. The Shahis, though Hindu, were rulers of a predominantly Buddhist, Zoroastrian, Hindu and Muslim populations and were thus patrons of numerous faiths, and various artifacts and coins from their rule have been found that display their multicultural domain. In 964AD, the last Mohyal Hindu Shahi was succeeded by the Janjua overlord, Jayapala, of the Panduvanshi dynasty. The last Shahi emperors Jayapala, Anandapala and Tirlochanpala fought invading Muslim Turks from Central Asia and were gradually defeated and eventually exiled from their domains into northern India.See for fuller details the main article "Shahi" Archaeological remnants from Afghanistan's pre-Islamic period Most of these early Zoroastrian, Hellenistic, and Buddhist cultures were replaced by the coming of Islam and little influence remains in Afghanistan today. Along ancient trade routes, however, stone monuments of the once flourishing Buddhist culture did exist as reminders of the past. The two massive sandstone Buddhas of Bamyan, thirty-five and fifty-three meters high overlooked the ancient route through Bamyan to Balkh and dated from the third and fifth centuries. They survived until 2001, when they were destroyed by the Taliban. In this and other key places in Afghanistan, archaeologists have located frescoes, stucco decorations, statuary, and rare objects from as far away as China, Phoenicia, and Rome, which were crafted as early as the 2nd century and bear witness to the influence of these ancient civilizations upon Afghanistan. Notes References Ahmed, Akbar S. 1980. Pukhtun economy and society. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Bryant, Edwin. 'The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). Dupree, Louis. 'Afghanistan' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997). Ewans, Martin. Afghanistan: A Short History of Its People and Politics, Harper Perennial; 1st Perennial ed edition (September 1, 2002) Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Paris, UNESCO Publishing. Hill, John E. 2004. The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu. Draft annotated English translation. Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation. Holt, Frank L. Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria, University of California Press (March, 1999) Kriwaczek, Paul. In Search of Zarathustra: Across Iran and Central Asia to Find the World's First Prophet, Vintage (March 9, 2004) Litvinsky, B. A., ed., 1996. History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Paris, UNESCO Publishing. Olmstead, A.T. History of the Persian Empire, University Of Chicago Press (February 15, 1959) Reat, Ross. 'Buddhism: A History', (Jain Publishing Company, 1996). Rowland, Benjamin, Jr. Ancient Art from Afghanistan: Treasures of the Kabul Museum, Ayer Co Pub (October, 1981) Sarianidi, Viktor. 1985. The Golden Hoard of Bactria: From the Tillya-tepe Excavations in Northern Afghanistan. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. New York. Shayegan, Rahim. The Avesta and the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex Witzel, Michael. Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts External links Encyclopædia of the Orient-Avesta Afghanistan Online Afghanistan History BBC History of Afghanistan Portals to the World: Resources from the Library of Congress on Afghanistan Afghanan Dot Net: Afghanistan History Afghanistan, History Association for the Protection of Afghan Archaeology Kabul Virtual Museum BBC History of Zoroastrianism Encyclopædia Britannica: The Kushans (from Afghanistan) Medes Buddhist Manuscripts from ancient Afghanistan Payvand's Iran News, Iran, Afghanistan & Tajikistan Cooperate to Restore Achaemenid Relics, 3/14/05 'Bilingual rock inscriptions in Greek and Aramaic (the official language of the Achaemenians) found at Qandahar and Laghman (in eastern Afghanistan) date from the reign of Ashoka (c. 265-238 BC, or c. 273-232 BC)', Afghansite.com, The Achaemenians and the Greeks Indo-Greek Coins Kushan Coins Sanskrit inscription from Mazar-i-Sharif 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2,227 | Edmund_Husserl | Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl (; April 8, 1859, Prostějov, Moravia, Austrian Empire – April 26, 1938, Freiburg, Germany) was a philosopher who is deemed the founder of phenomenology. He broke with the positivist orientation of the science and philosophy of his day, believing that experience is the source of all knowledge, while at the same time he elaborated critiques of psychologism and historicism. Born into a Moravian Jewish family, he was baptized as a Lutheran in 1887. Husserl studied mathematics under Karl Weierstrass, completing a Ph.D. under Leo Königsberger, and studied philosophy under Franz Brentano and Carl Stumpf. Husserl taught philosophy, as a Privatdozent at Halle from 1887, then as professor, first at Göttingen from 1901, then at Freiburg im Breisgau from 1916 until his 1928 retirement. Husserl's teaching and writing influenced, among others, Hans Blumenberg, Ludwig Landgrebe, Eugen Fink, Max Scheler, Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, Emmanuel Levinas, Rudolf Carnap, Hermann Weyl, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Alfred Schütz, Pierre Bourdieu, Paul Ricœur, Jacques Derrida, Jan Patočka, Roman Ingarden, Dietrich von Hildebrand, Edith Stein (St. Teresa Benedicta of the Cross), Francisco Varela,and Pope John Paul II. Biography Education and early works Husserl was born into a Jewish family in a town that was then in the Austrian Empire, after 1918 a part of Czechoslovakia, and since 1993 a part of the Czech Republic. He initially studied mathematics at the universities of Leipzig (1876) and Berlin (1878), under Karl Weierstrass and Leopold Kronecker. In 1881 he went to Vienna to study under the supervision of Leo Königsberger (a former student of Weierstrass), obtaining the Ph.D. in 1883 with the work Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung ("Contributions to the Calculus of Variations"). In 1884, he began to attend Franz Brentano's lectures on psychology and philosophy at the University of Vienna. Husserl was so impressed by Brentano that he decided to dedicate his life to philosophy. In 1886 Husserl went to the University of Halle to obtain his Habilitation with Carl Stumpf, a former student of Brentano. Under his supervision he wrote Über den Begriff der Zahl (On the concept of Number; 1887) which would serve later as the base for his first major work, Philosophie der Arithmetik (1891). In these first works he tries to combine mathematics, psychology and philosophy with a main goal to provide a sound foundation for mathematics. He analyzes the psychological process needed to obtain the concept of number and then tries to build up a systematical theory on this analysis. To achieve this he uses several methods and concepts taken from his teachers. From Weierstrass he derives the idea that we generate the concept of number by counting a certain collection of objects. From Brentano and Stumpf he takes over the distinction between proper and improper presenting. In an example Husserl explains this in the following way: if you are standing in front of a house, you have a proper, direct presentation of that house, but if you are looking for it and ask for directions, then these directions (e.g. the house on the corner of this and that street) are an indirect, improper presentation. In other words, you can have a proper presentation of an object if it is actually present, and an improper (or symbolic as he also calls it) if you only can indicate that object through signs, symbols, etc. Husserl's 1901 Logical Investigations is considered the starting point for the formal theory of wholes and their parts known as mereology. Another important element that Husserl took over from Brentano is intentionality, the notion that the main characteristic of consciousness is that it is always intentional. While often simplistically summarised as "aboutness" or the relationship between mental acts and the external world, Brentano defined it as the main characteristic of mental phenomena, by which they could be distinguished from physical phenomena. Every mental phenomenon, every psychological act, has a content, is directed at an object (the intentional object). Every belief, desire, etc. has an object that it is about: the believed, the wanted. Brentano used the expression "intentional inexistence" to indicate the status of the objects of thought in the mind. The property of being intentional, of having an intentional object, was the key feature to distinguish mental phenomena and physical phenomena, because physical phenomena lack intentionality altogether. The elaboration of phenomenology Some years after the publication of his main work, the Logische Untersuchungen (Logical Investigations; first edition, 1900-1901), Husserl made some key conceptual elaborations which led him to assert that in order to study the structure of consciousness, one would have to distinguish between the act of consciousness and the phenomena at which it is directed (the object-in-itself, transcendent to consciousness). Knowledge of essences would only be possible by "bracketing" all assumptions about the existence of an external world. This procedure he called epoché. These new concepts prompted the publication of the Ideen (Ideas) in 1913, in which they were at first incorporated, and a plan for a second edition of the Logische Untersuchungen. From the Ideen onward, Husserl concentrated on the ideal, essential structures of consciousness. The metaphysical problem of establishing the material reality of what we perceive was of little interest to Husserl in spite of his being a transcendental idealist. Husserl proposed that the world of objects and ways in which we direct ourselves toward and perceive those objects is normally conceived of in what he called the "natural standpoint", which is characterized by a belief that objects materially exist and exhibit properties that we see as emanating from them. Husserl proposed a radical new phenomenological way of looking at objects by examining how we, in our many ways of being intentionally directed toward them, actually "constitute" them (to be distinguished from materially creating objects or objects merely being figments of the imagination); in the Phenomenological standpoint, the object ceases to be something simply "external" and ceases to be seen as providing indicators about what it is, and becomes a grouping of perceptual and functional aspects that imply one another under the idea of a particular object or "type". The notion of objects as real is not expelled by phenomenology, but "bracketed" as a way in which we regard objects instead of a feature that inheres in an object's essence founded in the relation between the object and the perceiver. In order to better understand the world of appearances and objects, phenomenology attempts to identify the invariant features of how objects are perceived and pushes attributions of reality into their role as an attribution about the things we perceive (or an assumption underlying how we perceive objects). In a later period, Husserl began to wrestle with the complicated issues of intersubjectivity, specifically, how communication about an object can be assumed to refer to the same ideal entity (Cartesian Meditations, Meditation V). Husserl tries new methods of bringing his readers to understand the importance of phenomenology to scientific inquiry (and specifically to psychology) and what it means to "bracket" the natural attitude. The Crisis of the European Sciences is Husserl's unfinished work that deals most directly with these issues. In it, Husserl for the first time attempts a historical overview of the development of Western philosophy and science, emphasizing the challenges presented by their increasingly (one-sidedly) empirical and naturalistic orientation. Husserl declares that mental and spiritual reality possess their own reality independent of any physical basis, This assumption led Husserl to an idealistic position (which he originally had tried to overcome or avoid). On Husserl's phenomenological idealism see Hans Köchler, Die Subjekt-Objekt-Dialektik in der transzendentalen Phänomenologie. Das Seinsproblem zwischen Idealismus und Realismus. (Monographien zur philosophischen Forschung, Vol. 112.) Meisenheim a. G.: Anton Hain, 1974. and that a science of the mind ('Geisteswissenschaft') must be established on as scientific a foundation as the natural sciences have managed: "It is my conviction that intentional phenomenology has for the first time made spirit as spirit the field of systematic scientific experience, thus effecting a total transformation of the task of knowledge." Crisis of European Humanity, Pt. II, 1935 The Nazi era Professor Husserl was denied the use of the library at Freiburg as a result of the anti-Jewish legislation the National Socialists (Nazis) passed in April 1933. It is rumoured that his former pupil and Nazi Party member, Martin Heidegger, informed Husserl that he was discharged, but Heidegger later denied this, labelling it as slander "Nur noch ein Gott kann uns retten". Der Spiegel, 31 May 1967. . Heidegger (whose philosophy Husserl considered to be the result of a faulty departure from, and grave misunderstanding of, Husserl's own teachings and methods) removed the dedication to Husserl from his most widely known work, Being and Time, when it was reissued in 1941. This was not due to diminishing relations between the two philosophers, however, but rather as a result of a suggested censorship by Heidegger's publisher who feared that the book may be banned by the Nazi regime. The dedication can still be found in a footnote on page 38, thanking Husserl for his guidance and generosity. The philosophical relation between Husserl and Heidegger is discussed at length by Bernard Stiegler in the film The Ister. After his death, Husserl's manuscripts, amounting to approximately 40,000 pages of "Gabelsberger" stenography and his complete research library, were smuggled to Belgium by Herman Van Breda in 1939 and deposited at Leuven to form the Husserl-Archives of the Higher Institute of Philosophy. Much of the material in his research manuscripts has been published in the Husserliana critical edition series. The Philosophy of Edmund Husserl Meaning and Object in Husserl From Logical Investigations (1900/1901) to Experience and Judgment (published in 1939), Husserl expressed clearly the difference between meaning and object. He identified several different kinds of names. For example, there are names that have the role of properties that uniquely identify an object. Each of these names express a meaning and designate the same object. Examples of this are "the victor in Jena" and "the loser in Waterloo", or "the equilateral triangle" and "the equiangular triangle"; in both cases, both names express different meanings, but designate the same object. There are names which have no meaning, but have the role of designating an object: "Aristotle", "Socrates", and so on. Finally, there are names which designate a variety of objects. These are called "universal names"; their meaning is a "concept" and refers to a series of objects (the extension of the concept). The way we know sensible objects is called "sensible intuition". Husserl also identifies a series of "formal words" which are necessary to form sentences and have no sensible correlates. Examples of formal words are "a", "the", "more than", "over", "under", "two", "group", and so on. Every sentence must contain formal words to designate what Husserl calls "formal categories". There are two kinds of categories: meaning categories and formal-ontological categories. Meaning categories relate judgments; they include forms of conjunction, disjunction, forms of plural, among others. Formal-ontological categories relate objects and include notions such as set, cardinal number, ordinal number, part and whole, relation, and so on. The way we know these categories is through a faculty of understanding called "categorial intuition". Through sensible intuition our consciousness constitutes what Husserl calls a "situation of affairs" (Sachlage). It is a passive constitution where objects themselves are presented to us. To this situation of affairs, through categorial intuition, we are able to constitute a "state of affairs" (Sachverhalt). One situation of affairs through objective acts of consciousness (acts of constituting categorially) can serve as the basis for constituting multiple states of affairs. For example, suppose a and b are two sensible objects in a certain situation of affairs. We can use it as basis to say, "a<b" and "b>a", two judgments which designate different states of affairs. For Husserl a sentence has a proposition or judgment as its meaning, and refers to a state of affairs which has a situation of affairs as a reference base. Philosophy of Logic and Mathematics Husserl believed that truth-in-itself has as ontological correlate being-in-itself, just as meaning categories have formal-ontological categories as correlates. Logic is a formal theory of judgment, that studies the formal a priori relations among judgments using meaning categories. Mathematics, on the other hand, is formal ontology; it studies all the possible forms of being (of objects). Hence for both logic and mathematics, the different formal categories are the objects of study, not the sensible objects themselves. The problem with the psychological approach to mathematics and logic is that it fails to account for the fact that this approach is about formal categories, and not simply about abstractions from sensibility alone. The reason why we do not deal with sensible objects in mathematics is because of another faculty of understanding called "categorial abstraction." Through this faculty we are able to get rid of sensible components of judgments, and just focus on formal categories themselves. Thanks to "eidetic intuition" (or "essential intuition"), we are able to grasp the possibility, impossibility, necessity and contingency among concepts and among formal categories. Categorial intuition, along with categorial abstraction and eidetic intuition, are the basis for logical and mathematical knowledge. Husserl criticized the logicians of his day for not focusing on the relation between subjective processes that give us objective knowledge of pure logic. All subjective activities of consciousness need an ideal correlate, and objective logic (constituted noematically) as it is constituted by consciousness needs a noetic correlate (the subjective activities of consciousness). Husserl stated that logic has three strata, each further away from consciousness and psychology than those that precede it. The first stratum is what Husserl called a "morphology of meanings" concerning a priori ways to relate judgments to make them meaningful. In this stratum we elaborate a "pure grammar" or a logical syntax, and he would call its rules "laws to prevent non-sense", which would be similar to what logic calls today "formation rules". Mathematics, as logic's ontological correlate, also has a similar stratum, a "morphology of formal-ontological categories". The second stratum would be called by Husserl "logic of consequence" or the "logic of non-contradiction" which explores all possible forms of true judgments. He includes here syllogistic classic logic, propositional logic and that of predicates. This is a semantic stratum, and the rules of this stratum would be the "laws to avoid counter-sense" or "laws to prevent contradiction". They are very similar to today's logic "transformation rules". Mathematics also has a similar stratum which is based among others on pure theory of pluralities, and a pure theory of numbers. They provide a science of the conditions of possibility of any theory whatsoever. Husserl also talked about what he called "logic of truth" which consists of the formal laws of possible truth and its modalities, and precedes the third logical third stratum. The third stratum is metalogical, what he called a "theory of all possible forms of theories." It explores all possible theories in an a priori fashion, rather than the possibility of theory in general. We could establish theories of possible relations between pure forms of theories, investigate these logical relations and the deductions from such general connection. The logician is free to see the extension of this deductive, theoretical sphere of pure logic. The ontological correlate to the third stratum is the "theory of manifolds" In formal ontology, it is a free investigation where a mathematician can assign several meanings to several symbols, and all their possible valid deductions in a general and indeterminate manner. It is, properly speaking, the most universal mathematics of all. Through the posit of certain indeterminate objects (formal-ontological categories) as well as any combination of mathematical axioms, mathematicians can explore the apodeictic connections between them, as long as consistency is preserved. According to Husserl, this view of logic and mathematics accounted for the objectivity of a series of mathematical developments of his time, such as n-dimensional manifolds (both Euclidean and non-Euclidean), Hermann Grassmann's theory of extensions, William Rowan Hamilton's Hamiltonians, Sophus Lie's theory of transformation groups, and Cantor's set theory. Husserl and the Critique of Psychologism Philosophy of Arithmetic and Frege Some analytic philosophers suggest that Husserl, after obtaining his PhD in mathematics, began analyzing the foundations of mathematics from a psychological point of view, as a disciple of Brentano. In his professorial doctoral dissertation, On the Concept of Number (1886) and in his Philosophy of Arithmetic (1891), Husserl sought, by employing Brentano's descriptive psychology, to define the natural numbers in a way that advanced the methods and techniques of Weierstrass, Dedekind, Georg Cantor, Frege, and other contemporary mathematicians. Later, in the first volume of his Logical Investigations, the Prolegomena of Pure Logic, Husserl, while attacking the psychologistic point of view in logic and mathematics, also appears to reject much of his early work, although the forms of psychologism analysed and refuted in the Prolegomena did not apply directly to his Philosophy of Arithmetic. While some scholars point to Frege's negative review of the Philosophy of Arithmetic, this did not turn Husserl towards Platonism, because he had already discovered the work of Bernhard Bolzano around 1890/91 and explicitly mentioned Bolzano, Leibniz and Lotze as inspirations for his newer position. Likewise, the opinion that Husserl's notions of noema and object are due to Frege's notions of sense and reference is to commit an anachronism, because Husserl's review of Schröder, published before Frege's landmark 1892 article, clearly distinguishes sense from reference. Likewise, in his criticism of Frege in the Philosophy of Arithmetic, Husserl remarks on the distinction between the content and the extension of a concept. Moreover, the distinction between the subjective mental act, namely the content of a concept, and the (external) object, was developed independently by Brentano and his school, and may have surfaced as early as Brentano's 1870's lectures on logic. Scholars such as J. N. Mohanty, Claire Ortiz Hill, and Guillermo E. Rosado Haddock, among others, have argued that Husserl's so-called change from psychologism to platonism came about independently of Frege's review. Consider Jitendra Nath Mohanty, 1995, "The Development of Husserl's Thought" in Barry Smith & David Woodruff Smith, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Husserl. Cambridge Univ. Press. For further commentaries on the review, see Willard, Dallas, 1984. Logic and the Objectivity of Knowledge. Athens OH: Ohio University Press, p. 63; J. Philip Miller, 1982. "Numbers in Presence and Absence, Phaenomenologica 90 (Den Haag: Nijhoff): p. 19 ff.; and Jitendra Nath Mohanty, 1984, "Husserl, Frege and the Overcoming of Psychologism", in Cho, Kay Kyung, ed., Philosophy and Science in Phenomenological Perspective, Phaenomenologica 95 (Dordrecht/Boston/Lancaster: Nijhoff), p. 145. For example, the review falsely accuses Husserl of subjectivizing everything, so that no objectivity is possible, and falsely attributes to him a notion of abstraction whereby objects disappear until we are left with numbers as mere ghosts. Contrary to what Frege states, in Husserl's Philosophy of Arithmetic we already find two different kinds of representations: subjective and objective. Moreover, objectivity is clearly defined in that work. Frege's attack seems to be directed at certain foundational doctrines then current in Weierstrass's Berlin School, of which Husserl and Cantor cannot be said to be orthodox representatives. Furthermore, various sources indicate that Husserl changed his mind about psychologism as early as 1890, a year before he published the Philosophy of Arithmetic. Husserl stated that by the time he published that book, he had already changed his mind -- that he had doubts about psychologism from the very outset. He attributed this change of mind to his reading of Leibniz, Bolzano, Lotze, and David Hume. Husserl-Chronik, p. 25-26 Husserl makes no mention of Frege as a decisive factor in this change. In his Logical Investigations, Husserl mentions Frege only twice, once in a footnote to point out that he had retracted three pages of his criticism of Frege's The Foundations of Arithmetic, and again to question Frege's use of the word Bedeutung to designate "reference" rather than "meaning" (sense). In a letter dated May 24, 1891, Frege thanked Husserl for sending him a copy of the Philosophy of Arithmetic and Husserl's review of Ernst Schröder's Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik. In the same letter, Frege used the review of Schröder's book to analyze Husserl's notion of the sense of reference of concept words. Hence Frege recognized, as early as 1891, that Husserl distinguished between sense and reference. Consequently, Frege and Husserl independently elaborated a theory of sense and reference before 1891. Commentators argue that Husserl's notion of noema has nothing to do with Frege's notion of sense, because noemata are necessarily fused with noeses which are the conscious activities of consciousness. Noemata have three different levels: The substratum, which is never presented to the consciousness, and is the support of all the properties of the object; The noematic senses, which are the different ways the objects are presented to us; The modalities of being (possible, doubtful, existent, non-existent, absurd, and so on). Consequently, in intentional activities, even non-existent objects can be constituted, and form part of the whole noema. Frege, however, did not conceive of objects as forming parts of senses: If a proper name denotes a non-existent object, it does not have a reference, hence concepts with no objects have no truth value in arguments. Moreover, Husserl did not maintain that predicates of sentences designate concepts. According to Frege the reference of a sentence is a truth value; for Husserl it is a "state of affairs." Frege's notion of "sense" is unrelated to Husserl's noema, while the latter's notions of "meaning" and "object" differ from those of Frege. In fine, Husserl's conception of logic and mathematics differs from that of Frege, who held that arithmetic could be derived from logic. For Husserl this is not the case: mathematics (with the exception of geometry) is the ontological correlate of logic, and while both fields are related, neither one is strictly reducible to the other. Husserl's Criticism of Psychologism Psychologism in logic stipulated that logic itself was not an independent discipline, but a branch of psychology. Husserl, after his Platonic turn, pointed out that the failure of anti-psychologists to defeat psychologism is a result of being unable to distinguish between the theoretical side of logic (which tells us what is - descriptive), and the normative side (which tells us how we ought to think - prescriptive). Anti-psychologists at that time conceived logic as being normative in nature, when pure logic does not deal at all with "thoughts" but about a priori conditions for any judgments and any theory whatsoever. Since "truth-in-itself" has "being-in-itself" as ontological correlate, and psychologists reduce truth (and hence logic) to empirical psychology, the inevitable consequence is scepticism. Besides, also psychologists have not been so successful in trying to see how from induction or psychological processes we can justify the absolute certainty of logical principles, such as the principles of identity and non-contradiction. It is therefore futile to base certain logical laws and principles on uncertain processes of the mind. This confusion made by psychologism (and related disciplines such as biologism and anthropologism) can be due to three specific prejudices: 1. The first prejudice is the supposition that logic is somehow normative in nature. Husserl argues that logic is theoretical, i.e., that logic itself proposes a priori laws which are themselves the basis of the normative side of logic. Since mathematics is related to logic, he cites an example from mathematics: If we have a formula like (a+b)(a-b)=a²-b² it does not tell us how to think mathematically. It just expresses a truth. A proposition that says: "The product of the sum and the difference of a and b should give us the difference of the squares of a and b" does express a normative proposition, but this normative statement is based on the theoretical statement "(a+b)(a-b)=a²-b²". 2. For psychologists, the acts of judging, reasoning, deriving, and so on, are all psychological processes. Therefore, it is the role of psychology to provide the foundation of these processes. Husserl states that this effort made by psychologists are a "μετάβασις εἰς ἄλλο γένος" (a transgression to another field). It is a μετάβασις because psychology cannot possibly provide any foundations for a priori laws which themselves are the basis for all the ways we should think correctly. Psychologists have the problem of confusing intentional activities with the object of these activities. It is important to distinguish between the act of judging and the judgment itself, the act of counting and the number itself, and so on. Counting five objects is undeniably a psychological process, but the number 5 is not. 3. Judgments can be true or not true. Psychologists argue that judgments are true because they become "evidently" true to us. This evidence, a psychological process that "guarantees" truth, is indeed a psychological process. Husserl responds to it saying that truth itself as well as logical laws remain valid always regardless of psychological "evidence" that they are true. No psychological process can explain the a priori objectivity of these logical truths. From this criticism to psychologism, the distinction between psychological acts from their intentional objects, and the difference between the normative side of logic from the theoretical side, derives from a platonist conception of logic. This means that we should regard logical and mathematical laws as being independent of the human mind, and also as an autonomy of meanings. It is essentially the difference between the real (everything subject to time) and the ideal or irreal (everything that is atemporal), such as logical truths, mathematical entities, mathematical truths and meanings in general. Philosophers Influenced by Husserl Hans Blumenberg received his postdoctoral qualification in 1950, with a dissertation on 'Ontological distance', an inquiry into the crisis of Husserl's phenomenology. Hermann Weyl's interest in intuitionistic logic and impredicativity appears to have resulted from contacts with Husserl. Rudolf Carnap was also influenced by Husserl, not only concerning Husserl's notion of essential insight that Carnap used in his Der Raum, but also his notion of "formation rules" and "transformation rules" is founded on Husserl's philosophy of logic. Ludwig Landgrebe became assistant to Husserl in 1923. From 1939 he collaborated with Eugen Fink at the Husserl-Archives in Leuven, authorized by Husserl. In 1954 he became leader of the Husserl-Archives. Landgrebe is known as one of Husserl's closest associates, but also for his independent views relating to history, religion and politics as seen from the viewpoints of existentialist philosophy and metaphysics. Max Scheler met Husserl in Halle and found in his phenomenology a methodological breakthrough for his own philosophical endeavors. Even though Scheler later criticised Husserl's idealistic logical approach and proposed instead a "phenomenology of love", he states that he remained "deeply indebted" to Husserl throughout his work. Husserl also had some influence on Pope John-Paul II, which appears strongly in a work by the latter, The Acting Person, or Person and Act. It was originally published in Polish in 1969 under his pre-papal name Karol Wojtyla (in collaboration with the polish phenomenologist: Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka) and combined phenomenological work with Thomistic Ethics. Maurice Merleau-Ponty's Phenomenology of Perception is influenced by Edmund Husserl's work on perception and temporality, including Husserl's theory of retention and protention. Wilfrid Sellars, an influential figure in the so-called "Pittsburgh school" (Robert Brandom, John McDowell) had been a student of Marvin Farber, a pupil of Husserl, and was influenced by phenomenology through him: Husserl's formal analysis of language also inspired Stanisław Leśniewski and Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz in the development of categorial grammar. Cf. Husserl also influenced Martin Heidegger, who was Husserl's assistant, and who Husserl himself considered best suited as his successor until Heidegger started supporting the Nazi ideology. Heidegger's magnum opus Being and Time is dedicated to Husserl. Kurt Gödel expressed very strong appreciation for Husserl's work, especially with regard to "bracketing" or epoche. Jean-Paul Sartre was also largely influenced by Husserl, although he didn't agree with every aspect of his analyses. Colin Wilson made Husserl's idea of intentionality the driving force behind his "New Existentialism." The influence of the Husserlian phenomenological tradition in the 21st century is extending beyond the confines of the European and North American legacies. It has already started to impact (indirectly) scholarship in Eastern and Oriental thought, including research on the impetus of philosophical thinking in the history of ideas in Islam. See for instance: Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest Between Avicenna and Heidegger (Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY at Binghamton, 2000); and also refer to: Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna's De Anima between Aristotle and Husserl", in The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003), pp. 67-89 Refer also to the book-series published by SPRINGER on phenomenology and Islamic philosophy: See also Intentionality Intersubjectivity Noema Phenomenology State of affairs References Bibliography Primary literature In German 1887. Über den Begriff der Zahl. Psychologische Analysen. 1891. Philosophie der Arithmetik. Psychologische und logische Untersuchungen (Philosophy of Arithmetic) 1900. Logische Untersuchungen. Erste Teil: Prolegomena zur reinen Logik (Logical Investigations, Vol 1) 1901. Logische Untersuchungen. Zweite Teil: Untersuchungen zur Phänomenologie und Theorie der Erkenntnis (Logical Investigations, Vol 2) 1911. Philosophie als strenge Wissenschaft (included in Phenomenology and the Crisis of Philosophy: Philosophy as Rigorous Science and Philosophy and the Crisis of European Man) 1913. Ideen zu einer reinen Phänomenologie und phänomenologischen Philosophie. Erstes Buch: Allgemeine Einführung in die reine Phänomenologie (Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology) 1923-24. Erste Philosophie. Zweiter Teil: Theorie der phänomenologischen Reduktion (First Philosophy, Vol 2: Phenomenological Reductions) 1925. Erste Philosophie. Erste Teil: Kritische Ideengeschichte (First Philosophy Vol 1: Critical History of Ideas) 1928. Vorlesungen zur Phänomenologie des inneren Zeitbewusstseins. 1929. Formale und transzendentale Logik. Versuch einer Kritik der logischen Vernunft (Formal and Transcendental Logic) 1931. Méditations cartésiennes (Cartesian Meditations) 1936. Die Krisis der europäischen Wissenschaften und die transzentale Phänomenologie: Eine Einleitung in die phänomenologische Philosophie (The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology: An Introduction to Phenomenological Philosophy) 1939. Erfahrung und Urteil. Untersuchungen zur Genealogie der Logik. (Experience and Judgment) 1952. Ideen II: Phänomenologische Untersuchungen zur Konstitution. 1952. Ideen III: Die Phänomenologie und die Fundamente der Wissenschaften. In English Cartesian Meditations, 1960 [1931]. Cairns, D., trans. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Online. The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Philosophy, 1970 [1936/54], Carr, D., trans. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. Experience and Judgement, 1973 [1939], Churchill, J. S., and Ameriks, K., translators. London: Routledge. Formal and Transcendental Logic, 1969 [1929], Cairns, D., trans. The Hague: Nijhoff. Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy -- First Book: General Introduction to a Pure Phenomenology, 1982 [1913]. Kersten, F., trans. The Hague: Nijhoff. Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy - Second Book: Studies in the Phenomenology of Constitution, 1989. R. Rojcewicz and A. Schuwer, translators. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy - Third Book: Phenomenology and the Foundations of the Sciences, 1980, Klein, T. E., and Pohl, W. E., translators. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Logical Investigations, 1973 [1913], Findlay, J. N., trans. London: Routledge. On the Phenomenology of the Consciousness of Internal Time (1893-1917), 1990 [1928]. Brough, J.B., trans. Dordrecht: Kluwer. "Philosophy as Rigorous Science", translated in Lauer, Q., ed., 1965 [1910] Phenomenology and the Crisis of Philosophy. New York: Harper. Philosophy of Arithmetic, Willard, Dallas, trans., 2003 [1891]. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Anthologies: Willard, Dallas, trans., 1994. Early Writings in the Philosophy of Logic and Mathematics. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Welton, D., ed., 1999. The Essential Husserl. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Secondary literature Derrida, Jacques, 1954 (French), 2003 (English). The Problem of Genesis in Husserl's Philosophy. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press. --------, 1962 (French), 1976 (English). Introduction to Husserl's The Origin of Geometry. Includes Derrida's translation of Appendix III of Husserl's 1936 The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology. --------, 1967 (French), 1973 (English). Speech and Phenomena (La Voix et le Phénomène), and other Essays on Husserl's Theory of Signs. ISBN 0-8101-0397-4 Fine, Kit, 1995, "Part-Whole" in Smith, B., and Smith, D. W., eds., The Cambridge Companion to Husserl. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Follesdal, Dagfinn, 1972, "An Introduction to Phenomenology for Analytic Philosophers" in Olson, R. E., and Paul, A. M., eds., Contemporary Philosophy in Scandinavia. John Hopkins Univ. Press: 417-30. Hill, C. O., 1991. Word and Object in Husserl, Frege, and Russell: The Roots of Twentieth-Century Philosophy. Ohio Univ. Press. -------- and Rosado Haddock, G. E., 2000. Husserl or Frege? Meaning, Objectivity, and Mathematics. Open Court. Levinas, Emmanuel, 1963 (French), 1973 (English). The Theory of Intuition in Husserl's Phenomenology. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. Köchler, Hans, 1983, "The Relativity of the Soul and the Absolute State of the Pure Ego", Analecta Husserliana 16: 95-107. --------, 1986. Phenomenological Realism. Selected Essays. Frankfurt a. M./Bern: Peter Lang. Kulikov, Sergei, 2005 (Russian). "E.Husserl's criticism of foundations of physical-mathematical natural science: its relativistic effects," Philosophy of Science 4 (27): 3-13. Mohanty, J. N., 1974, "Husserl and Frege: A New Look at Their Relationship", Research in Phenomenology 4: 51-62. --------, 1982. Edmund Husserl's Theory of Meaning. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. --------, 1982. Husserl and Frege. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Natanson, Maurice, 1973. Edmund Husserl: Philosopher of Infinite Tasks. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. ISBN 0-8101-0425-3 Ricoeur, Paul, 1967. Husserl: An Analysis of His Phenomenology. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. Rollinger, R. D., 1999, Husserl's Position in the School of Brentano in Phaenomenologica 150. Kluwer. ISBN 0-7923-5684-5 --------, 2008. Austrian Phenomenology: Brentano, Husserl, Meinong, and Others on Mind and Language. Frankfurt am Main: Ontos-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-86838-005-7 Schuhmann, K., 1977. Husserl – Chronik (Denk- und Lebensweg Edmund Husserls). Number I in Husserliana Dokumente. Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 90-247-1972-0 Simons, Peter, 1987. Parts: A Study in Ontology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sokolowski, Robert. Introduction to Phenomenology. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN 978-0521667920 Smith, B. & Smith, D. W., eds., 1995. The Cambridge Companion to Husserl. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43616-8 Smith, David Woodruff, 2007. Husserl London: Routledge. Stiegler, Bernard, 2009. Technics and Time, 2: Disorientation. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Tieszen, Richard, 1995. "Mathematics" in B. Smith & D. W. Smith, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Husserl. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. External links Husserl archives Husserl-Archives Leuven, the main Husserl-Archive in Leuven, International Centre for Phenomenological Research. Husserliana: Edmund Husserl Gesammelte Werke, the ongoing critical edition of Husserl's works. Husserliana:Materialien, edition for lectures and shorter works. Edmund Husserl Collected Works, English translation of Husserl's works. Husserl-Archives at the University of Cologne. Husserl-Archives Freiburg. Husserl Archives at the New School (New York). Archives Husserl de Paris, at the École normale supérieure, Paris. Husserl Archives at Duquesne University, Pittsburgh. Other links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Edmund Husserl." -- Christian Beyer. Accessed 2008-09-11. "Phenomenology" -- David Woodruff Smith. Accessed 2008-17-11. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Edmund Husserl (1859-1938). -- Marianne Sawicki. Accessed 2008-11-18. www.husserlpage.com. Includes a number of online texts in German and English. Husserl.net, open content project. Wesenschau. Phenomenological articles, Directory, bibliographic Database, Dictionary, Forums, and Guides. Journal for Transcendental Logic and Comparative Philosophy. "Logic and Formal Ontology in the Work of Edmund Husserl." Resource guide on Husserl's logic and formal ontology, with annotated bibliography. The Husserl Circle. Spanish website on Husserl and phenomenology. 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2,228 | HMS_Dunraven | HMS Dunraven was a Q-Ship of the Royal Navy during World War I. On 8 August 1917, 130 miles southwest of Ushant in the Bay of Biscay, disguised as the collier Boverton and commanded by Gordon Campbell, VC, Dunraven spotted UC-71, commanded by Oberleutnant zur See Reinhold Saltzwedel. Saltzwedel believed the disguised ship was a merchant vessel. The U-boat submerged and closed with Dunraven before surfacing astern at 11:43 am and opening fire at long range. Dunraven made smoke and sent off a panic party (a small number of men who "abandon ship" during an attack to continue the impersonation of a merchant). Shells began hitting Dunraven, detonating her depth charges and setting her stern afire. Her crew remained hidden letting the fires burn. Then a 4 inch (102 mm) gun and crew were blown away revealing Dunravens identity as a warship, and UC-71 submerged. A second "panic party" abandoned ship. Dunraven was hit by a torpedo. A third "panic party" went over the side, leaving only two guns manned. UC-71 surfaced, shelled Dunraven and again submerged. Campbell replied with two torpedoes that missed, and around 3 pm, the undamaged U-boat left that area. Only one of Dunravens crew was killed, but the Q-Ship was sinking. British destroyer HMS Christopher picked up Dunravens survivors and took her in tow for Plymouth, but Dunraven sank at 1:30 am early on 10 August 1917 to the north of Ushant. Two Victoria Crosses were awarded, one to the ship's First Lieutenant, Lt. Charles George Bonner RNR, and the other, by ballot, to a 4 inch (102 mm) gunlayer, Petty Officer Ernest Herbert Pitcher. Captain Campbell later wrote: "It had been a fair and honest fight, and I lost it. Referring to my crew, words cannot express what I am feeling. No one let me down. No one could have done better." Captain Campbell had been previously awarded the Victoria Cross, in February 1917, for the sinking of U-83. General characteristics Displacement: 3,100 tons Armament: 1 4 in (102 mm), 4 12 pounder (5 kg), 2 14 in (356 mm) torpedo tubes Built 1910 | HMS_Dunraven |@lemmatized hm:2 dunraven:8 q:2 ship:6 royal:1 navy:1 world:1 war:1 august:2 mile:1 southwest:1 ushant:2 bay:1 biscay:1 disguise:1 collier:1 boverton:1 command:2 gordon:1 campbell:4 vc:1 spot:1 uc:3 oberleutnant:1 zur:1 see:1 reinhold:1 saltzwedel:2 believe:1 disguised:1 merchant:2 vessel:1 u:3 boat:2 submerge:3 close:1 surface:2 astern:1 opening:1 fire:2 long:1 range:1 make:1 smoke:1 send:1 panic:3 party:3 small:1 number:1 men:1 abandon:2 attack:1 continue:1 impersonation:1 shell:2 begin:1 hit:2 detonate:1 depth:1 charge:1 set:1 stern:1 afire:1 crew:4 remain:1 hidden:1 let:2 burn:1 inch:2 mm:4 gun:2 blow:1 away:1 reveal:1 dunravens:3 identity:1 warship:1 second:1 torpedo:3 third:1 go:1 side:1 leave:2 two:3 man:1 reply:1 miss:1 around:1 pm:1 undamaged:1 area:1 one:4 kill:1 sink:2 british:1 destroyer:1 christopher:1 pick:1 survivor:1 take:1 tow:1 plymouth:1 early:1 north:1 victoria:2 cross:2 award:2 first:1 lieutenant:1 lt:1 charles:1 george:1 bonner:1 rnr:1 ballot:1 gunlayer:1 petty:1 officer:1 ernest:1 herbert:1 pitcher:1 captain:2 later:1 write:1 fair:1 honest:1 fight:1 lose:1 refer:1 word:1 cannot:1 express:1 feel:1 could:1 well:1 previously:1 february:1 sinking:1 general:1 characteristic:1 displacement:1 ton:1 armament:1 pounder:1 kg:1 tube:1 build:1 |@bigram bay_biscay:1 inch_mm:2 torpedo_tube:1 |
2,229 | Democratic_Progressive_Party | The Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) is a major political party in the Republic of China, commonly known as Taiwan. It has traditionally been associated with the Pan-Green Coalition and de jure Taiwan independence movement, although it moderated its stance during its tenure of the ROC presidency. The DPP is a member of Liberal International and a founding member of the Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats. It represented Taiwan in the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation. While the DPP is sometimes classified as liberal and its opposition as conservative, these classifications do not necessarily correlate to views regarding such issues as economic policy or the role of government in society. Generally speaking, there is little distinction of Left-right politics in Taiwan as the mass media in Taiwan rarely mentions the Political spectrum. History The DPP has its roots in the liberal opposition to the Kuomintang's former one-party rule structure (officially the Tangwai - or "outside-the-party" - movement). This movement culminated in the formation of the DPP on September 28, 1986 to contest the Republic of China legislative election, 1986, although the nascent party remained technically illegal until 1991. It was founded mainly by family members and defense lawyers of political prisoners, strongly inclined to transform the political situation. Initially, the party did not actively support Taiwan independence (a move that could have led to its crackdown by the government) and had mainlanders among its ranks. Its platform was pro-environmentalist and pro-democracy. After many of its demands – such as the direct election of the president of the Republic of China and a Legislative Yuan wholly elected by the Taiwanese electorate – were met, the party shifted its focus towards the promotion of Taiwan independence in the 1990s, which the more liberal political atmosphere at the time permitted. Once the DPP had representation in the Legislative Yuan (LY), the party used the legislature as a forum to challenge the government. However, it did not emerge as a formidable force until 1991, when the elderly LY members elected from the mainland provinces in 1948 retired. Fears that the DPP would one day take control of the legislature led then-President Lee Teng-hui to push through a series of amendments to strengthen presidential power (for example, the premier of the Republic of China would no longer have to be confirmed by the Legislative Yuan). Rise in power The DPP won the ROC presidency with the election of Chen Shui-bian in 2000, ending more than half a century of KMT rule in Taiwan. Chen softened the party's stance on independence to appeal to moderate voters, appease the United States and placate China. He also promised not to change the ROC state symbols or declare formal independence as long as the People's Republic of China did not attack Taiwan. The DPP became the largest party having reached a plurality in the Legislative Yuan for the first time in 2002 following the 2001 legislative election. However, a majority coalition between the KMT, People's First Party, and New Party (collectively known as the Pan-Blue Coalition) prevented it from taking control of the chamber. Former President Chen Shui-bian In 2004, President Chen Shui-bian was re-elected by a narrow margin following a controversial assassination attempt on him only hours before the election. President Chen narrowly won the election over Lien Chan. Lien Chan demanded a recount the following morning. A judicial recount under the jurisdiction of a special panel of the High Court began on 10 May 2004 and ended on May 18 2004. It was conducted by about 460 teams situated in 21 courthouses across the Taiwan area. Each team had seven members – one judge, two members each from the district court and the local government election authorities and two witnesses each representing the plaintiff (Pan-Blue Coalition) and the defendant (Pan-Green Coalition). Disputed votes were sent to High Court in Taipei for verification. After the recount, President Chen was confirmed the winner of the election by a smaller margin (25,563 as opposed to 29,518 originally). The DPP suffered a significant election defeat in nationwide local and county elections in December 2005. The pan-blue coalition captured 16 of 23 county and city government offices under the leadership of popular Taipei mayor and KMT Party Chairman Ma Ying-jeou. The results led to a shake up of the party leadership. Su Tseng-chang resigned as DPP chairman soon after election results were announced. Su had pledged to step down if the DPP lost either Taipei County or failed to win 10 of the 23 mayor/magistrate positions. Vice President Annette Lu was appointed acting DPP leader. Presidential Office Secretary-General Yu Shyi-kun was elected in a three-way race against legislator Chai Trong-rong and Wong Chin-chu with 54.4% of the vote. Premier Frank Hsieh, DPP election organizer and former mayor of Kaohsiung twice tendered a verbal resignation immediately following the election, but his resignation was not accepted by President Chen until January 17, 2006 after the DPP chairmanship election had concluded. The former DPP Chairman Su Tseng-chang was appointed to replace Hsieh as premier. Hsieh and his cabinet resigned en masse on January 24 to make way for Su and his new cabinet. President Chen had offered the position of Presidential Office Secretary-General (vacated by Su) to the departing premier, but Hsieh declined and left office criticizing President Chen for his tough line on dealing with the PRC. Separate identity On September 30, 2007, Taiwan's ruling Democratic Progressive Party approved a resolution asserting separate identity from China and called for the enactment of a new constitution for a "normal nation" . It called also for general use of "Taiwan" as the country's name, without abolishing its formal name, the Republic of China. AP, Taiwan Party Asserts Separate Identity Recent history The DPP won less than 25% of the seats in the new Legislative Yuan while its presidential candidate lost to the KMT candidate Ma Ying-jeou by a landslide margin. Chen Shui-bian and his wife Wu Shu-jen, on August 15, 2008 resigned from the Democratic Progressive Party and apologized, thus: “Today I have to say sorry to all of the DPP members and supporters. I let everyone down, caused you humiliation and failed to meet your expectations. My acts have caused irreparable damage to the party. I love the DPP deeply and am proud of being a DPP member. To express my deepest regrets to all DPP members and supporters, I announce my withdrawal from the DPP immediately. My wife Wu Shu-jen is also withdrawing from the party.” DPP Chairwoman Tsai Ing-wen also apologized to the public on behalf of the party: “In regard to Chen and his wife’s decision to withdraw from the party and his desire to shoulder responsibility for his actions as well as to undergo an investigation by the party’s anti-corruption committee, we respect his decision and accept it.” pacificmagazine.net, Former Taiwan President Resigns From Party Over Corruption Charges In an August 27, 2008, United Daily News poll, the Democratic Progressive Party enjoyed a mere 11% approval rating from those surveyed. The DPP has vowed to humbly reflect public misgivings towards the party. Chairwoman Tsai has also been steadfast in maintaining confidence amid lowering party poll numbers from the fallout of Chen Shui-bian's admittance to wiring money overseas. 中廣 via Yahoo! News, 媒體民調僅剩11趴 民進黨：虛心檢討 央廣 via Yahoo! News, 民進黨支持度剩11%？ 蔡英文：覺得信心還在 Policies Programs supported by the DPP include social welfare policies involving the rights of women, senior citizens, children, labour, indigenous peoples, farmers, and other disadvantaged sectors of the society. Furthermore its platform includes a legal and political order based on human rights and democracy; balanced economic and financial administration; fair and open social welfare; educational and cultural reform; independent defence and peaceful foreign policy. The primary political axis in Taiwan involves the issue of Taiwan independence versus Chinese reunification. Although this is often portrayed in binary terms, both the major coalitions have developed positions that aim at a moderate core to the point where the differences between them can be quite subtle. The current official position of the party is that the "Republic of China (Taiwan)" is an independent and sovereign country whose territory consists of Taiwan and its surrounding smaller islands and whose sovereignty derives only from the ROC citizens living in Taiwan, based on the "Resolution on Taiwan's Future" in 1999. It considers Taiwan independence to be a current fact making a formal declaration of independence unnecessary. The DPP rejects the "one China principle" as the basis for official diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC) and advocates a Taiwanese national identity which is separate from mainland China, People's Republic of China. The DPP argues that its efforts to promote a Taiwanese national identity are merely an effort to normalize a Taiwanese identity repressed during years of what its supporters consider "outside" rule. In contrast, the KMT or pan-blue coalition agrees that the Republic of China is an independent and sovereign country that is not part of the People's Republic of China (PRC), but argues that a one China principle can be used as the basis for talks with the PRC. The KMT also opposes Taiwan independence, and argues that efforts to establish a Taiwanese national identity separated from the Chinese national identity are unnecessary and needlessly provocative. The KMT also asserts that at times these efforts from DPP are radical and becomes "fascist" (to which they later apologised) and "racist". At the other end of the political spectrum, the acceptance by the DPP of the symbols of the Republic of China is opposed by the Taiwan Solidarity Union. The first years of the DPP as the ruling party gave rise to questions on whether the DPP as a self-styled Taiwanese nationalist party was adequately sensitive to the ethnographic character of Taiwanese society, which in addition to arrivals from different eras and different regions of mainland China, also includes aboriginal minorities. It is sometimes accused of practicing Hoklo chauvinism. The People's Republic of China has traditionally maintained an extremely hostile position toward the DPP, but has moderated its position somewhat since 2003 in order to prevent a backlash. The PRC has stated that regardless of the positions that the DPP has taken in the past that it will talk to the DPP if it accepts the "1992 consensus". Structure The party was formerly composed of a number of factions such as the New Tide faction (新潮流系), the Formosa faction (美麗島系), the Justice Alliance faction (正義連線系) and Welfare State Alliance faction (福利國系). Each faction advocated slightly different policies, but many of the factions were generational consisting of different groups which entered the party at different times. In 2006, the factions were officially dismissed. The National Party Congress selects, for two year terms, the 30 members of the Central Executive Committee and the 11 members of the Central Review Committee. The Central Executive Committee, in turn, chooses the 10 members of the Central Standing Committee. On July 23, 2006, at the party's general assembly, the delegates passed a resolution requiring the disbanding of all factions. The factions have since stated that they will comply with the resolution. List of Chairmen #ChairpersonYearsTermNotes1Chiang Peng-chien1986–19871Elected2Yao Chia-wen1987–19882Elected3Huang Shin-chieh1988–19913Elected4Elected4Hsu Hsin-liang1991–19945Elected5Shih Ming-teh1994–19966Elected6Chang Chun-hung1996Acting7Hsu Hsin-liang1996–19987Elected; second term8Lin Yi-hsiung1998–20008Elected9Frank Hsieh2000–20029Elected10Chen Shui-bian2002–200410President holds a concurrent post200411President holds a concurrent post11Ker Chien-ming2004-2005Acting12Su Tseng-chang2005By-elected(Acting)13Annette Lu2005Acting14Yu Shyi-kun2006-2007By-elected(Acting)15Chen Shui-bian2007–2008President holds a concurrent post; Second term16Frank Hsieh2008Acting17Tsai Ing-wen2008-12Elected Italic text denotes acting chairpersons References See also List of liberal parties Politics of the Republic of China List of political parties in Taiwan Liberalism in Taiwan Resolution on Taiwan's Future External links Official website Former President of Republic of China (Taiwan) Chen Shui-bian 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2,230 | Michael_Polanyi | Michael Polanyi, FRS (born Polányi Mihály) (March 11, 1891, Budapest – February 22, 1976, Northampton) was a Hungarian–British polymath whose thought and work extended across physical chemistry, economics, and philosophy. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society and a Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. Early life Polanyi was born into a Jewish family. His older brother Karl the political economist. Their father was an engineer and railway entrepreneur and his mother's salons were well known amongst Budapest's intellectuals. Polanyi graduated in medicine in 1913, and served as a physician in the Austro-Hungarian army during World War I. During a convalescence (after contracting diphtheria) in 1917 he wrote what became a doctorate in physical chemistry from the University of Budapest (supervised by Gusztáv Buchböck). In 1920, he emigrated to Germany, ending up as a research chemist at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Fiber Chemistry in Berlin. There, he married Magda Elizabeth in a Roman Catholic ceremony. In 1929, Magda gave birth to a son John, who went on to win a Nobel Prize in chemistry. Their other son became a distinguished economist. With the coming to power in 1933 of the Nazi party, Polanyi accepted the offer of a chair in Physical Chemistry at the University of Manchester. Because of his shift of interest from chemistry via economics to philosophy, Manchester created a new chair in Social Science (1948-58) for him. Physical chemistry Polanyi's scientific interests were diverse, embracing chemical kinetics, x-ray diffraction, and the adsorption of gases at solid surfaces. In 1921, Polanyi laid the mathematical foundation of fiber diffraction analysis. In 1934, Polanyi, at about the same time as G. I. Taylor and Egon Orowan, realised that the plastic deformation of ductile materials could be explained in terms of the theory of dislocations developed by Vito Volterra in 1905. The insight was critical in developing the field of solid mechanics. Philosophy of science From the mid-1930s, Polanyi began to articulate his opposition to the prevailing positivist account of science, arguing that it failed to recognise the part which personal commitment and tacit knowing play in science. Polanyi argued that positivism encourages the belief that science ought to be directed by the State. He pointed to what happened to genetics in the Soviet Union, once the doctrines of Trofim Lysenko were deemed politically correct. Polanyi, like his friend Friedrich Hayek, supplied reasons why a free society is preferable. Together with John Baker, Polanyi founded the Society for Freedom in Science to defend this view. Polanyi saw absolute objectivity (objectivism) as a delusion and false ideal. Personal Knowledge, p. 18 He criticised the prevailing notion that the scientific method yields truth mechanically to the scientist. Instead, he argued that all knowing is personal, and as such relies upon fallible commitments. Humans are never separate from the universe they observe, but instead participate personally in it, and thus cannot develop purely "objective" (e.g., unbiased) knowledge. Human skills, biases, and passions are not flaws but play an important and necessary role in guiding discovery and validation. Polanyi observes that the mark of a great scientist is the ability to identify for investigation those scientific questions which are likely to lead to successful resolution. This ability derives not only from the scientist's ability to perceive patterns and connections, but also from personal interests and biases. In turn, these biases fuel the scientist's willingness to risk his or her reputation by committing to a hypothesis and advocating it. He gives the example of Copernicus who rejected the reigning interpretation of the evidence of the sun the moon and the stars rising daily in the east and setting in the west to posit that the heavens did not revolve around the earth. Polanyi claimed that Copernicus arrived at the objective truth of the earth's true relation to the sun, not by following a rigid method, but by giving in to "the greater intellectual satisfaction he derived from the celestial panorama as seen from the sun instead of the earth." Personal Knowledge p. 3 What saves his claim that all knowledge is personal from relativism is his belief that our tacit awareness connects us with objective realities. Our tacit awareness however relies upon assumptions acquired within a local context, so we cannot simply assume that they have universal validity; we must seek truth but accept the possibility of error. Any process of articulation inevitably relies upon that which is not articulated. Indeed, reliance upon what is not articulated is how words become meaningful, i.e. meaning is not reducible to a set of rules; it is grounded in our experience - where experience is not something that can simply be reduced to collections of sense data. Polanyi also acknowledged the role played by inherited practices (tradition). The fact that we know more than we can clearly articulate helps contribute to the conclusion that much knowledge is passed on by non-explicit means, for example via apprenticeship i.e. observing a master, and then practicing under the master's guidance. His writings about the practice of science influenced the thought and work of both Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend. Economics In his 1951 collection of essays, The Logic of Liberty, Polanyi applied his philosophy of science to economics. Polanyi noted that scientists cooperate with each other, or "self coordinate," in a way similar to the way in which agents coordinate themselves within a free market. Within a structure of liberty, people choose how use their own resources to solve problems: inventors may research and produce new goods and services; scientists may produce and research new theories. Without central direction, consumers then determine the value of those products: buyers validate the best products by purchasing them, and communities of scientists validate the best theories by confirming and endorsing them. "Profit," for communities of scientists, may loosely be thought of as the revelation of truth. In a similar manner, the legal community is a dedicated community committed to the pursuit of justice. He argued that because ends such as truth and justice transcend our ability to wholly articulate them, a free society which seeks to give specialist communities the freedom to pursue these ends is desirable. Scientists, like entrepreneurs, require the freedom to pursue discoveries and react to the claims made by their peers. He urged societies to allow scientists to pursue truth for its own sake: "...[S]cientists, freely making their own choice of problems and pursuing them in the light of their own personal judgment, are in fact cooperating as members of a closely knit organization. ... "Such self-co-ordination of independent initiatives leads to a joint result which is unpremeditated by any of those who bring it about. Their co-ordination is guided as by an 'invisible hand' towards the joint discovery of a hidden system of things. Since its end-result is unknown, this kind of co-operation can only advance stepwise, and the total performance will be the best possible if each consecutive step is decided upon by the person most competent to do so. ... "Any attempt to organize the group ... under a single authority would eliminate their independent initiatives and thus reduce their joint effectiveness to that of the single person directing them from the centre. It would, in effect, paralyse their cooperation." Law Polanyi's work The Logic of Liberty and his understanding of polycentricity has had a lasting impact on the legal community. The basic idea is that unexpected repercussions make many judicial decisions unworkable because, in deciding a single dispute, the court exercises influence in myriad and unpredictable ways. Imagine tugging at a single strand of a spider web. Its reaction would be complicated enough just with that simple tug, but now double the force. The doubling of force will not simply double all of the previous reactions; the web will react in wholly new pattern of reactions that distributes tensions in a new and complex pattern. As Lon L. Fuller explained in an article in the Harvard Law Review, the judicial question becomes one of "knowing when the polycentric elements have become so significant and predominant that the proper limits of adjudication have been reached." 92 Harv. L. Rev. 353 (1978) Critique of Darwinism and reductionism In the late 60's and early 70's Polanyi wrote essays dealing with issues regarding the origin of life, in his scientific paper titled irreducible structure],Polanyi argues that the information contained in the DNA molecule is a non-material phenomena irreducible to physics and chemistry. Polanyi argued that the reductionist approach which is considered the ideal of science was actually clouding our understanding, and that the recognition of life's irreducibility to physics and chemistry would enable genuine science to advance in the right direction, even if this demonstration should prove of no great advantage in the pursuit of discovery. In one of Polanyi's final science papers titled Transcendence and Self-transcendencePolanyi further criticized the mechanistic world view science had inherited from Galileo, the paper is also thoroughly anti-reductionist, using analogies Polanyi makes more arguments against determinism and mechanism in this paper. These papers are still being cited by scientists to this day and the arguments against mechanism and reductionism put forth by Polanyi in these papers makes him a favorite among intelligent design proponents as well as biosemioticians. Tacit knowing Polanyi's concept of Tacit knowing is most fully expressed in the Gifford lectures he gave in 1951–52 at the University of Aberdeen, later published as Personal Knowledge. It was while writing this work that he discovered what he calls the "structure of tacit knowing". He regarded this as his most important discovery. In tacit knowing persons experience the world by integrating their subsidiary awareness into a focal awareness, a process he referred to as "indwelling." Family Michael Polanyi's son, John Charles Polanyi, is a professor of chemistry at the University of Toronto, Canada. In 1986 John Polanyi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on the "dynamics of chemical elementary processes." John Polanyi Official Website His brother, Karl Polanyi, was a noted economist, and his niece, Kari Polanyi-Levitt, is Emerita Professor of Economics at McGill University, Montreal. See also Credo ut intelligam Tacit knowledge Knowledge management List of Christian thinkers in science References Bibliography 1932. Atomic Reactions. Williams and Norgate, London. 1946. Science, Faith, and Society. Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0-226-67290-5. Reprinted by the University of Chicago Press, 1964. 1951. The Logic of Liberty. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-67296-4 1958. Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-67288-3 1964. The Study of Man. University of Chicago Press. 1967. The Tacit Dimension. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226672984. (2009 reprint) 1969. Knowing and Being. Edited with an introduction by Marjorie Grene. University of Chicago Press and (UK) Routledge and Kegan Paul. 1975 (with Prosch, Harry). Meaning. Univ. of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-67294-8 1997. Science, Economics and Philosophy: Selected Papers of Michael Polanyi. Edited with an introduction by R.T. Allen. New Brunswick NJ: Transaction Publishers. Includes an annotated bibliography of Polanyi's publications. Further reading Gelwick, Richard, 1987. The Way of Discovery: An Introduction to the Thought of Michael Polanyi. Oxford University Press. ------, 2004. The Way of Discovery, An Introduction to the Thought of Michael Polanyi. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock. ISBN 1-59244-687-6. Mitchell, Mark, 2006. Michael Polanyi: The Art of Knowing (Library Modern Thinkers Series). Wilmington, Delaware: Intercollegiate Studies Institute. ISBN 1932236902, ISBN 978-1932236903. Richmond, Sheldon, 1994. Aesthetic Criteria: Gombrich and the Philosophies of Science of Popper and Polanyi. Amsterdam and Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 152 pp. ISBN 90-5183-618-X. Scott, Drusilla, 1995. Everyman Revived: The Common Sense of Michael Polanyi. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. ISBN 0-8028-4079-5. Scott, William Taussig, and Moleski, Martin X., 2005. Michael Polanyi, Scientist and Philosopher. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517433-5, ISBN 0-19-517433-X. External links Biography by Mary Joe Nye Polanyi Society home page Polanyi resources at erraticimpact.com[http://www.kfki.hu/chemonet/polanyi/9912/contents.html Polanyiana,'' Vol. 8, Number 1-2 Smith, M. K., 2003, "Michael Polanyi and tacit knowledge." 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2,231 | Gzip | gzip is a software application used for file compression. gzip is short for GNU zip; the program is a free software replacement for the compress program used in early Unix systems, intended for use by the GNU Project. gzip was created by Jean-Loup Gailly and Mark Adler. Version 0.1 was first publicly released on October 31 1992. Version 1.0 followed in February 1993. OpenBSD's version of gzip is actually the compress program, to which support for the gzip format was added in OpenBSD 3.4 - the 'g' in this specific version stands for gratis. File format gzip is based on the DEFLATE algorithm, which is a combination of LZ77 and Huffman coding. DEFLATE was intended as a replacement for LZW and other patent-encumbered data compression algorithms which, at the time, limited the usability of compress and other popular archivers. “gzip” is often also used to refer to the gzip file format, which is: a 10-byte header, containing a magic number, a version number and a timestamp optional extra headers, such as the original file name, a body, containing a DEFLATE-compressed payload an 8-byte footer, containing a CRC-32 checksum and the length of the original uncompressed data Although its file format also allows for multiple such streams to be concatenated (zipped files are simply decompressed concatenated as if they were originally one file), gzip is normally used to compress just single files. Compressed archives are typically created by assembling collections of files into a single tar archive, and then compressing that archive with gzip. The final .tar.gz or .tgz file is usually called a tarball. gzip is not to be confused with the ZIP archive format, which also uses DEFLATE. The ZIP format can hold collections of files without an external archiver, but is less compact than compressed tarballs holding the same data, because it compresses files individually and cannot take advantage of redundancy between files (solid compression). zlib is an abstraction of the DEFLATE algorithm in library form which includes support both for the gzip file format and a lightweight stream format in its API. The zlib stream format, DEFLATE, and the gzip file format were standardized respectively as RFC 1950, RFC 1951, and RFC 1952. The corresponding program for uncompressing gzipped files is gunzip. Both commands call the same binary; gunzip has the same effect as gzip -d. Other uses The “Content-Encoding” header in HTTP/1.1 allows clients to optionally receive compressed HTTP responses and (less commonly) to send compressed requests. The standard itself specifies two compression methods: “gzip” (RFC 1952; the content wrapped in a gzip stream) and “deflate” (RFC 1950; the content wrapped in a zlib-formatted stream). Compressed responses are supported by many HTTP client libraries, almost all modern browsers and both of the major HTTP server platforms, Apache and Microsoft IIS. Many server implementations, however, incorrectly implement the protocol by using the raw DEFLATE stream format (RFC 1951) instead. The bug is sufficiently pervasive that most modern browsers will accept both RFC 1951 and RFC 1950-formatted data for the “deflate” compressed method. Since the late 1990s, bzip2, a file compression utility based on a block-sorting algorithm, has gained some popularity as a gzip replacement. It produces considerably smaller files (especially for source code and other structured text), but at the cost of memory and processing time (up to a factor of 4). bzip2-compressed tarballs are conventionally named either .tar.bz2 or simply .tbz. AdvanceCOMP and 7-Zip can produce gzip-compatible files, using an internal DEFLATE implementation with better compression ratios than gzip itself—at the cost of more processor time compared to the reference implementation. References RFC 1952 - GZIP file format specification version 4.3 See also List of archive formats List of file archivers Comparison of file archivers List of Unix programs Free file format External links original gzip Home Page | Gzip |@lemmatized gzip:21 software:2 application:1 use:9 file:23 compression:6 short:1 gnu:2 zip:4 program:5 free:2 replacement:3 compress:12 early:1 unix:2 system:1 intend:2 project:1 create:2 jean:1 loup:1 gailly:1 mark:1 adler:1 version:6 first:1 publicly:1 release:1 october:1 follow:1 february:1 openbsd:2 actually:1 support:3 format:16 add:1 g:1 specific:1 stand:1 gratis:1 base:2 deflate:10 algorithm:4 combination:1 huffman:1 coding:1 lzw:1 patent:1 encumber:1 data:4 time:3 limit:1 usability:1 popular:1 archivers:3 often:1 also:4 refer:1 byte:2 header:3 contain:3 magic:1 number:2 timestamp:1 optional:1 extra:1 original:3 name:2 body:1 payload:1 footer:1 crc:1 checksum:1 length:1 uncompressed:1 although:1 allow:2 multiple:1 stream:6 concatenate:2 zipped:1 simply:2 decompressed:1 originally:1 one:1 normally:1 single:2 archive:5 typically:1 assemble:1 collection:2 tar:3 final:1 gz:1 tgz:1 usually:1 call:2 tarball:1 confuse:1 hold:2 without:1 external:2 archiver:1 less:2 compact:1 compressed:2 tarballs:2 individually:1 cannot:1 take:1 advantage:1 redundancy:1 solid:1 zlib:3 abstraction:1 library:2 form:1 include:1 lightweight:1 api:1 standardize:1 respectively:1 rfc:9 corresponding:1 uncompress:1 gzipped:1 gunzip:2 command:1 binary:1 effect:1 content:3 encode:1 http:4 client:2 optionally:1 receive:1 response:2 commonly:1 send:1 request:1 standard:1 specify:1 two:1 method:2 wrap:2 many:2 almost:1 modern:2 browser:2 major:1 server:2 platform:1 apache:1 microsoft:1 ii:1 implementation:3 however:1 incorrectly:1 implement:1 protocol:1 raw:1 instead:1 bug:1 sufficiently:1 pervasive:1 accept:1 since:1 late:1 utility:1 block:1 sorting:1 gain:1 popularity:1 produce:2 considerably:1 small:1 especially:1 source:1 code:1 structure:1 text:1 cost:2 memory:1 processing:1 factor:1 conventionally:1 either:1 tbz:1 advancecomp:1 compatible:1 internal:1 good:1 ratio:1 processor:1 compare:1 reference:2 specification:1 see:1 list:3 comparison:1 link:1 home:1 page:1 |@bigram huffman_coding:1 lzw_patent:1 rfc_rfc:3 compression_ratio:1 file_archivers:2 external_link:1 |
2,232 | Clement_Martyn_Doke | Clement Martyn Doke (May 16, 1893 in Bristol, Great Britain – February 24, 1980 in East London, South Africa) was a South African linguist working mainly on African languages. Realizing that the grammatical structures of Bantu languages are quite different from those of European languages, he was one of the first African linguists of his time to abandon the Euro-centric approach to language description for a more locally grounded one. A most prolific writer, he published a string of grammars, several dictionaries, comparative work, and a history of Bantu linguistics. Missionary in Lambaland The Doke family had been engaged in missionary activity for the Baptist Church for some generations. His father Reverend Joseph J. Doke left England and travelled to South Africa in 1882, where he met and married Agnes Biggs. They returned to England, where Clement was born as the third of four children. The family moved to New Zealand and eventually returned to South Africa in 1903, where they later on settled in Johannesburg. At the age of 18, Clement received a bachelor's degree from Transvaal University College in Pretoria. He decided to devote his life to missionary activity. In 1913 he accompanied his father on a tour of north-western Rhodesia to an area called Lambaland, now known as Ilamba. It is situated at the watershed of the Congo and Zambesi rivers, part of the district lay in Northern Rhodesia and part in the Belgian Congo State. The Cape-Cairo Railway threaded through its eastern portion, otherwise travelling mostly had to be done on foot. The Reverend William Arthur Phillips of the Nyasa Industrial Mission in Blantyre had established a Baptist mission there in 1905 serving an area of and 50,000 souls. The Dokes were supposed to investigate, whether the mission in Lambaland could be taken over by the Baptist Union of South Africa. It was on this trip that Doke's father contracted enteric fever and died soon afterwards (Gandhi attended the memorial service and addressed the congregation). Clement assumed his father's role. The South African Baptists decided to take over Kafulafuta Mission, while its founder Reverend Phillips remained as superintendent. Clement Doke returned to Kafulafuta as missionary in 1914, followed by his sister Olive two years later. The Lamba language At first Clement Doke was frustrated by his inability to communicate with the Lamba. The only written material available at the time was a translation of Jonah and a collection of 47 hymns. Soon he mastered the language and published his first book Ifintu Fyakwe Lesa (The Things of God, a Primer of Scripture Knowledge) in 1917. He enrolled in Johannesburg as the extension of Transvaal University College for an MA degree. His thesis was published as The Grammar of the Lamba language. The book is couched in traditional grammatical terms as Doke had not yet established his innovative method of analysis and description for the Bantu languages. His later Textbook of Lamba Grammar is far superior in this respect. Clement Doke was also interested in ethnology. In 1931 he compiled The Lambas of Northern Rhodesia, which remains one of the outstanding ethnographic descriptions of the peoples of Central Africa. For Doke, literacy was part of the evangelisation since people had to able to read to appreciate the message of the Bible, but it was only after his retirement that he completed the translation of the Bible into Lamba. It was published under the title of Amasiwi AwaLesa (The Words of God) in 1959. University of the Witwatersrand In 1919 Doke married Hilda Lehmann, who accompanied him back to Lambaland. They both contracted malaria during their work and she was forbidden to return to Lambaland. Clement Doke also realised that his field work couldn't continue much longer and left in 1921. He was recruited by the newly-founded University of the Witwatersrand. In order to secure a qualification as a lecturer, the family moved to England, where he registered at the School of Oriental and African Studies. His major languages were Lamba and Luba, but as no suitable examiner was available he eventually had to change his language to Zulu. Doke took up his appointment in the new Department of Bantu Studies at the University of Witwatersrand in 1923. In 1925 he received his D. Litt. for his doctoral thesis The Phonetics of the Zulu Language and was promoted to Senior Lecturer. In 1931 he was appointed to the Chair of Bantu Studies and thus headed the Department of Bantu Studies. The Department acted as a catalyst for the admission of Africans to the University: As early as 1925 a limited number were admitted to the vacation course in African Studies. Doke supported the appointment of Benedict Wallet Vilakazi as member of the staff, as he believed a native speaker was essential for acquiring a language. This provoked a storm of criticism and controversy from the public. They both collaborated on the Zulu-English Dictionary, first published in 1948. It is still one of the best examples of lexicography for any of the Bantu languages. At the request of the government of Southern Rhodesia Doke investigated the range of dialect diversity among the languages of the country and made recommendations for Unified Shona. This formed the basis for Standard Shona. He devised a unified orthography based on the Zezuru, Karanga and Manyika dialects. However, Doke's orthography was never fully accepted and the South African government introduced an alternative, leaving Shona with two competing orthographies between 1935 and 1955. During his tenure Doke developed and promoted a method of linguistic analysis and description of the Bantu languages that was based upon the structure of these languages. The “Dokean model” continues to be one of the dominant models of linguistic description in Southern and Central Africa. His classification of the Bantu languages was for many years the dominant view of the interrelations among the African languages. He was also an early describer of Khoisan and Bantu click consonants, devising phonetic symbols for a number of them. Doke served the University of the Witwatersrand until his retirement in 1953. He was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of letters by Rhodes University and the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws by the University of the Witwatersrand in 1972. The former missionary always remained devoted to the Baptist Church. He was elected President of the South African Baptist Union in 1949 and spent a year visiting churches and mission stations. He used his presidential address in condemning the recently established apartheid policy: I solemnly warn the Government that the spirit behind their apartheid legislation, and the way in which they are introducing discriminatory measures of all types today, will bring disaster upon this fair land of ours. Selected Publications Ifintu Fyakwe Lesa (The Things of God, a Primer of Scripture Knowledge in Lamba), 1917. The Lambas of Northern Rhodesia: A Study of their Customs and Beliefs. London: George G. Harrap, 1931. Report on the Unification of the Shona Dialects. Government of Southern Rhodesia: Government Blue Book, 1931. Bantu linguistic terminology. London; New York Longmans, Green, 1935. Textbook of Lamba Grammar. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1938. Outline grammar of Bantu. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand, 1943. Zulu-English Dictionary. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1948. (with Benedict Wallet Vilakazi) The Southern Bantu languages. London; New York: Oxford University Press, 1954. Amasiwi AwaLesa (The Words of God in Lamba). 1959. Contributions to the history of Bantu linguistics. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1961. (with D. T. Cole) Trekking in South Central Africa 1913-1919. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1993. | Clement_Martyn_Doke |@lemmatized clement:8 martyn:1 doke:17 may:1 bristol:1 great:1 britain:1 february:1 east:1 london:4 south:9 africa:7 african:10 linguist:2 work:4 mainly:1 language:15 realize:1 grammatical:2 structure:2 bantu:14 quite:1 different:1 european:1 one:5 first:4 time:2 abandon:1 euro:1 centric:1 approach:1 description:5 locally:1 ground:1 prolific:1 writer:1 publish:5 string:1 grammar:5 several:1 dictionary:3 comparative:1 history:2 linguistics:2 missionary:5 lambaland:5 family:3 engage:1 activity:2 baptist:6 church:3 generation:1 father:4 reverend:3 joseph:1 j:1 leave:2 england:3 travel:2 meet:1 marry:2 agnes:1 biggs:1 return:4 bear:1 third:1 four:1 child:1 move:2 new:4 zealand:1 eventually:2 later:2 settle:1 johannesburg:7 age:1 receive:2 bachelor:1 degree:4 transvaal:2 university:15 college:2 pretoria:1 decide:2 devote:2 life:1 accompany:2 tour:1 north:1 western:1 rhodesia:6 area:2 call:1 know:1 ilamba:1 situate:1 watershed:1 congo:2 zambesi:1 river:1 part:3 district:1 lay:1 northern:3 belgian:1 state:1 cape:1 cairo:1 railway:1 thread:1 eastern:1 portion:1 otherwise:1 mostly:1 foot:1 william:1 arthur:1 phillips:2 nyasa:1 industrial:1 mission:5 blantyre:1 establish:3 serve:2 soul:1 dokes:1 suppose:1 investigate:2 whether:1 could:1 take:3 union:2 trip:1 contract:2 enteric:1 fever:1 die:1 soon:2 afterwards:1 gandhi:1 attend:1 memorial:1 service:1 address:2 congregation:1 assume:1 role:1 kafulafuta:2 founder:1 remain:3 superintendent:1 follow:1 sister:1 olive:1 two:2 year:3 lamba:9 frustrate:1 inability:1 communicate:1 write:1 material:1 available:2 translation:2 jonah:1 collection:1 hymn:1 master:1 book:3 ifintu:2 fyakwe:2 lesa:2 thing:2 god:4 primer:2 scripture:2 knowledge:2 enrol:1 extension:1 thesis:2 couch:1 traditional:1 term:1 yet:1 innovative:1 method:2 analysis:2 languages:4 late:1 textbook:2 far:1 superior:1 respect:1 also:3 interested:1 ethnology:1 compile:1 lambas:2 outstanding:1 ethnographic:1 people:2 central:3 literacy:1 evangelisation:1 since:1 able:1 read:1 appreciate:1 message:1 bible:2 retirement:2 complete:1 title:1 amasiwi:2 awalesa:2 word:2 witwatersrand:10 hilda:1 lehmann:1 back:1 malaria:1 forbidden:1 realise:1 field:1 continue:2 much:1 long:1 left:1 recruit:1 newly:1 found:1 order:1 secure:1 qualification:1 lecturer:2 register:1 school:1 oriental:1 study:6 major:1 luba:1 suitable:1 examiner:1 change:1 zulu:4 appointment:2 department:3 litt:1 doctoral:1 phonetics:1 promote:2 senior:1 appoint:1 chair:1 thus:1 head:1 act:1 catalyst:1 admission:1 early:2 limited:1 number:2 admit:1 vacation:1 course:1 support:1 benedict:2 wallet:2 vilakazi:2 member:1 staff:1 believe:1 native:1 speaker:1 essential:1 acquire:1 provoke:1 storm:1 criticism:1 controversy:1 public:1 collaborate:1 english:2 still:1 best:1 example:1 lexicography:1 request:1 government:5 southern:4 range:1 dialect:3 diversity:1 among:2 country:1 make:1 recommendation:1 unified:2 shona:4 form:1 basis:1 standard:1 devise:2 orthography:3 base:2 zezuru:1 karanga:1 manyika:1 however:1 never:1 fully:1 accept:1 introduce:2 alternative:1 compete:1 tenure:1 develop:1 linguistic:3 upon:2 dokean:1 model:2 dominant:2 classification:1 many:1 view:1 interrelation:1 describer:1 khoisan:1 click:1 consonant:1 phonetic:1 symbol:1 award:1 honorary:2 doctor:2 letter:1 rhodes:1 law:1 former:1 always:1 elect:1 president:1 spend:1 visiting:1 station:1 use:1 presidential:1 condemn:1 recently:1 apartheid:2 policy:1 solemnly:1 warn:1 spirit:1 behind:1 legislation:1 way:1 discriminatory:1 measure:1 type:1 today:1 bring:1 disaster:1 fair:1 land:1 select:1 publication:1 custom:1 belief:1 george:1 g:1 harrap:1 report:1 unification:1 blue:1 terminology:1 york:2 longmans:1 green:1 press:5 outline:1 oxford:1 contribution:1 cole:1 trekking:1 |@bigram bachelor_degree:1 belgian_congo:1 soon_afterwards:1 bantu_languages:4 doctoral_thesis:1 southern_rhodesia:2 longmans_green:1 |
2,233 | Eugène_Viollet-le-Duc | Eugène Viollet-le-Duc Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (January 27 1814 – September 17, 1879) was a French architect and theorist, famous for his "restorations" of medieval buildings. Born in Paris, he was as central a figure in the Gothic Revival in France as he was in the public discourse on "honesty" in architecture, which eventually transcended all revival styles, to inform the emerging spirit of Modernism. Early years Viollet-le-Duc's father was a civil servant in Paris who collected books; his mother's Friday salons drew Stendhal and Sainte-Beuve. His mother's brother, Eugène Délécluze, "a painter in the mornings, a scholar in the evenings" (Summerson), was largely in charge of the young man's education. Viollet-le-Duc showed a lively intellect: republican, anti-clerical, rebellious, he built a barricade in the July Revolution of 1830 and refused to enter the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Instead he opted in favor of direct practical experience in the architectural offices of Jacques-Marie Huvé and Achille-François-René Leclère. Architectural restorer Restoration work One of the many grotesques on the face of the Notre Dame in Paris added during Viollet-le-Duc's restoration. This one is commonly called Le Stryge (the strix.) In the early 1830s, the beginnings of a movement for the restoration of medieval buildings appeared in France. Viollet-le-Duc, returning in 1835 from a study trip to Italy, was commissioned by Prosper Merimée to restore the Romanesque abbey of Vézelay. This work marked the beginning of a long series of restorations; Viollet-le-Duc's restorations at Notre Dame de Paris brought him national attention. His other main works include Mont St-Michel, Carcassonne, Roquetaillade castle and Pierrefonds. Viollet-le-Duc's "restorations" frequently combined historical fact with creative modification. For example, under his supervision, Notre Dame was not only cleaned and restored but also "updated," gaining its distinctive third tower (a type of flèche) in addition to other smaller changes. Another of his most famous restorations, the medieval fortified town of Carcassonne, was similarly enhanced, gaining a set of very attractive, if perhaps not terribly historically accurate, pointed roofs atop each of its many wall towers. At the same time, in the cultural atmosphere of the Second Empire theory necessarily became diluted in practice, and messages were mixed: Viollet-le-Duc provided a Gothic reliquary for the relic of the Crown of Thorns at Notre-Dame in 1862, and yet Napoleon III also commissioned designs for a luxuriously appointed railway carriage from Viollet-le-Duc, in 14th-century Gothic style (Exhibition 1965). Among his restorations were: Churches : Sainte-Marie-Madeleine, Vézelay St.Martin, Clamecy (Nievre) Notre-Dame de Paris Sainte-Chapelle, in Paris (under Felix Duban) Saint Denis Basilica, near Paris Saint-Louis, in Poissy, France Semur Saint-Nazaire, in Carcassonne, France Saint-Sernin, in Toulouse, France Notre-Dame de Lausanne, Switzerland Town Halls : Saint-Antonin Narbonne Castles : Roquetaillade, in Bordeaux Pierrefonds Fortified city of Carcassonne Château de Coucy Antoing in Belgium Château de Vincennes, Paris Restoration of the Château de Pierrefonds, reinterpreted by Viollet-le-Duc for Napoleon III, was interrupted by the departure of the Emperor in 1870. Influence on historic preservation Basic intervention theories of historic preservation are framed in the dualism of the retention of the status quo versus a "restoration" that creates something that never actually existed in the past. John Ruskin was a strong proponent of the former sense, while his contemporary, Viollet-le-Duc, advocated for the latter instance. Viollet-le-Duc wrote that restoration is a "means to reestablish [a building] to a finished state, which may in fact never have actually existed at any given time." Eugène-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc. ([1854] 1990). The foundations of architecture. New York: George Braziller. P. 195. (Translated by Kenneth D. Whitehead from the original French.) The type of restoration employed by Viollet-le-Duc was decried by John Ruskin as "a destruction out of which no remnants can be gathered: a destruction accompanied with false description of the thing destroyed." John Ruskin. ([1880] 1989). The seven lamps of architecture. New York: Dover Publications. P. 194 This argument is still a current one when restoration is under consideration for a building or landscape. The past can never be faithfully recreated and in removing layers of history from a building, information and age value are also removed which can never be recreated. The fortified city of Carcassonne restored by Viollet-le-Duc Publications Front cover of the Dictionnaire Raisonné de L'Architecture Française du XIe au XVIe siècle, A. Morel editor, Paris, 1868. Throughout his career Viollet-le-Duc made notes and drawings, not only for the buildings he was working on, but also on Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance buildings that were to be soon demolished. His notes were helpful in his published works. His study of medieval and Renaissance periods was not limited to architecture, but extended to furniture, clothing, musical instruments, armament and so forth. All this work was published, first in serial, and then as full-scale books, as: Dictionary of French Architecture from 11th to 16th Century (1854–1868) ([[:s:fr:Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle|Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française du XIe au XVe siècle]]) - Original language edition, including numerous illustrations. Dictionary of French Furnishings (1858-1870) (Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français de l'époque Carolingienne à la Renaissance.) Entretiens sur l'architecture (in 2 volumes, 1858-72), in which Viollet-le-Duc systematized his approach to architecture and architectural education, in a system radically opposed to that of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, which he had avoided in his youth and despised. In Henry Van Brunt's translation, the "Discourses on Architecture" was published in 1875, making it available to an American audience little more than a decade after its initial publication in France. Histoire de l'habitation humaine, depuis les temps préhistoriques jusqu'à nos jours (1875). Published in English in 1876 as Habitations of Man in All Ages. Viollet-Le-Duc traces the history of domestic architecture among the different "races" of mankind. L'art russe: ses origines, ses éléments constructifs, son apogée, son avenir (1877), where Viollet-le-Duc applied his ideas of rational construction to Russian architecture. Architectural theory and new building projects Design for a concert hall, dated 1864, expressing Gothic principles in modern materials; brick, stone and cast iron. Entretiens sur l'architecture Viollet-le-Duc is considered by many to be the first theorist of modern architecture. Sir John Summerson wrote that "there have been two supremely eminent theorists in the history of European architecture—Leon Battista Alberti and Eugène Viollet-le-Duc." His architectural theory was largely based around finding the ideal forms for specific materials, and using these forms to create buildings. His writings centered on the idea that materials should be used 'honestly'. He believed that the outward appearance of a building should reflect the rational construction of the building. In Entretiens sur l'architecture, Viollet-le-Duc praised the Greek temple for its rational representation of its construction. For him, "Greek architecture served as a model for the correspondence of structure and appearance." There is speculation that this philosophy was heavily influenced by the writings of John Ruskin, who championed honesty of materials as one of the seven main focuses of architecture. In several unbuilt projects for new buildings, Viollet-le-Duc applied the lessons he had derived from Gothic architecture, applying its rational structural systems to modern building materials such as cast iron. He also looked at organic structures, such as leaves and animal skeletons, for inspiration. He was especially interested in the wings of bats, an influence reflected in his Assembly Hall project. Viollet-le-Duc’s drawings of iron trusswork were innovative for the time. Many of his designs focusing on iron would later influence the Art Nouveau movement, most noticeably in the work of Hector Guimard. His writings inspired a generation of American architects, including Frank Furness, John Wellborn Root, Louis Sullivan, and Frank Lloyd Wright. Military career and influence Viollet-le-Duc had a second career in the military, primarily in the defence of Paris during the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1). He was so influenced by the conflict that during his later years he was moved to describe the idealized defense of France through the analogy of the military history of Le Roche-Pont, an imaginary castle, in his work Histoire d'une Forteresse (Annals of a Fortress, twice translated into English). Accessible and well researched, it bridges the line between novel and historical document. Annals of a Fortress strongly influenced French military defensive thinking. Viollet-le-Duc's critique of the effect of artillery (applying his practical knowledge from the 1870-1 war) is so complete that it accurately describes the principles applied to the defence of France up to World War II. The physical results of his theories are seen in the fortification of Verdun prior to The First World War and the Maginot Line prior to WWII. In more depth his theories are reflected by the French military theory of "Deliberate Advance", where the artillery and a strong shield of fortresses in the rear of an army are key. Legacy Some of his restorations, such as that of the Château de Pierrefonds, were highly controversial because they did not aim so much at accurately recreating a historical situation as at creating a "perfect building" of medieval style. Modern conservation practice finds Viollet-le-Duc's restorations too free, too personal, too interpretive, but many of the monuments he restored would have otherwise been lost. The Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí was strongly influenced by the Gothic architecture revival of Viollet-le-Duc. An exhibition, Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 1814–1879 was presented in Paris, 1965. Later life In his old age, Viollet-le-Duc moved to Lausanne, Switzerland, where he constructed a villa (since destroyed). He died there in 1879. Notes References Dictionary of Art Historians: Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc be-x-old:Эжэн Віале-лё-Дзюк | Eugène_Viollet-le-Duc |@lemmatized eugène:7 viollet:32 le:35 duc:32 emmanuel:3 january:1 september:1 french:6 architect:3 theorist:3 famous:2 restoration:16 medieval:5 building:12 bear:1 paris:11 central:1 figure:1 gothic:7 revival:3 france:8 public:1 discourse:2 honesty:2 architecture:21 eventually:1 transcend:1 style:3 inform:1 emerge:1 spirit:1 modernism:1 early:2 year:2 father:1 civil:1 servant:1 collect:1 book:2 mother:2 friday:1 salon:1 draw:1 stendhal:1 sainte:3 beuve:1 brother:1 délécluze:1 painter:1 morning:1 scholar:1 evening:1 summerson:2 largely:2 charge:1 young:1 man:2 education:2 show:1 lively:1 intellect:1 republican:1 anti:1 clerical:1 rebellious:1 build:3 barricade:1 july:1 revolution:1 refuse:1 enter:1 ecole:2 des:2 beau:2 art:5 instead:1 opt:1 favor:1 direct:1 practical:2 experience:1 architectural:5 office:1 jacques:1 marie:2 huvé:1 achille:1 françois:1 rené:1 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2,234 | Oliver_Cromwell | Oliver Cromwell (born April 25, 1599 Old Style, died September 3, 1658 Old Style) was an English military and political leader best known for his involvement in making England into a republican Commonwealth and for his later role as Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland. He was one of the commanders of the New Model Army which defeated the royalists in the English Civil War. After the execution of King Charles I in 1649, Cromwell dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England, conquered Ireland and Scotland, and ruled as Lord Protector from 1653 until his death in 1658. Cromwell was born into the ranks of the middle gentry, and remained relatively obscure for the first 40 years of his life. At times his lifestyle resembled that of a yeoman farmer until his finances were boosted thanks to an inheritance from his uncle. After undergoing a religious conversion during the same decade, he made an Independent style of Puritanism a core tenet of his life. Cromwell was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Cambridge in the Short (1640) and Long (1640-49) Parliaments, and later entered the English Civil War on the side of the "Roundheads" or Parliamentarians. An effective soldier (nicknamed "Old Ironsides") he rose from leading a single cavalry troop to command of the entire army. Cromwell was the third person to sign Charles I's death warrant in 1649 and was an MP in the Rump Parliament (1649-1653), being chosen by the Rump to take command of the English campaign in Ireland during 1649-50. He then led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650-51. On April 20, 1653 he dismissed the Rump Parliament by force, setting up a short-lived nominated assembly known as the Barebones Parliament before being made Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland on 16 December 1653 until his death. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, but when the Royalists returned to power in 1660, his corpse was dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded. Cromwell has been a very controversial figure in the history of the British Isles – a regicidal dictator to some historians (such as David Hume and Christopher Hill) and a hero of liberty to others (such as Thomas Carlyle and Samuel Rawson Gardiner). In Britain he was elected as one of the Top 10 Britons of all time in a 2002 BBC poll. His measures against Irish Catholics have been characterized by some historians as genocidal or near-genocidal, genocidal or near-genocidal: Breton Albert (ed). 1995, Nationalism and Rationality, Cambridge University Press, Chapter Regulating nations and ethnic communities by Brendam O'Leary and John McGarry p 248. "Oliver Cromwell offered the Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer. They could go 'To Hell or to Connaught!'" Coogan Tim-Pat, . 2002. The Troubles: Ireland's Ordeal and the Search for Peace. ISBN 978-0312294182. Page 6. "The massacres by Catholics of Protestants, which occurred in the religious wars of the 1640s, were magnified for propagandist purposes to justify Cromwell's subsequent genocide." Ellis, Peter Berresford. 2002. Eyewitness to Irish History. John Wiley & Sons Inc. Page 108. ISBN 978-0471266334. "It was to be the justification for Cromwell's genocidal campaign and settlement." Levene Mark, 2005, Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State, I.B.Tauris: London: "Considered overall, an Irish population collapse from 1.5 or possibly over 2 million inhabitants at the onset of the Irish wars in 1641, to no more than 850,000 eleven years later represents an absolutely devastating demographic catastrophe. Undoubted the largest proportion of this massive death toll did not arise from direct massacre but from hunger and then bubonic plagues, especially from the outbreak between 1649 and 1652. Even so, the relationship to the worst years of the fighting is all too apparent.[The Act of Settlement of Ireland], and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state. For instance, though the Act begins rather ominously by claiming that it was not its intention to extirpate the whole Irish nation, it then goes on to list five categories of people who, as participators in or alleged supporters of the 1641 rebellion and its aftermath, would automatically be forfeit of their lives. It has been suggested that as many as 100,000 people would have been liable under these headings. A further five categories - by implication an even larger body of 'passive' supporters of the rebellion - were to be spared their lives but not their property." Levene, Mark. 2005. Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2. Page 55, 56 & 57. A sample quote describes the Cromwellian campaign and settlement as "a conscious attempt to reduce a distinct ethnic population". ISBN 978-1845110574 Levene, Mark and Roberts Penny. 1999, The Massacre in History, Berghahn Books: Oxford: "Further evidence for a massacre-ridden civil war in Ireland appears to come from population figures. Though military and civilian deaths from civil war were not light in England or in Scotland, in neither country did war inflict a clear drop in population level. It was otherwise in Ireland. Up to 1641 the population had risen steadily: one million in 1500, 1.4 in 1600, 2.1 in 1641; but then there occurred a sharp fall so that numbers stood at 1.7 million by 1672. After this, renewed growth took the population to 2.2 million in 1687, and 2.8 in 1712. By far the greater part of this massive decline - some four hundred thousand people or 19% of the 1641 population - took place in the 1640s and 1650, and was the direct or indirect result of over a decade of warfare. Ireland's civil war death toll is comparable to the devastation suffered during the Second World War by countries such as the Soviet Union, Poland, or Yugoslavia, and suggests that the war-time massacres which so contributed to these horrific modern figures, also occurred in mid-seventeenth-century Ireland." Lutz,James M and Lutz Brenda J, 2004. Global Terrorism, Routledge, London, p.193: "The draconian laws applied by Oliver Cromwell in Ireland were an early version of ethnic cleansing. The Catholic Irish were to be expelled to the northwestern areas of the island. Relocation rather than extermination was the goal." O'Leary, Brendan, Callaghy Thomas M., Ian S. Lustick, 2001, Right-Sizing the State: The Politics of Moving Borders, Oxford University Press: "Ethnic expulsion is a right-peopling strategy, the intended, direct or indirect, forcible movement by state officials, or sanctioned paramilitaries, of the whole or part of a community from its current homeland, usually beyond the sovereign borders of the state. A population can also be forcibly 'repatriated', or pushed back towards its alleged 'homeland', as happened to blacks during the high tide of apartheid in South Africa. We may distinguish two paradigm forms: creating 'Serbian exiles', that is coerced transfers within a state or empire, and 'creating refugees', that is, the expulsion of populations beyond the sovereign border. Examples of the former include the treatment of indigenous peoples throughout the world; the Irish Catholics moved by Oliver Cromwell to Connaught during 1649-50 and after; and national minorities within the Soviet Union." Stewart, Frances. War and Underdevelopment: Economic and Social Consequences of Conflict v. 1, (Queen Elizabeth House Series in Development Studies), Oxford University Press. 2000. "Faced with the prospect of an Irish alliance with Charles II, Cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the Irish. Then, once Cromwell had returned to England, the English Commissary, General Henry Ireton, adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation, which was responsible for the majority of an estimated 600,000 deaths out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000." Ethnic Cleansing of Ireland, International Institute of Social History Website (Based in the Netherlands), "Roman Catholic Irish were subdued to ethnic cleansing policy by Oliver Cromwell. After his suppression of a rebellion against the English in 1649 he ordered that the Irish were allowed to live west of the Shannon river only. During guerrilla warfare that followed thousands of Irish died or were sold as slaves to America. Cromwell had promised Irish land to the business investors and soldiers who had helped him perform his expeditions. The 'Act for the Attainder of the Rebels in Ireland' of 17 September 1656 is part of this programme. The land of rebels is attained and 'rebels' are defined in such a way that all Catholics match. By the end of 1656 four fifths of the Irish land was in Protestant hands." and in Ireland itself he is widely hated. "Of all these doings in Cromwell's Irish Chapter, each of us may say what he will. Yet to everyone it will at least be intelligible how his name came to be hated in the tenacious heart of Ireland". John Morley, Biography of Oliver Cromwell. Page 298. 1900 and 2001. ISBN 978-1421267074.; "Cromwell is still a hate figure in Ireland today because of the brutal effectiveness of his campaigns in Ireland. Of course, his victories in Ireland made him a hero in Protestant England." British National Archives web site. Accessed March 2007; From a history site dedicated to the English Civil War. "... making Cromwell's name into one of the most hated in Irish history". Accessed March 2007. Site currently offline. WayBack Machine holds archive here ; From the Channel 4 History site: "Cromwell's name has always been execrated by Irish Catholics for the massacre at Drogheda. He is also hated for the transplanting of Protestant settlers to Ireland, a policy established in the reign of Elizabeth I." Accessed March 2007. Early years: 1599–1640 Relatively few sources survive which tell us about the first forty years of Oliver Cromwell's life. He was born at Cromwell House in Huntingdon on 25 April 1599, to Robert (c.1560-1617) and Elizabeth Steward. He was descended from Catherine Cromwell (born circa 1482), an older sister of Tudor statesman Thomas Cromwell. Catherine was married to Morgan ap Williams, son of William ap Yevan of Wales and Joan Tudor (reportedly a granddaughter of Owen Tudor, which would make Oliver Cromwell a distant cousin of his Stuart foes). The family line continued through Richard Cromwell (c. 1500–1544), Henry Cromwell (c. 1524–6 January 1603), then to Oliver's father Robert Cromwell (c. 1560–1617), who married Elizabeth Steward or Stewart (1564–1654) on the day of Oliver Cromwell's birth. Thomas thus was Oliver's great-great-great-uncle. The social status of Cromwell's family at his birth was relatively low within the gentry class. His father was a younger son, and one of 10 siblings who survived into adulthood. As a result, Robert's inheritance was limited to a house at Huntingdon and a small amount of land. This land would have generated an income of up to £300 a year, near the bottom of the range of gentry incomes. Gaunt, p.31. Cromwell himself, much later in 1654, said "I was by birth a gentleman, living neither in considerable height, nor yet in obscurity". Speech to the First Protectorate Parliament, 4 September 1654, quoted in Roots, Ivan (1989). Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (Everyman's Classics), ISBN 0-460-01254-1, p.42. Records survive of Cromwell's baptism on 29 April 1599 at St. John's Church, British Civil Wars, Commonwealth and Proctectorate 1638-1660 and his attendance at Huntingdon Grammar School. He went on to study at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, which was then a recently founded college with a strong puritan ethos. He left in June 1617 without taking a degree, immediately after the death of his father. {{Venn|id=CRML616O|name=Cromwell, Oliver} Early biographers claim he then attended Lincoln's Inn, but there is no record of him in the Inn's archives. He is more likely to have returned home to Huntingdon, for his mother was widowed and his seven sisters were unmarried, and he, therefore, was needed to help his family. Morrill, John (1990). "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), ISBN 0-582-01675-4, p.24. On 22 August 1620 at St.Giles's church, Cripplegate, London, British Civil Wars, Commonwealthand Proctectorate 1638-1660 Cromwell married Elizabeth Bourchier (1598–1665). They had nine children: Robert (1621-1639), died while away at school. Oliver (1622-1644), died of typhoid fever while serving as a Parliamentarian officer. Bridget (1624-1681), married (1) Henry Ireton, (2) Charles Fleetwood. Richard (1626-1712), his father's successor as Lord Protector. Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901). Oliver Cromwell, ISBN 1-4179-4961-9, p.4; Gaunt, Peter (1996). Oliver Cromwell (Blackwell), ISBN 0-631-18356-6, p.23. Henry (1628-1674), later Lord Deputy of Ireland. Elizabeth (1629-1658), married John Claypole. James (b. & d. 1632), died in infancy. Mary (1637-1713), married Thomas Belasyse, 1st Earl Fauconberg. Frances (1638-1720), married (1) Robert Rich, (2) Sir John Russell, 4th Baronet. Elizabeth's father, Sir James Bourchier, was a London leather merchant who owned extensive land in Essex and had strong connections with puritan gentry families there. The marriage brought Cromwell into contact with Oliver St John and also with leading members of the London merchant community, and behind them the influence of the earls of Warwick and Holland. Membership in this influential network would prove crucial to Cromwell’s military and political career. At this stage, though, there is little evidence of Cromwell’s own religion. His letter in 1626 to Henry Downhall, an Arminian minister, suggests that Cromwell had yet to be influenced by radical puritanism. Morrill, p.34. However, there is evidence that Cromwell went through a period of personal crisis during the late 1620s and early 1630s. He sought treatment for valde melancolicus (depression) from London doctor Theodore de Mayerne in 1628. He was also caught up in a fight among the gentry of Huntingdon over a new charter for the town, as a result of which he was called before the Privy Council in 1630. Morrill, pp.24–33. In 1631 Cromwell sold most of his properties in Huntingdon — probably as a result of the dispute — and moved to a farmstead in St Ives. This was a major step down in society compared to his previous position, and seems to have had a major emotional and spiritual impact. A 1638 letter survives from Cromwell to the wife of Oliver St John, and gives an account of his spiritual awakening. The letter outlines how, having been the "the chief of sinners", Cromwell had been called to be among "the congregation of the firstborn". The language of this letter, which is saturated with biblical quotations and which represents Cromwell as having been saved from sin by God's mercy, places his faith firmly within the Independent beliefs that the Reformation had not gone far enough, that much of England was still living in sin, and that Catholic beliefs and practices needed to be fully removed from the church. Oliver Cromwell's house in Ely In 1636, Cromwell inherited control of various properties in Ely from his uncle on his mother's side, as well as that uncle's job as tithe collector for Ely Cathedral. As a result, his income is likely to have risen to around £300-400 per year; Gaunt, p.34. and, by the end of the 1630s, Cromwell had returned to the ranks of acknowledged gentry. He had become a committed puritan and had also established important family links to leading families in London and Essex. Member of Parliament: 1628–1629 and 1640–1642 Cromwell became the Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in the Parliament of 1628–1629, as a client of the Montagus. He made little impression: records for the Parliament show only one speech (against the Arminian Bishop Richard Neile), which was poorly received. Morrill, pp.25-26. After dissolving this Parliament, Charles I ruled without a Parliament for the next eleven years. When Charles faced the Scottish rebellion known as the Bishops' Wars, shortage of funds forced him to call a Parliament again in 1640. Cromwell was returned to this Parliament as member for Cambridge, but it lasted for only three weeks and became known as the Short Parliament. A second Parliament was called later the same year. This was to become known as the Long Parliament. Cromwell was again returned to this Parliament as member for Cambridge. As with the Parliament of 1628-9, it is likely that Cromwell owed his position to the patronage of others, which would explain the fact that in the first week of the Parliament he was in charge of presenting a petition for the release of John Lilburne, who had become a puritan martyr after being arrested for importing religious tracts from Holland. Otherwise it is unlikely that a relatively unknown member would have been given this task. For the first two years of the Long Parliament, Cromwell was linked to the godly group of aristocrats in the House of Lords and MPs in the Commons with which he had already established familial and religious links in the 1630s, such as the earls of Essex, Warwick and Bedford, Oliver St John, and Viscount Saye and Sele. Adamson, John (1990). "Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament", in Morrill, p.57. At this stage, the group had an agenda of godly reformation: the executive checked by regular parliaments, and the moderate extension of liberty of conscience. Cromwell appears to have taken a role in some of this group's political manoeuvres. In May 1641, for example, it was Cromwell who put forward the second reading of the Annual Parliaments Bill, and who later took a role in drafting the Root and Branch Bill for the abolition of episcopacy. Adamson, p.53. Military commander: 1642–1646 Failure to resolve the issues before the Long Parliament led to armed conflict between Parliament and Charles I in the autumn of 1642. Before joining Parliament's forces, Cromwell's only military experience was in the trained bands, the local county militia. Now 43 years old, he recruited a cavalry troop in Cambridgeshire after blocking a shipment of silver from Cambridge colleges that was meant for the king. Cromwell and his troop then fought at the indecisive Battle of Edgehill in October 1642. The troop was recruited to be a full regiment in the winter of 1642/43, making up part of the Eastern Association under the Earl of Manchester. Cromwell gained experience and victories in a number of successful actions in East Anglia in 1643, notably at the Battle of Gainsborough on 28 July. After this he was made governor of Ely and made a colonel in the Eastern Association. By the time of the Battle of Marston Moor in July 1644, Cromwell had risen to the rank of Lieutenant General of horse in Manchester's army. The success of his cavalry in breaking the ranks of the Royalist horse and then attacking their infantry from the rear at Marston Moor was a major factor in the Parliamentarian victory in the battle. Cromwell fought at the head of his troops in the battle and was wounded in the head. Cromwell's nephew, Valentine Walton, was killed at Marston Moor, and Cromwell wrote a famous letter to the soldier's father, Cromwell's brother-in-law, telling him of the soldier's death. Marston Moor secured the north of England for the Parliamentarians, but failed to end Royalist resistance. The indecisive outcome of the second Battle of Newbury in October meant that by the end of 1644, the war still showed no signs of ending. Cromwell's experience at Newbury, where Manchester had let the King's army slip out of an encircling manoeuvre, led to a serious dispute with Manchester, whom he believed to be less than enthusiastic in his conduct of the war. Manchester later accused Cromwell of recruiting men of "low birth" as officers in the army, to which he replied: "If you choose godly honest men to be captains of horse, honest men will follow them... I would rather have a plain russet-coated captain who knows what he fights for and loves what he knows than that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else". Letter to Sir William Spring, September 1643, quoted in Carlyle, Thomas (ed.) (1904 edition). Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations, vol I, p.154; also quoted in Young and Holmes (2000). The English Civil War, (Wordsworth), ISBN 1840222220, p.107. At this time, Cromwell also fell into dispute with Major-General Lawrence Crawford, a Scottish Covenanter Presbyterian attached to Manchester's army, who objected to Cromwell's encouragement of unorthodox Independents and Anabaptists. Cromwell's differences with the Scots, at that time allies of the Parliament, would later develop into outright enmity in 1648 and in 1650-51. Partly in response to the failure to capitalise on their victory at Marston Moor, Parliament passed the Self-Denying Ordinance in early 1645. This forced members of the House of Commons and the Lords, such as Manchester, to choose between civil office and military command. All of them — with the exception of Cromwell, whose commission was given continued extensions and was allowed to remain an MP — chose to renounce their military positions. The Ordinance also decreed that the army be "remodeled" on a national basis, replacing the old county associations. In April 1645 the New Model Army finally took to the field, with Sir Thomas Fairfax in command and Cromwell as Lieutenant-General of cavalry, and second-in-command. By this time, the Parliamentarian's field army outnumbered the King's by roughly two to one. At the Battle of Naseby in June 1645, the New Model smashed the King's major army. Cromwell led his wing with great success at Naseby, again routing the Royalist cavalry. At the Battle of Langport on 10 July, Cromwell participated in the defeat of the last sizable Royalist field army. Naseby and Langport effectively ended the King's hopes of victory and the subsequent Parliamentarian campaigns involved taking the remaining fortified Royalist positions in the west of England. In October 1645, Cromwell besieged and took Basing House, later to be accused of killing a hundred of its three-hundred-man Royalist garrison there after its surrender. Kenyon, John & Ohlmeyer, Jane (eds.) (2000). The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638-1660 (Oxford University Press), ISBN 0-19-280278-X, p.141 Cromwell also took part in sieges at Bridgwater, Sherborne, Bristol, Devizes, and Winchester, then spent the first half of 1646 mopping up resistance in Devon and Cornwall. Charles I surrendered to the Scots on 5 May 1646, effectively ending the First English Civil War. Cromwell and Fairfax took the formal surrender of the Royalists at Oxford in June. Cromwell had no formal training in military tactics, and followed the common practice of ranging his cavalry in three ranks and pressing forward. This method relied on impact rather than firepower. His strengths were in an instinctive ability to lead and train his men, and in his moral authority. In a war fought mostly by amateurs, these strengths were significant and are likely to have contributed to the discipline of his cavalry. Woolrych, Austin (1990). Cromwell as a soldier, in Morrill, pp.117–118. Politics: 1647–1649 In February 1647 Cromwell suffered from an illness that kept him out of political life for over a month. By the time of his recovery, the Parliamentarians were split over the issue of the king. A majority in both Houses pushed for a settlement that would pay off the Scottish army, disband much of the New Model Army, and restore Charles I in return for a Presbyterian settlement of the Church. Cromwell rejected the Scottish model of Presbyterianism, which threatened to replace one authoritarian hierarchy with another. The New Model Army, radicalised by the failure of the Parliament to pay the wages it was owed, petitioned against these changes, but the Commons declared the petition unlawful. During May 1647, Cromwell was sent to the army's headquarters in Saffron Walden to negotiate with them, but failed to reach agreement. In June 1647, a troop of cavalry under Cornet George Joyce seized the king from Parliament's imprisonment. Although Cromwell is known to have met with Joyce on 31 May, it is impossible to be sure what Cromwell's role in this event was. Coward, pp.188-95. Cromwell and Henry Ireton then drafted a manifesto — the "Heads of Proposals" — designed to check the powers of the executive, set up regularly elected parliaments, and restore a non-compulsory Episcopalian settlement. Although there is debate over whether Cromwell and Ireton were the authors of the Heads of Proposals or acting on behalf of Saye and Sele: Adamson, John (1987). "The English Nobility and the Projected Settlement of 1647", in Historical Journal, 30, 3; Kishlansky, Mark (1990). "Saye What?" in Historical Journal 33, 4. Many in the army, such as the Levellers led by John Lilburne, thought this was insufficient, demanding full political equality for all men, leading to tense debates in Putney during the autumn of 1647 between Fairfax, Cromwell and Ireton on the one hand, and radical Levellers like Colonel Rainsborough on the other. The Putney Debates ultimately broke up without reaching a resolution. Woolrych, Austin (1987). Soldiers and Statesmen: the General Council of the Army and its Debates (Clarendon Press), ISBN 0-19-822752-3, ch.2–5. The debates, and the escape of Charles I from Hampton Court on 12 November, are likely to have hardened Cromwell's resolve against the king. The failure to conclude a political agreement with the king eventually led to the outbreak of the Second English Civil War in 1648, when the King tried to regain power by force of arms. Cromwell first put down a Royalist uprising in south Wales led by Rowland Laugharne, winning back Chepstow Castle on May 25 and six days later forcing the surrender of Tenby. The castle at Carmarthen was destroyed by burning. The much stronger castle at Pembroke, however, fell only after a siege of eight weeks. Cromwell dealt leniently with the ex-royalist soldiers, less so with those who had previously been members of the parliamentary army, with John Poyer eventually being executed in London after the drawing of lots. Cromwell then marched north to deal with a pro-Royalist Scottish army (the Engagers) who had invaded England. At Preston, Cromwell, in sole command for the first time with an army of 9,000, won a brilliant victory against an army twice that size. Gardiner, pp.144–47; Gaunt (1997) 94-97. During 1648, Cromwell's letters and speeches started to become heavily based on biblical imagery, many of them meditations on the meaning of particular passages. For example, after the battle of Preston, study of Psalms 17 and 105 led him to tell Parliament that "they that are implacable and will not leave troubling the land may be speedily destroyed out of the land". A letter to Oliver St John in September 1648 urged him to read Isaiah 8, in which the kingdom falls and only the godly survive. This letter suggests that it was Cromwell's faith, rather than a commitment to radical politics, coupled with Parliament's decision to engage in negotiations with the king at the Treaty of Newport, that convinced him that God had spoken against both the king and Parliament as lawful authorities. For Cromwell, the army was now God's chosen instrument. Adamson, pp.76–84. The episode shows Cromwell’s firm belief in "Providentialism"—that God was actively directing the affairs of the world, through the actions of "chosen people" (whom God had "provided" for such purposes). Cromwell believed, during the Civil Wars, that he was one of these people, and he interpreted victories as indications of God's approval of his actions, and defeats as signs that God was directing him in another direction. In December 1648, those MPs who wished to continue negotiations with the king were prevented from sitting by a troop of soldiers headed by Colonel Thomas Pride, an episode soon to be known as Pride's Purge. Thus gerrymandered, the remaining body of MPs, known as the Rump, agreed that Charles should be tried on a charge of treason. Cromwell was still in the north of England, dealing with Royalist resistance when these events took place. However, after he returned to London, on the day after Pride's Purge, he became a determined supporter of those pushing for the king's trial and execution. He believed that killing Charles was the only way to bring the civil wars to an end. The death warrant for Charles was eventually signed by 59 of the trying court's members, including Cromwell (who was the third to sign it); Fairfax conspicuously refused to sign. Charles was executed on 30 January 1649. Establishment of the Commonwealth: 1649 Commonwealth Coat of Arms. 1649 - 1660 After the execution of the King, a republic was declared, known as the Commonwealth of England. The Rump Parliament exercised both executive and legislative powers, with a smaller Council of State also having some executive functions. Cromwell remained a member of the Rump and was appointed a member of the Council. In the early months after the execution of Charles I, Cromwell tried but failed to unite the original group of 'Royal Independents' centred around St John and Saye and Sele, which had fractured during 1648. Cromwell had been connected to this group since before the outbreak of war in 1642 and had been closely associated with them during the 1640s. However, only St John was persuaded to retain his seat in Parliament. The Royalists, meanwhile, had regrouped in Ireland, having signed a treaty with the Irish Confederate Catholics. In March, Cromwell was chosen by the Rump to command a campaign against them. Preparations for an invasion of Ireland occupied Cromwell in the subsequent months. After quelling Leveller mutinies within the English army at Andover and Burford in May, Cromwell departed for Ireland from Bristol at the end of July. Irish Campaign: 1649–1650 See also: Irish Confederate Wars and Cromwellian conquest of Ireland Cromwell led a Parliamentary invasion of Ireland from 1649–50. Parliament's key opposition was the military threat posed by the alliance of the Irish Confederate Catholics and English royalists (signed in 1649). The Confederate-Royalist alliance was judged to be the biggest single threat facing the Commonwealth. However, the political situation in Ireland in 1649 was extremely fractured: there were also separate forces of Irish Catholics who were opposed to the royalist alliance, and Protestant royalist forces that were gradually moving towards Parliament. Cromwell said in a speech to the army Council on 23 March that "I had rather be overthrown by a Cavalierish interest than a Scotch interest; I had rather be overthrown by a Scotch interest than an Irish interest and I think of all this is the most dangerous". Quoted in Lenihan, Padraig (2000). Confederate Catholics at War (Cork University Press), ISBN 1-85918-244-5, p.115. Cromwell's hostility to the Irish was religious as well as political. He was passionately opposed to the Roman Catholic Church, which he saw as denying the primacy of the Bible in favour of papal and clerical authority, and which he blamed for suspected tyranny and persecution of Protestants in Europe. Fraser, pp.74-76. Cromwell's association of Catholicism with persecution was deepened with the Irish Rebellion of 1641. This rebellion was marked by execution of English and Scottish Protestant settlers by native Irish Catholics in Ireland (these settlers had settled on land seized from former, native Catholic owners to make way for the non-native Protestants). These factors contributed to Cromwell's harshness in his military campaign in Ireland. Fraser, pp.326-328. Parliament had planned to re-conquer Ireland since 1641 and had already sent an invasion force there in 1647. Cromwell's invasion of 1649 was much larger and, with the civil war in England over, could be regularly reinforced and re-supplied. His nine month military campaign was brief and effective, though it did not end the war in Ireland. Before his invasion, Parliamentarian forces held only outposts in Dublin and Derry. When he departed Ireland, they occupied most of the eastern and northern parts of the country. After his landing at Dublin on 15 August 1649 (itself only recently secured for the Parliament at the battle of Rathmines), Cromwell took the fortified port towns of Drogheda and Wexford to secure logistical supply from England. At the siege of Drogheda in September 1649, Cromwell's troops massacred nearly 3,500 people after the town's capture—comprising around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and all the men in the town carrying arms, including some civilians, prisoners, and Roman Catholic priests. Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.98. At the Siege of Wexford in October, another massacre took place under confused circumstances. While Cromwell himself was trying to negotiate surrender terms, some of his soldiers broke into the town, killed 2,000 Irish troops and up to 1,500 civilians, and burned much of the town. Fraser, Antonia (1973). Cromwell, Our Chief of Men, and Cromwell: the Lord Protector (Phoenix Press), ISBN 0-7538-1331-9 pp.344-46. After the fall of Drogheda, Cromwell sent a column north to Ulster to secure the north of the country and went on to besiege Waterford, Kilkenny and Clonmel in Ireland's south-east. Kilkenny surrendered on terms, as did many other towns like New Ross and Carlow, but Cromwell failed to take Waterford and at the siege of Clonmel in May 1650, he lost up to 2,000 men in abortive assaults before the town surrendered. Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.100. One of his major victories in Ireland was diplomatic rather than military. With the help of Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery, Cromwell persuaded the Protestant Royalist troops in Cork to change sides and fight with the Parliament Fraser, pp.321-322; Lenihan, p.113. At this point, word reached Cromwell that Charles II had landed in Scotland and been proclaimed king by the Covenanter regime. Cromwell therefore returned to England from Youghal on 26 May 1650 to counter this threat. Fraser, p.355. The Parliamentarian conquest of Ireland dragged on for almost three years after Cromwell's departure. The campaigns under Cromwell's successors Henry Ireton and Edmund Ludlow mostly consisted of long sieges of fortified cities and guerrilla warfare in the countryside. The last Catholic held town, Galway, surrendered in April 1652 and the last Irish troops capitulated in April of the following year. In the wake of the Commonwealth's conquest, the public practice of Catholicism was banned and Catholic priests were murdered when captured. In addition, roughly 12,000 Irish people were sold into slavery under the Commonwealth. Kenyon, Ohlmeyer, p.314. All Catholic-owned land was confiscated in the Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652 and given to Scottish and English settlers, the Parliament's financial creditors and Parliamentary soldiers. The remaining Catholic landowners were allocated poorer land in the province of Connacht - this led to the Cromwellian attributed phrase "To hell or to Connacht". Under the Commonwealth, Catholic landownership dropped from 60% of the total to just 8%. Debate over Cromwell's effect on Ireland The extent of Cromwell's brutality Christopher Hill, 1972, God's Englishman: Oliver Cromwell and the L English Revolution, Penguin Books: London, p.108: "The brutality of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland is not one of the pleasanter aspects of our hero's career ..." Barry Coward, 1991, Oliver Cromwell, Pearson Education: Rugby, p.74: "Revenge was not Cromwell's only motive for the brutality he condoned at Wexford and Drogheda, but it was the dominant one ..." in Ireland has been strongly debated. Cromwell never accepted that he was responsible for the killing of civilians in Ireland, claiming that he had acted harshly, but only against those "in arms". Philip McKeiver, 2007, "A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign" In September 1649, he justified his sack of Drogheda as revenge for the massacres of Protestant settlers in Ulster in 1641, calling the massacre "the righteous judgement of God on these barbarous wretches, who have imbued their hands with so much innocent blood." However, Drogheda had never been held by the rebels in 1641—many of its garrison were in fact English royalists. On the other hand, the worst atrocities committed in Ireland, such as mass evictions, killings and deportation of over 50,000 men, women and children for indentured labour to Bermuda and Barbados, were carried out under the command of other generals after Cromwell had left for England. Lenihan, p.1O22; "After Cromwell returned to England in 1650, the conflict degenerated into a grindingly slow counter insurgency campaign punctuated by some quite protracted sieges...the famine of 1651 onwards was a man made response to stubborn guerrilla warfare. Collective reprisals against the civilian population included forcing them out of designated 'no man's lands' and the systematic destruction of foodstuffs". On entering Ireland, Cromwell demanded that no supplies were to be seized from the civilian inhabitants, and that everything should be fairly purchased; "I do hereby warn....all Officers, Soldiers and others under my command not to do any wrong or violence toward Country People or any persons whatsoever, unless they be actually in arms or office with the enemy.....as they shall answer to the contrary at their utmost peril." Several English soldiers were hanged for disobeying these orders. Reilly, Tom, Cromwell - An Honourable Enemy: The Untold Story of the Cromwellian Invasion of Ireland (2000). While the massacres at Drogheda and Wexford were in some ways typical of the day, especially in the context of the recently ended Thirty Years War Woolrych, Austin (1990). Cromwell as soldier, in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), ISBN 0-582-01675-4, p. 112: "viewed in the context of the German wars that had just ended after thirty years of fighting, the massacres at Drogheda and Wexford shrink to typical casualties of seventeenth-century warfare". which reduced the male population of Germany by up to half, there are few comparable incidents during Parliament's campaigns in England or Scotland. One possible comparison is Cromwell's siege of Basing House in 1645 - the seat of the prominent Catholic the Marquess of Winchester - which resulted in about 300 of the garrison of 1,200 being killed after being refused quarter. Contemporaries also reported civilian casualties. However, the scale of the deaths at Basing House was much smaller. J.C. Davis, Oliver Cromwell, pp. 108-110. Cromwell himself said of the slaughter at Drogheda in his first letter back to the Council of State: "I believe we put to the sword the whole number of the defendants. I do not think thirty of the whole number escaped with their lives." Abbott, Writings and Speeches, vol II, p.124. Cromwell's orders — "in the heat of the action, I forbade them to spare any that were in arms in the town" — followed a request for surrender at the start of the siege, which was refused. The military protocol of the day was that a town or garrison that rejected the chance to surrender was not entitled to quarter. Woolrych, Austin (1990). Cromwell as soldier, p. 111; Gaunt, p. 117. The refusal of the garrison at Drogheda to do this, even after the walls had been breached, was to Cromwell justification for the massacre. Lenihan, p.168. Where Cromwell negotiated the surrender of fortified towns, as at Carlow, New Ross, and Clonmel, he respected the terms of surrender and protected the lives and property of the townspeople. Gaunt, p.116. At Wexford, Cromwell again began negotiations for surrender. However, the captain of Wexford castle surrendered during the middle of the negotiations, and in the confusion some of his troops began indiscriminate killing and looting. Stevenson, Cromwell, Scotland and Ireland, in Morrill, p.151. Amateur "From the Author"..."The reaction - among the under forties on the whole - was good, but among historians and the over forties it was bad. They can't seem to accept that an amateur could discover such a fundamental flaw in Irish history, i.e. that neither Cromwell or his men ever engaged in the killing of any unarmed civilians throughout his entire nine month campaign." Irish historian (and Drogheda native) Tom Reilly has taken this argument further, claiming that the accepted versions of the campaigns in Drogheda and Wexford in which wholesale killings of civilians on Cromwell's orders took place "were a 19th century fiction". However, Reilly's conclusions have been rejected by some other scholars. John Morrill. "Rewriting Cromwell: A Case of Deafening Silences." Canadian Journal of History. December 2003: 19. Although Cromwell's time spent on campaign in Ireland was limited, and although he did not take on executive powers until 1653, he is often the central focus of wider debates about whether, as historians such as Mark Levene and John Morrill suggest, the Commonwealth conducted a deliberate programme of ethnic cleansing in Ireland. Citations for genocide, near genocide and ethnic cleansing: Albert Breton (Editor, 1995). Nationalism and Rationality. Cambridge University Press 1995. Page 248. "Oliver Cromwell offered Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer" Ukrainian Quarterly. Ukrainian Society of America 1944. "Therefore, we are entitled to accuse the England of Oliver Cromwell of the genocide of the Irish civilian population.." David Norbrook (2000).Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 1627-1660. Cambridge University Press. 2000. In interpreting Andrew Marvell's contemporarily expressed views on Cromwell Norbrook says; "He (Cromwell) laid the foundation for a ruthless programme of resettling the Irish Catholics which amounted to large scale ethnic cleansing." Alan Axelrod (2002). Profiles in Leadership, Prentice-Hall. 2002. Page 122. "As a leader Cromwell was entirely unyielding. He was willing to act on his beliefs, even if this meant killing the king and perpetrating, against the Irish, something very nearly approaching genocide" John Morrill (2003). Rewriting Cromwell - A Case of Deafening Silences, Canadian Journal of History. December 2003. "Of course, this has never been the Irish view of Cromwell. Most Irish remember him as the man responsible for the mass slaughter of civilians at Drogheda and Wexford and as the agent of the greatest episode of ethnic cleansing ever attempted in Western Europe as, within a decade, the percentage of land possessed by Catholics born in Ireland dropped from sixty to twenty. In a decade, the ownership of two-fifths of the land mass was transferred from several thousand Irish Catholic landowners to British Protestants. The gap between Irish and the English views of the seventeenth-century conquest remains unbridgeable and is governed by O.K. Chesterton's mirthless epigram of 1917, that "it was a tragic necessity that the Irish should remember it; but it was far more tragic that the English forgot it." James M Lutz, Brenda J Lutz, (2004). Global Terrorism, Routledge:London, p.193: "The draconian laws applied by Oliver Cromwell in Ireland were an early version of ethnic cleansing. The Catholic Irish were to be expelled to the northwestern areas of the island. Relocation rather than extermination was the goal." Mark Levene (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2. ISBN 978-1845110574 Page 55, 56 & 57. A sample quote describes the Cromwellian campaign and settlement as "a conscious attempt to reduce a distinct ethnic population". Mark Levene (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State, I.B.Tauris: London: [The Act of Settlement of Ireland], and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state. By the end of the Cromwellian campaign and settlement there had been extensive dispossession of landowners who were Catholic, and a huge drop in population. Frances Stewart (2000). War and Underdevelopment: Economic and Social Consequences of Conflict v. 1 (Queen Elizabeth House Series in Development Studies), Oxford University Press. 2000. "Faced with the prospect of an Irish alliance with Charles II, Cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the Irish. Then, once Cromwell had returned to England, the English Commissary, General Henry Ireton, adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation, which was responsible for the majority of an estimated 600,000 deaths out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000." The sieges of Drogheda and Wexford have been prominently mentioned in histories and literature up to the present day. James Joyce, for example, mentioned Drogheda in his novel Ulysses: "What about sanctimonious Cromwell and his ironsides that put the women and children of Drogheda to the sword with the bible text God is love pasted round the mouth of his cannon?" Similarly, Winston Churchill described the impact of Cromwell on Anglo-Irish relations: ...upon all of these Cromwell's record was a lasting bane. By an uncompleted process of terror, by an iniquitous land settlement, by the virtual proscription of the Catholic religion, by the bloody deeds already described, he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds. 'Hell or Connaught' were the terms he thrust upon the native inhabitants, and they for their part, across three hundred years, have used as their keenest expression of hatred 'The Curse of Cromwell on you.' ... Upon all of us there still lies 'the curse of Cromwell'." Winston S. Churchill, 1957, A History of the English Speaking Peoples: The Age of Revolution, Dodd, Mead and Company: New York (p. 9): "We have seen the many ties which at one time or another have joined the inhabitants of the Western islands, and even in Ireland itself offered a tolerable way of life to Protestants and Catholics alike. Upon all of these Cromwell's record was a lasting bane. By an uncompleted process of terror, by an iniquitous land settlement, by the virtual proscription of the Catholic religion, by the bloody deeds already described, he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds. "Hell or Connaught" were the terms he thrust upon the native inhabitants, and they for their part, across three hundred years, have used as their keenest expression of hatred "The Curse of Cromwell on you." The consequences of Cromwell's rule in Ireland have distressed and at times distracted English politics down even to the present day. To heal them baffled the skill and loyalties of successive generations. They became for a time a potent obstacle to the harmony of the English-speaking people through-out the world. Upon all of us there still lies 'the curse of Cromwell'. Cromwell is still a figure of hatred in Ireland, his name being associated with massacre, religious persecution, and mass dispossession of the Catholic community there. As Churchill notes, a traditional Irish curse was malacht Cromail ort or "the curse of Cromwell upon you". The key surviving statement of Cromwell's own views on the conquest of Ireland is his Declaration of the lord lieutenant of Ireland for the undeceiving of deluded and seduced people of January 1650. Abbott, W.C. (1929). Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, Harvard University Press, pp.196-205. In this he was scathing about Catholicism, saying that "I shall not, where I have the power... suffer the exercise of the Mass." Abbott, p.202. However, he also declared that: "as for the people, what thoughts they have in the matter of religion in their own breasts I cannot reach; but I shall think it my duty, if they walk honestly and peaceably, not to cause them in the least to suffer for the same." Private soldiers who surrendered their arms "and shall live peaceably and honestly at their several homes, they shall be permitted so to do." Abbott, p.205. As with many incidents in Cromwell's career, there is debate about the extent of his sincerity in making these public statements: the Rump Parliament's later Act of Settlement of 1652 set out a much harsher policy of execution and confiscation of property of anyone who had supported the uprisings. Scottish Campaign: 1650–1651 Cromwell left Ireland in May 1650 and several months later, invaded Scotland after the Scots had proclaimed Charles I's son as Charles II. Cromwell was much less hostile to Scottish Presbyterians, some of whom had been his allies in the First English Civil War, than he was to Irish Catholics. He described the Scots as a people fearing His [God's] name, though deceived". Lenihan, p.115. He made a famous appeal to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, urging them to see the error of the royal alliance—"I beseech you, in the bowels of Christ, think it possible you may be mistaken." Gardiner, p.194. The Scots' reply was robust: "would you have us to be sceptics in our religion?" This decision to negotiate with Charles II led Cromwell to believe that war was necessary. Stevenson, David (1990). Cromwell, Scotland and Ireland, in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), ISBN 0-582-01675-4, p.155. His appeal rejected, Cromwell's veteran troops went on to invade Scotland. At first, the campaign went badly, as Cromwell's men were short of supplies and held up at fortifications manned by Scottish troops under David Leslie. Cromwell was on the brink of evacuating his army by sea from Dunbar. However, on 3 September 1650, in an unexpected battle, Cromwell smashed the main Covenanter army at the Battle of Dunbar, killing 4,000 Scottish soldiers, taking another 10,000 prisoner and then capturing the Scottish capital of Edinburgh. Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.66. The victory was of such a magnitude that Cromwell called it, "A high act of the Lord's Providence to us [and] one of the most signal mercies God hath done for England and His people". The following year, Charles II and his Scottish allies made a desperate attempt to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was engaged in Scotland. Cromwell followed them south and caught them at Worcester on 3 September 1651. At the subsequent Battle of Worcester, Cromwell's forces destroyed the last major Scottish Royalist army. Many of the Scottish prisoners of war taken in the campaigns died of disease, and others were sent to penal colonies in Barbados. In the final stages of the Scottish campaign, Cromwell's men, under George Monck, sacked the town of Dundee, killing up to 2,000 of its population of 12,000 and destroying the 60 ships in the city's harbour. During the Commonwealth, Scotland was ruled from England, and was kept under military occupation, with a line of fortifications sealing off the Highlands, which had provided manpower for Royalist armies in Scotland, from the rest of the country. The north west Highlands was the scene of another pro-royalist uprising in 1653-55, which was only put down with deployment of 6,000 English troops there. Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.306. Presbyterianism was allowed to be practised as before, but the Kirk (the Scottish church) did not have the backing of the civil courts to impose its rulings, as it had previously. Parker, Geoffrey (2003). Empire, War and Faith in Early Modern Europe, p.281. Cromwell's conquest, unwelcome as it was, left no significant lasting legacy of bitterness in Scotland. The rule of the Commonwealth and Protectorate was, the Highlands aside, largely peaceful. Moreover, there was no wholesale confiscations of land or property. Three out of every four Justices of the Peace in Commonwealth Scotland were Scots and the country was governed jointly by the English military authorities and a Scottish Council of State. Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.320. Although not often favourably regarded, Cromwell's name rarely meets the hatred in Scotland that it does in Ireland. Return to England and dissolution of the Rump Parliament: 1651-53 Cromwell dissolving the Long Parliament. From the middle of 1649 until 1651, Cromwell was away on campaign. In the meantime, with the king gone (and with him their common cause), the various factions in Parliament began to engage in infighting. On his return, Cromwell tried to galvanise the Rump into setting dates for new elections, uniting the three kingdoms under one polity, and to put in place a broad-brush, tolerant national church. However, the Rump vacillated in setting election dates, and although it put in place a basic liberty of conscience, it failed to produce an alternative for tithes or dismantle other aspects of the existing religious settlement. In frustration, in April 1653 Cromwell demanded that the Rump establish a caretaker government of 40 members (drawn both from the Rump and the army) and then abdicate. However, the Rump returned to debating its own bill for a new government. Worden, Blair (1977). The Rump Parliament (Cambridge University Press), ISBN 0-521-29213-1, ch.16-17. Cromwell was so angered by this that on 20 April 1653, supported by about forty musketeers, he cleared the chamber and dissolved the Parliament by force. Several accounts exist of this incident: in one, Cromwell is supposed to have said "you are no Parliament, I say you are no Parliament; I will put an end to your sitting". Abbot, p.643 At least two accounts agree that Cromwell snatched up the mace, symbol of Parliament's power, and demanded that the "bauble" be taken away. Abbott, p.642-643. Cromwell's troops were commanded by Charles Worsley, later one of his Major Generals and one of his most trusted advisors, to whom he entrusted the mace. The establishment of Barebones Parliament: 1653 After the dissolution of the Rump, power passed temporarily to a council that debated what form the constitution should take. They took up the suggestion of Major-General Thomas Harrison for a "sanhedrin" of saints. Although Cromwell did not subscribe to Harrison's apocalyptic, Fifth Monarchist beliefs – which saw a sanhedrin as the starting point for Christ's rule on earth – he was attracted by the idea of an assembly made up of men chosen for their religious credentials. In his speech at the opening of the assembly on 4 July 1653, Cromwell thanked God’s providence that he believed had brought England to this point and set out their divine mission: "truly God hath called you to this work by, I think, as wonderful providences as ever passed upon the sons of men in so short a time." Roots, Ivan (1989). Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (Everyman classics), ISBN 0-460-01254-1, pp.8-27. Sometimes known as the Parliament of Saints or more commonly the Nominated Assembly, it was also called the Barebone's Parliament after one of its members, Praise-God Barbon. The assembly was tasked with finding a permanent constitutional and religious settlement (Cromwell was invited to be a member but declined). However, the revelation that a considerably larger segment of the membership than had been believed were the radical Fifth Monarchists led to its members voting to dissolve it on 12 December 1653, out of fear of what the radicals might do if they took control of the Assembly. Woolrych, Austin (1982). Commonwealth to Protectorate (Clarendon Press), ISBN 0-19-822659-4, ch.5-10. The Protectorate: 1653-1658 After the dissolution of the Barebones Parliament, John Lambert put forward a new constitution known as the Instrument of Government, closely modelled on the Heads of Proposals. It made Cromwell Lord Protector for life to undertake “the chief magistracy and the administration of government”. Cromwell was sworn in as Lord Protector on 16 December 1653, with a ceremony in which he wore plain black clothing, rather than any monarchical regalia. Gaunt, p.155. However, from this point on Cromwell signed his name 'Oliver P', standing for Oliver Protector - in a similar style to that used by English monarchs - and it soon became the norm for others to address him as "Your highness". Gaunt, p.156. As Protector, he had the power to call and dissolve parliaments but was obliged under the Instrument to seek the majority vote of a Council of State. Nevertheless, Cromwell's power was buttressed by his continuing popularity among the army. As the Lord Protector he was paid £100,000 a year. Cromwell had two key objectives as Lord Protector. The first was "healing and settling" the nation after the chaos of the civil wars and the regicide, which meant establishing a stable form for the new government to take Hirst, Derek (1990). "The Lord Protector, 1653–8", in Morrill, p.172. Although Cromwell declared to the first Protectorate Parliament that, "Government by one man and a parliament is fundamental," in practice social priorities took precedence over forms of government. Such forms were, he said, "but... dross and dung in comparison of Christ". Quoted in Hirst, p.127. The social priorities did not, despite the revolutionary nature of the government, include any meaningful attempt to reform the social order. Cromwell declared, "A nobleman, a gentleman, a yeoman; the distinction of these: that is a good interest of the nation, and a great one!", Small-scale reform such as that carried out on the judicial system were outweighed by attempts to restore order to English politics. Direct taxation was reduced slightly and peace was made with the Dutch, ending the First Anglo-Dutch War. England's American colonies in this period consisted of the New England Confederation, the Virginia Colony and the Maryland Colony. Cromwell soon secured the submission of these and largely left them to their own affairs, intervening only to curb his fellow Puritans who were usurping control over the Maryland Colony, by his confirming the former Catholic proprietorship and edict of tolerance there. Of all the English dominions, Virginia was the most resentful of Cromwell's rule, and Cavalier emigration there mushroomed during the Protectorate. Cromwell famously stressed the quest to restore order in his speech to the first Protectorate parliament at its inaugural meeting on 3 September 1654. He declared that "healing and settling" were the "great end of your meeting". Roots, pp.41-56. However, the Parliament was quickly dominated by those pushing for more radical, properly republican reforms. After some initial gestures approving appointments previously made by Cromwell, the Parliament began to work on a radical programme of constitutional reform. Rather than opposing Parliament’s bill, Cromwell dissolved them on 22 January 1655. Cromwell's signature before becoming Lord Protector in 1653, and afterwards. 'Oliver P', standing for Oliver Protector, echoes the similar style in which English monarchs had signed their names: for example, 'Elizabeth R' standing for Elizabeth Regina. Cromwell's second objective was spiritual and moral reform. He aimed to restore liberty of conscience and promote both outward and inly godliness throughout England. Hirst, p.173. During the early months of the Protectorate, a set of "triers" was established to assess the suitability of future parish ministers, and a related set of "ejectors" was set up to dismiss ministers and schoolmasters who were deemed unsuitable for office. The triers and the ejectors were intended to be at the vanguard of Cromwell's reform of parish worship. This second objective is also the context in which to see the constitutional experiment of the Major Generals that followed the dissolution of the first Protectorate Parliament. After a royalist uprising in March 1655, led by Sir John Penruddock, Cromwell (influenced by Lambert) divided England into military districts ruled by Army Major Generals who answered only to him. The 15 major generals and deputy major generals — called "godly governors" — were central not only to national security, but Cromwell's crusade to reform the nation's morals. The generals not only supervised militia forces and security commissions, but collected taxes and ensured support for the government in the English and Welsh provinces. Commissioners for securing the peace of the commonwealth were appointed to work with them in every county. While a few of these commissioners were career politicians, most were zealous puritans who welcomed the major-generals with open arms and embraced their work with enthusiasm. However, the major-generals lasted less than a year. Many feared they threatened their reform efforts and authority. Their position was further harmed by a tax proposal by Major General John Desborough to provide financial backing for their work, which the second Protectorate parliament—instated in September 1656—voted down for fear of a permanent military state. Ultimately, however, Cromwell's failure to support his men, sacrificing them to his opponents, caused their demise. Their activities between November 1655 and September 1656 had, however, reopened the wounds of the 1640s and deepened antipathies to the regime. Durston, Christopher (1998). The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals in English Historical Review 1998 113(450): pp.18–37, ISSN 0013-8266 . Half-Crown coin of Oliver Cromwell, 1658. The Latin inscription reads: OLIVAR.D.G.RP.ANG. - SCO.ET.HIB&cPRO (OLIVARIUS DEI GRATIA REIPUBLICAE ANGLIAE SCOTIAE ET HIBERNIAE ET CETERORUM PROTECTOR), meaning "Oliver, by the Grace of God Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland and other (territories)". As Lord Protector, Cromwell was aware of the contribution the Jewish community made to the economic success of Holland, now England's leading commercial rival. It was this—allied to Cromwell’s toleration of the right to private worship of those who fell outside evangelical puritanism—that led to his encouraging Jews to return to England in 1657, over 350 years after their banishment by Edward I, in the hope that they would help speed up the recovery of the country after the disruption of the Civil Wars. Hirst, p.137. In 1657, Cromwell was offered the crown by Parliament as part of a revised constitutional settlement, presenting him with a dilemma, since he had been "instrumental" in abolishing the monarchy. Cromwell agonised for six weeks over the offer. He was attracted by the prospect of stability it held out, but in a speech on 13 April 1657 he made clear that God's providence had spoken against the office of king: “I would not seek to set up that which Providence hath destroyed and laid in the dust, and I would not build Jericho again”. Roots, p.128. The reference to Jericho harks back to a previous occasion on which Cromwell had wrestled with his conscience when the news reached England of the defeat of an expedition against the Spanish-held island of Hispaniola in the West Indies in 1655 — comparing himself to Achan, who had brought the Israelites defeat after bringing plunder back to camp after the capture of Jericho. Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D. and Best, G. (eds.) History, Society and the Churches, ISBN 0-521-02189-8, pp.141–145. Instead, Cromwell was ceremonially re-installed as Lord Protector on 26 June 1657 (with greater powers than had previously been granted him under this title) at Westminster Hall, sitting upon King Edward's Chair which was specially moved from Westminster Abbey for the occasion. The event in part echoed a coronation, utilising many of its symbols and regalia, such as a purple ermine-lined robe, a sword of justice and a sceptre (but not a crown or an orb). But, most notably, the office of Lord Protector was still not to become hereditary, though Cromwell was now able to nominate his own successor. Cromwell's new rights and powers were laid out in the Humble Petition and Advice, a legislative instrument which replaced the Instrument of Government. Despite failing to restore the Crown, this new constitution did set up many of the vestiges of the ancient constitution including a pseudo-House of Lords known as the 'Other House' of Parliament. Furthermore, Oliver Cromwell increasingly took on more of the trappings of monarchy. In particular, he created two baronages after the acceptance of the Humble Petition and Advice- Charles Howard was made Viscount Morpeth and Baron Gisland in July 1657 and Edmund Dunch was created Baron Burnell of East Wittenham in April 1658. Cromwell himself, however, was at pains to minimise his role, describing himself as a constable or watchman. Death and posthumous execution Oliver Cromwell's death mask at Warwick Castle Cromwell is thought to have suffered from malaria (probably first contracted while on campaign in Ireland) and from "stone", a common term for urinary/kidney infections. In 1658 he was struck by a sudden bout of malarial fever, followed directly by an attack of urinary/kidney symptoms. A Venetian physician tracked Cromwell's final illness, saying Cromwell's personal physicians were mismanaging his health, leading to a rapid decline and death. The decline may also have been hastened by the death of his favourite daughter, Elizabeth Claypole, in August at the age of 29. He died at Whitehall on Friday 3 September 1658, the anniversary of his great victories at Dunbar and Worcester. Gaunt, p.204. The most likely cause of Cromwell's death was septicaemia following his urinary infection. He was buried with great ceremony, with an elaborate funeral based on that of James I, at Westminster Abbey, his daughter Elizabeth also being buried there. He was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard. Although Richard was not entirely without ability, he had no power base in either Parliament or the Army, and was forced to resign in May 1659, bringing the Protectorate to an end. There was no clear leadership from the various factions that jostled for power during the short lived reinstated Commonwealth, so George Monck, the English governor of Scotland, at the head of New Model Army regiments was able to march on London, and restore the Long Parliament. Under Monck's watchful eye the necessary constitutional adjustments were made so that in 1660 Charles II could be invited back from exile to be king under a restored monarchy. Plaque commemorating the reinterment of Cromwell's head at Sidney Sussex College In 1661, Oliver Cromwell's body was exhumed from Westminster Abbey, and was subjected to the ritual of a posthumous execution, as were the remains of John Bradshaw and Henry Ireton. (The body of Cromwell's daughter was allowed to remain buried in the Abbey.) Symbolically, this took place on 30 January; the same date that Charles I had been executed. His body was hanged in chains at Tyburn. Finally, his disinterred body was thrown into a pit, while his severed head was displayed on a pole outside Westminster Hall until 1685. Afterwards the head changed hands several times, including the sale in 1814 to a man named Josiah Henry Wilkinson,<ref>Staff. Roundhead on the Pike', Time Magazine, 6 May, 1957 </ref> before eventually being buried in the grounds of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, in 1960. Gaunt, p.4. Cromwell's head, the Cromwell Museum, Cambridgeshire County Council Political Reputation During his lifetime, some tracts painted him as a hypocrite motivated by power — for example, The Machiavilian Cromwell and The Juglers Discovered, both part of an attack on Cromwell by the Levellers after 1647, present him as a Machiavellian figure. Morrill, John (1990). "Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, pp.263–4. More positive contemporary assessments — for instance, John Spittlehouse in A Warning Piece Discharged — typically compared him to Moses, rescuing the English by taking them safely through the Red Sea of the civil wars. Morrill, pp.271–2. Several biographies were published soon after his death. An example is The Perfect Politician, which described how Cromwell "loved men more than books" and gave a nuanced assessment of him as an energetic campaigner for liberty of conscience brought down by pride and ambition. Morrill, pp.279–281. An equally nuanced but less positive assessment was published in 1667 by Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, in his History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England. Clarendon famously declared that Cromwell "will be looked upon by posterity as a brave bad man". Gaunt, p.9. He argued that Cromwell's rise to power had been helped not only by his great spirit and energy, but also by his ruthlessness. Clarendon was not one of Cromwell's confidantes, and his account was written after the Restoration of the monarchy. During the early eighteenth century, Cromwell’s image began to be adopted and reshaped by the Whigs, as part of a wider project to give their political objectives historical legitimacy. A version of Edmund Ludlow’s Memoirs, re-written by John Toland to excise the radical Puritanical elements and replace them with a Whiggish brand of republicanism, presented the Cromwellian Protectorate as a military tyranny. Through Ludlow, Toland portrayed Cromwell as a despot who crushed the beginnings of democratic rule in the 1640s. Worden, Blair (2001). Roundhead Reputations: The English Civil Wars and the Passions of Posterity (Penguin), ISBN 0141006943, pp.53–59 During the early nineteenth century, Cromwell began to be adopted by Romantic artists and poets. Thomas Carlyle continued this reassessment of Cromwell in the 1840s by presenting him as a hero in the battle between good and evil and a model for restoring morality to an age that Carlyle believed to have been dominated by timidity, meaningless rhetoric, and moral compromise. Cromwell's actions, including his campaigns in Ireland and his dissolution of the Long Parliament, according to Carlyle, had to be appreciated and praised as a whole. By the late nineteenth century, Carlyle’s portrayal of Cromwell, stressing the centrality of puritan morality and earnestness, had become assimilated into Whig and Liberal historiography. The Oxford civil war historian Samuel Rawson Gardiner concluded that "the man — it is ever so with the noblest — was greater than his work". Gardiner, p.315. Gardiner stressed Cromwell’s dynamic and mercurial character, and his role in dismantling absolute monarchy, while underestimating Cromwell’s religious conviction. Worden, pp.256–260. Cromwell’s foreign policy also provided an attractive forerunner of Victorian imperial expansion, with Gardiner stressing his “constancy of effort to make England great by land and sea”. Gardiner, p.318. During the first half of the twentieth century, Cromwell's reputation was often influenced by the rise of fascism in Germany and Italy. Wilbur Cortez Abbott, for example — a Harvard historian — devoted much of his career to compiling and editing a multi-volume collection of Cromwell's letters and speeches. In the course of this work, which was published between 1937 and 1947, Abbott began to argue that Cromwell was a proto-fascist. However, subsequent historians such as John Morrill have criticised both Abbott's interpretation of Cromwell and his editorial approach. Morrill, John (1990). "Textualising and Contextualising Cromwell", in Historical Journal, 33, 3, pp.629-639. Ernest Barker similarly compared the Independents to the Nazis. Nevertheless, not all historical comparisons made at this time drew on contemporary military dictators. Late twentieth century historians have re-examined the nature of Cromwell’s faith and of his authoritarian regime. Austin Woolrych explored the issue of "dictatorship" in depth, arguing that Cromwell was subject to two conflicting forces: his obligation to the army and his desire to achieve a lasting settlement by winning back the confidence of the political nation as a whole. Woolrych argued that the dictatorial elements of Cromwell's rule stemmed not so much from its military origins or the participation of army officers in civil government, as from his constant commitment to the interest of the people of God and his conviction that suppressing vice and encouraging virtue constituted the chief end of government. Woolrych, Austin (1990). "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in History 1990 75(244): 207-231, ISSN 0018-2648. Historians such as John Morrill, Blair Worden and J.C. Davis have developed this theme, revealing the extent to which Cromwell’s writing and speeches are suffused with biblical references, and arguing that his radical actions were driven by his zeal for godly reformation. Morrill (2004). "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)", in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, (Oxford University Press) ; Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan". In Beales, D. and Best, G., History, Society and the Churches; Davis, J.C. (1990). "Cromwell’s religion", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman). In Popular Culture 1899 Statue of Cromwell by Hamo Thornycroft outside the Palace of Westminster, London Cromwell's adoption by the French Romantic movement was typified by Victor Hugo's 1827 play Cromwell, often considered to be symbolic of the French romantic movement, which represents Cromwell as a ruthless yet dynamic Romantic hero. A similar impression of a world-changing individual with a strong will and personality was provided in 1831 in the picture by French artist Hippolyte Delaroche, depicting the legendary visit by Cromwell to the body of Charles I after the Kings' execution. In Westminster Abbey the site of Cromwell's burial was marked by a floor stone, laid in what is now the Air Force Chapel, reading "THE BURIAL PLACE OF OLIVER CROMWELL 1658 - 1661" In 1875, a statue of Cromwell by Matthew Noble was erected in Manchester outside the cathedral, a gift to the city by Mrs Abel Heywood in memory of her first husband. It was the first such large-scale statue to be erected in the open anywhere in England and was a realistic likeness, based the painting by Peter Lely and showing Cromwell in battledress with drawn sword and leather body armour. The statue was unpopular with the local Conservatives and with the large Irish immigrant population alike. When Queen Victoria was invited to open the new Manchester Town Hall, she is alleged to have consented on condition that the statue of Cromwell be removed. The statue remained, Victoria declined, and the Town Hall was opened by the Lord Mayor. During the 1980s the statue was more appropriately relocated outside Wythenshawe Hall, which had been occupied by Cromwell and his troops. During the 1890s plans to erect a statue of Cromwell outside Parliament caused considerable controversy. Pressure from the Irish Nationalist Party forced the withdrawal of a motion to seek public funding for the project and eventually it was funded privately by Lord Rosebery. In 2008 the statue was restored in time for the 350th anniversary of Cromwell's death. A statue of Cromwell also stands outside The Academy in Bridge Street, Warrington, http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/60029 a historic building which is now home to the Warrington Guardian newspaper. Cromwell fought the battle of Warrington Bridge against Scottish Royalists in the town in 1648. 1970 saw the release of the Ken Hughes film Cromwell (film) starring Richard Harris in the leading role. The all-star cast also featured Alec Guinness as King Charles I, Robert Morley as Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester and Timothy Dalton as Prince Rupert of the Rhine. Footnotes References Adamson, John (1990). "Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754 Adamson, John (1987). "The English Nobility and the Projected Settlement of 1647", in Historical Journal, 30, 3. BBC Radio 4 - This Sceptred Isle - The Execution of Charles I. "Sorrell accuses Murdoch of panic buying", BBC Radio 4. Accessed 4 November 2007. Carlyle, Thomas (ed.) (1904 edition). Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations ; Coward, Barry (2003). The Stuart Age: England, 1603-1714, Longman, ISBN 0582772516 Durston, Christopher (1998). The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals, in English Historical Review 1998 113(450): pp.18–37, ISSN 0013-8266 Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901). Oliver Cromwell, ISBN 1417949619 Gaunt, Peter (1996). Oliver Cromwell Blackwell, ISBN 0631183566 Hirst, Derek (1990). The Lord Protector, 1653-8, in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754 Kenyon, John & Ohlmeyer, Jane (eds.) (2000). The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638-1660 Oxford University Press, ISBN 019280278X Kishlansky, Mark (1990), "Saye What?" in Historical Journal 33, 4. Lenihan, Padraig (2000). Confederate Catholics at War Cork University Press, ISBN 1859182445 Morrill, John (1990). '"Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754 Morrill, John (1990). "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754 Roots, Ivan (1989). Speeches of Oliver Cromwell Everyman classics, ISBN 0460012541 Woolrych, Austin (1982). Commonwealth to Protectorate Clarendon Press, ISBN 0198226594 Woolrych, Austin (1990). "Cromwell as a soldier" in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754 Woolrych, Austin (1987). Soldiers and Statesmen: the General Council of the Army and its Debates (Clarendon Press), ISBN 0198227523 Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D. and Best, G. (eds.) History, Society and the Churches, ISBN 0521021898 Worden, Blair (2001). Roundhead Reputations: the English Civil Wars and the passions of posterity Penguin, ISBN 0141006943 Worden, Blair (1977). The Rump Parliament Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521292131 Worden, Blair (2000). "Thomas Carlyle and Oliver Cromwell", in Proceedings Of The British Academy 105: pp.131–170. ISSN 0068-1202 Young, Peter and Holmes, Richard (2000). The English Civil War Wordsworth, ISBN 1840222220 Biographies Adamson, John (1990). "Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754 Ashley, Maurice (1958). The Greatness of Oliver Cromwell Macmillan Bennett, Martyn. Oliver Cromwell (2006), ISBN 0415319226 Clifford, Alan (1999). Oliver Cromwell: the lessons and legacy of the Protectorate Charenton Reformed Publishing, ISBN 095267162X. Religious study. Davis, J. C. (2001). Oliver Cromwell Hodder Arnold, ISBN 0340731184 Fraser, Antonia (1973). Cromwell, Our Chief of Men, and Cromwell: the Lord Protector Phoenix Press, ISBN 0753813319. Popular narrative. Firth, C.H. (1900). Oliver Cromwell and the Rule of the Puritans ISBN 1402144741 Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901). Oliver Cromwell, ISBN 1417949619. Classic biography. Gaunt, Peter (1996). Oliver Cromwell Blackwell, ISBN 0631183566. Short biography. Hill, Christopher (1970). God's Englishman: Oliver Cromwell And The English Revolution Penguin, ISBN 0297000438. Hirst, Derek (1990). "The Lord Protector, 1653-8", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754 Mason, James and Angela Leonard (1998). Oliver Cromwell Longman, ISBN 0582297346 McKeiver, Philip (2007). "A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign", Advance Press, Manchester, ISBN 9780955466304 Morrill, John (2004). "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)", in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press Morrill, John (1990). "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754. Paul, Robert (1958). The Lord Protector: Religion And Politics In The Life Of Oliver CromwellSmith, David (ed.) (2003). Oliver Cromwell and the Interregnum Blackwell, ISBN 0631227253 Wedgwood, C.V. (1939). Oliver Cromwell Duckworth, ISBN 0715606565 Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D. and Best, G. (eds.) History, Society and the Churches, ISBN 0521021898 Military studies Durston, Christopher (2000). "'Settling the Hearts and Quieting the Minds of All Good People': the Major-generals and the Puritan Minorities of Interregnum England", in History 2000 85(278): pp.247–267, ISSN 0018-2648 . Full text online at Ebsco. Durston, Christopher (1998). "The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals", in English Historical Review 1998 113(450): pp.18–37, ISSN 0013-8266 Firth, C.H. (1921). Cromwell's Army Greenhill Books, ISBN 1853671207 Gillingham, J. (1976). Portrait Of A Soldier: Cromwell Weidenfeld & Nicholson, ISBN 0297771485 Kenyon, John & Ohlmeyer, Jane (eds.) (2000). The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638-1660 Oxford University Press, ISBN 019280278X Kitson, Frank (2004). Old Ironsides: The Military Biography of Oliver Cromwell Weidenfeld Military, ISBN 0297846884 Marshall, Alan (2004). Oliver Cromwell: Soldier: The Military Life of a Revolutionary at War Brassey's, ISBN 1857533437 McKeiver, Philip (2007). "A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign", Advance Press, Manchester, ISBN 9780955466304 Woolrych, Austin (1990). "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in History 1990 75(244): 207-231, ISSN 0018-2648 . Full text online at Ebsco. Woolrych, Austin (1990). "Cromwell as a soldier", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754 Young, Peter and Holmes, Richard (2000). The English Civil War, Wordsworth, ISBN 1840222220 Surveys of era Coward, Barry (2002). The Cromwellian Protectorate Manchester University Press, ISBN 0719043174 Coward, Barry (2003). The Stuart Age: England, 1603-1714, Longman, ISBN 0-582-77251-6. Survey of political history of the era. Davies, Godfrey (1959). The Early Stuarts, 1603-1660 Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198217048. Political, religious, and diplomatic overview of the era. Korr, Charles P. (1975). Cromwell and the New Model Foreign Policy: England's Policy toward France, 1649-1658 University of California Press, ISBN 0520022815 Macinnes, Allan (2005). The British Revolution, 1629-1660 Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0333597508 Morrill, John (1990). "Cromwell and his contemporaries". In Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754 Trevor-Roper, Hugh (1967). Oliver Cromwell and his Parliaments, in his Religion, the Reformation and Social Change Macmillan. Venning, Timothy (1995). Cromwellian Foreign Policy Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0333633881 Woolrych, Austin (1982). Commonwealth to Protectorate Clarendon Press, ISBN 0198226594 Woolrych, Austin (2002). Britain in Revolution 1625-1660 Oxford University Press, ISBN 0199272686 Worden, Blair (2001). Roundhead Reputations: the English Civil Wars and the passions of posterity Penguin, ISBN 0141006943 Primary sources Abbott, W.C. (ed.) (1937-47). Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, 4 vols. The standard academic reference for Cromwell's own words. . Carlyle, Thomas (ed.) (1904 edition), Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations. ; Haykin, Michael A. G. (ed.) (1999). To Honour God: The Spirituality of Oliver Cromwell Joshua Press, ISBN 1894400038. Excerpts from Cromwell's religious writings. Morrill, John (1990). "Textualizing and Contextualizing Cromwell", in Historical Journal 1990 33(3): pp.629–639. ISSN 0018-246X . Full text online at Jstor. Examines the Carlyle and Abbott editions. Roots, Ivan (1989). Speeches of Oliver Cromwell Everyman classics, ISBN 0460012541 Worden, Blair (2000). Thomas Carlyle and Oliver Cromwell, in Proceedings Of The British Academy 105: pp.131–170, ISSN 0068-1202. External links Books About Oliver Cromwell Available OnlineThe History of England During the Reigns of the Royal House of Stuart by John Oldmixon (1730)A Few Anecdotes and Observations Relating to Oliver Cromwell and His Family, Serving to Rectify Several Errors Concerning Him by Sir James Burrow (1763)The History of Remarkable Events in the Kingdom of Ireland by Thomas Leland (1781): Vol. I, Vol. IIPrestwich's Respublica: A Display of the Honors, Ceremonies & Ensigns of the Commonwealth Under the Protectorship of Oliver Cromwell by John Prestwich (1787)An Historical and Critical Account of the Lives and Writings of James I and Charles I, and the Lives of Oliver Cromwell and Charles II by William Harris (1814): Volume I, Volume II, Volume III, Volume IV, Volume VMemoirs of the Protector, Oliver Cromwell, and of His Sons Richard and Henry by Oliver Cromwell, Esq., A Descendant of the Family (1821): Vol. I, Vol. IIDiary of Thomas Burton, Esq., Member in the Parliaments of Oliver and Richard Cromwell, ed. John Towill Rutt (1828): Vol. I, Vol. IVLife of Oliver Cromwell by Michael Russell (1833): Vol. I, Vol. IIThe Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, and the State of Europe During the Early Part of the Reign of Louis XIV by Robert Vaughan (1838): Vol. I, Vol. IIOliver Cromwell: An Historical Romance by Henry William Herbert (1840): Vol. I, Vol. II, Vol. IIICromwell: A Prize Poem, Recited in the Theatre, Oxford, June 28, 1843 by Matthew Arnold (1843)Life of Oliver Cromwell by Robert Southey (1845)The Protector: A Vindication by Jean-Henri Merle d'Aubigné (1847)Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches: With Elucidations by Thomas Carlyle (1850): Vol. I, Vol. II, Vol. III,Vol. IVA Lecture on the Life and Character of Oliver Cromwell by Sherman B. Canfield (1850)The Life of Oliver Cromwell by Joel T. Headley (1851)Oliver Cromwell; Or, England in the Past Viewed in Relation to England in the Present by Joseph Denham Smith (1851)History of Oliver Cromwell and the English Commonwealth: From the Execution of Charles the First to the Death of Cromwell by François Guizot (1854): Vol. I, Vol. IIOliver Cromwell, Daniel Defoe, Sir Richard Steele, Charles Churchill, Samuel Foote: Biographical Essays by John Forster (1860)Ecclesiastical History of England: From the Opening of the Long Parliament to the Death of Oliver Cromwell by John Stoughton (1867): Vol. I, Vol. IIOliver Cromwell: An Historical Tragedy by Alfred Bate Richards (1873)The Quarrel Between the Earl of Manchester and Oliver Cromwell: An Episode of the English Civil War by David Masson (1875)Life of Oliver Cromwell by Francis Warre Warre-Cornish (1882)Oliver Cromwell: The Man and His Mission by James Allanson Picton (1883)Oliver Cromwell: His Life, Times, Battlefields, and Contemporaries by Edwin Paxton Hood (1883)Cromwell in Ireland: A History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign by Denis Murphy (1885)Life of Oliver Cromwell by Alphonse de Lamartine (1886)Oliver Cromwell und die puritanische Revolution by Moritz Brosch (1886)Oliver Cromwell by Frederic Harrison (c. 1888, published 1919)Oliver Cromwell, The Protector: An Appreciation Based on Contemporary Evidence by Sir Reginald Palgrave (1890)Oliver Cromwell and His Times: Social, Religious, and Political Life in the Seventeenth Century by G. Holden Pike (1890)The House of Cromwell and the Story of Dunkirk: A Genealogical History of the Descendants of the Protector by James Waylen (1890)Oliver Cromwell by George Henry Clark (1895)Cromwell's Place in History by Samuel Rawson Gardiner (1897)Cromwell's Scotch Campaigns, 1650-51 by W. S. Douglas (1898)The Two Protectors: Oliver and Richard Cromwell by Sir Richard Tangye (1899)Oliver Cromwell: A History by Samuel Harden Church (1900)Oliver Cromwell by John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley of Blackburn (1900)The Protestant Interest in Cromwell's Foreign Relations by Jakob N. Bowman (1900)Oliver Cromwell by Samuel Rawson Gardiner (1901)King Cromwell by William Alfred Quayle (1902)Oliver Cromwell: The Story of His Life and Work by Theodore Roosevelt (1902)Through Great Britain and Ireland with Cromwell by Henrietta Elizabeth Marshall (1912)Oliver Cromwell: A Play'' by John Drinkwater (1921) Other links Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution - In Honor of Christopher Hill 1912–2003 The Cromwell Association The Cromwell Museum in Huntingdon Chronology of Oliver Cromwell World History Database Biography at the British Civil Wars & Commonwealth website The Cromwellian Catastrophe in Ireland:an Historiographical Analysis (an overview of writings/writers on the subject by Jameel Hampton pub. Gateway An Academic Journal on the Web: Spring 2003 PDF Works by or about Oliver Cromwell at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated) Vallely, Paul. The Big Question: Was Cromwell a revolutionary hero or a genocidal war criminal?, The Independent 4 September 2008. | Oliver_Cromwell |@lemmatized oliver:126 cromwell:397 bear:5 april:11 old:7 style:5 die:8 september:14 english:66 military:29 political:16 leader:2 best:5 know:14 involvement:1 make:25 england:48 republican:2 commonwealth:23 late:4 role:7 lord:27 protector:29 scotland:22 ireland:66 one:24 commander:2 new:24 model:10 army:38 defeat:5 royalist:26 civil:33 war:54 execution:11 king:25 charles:33 dominate:3 short:8 live:7 conquer:2 rule:11 death:21 rank:5 middle:3 gentry:6 remain:9 relatively:4 obscure:1 first:22 year:23 life:22 time:20 lifestyle:1 resemble:1 yeoman:2 farmer:1 finance:1 boost:1 thanks:1 inheritance:2 uncle:4 undergo:1 religious:14 conversion:1 decade:4 independent:6 puritanism:3 core:1 tenet:1 elect:3 member:17 parliament:78 mp:6 cambridge:11 long:12 later:13 enter:2 side:3 roundheads:1 parliamentarian:9 effective:2 soldier:22 nickname:1 ironside:3 rise:6 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2,235 | Counter-Strike | Counter-Strike (commonly abbreviated to CS) is a tactical first-person shooter video game which originated from a Half-Life modification by Minh "Gooseman" Le and Jess "Cliffe" Cliffe. The game has been expanded into a series since its original release, which currently includes Counter-Strike: Condition Zero, Counter-Strike: Source, Counter-Strike: Anthology and Counter-Strike on Xbox. Counter-Strike pits a team of counter-terrorists against a team of terrorists in a series of rounds. Each round is won by either completing the mission objective or eliminating the opposing force. The latest incarnation of the game, Counter-Strike: Source, is based on the Source engine developed for Half-Life 2. The game is almost entirely based on the dynamically streamlined multiplayer experience activated via Steam, and is currently the most played Half-Life modification in terms of players, according to GameSpy. Counter-Strike was developed first as a Half-Life modification. Therefore named "Half-Life: Counter-Strike." The original version was a 3rd-party Half-Life modification, but since then it has grown into a commercial mod and later advertised as a separate game in itself. It still uses and runs on the Half-Life game engine and is based on its unchanged structure. http://planethalflife.gamespy.com/cs/ Gameplay Screenshot of a player using a Desert Eagle on the map de_dust in the original Counter-Strike (left) and Counter-Strike: Source (right). Counter-Strike is a first-person shooter in which players join either the terrorist or counter-terrorist team (or becomes a spectator). Each team attempts to complete their mission objective and/or eliminate the opposing team. Each round starts with the two teams spawning simultaneously, usually at opposite ends of the map from each other. A player can choose to play as one of eight different default character models (four for each side, although Counter-Strike: Condition Zero added two extra models, bringing the total to ten). Players are generally given a few seconds before the round begins (known as "freeze time") to prepare and buy equipment, during which they cannot attack or walk/move (a player can still take damage, having the player drop from a certain height during freeze time was the only way somebody could control the players starting "HP"). They can return to the buy area within a set amount of time to buy more equipment (some custom maps included neutral "buy zones" that could be used by both teams). Once the round has ended, surviving players retain their equipment for use in the next round; players who were killed begin the next round with the basic default starting equipment. Standard monetary bonuses are awarded for winning a round, losing a round, killing an enemy, being the first to instruct a hostage to follow, rescuing a hostage or planting the bomb. The scoreboard displays team scores in addition to statistics for each player: name, kills, deaths, and ping (in milliseconds). The scoreboard also indicates whether a player is dead, carrying the bomb (on bomb maps), or is the VIP (on assassination maps), although information on players on the opposing team is hidden from a player until his/her death, as this information can be important. Killed players become "spectators" for the duration of the round; they cannot change their names until they spawn (come alive) again, text chat cannot be sent to or received from live players; and voice chat can only be received from live players and not sent to them (unless the cvar sv_alltalk is set to 1). Spectators are generally able to watch the rest of the round from multiple selectable views, although some servers disable some of these views to prevent dead players from relaying information about living players to their teammates through alternative media (most notably voice in the case of Internet cafes and Voice over IP programs such as TeamSpeak or Ventrilo). This technique is known as "ghosting". Development Mods and scripts Though Counter-Strike is itself a mod, it has developed its own community of script writers and mod creators. Some mods add bots, while others remove features of the game, and others create different modes of play. Some of the mods give server administrators more flexible and efficient control over his or her server. "Admin plugins", as they are mostly referred as, have become very popular (see Metamod, AMX Mod and AMX Mod X). There are some mods which affect gameplay heavily, such as Gun Game, where players start with a basic pistol and must score kills to receive better weapons, and Zombie Mod, where one team consists of zombies and must "spread the infection" by killing the other team (using only the knife). There are also the Superhero and Warcraft III mods which mix the first-person gameplay of Counter-Strike with an experience system, allowing a player to become more powerful as they continue to play. There is also a Star Wars mod, where you get a lightsaber instead of a knife, have special abilities according to a starwars character, also receive a rank based on the U.S. military ranks, and the objective is to capture the flags. The game is also highly customizable on the player's end, allowing the user to install or even create their own custom skins, HUDs, sprites, and sound effects, given the proper tools. Also some mods have a feature called rollthedice, where something bad or good happens to you when you type rollthedice. Cheating Counter Strike has been a prime target for exploitation by cheaters since its release. In-game, cheating is often referred to as "hacking" in reference to programs or "hax" executed by the user. Typical cheats are: Wallhacks, which allow the player to see through walls. These work by altering the display driver to display objects that are normally obscured, or altering game textures to transparent ones. The only objects seen on the hacker's screen are those close by. The server will not send you the characters of the whole map, so you can not see across the whole map. Speedhacks, which give the player increased speed. These work by sending false synchronization data to servers. No recoil, which keeps the player's gun shooting straight on the y axis without a kickback by removing gun physics. No spread is used to make a player's gun shoot straight along the x axis. Aimbots, which helps the player aim at enemies. These work by moving the player's view to anticipate an enemy's position. ESP, which shows textual information about the enemy, such as, health, name, and distance, and also information about weapons lying around the map, which could be missed without the hack Barrel hack, which shows a line that depicts where the enemy is looking Anti-flash and anti-smoke, which remove the flashbang and smoke grenade effect. This branched off the wall hack. Valve has implemented an anti-cheat system called Valve Anti-Cheat (VAC). Players cheating on a VAC enabled server risk having their account permanently banned from all VAC secured servers. With the first version of VAC a ban took force almost instantly after being detected, and the cheater had to wait 2 years to have the account unbanned. http://www.scribd.com/doc/2346665/Counter-Strike?query2=cs%20skin%20nazi Since VAC's second version, cheaters are not banned automatically. With the second version, Valve instituted a policy of 'delayed bays,' the theory being that once a new hack is developed which circumvents the VAC system, it will spread amongst the 'cheating' community - by delaying the initial ban, Valve hopes to identify (and ban) as many cheaters as possible. Like any software detection system, some cheats are not detected by VAC, and at times the only effective anti-cheat solution is a human administrator watching an online game. Some servers implement a vote system, in which case players can call for a vote to kick or ban the cheater. VAC's success at identifying cheats and banning those who use them has also provided a boost in the purchasing of private cheats. These cheats are updated frequently to minimize the risk of detection, and are generally only available to a trusted list of recipients who collectively promise not to reveal the workaround. Release When Counter-Strike was published by Sierra Entertainment/Vivendi Universal Games, it was bundled with Team Fortress Classic, Opposing Force multiplayer, and the Wanted, Redemption and Firearms mods." On 24 March 1999 Planet Half-Life opened its Counter-Strike section. Within two weeks, the site had received 10,000 hits. On June 18, 1999, the first public beta of Counter-Strike was released, followed by numerous further "beta" releases. On April 12, 2000, Valve announced that the Counter-Strike developers and Valve had teamed up. Counter-Strike 1.0 was released around Christmas 2000. On January 25, 2003, a world wide competition was held by Valve and hosted by Dell. Numerous Dell desktops and laptops were awarded in the competition which attracted over 10,000 participants. The competition was held over a two week period, with the winner ("b0b") being announced on February 15 on Valve's website. On 15 September, the current version, 1.6, was released. In 2004, Counter-Strike: Condition Zero was released. It contained a single player campaign and bots, as well as other changes. Counter-Strike was originally played online through the WON gaming service, which was shut down in 2004, forcing players to switch to Steam. The non-Steam version of Counter-Strike (version 1.5) can still be downloaded from sites such as FilePlanet. FilePlanet: Counter-Strike 1.5 Full Mod Client [Win32] Due to the closure of WON, part of the player community responded by creating their own WON network, dubbed WON2. In March 2007, Valve implemented mandatory advertisements through Steam in official maps and in the game's GUI overhead. Customers have expressed frustration with the ads, including an over 200 page thread on Valve's official forums, saying that they violate original terms of service and distract from the game. The thread was later deleted by an unknown moderator. As of February 2008, Counter-Strike Online is only available in South Korea and is now in open beta test. It is being developed by Nexon Corporation with oversight from license-holder Valve Corporation, and is an attempt to increase market share of Valve's games in the Korean gaming market. Reception Retail sales of the Counter-Strike franchise have reached by December 2008: Counter-Strike: 4.2 million Counter-Strike Condition Zero: 2.9 million Counter-Strike Source: 2.1 million Legacy Counter Strike is famous for the culture surrounding it, which includes everything from professional gamers and leagues, to excessive cheating and disruptive behavior. Certain professional teams (such as SK Gaming, alternate aTTaX, mousesports and fnatic) have come to earn a living out of it, while other clans and community based groups neither lose nor earn money via member donations which are self-sustaining in return for administrator rights in servers involved in the community. Counter-Strike remains extremely popular to this day. There are currently professional online leagues supporting Counter-Strike, such as the Cyberathlete Amateur League (CAL), and CyberEvolution, a pay-to-play league. Various LAN tournaments are held throughout the world, with the largest being the Cyberathlete Professional League (CPL), the Electronic Sports World Cup (ESWC), the World e-Sports Games (WEG), and the World Cyber Games (WCG). Championship matches in these events are televised with commentary and analysis. Half-Life and other contemporary games took full advantage of hardware graphics acceleration in the late 1990s, replacing earlier software-rendered games such as Quake. The continued popularity of Counter-Strike has meant that older video cards such as the 3dfx Voodoo3, ATI Rage 128, and Nvidia RIVA TNT2 remain useful. There have been a multitude of games claimed by their developers, reviewers and fans to be "Counter-Strike killers," but none have seriously been able to dent its overall popularity. Server statistics in 2002 showed that Counter-Strike servers outnumbered their Battlefield, Unreal Tournament 2003 or Quake III first-person shooter counterparts at least 3 to 1. Steam: Game and Player Statistics However, as criticism of Condition Zero showed, the GoldSrc engine has already been surpassed by several generations of newer engines. Even Counter-Strike: Source has been criticized for not progressing the gameplay enough and failing to take full advantage of the Source engine. Boomtown - cs - Counter-Strike The Chinese government has used Counter-Strike as a tool for tactical training. People's Daily Online - Counter-Strike, China police's latest tool of anti-terrorism Controversy Counter-Strike faced controversy in April 2007 when Jack Thompson, now a disbarred attorney from Florida, predicted that the perpetrator of the Virginia Tech Massacre had been trained to kill in the game, well before Seung-Hui Cho (the shooter) was identified. News sources originally stated that Seung-Hui Cho only played the game in high school, however no video games whatsoever were found in the gunman's dorm room, and there is no evidence that he ever played Counter-Strike. Thompson also blamed Counter-Strike for the February 14, 2008 Northern Illinois University shooting perpetrated by Steven Kazmierczak on the day after the shooting. While it is reported that Kazmierczak played Counter-Strike in college, news agencies point out that mental health issues, and not video games, were the likely culprits in the shootings. On January 17, 2008, a Brazilian federal court order prohibiting all sales of Counter-Strike and Everquest and imposing the immediate withdrawal of these from all stores began to be enforced. The federal Brazilian judge Carlos Alberto Simões de Tomaz, of the Minas Gerais judiciary section, ordered the ban in October 2007 because, according to him, the games "bring immanent stimulus to the subversion of the social order, attempting against the democratic and rightful state and against the public safety". Only In Brazil: Brazilian Government Bans Counter-Strike, EverQuest, Fun Brazil bans popular video games seen to incite violence - Yahoo! News Brazil bans popular video games seen to incite violence - Science & Technology - MSN Malaysia News - News Folha Online - Informática - Justiça proíbe Counter Strike em todo Brasil; Procon tenta recolher jogos - 18/01/2008 References External links Steam Valve | Counter-Strike |@lemmatized counter:50 strike:48 commonly:1 abbreviate:1 cs:1 tactical:2 first:8 person:4 shooter:4 video:6 game:29 originate:1 half:9 life:9 modification:4 minh:1 gooseman:1 le:1 jess:1 cliffe:2 expand:1 series:2 since:4 original:4 release:8 currently:3 include:4 condition:5 zero:5 source:8 anthology:1 xbox:1 pit:1 team:14 terrorist:4 round:11 win:2 either:2 complete:2 mission:2 objective:3 eliminate:2 oppose:4 force:4 late:3 incarnation:1 base:5 engine:5 develop:5 almost:2 entirely:1 dynamically:1 streamlined:1 multiplayer:2 experience:2 activate:1 via:2 steam:6 played:1 term:2 player:34 accord:3 gamespy:2 therefore:1 name:4 version:7 party:1 grow:1 commercial:1 mod:15 later:2 advertise:1 separate:1 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2,236 | Nawal_El_Moutawakel | Nawal El Moutawakel () (born on April 15, 1962 in Casablanca) is a Moroccan hurdler, who won the inaugural women's 400 m hurdles event at the 1984 Summer Olympics, thereby becoming the first female Muslim born on the continent of Africa to become an Olympic champion. In 2007, El Moutawakel was named the Minister of Sports in the upcoming cabinet of Morocco. Although she had been a quite accomplished runner, the victory of El Moutawakel, who studied at Iowa State University at the time, was a surprise. The King of Morocco declared that all girls born the day of her victory were to be named in her honor. Her medal also meant the breakthrough for sporting women in Morocco and other Muslim countries. In 1995, she became a council member of the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF), and in 1998 she became a member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Nawal El Moutawakel is a member of the International Olympic Committee and was president of the evaluation commission for the selection of the host city for the 2012 Summer Olympics. She has been tapped to lead the evaluation commission for the 2016 Summer Olympics as well. IOC Announces 2016 Summer Games Evaluation Commission In 2006 she was one of the eight flag bearers at the 2006 Winter Olympics Opening Ceremony in Torino, Italy. References International Olympic Committee profile | Nawal_El_Moutawakel |@lemmatized nawal:2 el:4 moutawakel:4 bear:3 april:1 casablanca:1 moroccan:1 hurdler:1 win:1 inaugural:1 woman:2 hurdle:1 event:1 summer:4 olympics:4 thereby:1 become:4 first:1 female:1 muslim:2 continent:1 africa:1 olympic:4 champion:1 name:2 minister:1 sport:2 upcoming:1 cabinet:1 morocco:3 although:1 quite:1 accomplished:1 runner:1 victory:2 study:1 iowa:1 state:1 university:1 time:1 surprise:1 king:1 declare:1 girl:1 day:1 honor:1 medal:1 also:1 mean:1 breakthrough:1 country:1 council:1 member:3 international:4 amateur:1 athletic:1 federation:1 iaaf:1 committee:3 ioc:2 president:1 evaluation:3 commission:3 selection:1 host:1 city:1 tap:1 lead:1 well:1 announces:1 game:1 one:1 eight:1 flag:1 bearer:1 winter:1 open:1 ceremony:1 torino:1 italy:1 reference:1 profile:1 |@bigram el_moutawakel:4 summer_olympics:3 amateur_athletic:1 winter_olympics:1 |
2,237 | Library_of_Congress_Classification | Library of Congress reading room The Library of Congress Classification (LCC) is a system of library classification developed by the Library of Congress. It is used by most research and academic libraries in the U.S. and several other countries. It is not to be confused with the Library of Congress Subject Headings or Library of Congress Control Number. Most public libraries and small academic libraries continue to use the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC). The classification was originally developed by Herbert Putnam in 1897, just before he assumed the librarianship of Congress. With advice from Charles Ammi Cutter, it was influenced by Cutter Expansive Classification, and the DDC, and was specially designed for the special purposes of the Library of Congress. The new system replaced a fixed location system developed by Thomas Jefferson. By the time of Putnam's departure from his post in 1939, all the classes except K (Law) and parts of B (Philosophy and Religion) were well developed. It has been criticized as lacking a sound theoretical basis; many of the classification decisions were driven by the particular practical needs of that library, rather than epistemological considerations. Although it divides subjects into broad categories, it is essentially enumerative in nature. It provides a guide to the books actually in the library, not a classification of the world. The National Library of Medicine classification system (NLM) uses the classification scheme's unused letters W and QS–QZ. Some libraries use NLM in conjunction with LCC, eschewing LCC's R (Medicine). Others prefer to use the LCC scheme's QP-QR schedules and include Medicine R. The system Java programming books in the QA subclass. LetterSubject areaAGeneral WorksBPhilosophy, Psychology, and ReligionCAuxiliary Sciences of HistoryDGeneral and Old World HistoryEHistory of AmericaFHistory of the United States and British, Dutch, French, and Latin AmericaGGeography, Anthropology, and RecreationHSocial SciencesJPolitical ScienceKLawLEducationMMusicNFine ArtsPLanguage and LiteratureQScienceRMedicineSAgricultureTTechnologyUMilitary ScienceVNaval ScienceZBibliography, Library Science, and General Information Resources Class A - General Works Subclass AC Collections. Series. Collected works Subclass AE Encyclopedias Subclass AG Dictionaries and other general reference works Subclass AI Indexes Subclass AM Museums. Collectors and collecting Subclass AN Newspapers Subclass AP Periodicals Subclass AS Academies and learned societies Subclass AY Yearbooks. Almanacs. Directories Subclass AZ History of scholarship and learning. The humanities Class B - Philosophy, Psychology, Religion Subclass B Philosophy (General) Subclass BC Logic Subclass BD Speculative philosophy Subclass BF Psychology Subclass BH Aesthetics Subclass BJ Ethics Subclass BL Religions. Mythology. Rationalism Subclass BM Judaism Subclass BP Islam. Bahaism. Theosophy, etc. Subclass BQ Buddhism Subclass BR Christianity Subclass BS The Bible Subclass BT Doctrinal Theology Subclass BV Practical Theology Subclass BX Christian Denominations Class C - Auxiliary Sciences of History (General) Subclass CB History of Civilization Subclass CC Archaeology Subclass CD Diplomatics. Archives. Seals Subclass CE Technical Chronology. Calendar Subclass CJ Numismatics Subclass CN Inscriptions. Epigraphy Subclass CR Heraldry Subclass CS Genealogy Subclass CT Biography Class D - World History (except American History) Subclass D History (General) Subclass DA Great Britain Subclass DAW Central Europe Subclass DB Austria - Liechtenstein - Hungary - Czechoslovakia Subclass DC France - Andorra - Monaco Subclass DD Germany Subclass DE Greco-Roman World Subclass DF Greece Subclass DG Italy - Malta Subclass DH Low Countries - Benelux Countries Subclass DJ Netherlands (Holland) Subclass DJK Eastern Europe (General) Subclass DK Russia. Soviet Union. Former Soviet Republics - Poland Subclass DL Northern Europe. Scandinavia Subclass DP Spain - Portugal Subclass DQ Switzerland Subclass DR Balkan Peninsula Subclass DS Asia Subclass DT Africa Subclass DU Oceania (South Seas) Subclass DX Gypsies Class E and F - American History Class F - Local History of the United States and British, Dutch, French, and Latin America Class G - Geography, Anthropology, Recreation Subclass G Geography (General). Atlases. Maps Subclass GA Mathematical geography. Cartography Subclass GB Physical geography Subclass GC Oceanography Subclass GE Environmental Sciences Subclass GF Human ecology. Anthropogeography Subclass GN Anthropology Subclass GR Folklore Subclass GT Manners and customs (General) Subclass GV Recreation. Leisure Class H - Social Sciences Subclass H Social sciences (General) Subclass HA Statistics Subclass HB Economic theory. Demography Subclass HC Economic history and conditions Subclass HD Industries. Land use. Labor Subclass HE Transportation and communications Subclass HF Commerce Subclass HG Finance Subclass HJ Public finance Subclass HM Sociology (General) Subclass HN Social history and conditions. Social problems. Social reform Subclass HQ The family. Marriage. Women Subclass HS Societies: secret, benevolent, etc. Subclass HT Communities. Classes. Races Subclass HV Social pathology. Social and public welfare. Criminology Subclass HX Socialism. Communism. Anarchism Class J - Political Science Subclass J General legislative and executive papers Subclass JA Political science (General) Subclass JC Political theory Subclass JF Political institutions and public administration Subclass JJ Political institutions and public administration (North America) Subclass JK Political institutions and public administration (United States) Subclass JL Political institutions and public administration (Canada, Latin America, etc.) Subclass JN Political institutions and public administration (Europe) Subclass JQ Political institutions and public administration (Asia, Africa, Australia, Pacific Area, etc.) Subclass JS Local government. Municipal government Subclass JV Colonies and colonization. Emigration and immigration. International migration Subclass JX International law, see JZ and KZ (obsolete) Subclass JZ International relations Class K - Law Subclass K Law in general. Comparative and uniform law. Jurisprudence Subclass KB Religious law in general. Comparative religious law. Jurisprudence Subclass KBM Jewish law Subclass KBP Islamic law Subclass KBR History of canon law Subclass KBU Law of the Roman Catholic Church. The Holy See Subclasses KD-KDK United Kingdom and Ireland Subclass KDZ America. North America Subclass KE Canada Subclass KF United States Subclass KG Latin America - Mexico and Central America - West Indies. Caribbean area Subclass KH South America Subclasses KJ-KKZ Europe Subclasses KL-KWX Asia and Eurasia, Africa, Pacific Area, and Antarctica Subclass KZ Law of nations Class L - Education Subclass L Education (General) Subclass LA History of education Subclass LB Theory and practice of education Subclass LC Special aspects of education Subclass LD Individual institutions - United States Subclass LE Individual institutions - America (except United States) Subclass LF Individual institutions - Europe Subclass LG Individual institutions - Asia, Africa, Indian Ocean islands, Australia, New Zealand, Pacific islands Subclass LH College and school magazines and papers Subclass LJ Student fraternities and societies, United States Subclass LT Textbooks Class M - Music Subclass M Music Subclass ML Literature on music Subclass MT Instruction and study Class N - Fine arts Subclass N Visual arts Subclass NA Architecture Subclass NB Sculpture Subclass NC Drawing. Design. 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Metallurgy Subclass TP Chemical technology Subclass TR Photography Subclass TS Manufactures Subclass TT Handicrafts. Arts and crafts Subclass TX Home economics Class U - Military Science Subclass U Military science (General) Subclass UA Armies: Organization, distribution, military situation Subclass UB Military administration Subclass UC Maintenance and transportation Subclass UD Infantry Subclass UE Cavalry. Armor Subclass UF Artillery Subclass UG Military engineering. Air forces Subclass UH Other services Class V - Naval Science Subclass V Naval science (General) Subclass VA Navies: Organization, distribution, naval situation Subclass VB Naval administration Subclass VC Naval maintenance Subclass VD Naval seamen Subclass VE Marines Subclass VF Naval ordnance Subclass VG Minor services of navies Subclass VK Navigation. Merchant marine Subclass VM Naval architecture. Shipbuilding. Marine engineering Class Z - Bibliography, Library Science Subclass Z Books (General). Writing. Paleography. Book industries and trade. Libraries. Bibliography Subclass ZA Information resources (General) See also ACM Computing Classification System Brinkler classification Chinese Library Classification Comparison of Dewey and Library of Congress subject classification Harvard-Yenching Classification ISBN References Library of Congress classification outline External links Library of Congress - classification Cataloging Distribution Services - source of Library of Congress Classification schedules Classification outline How to read LCC call numbers How to use LCC to organize a home library | Library_of_Congress_Classification |@lemmatized library:23 congress:11 reading:1 room:1 classification:18 lcc:6 system:7 develop:4 use:7 research:1 academic:2 u:3 several:1 country:3 confuse:1 subject:3 heading:1 control:1 number:2 public:10 small:1 continue:1 dewey:2 decimal:1 ddc:2 originally:1 herbert:1 putnam:2 assume:1 librarianship:1 advice:1 charles:1 ammi:1 cutter:2 influence:1 expansive:1 specially:1 design:2 special:2 purpose:1 new:2 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2,238 | Dressed_to_Kill_(1980_film) | Dressed to Kill is a 1980 suspense thriller/horror film written and directed by Brian de Palma. It stars Michael Caine, Angie Dickinson and Nancy Allen. The original music score is composed by Pino Donaggio. The film is marketed with the tagline "Brian de Palma, master of the macabre, invites you to a showing of the latest fashion... in murder." It centers on the murder of a housewife, and the investigation headed by the witness to the murder, a young prostitute, and the housewife’s teenaged son. The film was the target of some backlash from the gay and transgender communities, who felt that its portrayal of transgender people was misguided and homophobic. The film is rated R by the MPAA and runs at 105 minutes. Plot summary Kate Miller (Angie Dickinson) is a sexually frustrated housewife and mother, living in the suburbs of New York, who is in therapy with New York City psychiatrist Dr. Robert Elliott (Michael Caine). During an appointment with Dr. Elliott, Kate attempts to seduce him, at which point Elliott rejects her advances. Later that day, Kate goes to the Metropolitan Museum and for ten minutes without any dialog has an unexpected flirtation with a mysterious stranger. Kate and the stranger "stalk" each other through the museum until they finally wind up outside, where Kate joins him in a taxicab. They immediately begin to have sex in the back of the cab, and their experience continues at his apartment. Later, Kate awakens and discreetly leaves while the man is asleep, but not before she rifles through some of his papers and discovers that he has a sexually transmitted disease. Mortified, Kate leaves the apartment and gets in the elevator, but on the way down she realizes that she's left her wedding ring on the stranger's nightstand. She rides back up to retrieve it, but the elevator doors open on the figure of a large, imposing blonde woman in dark sunglasses wielding a straight razor. She slashes Kate to death in the elevator. Prostitute Liz Blake (Nancy Allen) happens upon the body and catches a glimpse of the killer, therefore becoming both the prime suspect and the killer's next target. Dr. Elliott receives a bizarre answering machine message from "Bobbi", a transsexual he is treating. Bobbi taunts Dr. Elliott for breaking off their therapy sessions, apparently because Dr. Elliott refuses to sign the necessary papers for Bobbi to get a sex change operation. Elliott eventually becomes desperate, visiting Bobbi's new psychiatrist and trying to convince him that Bobbi is a danger to herself and others. Meanwhile, the police are less than willing to believe Liz's story, and she joins forces with Kate's son Peter (Keith Gordon) to expose the killer. Peter is an inventor, and he uses a series of homemade listening devices and time-lapse cameras to track patients from Elliott's office. They catch Bobbi on camera leaving Elliott's office, but Liz is being stalked by a tall blonde figure in a wig and sunglasses. Bobbi makes several attempts on her life, one of them being thwarted by Peter, who rescues Liz in the nick of time by spraying Bobbi in the New York City Subway with some homemade mace. Finally Liz and Peter scheme to get into Elliott's office to look at his appointment book and get Bobbi's name. Liz baits Dr. Elliott by coming on to him, and distracts him long enough to make a brief exit and rifle through his appointment book. When she returns, Bobbi rather than Elliott confronts her; they are the same person. Elliott/Bobbi is shot and wounded by the female police officer who looks like Bobbi and has been trailing Liz. Liz recognizes the female cop as the tall blonde figure who was tracking her all along. Elliott is arrested by the police and placed in an insane asylum. It is explained by a psychiatrist that Elliott wanted to be a woman, but his "male" side wouldn't allow him to go through with the operation. Whenever a woman sexually aroused Elliott, "Bobbi", who represents the female side of the doctor's personality, became threatened and killed the source of contention. In the film's final sequence, Elliott escapes from the asylum and slashes Liz in the throat in a bloody act of vengeance, and she wakes up screaming, realizing that Elliot's attack was just a dream. Main cast Michael Caine: Dr. Robert Elliott Angie Dickinson: Kate Miller Nancy Allen: Liz Blake Keith Gordon: Peter Miller Dennis Franz: Detective Marino David Margulies: Dr. Levy Ken Baker: Warren Lockman Susanna Clemm: Betty Luce Brandon Maggart: Cleveland Sam Norman Evans: Ted Bill Randolph: Chase cabby Fred Weber: Mike Miller Awards and nominations Saturn Awards Won: Best Actress (Angie Dickinson) Nominated: Best Director (Brian De Palma) Nominated: Best Horror Film Nominated: Best Music (Pino Donaggio) Golden Globe Award Nominated: New Star of the Year (Nancy Allen) Golden Raspberry Awards Nominated: Worst Actor (Michael Caine) Nominated: Worst Actress (Nancy Allen) Nominated: Worst Director (Brian De Palma) Trivia The film was the target of mild controversy when it became known that the nude body in the opening scene, taking place in a shower, was not that of Angie Dickinson but of Penthouse model Victoria Lynn. This information was featured in a question in the Baby Boomer Edition of Trivial Pursuit This controversy stemmed mostly from Dickinson's status at the time as being a mature, still-slender and shapely, sex symbol; the provocative shower scene - and the film - originally seemed to cash in on the idea that this nude body was that of its star. However, this revelation of a body-double (a theme later explored by director De Palma in his 1984 release, Body Double) seemed to do no harm to its box office performance. There were two versions of the film, an R rated version and an unrated version. The unrated version was only longer by seconds that showed more genitalia in the above-mentioned shower scene and more blood in the elevator scene. Both Sean Connery and Liv Ullmann were approached in early 1979 by De Palma to appear as Elliot and Kate, respectively, but both passed on the project. William Finley, of DePalma's Sisters and Phantom of the Paradise, provides the telephone voice of Bobbi. Actress Rachel Ticotin (Total Recall, Falling Down) receives an early screen credit as a production assistant on this movie. References External links Movie stills Detailed Comparison between R-Rated and Unrated Version | Dressed_to_Kill_(1980_film) |@lemmatized dress:1 kill:2 suspense:1 thriller:1 horror:2 film:9 write:1 direct:1 brian:4 de:6 palma:6 star:3 michael:4 caine:4 angie:5 dickinson:6 nancy:5 allen:5 original:1 music:2 score:1 compose:1 pino:2 donaggio:2 market:1 tagline:1 master:1 macabre:1 invite:1 showing:1 late:1 fashion:1 murder:3 center:1 housewife:3 investigation:1 head:1 witness:1 young:1 prostitute:2 teenaged:1 son:2 target:3 backlash:1 gay:1 transgender:2 community:1 felt:1 portrayal:1 people:1 misguide:1 homophobic:1 rat:3 r:3 mpaa:1 run:1 minute:2 plot:1 summary:1 kate:11 miller:4 sexually:3 frustrated:1 mother:1 live:1 suburb:1 new:5 york:3 therapy:2 city:2 psychiatrist:3 dr:8 robert:2 elliott:18 appointment:3 attempt:2 seduce:1 point:1 reject:1 advance:1 later:3 day:1 go:2 metropolitan:1 museum:2 ten:1 without:1 dialog:1 unexpected:1 flirtation:1 mysterious:1 stranger:3 stalk:2 finally:2 wind:1 outside:1 join:2 taxicab:1 immediately:1 begin:1 sex:3 back:2 cab:1 experience:1 continue:1 apartment:2 awakens:1 discreetly:1 leaf:1 man:1 asleep:1 rifle:2 paper:2 discovers:1 transmitted:1 disease:1 mortify:1 leave:3 get:4 elevator:4 way:1 realize:2 wedding:1 ring:1 nightstand:1 rid:1 retrieve:1 door:1 open:1 figure:3 large:1 impose:1 blonde:3 woman:3 dark:1 sunglass:2 wield:1 straight:1 razor:1 slash:2 death:1 liz:10 blake:2 happen:1 upon:1 body:5 catch:2 glimpse:1 killer:3 therefore:1 become:4 prime:1 suspect:1 next:1 receive:2 bizarre:1 answering:1 machine:1 message:1 bobbi:14 transsexual:1 treat:1 taunt:1 break:1 session:1 apparently:1 refuse:1 sign:1 necessary:1 change:1 operation:2 eventually:1 desperate:1 visit:1 try:1 convince:1 danger:1 others:1 meanwhile:1 police:3 less:1 willing:1 believe:1 story:1 force:1 peter:5 keith:2 gordon:2 expose:1 inventor:1 use:1 series:1 homemade:2 listen:1 device:1 time:3 lapse:1 camera:2 track:2 patient:1 office:4 tall:2 wig:1 make:2 several:1 life:1 one:1 thwart:1 rescue:1 nick:1 spray:1 subway:1 mace:1 scheme:1 look:2 book:2 name:1 bait:1 come:1 distract:1 long:1 enough:1 brief:1 exit:1 return:1 rather:1 confronts:1 person:1 shot:1 wound:1 female:3 officer:1 like:1 trail:1 recognize:1 cop:1 along:1 arrest:1 place:2 insane:1 asylum:2 explain:1 want:1 male:1 side:2 allow:1 whenever:1 arouse:1 represent:1 doctor:1 personality:1 threatened:1 source:1 contention:1 final:1 sequence:1 escape:1 throat:1 bloody:1 act:1 vengeance:1 wake:1 scream:1 elliot:2 attack:1 dream:1 main:1 cast:1 dennis:1 franz:1 detective:1 marino:1 david:1 margulies:1 levy:1 ken:1 baker:1 warren:1 lockman:1 susanna:1 clemm:1 betty:1 luce:1 brandon:1 maggart:1 cleveland:1 sam:1 norman:1 evans:1 ted:1 bill:1 randolph:1 chase:1 cabby:1 fred:1 weber:1 mike:1 award:4 nomination:1 saturn:1 win:1 best:4 actress:3 nominate:7 director:3 golden:2 globe:1 year:1 raspberry:1 bad:3 actor:1 trivia:1 mild:1 controversy:2 know:1 nude:2 opening:1 scene:4 take:1 shower:3 penthouse:1 model:1 victoria:1 lynn:1 information:1 feature:1 question:1 baby:1 boomer:1 edition:1 trivial:1 pursuit:1 stem:1 mostly:1 status:1 mature:1 still:2 slender:1 shapely:1 symbol:1 provocative:1 originally:1 seem:2 cash:1 idea:1 however:1 revelation:1 double:2 theme:1 explore:1 release:1 harm:1 box:1 performance:1 two:1 version:5 unrated:3 longer:1 second:1 show:1 genitalia:1 mention:1 blood:1 sean:1 connery:1 liv:1 ullmann:1 approach:1 early:2 appear:1 respectively:1 pass:1 project:1 william:1 finley:1 depalma:1 sister:1 phantom:1 paradise:1 provide:1 telephone:1 voice:1 rachel:1 ticotin:1 total:1 recall:1 fall:1 screen:1 credit:1 production:1 assistant:1 movie:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 detail:1 comparison:1 |@bigram suspense_thriller:1 michael_caine:4 angie_dickinson:5 sexually_transmitted:1 transmitted_disease:1 catch_glimpse:1 insane_asylum:1 award_nomination:1 golden_globe:1 golden_raspberry:1 baby_boomer:1 trivial_pursuit:1 unrated_version:3 sean_connery:1 liv_ullmann:1 external_link:1 |
2,239 | Cameroonian_Armed_Forces | Cameroonian navy sailors prepare to perform a visit, board, search and seizure drill on 21 November 2006 in Douala during a joint exercise with the US military. The Cameroonian military generally has been an apolitical force dominated by civilian control. Traditional dependence on the French defense capability, although reduced, continues to be the case as French military advisers remain closely involved in preparing the Cameroonian forces for deployment to the contested Bakassi Peninsula. The armed forces number 26,000-27,000 personnel in ground, air, and naval forces. The Cameroonian armed forces have bases spread all over Cameroon, including in Ngaoundéré. Air Force bases are located in Garoua, Yaoundé, Douala and Bamenda. Military Equipment Light equipment AK-47 Personnel statistics The branches of the Cameroonian military are the Army, the Navy (including the Naval Infantry), the Air Force, the National Gendarmerie, and the Presidential Guard. Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 3,525,307 (2005 est.) Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 1,946,767 (2005 est.) Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 191,619 (2005 est.) Military expenditures - dollar figure: $155 million (FY98/99) Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.4% (2006) References External links Cameroon Air Force - Armée de l'Air du Cameroun | Cameroonian_Armed_Forces |@lemmatized cameroonian:5 navy:2 sailor:1 prepare:2 perform:1 visit:1 board:1 search:1 seizure:1 drill:1 november:1 douala:2 joint:1 exercise:1 u:1 military:12 generally:1 apolitical:1 force:8 dominate:1 civilian:1 control:1 traditional:1 dependence:1 french:2 defense:1 capability:1 although:1 reduce:1 continue:1 case:1 adviser:1 remain:1 closely:1 involve:1 deployment:1 contest:1 bakassi:1 peninsula:1 armed:1 number:1 personnel:2 ground:1 air:5 naval:2 arm:1 base:2 spread:1 cameroon:2 include:2 ngaoundéré:1 locate:1 garoua:1 yaoundé:1 bamenda:1 equipment:2 light:1 ak:1 statistics:1 branch:1 army:1 infantry:1 national:1 gendarmerie:1 presidential:1 guard:1 manpower:3 availability:1 male:3 age:3 est:3 fit:1 service:1 reach:1 annually:1 expenditure:1 dollar:1 figure:1 million:1 expenditures:1 percent:1 gdp:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 armée:1 de:1 l:1 du:1 cameroun:1 |@bigram bakassi_peninsula:1 manpower_availability:1 manpower_fit:1 military_expenditures:1 expenditures_percent:1 external_link:1 |
2,240 | Ottoman_Empire | The Ottoman Empire or Ottoman State (Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Ottoman banknote with Arabic script Modern Turkish: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti), also known by its contemporaries as the Turkish Empire or Turkey (see the other names of the Ottoman State), was an empire that lasted from 1299 to November 1, 1922 The Sultanate was abolished on November 1, 1922. Mehmed VI, the last Ottoman Sultan, departed from Constantinople on November 17, 1922. (as an imperial monarchy) or July 24, 1923 With the Treaty of Lausanne (signed on July 24, 1923) the new Turkish State (still not a Republic, which was proclaimed later on October 29, 1923) headquartered in Ankara is internationally recognized as the successor to the Ottoman State. (de jure, as a state.) It was succeeded by the Republic of Turkey, Full text of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) which was officially proclaimed on October 29, 1923. At the height of its power (16th–17th century), it spanned three continents, controlling much of Southeastern Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. The Ottoman Empire contained 29 provinces and numerous vassal states; some of which were later absorbed into the empire, while others gained various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. The empire also temporarily gained authority over distant overseas lands through declarations of allegiance to the Ottoman Sultan and Caliph, such as the declaration by the Sultan of Aceh in 1565; or through the temporary acquisitions of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, such as Lanzarote (1585). Turkish Navy Official Website: "Atlantik'te Türk Denizciliği" The empire was at the centre of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for six centuries. With Constantinople as its capital city Glasse, Cyril, New Encyclopedia of Islam, (Rowman Altamira, 2003), 229. Finkel, Caroline, Osman's Dream, (New York: Basic Books, 2005), 57. , and vast control of lands around the eastern Mediterranean during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent (ruled 1520 to 1566), the Ottoman Empire was, in many respects, an Islamic successor to the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. Brown, Leon Carl, Imperial Legacy, (Columbia University Press, 1997), 1. History Rise (1299–1453) With the demise of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rūm (circa 1300), Turkish Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent states, the so-called Ghazi emirates. By 1300, a weakened Byzantine Empire had seen most of its Anatolian provinces lost to ten Ghazi principalities. One of the Ghazi emirates was led by Osman I (from which the name Ottoman is derived), son of Ertuğrul in the region of Eskişehir in western Anatolia. Osman I extended the frontiers of Ottoman settlement towards the edge of the Byzantine Empire. He moved the Ottoman capital to Bursa, and shaped the early political development of the nation. Given the nickname "Kara" (which means "black" in modern Turkish, but alternatively meant "brave" or "strong" in old Turkish) for his courage, Sultan Osman I, Turkish Ministry of Culture website Osman I was admired as a strong and dynamic ruler long after his death, as evident in the centuries-old Turkish phrase, "may he be as good as Osman." His reputation has also been burnished by the medieval Turkish story known as "Osman's Dream", a foundation myth in which the young Osman was inspired to conquest by a prescient vision of empire(according to his dream, the empire is a big tree whose roots spreads through three continents and its branches are covering the sky). In this period, a formal Ottoman government was created whose institutions would change drastically over the life of the empire. The government used the legal entity known as the millet, under which religious and ethnic minorities were able to manage their own affairs with substantial independence from central control. In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, and the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. The Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, widely regarded as the last large-scale crusade of the Middle Ages, failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottomans. With the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective. The Empire controlled nearly all of the former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when Tamerlane invaded Anatolia with the Battle of Ankara in 1402, taking Sultan Bayezid I as a prisoner. Part of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans (such as Thessaloniki, Macedonia and Kosovo) were temporarily lost after 1402, but were later recovered by Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s. The capture of Bayezid I threw the Turks into disorder. The state fell into a civil war which lasted from 1402 to 1413, as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power, bringing an end to the Interregnum. His grandson, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized the state and the military, and demonstrated his martial prowess by capturing Constantinople on May 29, 1453, at the age of 21. The city became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire, and Mehmed II assumed the title of Kayser-i Rûm (Roman Emperor). However, this title was not recognized by the Greeks or Western Europe, and the Russian Czars also claimed to be the successors of the Eastern Imperial title. To consolidate his claim, Mehmed II aspired to gain control over the Western capital, Rome, and Ottoman forces occupied parts of the Italian peninsula, starting from Otranto and Apulia on July 28, 1480. But after Mehmed II's death on May 3, 1481, the campaign in Italy was cancelled and the Ottoman forces retreated. Growth (1453–1683) This period in Ottoman history can roughly be divided into two distinct eras: an era of territorial, economic, and cultural growth prior to 1566, followed by an era of relative military and political stagnation. Expansion and apogee (1453–1566) Mehmed II enters Constantinople The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 cemented the status of the Empire as the preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. During this time, the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of conquest and expansion, extending its borders deep into Europe and North Africa. Conquests on land were driven by the discipline and innovation of the Ottoman military; and on the sea, the Ottoman navy aided this expansion significantly. The navy also contested and protected key seagoing trade routes, in competition with the Italian city states in the Black Sea, Aegean and Mediterranean seas and the Portuguese in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. The state also flourished economically thanks to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia. This lock-hold on trade between western Europe and Asia is frequently cited as a primary motivational factor for the Queen of Spain to fund Christopher Columbus's westward journey to find a sailing route to Asia. The world had been known to be round for generations before 1492, but Columbus's expedition was the first real effort to short-circuit the dangerous land-locked journey through the Muslim-controlled Ottoman Empire to trade with Asia. The resulting dominance of Europe in the new world and the riches it brought were almost directly due to the Ottoman Empire's heavy taxation on Christians and Jews in their territory. The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective sultans. Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the Empire's eastern and southern frontiers by defeating Shah Ismail of Safavid Persia, in the Battle of Chaldiran. Selim I established Ottoman rule in Egypt, and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. After this Ottoman expansion, a competition started between the Portuguese Empire and the Ottoman Empire to become the dominant power in the region. Battle of Mohács (1526) and the Ottoman conquest of Hungary Selim's successor, Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566), further expanded upon Selim's conquests. After capturing Belgrade in 1521, Suleiman conquered the Kingdom of Hungary and established Ottoman rule in the territory of present-day Hungary and other Central European territories, after his victory in the Battle of Mohács in 1526. (See also: Ottoman–Hungarian Wars). He then laid siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city after the onset of winter forced his retreat. Imber, 50. In 1532, another planned attack on Vienna with an army thought to be over 250,000 strong was repulsed south of Vienna, at the fortress of Güns. After further advances by the Ottomans in 1543, the Habsburg ruler Ferdinand officially recognised Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. During the reign of Suleiman, Transylvania, Wallachia and, intermittently, Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, the Ottomans took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf. By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire's population reached about 15,000,000 people. L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, 206 Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeated the Holy League of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria at the Battle of Preveza in 1538 Under Selim and Suleiman, the Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the Mediterranean Sea. Mansel, 61 The exploits of the Ottoman admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, who commanded the Ottoman Navy during Suleiman's reign, led to a number of military victories over Christian navies. Among these were the conquest of Tunis and Algeria from Spain; the evacuation of Muslims and Jews from Spain to the safety of Ottoman lands (particularly Salonica, Cyprus, and Constantinople) during the Spanish Inquisition; and the capture of Nice from the Holy Roman Empire in 1543. This last conquest occurred on behalf of France as a joint venture between the forces of the French king Francis I and those of Barbarossa. Imber, 53. France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule in both Southern Europe and Central Europe, became strong allies during this period. The alliance was economic and military, as the sultans granted France the right of trade within the Empire without levy of taxation. In fact, the Ottoman Empire was by this time a significant and accepted part of the European political sphere, and entered into a military alliance with France, the Kingdom of England and the Dutch Republic against Habsburg Spain, Italy and Habsburg Austria. As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval superiority was challenged by the growing sea powers of western Europe, particularly Portugal, in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean and the Spice Islands. With the Ottomans blockading sea-lanes to the East and South, the European powers were driven to find another way to the ancient silk and spice routes, now under Ottoman control. On land, the Empire was preoccupied by military campaigns in Austria and Persia, two widely separated theatres of war. The strain of these conflicts on the Empire's resources, and the logistics of maintaining lines of supply and communication across such vast distances, ultimately rendered its sea efforts unsustainable and unsuccessful. The overriding military need for defence on the western and eastern frontiers of the Empire eventually made effective long-term engagement on a global scale impossible. Revolts and revival (1566–1683) The effective military and bureaucratic structures of the previous century also came under strain during a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans. But in spite of these difficulties, the Empire remained a major expansionist power until the Battle of Vienna in 1683, which marked the end of Ottoman expansion into Europe. European states initiated efforts at this time to curb Ottoman control of overland trade routes. Western European states began to circumvent the Ottoman trade monopoly by establishing their own naval routes to Asia. Economically, the huge influx of Spanish silver from the New World caused a sharp devaluation of the Ottoman currency and rampant inflation. This had serious negative consequences at all levels of Ottoman society. Sokullu Mehmet Pasha, who was the grand vizier of Selim II, began the projects of Suez Channel and Don-Volga Channel to save the economy but these were later cancelled. Battle of Lepanto in 1571 After burning Moscow in 1571, Crimean khan Devlet I Giray, supported by the Ottoman Empire, developed the plan of full conquest of the Russian state. The next year, the invasion of his army was repeated but repelled at the Battle of Molodi. The Crimean Khanate was undoubtedly one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century. The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves by Eizo Matsuki In southern Europe, a coalition of Catholic powers, led by Philip II of Spain, formed an alliance to challenge Ottoman naval strength in the Mediterranean Sea. Their victory over the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto (1571) was a startling blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility. However, historians today stress the symbolic rather than the strictly military significance of the battle, for within six months of the defeat a new Ottoman fleet of some 250 sail including eight modern galleasses Kinross, 272. had been built, with the harbours of Constantinople turning out a new ship every day at the height of the construction. In discussions with a Venetian minister, the Turkish Grand Vizier commented: "In capturing Cyprus from you, we have cut off one of your arms; in defeating our fleet you have merely shaved off our beard". The Ottoman naval recovery persuaded Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, and the Ottomans were able to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa. Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.67. Second Siege of Vienna in 1683 By contrast, the Habsburg frontier had settled into a more or less permanent border, marked only by relatively minor battles concentrating on the possession of individual fortresses. This stalemate was mostly caused by the European development of the trace italienne, low bastioned fortifications built by Austria along the border that were almost impossible to capture without lengthy sieges. The Ottomans had no answer to these new-style fortifications that rendered the artillery they previously used so effectively (as in the Siege of Constantinople) almost useless. The stalemate was also a reflection of simple geographical limits: in the pre-mechanized age, Vienna marked the furthest point that an Ottoman army could march from Constantinople during the early-spring to late-autumn campaigning season. It also reflected the difficulties imposed on the Empire by the need to maintain two separate fronts: one against the Austrians (see: Ottoman wars in Europe), and the other against a rival Islamic state, the Safavids of Persia (see: Ottoman wars in Near East). On the battlefield, the Ottomans gradually fell behind the Europeans in military technology as the innovation which fed the Empire's forceful expansion became stifled by growing religious and intellectual conservatism. Changes in European military tactics and weaponry in the military revolution caused the once-feared Sipahi cavalry to lose military relevance. The 'Long War' against Habsburg Austria (1593-1606) created the need for greater numbers of infantry equipped with firearms. This resulted in a relaxation of recruitment policy and a significant growth in Janissary corps numbers. This contributed to problems of indiscipline, effectiveness and outright rebelliousness within the corps which the government wrestled with but never fully solved during (and beyond) this whole period. The development of pike and shot and later linear tactics with increased use of firearms by Europeans proved deadly against the massed infantry in close formation used by the Ottomans. Irregular sharpshooters (Sekban) were also recruited for the same reasons and on demobilisation turned to brigandage in the Jelali revolts (1595–1610) which engendered widespread anarchy in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Inalcik, An Economic And Social History Of The Ottoman Empire, Vol 1 1300-1600 p.24. With the Empire's population reaching 30,000,000 people by 1600, shortage of land placed further pressure on the government. L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, 281 However, the 17th century was not simply an era of stagnation and decline, but also a key period in which the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new pressures and new realities, internal and external. The Sultanate of women (1648–1656) was a period in which the political influence of the Imperial Harem was dominant, as the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. This was not wholly unprecedented; Hürrem Sultan, who established herself in the early 1530s as the successor of Nurbanu, the first Valide Sultan, was described by the Venetian Baylo Andrea Giritti as 'a woman of the utmost goodness, courage and wisdom' despite the fact that she 'thwarted some while rewarding others'. Leslie P. Peirce, The imperial harem: women and sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire and Morality tales: law and gender in the Ottoman court of Aintab. But the inadequacy of Ibrahim I (1640-1648) and the minority accession of Mohammed IV in 1646 created a significant crisis of rule which the dominant women of the Imperial Harem filled Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.74-75. . The most prominent women of this period were Kösem Sultan and her daughter-in-law Turhan Hatice, whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651. This period gave way to the highly significant Köprülü Era (1656–1703), during which effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of Grand Viziers from the Köprülü family. On September 15, 1656 the octogenarian Köprülü Mehmed Pasha accepted the seals of office having received guarantees from the Valide Turhan Hatice of unprecedented authority and freedom from interference. A fierce conservative disciplinarian, he successfully reasserted the central authority and the empire's military impetus. This continued under his son and successor Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed (Grand Vizier 1661 - 1676). Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.77-81. . The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of Crete completed in 1669 and expansion into Polish southern Ukraine, with the strongholds of Khotin and Kamianets-Podilskyi and the territory of Podolia ceding to Ottoman control in 1676. Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.80-81. This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end when Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha in May 1683 led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of Vienna. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king Jan Sobieski Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.81-82. at the Battle of Vienna. The alliance of the Holy League pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna and 15 years of see-sawing warfare culminated in the epochal Treaty of Karlowitz (January 26, 1699) which ended the Great Turkish War and for the first time saw the Ottoman Empire surrender control of significant European territories (many permanently), including the Ottoman Hungary. Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.84. The Empire had reached the end of its ability to effectively conduct an assertive, expansionist policy against its European rivals and it was to be forced from this point to adopt an essentially defensive strategy within this theatre. Only two Sultans in this period personally exercised strong political and military control of the Empire: the vigorous Murad IV (1612–1640) recaptured Yerevan (1635) and Baghdad (1639) from the Safavids and reasserted central authority, albeit during a brief majority reign. Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.73. Mustafa II (1695-1703) led the Ottoman counter attack of 1695-6 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at Zenta (September 11, 1697). Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.83-84. Stagnation and reform (1699–1827) During the stagnation period much territory in the Balkans was ceded to Austria. Certain areas of the Empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent in all but name, and subsequently came under the influence of Britain and France. In the 18th century, centralized authority gave way to varying degrees of provincial autonomy enjoyed by local governors and leaders. A series of wars were fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires from the 17th to the 19th century. The long period of Ottoman stagnation is typically characterized by historians as an era of failed reforms. In the latter part of this period there were educational and technological reforms, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as Istanbul Technical University; Ottoman science and technology had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass. By this period though the influences had become regressive and conservative. The guilds of writers denounced the printing press as "the Devil's Invention", and were responsible for a 43-year lag between its invention by Johannes Gutenberg in Europe in 1450 and its introduction to the Ottoman society with the Gutenberg press in Constantinople that was established by the Sephardic Jews of Spain in 1493. Sephardic Jews migrated to the Ottoman Empire as they escaped from the Spanish Inquisition of 1492. The Tulip Era (or Lâle Devri in Turkish), named for Sultan Ahmed III's love of the tulip flower and its use to symbolize his peaceful reign, the Empire's policy towards Europe underwent a shift. The region was peaceful between 1718 and 1730, after the Ottoman victory against Russia in the Pruth Campaign in 1712 and the subsequent Treaty of Passarowitz brought a period of pause in warfare. The Empire began to improve the fortifications of cities bordering the Balkans to act as a defence against European expansionism. Other tentative reforms were also enacted: taxes were lowered; there were attempts to improve the image of the Ottoman state; and the first instances of private investment and entrepreneurship occurred. Ottoman military reform efforts begin with Selim III (1789–1807) who made the first major attempts to modernize the army along European lines. These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionary movements, partly from the religious leadership, but primarily from the Janissary corps, who had become anarchic and ineffectual. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, they created a Janissary revolt. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who massacred the Janissary corps in 1826. The Serbs were the first people in the Balkans to be liberated from the Ottomans through two uprisings, although the liberated part was mostly a by-product of the Austrian infiltration to the region. In 1821, the Greeks were the first to declare war to the Sultan. Through the rebellion that originated in Moldavia, as a diversion, and followed by the main revolution in the Peloponese, the latter, along with the northern part of the gulf of Corinth became the first parts of the Ottoman empire to be completely liberated in 1829. Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania and Montenegro followed in the 1870s. Decline and modernization (1828–1908) Ottoman decline (loss of huge territories) is typically characterized by historians also as an era of modern times. The Empire lost territory on all fronts, and there was administrative instability because of the breakdown of centralized government, despite efforts of reform and reorganization such as the Tanzimat. During this period, the Empire faced challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation. The Empire ceased to enter conflicts on its own and began to forge alliances with European countries such as France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Russia. As an example, in the 1853 Crimean War the Ottomans united with the British, French, and others against Russia. Mahmud II started the modernization of Turkey by preparing the Edict of Tanzimat in 1839 which had immediate effects such as European style clothing, uniforms, weapons, agricultural and industrial innovations, architecture, education, legislation, institutional organization and land reform. During the Tanzimat period (from Arabic Tanzîmât, meaning "reorganization") (1839–1876), a series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, and the replacement of guilds with modern factories. In 1856, the Hatt-ı Hümayun promised equality for all Ottoman citizens irrespective of their ethnicity and confession, widening the scope of the 1839 Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane. The Christian millets gained privileges; such as in 1863 the Armenian National Constitution (Ottoman Turkish:"Nizâmnâme-i Millet-i Ermeniyân") was Divan approved form of the "Code of Regulations" composed of 150 articles drafted by the "Armenian intelligentsia", and newly formed "Armenian National Assembly". Richard G. (EDT) Hovannisian "The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times" page 198 The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the Kanûn-ı Esâsî (meaning "Basic Law" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the Young Ottomans, which was promulgated on November 23, 1876. It established freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before the law. Punch cartoon from June 17, 1876. Russian Empire preparing to let slip the Balkan "Dogs of War" to attack the Ottoman Empire, while policeman John Bull (UK) warns Russia to take care. Supported by Russia, Serbia and Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire one day later. The Empire's First Constitutional era (or Birinci Meşrûtiyet Devri in Turkish), was short-lived; however, the idea behind it (Ottomanism), proved influential as a wide-ranging group of reformers known as the Young Ottomans, primarily educated in Western universities, believed that a constitutional monarchy would provide an answer to the Empire's growing social unrest. Through a military coup in 1876, they forced Sultan Abdülaziz (1861–1876) to abdicate in favour of Murad V. However, Murad V was mentally ill, and was deposed within a few months. His heir-apparent Abdülhamid II (1876-1909) was invited to assume power on the condition that he would declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on November 23, 1876. However, the parliament survived for only two years. The sultan suspended, but did not abolish, the parliament until he was forced to reconvene it. The effectiveness of Kanûn-ı Esâsî was then largely minimized. The rise of nationalism swept through many countries during the 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire was not immune. A burgeoning national consciousness, together with a growing sense of ethnic nationalism, made nationalistic thought one of the most significant Western ideas imported to the Ottoman empire, as it was forced to deal with nationalism both within and beyond its borders. There was a significant increase in the number of revolutionary political parties. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of Ottoman policy during the early 20th century. Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of ethnic conflict were external, and unrelated to issues of governance. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question. Greece declared its independence from the Empire in 1829 after the end of the Greek War of Independence. Reforms did not halt the rise of nationalism in the Danubian Principalities and Serbia, which had been semi-independent for almost six decades; in 1875 the tributary principalities of Serbia, Montenegro, Wallachia and Moldavia declared their independence from the Empire; and following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, independence was formally granted to Serbia, Romania and Montenegro, and autonomy to Bulgaria; Bosnia was occupied by the Austrian Empire, with the other Balkan territories remaining under Ottoman control. A Serbian Jew, Judah Alkalai, encouraged a return to Zion and the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine during this wave of decolonization. Following defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, Cyprus was lent to the British in 1878 in exchange for Britain's favors at the Congress of Berlin. Egypt, which had previously been occupied by the forces of Napoleon I of France in 1798 but recovered in 1801 by a joint Ottoman-British force, was occupied in 1882 by British forces on the pretext of bringing order; though Egypt and Sudan remained Ottoman provinces de jure until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers of World War I, and Britain officially annexed these two provinces as a response. Other Ottoman provinces in North Africa were lost between 1830 and 1912, starting from Morocco (occupied by France in 1830), Tunisia (occupied by France in 1881) and Libya (occupied by Italy in 1912.) Economically, the Empire had difficulty in repaying the Ottoman public debt to European banks, which caused the establishment of the Council of Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt. By the end of the 19th century, the main reason the Empire was not entirely overrun by Western powers came from the Balance of Power doctrine. Both Austria and Russia wanted to increase their spheres of influence and territory at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, but were kept in check mostly by the United Kingdom, which feared Russian dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean. Dissolution (1908–1922) |Public demonstration in the Sultanahmet district of Istanbul, 1908 The Second Constitutional Era ({{lang-tr|İkinci Meşrûtiyet Devri}}) established after the Young Turk Revolution (July 3, 1908) with the sultan's announcement of the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of the Ottoman Parliament marks the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. This era is dominated by the politics of the Committee of Union and Progress (), and the movement that would become known as the Young Turks (). Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. During the Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912), the Balkan League declared war against the Ottoman Empire, which lost its Balkan territories except Thrace and the historic Ottoman capital city of Edirne (Adrianople) with the Balkan Wars (1912–1913). The Baghdad Railway under German control became a source of international tension and played a role in the origins of World War I. Jastrow, Morris, The War and the Bagdad Railroad (1917) The Ottoman Empire entered the First World War after the pursuit of Goeben and Breslau and took part in the Middle Eastern theatre on the side of the Central Powers. There were several important victories in the early years of the war, such as the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut; but there were setbacks as well, such as the disastrous Caucasus Campaign against the Russians. The Arab Revolt which began in 1916 turned the tide against the Ottomans at the Middle Eastern front, where they initially seemed to have had the upper hand. Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) at the trenches of Gallipoli (1915) When the Armistice of Mudros was signed in 1918, Yemen, together with Medina, was the only part of the Arabian peninsula that was still under Ottoman control. However, the Ottomans were eventually forced to cede Yemen and Medina following the armistice, along with parts of present-day Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan which were gained by the Ottoman forces during the final stages of the war, following the Russian Revolution of 1917. Under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres, the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was solidified. The new countries created from the remnants of the Empire currently number 40 (including the disputed Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus). Departure of Mehmed VI, last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, 1922 The occupation of Constantinople along with the occupation of Smyrna mobilized the establishment of the Turkish national movement, which won the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922) under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha. Mustafa Kemal Pasha's speech on his arrival in Ankara in November 1919 The Sultanate was abolished on November 1, 1922, and the last sultan, Mehmed VI Vahdettin (reigned 1918–1922), left the country on November 17, 1922. The new independent Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNA) was internationally recognized with the Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923. The GNA officially declared the Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923. The Caliphate was constitutionally abolished several months later, on March 3, 1924. The Sultan and his family were declared persona non grata of Turkey and exiled. Fifty years later, in 1974, the GNA granted descendants of the former Ottoman dynasty the right to acquire Turkish citizenship. Fall of the Empire The Fall of the Ottoman Empire can be attributed to the failure of its economic structure; the size of the Empire created difficulties in economically integrating its diverse regions. Also, the Empire's communication technology was not developed enough to reach all territories. In many ways, the circumstances surrounding the Ottoman Empire's fall closely paralleled those surrounding the Decline of the Roman Empire, particularly in terms of the ongoing tensions between the Empire's different ethnic groups, and the various governments' inability to deal with these tensions. In the case of the Ottomans, the introduction of increased cultural rights, civil liberties and a parliamentary system during the Tanzimat proved too late to reverse the nationalistic and secessionist trends that had already been set in motion since the early 19th century. Economy Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne (Adrianople) and Constantinople, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centres, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis. Halil İnalcık, Studies in the economic history of the Middle East : from the rise of Islam to the present day / edited by M. A. Cook. London University Press, Oxford U.P. 1970, p. 209 ISBN 0197135617 To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Constantinople and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts. The tolerance displayed by the Ottomans was welcomed by the immigrants. The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous. Halil İnalcık, Studies in the economic history of the Middle East : from the rise of Islam to the present day / edited by M. A. Cook. London University Press, Oxford U.P. 1970, p. 217 ISBN 0197135617 The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues as much as possible without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact. Bankalar Caddesi (Banks Street) in Galata was the financial center of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Central Bank is the first building at right. The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all of their contemporaries. Antony Black (2001), "The state of the House of Osman (devlet-ı al-ı Osman)" in The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present, p. 199 This organization developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulema, which developed into a professional body. The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen. Halil İnalcık, Donald Quataert (1971), An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914, p. 120 The economic structure of the Empire was defined by its geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood between the West and the East, thus blocking the land route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set sail in search of a new route to the Orient. The Empire controlled the spice route that Marco Polo once used. When Christopher Columbus first journeyed to the Bahamas in 1492, the Ottoman Empire was at its zenith, an economic power that extended over three continents. Modern Ottoman studies think that the change in relations between the Ottomans and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself. The Anglo-Ottoman Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Balta Liman that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, would be seen as one of the staging posts along this development. By developing commercial centres and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in Ottoman administrators could not have comprehended or seen the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe. Halil inalcik, Studies in the economic history of the Middle East : from the rise of Islam to the present day / edited by M. A. Cook. London University Press, Oxford U.P. 1970, p. 218 ISBN 0197135617 State Ambassadors at Topkapı Palace The state organisation of the Ottoman Empire was a very simple system that had two main dimensions: the military administration and the civil administration. The Sultan was the highest position in the system. The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The Ottomans practiced a system in which the state (as in the Byzantine Empire) had control over the clergy. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran remained important in Ottoman administrative circles. Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.38. According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders within the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty. The "Ottoman dynasty" or, as an institution, "House of Osman" was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration. Antony Black, ibid, page 197 The Ottoman dynasty was ethnically Turkish in its origins, as were some of its supporters and subjects, however the dynasty immediately lost this "Turkic" identification through intermarriage with many different ethnicities. On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. There were only two attempts in the whole of Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Osmanlı dynasty, both failures, which is suggestive of a political system that for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability. The highest position in Islam, caliphate, was claimed by the sultan which was established as Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman sultan, pâdişâh or "lord of kings", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the Valide Sultan. On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics. For a period of time the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "Sultanate of Women". New sultans were always chosen from among the sons of the previous sultan. The strong educational system of the palace school geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs, and establishing support amongst the ruling elite for a successor. The palace schools, which would also educate the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, the Madrasa () was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials in accordance with Islamic tradition. The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by vakifs, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income. Bernard Lewis, Istanbul and the civilization of the Ottoman Empire, p151 The second track was a free boarding school for the Christians, the Enderûn, which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in Rumelia and/or the Balkans, a process known as Devshirmeh (). Kemal H Karpat, Social Change and Politics in Turkey: A Structural-Historical Analysis, p204 Bâb-ı Âlî, the Sublime Porte Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as Divan (after the 17th century it was renamed the "Porte"). The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a Beylik, was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). Later still, beginning in 1320, a Grand Vizier was appointed in order to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal and supervision. Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became the de facto head of state. Tughra of Süleyman the Magnificent (1520) Throughout Ottoman history, there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy. The sultan no longer had executive powers. A parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces. The representatives formed the Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire. The rapidly expanding empire used loyal, skilled subjects to manage the Empire, whether Albanians, Phanariot Greeks, Armenians, Serbs, Bosniaks, Hungarians or others. The incorporation of Greeks (and other Christians), Muslims, and Jews revolutionized its administrative system. The History of Turkish-Jewish Relations This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in the Greek language to the west. Donald Quataert, 2 The Tughra were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The prayer/statement “ever victorious” was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylized Tughra spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish calligraphy. Society One of the successes of the social structure of the Ottoman Empire was the unity that it brought about among its highly varied populations through an organization named as millets. The Millets were the major religious groups that were allowed to establish their own communities under Ottoman rule. The Millets were established by retaining their own religious laws, traditions, and language under the general protection of the sultan. Plurality was the key to the longevity of the Empire. As early as the reign of Mehmed II, extensive rights were granted to Phanariot Greeks, and Jews were invited to settle in Ottoman territory. Ultimately, the Ottoman Empire's relatively high degree of tolerance for ethnic differences proved to be one of its greatest strengths in integrating the new regions but this non-assimilative policy became a weakness after the rise of nationalism. The dissolution of the Empire based on ethnic differentiation (balkanization) brought the final end which the failed Ottomanism among the citizens and participatory politics of the first or the constitutional Era had successfully addressed. The lifestyle of the Ottoman Empire was a mixture of western and eastern life. One unique characteristic of Ottoman life style was it was very fragmented. The millet concept generated this fragmentation and enabled many to coexist in a mosaic of cultures. The capital of the Ottoman Empire, Constantinople also had a unique culture, mainly because prior to Ottoman rule it had been the seat of both the Roman and Byzantine Empires. The lifestyle in the Ottoman court in many aspects assembled ancient traditions of the Persian Shahs, but had many Greek and European influences. The culture that evolved around the Ottoman court was known as the Ottoman Way, which was epitomized with the Topkapı Palace. There were also large metropolitan centers where the Ottoman influence expressed itself with a diversity similar to metropolises of today: Sarajevo, Skopje, Thessaloniki, Dimashq, Baghdad, Beirut, Jerusalem, Makkah and Algiers with their own small versions of Ottoman Provincial Administration replicating the culture of the Ottoman court locally. The seraglio, which were the non-imperial places, in the context of the Turkish fashion, became the subject of works of art, where non-imperial prince or referring to other grand houses built around courtyards. Slavery in the Ottoman Empire was a part of Ottoman society. Supply of Slaves As late as 1908 women slaves were still sold in the Empire. Islam and slavery: Sexual slavery During the 19th century the Empire came under pressure from Western European countries to outlaw the practice. Policies developed by various Sultans throughout the 19th century attempted to curtail the slave trade but, since slavery did have centuries of religious backing and sanction, they could never directly abolish the institution outright — as had gradually happened in Western Europe and the Americas. The exact population of the Ottoman Empire is a matter of considerable debate, due to the scantness and ambiguous nature of the primary sources. The following table contains approximate estimates. The figures from 1831 onwards are official census results, but the censuses did not cover the whole population. For example the 1831 census only counted men and did not cover the whole empire. YearPopulation152011,692,480156615,000,000 L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, 206 168330,000,000 L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, 281 18317,230,660185635,350,000188117,388,604190620,884,000 M. Kabadayı, Inventory for the Ottoman Empire / Turkish Republic 1500-2000 191418,520,000191914,629,000 Culture Selimiye Mosque was the masterpiece of Mimar Sinan, chief architect of Sultans Selim I, Suleiman the Magnificent, Selim II and Murad III. The Ottoman Empire had filled roughly the territories around the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea while adopting the traditions, art and institutions of cultures in these regions and adding new dimensions to them. Many different cultures lived under the umbrella of the Ottoman Empire, and as a result, a specifically "Ottoman" culture can be difficult to define, except for those of the regional centers and capital. However, there was also, to a great extent, a specific melding of cultures that can be said to have reached its highest levels among the Ottoman elite, who were composed of myriad ethnic and religious groups. This multicultural perspective of "millets" was reflected in the Ottoman State's multi-cultural and multi-religious policies. As the Ottomans moved further west, the Ottoman leaders absorbed some of the culture of the conquered regions. Intercultural marriages also played their part in creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. When compared to the Turkish folk culture, the influence of these new cultures in creating the culture of the Ottoman elite was very apparent. "Ottoman architecture" was influenced by Persian, Byzantine Greek and Islamic architectures. The Ottoman architecture are a continuation of the pre-Islamic Sassanid architecture. For instance, the dome covered square, which had been a dominant form in Sassanid became the nucleus of all Ottoman architecture. Von Gabriel Piterberg, An Ottoman Tragedy: History and Historiography at Play, pp.98-103, Von Helen Gardner, Horst De la Croix, Richard G. Tansey, Gardner's Art Through the Ages,p. 263, ISBN 0155037587, During the Rise period the early or first Ottoman architecture period, the Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. The growth period of the Empire become the classical period of architecture, which Ottoman art was at its most confident. During the years of the Stagnation period, Ottoman architecture moved away from this style however. During the Tulip Era, it was under the influence of the highly ornamented styles of Western Europe; Baroque, Rococo, Empire and other styles intermingled. Concepts of Ottoman architecture mainly circle around the mosque. The mosque was integral to society, city planning and communal life. Besides the mosque, it is also possible to find good examples of Ottoman architecture in soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths and tombs. Safranbolu was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994 due to its well-preserved Ottoman residential architecture. Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, aside from Istanbul and Edirne, can also be seen in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Hungary, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built. The art of Ottoman decoration developed with a multitude of influences due to the wide ethnic range of the Ottoman Empire. The greatest of the court artisans enriched the Ottoman Empire with many pluralistic artistic influences: such as mixing traditional Byzantine art with elements of Chinese art. Eli Shah. The Ottoman Artistic Legacy "Ottoman Turkish language" was a variety of Turkish, highly influenced by Persian and Arabic. Ottomans had three influential languages; Turkish, Persian, Arabic but they did not have a parallel status. Throughout the vast Ottoman bureaucracy and, in particular, within the Ottoman court in later times, a version of Turkish was spoken, albeit with a vast mixture of both Arabic and Persian grammar and vocabulary. If the basic grammar was still largely Turkish, the inclusion of virtually any word in Arabic or Persian in Ottoman made it a language that was essentially incomprehensible to any Ottoman subject who had not mastered Arabic, Persian or both. The two varieties of the language became extremely differentiated and this resulted in a low literacy rate among the general public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of 19th century). Consequently, ordinary people had to hire special "request-writers" (arzıhâlcis) in order to be able to communicate with the government. The ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (mahalles) with their own languages (e.g., Jews, Greeks, Armenians, etc.) In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants would often speak each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages, some Ottoman or Persian if they were educated, and some Arabic if they were Muslim. In the last two centuries, French and English emerged as popular languages, especially among the Christian Levantine communities. The elite learned French at school, and used European products as a fashion statement. The use of Turkish grew steadily under the Ottomans, but, since they were still interested in their two other official languages, they kept these in use as well. Usage of these came to be limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language, while Arabic was used solely for religious rites. At this time many famous Persian poets emerged. Topkapi Palace was the official and primary residence in the city of the Ottoman Sultans, from 1465 to 1853. "Ottoman classical music" was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite, a number of the Ottoman sultans were accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as Selim III, whose compositions are still frequently performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of Byzantine music, Arabic music, and Persian music. Compositionally, it is organised around rhythmic units called usul, which are somewhat similar to meter in Western music, and melodic units called makam, which bear some resemblance to Western musical modes. The instruments used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the saz, the bağlama, the kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney), and — later in the tradition — Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music, and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of Folk music were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are: Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern (Laz) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: Janissary Music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music. "Ottoman cuisine" refers to the cuisine of the capital — Constantinople, and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that all the populations enjoyed. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through Ramadan events, and through the cooking at the Yalıs of the Pashas, and from there on spread to the rest of the population. Today, Ottoman cuisine lives in the Balkans, Anatolia and the Middle East, "common heirs to what was once the Ottoman life-style, and their cuisines offer treacherous circumstantial evidence of this fact". Bert Fragner, "From the Caucasus to the Roof of the World: a culinary adventure", in Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper, A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East, London and New York, p. 52 It is typical of any great cuisine in the world to be based on local varieties and on mutual exchange and enrichment among them, but at the same time to be homogenized and harmonized by a metropolitan tradition of refined taste. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of this previous empire (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure and government) were adopted by the Ottomans, who elaborated them into new forms and blended them with the characteristics of the ethnic and religious groups living within the Ottoman territories, which resulted in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity. Religion Mehmed the Conqueror receives Gennadius II Scholarius (Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from 1454 to 1464) Before adopting Islam — a process that was greatly facilitated by the Abbasid victory at the 751 Battle of Talas, which ensured Abbasid influence in Central Asia — the Turkic peoples practised a variety of shamanism. After this battle, many of the various Turkic tribes — including the Oghuz Turks, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans — gradually converted to Islam, and brought the religion with them to Anatolia beginning in the 11th century. The Ottoman Empire was, in principle, tolerant towards Christians and Jews (the "Ahl Al-Kitab", or "People of the Book", according to the Qu'ran) but not towards the polytheists, in accordance with the Sharia law. Such tolerance was subject to a non-Muslim tax, the Jizya. Under the millet system, non-Muslim people were considered subjects of the Empire, but were not subject to the Muslim faith or Muslim law. The Orthodox millet, for instance, was still officially legally subject to Justinian's Code, which had been in effect in the Byzantine Empire for 900 years. Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (or zimmi) of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox millet was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce, in addition to having to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects. "The Divinely-Protected, Well-Flourishing Domain: The Establishment of the Ottoman System in the Balkan Peninsula", Sean Krummerich, Loyola University New Orleans, The Student Historical Journal, volume 30 (1998–99 , Turkish Toleration, The American Forum for Global Education The Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II allowed the local Christians to stay in Constantinople after conquering the city in 1453, and to retain their institutions such as the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate. In 1461 Sultan Mehmed II established the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople. Previously, the Byzantines considered the Armenian Church as heretical and thus did not allow them to build churches inside the walls of Constantinople. In 1492, when the Muslims and Sephardic Jews were expelled from Spain during the Spanish Inquisition, the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II sent his fleet under Kemal Reis to save them and granted the refugees the right to settle in the Ottoman Empire. The state's relationship with the Greek Orthodox Church was largely peaceful, and recurrent oppressive measures taken against the Greek church were a deviation from generally established practice. The church's structure was kept intact and largely left alone but under close control and scrutiny until the Greek War of Independence of 1821–1831 and, later in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the rise of the Ottoman constitutional monarchy, which was driven to some extent by nationalistic currents, tried to be balanced with Ottomanism. Other Orthodox churches, like the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, were dissolved and placed under the jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate; until Sultan Abdülaziz established the Bulgarian Exarchate in 1870 and reinstated the autonomy of the Bulgarian Church. Similar millets were established for the Ottoman Jewish community, who were under the authority of the Haham Başı or Ottoman Chief Rabbi; the Armenian Orthodox community, who were under the authority of a head bishop; and a number of other religious communities as well. Law An Ottoman trial, 1877 (see image detail for explanation) Ottoman legal system accepted the Religious law over its subjects. The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of local jurisprudence. Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority.<ref name="Benton 109-110">Lauren A. Benton, Law and Colonial Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History, 1400–1900", pp109–110</ref> Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority develop the needs of the local millet. The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups. The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative Kanun, i.e. laws, a system based upon the Turkic Yasa and Töre which were developed in the pre-Islamic era. The kanun law system, on the other hand, was the secular law of the sultan, and dealt with issues not clearly addressed by the sharia system. These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive in nature: for instance, the Islamic courts — which were the Empire's primary courts — could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them so as to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic Sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the Qur'ān; the Hadīth, or words of the prophet Muhammad; ijmā', or consensus of the members of the Muslim community; qiyas, a system of analogical reasoning from previous precedents; and local customs. Both systems were taught at the Empire's law schools, which were in Constantinople and Bursa. Tanzimat reforms, had a drastic effect on the law system. In 1877, the civil law (excepting family law) was codified in the Mecelle code. Later codifications covered commercial law, penal law and civil procedure. Military The modern Ottoman Army The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire. The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. The main corps of the Ottoman Army included Janissary, Sipahi, Akıncı and Mehterân. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to employ muskets and cannons. The Ottomans began using falcons, which were short but wide cannons, during the Siege of Constantinople (1422). The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed and mobility rather than heavy armour, using bows and short swords on fast Turkoman and Arabian horses (progenitors of the Thoroughbred racing horse); Milner The Godolphin Arabian pp. 3–6 Wall Famous Running Horses p. 8 and often applied tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire, such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. The decline in the army's performance became evident from the mid 17th century and after the Great Turkish War. The 18th century saw some limited success against Venice, but in the north the European-style Russian armies forced the Ottomans to concede land. The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps and established the modern Ottoman army. He named them as the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order). The Ottoman army was also the first institution to hire foreign experts and send its officers for training in western European countries. Consequently, the Young Turks movement first began when these relatively young and newly trained men returned with their education. The Ottoman Navy The Ottoman Navy vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of Algeria and Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Following the loss of Algeria (1830) and Greece (1832), Ottoman naval power, and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories declined. Sultan Abdülaziz (reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, United Kingdom built its first submarine in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire. the standard - Petition created for submarine name The collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet strength. Sultan Abdülhamid II distrusted the navy, claiming that the large and expensive navy was of no use against the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). He locked most of the fleet inside the Golden Horn, where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The Ottoman Navy Foundation was established in order to purchase new ships through public donations. The Ottoman Air Force The Ottoman Air Force was founded in June 1909, making it one of the first combat aviation organizations in the world. The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the Hava Okulu (Air Academy) in Constantinople on July 3, 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. The founding of the Air Academy quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the Armed Forces. In May 1913 the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was activated by the Air Academy and the first separate Reconnaissance division was established by the Air Force. In June 1914 a new military academy, Deniz Hava Okulu (Naval Aviation Academy) was founded. With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly. The Ottoman Air Force fought on many fronts during World War I, from Galicia in the west to the Caucasus in the east and Yemen in the south. See also List of Ottoman Grand Viziers List of Ottoman Kaptan Pashas List of Pasha and Dey of Algiers Ottoman Court Positions Science and Technology in the Ottoman Empire Culture of the Ottoman Empire Barbary pirates Crimean Khanate </div> Footnotes External references Bibliography Cleveland, William L. "The Ottoman and Safavid Empires: A New Imperial Synthesis" in A History of the Modern Middle East. Westview Press, 2004. pp37–56. ISBN 0-8133-4048-9. Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd. History of the Ottoman Turks: From the beginning of their empire to the present time. R. Bentley and Son, 1877. Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. John Murray, 2005. ISBN 0-7195-5513-2. Guilmartin, John F., Jr. "Ideology and Conflict: The Wars of the Ottoman Empire, 1453–1606", Journal of Interdisciplinary History, (Spring 1988) 18:4., pp721–747. Imber, Colin. The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 0-333-61386-4. Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Cambridge University Press, 1983. ISBN 0-521-25249-0. Kitsikis, Dimitri. L'Empire ottoman, Presses Universitaires de France, 3rd ed., 1994. ISBN 2-13-043459-2 Lafi (Nora), Une ville du Maghreb entre ancien régime et réformes ottomanes. Genèse des institutions municipales à Tripoli de Barbarie (1795–1911), Paris: L'Harmattan, 2002, 305 pp. Lafi (Nora), Municipalités méditerranéennes. Les réformes municipales ottomanes au miroir d'une histoire comparée, Berlin: K. Schwarz, 2005. Lybyer, Albert Howe. The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Magnificent. AMS Press, 1978. ISBN 0-404-14681-3. Mansel, Philip. Istanbul: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924. Gardners Books, 1997. ISBN 0-14-026246-6. McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Peoples and the End of Empire. Hodder Arnold, 2001. ISBN 0-340-70657-0. Melis, Nicola, “The importance of Hormuz for Luso-Ottoman Gulf-centred policies in the 16th century: Some observations based on contemporary sources", in R. Loureiro-D. Couto (eds.), Revisiting Hormuz - Portuguese Interactions in the Persian Gulf Region in the Early Modern Period, "Maritime Asia" 19, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian/Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden 2008, pp. 107–120. Necipoğlu, Gülru. Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapı Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. MIT Press, 1991. ISBN 0-262-14050-0. Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-54782-2. Shaw, Stanford. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol I; Empire of Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1290–1808. Cambridge University Press, 1976. ISBN 0-521-21280. Leiner, Frederick C. The end of Barbary terror : America's 1815 war against the pirates of North Africa. New York : Oxford University Press, 2006. Links (English) The Ottoman Empire: Resources - University of Michigan The Ottoman Empire: A Chronological Outline World Civilizations: The Ottomans — a comprehensive site that covers much about the Ottoman state and government Turkish Oral Narrative Information about Ottomans - covers the period 1300-1600 The Sakıp Sabancı Collection of Ottoman Calligraphy Ottomans History Blog Turkey in the First World War http://www.historyoftruth.com/videos/videos/genocide-of-truth.html Links (Turkish) Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Hakkında bilgi... 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2,241 | Book_of_Ezekiel | The prophet Ezekiel depicted on a Sistine Chapel fresco by Michelangelo in 1510. The Book of Ezekiel is a book of the Hebrew Bible named after the prophet Ezekiel, a prophet from the sixth-century BC. ESV Study Bible, "Introduction to Ezekiel," (Crossway, 2007). This book records Ezekiel's preaching. His name (Hb. Yekhezqe’l) means "God strengthens" or "May God strengthen". Ezekiel lived out his prophetic career among the community of exiled Judeans in Babylon. He belonged to the priestly class and was married (see Ezk. 24:15-24), but it is doubtful that he had any children. The use of a lot of vivid, symbolic language causes this book to have much in common with the Book of Revelation in the New Testament. Ronald F. Youngblood, F. F. Bruce, R. K. Harrison and Thomas Nelson Publishers, Nelson's New Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Rev. Ed. of: Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary.; Includes Index. (Nashville: T. Nelson, 1995). Author The Book of Ezekiel gives little detail about Ezekiel's life. He is mentioned only twice by name: Ezk. 1:3, where he writes that he was a priest, the son of Buzi; and Ezk. 24:24. He was one of the Israelite exiles, who settled in Tel-abib, on the banks of the Chebar, "in the land of the Chaldeans." He was most likely taken captive with King Jehoiachin (Ezk. 1:2; 2 Kings 24:14-16) about 597 BC. The Jewish exiles repeatedly visited him to obtain a divine oracle (Ezk. 8, 14, and 20). However, Ezekiel exerted no permanent influence upon them, and repeatedly called them a "rebellious house" (see Ezk. 2:5-6, 8; 3:9, 26-27). If the enigmatical date, "the thirtieth year" (Ezk. 1:1), is understood to apply to the age of the prophet, then Ezekiel would have been born during the time of the spiritual reform of King Josiah. Ezekiel lost his wife in the ninth year of his exile, by some sudden and unforeseen stroke (Ezk. 8:1; 24:18). The time and manner of his own death are unknown. Today his tomb is reputed to be located in the neighborhood of Hilla or ancient Babylon, at a place called Al Kifl. Date Ezekiel's prophesies are more frequently dated than those of other Jewish prophets. The first date of the book takes the reader to the summer of 593 BC, five years after the first group of exiles was deported to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar. The latest-dated oracle comes 22 years after that summer, in April of 571 BC. It can be dated based on the links it records between the rule of King Jehoiachin (King of Jerusalem) and the other events that the book describes. According to this system, these prophecies were originally written in the 22 years between 593-571 BC. The following table lists events in the Book of Ezekiel with their dates: Event Verse Reference Date (BC) Chariot Vision (Merkabah) 1:1-3 April 5, 593 Call to be a Watchman 3:16 June 13, 593 Temple Vision 8:1 August 23, 592 Discourse with Elders 20:1 July 19, 591 Second Siege of Jerusalem 24:1 December 22, 589 Judgment on Tyre 26:1 March 30, 587 Judgment on Egypt 29:1 December 13, 588 Judgment on Egypt 29:17 March 3, 571 Judgment on Egypt 30:20 April 5, 587 Judgment on Egypt 31:1 May 28, 587 Lament over Pharaoh 32:1 February 18, 586 Lament over Egypt 32:17 April 2, 586 Fall of Jerusalem 33:21 December 13, 586 New Temple Vision 40:1 September 26, 573 Content Inaugural vision (Ezekiel 1:1–3:27)- The first chapter of the Book of Ezekiel begins with Ezekiel's record of his vision of God's spectacular chariot (see Merkabah). Richard L. Pratt, ed. NIV Spirit of the Reformation Study Bible. Zondervan, 2003. In this vision, God approaches Ezekiel as a divine warrior, riding in his battle chariot. This chariot appeared to be drawn by four living creatures each having four faces (of a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle), and four wings. They could travel forward and backward, up and down, and they moved in flashes of lightning. Beside each "living creature" was a beryl-colored wheel, constructed as "a wheel within a wheel," with "tall and awesome" rims that were full of eyes all around. In this appearance of God unto Ezekiel here, he commissions him to be a prophet and a "watchman" in Israel: "Son of man, I am sending you to the Israelites." (2:3) Judgement on Jerusalem and Judah (Ezekiel 4:1–24:27)- Ezekiel makes a series of denunciations against his fellow Judeans (3:22-24), warning them of the certain destruction of Jerusalem, in opposition to the words of the false prophets (4:1-3). The symbolic acts, by which the extremities to which Jerusalem would be reduced are described in Chapters 4 and 5, show his intimate acquaintance with the Levitical legislation. (See, for example, Exodus 22:30; Deuteronomy 14:21; Leviticus 5:2; 7:18,24; 17:15; 19:7; 22:8) Oracles against Foreign Nations (Ezekiel 25:1–32:32)- Ezekiel announced that God would bring devastation to the nations that had troubled his people. Against the Ammonites (Ezek. 25:1-7), the Moabites (25:8-11), the Edomites (25:12-14), the Philistines (25:15-17), Tyre and Sidon (26-28), and against Egypt (29-32). After the Fall of Jerusalem (Ezekiel 33:1–39:29)- This is after Nebuchadnezzar II destroys Jerusalem, when Ezekiel explained that the Jewish exile would come to an end. There would be the triumph of Israel. Vision of Restoration(Ezekiel 40:1–48:35)- Ezekiel explained that the temple and Jerusalem would be gloriously restored and the people of God would be gathered and blessed as never before. These would be Messianic times, and there would be the establishment and prosperity of the kingdom of God. Historical background Monument to Holocaust survivors at Yad Vashem in Jerusalem; the quote is Ezekiel 37:14. The Book of Ezekiel was written for the captives of the tribe of Judah living in exile in Babylon following the Siege of Jerusalem of 597 BC. Up until that exile, their custom had been to worship their God in the Temple in Jerusalem. Exile raised important theological questions. How, the Judeans asked, could they worship their God when they were now in a distant land? Was their God still available to them? Ezekiel speaks to this problem. He first explains that the Judean exile is a punishment for disobedience and he then offers hope to the exiles, suggesting that the exile will be reversed once they return to God. Unlike their ancestors, who were enslaved and socially marginalized while in exile in Egypt, the Jews of Ezekiel's time were able to become part of the society they found themselves in. The Exiles were told by Jeremiah not to worship the foreign gods, but Jeremiah did tell them that they could become part of the Babylonian culture. They did this well, often being called upon by the Babylonians to complete projects using their skills as artisans. Unlike other enemies, the Babylonians allowed the Jewish people to settle in small groups. While keeping their religious and national identities, many Jewish people did start to settle into their new environment. From building homes to opening businesses, the Jews seemed to settle into their exile land for the long haul. This growing comfort in Babylon helps to explain why so many Jewish people decided not to return to their land. Many people would have been born in exile and would know nothing of their old land, so when the opportunity came for them to reclaim the land that was taken from them, many decided not to leave the Babylonian land they knew. This large group of people who decided to stay are known to be the oldest of the Jewish diaspora communities along with the Jews of Persia. Ezekiel's resurrection of the dead Ezekiel's greatest miracle consisted in his resurrection of the dead, which is recounted in Ezekiel 37. There are different traditions as to the fate of these men, both before and after their resurrection, and as to the time at which it happened. Views of Jewish commentators Jewish Bible commentators have been greatly divided on the interpretation of this section, and fall into two categories. One group believes that this event actually took place, while another group believes that Ezekiel was actually recording one of his prophetic visions. In the former group, some rabbinic Jewish sources say that the resurrected men were godless people who had committed sins. Other rabbinic sources say that they were those Ephraimites who tried to escape from Egypt before Moses, and perished in the attempt. Some state that after Nebuchadnezzar had carried the youths of Judah to Babylon, he had them executed and their bodies mutilated, because their beauty had entranced the Babylonian women, and that it was these youths whom Ezekiel called back to life. In the rabbinic midrash literature, it is written that the miracle was performed on the same day on which the three men were cast into the fiery furnace; namely, on Shabbat and Yom Kippur, (Cant. Rabbah vii. 9). Nebuchadnezzar, who had made a drinking-cup from the skull of a murdered Jew, was greatly astonished when, at the moment that the three men were cast into the furnace, the bodies of the dead boys moved, and, striking him in the face, cried out: "The companion of these three men revives the dead!" (see a Karaite distortion of this episode in Judah Hadasi's "Eshkol ha-Kofer," 45b, at foot; 134a, end of the section). When the boys awakened from death, they rose up and joined in a song of praise to God for the miracle vouchsafed to them; later, they went to the land of Israel, where they married and reared children. As early as the second century, however, some authorities declared this resurrection of the dead was a prophetic vision: see the opinion regarded by Maimonides in his Guide for the Perplexed, II:46) This view has been adopted by his followers as the only rational explanation of the Biblical passage. Vision of the Temple in Jerusalem The Visionary Ezekiel Temple plan drawn by the 19th century French architect and Bible scholar Charles Chipiez. According to Walther Zimmerli, the number twenty-five is of cardinal importance in the Temple Vision of Ezekiel in chapters 40-48: In the construction there appears the figure twenty-five and its multiples: the gate (inside measurement) is twenty-five cubits wide; its length (outside measurement) is fifty cubits; a hundred cubits is the distance from gate to gate; the inner court is a hundred cubits square; so that the total measurement of the temple area, as the measurement in 42:15-20 makes quite explicit, is five hundred square cubits. This system of measurement is still effective in the undoubtedly later description of the allocation of land in chapter 48 in the measurement of the terumah [consecrated area] in the narrower sense (48:20) at twenty-five thousand cubits by twenty-five thousand. But that is not all. The measurement of the steps of the ascent at the level of the sanctuary begins with the figure seven, which is again significance here (40:22, 26). The inner court is reached by eight steps (40:31, 34, 37), while the level of the temple building is reached by a further ten steps (40:49, emended text). Thus the measurement of the steps forming the ascent as a whole again comes to the figure twenty-five. From this point of view one cannot suppress the question whether the figure in the date in 40:1, the twenty-fifth year, is not also to be evaluated in this context of numerical stylization. Walther Zimmerli, Ezekiel 2,(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983), p. 344]. Relation to the Old Testament The Book of Ezekiel refers to the Torah quite often (e.g., Ezek. 27; 28:13; 31:8; 36:11, 34; 47:13, etc.), and shows on a number of occasions that its author is familiar with the writings of Hosea (Ezek. 37:22), Isaiah (Ezek. 8:12; 29:6), and especially with those of Jeremiah, (Jeremiah 24:7, 9; 48:37). Ezekiel 14:14 and 14:20 mention a person by the name of "Daniel." Some see this as referring to the prophet Daniel, from the Book of Daniel. Ezekiel 28:3 also mentions this Daniel again as being preeminent in wisdom. In support of this interpretation it is noted that the name Daniel appears in the Book of Ezekiel immediately after the names of Noah and Job, two other major biblical characters. However, some disagree, noting that the Hebrew spelling Danel may refer to a different person. NIV footnote on Ezekiel 14:14 The reason for seeing this is due to a belief that the book of Daniel was written centuries after the book of Ezekiel. Relation to the New Testament It is generally agreed that the closing visions of the Book of Ezekiel are referred to in the book of Revelation, in the Christian New Testament. (Ezek. 38 = Rev. 20:8; Ezek. 47:1-8 = Rev. 22:1,2). Other references to this book are also found in the New Testament. (Compare Epistle to the Romans 2:24 with Ezek. 36:22; Rom. 10:5, Galatians 3:12 with Ezek. 20:11; 2 Peter 3:4 with Ezek. 12:22.) See also Babylonian captivity Gog and Magog in Ezekiel Dhul-Kifl, The Islamic name of Ezekiel. List of names referring to El Notes Further reading Introductions to Ezekiel Jewish Encyclopedia: Book of Ezekiel Bible.org: Introduction to Ezekiel, based on Hill and Walton What Laws Were Not Good: A Canonical Approach to the Theological Problem of Ezekiel 20:25-26 On-line translations English Translation of the Greek Septuagint Bible: Ezekiel Yechezkiel from Chabad.org BibleGateway (Various translations) Navigational footer |- | Book_of_Ezekiel |@lemmatized prophet:8 ezekiel:52 depict:1 sistine:1 chapel:1 fresco:1 michelangelo:1 book:20 hebrew:2 bible:9 name:8 sixth:1 century:4 bc:7 esv:1 study:2 introduction:3 crossway:1 record:4 preaching:1 hb:1 yekhezqe:1 l:2 mean:1 god:14 strengthen:2 may:3 live:2 prophetic:3 career:1 among:1 community:2 exiled:1 judeans:3 babylon:6 belong:1 priestly:1 class:1 marry:2 see:9 ezk:8 doubtful:1 child:2 use:2 lot:1 vivid:1 symbolic:2 language:1 cause:1 much:1 common:1 revelation:2 new:7 testament:5 ronald:1 f:3 youngblood:1 bruce:1 r:1 k:1 harrison:1 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2,242 | Helvetii | Map of Gaul in Caesar’s time (58 BC) with the historical Helvetii territory in eastern Celtica The Helvetii were a Celtic tribe or, probably more accurately, a confederation of Celtic tribes. Although originating in what is now Germany, they were occupying most of the Swiss plateau at the time of their contact with the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC. They feature prominently in Julius Caesar’s commentaries on the Gallic War. According to Caesar, the Helvetians were divided into four subgroups, which he called pagi. While Caesar only names the Verbigeni (Bell.Gall. 1.27) and the Tigurini (ibid. 1.12), Poseidonios mentions the Tigurini and the Toygenoi (Τωυγενοί). It is a matter of debate if the latter is identical with Livy’s Teutones. (There might have been an error in transmission which transformed the Τουτονοί into Τουγενοί, thus leading to the traditional Strabonic form Τωυγενοί.) Staehelin, 1948, S. 59. Strab. 4.1.8, 7.2.2. That the ancient writers usually classify the Teutons as “Germanic” and the Helvetii as “Gallic” should not further confuse us, as such ethnic attributions are very much debatable. For an example of a modern approach to the difficult question of ethnic distinctions between Celtic and Germanic, see: Ludwig Rübekeil, Diachrone Studien zur Kontaktzone zwischen Kelten und Germanen, Vienna 2002. Etymology The endonym Helvetii is likely derived from the root elw that is seen in Welsh, meaning "gain" or "profit", and the Old Irish prefix il-, meaning "many" or "multiple". Accordingly, it was probably meant to assert that the people was a numerous one. The Neo-Latin name of Switzerland, Confoederatio Helvetica (shortened to Helvetia) is derived from the name of the Helvetii. History Earliest historical sources and settlement The name of the Helvetians is first mentioned in a graffito on a vessel from Mantua (ca. 300 BC). Reproduction in R.C. De Marinis, Gli Etruschi a Nord del Po, Mantova, 1986. The inscription in Etruscan letters reads eluveitie, which has been interpreted as the Etruscan form of the Celtic (h)elvetios (i.e. “the Helvetian”). One can assume that “the Helvetian” was a man of Helvetian descent living in Mantua. A rather legendary tradition quoted in Pliny the Elder’s Natural History (written around 77 AD) claims that the Celtic settlement of Cisalpine Gaul was triggered by a Helvetian named Helico, who had worked in Rome as a craftsman and then returned to his home north of the alps with a dried fig, a grape, and some oil and wine, thereby causing his countrymen to invade northern Italy. Hist. Nat. 12.2. The first reliable mentioning of the Helvetii tribe in ancient literature is by the Greek historian Poseidonios (ca. 135–50 BC), who describes the Helvetians of the late 2nd century BC as “rich in gold but peaceful”, without giving clear indication to the location of their territory. Strabon 7.2.2. His reference to gold washing in rivers has been taken as evidence for an early presence of the Helvetii in the Swiss plateau, with the Emme as being one of the gold-yielding rivers mentioned by Poseidonios. This interpretation is now generally discarded SPM IV Eisenzeit, Basel 1999, p. 31f. , as Poseidonios’ narrative makes it more likely that the country some of the Helvetians left in order to join in the raids of the Teutones, Cimbri, and Ambrones was in fact southern Germany and not Switzerland. That the Helvetians originally lived in southern Germany is confirmed by the Alexandrian geographer Claudius Ptolemaios (ca. 90–168 AD), who tells us of an Ελουητίον έρημος (i.e. “Helvetic barren lands”) north of the Rhine. Ptol. 2.11.6. Tacitus knows that the Helvetians once settled in the swath between Rhine, Main, and the Hercynian forest. Germ. 28.2. The forsakeway of this northern territory is now usually placed in the late 2nd c. BC, around the time of the first Germanic incursions into the Roman world, when the Tigurini and Toygenoi/Toutonoi are mentioned as participants in the great raids. First contact with the Romans «Die Helvetier zwingen die Römer unter dem Joch hindurch» ("The Helvetians force the Romans to pass under the yoke"). Romantic painting by Charles Gleyre (19th c.) celebrating the Helvetian victory over the Romans at Agen (107 BC) under Divico’s command. The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and Ambrones probably reached southern Germany around the year 111 BC, where they were joined by the Tigurini, and, probably the Teutoni-Toutonoi-Toygenoi. (The precise identity of this tribal group has to be left open here. Poseidonios saw the Toutonoi/Teutoni as a subgroup of the Helvetii. Cf. Furger-Gunti, p. 76f. ) The tribes began a joint invasion of Gaul, including the Roman Provincia Narbonensis, which led to the Tigurini’s victory over a Roman army under L. Cassius Longinus near Agendicum in 107 BC, in which the consul was killed. According to Caesar, the captured Roman soldiers were ordered to pass through under a yoke set up by the triumphant Gauls, a dishonour that called for both public as well as private vengeance. Bell.Gall. 1.12. Unfortunately, Caesar is our only narrative source for this episode, as the corresponding books of Livy’s histories are only preserved in the Periochae, short summarising lists of contents, in which hostages given by the Romans, but no yoke, are mentioned. L. Cassius cos. a Tigurinis Gallis, pago Heluetiorum, qui a ciuitate secesserant, in finibus Nitiobrogum cum exercitu caesus est. / Milites, qui ex ea caede superauerant, obsidibus datis et dimidia rerum omnium parte, ut incolumes dimitterentur, cum hostibus pacti sunt. (Periochae LXV) In 105 BC, the allies annihilated another Roman army near Arausio, and went on to harry Spain, Gaul, Noricum, and northern Italy. They split up in two groups in 103 BC, with the Teutones and Ambrones marching on a western route through the Provincia and the Cimbri and Tigurini crossing the eastern Alps (probably by the Brenner pass). While the Teutones and Ambrones were slaughtered in 102 BC by Gaius Marius, the Cimbri and the Tigurini wintered in the Padan plain. The following year, Marius virtually destroyed the Cimbri in the battle of Vercellae. The Tigurini, who had planned on following the Cimbri, turned back over the Alps with their booty and joined those of the Helvetians who had not participated in the raids. Caesar and the Helvetii campaign of 58 BC Julius Caesar and Divico parley after the battle at the Saône. Historic painting of the 19th century by Karl Jauslin Almost all our information on the clash between the Helvetii and Caesar comes from the latter’s Commentarii de Bello Gallico (Book 1, Chapters 2-29) and therefore has to be closely scrutinised. One must expect considerable bias on Caesar’s part. In the first book of the Commentaries, the nobleman Orgetorix is presented as the instigator of a new Helvetian migration, in which the entire tribe was to leave their territory (which is now described as corresponding more or less to the Swiss plateau) and to establish a supremacy over all of Gaul. This exodus was meticulously planned over three years, in the course of which, Orgetorix approached two noblemen from neighbouring tribes, Casticus of the Sequani and Dumnorix of the Aedui. This eventually led to his demise, as he was accused of conspiring with Casticus and Dumnorix to seize the kingship, a crime punishable by death among certain tribes. Cf. Bell.Gall. 7.4. Though Orgetorix managed to avoid a verdict by assembling a total of ten thousand followers and bondsmen at the court, he was later on persecuted by the Helvetian magistrates and died under unexplained circumstances. Nevertheless, the Helvetii left their homes in 58 BC, burning twelve oppida, four-hundred villages and their farmsteads (an early instance of scorched earth tactics). They were joined by a number of tribal groups from neighbouring regions: the Rauraci (at the Rhine knee), the Latobrigi (perhaps around Lake Constance They might be attested at Bregenz (CIL 3,13542). Cf. SPM IV, 37. ), the Tulingi (of unknown origin, maybe even a Germanic tribe Ethnonyms on -ing- are not found among Celtic tribes, but they do occur in the names of Germanic peoples such as the Silingi ), and a group of Boii, who had besieged Noreia. According to Caesar, these peoples abandoned their homes completely, not leaving anyone behind, with the intention of settling among the Santoni (the modern Saintonge, roughly between Poitiers and Bordeaux). When they reached the boundaries of the Allobroges, the northernmost tribe of the Provincia Narbonensis, they found that Caesar had already dismantled the bridge of Geneva to stop their advance. The Helvetians sent “the most illustrious men of their state” to negotiate, promising a peaceful passage through the Provincia. Caesar stalled them by asking for some time for consideration, which he used to assemble reinforcements and to fortify the southern banks of the Rhône. When the embassy returned on the agreed-upon date, he was strong enough to bluntly reject their offer. The Helvetii now chose the more difficult northern route through the Sequani territory, which traversed the Jura Mountains, but bypassed the Provincia. After ravaging the lands of the Aedui tribe, who called upon Caesar to help them, they began the crossing of the Saône, which took them several days. As only a quarter of their forces were left on the eastern banks, Caesar attacked and routed them. According to Caesar, those killed had been the Tigurini, on whom he had now taken revenge in the name of the Republic and his family. Is pagus appellabatur Tigurinus; nam omnis civitas Helvetia in quattuor pagos divisa est. Hic pagus unus, cum domo exisset, patrum nostrorum memoria L. Cassium consulem interfecerat et eius exercitum sub iugum miserat. Ita sive casu sive consilio deorum immortalium quae pars civitatis Helvetiae insignem calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea princeps poenam persolvit. Qua in re Caesar non solum publicas, sed etiam privatas iniurias ultus est, quod eius soceri L. Pisonis avum, L. Pisonem legatum, Tigurini eodem proelio quo Cassium interfecerant. Bell. Gall. 1.12. After the battle, the Romans quickly bridged the river, thereby prompting the Helvetii to once again send an embassy, this time led by Divico, another figure whom Caesar links to the ignominious defeat of 107 BC by calling him bello Cassio dux Helvetiorum (i.e. “leader of the Helvetii in the Cassian campaign”). What Divico had to offer was almost a surrender, namely to have the Helvetii settle wherever Caesar wished them to, although it was combined with the threat of an open battle if Caesar should refuse. Caesar demanded hostages to be given to him and reparations to the Aedui and Allobroges. Divico responded by saying that “they were accustomed to receive, not to give hostages; a fact the Roman people could testify to“, Bell. Gall. 1.14. this once again being an allusion to the giving of hostages by the defeated Romans at Agen. In the cavalry battle that followed, the Helvetii prevailed over Caesar’s Aedui allies under Dumnorix’ command, and continued their journey, while Caesar’s army was being detained by delays in his grain supplies, caused by the Aedui on the instigations of Dumnorix, who had married Orgetorix’ daughter. A few days later, however, near the Aeduan oppidum Bibracte, Caesar caught up with the Helvetii and faced them in a major battle, which ended in the Helvetii’s retreat and the capture of most of their baggage by the Romans. Leaving the largest part of their supplies behind, the Helvetii covered around 60 km in four days, eventually reaching the lands of the Lingones (the modern Langres plateau). Caesar did not pursue them until three days after the battle, while still sending messengers to the Lingones warning them not to assist the Helvetii in any way. The Helvetii then offered their immediate surrender and agreed both to providing hostages and to giving up their weapons the next day. In the course of the night, 6000 of the Verbigeni fled from the camp out of fear of being massacred once they were defenceless. Caesar sent riders after them and ordered those who were brought back to be “counted as enemies”, which probably meant being sold into slavery. In order for them to defend the Rhine frontier against the Germans, he then allowed the Helvetii, Tulingi and Latobrigi to return to their territories and to rebuild their homes, instructing the Allobroges to supply them with a sufficient supply of grain. The Aedui were granted their wish that the Boii who had accompanied the Helvetii would settle on their own territory as allies. The nature of Caesar’s arrangement with the Helvetii and the other tribes is not further specified by the consul himself, but in his speech Balbo of 56 BC, Cicero mentions the Helvetii as one among several tribes of foederati, i.e. allied nations who were neither citizens of the Republic nor her subjects, but obliged by treaty to support the Romans with a certain number of fighting men. Cic. Balb. 32. According to the victor, tablets with lists in Greek characters were found at the Helvetian camp, listing in detail all men able to bear arms with their names and giving a total number for the women, children and elderly who accompanied them. Bell. Gall. 1.29. The numbers added up to a total of 263,000 Helvetii, 36,000 Tulingi, 14,000 Latobrigi, 23,000 Rauraci, and 32,000 Boii, all in all 368,000 heads, 92,000 of whom were warriors. A census of those who had returned to their homes listed 110,000 survivors, which meant that only about 30 percent of the emigrants had survived the war. Caesars report has been partly confirmed by excavations near Geneva and Bibracte. However, much of his account has not yet been corrobated by archaeology, whilst his narrative must in wide parts be considered as biased and, in some points, unlikely. For a start, only one out of the fifteen Celtic oppida in the Helvetii territory so far has yielded evidence for destruction by fire. Many other sites, for example the sanctuary at Mormont, do not exhibit any signs of damage for the period in question, and Celtic life continued seemingly undisturbed for the rest of the 1st century BC up to the beginning of the Roman era, with an accent rather on an increase in prosperity than on a “Helvetic twilight”. Furger-Gunti, 118ff. With the honourable status as foederati taken into account, it is hard to believe that the Helvetii ever sustained casualties quite as heavy as those given by the Roman military leader. In general, numbers written down by ancient military authors have to be taken as gross exaggerations.<ref>Cf. G Walser, Caesar und die Germanen. Studien zur polit. Tendenz römischer Feldzubgerichte.” Historia, Einzelschrifen, Vol. 1, 1956.</ref> What Caesar claims to have been 368,000 people is estimated by other sources to be rather around 300,000 (Plutarch), or 200,000 (Appian); To illustrate this staple of exaggeration with an example, one can take a look at the numbers given for the forces of two Valaisan tribes as a basis for calculation. Caesar tells us (Bell. Gall. 3.1-6.) that his legate Galba was attacked by an army of 30,000 men of the Veragri and the Seduni, who lived around their capitals Octodurus and modern Sierre. Geiser (Un monnayage celtique en Valais. Schweizerische numismatische Rundschau 63, p. 55-125, 1984) has been able to determine the extent of the former tribe’s territory, and it will be safe to assume that the Veragri and Seduni together occupied about half the cultivated land of the Valais, with the Nantuates and Ubii inhabiting the other half. As commonly done for Celtic nations, in order to arrive at the total number of people, we multiply the number of fighting men by four, thus arriving at a total population of 120,000 for the two tribes combined. By adding an equal number of people for the two other tribes, one arrives at a total of 240,000 inhabitants for the Valais valley in the 1st century BC. In contrast, the modern-day Swiss canton has only 278,000 inhabitants, including the urban settlements. in the light of a critical analysis, even these numbers seem far too high. Furger-Gunti considers an army of more than 60,000 fighting men extremely unlikely in the view of the tactics described, and assumes the actual numbers to have been around 40,000 warriors out of a total of 160,000 emigrants. Furger-Gunti, 102. Delbrück suggests an even lower number of 100,000 people, out of which only 16,000 were fighters, which would make the Celtic force about half the size of the Roman body of ca. 30,000 men. H. Delbrück Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politischen Geschichte, Vol. 1, 1900, pp. 428 and 459f. The real numbers will never be determined exactly. Caesar’s specifications can at least be doubted by looking at the size of the baggage train that an exodus of 368,000 people would have required: Even for the reduced numbers that Furger-Gunti uses for his calculations, the baggage train would have stretched for at least 40 km, perhaps even as far as 100 km. Furger-Gunti, 104. In spite of the now much more balanced numerical weight we have to assume for the two opposing armies, the battle seems far less glorious a victory than Caesar presented it to be. The main body of the Helvetii withdrew from the battle at nightfall, abandoning, as it seemed, most of their wagons, which they had drawn up into a wagenburg; they retreated northwards in a forced night march and reached the territory of the Lingones four days after the battle. What Caesar implies to have been a desperate flight without stopping could actually have been an ordered retreat of moderate speed, covering less than 40 km a day. Furger-Gunti (p. 116) allows only 60 km for the distance between Bibracte and the fines Lingonum, while Langres and Autun are in fact separated by more than twice this distance. For the average speed of pre-motorised travel, cf. Norbert Ohler Reisen im Mittelalter, p. 141. Caesar himself does not appear as a triumphant victor in turn, being unable to pursue the Helvetii for three days, “both on account of the wounds of the soldiers and the burial of the slain“. However, it is clear that Caesar’s warning to the Lingones not to supply his enemies was quite enough to make the Helvetii leaders once again offer peace. On what terms this peace was made is debatable, but as said before, the conclusion of a foedus casts some doubt on the totality of the defeat. As Caesar’s account is heavily influenced by his political agenda, it is difficult to determine the actual motive of the Helvetii movement of 58 BC. One might see the movement in the light of a Celtic retreat from areas which were later to become Germanic; it can be debated whether they ever had plans to settle in the Saintonge, as Caesar claims (Bell. Gall. 1,10.). It was certainly in the latter’s personal interest to emphasise any kind of parallel between the traumatic experience of the Cimbrian and Teutonic incursions and the alleged threat that the Helvetii were to the Roman world. The Tigurini’s part in the destruction of L. Cassius Longinus and his army was a welcome pretext to engage in an offensive war in Gaul whose proceeds permitted Caesar not only to fulfil his obligations to the numerous creditors he owed money to, but also to further strengthen his position within the late Republic. Cf. Birkhan, 243f. In this sense, even the character of Divico, who makes his appearance in the Commentarii half a century after his victory over L. Cassius Longinus, seems more like another hackneyed argument stressing Caesar’s justification to attack, than like an actual historical figure. That the victor of Agen was still alive in 58 BC or, if yes, that he was physically still capable of undertaking such a journey at all, seems more than doubtful. Nevertheless, Divico became somewhat of a hero within the Swiss national feeling of the 19th century and in the course of the “Geistige Landesverteidigung” of the 20th century. The Helvetii as Roman subjects The Helvetii and Rauraci most likely lost their status as foederati only six years after the battle of Bibracte, when they supported Vercingetorix in 52 BC with 8,000 and 2,000 men, respectively. Sometime between 50 and 45 BC, the Romans founded the Colonia Iulia Equestris at the site of the Helvetian settlement Noviodunum (modern Nyon), and around 44 BC on Rauracan territory, the Colonia Raurica. These colonies were probably established as a means of controlling the two most important military access routes between the Helvetian territory and the rest of Gaul, blocking the passage through the Rhône valley and Sundgau. In the course of Augustus’ reign, Roman dominance became more concrete. Some of the traditional Celtic oppida were now used as legionary garrisons, such as Vindonissa or Basilea (modern Basel); others were relocated, such as the hill-fort on the Bois de Châtel, whose inhabitants founded the new “capital” of the civitas at nearby Aventicum. First incorporated into the Roman province of Gallia Belgica, later into the Germania Superior and finally into the Diocletian province of Maxima Sequanorum, the former territories of the Helvetii and their inhabitants were as thoroughly romanised as the rest of Gaul. The rising of 68/69 AD What seems to have been the last action of the Helvetii as a tribal entity happened shortly after the death of emperor Nero in 68 AD. Like the other Gallic tribes, the Helvetii were organised as a civitas; they even retained their traditional grouping into four pagi CIL 13,5076 names the Tigurini as one of these pagi. and enjoyed a certain inner autonomy, including the defence of certain strongholds by their own troops. In the civil war which followed Nero’s death, the civitas Helvetiorum supported Galba; unaware of his death, they refused to accept the authority of his rival, Vitellius. The Legio XXI Rapax, stationed in Vindonissa and favouring Vitellius, stole the pay of a Helvetian garrison, which prompted the Helvetians to intercept Vitellian messengers and detain a Roman detachment. Aulus Caecina Alienus, a former supporter of Galba who was now at the head of a Vitellian invasion of Italy, launched a massive punitive campaign, crushing the Helvetii under their commander Claudius Severus and routing the remnants of their forces at Mount Vocetius, killing and enslaving thousands. The capital Aventicum surrendered, and Julius Alpinus, head of what was now seen as a Helvetian uprising, was executed. In spite of the extensive damage and devastations the civitas had already sustained, according to Tacitus the Helvetii were only saved from total annihilation owing to the pleas of one Claudius Cossus, a Helvetian envoy to Vitellius, and, as Tacitus puts it, “of well-known eloquence”. Tacitus Hist. 1.67-69. Confirmed and assumed Celtic Oppida in Switzerland Celtic (orange) and Raetic (green) settlements in Switzerland The distribution of La Tène burials in Switzerland indicates that the Swiss plateau between Lausanne and Winterthur was relatively densely populated. Settlement centres existed in the Aare valley between Thun and Bern, and between Lake Zurich and the river Reuss. The Valais and the regions around Bellinzona and Lugano also seem to have been well-populated; however, those lay outside the Helvetian borders. Almost all the Celtic oppida were built in the vicinity of the larger rivers of the Swiss midlands. Not all of them existed at the same time. For most of them, we do not have any idea as to what their Celtic names might have been, with one or two possible exceptions. Where a pre-Roman name is preserved, it is added in brackets. Cf. Furger-Gunti 1984, S. 50–58. Altenburg-Rheinau Basel Berne-Engehalbinsel (possibly Brenodurum Bern, Engehalbinsel, Römerbad ) Bois de Châtel, Avenches Eppenberg Jensberg Genève (Genava) Lausanne (Lousonna) Martigny (Octodurus) Mont Chaibeuf Mont Terri Mont Vully Sermuz Üetliberg, Zürich Windisch (Vindonissa) Notes Literature Andres Furger-Gunti: Die Helvetier: Kulturgeschichte eines Keltenvolkes. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Zürich 1984. ISBN 3-85823-071-5 Alexander Held: Die Helvetier. Verlag Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Zürich 1984. Felix Müller / Geneviève Lüscher: Die Kelten in der Schweiz. Theiss, Stuttgart 2004. ISBN 3-8062-1759-9. Felix Staehelin: Die Schweiz in Römischer Zeit. 3., neu bearb. und erw. Aufl. Schwabe, Basel 1948 Gerold Walser: Bellum Helveticum: Studien zum Beginn der Caesarischen Eroberung von Gallien. (Historia. Einzelschriften 118). Steiner, Stuttgart 1998. ISBN 3-515-07248-9 SPM IV Eisenzeit - Age du Fer - Età del Ferro, Basel 1999. ISBN 3-908006-53-8. 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2,243 | Centime | Centime (from Latin centesimus) is French for "cent", and is used in English as the name of the fraction currency in several Francophone countries (including Switzerland, Algeria, Belgium, Morocco and France). In France the usage of centime goes back to the introduction of the decimal monetary system under Napoleon. This system aimed at replacing non-decimal fractions of older coins. A five-centime coin was known as a sou, i.e. a solidus or shilling. Conversely in Quebec, one hundredth of a Canadian dollar is called a sou (penny). Subdivision of euro: cent or centime? In the European community cent is the official name for one hundredth of a euro. However, in French-speaking countries the word centime is the preferred term. Indeed, the Superior Council of the French language of Belgium recommended in 2001 the use of centime, since cent is also the French word for "hundred". An analogous decision was published in the Journal officiel in France (December 2, 1997). In Morocco, dirhams are divided into 100 centimes and one may find prices in the country quoted in centimes rather than in dirhams. Sometimes centimes are known as francs or in former Spanish areas, pesetas. Usage A centime is one-hundredth of the following basic monetary units: Current Algerian dinar Burundian franc CFP franc CFA franc Comorian franc Congolese franc Djiboutian franc Ethiopian birr (as santim) Guinean franc Haitian gourde Latvian lats (Latvian: santīms) Moroccan dirham Rwandan franc Swiss franc (by French speakers only, see Rappen) Obsolete Algerian franc Belgian franc Cambodian franc French Camerounian franc French Guianan franc French franc Guadeloupe franc Katangan franc Luxembourgish franc Malagasy franc Malian franc Martinique franc Monegasque franc Moroccan franc New Hebrides franc Réunion franc Spanish Peseta Tunisian franc Westphalian frank Polska frank | Centime |@lemmatized centime:10 latin:1 centesimus:1 french:8 cent:4 use:2 english:1 name:2 fraction:2 currency:1 several:1 francophone:1 country:3 include:1 switzerland:1 algeria:1 belgium:2 morocco:2 france:3 usage:2 go:1 back:1 introduction:1 decimal:2 monetary:2 system:2 napoleon:1 aim:1 replace:1 non:1 old:1 coin:2 five:1 know:2 sou:2 e:1 solidus:1 shilling:1 conversely:1 quebec:1 one:4 hundredth:3 canadian:1 dollar:1 call:1 penny:1 subdivision:1 euro:2 european:1 community:1 official:1 however:1 speaking:1 word:2 preferred:1 term:1 indeed:1 superior:1 council:1 language:1 recommend:1 since:1 also:1 hundred:1 analogous:1 decision:1 publish:1 journal:1 officiel:1 december:1 dirham:3 divide:1 may:1 find:1 price:1 quote:1 rather:1 sometimes:1 franc:27 former:1 spanish:2 area:1 peseta:2 following:1 basic:1 unit:1 current:1 algerian:2 dinar:1 burundian:1 cfp:1 cfa:1 comorian:1 congolese:1 djiboutian:1 ethiopian:1 birr:1 santim:1 guinean:1 haitian:1 gourde:1 latvian:2 lat:1 santīms:1 moroccan:2 rwandan:1 swiss:1 speaker:1 see:1 rappen:1 obsolete:1 belgian:1 cambodian:1 camerounian:1 guianan:1 guadeloupe:1 katangan:1 luxembourgish:1 malagasy:1 malian:1 martinique:1 monegasque:1 new:1 hebrides:1 réunion:1 tunisian:1 westphalian:1 frank:2 polska:1 |@bigram decimal_fraction:1 journal_officiel:1 cfp_franc:1 franc_cfa:1 cfa_franc:1 comorian_franc:1 franc_djiboutian:1 djiboutian_franc:1 moroccan_dirham:1 swiss_franc:1 belgian_franc:1 |
2,244 | Mainz | Mainz () () is a city in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. It was a politically important seat of the Prince-elector of Mainz (see: Archbishopric of Mainz) under the Holy Roman Empire, and previously was a Roman fort city which commanded the west bank of the Rhine and formed part of the northernmost frontier of the Roman Empire. Up until the twentieth century, Mainz was usually referred to in English as Mayence. Mainz is a city with over two thousand years of history. It is located on the river Rhine across from Wiesbaden, in the western part of the Frankfurt Rhine-Main Region; in the modern age, Frankfurt shares much of its regional importance. Geography Mainz is located on the west bank of the river Rhine, opposite the confluence of the Main with the Rhine. The 2008 population was 196,784 , an additional 18,619 people maintain a primary residence elsewhere but have a second home in Mainz and it is also a part of the Rhein Metro area consisting of 5.8 million people. Mainz is easily reached from Frankfurt International Airport in 25 minutes by commuter railway (Rhine-Main S-Bahn). The city consists of 15 districts: Altstadt, Neustadt, Mombach, Gonsenheim, Hartenberg-Münchfeld, Oberstadt, Bretzenheim, Finthen, Drais, Lerchenberg, Marienborn, Hechtsheim, Ebersheim, Weisenau, and Laubenheim. Until 1945, the districts of Bischofsheim (now an independent town), Ginsheim-Gustavsburg (which together are an independent town) belonged to Mainz. The former suburbs Amöneburg, Kastel, and Kostheim—in short AKK—now are administrated by the city of Wiesbaden (on the north bank of the river). The AKK was separated from Mainz when the Rhine was designated the boundary between the French occupation zone (the later state of Rhineland-Palatinate) and the U.S. occupation zone (Hesse) in 1945. Administrative structure The city of Mainz is divided into 15 local districts according to the main statute of the city of Mainz. Each local district has a district administration of 13 members and a directly elected mayor, who is the chairmen of the district administration. This local council decides on important issues affecting the local area, however, the final decision on new policies is made by the Mainz's municipal council. In accordance with § 29 Par. 2 of Local Government Regulations, which refers to municipalities of more than 150,000 inhabitants, the city council has 60 members. Districts of the town are: Altstadt Bretzenheim Drais Ebersheim Finthen Gonsenheim Hartenberg-Münchfeld Hechtsheim Laubenheim Lerchenberg Marienborn Mombach Neustadt Oberstadt Weisenau Former districts (until the end of WWII): Mainz-Amöneburg, Mainz-Kastel, Mainz-Kostheim, Mainz-Bischofsheim and Mainz-Gustavsburg Coat of arms The coat of arms of Mainz is derived from the coat of arms of the Archbishops of Mainz and features two six-spoked silver wheels connected by a silver cross on a red background. History Roman Moguntiacum Remains from a Roman town gate from the late 4th century. The Roman stronghold of castrum Moguntiacum, the precursor to Mainz, was founded by the Roman general Drusus perhaps as early as 13 BC. As related by Suetonius the existence of Moguntiacum is well established by four years later (the account of the death and funeral of Nero Claudius Drusus), though several other theories suggest the site may have been established earlier. The earliest certain evidence of the existence of Moguntiacum is the account of the death and funeral of Nero Claudius Drusus, brother of the future emperor, Tiberius, given in Suetonius' life of Drusus. Few leaders have been as loved and as popular as Drusus. He fell from his horse in 9 BCE, contracted gangrene and lingered several days. His brother Tiberius reached him in just a few days riding post-horses over the Roman roads and served as the chief mourner, walking with the deceased in a funeral procession from the summer camp where he had fallen to Moguntiacum, where the soldiers insisted on a funeral. The body was transported to Rome, cremated in the Campus Martis and the ashes placed in the tomb of Augustus, who was still alive, and wrote poetry and delivered a state funeral oration for him. If Drusus founded Moguntiacum the earliest date is the start of his campaign, 13 BCE. Some hypothesize that Moguntiacum was constructed at one of two earlier opportunities, one when Marcus Agrippa campaigned in the region in 42 BCE or by Julius Caesar himself after 58 BCE. Lack of evidence plays a part in favoring 13 BCE. No sources cite Moguntiacum before 13 BCE, no legions are known to have been stationed there, and no coins survive. Although the city is situated opposite the mouth of the Main river, the name of Mainz is not from Main, the similarity being perhaps due to diachronic analogy. Main is from Latin Menus, the name the Romans used for the river. Linguistic analysis of the many forms that the name "Mainz" has taken on, make it clear that it is a simplification of Moguntiacum. The name appears to be Celtic and ultimately it is from the Celtic. However, it also had become Roman and was selected by the Romans with a special significance. The Roman soldiers defending Gallia had adopted the Gallic god Mogons (Mogounus, Moguns, Mogonino), for the meaning of which etymology offers two basic options: "the great one", similar to Latin magnus, which was used in aggrandizing names such as Alexander magnus, "Alexander the Great" and Pompeius magnus, "Pompey the great", or the god of "might" personified as it appears in young servitors of any type whether of noble or ignoble birth. A second hypothesis suggests that Moguns was a wealthy Celtic person whose estate was taken for the fort and that a tax district was formed on the area parallel to other tax districts with a -iacum suffix (Arenacum, Mannaricium). One difficulty is that there is no evidence for the wealthy man or his estate, but there is plenty of evidence for the god. According to Carl Darling Buck in Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, -yo- and -k- are general Indo-European formative suffices and are not related to taxes. As the loyalty of the Vangiones was unquestioned and Drusus was campaigning over the Rhine, it is unlikely Moguntiacum would have been built to collect taxes from the Vangiones, who were not a Roman municipium. The Drusus monument (surrounded by the 17th century citadel) raised by Drusus' men to commemorate him. To name the fort after this particular god was an ideological statement. It was placed in the territory of the Vangiones, a formerly Germanic tribe now Celticised and working for the Romans. Their capital was at Worms on the same side of the Rhine not far to the south. Dedications of their troops serving in Britain mention the god frequently. Germania Superior was a geographical gateway between Gaul and Germany. The Romans were saying in essence by placing the fort here and naming it that "You barbarians shall not pass into the civilized and international state because the might of its youth inspired by its ancient god will stop you." If the barbarians needed any example, the previous fate of the Vangiones, who had come as conquerors and were conquered, was before them. All that remains of the Roman aqueduct. Moguntiacum was an important military town throughout Roman times, probably due to its strategic position at the confluence of the Main and the Rhine. The town of Moguntiacus grew up between the fort and the river. The castrum was the base of Legio XIIII Gemina and XVI Gallica (AD 9–43), XXII Primigenia, IIII Macedonica (43–70), I Adiutrix (70–88), XXI Rapax (70–89), and XIIII Gemina (70–92), among others. Mainz was also the base of a Roman river fleet (the remains of Roman patrol boats and cargo barges from about 375/6 were discovered in 1982 and may now be viewed in the Museum für Antike Schifffahrt). The city was the provincial capital of Germania Superior, and had an important funeral monument dedicated to Drusus, to which people made pilgrimages for an annual festival from as far away as Lyon. Among the famous buildings were the largest theatre north of the Alps and a bridge across the rhine. Alamanni forces under Rando sacked the city in 368. In last days of 406, the Siling and Asding Vandals, the Suebi, the Alans, and other Germanic tribes took advantage of the rare freezing of the Rhine to cross the river at Mainz and overwhelm the Roman defences. Christian chronicles relate that the bishop, Aureus, was put to death by the Alamannian Crocus. The way was open to the sack of Trier and the invasion of Gaul. This event is familiar to many from the historical novel, Eagle in the Snow, by Wallace Breem. Throughout the changes of time, the Roman castrum never seems to have been permanently abandoned as a military installation, which is a testimony to Roman military judgement. Different structures were built there at different times. The current citadel originated in 1660, but it replaced previous forts. It was used in World War II. One of the sights at the citadel is still the cenotaph raised by his legionaries to commemorate Drusus. Frankish Mainz Through a series of incursions during the 4th century Alsace gradually lost its Belgic ethnic character of formerly Germanic tribes among Celts ruled by Romans and became predominantly influenced by the Alamanni. The Romans repeatedly reasserted control; however, the troops stationed at Mainz became chiefly non-Italic and the emperors had only one or two Italian ancestors in a pedigree that included chiefly peoples of the northern frontier. The last emperor to station troops serving the western empire at Mainz was Valentinian III, who relied heavily on his Magister militum per Gallias, Flavius Aëtius. By that time the army included large numbers of troops from the major Germanic confederacies along the Rhine, the Alamanni, the Saxons and the Franks. The Franks were an opponent that had risen to power and reputation among the Belgae of the lower Rhine during the 3rd century and repeatedly attempted to extend their influence upstream. In 358 the emperor Julian bought peace by giving them most of Germania Inferior, which they possessed anyway, and imposing service in the Roman army in exchange. The European chessboard in the time of master Aëtius included Celts, Goths, Franks, Saxons, Alamanni, Huns, Italians, and Alans as well as numerous minor pieces. Aëtius played them all off against one another in a masterly effort to keep the peace under Roman sovereignty. He used Hunnic troops a number of times. At last a day of reckoning arrived between Aëtius and Attila, both commanding polyglot, multi-ethnic troops. Attila went through Alsace in 451, devastating the country and destroying Mainz and Triers with their Roman garrisons. Shortly after he was stalemated by Flavius Aëtius at the Battle of Chalons, the largest of the ancient world. Aëtius was not to enjoy the victory long. He was assassinated by his employer's own hand in 454, who was himself stabbed to death by friends of Aëtius in 455. As far as the north was concerned this was the effective end of the Roman empire there. After some sanguinary but relatively brief contention a former subordinate of Aëtius, Ricimer, became emperor, taking the name Patrician. His father was a Suebian; his mother, a princess of the Visigoths. Patrician did not rule the north directly but set up a client province there, which functioned independently. The capital was at Soissons. Even then its status was equivocal. Many insisted it was the Kingdom of Soissons. Previously the first of the Merovingians, Clodio, had been defeated by Aëtius at about 430. His son, Merovaeus, fought on the Roman side against Attila, and his son, Childeric, served in the domain of Soissons. Meanwhile the Franks were gradually infiltrating and assuming power in this domain. They also moved up the Rhine and created a domain in the region of the former Germania Superior with capital at Cologne. They became known as the Ripuarian Franks as opposed to the Salian Franks. It is unlikely that much of a population transfer or displacement occurred. The former Belgae simply became Franks. Events moved rapidly in the late 5th century. Clovis, son of Childeric, became king of the Salians in 481, ruling from Tournai. In 486 he defeated Syagrius, last governor of the Soissons domain, and took northern France. He extended his reign to Cambrai and Tongeren in 490–491, and repelled the Alamanni is 496. Also in that year he converted to non-Arian Christianity. After the Fall of the Roman Empire in 476, the Franks under the rule of Clovis I gained control over western Europe by the year 496. Clovis annexed the kingdom of Cologne in 508. Thereafter, Mainz, in its strategic position, became one of the bases of the Frankish kingdom. Mainz had sheltered a Christian community long before the conversion of Clovis. His successor Dagobert reinforced the walls of Mainz and made it one of his seats. A solidus of Theodebert I (534–548) was minted at Mainz. The Franks united the Celtic and Germanic tribes of Europe. The greatest Frank of all was Charlemagne (768–814), who built a new empire in Europe, the Holy Roman Empire. Mainz from its central location became important to the empire and to Christianity. Meanwhile language change was gradually working to divide the Franks. Mainz spoke a dialect termed Ripuarian. On the death of Charlemagne, distinctions between France and Germany began to be made. Mainz was not central any longer but was on the border, creating a question of the nationality to which it belonged, which descended into modern times as the question of Alsace-Lorraine. Christian Mainz Mainz Cathedral, western main tower. St. Stephan Church is famous for its Chagall windows. In the early Middle Ages, Mainz was a centre for the Christianisation of the German and Slavic peoples. The first Archbishop in Mainz, Boniface, was killed in 754 while trying to convert the Frisians to Christianity and is buried in Fulda. Other early archbishops of Mainz include Rabanus Maurus, the scholar and author, and Willigis (975–1011), who began construction on the current building of the Mainz Cathedral and founded the monastery of St. Stephan. Monument to St. Boniface before Mainz Cathedral. From the time of Willigis until the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Archbishops of Mainz were archchancellors of the Empire and the most important of the seven Electors of the German emperor. Besides Rome, the diocese of Mainz today is the only diocese in the world with an episcopal see that is called a Holy See (sancta sedes). The Archbishops of Mainz traditionally were primas germaniae, the substitutes of the Pope north of the Alps. In 1244, Archbishop Siegfried III granted Mainz a city charter, which included the right of the citizens to establish and elect a city council. The city saw a feud between two Archbishops in 1461, namely Diether von Isenburg, who was elected Archbishop by the cathedral chapter and supported by the citizens, and Adolf II von Nassau, who had been named Archbishop for Mainz by the Pope. In 1462, the Archbishop Adolf II raided the city of Mainz, plundering and killing 400 inhabitants. At a tribunal, those who had survived lost all their property, which was then divided between those who promised to follow Adolf II. Those who would not promise to follow Adolf II (amongst them Johann Gutenberg) were driven out of the town or thrown into prison. The new Archbishop revoked the city charter of Mainz and put the city under his direct rule. Ironically, after the death of Adolf II his successor was again Diether von Isenburg, now legally elected by the chapter and named by the Pope. Early Jewish community The Jewish community of Mainz dates to the 10th century CE. It is noted for its religious education. Rabbi Gershom ben Judah (960–1040) taught there, among others. He concentrated on the study of the Talmud, creating a German Jewish tradition. The Jews of Mainz, Speyer and Worms created a supreme council to set standards in Jewish law and education in the 12th century. The city of Mainz responded to the Jewish population in a variety of ways, behaving, in a sense, in a bipolar fashion towards them. Sometimes they were allowed freedom and were protected; at other times, they were persecuted. For example, they were expelled in 1462, invited to return, and expelled again in 1474. Outbreaks of the Black Death were usually blamed on the Jews, at which times they were massacred. This unstable pattern, which was not typical for Mainz only, but for whole Europe at that time, went on until World War II. Nowadays the Jewish community is growing rapidly, and is considering the creation of a new synagogue. :de:Neue Synagoge Mainz The community itself has 1,034 members, according to the Central Council of Jews in Germany, and at least twice as many Jews altogether since many are unaffiliated with Judaism. Republic of Mainz During the French Revolution, the French Revolutionary army occupied Mainz in 1792; the Archbishop of Mainz, Friedrich Karl Josef von Erthal, had already fled to Aschaffenburg by the time the French marched in. On 18 March 1793, the Jacobins of Mainz, with other German democrats from about 130 towns in the Rhenish Palatinate, proclaimed the ‘Republic of Mainz’. Led by Georg Forster representatives of the Mainz Republic in Paris requested political affiliation of the Mainz Republic with France, but too late: As Prussia was not entirely happy with the idea of a democratic free state on German soil, Prussian troops had already occupied the area and besieged Mainz by the end of March, 1793. After a siege of 18 weeks, the French troops in Mainz surrendered on 23 July 1793; Prussians occupied the city and ended the Republic of Mainz. Members of the Mainz Jacobin Club were mistreated or imprisoned and punished for treason. Tombstone of Jeanbon Baron de St. André, Prefect of Napoleonic Mainz In 1797, the French returned. The army of Napoléon Bonaparte occupied the German territory to the west of the Rhine river, and the Treaty of Campo Formio awarded France this entire area. On 17 February 1800, the French Département du Mont-Tonnerre was founded here, with Mainz as its capital, the Rhine river being the new eastern frontier of la Grande Nation. Austria and Prussia could not but approve this new border with France in 1801. However, after several defeats in Europe during the next years, the weakened Napoléon and his troops had to leave Mainz in May 1814. Hessian Mainz In 1816, the part of the former French Département which is known today as Rhenish Hesse () was awarded to the Hesse-Darmstadt, Mainz being the capital of the new Hessian province of Rhenish Hesse. From 1816 to 1866, to the German Confederation Mainz was the most important fortress in the defence against France, and had a strong garrison of Austrian and Prussian troops. In the afternoon of 18 November 1857, a huge explosion rocked Mainz when the city’s powder magazine, the Pulverturm, exploded. Approximately 150 people were killed and at least 500 injured; 57 buildings were destroyed and a similar number severely damaged in what was to be known as the Powder Tower Explosion or Powder Explosion. During the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, Mainz was declared a neutral zone. After the founding of the German Empire in 1871, Mainz no longer was as important a stronghold, because in the war of 1870/71 France had lost the territory of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany, and this defined the new border between the two countries. Industrial expansion Mainz towards the Rhine river (around 1890). For centuries the inhabitants of the fortress of Mainz had suffered from a severe shortage of space which led to disease and other inconveniences. In 1872 Mayor Carl Wallau and the council of Mainz persuaded the military government to sign a contract to expand the city. Beginning in 1874, the city of Mainz assimilated the Gartenfeld, an idyllic area of meadows and fields along the banks of the Rhine River to the north of the rampart. The city expansion more than doubled the urban area which allowed Mainz to participate in the industrial revolution which had previously avoided the city for decades. |Mainz including expansion zone the Rhine river (1898). Eduard Kreyßig was the man who made this happen. Having been the master builder of the city of Mainz since 1865, Kreyßig had the vision for the new part of town, the Mainz Neustadt. He also planned the first sewer system for the old part of town since Roman times and persuaded the city government to relocate the railway line from the Rhine side to the west end of the town. The main station was built from 1882 to 1884 according to the plans of Philipp Johann Berdellé (1838–1903). The Mainz master builder constructed a number of state-of-the-art public buildings, including the Mainz town hall — which was the largest of its kind in Germany at that time — as well a synagogue, the Rhine harbour and a number of public baths and school buildings. Kreyßig's last work was Christ Church (Christuskirche), the largest Protestant church in the city and the first building constructed solely for the use of a Protestant congregation. In the 20th century After World War I the French occupied Mainz between 1919 and 1930 according to the Treaty of Versailles which went into effect 28 June 1919. The Rhineland (in which Mainz is located) was to be a demilitarized zone until 1935 and the French garrison, representing the Triple Entente, was to stay until reparations were paid. In 1923 Mainz participated in the Rhineland separatist movement that proclaimed a republic in the Rhineland. It collapsed in 1924. The French withdrew on 30 June 1930. Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany in January, 1933 and his political opponents, especially those of the Social Democratic Party, were either incarcerated or murdered. Some were able to move away from Mainz in time. One was the political organizer for the SPD, Friedrich Kellner, who went to Laubach, where as the chief justice inspector of the district court he continued his opposition against the Nazis by recording their misdeeds in a 900-page diary. In March, 1933, a detachment from the National Socialist Party in Worms brought the party to Mainz. They hoisted the swastika on all public buildings and began to denounce the Jewish population in the newspapers. In 1936 the forces of the Third Reich reentered the Rhineland with a great fanfare, the first move of the Third Reich's meteoric expansion. The former Triple Entente took no action. During World War II the citadel at Mainz hosted the Oflag XII-B prisoner of war camp. The Bishop of Mainz formed an organization to help Jews escape from Germany. During World War II, more than 30 air raids destroyed about 80 percent of Mainz city centre, including most of the historic buildings. Mainz fell to XII Corps, 90th Division, of the Third Army under the command of General George S. Patton, Jr. on 22 March 1945. Patton used the ancient strategic gateway through Germania Superior to cross the Rhine south of Mainz, drive down the Danube towards Czechoslovakia and end the possibility of a Bavarian redoubt crossing the Alps in Austria when the war ended. With regard to the Roman road over which Patton attacked Trier, he said: George S. Patton, War as I Knew It one could almost smell the coppery sweat and see the low dust clouds where those stark fighters moved forward into battle. From 1945 to 1949, the city was part of the French zone of occupation. When the federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate was founded on 18 May 1947, Koblenz was the temporary capital; in 1950 Mainz became the capital of the new state. In 1962, the diarist, Friedrich Kellner, returned to spend his last years in Mainz. His life in Mainz, and the impact of his writings, is the subject of the Canadian documentary My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner. Following the withdrawal of French forces from Mainz, the U.S. Army Europe occupied the military bases in Mainz. Today USAREUR only occupies McCulley Barracks in Wackernheim and the Mainz Sand Dunes for training area. Mainz is home to the headquarters of the Bundeswehr'''s Wehrbereichskommando II and other units. Community Mainz Rad and FSV Mainz 05 flags on the Domplatz Culture As city in the Greater Region, Mainz participated in the program of the year of European Capital of Culture 2007. The Walk of Fame of Cabaret may be found nearby the Schillerplatz. Every year in the period before Lent, Mainz celebrates one of Germany's largest Carnivals, culminating on Rosenmontag. The music publisher Schott Music is located in Mainz. The one of the oldest brass instrument manufacturer in the world, Gebr. Alexander is located in Mainz. Sport The local football club 1. FSV Mainz 05 has a long history in the German football leagues, but could reach the Fußball-Bundesliga (First German soccer league) a few years ago. It is currently intending to build a new stadium called Coface Arena. In 2007 the Mainz Athletics won the German Men's Championsship in baseball. As a result of the 2008 invasion of Georgia by Russian troops, Mainz acted as a neutral venue for the Georgian Vs Republic of Ireland football game. Attractions Interior of the Augustinerkirche, Mainz Roman-Germanic central museum (Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum). It is home to Roman, Medieval, and earlier artifacts. Antique Maritime Museum (Museum für Antike Schifffahrt). It houses the remains of five Roman boats from the late 4th century, discovered in the 1980s. Roman remains, including Jupiter's column, Drusus' mausoleum, the ruins of the theatre and the aqueduct. Mainz Cathedral of St. Martin (Mainzer Dom), over 1,000 years old. The Iron Tower (Eisenturm, tower at the former iron market), a tower from the 13th century. The Wood Tower (Holzturm, tower at the former wood market), a tower from the 14th century. The Gutenberg Museum – exhibits an original Gutenberg Bible amongst many other printed books from the 15th century and later. The Mainz Old Town – what's left of it, the quarter south of the cathedral survived World War II. The Electoral Palace (Kurfürstliches Schloss), residence of the prince-elector .Marktbrunnen, one of the largest Renaissance fountains in Germany.Domus Universitatis (1615), for centuries the tallest edifice in Mainz. Christ Church (Christuskirche), built 1898–1903, bombed in ’45 and rebuilt in 1948–1954. The Church of St. Stephan, with post-war windows by Marc Chagall. Citadel.Schönborner Hof (1668). Rococo churches of St. Augustin (the Augustinerkirche, Mainz) and St. Peter (the Petruskirche, Mainz). Church of St. Ignatius (1763). Erthaler Hof (1743). The Botanischer Garten der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, a botanical garden maintained by the university Economy Bonifatius center building. Wine centre Mainz is one of the centers of the German wine economy Culture and History (from the Mainz city council website. Accessed 2008-02-10.) as a center for wine trade and the seat of the state's wine minister. Due to the importance and history of the wine industry for the federal state, Rhineland-Palatinate is the only state to have such a department. The city is member of the Great Wine Capitals Global Network. Many wine traders also work in the town. The sparkling wine producer Kupferberg produces in Mainz-Hechtsheim and even Henkell — now located on the other side of the river Rhine — had been founded once in Mainz. The famous Blue Nun, one of the first branded wines, had been marketed by the family Sichel. Mainz had been a wine growing region since Roman times and the image of the wine town Mainz is fostered by the tourist center. The Haus des Deutschen Weines (English: House of the German Wine), is located in beside the theater. It is the seat of the German Wine Academy, the German Wine Institute (DWI) and the German Wine Fund (DWF). The Mainzer Weinmarkt (wine market) is one of the great wine fairs in Germany. Other industries The Schott AG, one of the world's largest glass manufactures, as well as the Werner & Mertz, a large chemical factory, are based in Mainz. Other companies such as IBM or Novo Nordisk have their German administration in Mainz as well. Johann-Joseph Krug, founder of France's famous Krug champagne house in 1843, was born in Mainz in 1800. The Port of Mainz, now handling mainly containers, is a sizable industrial area to the north of the city, along the banks of the Rhine. It will soon shift further northwards to open up space along the city's riverfront for residential development. Miscellaneous After the last ice age, sand dunes were deposited in the Rhine valley at what was to become the western edge of the city. The Mainz Sand Dunes area is now a nature reserve with a unique landscape and rare steppe vegetation for this area. Forum of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz. Johannes Gutenberg, credited with the invention of the modern printing press with movable type, was born here and died here. The Mainz University, which was refounded in 1946, is named after Gutenberg; the earlier University of Mainz that dated back to 1477 had been closed down by Napoleon's troops in 1798. Mainz was one of three important centers of Jewish theology and learning in Central Europe during the Middle Ages. Known collectively as Shum, the cities of Speyer, Worms and Mainz played a key role in the preservation and propagation of Talmudic scholarship. (See also: Gershom ben Judah) Mainz is famous for its Carnival, the Mainzer Fassenacht or Fassnacht, which has developed since the early 19th century. Carnival in Mainz has its roots in the criticism of social and political injustices under the shelter of cap and bells; today, the uniforms of many traditional Carnival clubs still imitate and caricature the uniforms of the French and Prussian troops of the past. The height of the carnival season is on Rosenmontag ("rose Monday", before Ash Wednesday), when there is a large parade in Mainz, with more than 500,000 people celebrating in the streets. The first ever Katholikentag, a festival-like gathering of German Catholics, was held in Mainz in 1848. The city is well-known in Germany as the seat of Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (literally, "Second German Television", ZDF), one of two federal nationwide TV broadcasters. There are also a couple of radio stations based in Mainz. According to legend, Mainz is the supposed birthplace of Pope Joan (John Anglicus), the woman who, disguised as a man, was elected pope, and served for two years during the Middle Ages. Notable people List of people related to Mainz Archbishops of Mainz List of mayors of Mainz Twinning Mainz is twinned with: Watford, United Kingdom, since 1956 Dijon, France, since 1957 Longchamp, France, since 1966 Zagreb, Croatia, since 1967 Rodeneck/Rodengo, Italy, since 1977 Valencia, Spain, since 1978 Haifa, Israel, since 1981 Erfurt, former East Germany, since 1988 Baku, Azerbaijan, since 1984 Louisville, Kentucky, USA, since 1994 Alternative names Mainz is called by a number of different names in other languages and dialects. These include: Määnz (formerly Meenz) in the local West Middle German dialect, and Mentz in English or Mayence in French. The latter name was also used in English, but this usage of Mayence has almost completely disappeared, although Google Maps and Google Earth use it. Other names for this city are: Magonza (Italian), Maguncia (Spanish), Majnc (Serbian), Mogúncia (Portuguese), Moguncja (Polish), Moguntiacum (Latin), and Mohuč (Czech, Slovak). See also Mainz at Wikitravel References and notes Further reading Denis B. Saddington: The stationing of auxiliary regiments in Germania Superior in the Julio-Claudian period. Valerie M. Hope: Constructing Identity: The Roman Funerary Monuments of Aquelia, Mainz and Nimes; British Archaeological Reports (16. Juli 2001) ISBN 978-1841711805 Michael Imhof, Simone Kestin: Mainz City and Cathedral Guide.'' Michael Imhof Verlag; (15. September 2004) ISBN 978-3937251936 External links The official web site of the city of Mainz | Mainz |@lemmatized mainz:149 city:40 germany:13 capital:11 german:21 federal:4 state:11 rhineland:8 palatinate:5 politically:1 important:9 seat:5 prince:2 elector:3 see:6 archbishopric:1 holy:4 roman:40 empire:11 previously:3 fort:6 command:3 west:5 bank:5 rhine:26 form:4 part:8 northernmost:1 frontier:3 twentieth:1 century:16 usually:2 refer:2 english:4 mayence:3 two:9 thousand:1 year:11 history:5 locate:7 river:14 across:2 wiesbaden:2 western:5 frankfurt:3 main:10 region:5 modern:3 age:5 share:1 much:2 regional:1 importance:2 geography:1 opposite:2 confluence:2 population:4 additional:1 people:9 maintain:2 primary:1 residence:2 elsewhere:1 second:3 home:3 also:11 rhein:1 metro:1 area:11 consist:2 million:1 easily:1 reach:3 international:2 airport:1 minute:1 commuter:1 railway:2 bahn:1 district:11 altstadt:2 neustadt:3 mombach:2 gonsenheim:2 hartenberg:2 münchfeld:2 oberstadt:2 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2,245 | Gaza_Strip | The Gaza Strip ( , Retzu'at 'Azza) is a coastal strip of land along the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Egypt on the south-west and Israel on the south, east and north. It is about long, and between 6 and 12 kilometers (4–7.5 mi) wide, with a total area of . The area is recognized internationally as part of the Palestinian territories. Actual control of the area is in the hands of Hamas, an organization which won civil parliamentary Palestinian Authority elections in 2006 and took over the de facto government in the Gaza Strip from the Palestinian Authority by way of its own armed militia in July 2007, whilst violently removing the Palestinian Authority's security forces and civil servants from the Gaza Strip. Egypt governed the Gaza Strip from 1948-67, the area of the southern border between the Gaza strip and the Sinai desert, a border now famous for the breach in late 2008 - 09 and the smuggling of missiles through underground tunnels Gaza conflict: Timeline. BBC News, 18 January 2009 . Israel governed the Gaza Strip from 1967-2005. Pursuant to the Oslo Accords signed between Israel and the Palestinian Liberation Organisation, Israel maintains military control of the Gaza strip's airspace, land borders and territorial waters. The territory takes its name from Gaza, its main city. It has about 1.4 million Palestinian residents. CIA World Fact Book - Gaza Strip Most are either refugees or descended from refugees of the Palestinian exodus. History Ancient history until mid-16th century (15th century BC-1517) The first mention of the city of Gaza was in the 15th century BC. In the Hebrew Bible, after Samson was delivered into bondage by Delilah he died while toppling the Temple of the god Dagon there. In the 13th century BC the area was taken over by the Philistines, whose coastal power base of Philistia approximated roughly to the modern Strip. The name Palestine is derived from "Philistia" and "Philistines," via the Greek and Latin languages. The Gaza area changed hands many times over the next 2,000 years. It fell, successively, to the Israelite King David (in 1000 BC), to the Assyrians (in 732 BC), Egyptians, Babylonians (in 586 BC), Persians (in 525 BC), and Greeks. Alexander the Great met stiff resistance there (in 332 BC). After conquering it, he sold its inhabitants into slavery. Ottoman and British control (1517-1948) In 1517 Gaza fell to the Ottoman empire who ruled it from 1517-1799. Napoleon captured Gaza City in 1799. Starting in the early 1800s, Gaza was culturally dominated by neighboring Egypt. Muhammad Ali made Gaza a part of Egypt in 1832. Though Gaza was recaptured by the Ottoman Empire, a large number of its residents were Egyptians (and their descendants) who had fled political turmoil. The region served as a battlefield during the First World War (1914-18), with the British and Ottomans fighting in the Sinai and Palestine. Gaza, which controlled the coastal route, was taken by the British in the Third Battle of Gaza on 7 November, 1917. The British government has financially supported the maintenance of a cemetery for fallen British soldiers from WWI. http://www.cwgc.org/search/cemetery_details.aspx?cemetery=71701&mode=1 Following World War I, Gaza became part of the British Mandate of Palestine under the authority of the League of Nations. Encarta , which required Britain to implement the Balfour Declaration establishing in Palestine a "national home for the Jewish people, it being clearly understood that nothing should be done which might prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine." Palestine Mandate . Jews were present in Gaza from antiquity until the 1929 Palestine riots, when Arabs forced the Jews to leave Gaza. After that the British prohibited Jews from living in the area, though some Jews returned and, in 1946, re-established kibbutz Kfar Darom in central Gaza which had been destroyed in the 1936-39 Arab revolt in Palestine. Jewish Virtual Library Paying the Price for Peace British rule of Palestine ended with the expiration of the British Mandate and the Israeli Declaration of Independence on May 14, 1948. Egyptian control (1948-67) According to the terms of the 1947 United Nations partition plan, the Gaza area was to become part of a new Arab state. However, the Arabs rejected the UN plan. When, following the dissolution of the British mandate of Palestine and 1947-1948 Civil War in Palestine, Israel declared its independence in May 1948, the Egyptian army invaded the area from the south, triggering the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. The Gaza Strip as it is known today was the product of the subsequent 1949 Armistice Agreements between Egypt and Israel, often referred to as the Green Line. Egypt then occupied the Strip from 1949 (except for four months of Israeli occupation during the 1956 Suez Crisis) until 1967. The Strip's population was greatly augmented by an influx of Palestinian Arab refugees who fled from Israel during the fighting. Towards the end of the war, the All-Palestine Government (Arabic: حكومة عموم فلسطين hukumat 'umum Filastin) was proclaimed in Gaza City on 22 September, 1948 by the Arab League. It was conceived partly as an Arab League attempt to limit the influence of Transjordan over the Palestinian issue. The government was not recognized by Transjordan or any non-Arab country. It was little more than a façade under Egyptian control, had negligible influence or funding, and subsequently moved to Cairo. Palestinians living in the Gaza Strip or Egypt were issued All-Palestine passports until 1959, when Gamal Abdul Nasser, President of Egypt, annulled the All-Palestine government by decree. Egypt never annexed the Gaza Strip, but instead treated it as a controlled territory and administered it through a military governor. The History Channel Arab refugees from the 1948 Arab–Israeli War were never offered Egyptian citizenship. During the Sinai campaign of November 1956, the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula were occupied by Israeli troops. International pressure led Israel to withdraw. Israeli control (1967-94) Israel controlled the Gaza Strip again beginning in June 1967, after the Six-Day War. During the period of Israeli control, Israel created a settlement bloc, Gush Katif, in the southwest corner of the Strip near Rafah and the Egyptian border. In total Israel created 21 settlements in the Gaza Strip, comprising 20% of the total territory. Besides ideological reasons for being there, these settlements also served Israel's security concerns. The Gaza Strip remained under Israeli military administration until 1994. During that period the military administration was also responsible for the maintenance of civil facilities and services. In March 1979 Israel and Egypt signed the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty. Among other things, the treaty provided for the withdrawal by Israel of its armed forces and civilians from the Sinai Peninsula, which Israel had captured during the Six-Day War. The final status of the Gaza Strip, and other relations between Israel and Palestinians, was not dealt with in the treaty. The treaty did settle the international border between the Gaza Strip and Egypt. Egypt renounced all territorial claims to the region beyond the international border. In May 1994, following the Palestinian-Israeli agreements known as the Oslo Accords, a phased transfer of governmental authority to the Palestinians took place. Much of the Strip (except for the settlement blocs and military areas) came under Palestinian control. The Israeli forces left Gaza City and other urban areas, leaving the new Palestinian Authority to administer and police the Strip. The Palestinian Authority, led by Yasser Arafat, chose Gaza City as its first provincial headquarters. In September 1995, Israel and the PLO signed a second peace agreement, extending the Palestinian Authority to most West Bank towns. The agreement also established an elected 88-member Palestinian National Council, which held its inaugural session in Gaza in March 1996. The PA rule of the Gaza Strip and West Bank under leadership of Arafat suffered from serious mismanagement and corruption. Exorbitant bribes were demanded for allowing goods to pass in and out of the Gaza Strip, while heads of the Preventive Security Service apparatus profited from their involvement in the gravel import and cement and construction industries, such as the Great Arab Company for Investment and Development, the al-Motawaset Company, and the al-Sheik Zayid construction project. The Atlantic The Second Intifada broke out in September 2000 with its waves of terror bombing attacks against Israeli civilians and military, many of them perpetrated by suicide bombers, and the beginning of rockets and bombings of Israeli border localities by Palestinian guerrillas from Gaza Strip, especially from Hamas and Jihad Islami movements. In February 2005, the Israeli government voted to implement a unilateral disengagement plan from the Gaza Strip. The plan began to be implemented on 15 August 2005, and was completed on 12 September 2005. Under the plan, all Israeli settlements in the Gaza Strip (and four in the West Bank) and the joint Israeli-Palestinian Erez Industrial Zone were dismantled with the removal of all 9,000 Israeli settlers (most of them in the Gush Katif settlement area in the Strip's southwest) and military bases. On 12 September 2005 the Israeli cabinet formally declared an end to Israeli military rule in the Gaza Strip. To avoid any allegation that it was still in occupation of any part of the Gaza Strip, Israel also withdrew from the Philadelphi Route, which is a narrow strip adjacent to the Strip's border with Egypt, after Egypt's agreement to secure its side of the border. Under the Oslo Accords the Philadelphi Route was to remain under Israeli control to prevent the smuggling of materials (such as ammunition) and people across the border with Egypt. With Egypt agreeing to patrol its side of the border, it was hoped that the objective would be achieved. However, Israel maintained its control over the crossings in and out of Gaza. The Rafah crossing between Egypt and Gaza was monitored by the Israeli army through special surveillance cameras. Official documents such as passports, I.D. cards, export and import papers, and many others had to be approved by the Israeli army. Israel-Gaza Strip barrier The Israeli Gaza Strip barrier is a separation barrier first constructed under the leadership of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin. It was completed in 1996, but was largely torn down by Palestinians at the beginning of the Al-Aqsa Intifada. The stated purpose is security and counter-terrorism. Between December 2000 and June 2001, the part of the barrier separating the Gaza Strip from Israel was reconstructed. Completely encircling the Gaza Strip, the barrier is made up of wire fencing with posts, sensors, high technology observation posts and buffer zones on lands bordering Israel, and concrete and steel walls on lands bordering Egypt. A concrete wall over eight metres high equipped with electronic sensors and underground concrete barriers to prevent tunnelling was constructed in 2005, adding to the already existent steel wall running the length of the border with Egypt. Israel established a 200-300 meter buffer zone known as the "Philadelphi Route" or Philadelphi corridor. There are three main crossing points in the barrier: the northern Erez Crossing into Israel, the southern Rafah Crossing into Egypt, and the eastern Karni Crossing used only for cargo. Dispute over occupation status Under international law there are certain laws of war governing military occupation, including the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 and the Fourth Geneva Convention. Occupation and international humanitarian law: questions and answers, International Committee of the Red Cross, 2004. Israel states that Gaza is no longer occupied, inasmuch as Israel does not exercise effective control or authority over any land or institutions in the Gaza Strip. Dore Gold, JCPA Legal Acrobatics: The Palestinian Claim that Gaza is Still "Occupied" Even After Israel Withdraws, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 3, August 26, 2005. International Law and Gaza: The Assault on Israel's Right to Self-Defense, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 29 28 January 2008. Foreign Affairs Minister of Israel Tzipi Livni stated in January, 2008: “Israel got out of Gaza. It dismantled its settlements there. No Israeli soldiers were left there after the disengagement.” Israeli MFA Address by Israeli Foreign Minister Livni to the 8th Herzliya Conference, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Israel), January 22, 2008. However, this has been disputed because Gaza does not belong to any sovereign state and because of Israel’s effective control of the borders of Gaza, including its long ocean border. Immediately after Israel withdrew in 2005, Palestine Authority Chairman Mahmoud Abbas stated, "the legal status of the areas slated for evacuation has not changed." Soon after Palestinian American attorney Gregory Khalil said “Israel still controls every person, every good, literally every drop of water to enter or leave the Gaza Strip. Its troops may not be there … but it still restricts the ability for the Palestinian authority to exercise control.” Panelists Disagree Over Gaza’s Occupation Status, University of Virginia School of Law, November 17, 2005. Human Rights Watch also contested that this ended the occupation. "Israel: 'Disengagement' Will Not End Gaza Occupation" Human Rights Watch. October 29, 2004 "Human Rights Council Special Session on the Occupied Palestinian Territories" July 6, 2006" The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs maintains an office on “Occupied Palestinian Territory,” which concerns itself with the Gaza Strip. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs office on Occupied Palestinian Territory web site. A July 2004 opinion of the International Court of Justice treated Gaza as part of the occupied territories. Summary of the Advisory Opinion: Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, International Court of Justice, July 9, 2004. In his statement on the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict Richard Falk, United Nations Special Rapporteur on "the situation of human rights in the Palestinian territories" wrote that international humanitarian law applied to Israel “in regard to the obligations of an Occupying Power and in the requirements of the laws of war." Richard Falk, Statement by Prof. Richard Falk, United Nations Special Rapporteur for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories, United Nations Human Rights Council, December 27, 2008. In a 2009 interview on Democracy Now Christopher Gunness, spokesperson for the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) contends that Israel is an occupying power . However, Meagan Buren, Senior Adviser to the Israel Project, contests that characterization. [http://www.democracynow.org/2009/1/5/a_debate_on_israels_invasion_of A Debate on Israel’s Invasion of Gaza: UNRWA’s Christopher Gunness v. Israel Project’s Meagan Buren Democracy Now, January 5, 2009. Palestinian Authority control (1994-2007) In accordance with the Oslo Accords, the Palestinian Authority took over the administrative authority of the Gaza Strip (other than the settlement blocs and military areas) in 1994. After the complete Israeli withdrawal of Israeli settlers and military from the Gaza Strip on 12 September 2005, the Palestinian Authority had complete administrative authority in the Gaza Strip. Since the Israeli withdrawal the Rafah Border Crossing has been supervised by EU Border Assistance Mission Rafah under an Agreement finalised in November 2005. . Israel continues to assert control over activities that rely on transit through Israel, as well as air space over and sea access to ports in Gaza. Israel approves all immigration to and emigration from Gaza via Israel, as well as entry by foreigners via Israel, imports and exports via Israel, and collection and reimbursement of value-added tax in Israel. Violence in the wake of 2006 election In the Palestinian parliamentary elections held on January 25, 2006, Hamas won a plurality of 42.9% of the total vote and 74 out of 132 total seats (56%). Counting underway in Palestinian elections, International Herald Tribune, 1/25/2006. Election officials reduce Hamas seats by two, ABC News Online, 1/30/2006. When Hamas assumed power the next month, the Israeli government and the key players of the international community, the United States and the EU refused to recognize its right to govern Palestine. Direct aid to the Palestinian government there was cut off, although some of that money was redirected to humanitarian organizations not affiliated with the government. U.S. and Europe Halt Aid to Palestinian Government, 4/8/2006 The resulting political disorder and economic stagnation led to many Palestinians emigrating from the Gaza Strip. More Palestinians flee homelands, Sarah El Deeb, Associated Press, December 9, 2006. In January 2007, fighting erupted between Hamas and Fatah. The deadliest clashes occurred in the northern Gaza Strip, where General Muhammed Gharib, a senior commander of the Fatah-dominated Preventative Security Force, died when a rocket hit his home. Gharib's two daughters and two bodyguards were also killed in the attack, which was carried out by Hamas gunmen. Hamas, Fatah continue clashes; 8 killed, jpost.com, 1/3/07. At the end of January 2007, a truce was negotiated between Fatah and Hamas. Palestinian Cease-Fire Holds on 1st Day, Ibrahim Barzak, 1/31/07, Associated Press; Cease-Fire Starts Taking Hold in Gaza Ibrahim Barzak, 1/30/07, Associated Press. However, after a few days, new fighting broke out. Hamas attacks convoy Associated Press, 2/1/07. Fatah fighters stormed a Hamas-affiliated university in the Gaza Strip. Officers from Abbas' presidential guard battled Hamas gunmen guarding the Hamas-led Interior Ministry. Gaza erupts in fatal clashes after truce, Associated Press, 2/2/07. In May 2007, new fighting broke out between the factions. Hamas kills 8 in Gaza border clash, By Ibrahim Barzak, Associated Press Writer, 5/15/07. Interior Minister Hani Qawasmi, who had been considered a moderate civil servant acceptable to both factions, resigned due to what he termed harmful behavior by both sides. Top Palestinian security official quits By Sarah El Deeb, Associated Press, 5/14/07; Resignation deepens Gaza crisis, BBC, 5/14/07. Fighting spread in the Gaza Strip with both factions attacking vehicles and facilities of the other side. In response to constant attacks by rocket fire from the Gaza Strip, Israel launched an air strike which destroyed a building used by Hamas. Ongoing violence prompted fear that it could bring the end of the Fatah-Hamas coalition government, and possibly the end of the Palestinian authority. Israel attacks in Gaza amid factional violence, by Nidal al-Mughrabi, Associated Press, 5/16/07. Hamas spokeman Moussa Abu Marzouk placed the blame for the worsening situation in the Strip upon Israel, stating that the constant pressure of economic sanctions upon Gaza resulted in the "real explosion." Hamas Blames World, Associated Press, 5/16/07. Expressions of concerns were received from many Arab leaders, with many offering to try to help by doing some diplomatic work between the two factions. Gaza bloodshed alarms West's Arab allies by Hala Boncompagni, Associated Press, 5/16/07. One journalist wrote an eyewitness account stating: Hamas control (2007-present) Hamas take-over of the Strip In June 2007, the Palestinian Civil War between Hamas (Islamic Resistance Movement) and Fatah (Palestine Liberation Movement) intensified. Hamas routed Fatah after winning the democratic election, and by 14 June 2007 controlled the Gaza strip. Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas responded by declaring a state of emergency, dissolving the unity government and forming a new government without Hamas participation. PNA security forces in the West Bank arrested a number of Hamas members. Abbas's government won widespread international support. In late June 2008 Egypt, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia said that the West Bank-based Cabinet formed by Abbas was the sole legitimate Palestinian government, and Egypt moved its embassy from Gaza to the West Bank. Ha'aretz The Hamas government in the Gaza Strip faces international, diplomatic, and economic isolation. However, both Saudi Arabia and Egypt supported reconciliation and the forming of a new unity government, and pressed Abbas to start serious talks with Hamas. Abbas had always conditioned this on Hamas returning control of the Gaza Strip to the Palestinian Authority. Hamas has been invited to and has visited a number of countries, including Russia, and in the countries, opposition parties and politicians called for a dialogue with Hamas and an end to the economic sanctions. After the takeover, Israel and Egypt closed its border crossings with Gaza. Palestinian sources reported that European Union monitors fled the Rafah Border Crossing, on the Gaza-Israel border for fear of being kidnapped or harmed. http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull&cid=1139395602714 Arab foreign ministers and Palestinian officials presented a united front against control of the border by Hamas. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2008/01/2008525125823983496.html Meanwhile, Israeli and Egyptian security reports claimed that Hamas continued smuggling in large quantities of explosives and arms from Egypt through tunnels. Egyptian security forces uncovered 60 tunnels in 2007. Conditions after the Hamas take-over After Hamas' June victory, it started ousting Fatah-linked officials from positions of power and authority in the Strip (such as government positions, security services, universities, newspapers, etc.) and strove to enforce law in the Strip by progressively removing guns from the hands of peripheral militias, clans, and criminal groups, and gaining control of supply tunnels. According to Amnesty International, under Hamas rule, newspapers have been closed down and journalists have been harassed. Fatah demonstrations have been forbidden or suppressed, as in the case of a large demonstration on the anniversary of Yasser Arafat's death, which resulted in the deaths of seven people, after protesters hurled stones at Hamas security forces. Hamas kills seven at Arafat rally in Gaza , AFP, (via SBS World News Australia), 11/13/07. Christians were also threatened and assaulted in the Gaza Strip. The owner of a Christian bookshop was abducted and murdered, and on 15 February 2008, the Christian Youth Organization's library in Gaza City was bombed. Hamas has used hospitals and other public buildings as staging grounds for attacks and retaliation, http://news.aol.com/article/hezbollah-like-tactic-used-by-hamas/291104 which has resulted in Fatah responding in kind. http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/868784.html Hamas and other Gazan militant groups continued to fire home made Qassam rockets from the Strip across the border into Israel. According to Israel, between the Hamas takeover of the Gaza Strip and the end of January 2008, 697 rockets and 822 mortar bombs were fired at Israeli towns. Israeli MFA In response, Israel targeted home made Qassam launchers and military targets and on 19 September 2007, declared the Gaza Strip a hostile entity. In January 2008 the situation escalated; Israel curtailed travel from Gaza, the entry of goods, and cut fuel supplies to the Strip on 19 January 2008, resulting in power shortages. This brought charges that Israel was inflicting collective punishment on the Gaza population, leading to international condemnation. Despite multiple reports from within the Strip that food and other essentials were in extremely short supply, : http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/5122404.stm Israel countered that Gaza had enough food and energy supplies for weeks. Ynet news In early March 2008, air strikes and ground incursions into the Strip by the IDF led to the deaths of over 110 Palestinians and extensive damage to Jabalia. Dozens die in Israel-Gaza clashes BBC News. 2 March 2008. The Egyptian border continues to remain closed with no significant international pressure to open it. http://washingtontimes.com/news/2008/dec/30/militants-attack-egypt-refuses-open-border/ Barrier breach On 23 January 2008, after months of preparation during which the steel reinforcement of the border barrier was weakened, Ha'aretz Hamas destroyed several parts of the wall dividing Gaza and Egypt in the town of Rafah. Hundreds of thousands of Gazans crossed the border into Egypt seeking food and supplies. Due to the crisis, Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak ordered his troops to allow the Palestinians in but to verify that they did not bring weapons back across the border. {{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7205668.stm|title=Egypt 'won't force Gazans back'|publisher=BBC News|date=23 January 2008|accessdate=2008-01-23}} Egypt arrested and later released several armed Hamas militants in the Sinai who presumably wanted to infiltrate into Israel. At the same time, Israel increased its state of alert along the length of the Israel-Egypt Sinai border, and warned its citizens to leave Sinai "without delay." The EU Border Monitors indicated their readiness to return to monitor the border, should Hamas guarantee their safety; while the Palestinian Authority demanded that Egypt deal only with the Authority in negotiations relating to borders. Israel eased up some influx of goods and medical supplies to the strip, but it curtailed electricity by 5% in one of its ten lines, while Hamas and Egypt shored up some of the gaping holes between the two areas. The first attempts by Egypt to reclose the border were met by violent clashes with Gaza gunmen, but after 12 days the borders were sealed again. By mid-February the Rafah crossing remained closed. Maan news In February 2008 a Haaretz poll indicated that 64% of Israelis favour their government holding direct talks with Hamas in Gaza about a cease-fire and to secure the release of Gilad Shalit, an Israeli soldier who was captured in a cross border raid by Hamas militants on 25 June 2006 and has been held hostage since. 'Israelis threaten a broader action' by Ian Fisher and Steven Erlanger, International Herald Tribune Gilad Shalit's birthday marked 'Militants issue Israel hostage demands'(CNN) Conflict continues In February 2008, Israeli-Palestinian fighting intensified with rockets launched at Israeli cities and Israel attacking Palestinian gunmen. Military aggression by Israel led to a heavy Israeli military action on 1 March 2008, resulting in over 100 Palestinians being killed according to BBC News, as well as two Israeli soldiers. Israeli human rights group B'Tselem estimated that 45 of those killed were not involved in hostilities, and 15 were minors. Israeli Gaza operation 'not over' After a round of tit-for-tat arrests between Fatah and Hamas in the Gaza strip and West Bank, the Hilles clan from Gaza were relocated to Jericho on 4 August 2008. Jerusalem Post 4 August 2008 IDF: Hilles clan won't boost terrorism by Yaacov Katz And Khaled Abu Toameh Retiring Prime Minister Ehud Olmert said on 11 November 2008, "The question is not whether there will be a confrontation, but when it will take place, under what circumstances, and who will control these circumstances, who will dictate them, and who will know to exploit the time from the beginning of the ceasefire until the moment of confrontation in the best possible way.” On 14 November 2008, Gaza was blockaded by Israel in response to the rocket and mortar attacks by Hamas and other militant groups operating inside Gaza, http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-gaza14-2008nov14,0,5998371.story however food, power and water can still enter from Egypt if the Egyptian authorities allow it. After a 24-hour period in which not a single Qassam rocket or mortar was fired into Israel, on 24 November 2008 the IDF facilitated the transfer of over 30 truckloads of food, basic supplies and medicine into the Gaza Strip, and it also transferred fuel to the main power plant of the area. http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1226404825125&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull On 25 November 2008 Israel closed its cargo crossing with Gaza due to two rockets being shot at Israel. http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1226404835055&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull Current situation On 27 December, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/28/world/middleeast/28mideast.html Israeli F-16 strike fighters launched a series of air strikes against targets in Gaza. Struck were militant bases, a mosque, various Hamas government buildings, a science building in the Islamic University, and a U.N.-operated elementary school in a Palestinian refugee camp. Haaretz, January 7, 2009, http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1053233.html Israel claimed that the attack was a response to Hamas rocket attacks on southern Israel, which totaled over 3,000 in 2008, and which intensified during the few weeks preceding the operation. UN medical staff were killed by Israeli combatants during the attacks. Palestinian medical staff said at least 434 Palestinians were killed, and at least 2,800 wounded, made up mostly civilians and some Hamas members, in the first five days of Israeli strikes on Gaza. Israel began a ground invasion of the Gaza Strip on 3 January, 2009. http://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2009/01/03/world/international-palestinians-israel.html Hamas has rejected diplomatic initiatives for a negotiated cease-fire, citing the enormous number of civilian deaths. McClatchy Newspapers, January 5, 2009, "Israel Rebuffs Cease-Fire Calls as Gaza Casualties Rise" http://www.mcclatchydc.com/world/story/58981.html http://www.usnews.com/blogs/mideast-watch/2009/01/12/hamas-rejects-cease-fire-with-israel-in-gaza.html In total more than 1,300 Palestinians and 13 Israelis were killed in the 22-day war. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/20/world/middleeast/20mideast.html?hp After 22 days of fighting, Israel agreed to a unilateral cease-fire, while insisting on holding its positions, while Hamas has vowed to fight on if Israeli forces do not leave the Strip. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/18/world/middleeast/18mideast.html?hp 5,000 homes, 16 government buildings, and 20 mosques were destroyed. 25,000 homes were damaged. http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/uk-world-news/2009/01/20/israelis-destroyed-25-000-homes-in-gaza-palestinians-say-86908-21054944/ A few weeks after the cease-fire the situation is similar to the one in the 2008 "lull," with continuous rocket and mortar shell attacks from Gaza into Israel, and the IDF responding with airstrikes. The frequency of the attacks can be observed in the thumbnailed graph. The data corresponds to Timeline of the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict, using mainly Haaretz news reports from the 1st of February http://haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1060562.html up to the 28th. http://haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1067547.html Government and politics Israel disengaged from the coastal strip in 2005. Hamas assumed administrative control of Gaza following the 2006 Palestinian legislative elections and its 2007 military victory over Fatah, the secular Palestinian nationalist party. Although Israel launched this offensive, Hamas militants continued to fire large series of rockets into Sderot and other coastline areas of Israel. Geography The Gaza Strip is located in the Middle East (at ). It has a border with Israel, and an 11 km border with Egypt, near the city of Rafah. Khan Yunis is located northeast of Rafah, and several towns around Deir el-Balah are located along the coast between it and Gaza City. Beit Lahia and Beit Hanoun are located to the north and northeast of Gaza City, respectively. The Gush Katif bloc of Israeli localities used to exist on the sand dunes adjacent to Rafah and Khan Yunis, along the southwestern edge of the Mediterranean coastline. Gaza strip has a temperate climate, with mild winters, and dry, hot summers subject to drought. The terrain is flat or rolling, with dunes near the coast. The highest point is Abu 'Awdah (Joz Abu 'Auda), at above sea level. Natural resources include arable land (about a third of the strip is irrigated), and recently discovered natural gas. Environmental issues include desertification; salination of fresh water; sewage treatment; water-borne disease; soil degradation; and depletion and contamination of underground water resources. The Strip currently holds the oldest known remains of a man-made bonfire, and some of the world's oldest dated human skeletons. It occupies territory similar to that of ancient Philistia, and is occasionally known by that name. Demographics In 2007 approximately 1.4 million Palestinians live in the Gaza Strip, of whom almost 1.0 million are UN-registered refugees. UNRWA: palestine refugees The majority of the Palestinians are descendants of refugees who were driven from their homes during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. The Strip's population has continued to increase since that time, one of the main reasons being a total fertility rate of more than 5 children per woman. In a ranking by total fertility rate, this places Gaza 30th of 222 regions. CIA.gov The vast majority of the population are Sunni Muslims, with an estimated 2,000 to 3,000 Christians. Middle East Christians: Gaza pastor BBC News, 21 December 2005 In December 2007, Israel permitted 400 Gaza Christians to travel through Israel to Bethlehem for Christmas. Even though they were restricted by travel permits, many Christian families took the opportunity to settle in the West Bank, despite the illegality. One of the largest foreign communities in the Gaza Strip was the approximately 500 women from the former Soviet Union. During the Soviet era, the Communist Party subsidized university studies for thousands of students from Yemen, Egypt, Syria and the territories. Some of them got married during their studies and brought their Russian and Ukrainian spouses back home. However, over half of them were able to leave the Strip via the Erez crossing to Amman within days of Hamas's takeover. From there they have flown back to Eastern Europe. Jpost Economy Economic output in the Gaza Strip declined by about one-third between 1992 and 1996. This downturn has been variously attributed to corruption and mismanagement by Yasser Arafat, and to Israeli closure policies. An important hindrance to economic development is the lack of a sea harbour. A harbour was built in Gaza city with help from France and the Netherlands, but was regularly bombed by Israel. As a result, any international transports (both trade and aid) have to go through Israel, which are hindered by the imposition of generalized border closures. These also disrupted previously established labor and commodity market relationships between Israel and the Strip. A serious negative social effect of this downturn was the emergence of high unemployment. Israel's use of comprehensive closures decreased during the next few years and, in 1998, Israel implemented new policies to reduce the impact of closures and other security procedures on the movement of Palestinian goods and labor into Israel. These changes fueled an almost three-year-long economic recovery in the Gaza Strip. Recovery ended with the outbreak of the al-Aqsa Intifada in the last quarter of 2000. The al-Aqsa Intifada triggered tight IDF closures of the border with Israel, as well as frequent curbs on traffic in Palestinian self-rule areas, severely disrupting trade and labor movements. In 2001, and even more severely in early 2002, internal turmoil and Israeli military measures in Palestinian Authority areas resulted in the destruction of capital plant and administrative structure, widespread business closures, and a sharp drop in GDP. Another major factor has been the decline of income earned due to reduction in the number of Gazans permitted entry to work in Israel. After the Israeli withdrawal from Gaza, the flow of a limited number of workers into Israel again resumed, although Israel has stated its intention to reduce or end such permits due to the victory of Hamas in the 2006 parliamentary elections. The Israeli settlers of Gush Katif built greenhouses and experimented with new forms of agriculture. These greenhouses also provided employment for many hundred Gazan Palestinians. When Israel withdrew from the Gaza Strip in the Summer of 2005, some of the greenhouses were purchased with money raised by former World Bank president James Wolfensohn, and given to the Palestinian people to jump-start their economy, while others were demolished by the departing Israeli settlers Israeli Settlers Demolish Greenhouses and Gaza Jobs New York Times, 15 July 2005 . However, the effort faltered due to limited water supply, Palestinian looting, inability to export produce due to Israeli border restrictions, and corruption in the Palestinian Authority. Many Palestinian companies have been repairing Greenhouses damaged and looted in the process of Israeli withdrawal. Looters strip Gaza greenhouses According to the CIA World Factbook, GDP in 2001 declined 35% to a per capita income of $625 a year, and 60% of the population is now below the poverty line. Gaza Strip industries are generally small family businesses that produce textiles, soap, olive-wood carvings, and mother-of-pearl souvenirs; the Israelis have established some small-scale modern industries in an industrial center. Israel supplies the Gaza Strip with electricity. The main agricultural products are olives, citrus, vegetables, Halal beef, and dairy products. Primary exports are citrus and cut flowers, while primary imports are food, consumer goods, and construction materials. The main trade partners of the Gaza Strip are Israel, Egypt, and the West Bank. Before the second Palestinian uprising broke out in September 2000, around 25,000 workers from the Gaza Strip (about 2% of the population) used to work in Israel every day. AFP Israel, the United States, Canada, and the European Union have frozen all funds to the Palestinian government after the formation of a Hamas-controlled government after its victory in the 2006 Palestinian legislative election. They view the group as a terrorist organization, and have pressured Hamas to recognize Israel, renounce violence, and agree to past agreements. Since Israel's withdrawal and its subsequent blockade, the gross domestic product of the Gaza Strip has been crippled. The enterprise and industry of the former Jewish villages has been impaired, and the previously established work relationships between Israel and the Gaza Strip have been disrupted. Job opportunities in Israel for Gaza Palestinians have been largely lost. Prior to disengagement, 120,000 Palestinians from Gaza were employed in Israel or in joint projects. Only about 20,000 have been able to keep these jobs. After the 2006 elections, fighting broke out between Fatah and Hamas, which Hamas won in the Gaza Strip on 14 June 2007. After that, all contact between the outside world and the Strip has been severed by Israel. The only goods permitted into the Strip through the land crossings are goods of a humanitarian nature. Health A study carried out by Johns Hopkins University (U.S.) and Al-Quds University (in Jerusalem) for CARE International in late 2002 revealed very high levels of dietary deficiency among the Palestinian population. The study found that 17.5% of children aged 6–59 months suffered from chronic malnutrition. 53% of women of reproductive age and 44% of children were found to be anemic(as opposed to 37.5% of Israeli woman and 30% of Israeli babies). In the aftermath of the Israeli withdrawal of August and September 2005, the healthcare system in Gaza continues to face severe challenges. http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm//lf_nm/mideast_gaza_health_dc After the Hamas takeover of the Gaza Strip and the subsequent Israeli declaration of Gaza Strip as a "hostile entity", the health conditions in Gaza Strip faces new challenges exacerbated by the intensified Israeli closure. WHO expressed its concerns about the consequences of the Palestinian internal political fragmentation; the socioeconomic decline; military actions; and the physical, psychological and economic isolation on the health of the population in Gaza. WHO | WHO statement on the situation in the Gaza Strip Gazans requiring medical care in Israeli hospitals have to apply for a medical permit. In 2007, Israel granted 7176 permits and denied 1627. Berg, Raffi. Israel's dilemma over sick Gazans. BBC News, April 30 2008 Some Gaza patients were evacuated by the Egyptian border but this was a dangereous process as various ambulances were fired on en route or a the border poste. Very few patients were allowed to cross. After the end of the hostilities the Israeli's opened a medical facility totreat Palestinians but there were severe travel restriction on international NGO staff. Culture The Gaza Strip has been home to a significant branch of the contemporary Palestinian art movement since the mid 20th century. Prominent artists include painters Fayez Sersawi, Abdul Rahman al Muzayan and Ismail Shammout (who lived in exile much of his adult life) and new media artists Taysir Batniji (who lives in France) and Laila al Shawa (who lives in London). An emerging generation of artists is also active in nonprofit art organizations such as Windows From Gaza and Eltiqa Group, which regularly host exhibitions and events open to the public. Farhat, Maymanah. Under the Voices of Fire: Artists in Gaza Religion Adherents of Islam makes up 99.3 percent of the population and 0.7 percent of the population come from the Christian community. the World Factbook Transport and communication The Gaza Strip has a small, poorly developed road network. It also had a single standard gauge railway line running the entire length of the Strip from north to south along its center; however, it is abandoned, in disrepair, and little trackage remains. The line once connected to the Egyptian railway system to the south, as well as the Israeli system to the north. The strip's one port was never completed after the outbreak of the al-Aqsa Intifada. Its airport, the Gaza International Airport, opened on 24 November 1998, as part of agreements stipulated in the Oslo II Accord and the 23 October 1998 Wye River Memorandum. The airport was closed in October 2000 by Israeli orders, and its runway was destroyed by the Israel Defense Forces in December 2001. It has since been renamed Yasser Arafat International Airport. The Gaza Strip has rudimentary land line telephone service provided by an open-wire system, as well as extensive mobile telephone services provided by PalTel (Jawwal), or Israeli providers such as Cellcom. Gaza is serviced by four internet service providers that now compete for ADSL and dial-up customers. Most Gaza households have a radio and a TV (70%+), and approximately 20% have a personal computer. People living in Gaza have access to FTA satellite programs, broadcast TV from the Palestinian Broadcasting Corporation, the Israel Broadcasting Authority, and the Second Israeli Broadcasting Authority. See also References External links General Palestinian Territories at the United States Department of State Gaza Strip at UCB Libraries GovPubs Gaza.net directory of Palestinian related websites Live Webcam Ramattan Live Stream of Gaza City (via UStream) Maps Gaza Strip at Google Maps 1991 Map of the Gaza Strip showing roads and Israeli towns 1999 Map of the Gaza Strip (annotated photo) Other GazaSiege.org - Background, News and Analysis on the siege of Gaza B'Tselem The Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories on the status of Gaza since the disengagement. Bregman, Ahron (2002). Israel's Wars: A History Since 1947. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415287166 - on Google Book Search Ward, Richard J. (1977). The Palestine State: A Rational Approach. London: National University Publications. ISBN 978-0804691598 Gaza women join Hamas fighters by Khaled Abu Toameh, published in the Jerusalem Post August 21, 2005. Rashdan, Abdelrahman (2008-04-29), Myths and Facts about Gaza (FAQs)IslamOnline.net Israel and Palestine: A Brief History - MidEast Web for Coexistence Gaza's news Special: Gaza kidnapping Israeli News - Ynetnews English version of Yedioth Ahronoth History of Gaza from Aldameer War Enters the Classrooms - the consequences of the Mideast conflict for the children of the Gaza Strip, by Inter Press Service, February 5, 2007 Hamas In Control of Gaza Strip New Palestinian Cabinet Sworn In | Gaza_Strip |@lemmatized gaza:171 strip:106 retzu:1 azza:1 coastal:4 land:8 along:5 mediterranean:2 sea:4 border:44 egypt:39 south:5 west:11 israel:114 east:4 north:4 long:3 kilometer:1 mi:1 wide:1 total:9 area:19 recognize:4 internationally:1 part:9 palestinian:83 territory:15 actual:1 control:26 hand:3 hamas:65 organization:5 win:6 civil:7 parliamentary:3 authority:26 election:10 take:11 de:1 facto:1 government:24 way:2 armed:2 militia:2 july:5 whilst:1 violently:1 remove:2 security:12 force:11 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2,246 | Centaur | In Greek mythology, the centaurs (from - Kéntauroi) are a race of creatures composed of part human and part horse. In early Attic vase-paintings, they are depicted with the torso of a human joined at the waist to the horse's withers, where the horse's neck would be. This half-human and half-animal composition has led many writers to treat them as liminal beings, caught between the two natures, embodied in contrasted myths, both as the embodiment of untamed nature, as in their battle with the Lapiths, or conversely as teachers, like Chiron. The centaurs were usually said to have been born of Ixion and Nephele (the cloud made in the image of Hera). Another version, however, makes them children of a certain Centaurus, who mated with the Magnesian mares. This Centaurus was either the son of Ixion and Nephele (instead of the Centaurs) or of Apollo and Stilbe, daughter of the river god Peneus. In the latter version of the story his twin brother was Lapithus, ancestor of the Lapiths, thus making the two warring peoples cousins. Centaurs were said to have inhabited the region of Magnesia and Mount Pelion in Thessaly, Mount Pholoe in Arcadia and the Malean peninsula in southern Laconia. Centauromachy Painting by Sebastiano Ricci, of centaurs at the marriage of Pirithous, king of the Lapithae The Centaurs are best known for their fight with the Lapithae, caused by their attempt to carry off Hippodamia and the rest of the Lapith women, on the day of her marriage to Pirithous, king of the Lapithae, himself the son of Ixion. The strife among these cousins is a metaphor for the conflict between the lower appetites and civilized behavior in humankind. Theseus, a hero and founder of cities, who happened to be present, threw the balance in favour of the right order of things, and assisted Pirithous. The Centaurs were driven off or destroyed. Plutarch, Theseus, 30 Ovid, Metamorphoses xii. 210 Diodorus Siculusiv. 69, 70 Another Lapith hero, Caeneus, who was invulnerable to weapons, was beaten into the earth by Centaurs wielding rocks and the branches of trees. Centaurs are thought of in many Greek myths as wild as untamed horses. Like the Titanomachy, the defeat of the Titans by the Olympian gods, the contests with the Centaurs typify the struggle between civilization and barbarism. The Centauromachy is most famously portrayed in the Parthenon (Elgin Marbles) metopes by Phidias and a Renaissance-era sculpture by Michelangelo. Earliest representations The tentative identification of two fragmentary Mycenaean terracotta figures as centaurs, among the extensive Mycenaean pottery found at Ugarit. suggests a Bronze Age origin for these creatures of myth. Ione Mylonas Shear, "Mycenaean Centaurs at Ugarit" The Journal of Hellenic Studies 122 (2002:147-153); but see the interpretation relating them to "abbreviated group" figures at the Bronze-Age sanctuary of Aphaia and elsewhere, presented by Korinna Pilafidis-Williams, "No Mycenaean Centaurs Yet", The Journal of Hellenic Studies 124 (2004), p. 165, which concludes "we had perhaps do best not to raise hopes of a continuity of images across divide between the Bronze Age and the historical period." A painted terracotta centaur was found in the "Hero's tomb" at Lefkandi, and by the Geometric period, centaurs figure among the first representational figures painted on Greek pottery. An often-published Geometric period bronze of a warror face-to-face with a centaur is at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It is illustrated, for example, in John Boardman, Jasper Griffin and Oswyn Murray, Greece and the Hellenistic World (Oxford History of the Classical World) 1988, vol. I p. 87. Theories of origin Centaur carrying off a nymph by Laurent Marqueste, marble, 1892, Tuileries Garden, Paris. The most common theory holds that the idea of centaurs came from the first reaction of a non-riding culture, as in the Minoan Aegean world, to nomads who were mounted on horses. The theory suggests that such riders would appear as half-man, half-animal (Bernal Díaz del Castillo reported that the Aztecs had this misapprehension about Spanish cavalrymen). Stuart Chase, Mexico: A Study of Two Americas, Chapter IV (University of Virginia Hypertext), accessed 24 April 2006. Horse taming and horseback culture arose first in the southern steppe grasslands of Central Asia, perhaps approximately in modern Kazakhstan. The Lapith tribe of Thessaly, who were the kinsmen of the Centaurs in myth, were described as the inventors of horse-back riding by Greek writers. The Thessalian tribes also claimed their horse breeds were descended from the centaurs. Of the various Classical Greek authors who mentioned centaurs, Pindar was the first who describes undoubtedly a combined monster. "...that strange race was born, like to both parents, their mother’s form below, above their sire’s." (Second Pythian Ode). Previous authors (Homer only uses words such as pheres (cf. theres, "beasts") For eamples, Homer Iliad i. 268, ii. 743. Compare the Hesiodic The Shield of Heracles, 104. that could also mean ordinary savage men riding ordinary horses. However, contemporaneous representations of hybrid centaurs can be found in archaic Greek art. Lucretius in his first century BC philosophical poem On the Nature of Things denied the existence of centaurs based on their differing rate of growth. He states that at three years old horses are in the prime of their life while at three humans are still little more than babies, making hybrid animals impossible. Lucretius, On the Nature of Things, book V, translated by William Ellery Leonard, 1916 (The Perseus Project) accessed 27 July 2008. Robert Graves speculated that the centaurs were a dimly-remembered, pre-Hellenic fraternal earth cult who had the horse as a totem. Graves, The Greek Myths, 1960 § 81.4; § 102 "Centaurs"; § 126.3;. A similar theory was incorporated into Mary Renault's The Bull from the Sea. The Greek word kentauros is generally regarded as of obscure origin. Alex Scobie, "The Origins of 'Centaurs'" Folklore 89.2 (1978:142-147); Scobie quotes Martin P. Nilsson, Geschichte der griechischen Religion, 1955, "Die Etymologie und die Deutung der Ursprungs sind unsicher und mögen auf sich beruhen". The etymology from ken - tauros, "piercing bull-stickers" was a Euhemerist suggestion in Palaephatus' rationalizing text on Greek mythology, On Incredible Tales (Περὶ ἀπίστων): mounted archers from a village called Nephele eliminating a herd of bulls that were the scourge of Ixion's kingdom. Noted by Scobie 1978:142. Another possible related etymology can be "bull-slayer". Alexander Hislop, in his polemic The Two Babylons: Papal Worship Revealed to be the Worship of Nimrod and His Wife. (1853, revised 1858) theorized that the word is derived from the Semitic Kohen and "tor" (to go round) via phonetic shift the less prominent consonants being lost over time, with it developing into Khen Tor or Ken-Tor, and being transliterated phonetically into Ionian as Kentaur, but this is not accepted by any modern philologist. Some say that the Greeks took the constellation of Centaurus, and also its name "piercing bull", from Mesopotamia, where it symbolized the god Baal who represents rain and fertility, fighting with and piercing with his horns the demon Mot who represents the summer drought. In Greece, the constellation of Centaurus was noted by Eudoxus of Cnidus in the fourth century BC and by Aratus in the third century. Centaurs harvest grapes on a 12th-century capital from the Mozac Abbey in the Auvergne Female centaurs Though female centaurs, called Kentaurides, are not mentioned in early Greek literature and art, they do appear occasionally in later antiquity. A Macedonian mosaic of the C4th BC Pella Archaeological Museum is one of the earliest examples of the Centauress in art. Ovid Ovid, Metamorphoses 12. 210 ff., the name Hylonome is Greek so Ovid may have drawn her story from an earlier Greek writer also mentions a centauress named Hylonome who committed suicide when her husband Cyllarus was killed in the war with the Lapiths. In a description of a painting in Neapolis, the Greek rhetorician Philostratus the Elder describes them as sisters and wives of the male centaurs who live on Mount Pelion with their children. "How beautiful the Centaurides are, even where they are horses; for some grow out of white mares, others are attached to chestnut mares, and the coats of others are dappled, but they glisten like those of horses that are well cared for. There is also a white female Centaur that grows out of a black mare, and the very opposition of the colours helps to produce the united beauty of the whole." Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 2. 3. In the Disney animated film Fantasia, during the Pastoral Symphony, some of the main characters are female centaurs. However, the Disney studio called them "Centaurettes" instead of Kentaurides. Persistence in the medieval world Prince Bova fights Polkan in an 1860 Russian lubok Centaurs preserved a Dionysian connection in the 12th century Romanesque carved capitals of Mozac Abbey in the Auvergne, where other capitals depict harvesters, boys riding goats (a further Dionysiac theme) and griffins guarding the chalice that held the wine. A centaur-like half-human half-equine creature called Polkan () appeared in Slavic mythology, folk art, and lubok prints of the 17th-19th centuries. Modern day The John C. Hodges library at The University of Tennessee hosts a permanent exhibit of a "Centaur from Volos", in its library. The exhibit, made by combining a study human skeleton with the skeleton of a Shetland pony is entitled "Do you believe in Centaurs?" and was meant to mislead students in order to make them more critically aware, according to the exhibitors. A centaur is one of the symbols associated with both the Iota Phi Theta and the Delta Lambda Phi fraternities. Whereas centaurs in Greek mythology were generally symbolic of chaos and unbridled passions, Delta Lambda Phi's centaur is modeled after Chiron and represents honor, moderation and tempered masculinity. Fiction Centaurs have appeared in many places in modern fiction, and may be regarded as a fantasy trope. In modern literature differing views of centaurs vary with the author. Eoin Colfer's Artemis Fowl series features Foaly, one of the heroes, and the most intelligent centaur on and under the Earth. In J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series centaurs are aggressive creatures that live in the Forbidden Forest. The centaurs tend to be violent if people intrude on their territory. They study the stars and planets, and can also sometimes see the future - although they may speak in very indirect and ambiguous terms about it. In C. S. Lewis's The Chronicles of Narnia, centaurs are noble, loyal, and brave. Oreius (Aslan's general) and his tribe of centaurs help Aslan's army fight against the White Witch, in "The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe," but they gain a more prominent role in the second book, "Prince Caspian" where a centaur named Glenstorm (who also studies the stars and reads the future) is an important character. In Monsterology: The Complete Book of Monstrous Creatures, centaurs are shown as being party animals, which raises the question of how they stayed concealed for so long, who live in Southern Greece, and have the Latin name Centaurus Indomitus. A picture shows one with two chests. In Rick Riordan's Percy Jackson & The Olympians series centaurs are friendly and help Camp Half Blood against the attacks of Kronos and Luke. In Star Wars there are two centauroid races, the very centaur-like species called Chironians, most likely a play on the name of the legendary centaur, Chiron, and the striped hermaphrodite Berrites, which are very clumsy, but sneaky. The American poet May Swenson wrote a poem called "The Centaur", which appeared in her book A Cage of Spines in 1958, and which portrays a girl riding a make-believe horse (actually a willow branch) who comes to feel that she is the horse. Another book series called Animorphs includes a centauroid race called Andalites. Film Centaurs, among many other fantastic creatures, played a key role in one of the animated shorts from The Walt Disney Company's Fantasia (The Pastoral Symphony). Among them were the typical white, bay, and chestnut centaurs, along with various unnatural colors, and also a pair of "Nubian" centaurs which were dark-skinned and Zebra. Centaurs have appeared in the Harry Potter film series and in The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe as well as in The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian. A centaur appeared in the movie Step Brothers in a dream of one of the secondary characters. Games Centaurs are common characters in the Shining series of games by SEGA. You may create centaurs as allies for battle in Age of Mythology Tomb Raider and Lara Croft Tomb Raider: Anniversary both feature centaurs and centaur mutants as foe. The Mortal Kombat character Motaro is the leader of his centaur race. World of Warcraft Centaurs are depicted as the savage children of Cenarius In Guild Wars, Centaurs are a common enemy for a player to face. In the Nightfall Campaign, players may recruit a Centaur Hero named Zhed Shadowhoof. In Fire Emblem: The Sacred Stones, centaur-like creatures appear in many maps under the names Tarvos and Maelduin. Centaur Man is a Robot Master in Mega Man 6. He appears as a light-green robotic Centaur with the ability to freeze his enemies and teleport around the room. Centaurs frequently appear in the video game series Heroes of Might and Magic as soldiers of the forests. Centaurs are enemies in Titan Quest. In the 2008 game Fallout 3, centaurs are radiated human enemies who have sprouted 6 arms and a tongue that attacks the player with great force. See also Other hybrid (therianthropic) creatures appear in Greek mythology, always with some liminal connection that links Hellenic culture with archaic or non-Hellenic cultures: Chiron Centauroid creature Furietti Centaurs Legendary creature List of legendary creatures Onocentaur Sagittarius Also, Egyptian deities, including Anubis, Horus and Thoth Indian Gandharvas Notes Sources M. Grant and J. Hazel. Who's Who in Greek Mythology. David McKay & Co Inc, 1979. Harry Potter, books 3,4,6, and 7. The Chronicles of Narnia, book 2. 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2,247 | Geography_of_Moldova | Political map of Moldova Satellite image of Moldova in September 2003 Topography of Moldova Located in southeastern Europe, Moldova is bordered on the west by Romania and on the north, south, and east by Ukraine. Most of its territory lies between the area's two main rivers, the Dniester and the Prut. The Dniester forms a small part of Moldova's border with Ukraine in the northeast and southeast, but it mainly flows through the eastern part of the country, separating Bessarabia and Transnistria. The Prut River forms Moldova's entire western boundary with Romania. The Danube touches the Moldovan border at its southernmost tip, and forms the border for 200 m. Basic data Location: Eastern Europe, northeast of Romania Geographic coordinates: Map references: Commonwealth of Independent States Area: total: 33,843 km² land: 33,371 km² water: 472 km² Area - comparative: slightly larger than Maryland, United States Land boundaries: total: 1,389 km border countries: Romania 450 km, Ukraine 939 km Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) Maritime claims: none (landlocked) Natural resources: lignite, phosphorites, gypsum, arable land Land use: arable land: 53% permanent crops: 14% permanent pastures: 13% forests and woodland: 13% other: 7% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 3,110 km² (1993 est.) Natural hazards: landslides (57 cases in 1998) Extreme points: The lowest point: Nistru river –2m The highest point – Bălăneşti Hill +430m North extreme: Naslavcea South extreme: Giurgiuleşti West extreme: Criva East extreme: Palanca Climate Moldova's proximity to the Black Sea gives it a mild and sunny climate. Moldova's climate is moderately continental: the summers are warm and long, with temperatures averaging about 20°C, and the winters are relatively mild and dry, with January temperatures averaging -4°C. Annual rainfall, which ranges from around 600 millimeters in the north to 400 millimeters in the south, can vary greatly; long dry spells are not unusual. The heaviest rainfall occurs in early summer and again in October; heavy showers and thunderstorms are common. Because of the irregular terrain, heavy summer rains often cause erosion and river silting. Topography A Dniester () valley view. Most of Moldova's territory is a moderate hilly plateau cut deeply by many streams and rivers. Geologically, Moldova lies primarily on deep sedimentary rock that gives way to harder crystalline outcroppings only in the north. Moldova's hills are part of the Moldavian Plateau, which geologically originate from the Carpathian Mountains. The northern landscape of Moldova is characterized by gently rolling uplands of the Dniester Hills (up to 300 meters, or 1000 feet, in elevation) interlaced with small flat plains in the valleys of the numerous creeks (at 150 meters or 500-foot elevation). These hills, which have an average altitude of 240 meters and a maximum altitude of 320 meters, can be divided into the Northern Moldavian Hills and the Dniester Ridge, and continue further occupying the northern part of the Chernivtsi oblast in Ukraine. The eastern slopes of the Dniester Ridge (average 250 meters, max 347 meters), form the high right bank of the Dniester River. Geology of Moldova The Moldavian Plain has an average of 200 meters and a maximum altitude of 250 meters, and can be divided into the Bălţi Steppe and the Middle Prut Valley. Originally forested, it has been extensively de-forested for agriculture during the 19th and 20th centuries. In contrast to the region to the north and south, which is smore slant, this area is referred to as plain, although it has relief very different from that of a flatland, and vegetation different from that of the steppe. Natural habitat of Moldova The hills of central Moldova, the Central Moldavian Plateau, at an average elevation of about 350 to 400 meters (1150–1300 feet), are ridges interlaced by deep, flat valleys, ravines, and landslide-scoured depressions. Steep forest-clad slopes account for much of the terrain, where the most common trees are hornbeam, oak, linden, maple, wild pear, and wild cherry. The term Codri refers more generally to all the forests between the Carpathians and the Dniester river, and even more generally to all forests in the area of the Carpathians, yet since in Moldova most of them were preserved in the central part, Codri sometimes can colloquially refer to the remaining forests in the hills west and north of Chişinău. The Dniester Ridge border Central Moldavian Plateau to the north along the river Răut. The plateau can be divided into 5 parts: Ciuluc-Soloneţ Hills (), alongated in the north along the right side of the Răut river, 1,690 km^2, Corneşti Hills (), also known as Cordi Hills (), 4,740 km^2, Lower Dniester Hills (), alongated to the south of the Botna river, 3,040 km^2, Tigheci Hills (), alongated in the south along the left side of the Prut river, 3,550 km^2, and between the latter and the Prut river, the Lower Prut Valley (), 1,810 km^2. The country's highest point, Bălăneşti Hill, which reaches 1407 feet (429 m) or 1410 feet (430 m), depending on the source, is situated in the Corneşti Hills, the western part of the Central Moldavian Plateau. Northwest of it are the Ciuluc-Soloneţ Hills (average 250 meters, max 388 meters). In the south, the Tigheci Hills (average 200 meters, max 301 meters) are a prolongation, and run to the south parallel to the Lower Prut Valley. To the south-east, the southern part of the Central Moldavian Plateau, which averages 150-200 meters, max 250 meters, and has numerous ravines and gullies, gradually vanishs into the extensive Buceac Plain, with most of the Budjak region already in Ukraine. Transnistria (the left bank of the Dniester) has spurs of the Podolian Plateau (, ), (average 180, max 275 meters), which are cut into by tributaries of the Dniester River. The southern half of Transnistria, the Lower Dniester Plain, can be regarded as the western end of the Eurasian steppe, and has an average elevation of 100 meters, with a maximum of 170 meters. The high right bank and low left bank of the Dniester are in sharp contrast here, where visibility is not impeded by forests. About 75 percent of Moldova is covered by a soil type called black earth or chernozem. In the northern hills, more clay textured soils are found; in the south, red-earth soil is predominant. The soil becomes less fertile toward the south but can still support grape and sunflower production. The hills have woodland soils, while a small portion in southern Moldova is in the steppe zone, although most steppe areas today are cultivated. The lower reaches of the Prut and Dniester rivers and the southern river valleys are saline marshes. Drainage in Moldova is to the south, toward the Black Sea lowlands, and eventually into the Black Sea, but only eight rivers and creeks extend more than 100 kilometers. Moldova's main river, the Dniester, is navigable throughout almost the entire country, and in warmer winters it does not freeze over. The Prut river is a tributary of the Danube, which it joins at the far southwestern tip of the country. Over 95% of the water circulation in Moldova flows into one of the two rivers - the Prut or Dniester. Of Moldova's well-developed network of about 3,000 creeks and streams, all draining south to the Black Sea, only 246 exceed 6 miles (10 kilometres) in length, and only 8 exceed 60 miles (100 km). Underground water, extensively used for the country's water supply, includes about 2,200 natural springs. The terrain favours construction of reservoirs of various size. Elevation extremes: lowest point: an unnamed point on the bank of the Dniester River 2 m highest point: Dealul Bălăneşti 430 m Natural habitat Moldova's natural habitat is characterized by forest steppes, a temperate-climate habitat type composed of grassland interspersed with areas of woodland or forest. A belt of forest steppes cross Eurasia from eastern Europe to Eastern Siberia, forming a transition between temperate broadleaf and mixed forests and temperate grasslands. In the 19th century Moldova witnessed a sharp decrease in the forested areas, sacrificed for agriculture due to rich soil. + land formation Concept of National Ecological Network of the Republic of Moldova area, km² of which currently forests, km² % forests habitat type Northern Moldavian Hills 4,630 476 10.3% forest steppe Dniester-Rāut Ridge 2,480 363 14.6% forest steppe Middle Prut Valley 2,930 312 10.6% forest steppe Bălţi Steppe 1,920 51 2.7% steppe Ciuluc-Soloneţ Hills 1,690 169 10.0% forest steppe Corneşti Hills (Codru) 4,740 1,300 27.5% forest Lower Dniester Hills 3,040 371 12.2% forest steppe Lower Prut Valley 1,810 144 8.0% forest steppe Tigheci Hills 3,550 533 15.0% forest steppe Bugeac Plain 3,210 195 6.1% steppe part of Podolian Plateau 1,920 175 9.1% forest steppe part of Eurasian Steppe 1,920 140 7.3% steppe Total 33,840 4,228 12,5% forest steppe Environment Historical references In the 5th century BC, Herodotus visited the countryside between the rivers Dnister and Prut and described the place as "a plain with deep black earth, reach in grass and well irrigated". Lithuanian Prince Jogaila spoke of Moldavia as "a reach and fructiferous country". According to the testimony of Venetian Mateus de Murano, "the country was very well located, reach with cattle and all kinds of fruits, pastures are perfect". Rich natural resources of Moldavia always attracted nomads. Fleeing their devastating incursions, inhabitants of Moldavia left the brooded places and hided in forests. French knight Guilbert de Lannoy, who visited these places in 1421, has mentioned insignificant population of the region: "we moved through large deserts". Counsellor of Hungarian King George Reihersdorf (middle of 16th century) was complaining of travel through "empty, uninhabited lands". In 1541, he produced the first geographical map (preserved to this day) of the Principality of Moldavia, with rivers Dnister and Prut shown, as well as cities and other localities, but also highlighted large steppes. A map of Moldavia was drawn by the German diplomat Sigismund von Herberstein. On his map one can see woodless spaces - Bălţi steppe in the north, and Bugeac Steppe in the south. In the 17th century, pilgrims Pavel Aleppskii (a Syrian deacon) and Ioan Lukianov (a Russian preast) traveled on their way to the Holy land through Moldavia. These two travellers were striken by the disastrous state of the land that used to blossom: "It better be not ravaged, as no other such can be found, it may yield any kind". English traveller John Bell, who also visited Moldavia, and wrote about fecund soils and "small nice towns" situated next to Răut. Russian geographer K. Laksman described Bălţi steppe in the beginning of the 19th century: "To the north is located a steppe with almost no trees at all. To the north-west the steppe is not as woodless". Scientist K. Arseniev mentioned that the north of Bessarabia is "a genuine mix of arid steppes with most fertile pastures, rich meadows and gardens". Travellers and scholars were amazed by the contrast between rich natiral resources of Moldavia/Bălţi steppe and its low population in war torned 18th century, pitiful state of agriculture, as well as the poverty of the local population. "Desert, waste, naked steppe... The settling among limitless expanses of Bălţi steppe happened not "in accordnace" with logic, but "against" it. The life of remote ancestors of Bălţiers was full of difficulties and crosses, but they managed to resist." "Moldavian fields, as described by both ancient and contemporary writers, are great in their fertility, by far surpassing the richess of the mountains" (Dimitrie Cantemir, "Descriptio Moldaviae" "Will someone describe Bessarabian steppes, indeed, they do merit a description. However for this, one needs the talent of unforgettable Gogol, who has so beautifully depicted us the steppes of his homeland. And Bessarabian steppes are not less beautiful." (Constantin Stamati-Ciurea) Current issues Moldova's communist-era environmental legacy, like that of many other former Soviet republics, is one of environmental degradation. Agricultural practices such as overuse of pesticides and artificial fertilizers were intended to increase agricultural output at all costs, without regard for the consequences. As a result, Moldova's soil and groundwater were contaminated by lingering chemicals, some of which (including DDT) have been banned in the West. Such practices continue in Moldova to the present day. In the early 1990s, use of pesticides in Moldova averaged approximately twenty times that of other former Soviet republics and Western nations. In addition, poor farming methods, such as destroying forests to plant vineyards, have contributed to the extensive soil erosion to which the country's rugged topography is already prone. International environmental agreements party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants See also Moldova List of cities in Moldova Notes External links Moldova.org Pontic steppe (World Wildlife Fund) google maps | Geography_of_Moldova |@lemmatized political:1 map:6 moldova:32 satellite:1 image:1 september:1 topography:3 locate:3 southeastern:1 europe:3 border:6 west:5 romania:4 north:12 south:14 east:3 ukraine:5 territory:2 lie:2 area:9 two:3 main:2 river:22 dniester:20 prut:14 form:5 small:4 part:10 northeast:2 southeast:1 mainly:1 flow:2 eastern:5 country:9 separate:1 bessarabia:2 transnistria:3 entire:2 western:4 boundary:2 danube:2 touch:1 moldovan:1 southernmost:1 tip:2 basic:1 data:1 location:1 geographic:1 coordinate:1 reference:2 commonwealth:1 independent:1 state:4 total:3 land:10 water:4 comparative:1 slightly:1 large:3 maryland:1 united:1 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2,248 | Microsoft_Excel | Microsoft Excel (full name Microsoft Office Excel) is a spreadsheet-application written and distributed by Microsoft for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. It features calculation, graphing tools, pivot tables and a macro programming language called VBA (Visual Basic for Applications). It has been the most widely used spreadsheet application available for these platforms since version 5 in 1993. Excel is part of Microsoft Office. History Microsoft originally marketed a spreadsheet program called Multiplan in 1982, which became very popular on CP/M systems, but on MS-DOS systems it lost popularity to Lotus 1-2-3. Microsoft released the first version of Excel for the Mac in 1985, and the first Windows version (numbered 2.05 to line up with the Mac and bundled with a run-time Windows environment) in November 1987. Lotus was slow to bring 1-2-3 to Windows and by 1988 Excel had started to outsell 1-2-3 and helped Microsoft achieve the position of leading PC software developer. This accomplishment, dethroning the king of the software world, solidified Microsoft as a valid competitor and showed its future of developing GUI software. Microsoft pushed its advantage with regular new releases, every two years or so. The current version for the Windows platform is Excel 12, also called Microsoft Office Excel 2007. The current version for the Mac OS X platform is Microsoft Excel 2008. Early in 1993, Excel became the target of a trademark lawsuit by another company already selling a software package named "Excel" in the finance industry. As the result of the dispute Microsoft was required to refer to the program as "Microsoft Excel" in all of its formal press releases and legal documents. However, over time this practice has been ignored, and Microsoft cleared up the issue permanently when they purchased the trademark of the other program. Microsoft also encouraged the use of the letters XL as shorthand for the program; while this is no longer common, the program's icon on Windows still consists of a stylized combination of the two letters, and the file extension of the default Excel format is .xls. Excel offers many user interface tweaks over the earliest electronic spreadsheets; however, the essence remains the same as in the original spreadsheet, VisiCalc: the program displays cells organized in rows and columns, and each cell contains data or a formula, with relative or absolute references to other cells. Excel was the first spreadsheet that allowed the user to define the appearance of spreadsheets (fonts, character attributes and cell appearance). It also introduced intelligent cell recomputation, where only cells dependent on the cell being modified are updated (previous spreadsheet programs recomputed everything all the time or waited for a specific user command). Excel has extensive graphing capabilities, and enables users to perform mail merge. When Microsoft first bundled Microsoft Word and Microsoft PowerPoint into Microsoft Office in 1993, those applications had their GUIs redesigned for consistency with Excel, the killer app on the PC at the time. Since 1993, Excel has included Visual Basic for Applications (VBA), a programming language based on Visual Basic which adds the ability to automate tasks in Excel and to provide user defined functions (UDF) for use in worksheets. VBA is a powerful addition to the application which, in later versions, includes a fully featured integrated development environment (IDE). Macro recording can produce VBA code replicating user actions, thus allowing simple automation of regular tasks. VBA allows the creation of forms and in-worksheet controls to communicate with the user. The language supports use (but not creation) of ActiveX (COM) DLL's; later versions add support for class modules allowing the use of basic object-oriented programming techniques. The automation functionality provided by VBA has caused Excel to become a target for macro viruses. This was a serious problem in the corporate world until antivirus products began to detect these viruses. Microsoft belatedly took steps to prevent the misuse by adding the ability to disable macros completely, to enable macros when opening a workbook or to trust all macros signed using a trusted certificate. Versions 5.0 to 9.0 of Excel contain various Easter eggs, although since version 10 Microsoft has taken measures to eliminate such undocumented features from their products. Versions Versions for Microsoft Windows include: 1987 Excel 2.0 for Windows 1990 Excel 3.0 1992 Excel 4.0 1993 Excel 5.0 (Office 4.2 & 4.3, also a 32-bit version for Windows NT only on the PowerPC, DEC Alpha, and MIPS) 1995 Excel for Windows 95 (version 7.0) - included in Office 95 1997 Excel 97 - included in Office 97 (x86 and also a DEC Alpha version). This version of Excel includes a flight simulator as an Easter Egg. 1999 Excel 2000 (version 9.0) included in Office 2000 2001 Excel 2002 (version 10) included in Office XP 2003 Excel 2003 (version 11) included in Office 2003 2007 Excel 2007 (version 12) included in Office 2007 Notice: There is no Excel 1.0 for Windows, because the Windows version was introduced at the time the Mac version was up to 2.0. Notice: There is no Excel 6.0, because the Windows 95 version was launched with Word 7. All the Office 95 & Office 4.X products have OLE 2 capacity — moving data automatically from various programs — and Excel 7 should show that it was contemporary with Word 7. Versions for the Apple Macintosh include: 1985 Excel 1.0 1988 Excel 1.5 1989 Excel 2.2 1990 Excel 3.0 1992 Excel 4.0 1993 Excel 5.0 (Office 4.X -- Motorola 68000 version and first PowerPC version) 1998 Excel 8.0 (Office '98) 2000 Excel 9.0 (Office 2001) 2001 Excel 10.0 (Office v. X) 2004 Excel 11.0 (part of Office 2004 for Mac) 2008 Excel 12.0 (part of Office 2008 for Mac) Versions for OS/2 include: 1989 Excel 2.2 1990 Excel 2.3 1991 Excel 3.0 Versions of Excel up to 7.0 had a limitation in the size of their data sets of 16K (2^14=16384) rows. Versions 8.0 through 11.0 could handle 65K (2^16=65536) rows and 256 columns (2^8 as label 'IV'). Version 12.0 can handle 1M (2^20=1048576) rows, and 16384 (2^14 as label 'XFD') columns. File formats Microsoft Excel up until 2007 version used a proprietary binary file format called Binary Interchange File Format (BIFF) as its primary format. Excel 2007 uses Office Open XML as its primary file format, an XML-based format that followed after a previous XML-based format called "XML Spreadsheet" ("XMLSS"), first introduced in Excel 2002. The latter format is not able to encode VBA macros. Although supporting and encouraging the use of new XML-based formats as replacements, Excel 2007 remained backwards-compatible with the traditional, binary formats. In addition, most versions of Microsoft Excel can read CSV, DBF, SYLK, DIF, and other legacy formats. Support for some older file formats were removed in Excel 2007 . The file formats were mainly from DOS based programs. Binary Microsoft made the specification of the Excel binary format specification available on request, but since February 2008 programmers can freely download the .XLS format specification and implement it under the Open Specification Promise patent licensing. Standard file-extensions FormatExtensionDescriptionSpreadsheet.xlsMain spreadsheet format which holds data in worksheets, charts, and macrosAdd-in (VBA).xlaAdds custom functionality; written in VBAToolbar.xlbChart.xlcDialog.xldArchive.xlkAdd-in (DLL).xllAdds custom functionality; written in C++/C, Visual Basic, Fortran, etc. and compiled in to a special dynamic-link libraryMacro.xlmTemplate.xltModule.xlvWorkspace.xlwArrangement of the windows of multiple Workbooks Office Open XML Microsoft Excel 2007, along with the other products in the Microsoft Office 2007 suite, introduces a host of new file formats. These form part of the Office Open XML (OOXML) specification. The new Excel 2007 formats are: +New Excel 2007 formatsFormatExtensionDescriptionExcel Workbook.xlsxThe default Excel 2007 workbook format. In reality a ZIP compressed archive with a directory structure of XML text documents. Functions as the primary replacement for the former binary .xls format, although it does not support Excel macros for security reasons.Excel Macro-enabled Workbook.xlsmAs Excel Workbook, but with macro support.Excel Binary Workbook.xlsbAs Excel Macro-enabled Workbook, but storing information in binary form rather than XML documents for opening and saving documents more quickly and efficiently. Intended especially for very large documents with tens of thousands of rows, and/or several hundreds of columns.Excel Macro-enabled Template.xltmA template document that forms a basis for actual workbooks, with macro support. The replacement for the old .xlt format.Excel Add-in.xlamExcel add-in to add extra functionality and tools. Inherent macro support due to the file purpose. Export and migration of spreadsheets Programmers have produced APIs to open Excel spreadsheets in a variety of applications and environments other than Microsoft Excel. These include opening excel documents on the web using either ActiveX controls, or plugins like the Adobe Flash Player. The Apache POI opensource project provides Java libraries for reading and writing excel spreadsheet files. Attempts have also been made to be able to copy excel spreadsheets to web applications using comma-separated values. ExcelPackage is another open-source project that provides server-side generation of Microsoft Excel 2007 spreadsheets. Programming Excel offers users the useful ability to write code using the programming language Visual Basic for Applications (VBA). Programmers write this code using an editor viewed separately from the spreadsheet. Manipulation of the spreadsheet entries is controlled using objects. With this code any function or subroutine that can be set up in a Basic- or Fortran-like language can be run using input taken from the spreadsheet proper, and the results of the code are instantaneously written to the spreadsheet or displayed on charts (graphs). The spreadsheet becomes an interface or window to the code, enabling easy interaction with the code and what it calculates. VBA also supports very basic GUI forms based programming embedded in the spreadsheet so that entire forms based applications can be written in Excel. The most common and easiest way to generate VBA code is by use of the macro recorder function that writes the code for the actions that the user carries out with mouse/keyboard. There is a relative/absolute toggle button that allows the user to switch between the two whilst recording a macro. Relative/absolute in this context means the relative to the start cell location or an absolute cell reference for example cell A1 (column A, row 1). Certain features such as loop functions and screen prompts by their own properties cannot be recorded, but must be entered into the VBA module directly by the programmer. The macros can easily be activated using a button using the form menu, and advanced users can use user prompts to create an interactive program. Although conceptually simple to understand (especially using a macro recorder), the combination of multiple steps under many different constraints/conditions requires a robust testing/quality control processes to gain regular/reliable/predictable results for the product to realise its benefits. Software errors Criticisms of spreadsheets in general also apply to Excel. See Spreadsheet shortcomings. Errors specific to Excel include accuracy, date problems and the Excel 2007 display error. Accuracy Due to Excel's foundation on floating point calculations, the statistical accuracy of Excel has been criticized, as lacking certain statistical tools. Excel MOD function error Excel has issues with modulo operations. In the case of excessively large results, Excel will return the incorrect answer of #NUM! error. Date problems Excel incorrectly treats 1900 as a leap year. The bug originated from Lotus 1-2-3, and was purposely implemented in Excel for the purpose of backward compatibility. This legacy has later been carried over into Office Open XML file format. Excel also supports the second date format based on year 1904 epoch. The Excel DATE() function causes problems with a year value prior to 1900. See also Comparison of spreadsheets List of spreadsheets Visual Basic for Applications Excel Viewer Spreadmart References External links Microsoft Excel official site | Microsoft_Excel |@lemmatized microsoft:31 excel:89 full:1 name:2 office:24 spreadsheet:25 application:11 write:9 distribute:1 window:13 mac:7 x:5 feature:4 calculation:2 graphing:2 tool:3 pivot:1 table:1 macro:18 programming:3 language:5 call:5 vba:12 visual:6 basic:9 widely:1 use:20 available:2 platform:3 since:4 version:31 part:4 history:1 originally:1 market:1 program:13 multiplan:1 become:4 popular:1 cp:1 system:2 ms:1 lose:1 popularity:1 lotus:3 release:3 first:6 windows:2 numbered:1 line:1 bundle:2 run:2 time:5 environment:2 november:1 slow:1 bring:1 start:2 outsell:1 help:1 achieve:1 position:1 lead:1 pc:2 software:5 developer:1 accomplishment:1 dethrone:1 king:1 world:2 solidified:1 valid:1 competitor:1 show:2 future:1 develop:1 gui:3 push:1 advantage:1 regular:3 new:5 every:1 two:3 year:4 current:2 also:10 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2,249 | Generalized_mean | A generalized mean, also known as power mean or Hölder mean, is an abstraction of the Pythagorean means including arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic means. Definition If is a non-zero real number, we can define the generalized mean with exponent of the positive real numbers as Properties Like most means, the generalized mean is a homogeneous function of its arguments . That is, if is a positive real number, then the generalized mean with exponent of the numbers is equal to times the generalized mean of the numbers . Like the quasi-arithmetic means, the computation of the mean can be split into computations of equal sized sub-blocks. Generalized mean inequality In general, if , then and the two means are equal if and only if . This follows from the fact that which can be proved using Jensen's inequality. In particular, for , the generalized mean inequality implies the Pythagorean means inequality as well as the inequality of arithmetic and geometric means. Special cases A visual depiction of some of the specified cases for n=2. - minimum, - harmonic mean, - geometric mean, - arithmetic mean, - quadratic mean, - maximum. Proof of power means inequality Equivalence of inequalities between means of opposite signs Suppose an average between power means with exponents p and q holds: then: We raise both sides to the power of −1 (strictly decreasing function in positive reals): We get the inequality for means with exponents −p and −q, and we can use the same reasoning backwards, thus proving the inequalities to be equivalent, which will be used in some of the later proofs. Geometric mean For any q the inequality between mean with exponent q and geometric mean can be transformed in the following way: (the first inequality is to be proven for positive q, and the latter otherwise) We raise both sides to the power of q: in both cases we get the inequality between weighted arithmetic and geometric means for the sequence , which can be proved by Jensen's inequality, making use of the fact the logarithmic function is concave: By applying (strictly increasing) exp function to both sides we get the inequality: Thus for any positive q it is true that: since the inequality holds for any q, however small, and, as will be shown later, the expressions on the left and right approximate the geometric mean better as q approaches 0, the limit of the power mean for q approaching 0 is the geometric mean: Inequality between any two power means We are to prove that for any p<q the following inequality holds: if p is negative, and q is positive, the inequality is equivalent to the one proved above: The proof for positive p and q is as follows: Define the following function: . f is a power function, so it does have a second derivative: which is strictly positive within the domain of f, since q > p, so we know f is convex. Using this, and the Jensen's inequality we get: after raising both side to the power of 1/q (an increasing function, since 1/q is positive) we get the inequality which was to be proven: Using the previously shown equivalence we can prove the inequality for negative p and q by substituting them with, respectively, -q and -p, QED. Minimum and maximum Minimum and maximum are assumed to be the power means with exponents of and . Thus for any q: For maximum the proof is as follows: Assume WLoG that the sequence xi is nonincreasing and no weight is zero. Then the inequality is equivalent to: After raising both sides to the power of q we get (depending on the sign of q) one of the inequalities: ≤ for q>0, ≥ for q<0. After subtracting from the both sides we get: After dividing by : 1 - w1 is nonzero, thus: Substacting x1q leaves: which is obvious, since x1 is greater or equal to any xi, and thus: For minimum the proof is almost the same, only instead of x1, w1 we use xn, wn, QED. Generalized -mean The power mean could be generalized further to the generalized -mean: which covers e.g. the geometric mean without using a limit. The power mean is obtained for . Applications Signal processing A power mean serves a non-linear moving average which is shifted towards small signal values for small and emphasizes big signal values for big . Given an efficient implementation of a moving arithmetic mean called smooth you can implement a moving power mean according to the following Haskell code. powerSmooth :: Floating a => ([a] -> [a]) -> a -> [a] -> [a] powerSmooth smooth p = map (** recip p) . smooth . map (**p) For big it can serve an envelope detector on a rectified signal. For small it can serve an baseline detector on a mass spectrum. See also Inequality of arithmetic and geometric means arithmetic mean geometric mean harmonic mean Heronian mean Lehmer mean - also a mean related to powers average root mean square External links Power mean at MathWorld Examples of Generalized Mean A proof of the Generalized Mean on PlanetMath | Generalized_mean |@lemmatized generalized:7 mean:53 also:3 know:2 power:17 hölder:1 abstraction:1 pythagorean:2 include:1 arithmetic:8 geometric:11 harmonic:3 definition:1 non:2 zero:2 real:4 number:5 define:2 exponent:6 positive:9 property:1 like:2 homogeneous:1 function:7 argument:1 generalize:5 equal:4 time:1 quasi:1 computation:2 split:1 size:1 sub:1 block:1 inequality:24 general:1 two:2 follow:4 fact:2 prove:8 use:8 jensen:3 particular:1 imply:1 well:2 special:1 case:3 visual:1 depiction:1 specified:1 n:1 minimum:4 quadratic:1 maximum:4 proof:6 equivalence:2 opposite:1 sign:2 suppose:1 average:3 p:11 q:23 hold:3 raise:4 side:6 strictly:3 decrease:1 get:7 reasoning:1 backwards:1 thus:5 equivalent:3 late:1 transform:1 following:3 way:1 first:1 latter:1 otherwise:1 weight:2 sequence:2 make:1 logarithmic:1 concave:1 apply:1 increase:2 exp:1 true:1 since:4 however:1 small:4 show:2 later:1 expression:1 left:1 right:1 approximate:1 approach:2 limit:2 negative:2 one:2 f:3 second:1 derivative:1 within:1 domain:1 convex:1 previously:1 substitute:1 respectively:1 qed:2 assume:2 wlog:1 xi:2 nonincreasing:1 depend:1 subtract:1 divide:1 nonzero:1 substacting:1 leaf:1 obvious:1 great:1 almost:1 instead:1 xn:1 wn:1 could:1 far:1 cover:1 e:1 g:1 without:1 obtain:1 application:1 signal:4 process:1 serve:3 linear:1 move:3 shift:1 towards:1 value:2 emphasize:1 big:3 give:1 efficient:1 implementation:1 call:1 smooth:3 implement:1 accord:1 haskell:1 code:1 powersmooth:2 float:1 map:2 recip:1 envelope:1 detector:2 rectified:1 baseline:1 mass:1 spectrum:1 see:1 heronian:1 lehmer:1 relate:1 root:1 square:1 external:1 link:1 mathworld:1 example:1 planetmath:1 |@bigram arithmetic_geometric:4 jensen_inequality:3 external_link:1 |
2,250 | H._J._Heinz_Company | H. J. Heinz Company (), commonly known as Heinz and famous for its "57 Varieties" slogan and its ketchup, is an American food company with world headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Perhaps best known for its ketchup, the H.J. Heinz Company manufactures thousands of food products in plants on six continents and markets these products in more than 200 countries and territories. Heinz ranked first in ketchup in the United States with a market share in excess of 50 percent. Moreover, the company's StarKist brand tuna led its market with a 45 percent share, and its Ore-Ida label held more than 50 percent of the frozen-potato sector. Overall, the company claims to have 150 number one or number two brands worldwide. Breaking the company's sales down by sector, ketchup, condiments, and sauces account for about 24 percent of overall sales; frozen foods (including Ore-Ida, Budget Gourmet, and Weight Watchers), 15 percent; pet products (9-Lives, Gravy Train, and Ken-L-Ration), 14 percent; soups, beans, and pasta meals, 12 percent; tuna, 12 percent; infant foods, 11 percent; and other, 12 percent. Geographically, about 55 percent of revenues are generated in North America, 26 percent in Europe, 11 percent in the Asia-Pacific region, and eight percent elsewhere. Heinz products around the world Australia In Australia, Heinz is best known for tinned baked beans in tomato sauce (particularly due to the success of its "beanz meanz Heinz" advertising campaign), and spaghetti in a similar sauce. Heinz's canned soup lines are widely recognized in Australia. Heinz manufactures condensed soup, as well as "ready to eat" soups - these are offered in single serve packaging as well as the traditional sized cans. Certainly their most iconic product is Heinz BIG RED Tomato Sauce, although the US style ketchup is also available. Next to the Tomato Ketchup, Heinz Australia also manufactures a number of flavored baked bean varieties, as well as canned meals. Not all products are produced in Australia, products such as Heinz ready to eat microwave bowl soups, are imported into Australia. Heinz also markets the Watties brand of canned foods, which are made in New Zealand. On October 6, Heinz announced plans to acquire all of Golden Circle's shares on issue for $1.65 per share, representing a premium of 313 per cent to the 40 cent closing price of Golden Circle on October 3. Established in 1947, Golden Circle manufactures more than 500 products, including canned fruit and vegetables, fruit juices, drinks, cordials and jams. Heinz eyes up Australian icon Golden Circle. NEWS.com.au, retrieved on October 6, 2008 Philippines In the Philippines, Heinz was a part of NutriAsia, which owns other bigger brands in the condiments industry, such as UFC (banana ketchup, tomato and spaghetti sauce), Datu Puti (vinegar, soy sauce and fish sauce), Mang Tomas (gravy, barbecue sauce, oyster sauce and all-purpose sauce), Jufran(chili sauce and banana ketchup) and Papa (banana ketchup). Heinz is most famous as a brand of tomato sauce and spaghetti sauce in the country rather than being a tomato ketchup brand, which is being dominated by Del Monte Pacific, also recently acquired by a consortium of NutriAsia and San Miguel Corporation. The Heinz brand is the 3rd largest tomato sauce (behind Del Monte and Hunt's) and the 2nd largest spaghetti sauce brand (behind Del Monte) in the country. As of March 2006, Heinz and NutriAsia have ended their joint-venture partnership and Heinz products are now distributed by Getz bros. Canada Heinz was established in Canada in 1909 in a former tobacco factory in Leamington, Ontario (Tomato Capital of Canada). Most products shipped from Leamington have English and French labels for distribution throughout Canada but a substantial amount of product is sent to the United States. Ketchup is the main product produced there but the factory also produces Canada Fancy (Grade A) tomato juice, mustard, vinegar, pickles, baby food, BBQ sauces, canned pastas, beans, pasta sauces, gravies and soups. Heinz Canada is also the major supplier of single serving and flexible packaging condiments for most fast food chains in Canada. Leamington is the largest tomato processing region per acreage in the world. The Leamington plant usually processes more than 250,000 tons of tomatoes per year. With its unique combination of climate and rich soil, Leamington is one of the best areas for growing vegetables in the world. Heinz Canada also has operations in St.Mary's, Ontario, Calgary, Alberta and Montreal, Quebec. India Heinz Ketchup is available in glass bottles in India with two varieties, one is the normal Heinz Ketchup, and one is an alternative which does not contain any traces of garlic or onion, two vital ingredients in the original ketchup. This is due to the large amount of Indians who refrain from eating garlic and onion for religious and cultural reasons. Heinz has acquired the former foods division of Glaxo India and gained the Complan, Glucon D, Glucon C, Sampriti Ghee, and Nycil products and brands. Netherlands Heinz sells many products in the Netherlands, and is the sole producer for the Heinz range of tomato ketchup. All ketchup is produced in one location, and then exported globally. This ensures that all flavors are consistent on a global scale. United Kingdom The UK headquarters is in Hayes. After opening its first overseas office in London in 1896, the company opened its first UK factory in Peckham, south London in 1905. This was followed by a second factory at Harlesden, north-west London in 1919. A factory at Wigan opened in 1959. Heinz also has an infant feeding factory in Kendal, Cumbria. The site specializes in baby milks, previously under the brand of Farley's, but now manufactures under the name Heinz Nurture. It currently has around 200 employees. 1970s TV comedy series The Goodies spoofed the Heinz baked beans adverts. Tim Brooke-Taylor was the beans boy who, because he could never get the poem right, was always hurt. In 2001 the Food Standards Agency of the Government of the United Kingdom found Heinz canned baked beans products to be contaminated with the hormone disruptor bisphenol. Friends of the Earth: Press Release: HORMONE DISRUPTOR FOUND IN CAN LININGS United States Heinz made the decision to start a pickle factory in Holland, Michigan in 1897. It is the largest pickle factory in the world. Heinz headquarters are based in the PPG Place in Downtown Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and the company's 'keystone' logo reflects Pennsylvania, the keystone state. However, a majority of its ketchup is produced at a factory in Fremont, Ohio. Heinz Field, home to the Pittsburgh Steelers, was officially named after Heinz Ketchup in 2001. 2006 proxy battle Billionaire Nelson Peltz initiated a proxy battle during 2006, culminating in a vote to place Peltz's nominees on the Board, which, depending on how many seats the dissident group received after the final vote tally, would displace some of the current board members. After the final vote, 2 out of the 5 nominees joined the Heinz Board. The new members of the board were Nelson Peltz and Matthew Craig Walsh. 2008 advertisement controversy In June 2008, Heinz began an advertising campaign in the United Kingdom for their new New York Deli Mayo product range. The advert featured a family with the mother replaced by a stereotypical male New York deli worker. The advert ended with the father and the 'mother' kissing. This drew 200 complaints to the Advertising Standards Authority. On June 24, 2008 Heinz took the decision to withdraw the advertisement, which was initially supposed to run for five weeks. A spokesperson for Heinz stated that the reason for the withdrawal was recognition of the fact that some of its customers had concerns about the advertisement's content. Withdrawing the advert caused further controversy with Heinz being accused of homophobia. The gay rights group Stonewall has called for a boycott of the company's products. Some have expressed surprise that Heinz has responded to what they view as a small number of complainants, relative to the United Kingdom's 3.6 million gay and lesbian consumers. MP Diane Abbott called the decision to withdraw the advert 'ill-considered' and 'likely to offend the gay community' in an Early Day Motion on June 25. Early Day Motion 1889 References External links Heinz History Historic Pittsburgh - Electronic version of Heinz's biography pp. 147 Cecil Adams' The Straight Dope Heinz BIG RED Tomato Sauce (Australian flagship product) Company Website ('Company Info' section of the site, briefly running through HJ Heinzs' history) Heinz french website | H._J._Heinz_Company |@lemmatized h:2 j:2 heinz:47 company:11 commonly:1 know:3 famous:2 variety:3 slogan:1 ketchup:18 american:1 food:9 world:5 headquarters:3 pittsburgh:4 pennsylvania:3 perhaps:1 best:3 manufacture:5 thousand:1 product:18 plant:2 six:1 continent:1 market:4 country:3 territory:1 rank:1 first:3 united:7 state:5 share:4 excess:1 percent:14 moreover:1 starkist:1 brand:10 tuna:2 lead:1 ore:2 ida:2 label:2 hold:1 frozen:2 potato:1 sector:2 overall:2 claim:1 number:4 one:5 two:3 worldwide:1 break:1 sale:2 condiment:3 sauce:18 account:1 include:2 budget:1 gourmet:1 weight:1 watcher:1 pet:1 life:1 gravy:3 train:1 ken:1 l:1 ration:1 soup:6 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2,251 | Neutronium | Neutronium is a hypothetical extremely dense phase of matter. The term was originally used in science fiction and in popular literature to refer to a highly dense phase of matter composed primarily of neutrons. The word was coined by scientist Andreas von Antropoff in 1926 (i.e. before the discovery of the neutron itself) for the conjectured 'element of atomic number zero' that he placed at the head of the periodic table. However, the meaning of the term has changed over time, and from the last half of the 20th century onward it has been used legitimately to refer to extremely dense phases of matter resembling the neutron-degenerate matter postulated to exist in the cores of neutron stars. Neutronium and neutron stars The term neutronium is used in popular literature to refer to the material present in the cores of neutron stars (stars which are too massive to be supported by electron degeneracy pressure and which collapse into a denser phase of matter). This term is very rarely used in scientific literature, for two reasons: There is no universally agreed-upon definition for the term "neutronium". There is considerable uncertainty over the composition of the material in the cores of neutron stars (it could be neutron-degenerate matter, strange matter, quark matter, or a variant or combination of the above). When neutron star core material is presumed to consist mostly of free neutrons, it is typically referred to as neutron-degenerate matter in scientific literature. Neutronium and the periodic table The term neutronium was coined in 1926 by Professor Andreas von Antropoff for a conjectured form of matter made up of neutrons with no protons, which he placed as the chemical element of atomic number zero at the head of his new version of the periodic table. It was subsequently placed as a noble gas in the middle of several spiral representations of the periodic system for classifying the chemical elements, such as the Chemical Galaxy (2005). It is thought to be the first element that emerged after the big bang. Although the term is not used in the scientific literature either for a condensed form of matter, or as an element, there have been reports that, besides the free neutron, there may exist two bound forms of neutrons without protons. However, these reports have not been further substantiated. Further information can be found in the following articles: Mononeutron: Isolated neutrons undergo beta decay with a half-life of approximately 15 minutes, becoming protons (the nucleus of hydrogen) and electrons. Dineutron: The dineutron, containing two neutrons, is not a bound particle, but has been proposed as an extremely short-lived state produced by nuclear reactions involving tritium. Tetraneutron: A tetraneutron is a hypothetical particle consisting of four bound neutrons. Reports of its existence have not been replicated. If confirmed, it would require revision of current nuclear models. A trineutron state consisting of three bound neutrons has not been detected, and is not expected to be stable even for a short time. Calculations indicate that the hypothetical pentaneutron state, consisting of a cluster of five neutrons, would not be bound. And so on, through the numbers, up to icosaneutron, with 20 neutrons. If one accepts neutronium to be an element, the above mentioned neutron clusters would be the isotopes of that element. Neutronium in fiction The term neutronium has been popular in science fiction since at least the middle of the 20th century. It typically refers to an extremely dense, incredibly strong form of matter. While presumably inspired by the concept of neutron-degenerate matter in the cores of neutron stars, the material used in fiction bears at most only a superficial resemblance, usually depicted as an extremely strong solid under Earthlike conditions. In contrast, all proposed forms of neutron star core material are fluids and are extremely unstable at pressures lower than that found in stellar cores. Noteworthy appearances of neutronium in fiction include the following: In Hal Clement's short story Proof (1942), neutronium is the only form of solid matter known to Solarians, the inhabitants of the Sun's interior. In Vladimir Savchenko's Black Stars (1960), neutronium is mechanically and thermally indestructible substance. It is also used to make antimatter, which leads to a fusion explosion accident. In Doctor Who (1963), neutronium is a substance which can shield spaces from time-shear when used as shielding in time-vessels. In the Known Space fictional universe of Larry Niven (1964), neutronium is actual neutron star core material. Niven does not make assumptions about its strength, but imagines that small blobs of it would remain stable (and inevitably spherical) under their own gravity. In Star Trek (1966), neutronium is an extremely hard and durable substance, often used as armor, which conventional weapons cannot penetrate or even dent. The alien planet killer seen in the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "The Doomsday Machine", had a hull composed of indestructible neutronium. In the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Relics", Worf informs Captain Picard that because the Dyson sphere is constructed of carbon neutronium, the ship's phasers would be ineffective. Neutronium also composed Kurros' starship in the 1999 Star Trek: Voyager episode "Think Tank", and a door at the Dominion headquarters on Cardassia later that same year in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine series finale, "What You Leave Behind". In Star Wars Expanded Universe (1978), a metal called neutronium exists that together with other fictional elements makes up an alloy known as durasteel. According to the EU Book "Cracken's Threat Dossier", Star Wars neutronium is a naturally occurring metal that can be found in mineral veins on moons. In Greg Bear's The Forge of God (a.k.a. The Planet-Killers or The Law) duology (1987–1992), neutronium and anti-neutronium are used to destroy planet Earth. In the computer games Master of Orion (1993), Master of Orion 2 (1996), and Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri (1999), neutronium is the second strongest armor type that can be researched in MOO1 and MOO2, and the third strongest in SMAC. MOO1 and MOO2 also depict a more realistic technology, the "neutronium bomb," an extremely powerful planetary bombardment weapon which causes damage due to "gravitic effects and the explosive decompression of the neutronium itself," a description more consistent with the expected properties of neutron-degenerate matter. In the game Star Control II, Neutronium is a kind of "Exotic" mineral (depicted as purple dots on planet surfaces). It may be found on certain "Ruby" and "Emerald" worlds. In the play-by-email computer game VGA-Planets (ca. 1993) it is used as fuel for spaceships. In Peter F. Hamilton's novel The Neutronium Alchemist (1997), neutronium is created by the "aggressive" setting of a superweapon. In Stargate SG-1 (1997), neutronium is a substance which is the basis of the technology of the advanced Asgard race, as well as a primary component of human-form Replicators. In the I-War (Independence War) computer game universe (1997), spongiform neutronium is used as the reactor target of beam-target fusion reactors which produce nearly all of the power requirements of modern human civilization and form the hearts of most spacefaring vessels. Its rarity and value are second only to antimatter. In the webcomic Schlock Mercenary (2000) neutronium is used in "annie plants," a type of total conversion power generator used for running everything from gigantic warships to personal sidearms. Gravitic technology is used to generate the neutronium from ordinary matter. (This form of neutronium is more closely based on true neutron-degenerate matter: it is similarly fluid and similarly unstable, and is a favored fuel for "annie plants" because of its extreme density.) In the Golden Age trilogy by John C. Wright (2002), a rotating torus of neutronium, when brought near the event horizon of a black hole, allowed access to the inner region of the black hole presumably due to the counteracting gravitational force. In the book Die Herren der Schwarzen Festung by the German writer Wolfgang Hohlbein (2003), neutronium is capable of holding two black holes away from each other. In W. Michael Gear's Forbidden Borders trilogy it is stated that an alien race is primarily composed of neutronium causing them to have a fundamentally different physics than humans. In Bioware's game Mass Effect - Element Zero or 'eezo' is used for generating the "mass effect" by applying electrical current to the substance. Positive current causes apparent mass to increase, and negative current causes apparent mass to decrease (this can even create negative mass allowing for anti-gravity and Faster-than-light travel). It is found in asteroids orbiting a heavily irradiating star. In the game Continuum, on Hyperspace, it is a type of armor one can buy for a lot of money and experience points. The armor itself is heavy and reduced ship performance, but it provides a lot of protection against guns, bombs, bursts, and shrapnels. In Wil McCarthy's novel, The Collapsium, neutronium is a state of matter which can be manipulated by stellar engineers to form further even denser materials such as collapsium and hypercollapsium. See also Neutron star Degenerate matter Neutron-degenerate matter Compact star References Bibliography | Neutronium |@lemmatized neutronium:37 hypothetical:3 extremely:8 dense:6 phase:4 matter:20 term:8 originally:1 use:16 science:2 fiction:5 popular:3 literature:5 refer:5 highly:1 compose:4 primarily:2 neutron:29 word:1 coin:2 scientist:1 andreas:2 von:2 antropoff:2 e:1 discovery:1 conjectured:2 element:9 atomic:2 number:3 zero:3 place:3 head:2 periodic:4 table:3 however:2 meaning:1 change:1 time:4 last:1 half:2 century:2 onward:1 legitimately:1 resemble:1 degenerate:8 postulate:1 exist:3 core:8 star:21 material:7 present:1 massive:1 support:1 electron:2 degeneracy:1 pressure:2 collapse:1 rarely:1 scientific:3 two:4 reason:1 universally:1 agree:1 upon:1 definition:1 considerable:1 uncertainty:1 composition:1 could:1 strange:1 quark:1 variant:1 combination:1 presume:1 consist:3 mostly:1 free:2 typically:2 professor:1 form:10 make:4 proton:3 chemical:3 new:1 version:1 subsequently:1 noble:1 gas:1 middle:2 several:1 spiral:1 representation:1 system:1 classify:1 galaxy:1 think:2 first:1 emerge:1 big:1 bang:1 although:1 either:1 condensed:1 report:3 besides:1 may:2 bound:4 without:1 far:2 substantiate:1 information:1 find:5 following:2 article:1 mononeutron:1 isolated:1 undergo:1 beta:1 decay:1 life:1 approximately:1 minute:1 become:1 nucleus:1 hydrogen:1 dineutron:2 contain:1 particle:2 propose:2 short:3 lived:1 state:5 produce:2 nuclear:2 reaction:1 involve:1 tritium:1 tetraneutron:2 four:1 existence:1 replicate:1 confirm:1 would:5 require:1 revision:1 current:4 model:1 trineutron:1 consisting:1 three:1 detect:1 expect:1 stable:2 even:4 calculation:1 indicate:1 pentaneutron:1 cluster:2 five:1 bind:1 icosaneutron:1 one:2 accept:1 mention:1 isotope:1 since:1 least:1 incredibly:1 strong:3 presumably:2 inspire:1 concept:1 bear:2 superficial:1 resemblance:1 usually:1 depict:3 solid:2 earthlike:1 condition:1 contrast:1 fluid:2 unstable:2 low:1 stellar:2 noteworthy:1 appearance:1 include:1 hal:1 clement:1 story:1 proof:1 know:2 solarians:1 inhabitant:1 sun:1 interior:1 vladimir:1 savchenko:1 black:4 mechanically:1 thermally:1 indestructible:2 substance:5 also:4 antimatter:2 lead:1 fusion:2 explosion:1 accident:1 doctor:1 shield:2 space:3 shear:1 vessel:2 known:1 fictional:2 universe:3 larry:1 niven:2 actual:1 assumption:1 strength:1 imago:1 small:1 blob:1 remain:1 inevitably:1 spherical:1 gravity:2 trek:5 hard:1 durable:1 often:1 armor:4 conventional:1 weapon:2 cannot:1 penetrate:1 dent:1 alien:2 planet:5 killer:2 see:2 original:1 series:2 episode:3 doomsday:1 machine:1 hull:1 next:1 generation:1 relic:1 worf:1 informs:1 captain:1 picard:1 dyson:1 sphere:1 construct:1 carbon:1 ship:2 phasers:1 ineffective:1 kurros:1 starship:1 voyager:1 tank:1 door:1 dominion:1 headquarters:1 cardassia:1 later:1 year:1 deep:1 nine:1 finale:1 leave:1 behind:1 war:4 expand:1 metal:2 call:1 together:1 alloy:1 durasteel:1 accord:1 eu:1 book:2 cracken:1 threat:1 dossier:1 naturally:1 occur:1 mineral:2 vein:1 moon:1 greg:1 forge:1 god:1 k:1 law:1 duology:1 anti:2 destroy:1 earth:1 computer:3 game:6 master:2 orion:2 sid:1 meier:1 alpha:1 centauri:1 second:2 type:3 research:1 third:1 strongest:1 smac:1 realistic:1 technology:3 bomb:2 powerful:1 planetary:1 bombardment:1 cause:4 damage:1 due:2 gravitic:2 effect:3 explosive:1 decompression:1 description:1 consistent:1 expected:1 property:1 control:1 ii:1 kind:1 exotic:1 purple:1 dot:1 surface:1 certain:1 ruby:1 emerald:1 world:1 play:1 email:1 vga:1 ca:1 fuel:2 spaceship:1 peter:1 f:1 hamilton:1 novel:2 alchemist:1 create:2 aggressive:1 setting:1 superweapon:1 stargate:1 sg:1 basis:1 advanced:1 asgard:1 race:2 well:1 primary:1 component:1 human:3 replicators:1 independence:1 spongiform:1 reactor:2 target:2 beam:1 nearly:1 power:2 requirement:1 modern:1 civilization:1 heart:1 spacefaring:1 rarity:1 value:1 webcomic:1 schlock:1 mercenary:1 annie:2 plant:2 total:1 conversion:1 generator:1 run:1 everything:1 gigantic:1 warship:1 personal:1 sidearms:1 generate:2 ordinary:1 closely:1 base:1 true:1 similarly:2 favored:1 extreme:1 density:1 golden:1 age:1 trilogy:2 john:1 c:1 wright:1 rotate:1 torus:1 brought:1 near:1 event:1 horizon:1 hole:3 allow:2 access:1 inner:1 region:1 counteract:1 gravitational:1 force:1 die:1 herr:1 der:1 schwarzen:1 festung:1 german:1 writer:1 wolfgang:1 hohlbein:1 capable:1 hold:1 away:1 w:1 michael:1 gear:1 forbidden:1 border:1 fundamentally:1 different:1 physic:1 bioware:1 mass:5 eezo:1 apply:1 electrical:1 positive:1 apparent:2 increase:1 negative:2 decrease:1 faster:1 light:1 travel:1 asteroid:1 orbit:1 heavily:1 irradiate:1 continuum:1 hyperspace:1 buy:1 lot:2 money:1 experience:1 point:1 heavy:1 reduced:1 performance:1 provide:1 protection:1 gun:1 burst:1 shrapnel:1 wil:1 mccarthy:1 collapsium:2 manipulate:1 engineer:1 hypercollapsium:1 compact:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 |@bigram science_fiction:2 periodic_table:3 neutron_degenerate:7 electron_degeneracy:1 degeneracy_pressure:1 big_bang:1 beta_decay:1 short_lived:1 superficial_resemblance:1 larry_niven:1 star_trek:5 dyson_sphere:1 trek_voyager:1 sid_meier:1 meier_alpha:1 alpha_centauri:1 stargate_sg:1 black_hole:3 |
2,252 | Magazine | Magazines. Magazines, periodicals, glossies or serials are publications, generally published on a regular schedule, containing a variety of articles, generally financed by advertising, by a purchase price, by pre-paid magazine subscriptions, or all three. Magazines can be distributed through the mail; through sales by newsstands, bookstores or other vendors; or through free distribution at selected pick up locations. Publication The various elements that contribute to the production of magazines vary wildly. Core elements such as publishing schedules, formats and target audiences are seemingly infinitely variable. Typically, magazines which focus primarily on current events, such as Newsweek or Entertainment Weekly, are published weekly or biweekly. Magazines with a focus on specific interests, such as Cat Fancy, may be published less frequently, such as monthly, bimonthly or quarterly. A magazine will usually have a date on the cover which often is later than the date it is actually published. Current magazines are generally available at bookstores and newsstands, while subscribers can receive them in the mail. Many magazines also offer a 'back issue' service for previously published editions. Most magazines produced on a commercial scale are printed using a web offset process. The magazine is printed in sections, typically of 16 pages, which may be black-and-white, be in full colour, or use spot colour. These sections are then bound, either by stapling them within a soft cover in a process sometimes referred to as 'saddle-stitching', or by gluing them together to form a spine, a process often called 'perfect-binding'. Some magazines are also published on the internet. Many magazines are available both on the internet and in hard copy, usually in different versions, though some are only available in hard copy or only via the internet: the latter are known as online magazines. Most magazines are available in the whole of the country in which they are published, although some are distributed only in specific regions or cities. Others are available internationally, often in different editions for each country or area of the world, varying to some degree in editorial and advertising content but not entirely dissimilar. Other publications Although similar to a magazine in some respects, an academic periodical featuring scholarly articles written in a more specialist register is usually called an "academic journal". Such publications typically carry little or no advertising. Articles are vetted by referees or a board of esteemed academics in the subject area. History The Gentleman's Magazine, first published in 1731, in London, is considered to have been the first general-interest magazine. Edward Cave, who edited The Gentleman's Magazine under the pen name "Sylvanus Urban", was the first to use the term "magazine", on the analogy of a military storehouse of varied materiel, originally derived from the Arabic makazin "storehouses". OED, s.v. "Magazine". The oldest consumer magazine still in print is The Scots Magazine, which was first published in 1739, though multiple changes in ownership and gaps in publication totaling over 90 years weaken that claim. Lloyd's List was founded in Edward Lloyd’s England coffee shop in 1734; it is still published as a daily business newspaper. Environmental impact A life cycle study shows that the CO2 emissions caused by the production and distribution of one copy of an average sized 0.39 pound magazine in the USA total about 0.95 kilograms (2.1 pounds) -- including paper from trees, materials, production, shipping and customer use. The loss of natural habitat potential from the 0.39 pound magazine is estimated to be 0.73 square meters (7.9 square feet). See also Column (newspaper) Editorial page List of eighteenth-century British periodicals List of nineteenth-century British periodicals List of online magazine archives Review Short story Types of magazines Academic journals Architecture magazines Art magazines Automobile magazines Boating magazines British Boy's Magazines Children's magazines Comic books Computer magazines Customer magazines Fantasy fiction magazines Fashion magazines Health and fitness magazines History magazines Horror fiction magazines Humor magazines Inspirational magazines Literary magazines Luxury magazines Men's magazines Motorcycle magazines Music magazines News magazines Online magazines Partworks Pornographic magazines Pulp magazines Railroad magazines Regional magazines Satirical magazines Science fiction magazines Science magazines and scientific journals Serials, periodicals and journals Shelter magazines (home design and decorating) Teen magazines Trade journals Trade magazines Travel magazine Wildlife magazines Women's magazines References be-x-old:Часопіс | Magazine |@lemmatized magazine:63 periodical:5 glossy:1 serial:2 publication:5 generally:3 publish:10 regular:1 schedule:2 contain:1 variety:1 article:3 finance:1 advertising:3 purchase:1 price:1 pre:1 pay:1 subscription:1 three:1 distribute:2 mail:2 sale:1 newsstand:2 bookstore:2 vendor:1 free:1 distribution:2 select:1 pick:1 location:1 various:1 element:2 contribute:1 production:3 vary:2 wildly:1 core:1 publishing:1 format:1 target:1 audience:1 seemingly:1 infinitely:1 variable:1 typically:3 focus:2 primarily:1 current:2 event:1 newsweek:1 entertainment:1 weekly:2 biweekly:1 specific:2 interest:2 cat:1 fancy:1 may:2 less:1 frequently:1 monthly:1 bimonthly:1 quarterly:1 usually:3 date:2 cover:2 often:3 later:1 actually:1 available:5 subscriber:1 receive:1 many:2 also:3 offer:1 back:1 issue:1 service:1 previously:1 edition:2 produce:1 commercial:1 scale:1 print:3 use:4 web:1 offset:1 process:3 section:2 page:2 black:1 white:1 full:1 colour:2 spot:1 bound:1 either:1 staple:1 within:1 soft:1 sometimes:1 refer:1 saddle:1 stitch:1 glue:1 together:1 form:1 spine:1 call:2 perfect:1 binding:1 internet:3 hard:2 copy:3 different:2 version:1 though:2 via:1 latter:1 know:1 online:3 whole:1 country:2 although:2 region:1 city:1 others:1 internationally:1 area:2 world:1 degree:1 editorial:2 content:1 entirely:1 dissimilar:1 similar:1 respect:1 academic:4 feature:1 scholarly:1 write:1 specialist:1 register:1 journal:5 carry:1 little:1 vet:1 referee:1 board:1 esteem:1 subject:1 history:2 gentleman:2 first:4 london:1 consider:1 general:1 edward:2 cave:1 edit:1 pen:1 name:1 sylvanus:1 urban:1 term:1 analogy:1 military:1 storehouse:1 varied:1 materiel:1 originally:1 derive:1 arabic:1 makazin:1 storehouses:1 oed:1 v:1 old:2 consumer:1 still:2 scots:1 multiple:1 change:1 ownership:1 gap:1 totaling:1 year:1 weaken:1 claim:1 lloyd:2 list:4 found:1 england:1 coffee:1 shop:1 daily:1 business:1 newspaper:2 environmental:1 impact:1 life:1 cycle:1 study:1 show:1 emission:1 cause:1 one:1 average:1 sized:1 pound:3 usa:1 total:1 kilogram:1 include:1 paper:1 tree:1 material:1 shipping:1 customer:2 loss:1 natural:1 habitat:1 potential:1 estimate:1 square:2 meter:1 foot:1 see:1 column:1 eighteenth:1 century:2 british:3 nineteenth:1 archive:1 review:1 short:1 story:1 type:1 architecture:1 art:1 automobile:1 boat:1 boy:1 child:1 comic:1 book:1 computer:1 fantasy:1 fiction:3 fashion:1 health:1 fitness:1 horror:1 humor:1 inspirational:1 literary:1 luxury:1 men:1 motorcycle:1 music:1 news:1 partworks:1 pornographic:1 pulp:1 railroad:1 regional:1 satirical:1 science:2 scientific:1 shelter:1 home:1 design:1 decorating:1 teen:1 trade:2 travel:1 wildlife:1 woman:1 reference:1 x:1 часопіс:1 |@bigram vary_wildly:1 entertainment_weekly:1 coffee_shop:1 kilogram_pound:1 nineteenth_century:1 pulp_magazine:1 science_fiction:1 |
2,253 | Oklahoma_City_bombing | In the Oklahoma City bombing (April 19, 1995), Americans Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols used a truck bomb to destroy the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, a government office complex in downtown Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. It was the most significant act of domestic terrorism in American history prior to the September 11 attacks of 2001, claiming 168 lives and leaving over 800 people injured. The blast destroyed or damaged 324 buildings in a sixteen-block radius, destroyed or burned 86 cars around the site, and shattered glass in 258 nearby buildings. Damages from the bombing totaled at least $652 million. McVeigh and Nichols were sympathizers of an American militia movement and were motivated by the Federal government's handling of the Waco Siege (1993) and Ruby Ridge incident (1992), and the bombing occurred on the anniversary of the Waco incident. They were abetted by accomplices Michael and Lori Fortier. Within 90 minutes of the bombing, the 26-year-old McVeigh was stopped by Oklahoma State Trooper Charlie Hanger for driving without a license plate and was then arrested for unlawfully carrying a weapon. Forensic evidence quickly linked McVeigh and Nichols to the attack, and within days the two were arrested and charged with the bombing. In the immediate aftermath of the bombing, there were widespread rescue efforts from local, state, federal, and worldwide agencies, and considerable donations from across the country. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) activated eleven of its Urban Search and Rescue Task Forces, comprising a team of 665 rescue workers who assisted in rescue and recovery operations. The official investigation, known as "OKBOMB," was the largest criminal case in the nation's history, with FBI agents conducting 28,000 interviews, amassing of evidence, and collecting nearly one billion pieces of information. The bombers were tried and convicted in 1997. McVeigh was executed by lethal injection on June 11, 2001, while Nichols was sentenced to life in prison. Michael and Lori Fortier agreed to testify against McVeigh and Nichols; Michael Fortier was sentenced to 12 years in prison for failing to warn the U.S. government, and Lori Fortier received immunity from prosecution in exchange for her testimony. As with other large-scale terrorist attacks, conspiracy theories dispute the official claims and allege the involvement of additional perpetrators. As a result of the bombing, the U.S. government passed legislation designed to thwart future terrorist attacks by increasing protection around federal buildings. Under these measures, law enforcement has since foiled over sixty domestic terrorism plots. On April 19, 2000, the Oklahoma City National Memorial was dedicated on the site of the Murrah Federal Building to commemorate the victims of the bombing and annual remembrance services are held at the time of the explosion. Prelude Planning The primary conspirators, Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols, met in 1988 at Fort Benning during basic training for the U.S. Army. Michael Fortier, an accomplice to the bombing, was an Army roommate of McVeigh's. The three shared interests in Survivalism and anti-government views including opposition to gun control and anger at the federal government's handling of the Waco Siege and the incident at Ruby Ridge. In March 1993, McVeigh visited the Waco site, and later decided to bomb a federal building as a response to the raids. Initially, McVeigh planned only to destroy a federal building, but later decided that his message would be better delivered by killing a large number of people. The bombing was planned over several years; as early as August 1994, McVeigh obtained nine Kinestiks from gun dealer Roger E. Moore, igniting the devices with Nichols outside Nichols' home. On September 30, 1994, Nichols bought 40 bags of ammonium nitrate from Mid-Kansas Coop in McPherson, Kansas, an amount regarded as unusual even for a farmer. Nichols bought an additional bag on October 18. McVeigh approached Fortier and asked him to become involved in the bombing project, but he refused, saying he would never be part of the plan "... unless there was a U.N. tank in my front yard!" To this, McVeigh responded, "What if the tank was in your neighbor's yard? Wouldn't you go to your neighbor's aid? What if it was in the yard of David Koresh?" McVeigh was unable to convince Fortier to assist in the bombing. Target selection McVeigh developed a list of criteria for potential attack sites. The target would have to house at least two of three federal law-enforcement agencies, including the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). The presence of additional law-enforcement agencies, such as the Secret Service or the U.S. Marshals Service would be considered a bonus. McVeigh considered targets in Arkansas, Missouri, Arizona, and Texas, seeking to maximize the number of federal employees killed or injured. The Murrah building was also chosen in part because of its glass front, which would shatter under the force of the blast. McVeigh also wished to minimize nongovernmental casualties; he had therefore ruled out a 40-story building in Little Rock, Arkansas because a florist's shop was on the ground floor. The Murrah Building was also chosen because the large open parking lot across the street would absorb and dissipate part of the concussion from the blast. In addition, McVeigh believed the large amount of open space around the building would create better photo opportunities for propaganda purposes. In December 1994, the pair visited Oklahoma City to inspect their target: the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building. McVeigh chose April 19, 1995 for the bombing to coincide with the Waco Siege as well as the 220th anniversary of the Battle of Lexington and Concord. The original plan was for Nichols to follow McVeigh's getaway car with his truck in the wake of the bombing, and for them then to flee in the truck back to Kansas. However, it was later decided that only McVeigh needed to bomb the building. Early preparations Nichols and McVeigh stole blasting caps and liquid nitromethane, keeping them in rented storage sheds. They also allegedly robbed gun collector Roger E. Moore of $60,000 worth of guns, gold, silver, and jewels, taking the property away in a van, which was also stolen from him; although this has been called into question because, despite the fact that McVeigh visited Moore's ranch, the robbers were said to be wearing ski masks and thus a positive identification was impossible; in any event, the physical description did not match Nichols. Also, Aryan Republican Army robbers were operating in the area of Moore's ranch at the time. Moreover, McVeigh did not need to raise money for the bomb, which only cost about $5,000. All told, the truck rental cost about $250, the fertilizer less than $500, and the nitromethane $2,780, with a cheap car being used as a getaway vehicle. McVeigh wrote a letter to Moore opining that government agents had committed the robbery. McVeigh wanted to build a bomb containing more than of ammonium nitrate fertilizer mixed with about of liquid nitromethane, of Tovex, and the miscellaneous weight of 16 55-gallon drums, for a combined weight of about . He initially desired to use rocket fuel anhydrous hydrazine, but it was too expensive. In October 1994, disguised as a bike racer, McVeigh was able to obtain three drums of nitromethane on the pretense that he and some fellow bikers needed the fuel for racing. McVeigh rented a storage space, which he used to stockpile seven crates of 18-inch-long Tovex sausages, 80 spools of shock tube, and 500 electric blasting caps they stole from a Martin Marietta Aggregates quarry in Marion, Kansas. He declined to take any of the of ANFO he found at the scene, since he did not believe it to be powerful enough. McVeigh made a prototype bomb using a plastic Gatorade jug with ammonium nitrate prills and liquid nitromethane. A piece of Tovex sausage and a blasting cap were used to ignite it. McVeigh exploded it out in the desert to avoid detection. Later, speaking about the military mindset with which he went about the preparations, he said, "You learn how to handle killing in the military. I face the consequences, but you learn to accept it." He viewed his act as more akin to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki than the attack on Pearl Harbor, in that it was necessary to prevent more lives from being lost. On April 14, 1995, McVeigh registered a motel room at the Dreamland Motel in Junction City, Kansas. The following day he rented a Ryder truck under the name Robert D. Kling, an alias he adopted because he knew a soldier named Kling with whom he shared physical characteristics, and because it reminded him of the Klingon warriors of Star Trek. On April 16, he drove to Oklahoma City with fellow conspirator Nichols where he parked a getaway vehicle several blocks away from the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building. After removing the license plate from the car, he left a note covering the Vehicle Identification Number (VIN) plate that read, "Not abandoned. Please do not tow. Will move by April 23. (Needs battery & cable)." Both men then returned to Kansas. Building the bomb On April 17 and April 18, McVeigh and Nichols loaded 108 bags of explosive-grade ammonium nitrate fertilizer, three drums of liquid nitromethane, several crates of explosive Tovex, 17 bags of ANFO, and spools of shock tube and cannon fuse into the Ryder truck from their storage unit in Herington, Kansas. The two then drove to Geary County State Lake where they nailed boards into the floor to hold the 13 barrels in place and mixed the chemicals together using plastic buckets and a bathroom scale. Each filled barrel weighed nearly . McVeigh added more explosives to the driver's side of the cargo bay, which he could ignite at close range, at the cost of his own life, with his Glock 21 pistol if the primary fuses failed. During McVeigh's trial, a witness stated that McVeigh claimed to have arranged the barrels in order to form a shaped charge. This was achieved by tamping the aluminum side panel of the truck with bags of ammonium nitrate fertilizer to direct the blast laterally towards the building. Specifically, McVeigh arranged the barrels in a backwards J; he said later that for pure destructive power, he would have put all the barrels on the side of the cargo bay closest to the Murrah Building; however, such an unevenly distributed load might have broken an axle, flipped the truck over, or at least caused it to lean to one side, which could have drawn attention. Three additional empty blue steel barrels were in the cargo hold behind the main charge as a decoy for investigators after the explosion. McVeigh then added a dual-fuse ignition system that he could access through the truck's front cab. Two holes were drilled in the cab of the truck and under the seat; two holes were drilled in the van of the truck. One green cannon fuse was run through each hole into the cab. These time-delayed fuses led from the cab of the truck, through plastic fish-tank tubing conduit (painted yellow to blend in with the truck, and duct-taped in place to the wall to make them harder to disable by yanking from the outside), to two sets of non-electric Primadet blasting caps. These were set up to initiate, through shock tubes, the of Tovex Blastrite Gel "sausages", which would in turn set off the configuration of barrels. Of the 13 non-empty barrels, nine were filled with ammonium nitrate and nitromethane, and four were filled with the fertilizer and about of diesel fuel. After finishing the truck-bomb construction, the two men separated. Nichols returned to Herington; McVeigh to Junction City. Bombing At dawn on April 19, McVeigh changed his plans to detonate the bomb at 11:00 a.m. CST, instead deciding to destroy the building at 9:00 a.m. CST. As he drove toward the Murrah Federal building in the Ryder truck, McVeigh carried with him an envelope whose contents included pages from The Turner Diaries, a fictional account of modern-day revolutionary activists who rise up against the government and create a full scale race war. He wore a printed T-shirt with the motto of the Commonwealth of Virginia, Sic semper tyrannis ("Thus always to tyrants", which was shouted by John Wilkes Booth immediately after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln) and "The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants" (from Thomas Jefferson). McVeigh also carried an envelope of anti-government materials. These included a bumper sticker with Samuel Adams' slogan, "When the government fears the people, there is liberty. When the people fear the government, there is tyranny." Underneath, McVeigh had scrawled, "Maybe now, there will be liberty!" Another item included a quote by John Locke, asserting that a man has a right to kill someone who takes away his liberty. McVeigh entered Oklahoma City at 8:50 a.m. CST. As the truck approached the building, at 8:57 a.m. CST, McVeigh lit the five-minute fuse. Three minutes later, still a block away, he lit the two-minute fuse. He parked the Ryder truck in a drop-off zone situated under the building's day care center, locked the truck, and as he headed to his getaway vehicle, dropped the keys to the truck a few blocks away. At 9:02 a.m. CST, the Ryder truck, containing in excess of of ammonium nitrate fertilizer, nitromethane, and diesel fuel mixture, detonated in front of the north side of the nine-story Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building. The blast destroyed a third of the building and created a wide, deep crater on NW 5th Street next to the building. The blast destroyed or damaged 324 buildings in a sixteen-block radius, destroyed or burned 86 cars around the site, and shattered glass in 258 nearby buildings (the broken glass alone accounted for 5% of the death total and 69% of the injuries outside the Murrah Federal building). The destruction of the buildings left several hundred people homeless and shut down multiple offices in downtown Oklahoma City. Total damages from the bombing totaled at least $652 million. The effects of the blast were equivalent to over of TNT, and could be heard and felt up to away. Seismometers at the Omniplex Science Museum in Oklahoma City, away, and in Norman, Oklahoma, away, recorded the blast as measuring approximately 3.0 on the Richter scale. Arrests Initially, the FBI had three theories on who had committed the bombing. The first was that it was international terrorism, possibly by the same group who had committed the World Trade Center bombing two years earlier. The FBI also thought that a drug cartel was acting out of vengeance against DEA agents, as the building held a DEA office. The last theory was that the bombing was done by Christian fascists acting on conspiracy theories. Within 90 minutes of the explosion, McVeigh was arrested traveling north on Interstate 35 near Perry in Noble County. An Oklahoma State Trooper stopped McVeigh for driving his yellow 1977 Mercury Marquis without a license plate, and arrested him for having a concealed weapon. Using the VIN number from an axle, and the remnants of the license plate, federal agents linked the truck to a specific Ryder rental agency in Junction City; using a sketch created with the assistance of Eldon Elliot, owner of the rental agency, the agents were able to link McVeigh, who had been arrested on unrelated charges, to the bombing. McVeigh also was identified by Lea McGown of the Dreamland Motel, who remembered McVeigh parking a large yellow Ryder truck in the lot; moreover, McVeigh had signed in under his real name at the motel, using an address that matched the one on both his forged license and the charge sheet at the Perry Police Station. Prior to signing into the hotel, McVeigh had used fake names for his transactions; McGown noted, "People are so used to signing their own name that when they go to sign a phony name, they almost always go to write, and then look up for a moment as if to remember the new name they want to use. That's what [McVeigh] did, and when he looked up I started talking to him, and it threw him." After a court hearing on the gun charges, but before McVeigh was released, federal agents took him into custody as they continued their investigation into the bombing. Rather than talk to investigators about the bombing, McVeigh demanded an attorney. Having been tipped off by the arrival of police and helicopters that a bombing suspect was inside, a restless crowd began forming outside the jail. McVeigh's requests for a bulletproof vest or transport by helicopter were denied. Federal agents obtained a search warrant for the house of McVeigh's father Bill, and accordingly broke down the door and wired his home and telephone with listening devices. They then searched for Nichols, a friend of McVeigh. Two days after the bombing, Nichols learned that FBI investigators were looking for him, and he turned himself in. Investigators found incriminating evidence at his house: ammonium nitrate and Primadet; the electric drill used to drill out the locks at the quarry; books on bomb-making; a copy of Hunter, the 1989 novel by William Luther Pierce, the late founder and chairman of the white nationalist National Alliance; and, finally, a hand-drawn map of downtown Oklahoma City which included the Murrah Building and the spot where McVeigh's getaway car was hidden. After a nine-hour interrogation, Nichols was formally held in federal custody until his trial for involvement in the bombing. Terry Nichols' brother James was also arrested but released after 32 days for lack of evidence. McVeigh's sister Jennifer was accused of illegally mailing bullets to McVeigh, but was granted immunity in exchange for testifying against him. Ibrahim Ahmad, a Jordanian-American traveling from his home in Oklahoma City to visit family in Jordan was also arrested in what was described as an "initial dragnet". Due to his background, the media initially was concerned that Middle Eastern terrorists were behind the attack. Further investigation, however, cleared Ahmad in the bombing. Casualties It is estimated that 646 people were inside the building when the bomb exploded. At the end of the day of the bombing, twenty people were confirmed dead, including six children, with over a hundred injured. The toll eventually reached 168 confirmed dead, not including an unmatched leg that might be from a possible, unidentified 169th victim. The majority of the deaths were the result of the collapse of the building, not the blast from the bomb. The 168 people killed included 163 people who were in the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, one person in the Athenian Building, one woman in a parking lot across the street, a man and woman in the Oklahoma Water Resources building, and a rescue worker struck in the head by debris. The victims ranged in age from three months to seventy-three, not including gestating fetuses of three pregnant women. Of the dead, 99 worked for the federal government; the other 69 did not. In Terry Nichols state trial, he was charged with 162 counts of murder; this number includes one of the fetuses. Nineteen of the victims were children, including fifteen who were in the America's Kids Day Care Center. The bodies of all 168 victims were identified at a temporary morgue set up at the scene. To identify the bodies, 24 people, including sixteen specialists, used full-body X-rays, dental examinations, fingerprinting, blood tests, and DNA testing. The bomb injured 853 people with the majority of the injuries ranging from abrasions to severe burns and bone fractures. Response and relief Rescue efforts At 9:03:25 a.m. CST, the first of over 1,800 9-1-1 calls related to the bombing was received by Emergency Medical Services Authority (EMSA). By that time, EMSA ambulances, police, and firefighters were already headed to the scene, having heard the blast. Nearby civilians, who had also witnessed or heard the blast, arrived to assist the victims and emergency workers. Within 23 minutes of the bombing, the State Emergency Operations Center (SEOC) was set up and included representatives of the state departments of public safety, human services, military, health, and education. Assisting the SEOC were agencies such as the National Weather Service, the Air Force, the Civil Air Patrol, and the American Red Cross. Immediate assistance also came from 465 members of the Oklahoma National Guard, who arrived within the hour to provide security, and from members of the Department of Civil Emergency Management. Within the first hour, 50 people were rescued from the Murrah Federal building. Victims were sent to every hospital in the area. By the end of the day, 153 victims had been treated at St. Anthony Hospital, eight blocks from the blast, over 70 at Presbyterian, 41 at University, and 18 at Children's. Temporary silences were observed so listening devices capable of detecting human heartbeats could be used to locate survivors. In some cases, limbs had to be amputated without anesthetic (avoided due to its potential to cause a deadly coma) in order to free those trapped under rubble. Evacuations of the scene were sometimes forced by the receipt by police of tips claiming that more bombs had been planted in the building. At 10:28 a.m. CST, rescuers found what they believed to be a second bomb. Some rescue workers initially refused to leave until police ordered a mandatory evacuation of a four-block area around the site. The device was later determined to be a three-foot (.9-m) long TOW missile, used as a simulator in training federal agents and bomb-sniffing dogs. The device was inert but had been marked "live" to fool arms traffickers in a planned law enforcement sting. After about 45 minutes, when the missile was determined to be inert, relief efforts resumed. The last survivor, a fifteen-year-old girl found under the base of the collapsed building, was discovered at about 7:00 p.m. CST. In the days following the blast, over 12,000 people participated in relief and rescue operations. FEMA activated 11 of its Urban Search and Rescue Task Forces, comprising a team of 665 rescue workers who assisted in rescue and recovery operations. One nurse was killed in the rescue attempt after debris hit her in the head, and 26 other rescuers were hospitalized with various injuries. In an effort to recover additional bodies, 100 to 350 tons of rubble were removed from the site each day until April 29. Twenty-four K-9 units and out-of-state dogs were brought in to search for survivors and locate bodies amongst the building refuse. Rescue and recovery efforts were concluded at 12:05 a.m. CST on May 5, with the bodies of all but three victims recovered. For safety reasons, the building was to be demolished shortly afterward. However, McVeigh's attorney, Stephen Jones, called for a motion to delay the demolition until the defense team could examine the site in preparation for the trial. More than a month after the bombing, at 7:02 a.m. CST on May 23, the Murrah Federal building was demolished. The final three bodies, those of two credit union employees and a customer, were recovered. For several days after the building's demolition, trucks hauled of debris a day away from the site. Some of the debris was used as evidence in the conspirators' trials, incorporated into parts of memorials, donated to local schools, and sold to raise funds for relief efforts. Humanitarian aid The national humanitarian response was immediate and, in some cases, even overwhelming. Rescue workers received large amounts of donated goods such as wheelbarrows, bottled water, helmet lights, knee pads, rain gear, and even football helmets. The sheer number of donated goods caused logistical and inventory control problems until drop-off centers were set up to accept and sort the goods. The Oklahoma Restaurant Association, which was holding a trade show in the city, assisted rescue workers by providing 15,000 to 20,000 meals over a ten-day period. The Salvation Army served over 100,000 meals and provided over 100,000 ponchos, gloves, hard hats, and knee pads to rescue workers. Requests for blood donations were met by local residents and also from those around the nation. Of the 9,000 units of blood donated to the victims, only 131 units were used, the rest were saved in blood banks. Federal and state government aid At 9:45 a.m. CST, Governor Frank Keating declared a state of emergency and ordered all non-essential workers located in the Oklahoma City area to be released from their duties for their safety. President Bill Clinton learned about the bombing around 9:30 a.m. CST while he was meeting with Turkish Prime Minister Tansu Çiller at the White House. Prior to addressing the nation, President Clinton wanted to ground all planes in the Oklahoma City area to prevent the bombers from escaping by air, but decided against it. At 4:00 p.m. CST, President Clinton declared a federal emergency in Oklahoma City and spoke to the nation: He also ordered that flags for all federal buildings be flown at half-staff for 30 days in remembrance of the victims. Four days later, on April 23, Clinton spoke from Oklahoma City. There was no major federal financial assistance provided to the survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing, However, the Murrah Fund was established and collected over $300,000 from federal grants. Over $40 million was donated to the city after the bombing to aid the disaster relief and to compensate the victims. Funds were initially distributed to families that desperately needed it to get back on their feet, while holding the rest of the money in trust for longer-term medical and psychological needs. By 2005, $18 million of the donations remained, where a portion will be used to provide a college education for each of the 219 children who lost one or both parents in the bombing. A committee chaired by Daniel Kurtenbach of Goodwill Industries provided financial assistance to the survivors. International reaction The bombing had a variety of reactions worldwide. President Clinton received numerous messages of sympathy from Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, Yasser Arafat of the Palestine Liberation Organization, and Narasimha Rao of India. Iran condemned the bombing for taking innocent lives, but blamed U.S. policies for the bombing. Parliament member Ahmed Baqer of Kuwait stated "This is a criminal act. No religion and no law permit such acts. A lot of civilians and children were killed. This is against human rights. This is against logic. We as a movement reject this kind of action." Other condolences came from Russia, Canada, Australia, the United Nations, and the European Union, among other nations and organizations. Several countries offered assistance in the rescue efforts and investigation. France proposed sending a special unit to help with the rescue efforts. Israeli President Yitzhak Rabin offered to send agents with "anti-terrorist expertise" to help in the investigation. President Clinton declined Israel's offer, believing that acceptance of the offer would increase anti-Muslim sentiments and cause harm to Muslim-Americans. Children terrorized In the wake of the bombing, the national media seized upon the fact that 19 of the victims had been babies and children, many in the day-care center. At the time of the bombing, there were 100 day-care centers in the United States in 7,900 federal buildings. McVeigh later stated that he was unaware of the day-care center when choosing the building as a target, and if he had known "... it might have given me pause to switch targets. That's a large amount of collateral damage." However, the FBI stated that McVeigh scouted the interior of the building in December 1994 and likely knew of the day-care center before the bombing. Schools across the country were dismissed early and ordered closed. A photograph of firefighter Chris Fields emerging from the rubble with infant Baylee Almon, who later died in a nearby hospital, was reprinted worldwide and became a symbol of the attack. The photo, taken by utility company employee Charles H. Porter IV, earned the 1996 Pulitzer Prize for Spot News Photography. The images and thoughts of children dying terrorized many children who, as demonstrated by later research, showed symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. President Clinton stated that after seeing images of babies being pulled from the wreckage, he was "beyond angry" and wanted to "put [his] fist through the television". President Clinton and his wife, Hillary, showed concern about how children were reacting to the bombing. They requested that aides talk to child care specialists about how to talk to the children regarding the bombing. President Clinton spoke to the nation three days after the bombing, saying: "I don't want our children to believe something terrible about life and the future and grownups in general because of this awful thing...most adults are good people who want to protect our children in their childhood and we are going to get through this". On the Saturday after the bombing, April 22, the Clintons gathered children of employees of federal agencies that had offices in the Murrah Building, and in a live nationwide television and radio broadcast, addressed their concerns. Media coverage Hundreds of news trucks and members of the press arrived at the site to cover the story. The press immediately noticed that the bombing took place on the second anniversary of the Waco incident. Many initial news stories, however, hypothesized the attack had been undertaken by Islamic terrorists, such as those who had masterminded the World Trade Center bombing two years before. Some responded to these reports by attacking Muslims and people of Arab descent. As the rescue effort wound down, the media interest shifted to the investigation, arrests, and trials of Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols, and on the search for an additional suspect named "John Doe Number Two". Several witnesses had claimed to see the second suspect with McVeigh who did not resemble Nichols. Trials and sentencing of the conspirators The FBI led the official investigation, known as OKBOMB, with Weldon L. Kennedy acting as Special Agent in charge. Kennedy oversaw 900 federal, state, and local law enforcement personnel including 300 FBI agents, 200 officers from the Oklahoma City Police Department, 125 members of the Oklahoma National Guard, and 55 officers from the Oklahoma Department of Public Safety. The crime task force was deemed the largest since the investigation into the assassination of John F. Kennedy. OKBOMB was the nation's largest criminal case in history, with FBI agents conducting 28,000 interviews, amassing of evidence, and collecting nearly one billion pieces of information. Federal judge Richard Paul Matsch ordered the venue for the trial be moved from Oklahoma City to Denver, Colorado, citing that the defendants would be unable to receive a fair trial in Oklahoma. The investigation led to the separate trials and convictions of McVeigh, Nichols, and Fortier. Timothy McVeigh The United States was represented by a team of prosecutors, led by Joseph Hartzler. In his opening statement, Hartzler outlined McVeigh's motivations and the evidence against him. McVeigh's motivation, he said, was hatred of the government, which began during his tenure in the Army as he read The Turner Diaries. His motive grew through increases in taxes and the passage of the Brady Bill, and grew further with the Waco and Ruby Ridge incidents. The prosecution called 137 witnesses, including Michael Fortier, Michael's wife Lori Fortier, and McVeigh's sister, Jennifer McVeigh, all of whom testified on McVeigh's hatred of the government and demonstrated desire to take militant action against it. Both Fortiers testified that McVeigh had told them of his plans to bomb the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building. Michael revealed how McVeigh had chosen the date and Lori testified that she created the false identification card that McVeigh used to rent the Ryder truck. McVeigh was represented by a defense counsel team of six principal attorneys led by Stephen Jones. According to law professor Douglas O. Linder, McVeigh wanted Jones to present a "necessity defense"—which would argue that he was in "imminent danger" from the government (that his bombing was intended to prevent future crimes by the government, such as the Waco and Ruby Ridge incidents). McVeigh argued that "'imminent' does not mean 'immediate.' If a comet is hurtling toward the earth, and it's out past the orbit of Pluto, it's not an immediate threat to Earth, but it is an imminent threat." Despite McVeigh's wishes, Jones instead attempted to discredit the prosecution's case in an attempt to instill reasonable doubt. In addition, Jones believed that McVeigh was part of a larger conspiracy, and sought to present McVeigh as "the designated patsy". However, McVeigh disagreed with Jones arguing that rationale for his defense. After a hearing, Judge Matsch independently ruled the evidence concerning a larger conspiracy to be too insubstantial to be admissible. In addition to arguing that the bombing could not have been accomplished by two men alone but must have been perpetrated by a conspiracy of more people whom McVeigh was protecting, Jones also attempted to raise reasonable doubt by arguing that no one had seen McVeigh near the scene of the crime and that the investigation into the bombing had lasted merely two weeks. Jones presented 25 witnesses over a one-week period, including Dr. Frederic Whitehurst. Although Whitehurst described the FBI's sloppy investigation of the bombing site and its handling of other key evidence, he was unable to point to any direct evidence that he knew to be contaminated. A key point of contention in the case was the unmatched left leg that had been found in the building after the bombing. Although it was initially believed to be a male's leg, it was later determined to be that of Lakesha Levy, a female member of the Air Force who was killed in the bombing. Levy's coffin had to be re-opened so that her leg could replace another unmatched leg that had previously been buried with her remains. The unmatched leg had been embalmed, which prevented authorities from being able to extract DNA to determine the leg's owner. Jones argued that the leg could have belonged to another bomber, possibly John Doe #2. The prosecution disputed the claim, saying that the leg could have belonged to one of eight victims who had been buried without a left leg. It is still unknown who the owner of the leg was. Numerous damaging leaks emerged, which appeared to originate from conversations McVeigh had with his defense attorneys. These included a confession that was said to have been inadvertently included on a computer disk that was given to the press. McVeigh believed that it seriously compromised his chances of getting a fair trial. A gag order was imposed during the trial that prohibited attorneys on either side from commenting to the press on the evidence, proceedings, and opinions regarding the trial proceedings. The defense was allowed to enter into evidence six pages of a 517-page Justice Department report criticizing the FBI crime laboratory and David Williams, one of the agency's explosives experts, for reaching unscientific and biased conclusions about the bombing. The report claimed that Williams had worked backward in the investigation rather than basing his determinations on forensic evidence. The jury deliberated for 23 hours. On June 2, 1997, McVeigh was found guilty on eleven counts of murder and conspiracy. Although the defense argued for a reduced sentence of life imprisonment, McVeigh was sentenced to death. After President George W. Bush approved the execution (McVeigh was a federal inmate and federal law dictates that the President must approve the execution of federal prisoners), he was executed by lethal injection at a U.S. penitentiary in Terre Haute, Indiana, on June 11, 2001. The execution was transmitted on closed-circuit television so that the relatives of the victims could witness his death. McVeigh's execution was the first federal execution in 38 years. Terry Nichols Terry Nichols stood trial twice. He was first tried by the federal government in 1997 and found guilty of conspiring to build a weapon of mass destruction and of eight counts of involuntary manslaughter of federal officers. After he received the sentence on June 4, 1998 of life-without-parole, the State of Oklahoma in 2000 sought a death-penalty conviction on 161 counts of first-degree murder. On May 26, 2004 the jury found him guilty on all charges, but deadlocked on the issue of sentencing him to death. Presiding Judge Steven W. Taylor then determined the sentence of 161 consecutive life terms without the possibility of parole. He is currently held in the ADX Florence Federal Prison. Michael Fortier Though Michael Fortier was considered an accomplice and co-conspirator, he agreed to testify against McVeigh in exchange for a modest sentence and immunity for his wife. He was sentenced on May 27, 1998 to twelve years in prison and fined $200,000 for failing to warn authorities about the attack. As discussed by Jeralyn Merritt, who served on Timothy McVeigh's criminal defense team, on January 20, 2006, after serving ten and a half years of his sentence, Fortier was released for good behavior into the Witness Protection Program and given a new identity. Others No "John Doe #2" was ever identified, nothing conclusive was ever reported regarding the owner of the missing leg, and the government never openly investigated anyone else in conjunction with the bombing. Though the defense teams in both McVeigh's and Nichols trials tried to suggest that others were involved, Judge Steven W. Taylor, who presided over the Nichols trial, found no credible, relevant, or legally admissible evidence of anyone other than McVeigh and Nichols as having directly participated in the bombing. When McVeigh was asked if there were other conspirators in the bombing, he replied: "Because the truth is, I blew up the Murrah Building, and isn't it kind of scary that one man could wreak this kind of hell?" On the morning of his execution, a letter was released that he had written which stated "For those die-hard conspiracy theorists who will refuse to believe this, I turn the tables and say: Show me where I needed anyone else. Financing? Logistics? Specialized tech skills? Brainpower? Strategy? ... Show me where I needed a dark, mysterious 'Mr. X'!" Legacy Until the September 11, 2001 attacks, the Oklahoma City bombing was the deadliest act of terror against the U.S. on American soil. Prior to this, the deadliest act of terror against the United States was the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103, which killed 189 Americans. Within 48 hours after the bombing, and with the assistance of the General Services Administration, the various federal offices were able to resume operations in other parts of the city. House of Representatives, Federal Building Security: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Public Buildings and Economic Development of the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure. 104th Congress, April 24, 1996. Interview with Dave Barram, Administrator of GSA, p. 6 Estimates claim that approximately 387,000 people in the Oklahoma City metropolitan area (a third of the population) knew someone who was directly affected by the bombing. Legislation In response to the bombing, the U.S. government enacted several pieces of legislation, notably the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996. In response to the trials of the conspirators being moved out-of-state, the Victim Allocution Clarification Act of 1997 was signed on March 20, 1997 by President Clinton to allow the victims of the bombing (and the victims of any other future acts of violence) the right to observe trials and to offer impact testimony in sentencing hearings. In response to passing the legislation, Clinton stated that "when someone is a victim, he or she should be at the center of the criminal justice process, not on the outside looking in." In the years after the bombing, scientists, security experts, and the ATF have called on Congress to develop legislation that would require customers to present identification when purchasing ammonium nitrate fertilizer as well as have sellers retain records of sales. Critics argued against the requirement, citing that farmers used large portions of the fertilizer for lawful reasons. The identification may not be used to prevent a terrorist attack, but would allow investigators to trace the material back to the person who bought it. In the United States, only Nevada and South Carolina require identification when purchasing the fertilizer. In June 1995, Congress enacted legislation that would require chemical taggants be included with dynamite and other explosives so that a bomb could be traced to its manufacturer. In 2008, Honeywell announced that it had developed a nitrogen-based fertilizer that would not detonate when mixed with fuel oil. The company, with the assistance of the Department of Homeland Security, is working on developing the fertilizer for commercial use. Building security and construction In the weeks following the bombing, the federal government ordered that all federal buildings in all major cities be surrounded with prefabricated Jersey barriers to ward off similar attacks. As part of a longer plan for United States federal building security, most of these temporary barriers have since been replaced with permanent security barriers which look more attractive and are driven deep into the ground for sturdiness. Furthermore, all new federal buildings must now be constructed with truck-resistant barriers and with deep setbacks from surrounding streets to minimize their vulnerability to truck bombs. FBI buildings, for instance, must be set back from traffic. The total cost of improving security in federal buildings across the country in response to the bombing reached over $600 million. The Murrah building was previously deemed so safe that it only employed one security guard. In June 1995, the General Services Administration issued Vulnerability Assessment of Federal Facilities, also known as The Marshals Report. These findings resulted in a thorough evaluation of security at all federal buildings and a system for classifying risks at over 1,300 federal facilities owned or leased by the federal government. Federal sites were divided into five security levels ranging from Level 1 (minimum security needs) to Level 5 (maximum). The Alfred P. Murrah Building was a Level 4 building. Among the 52 security improvement factors were parking, lighting, physical barriers, closed circuit television monitoring, site planning and access, vehicular circulation, standoff distance (which is the setback of the building envelope from the street to mitigate truck bomb damage), hardening of building exteriors to increase blast resistance, glazing systems to reduce flying glass shards and fatalities, and structural engineering design to prevent progressive collapse. According to Mark Potok, director of Intelligence Project at the Southern Poverty Law Center, law enforcement officials have foiled over sixty domestic terror plots since the Oklahoma City bombing. The attacks were prevented due to measures established by the local and federal government to increase security of high-priority targets and following-up on hate groups within the United States. Potok revealed that in 1996 there was approximately 858 domestic militias and other antigovernment groups but the number had dropped to 152 by 2004. Shortly after the bombing, the FBI hired an additional 500 agents to investigate potential domestic terrorist attacks. The attack led to improvements in engineering for the purpose of constructing buildings that would be better able to withstand tremendous forces. Oklahoma City's new federal building was constructed using those improvements. The National Geographic Channel documentary series Seconds From Disaster suggested that the Murrah Building would probably have survived the blast had it been built according to California earthquake design codes. Discussion of the nature of dissent Even many who agreed with some of McVeigh's politics viewed his act as counterproductive. Much of the criticism focused on the deaths of innocent children. Critics expressed chagrin that McVeigh had not assassinated specific government leaders instead. Indeed, McVeigh had considered assassinating Attorney-General Janet Reno and others rather than bombing a building, and after the bombing said that sometimes he wished he had committed a series of assassinations instead. Those who expressed sympathy for McVeigh typically described his deed as an act of war, as in the case of Gore Vidal's essay, The Meaning of Timothy McVeigh. Other journalists compared him to John Brown. In response to McVeigh's description of himself as a libertarian, Libertarian Party national director Steve Dasbach said: McVeigh thought that the bombing had a positive impact on government policy. As evidence, he cited the peaceful resolution of the Montana Freemen standoff in 1996, the government's $3.1 million settlement with Randy Weaver and his surviving children four months after the bombing, and April 2000 statements by Bill Clinton regretting his decision to storm the Branch Davidian compound. McVeigh noted, "Once you bloody the bully's nose, and he knows he's going to be punched again, he's not coming back around." Memorial observances Oklahoma City National Memorial For two years after the bombing, the only memorial for the victims were stuffed animals, crucifixes, letters, and other personal items left by thousands of people at a security fence surrounding the site of the building. Although multiple ideas for memorials were sent to Oklahoma City within the first day after the bombing, an official memorial planning committee did not form until early 1996. The Murrah Federal Building Memorial Task Force, composed of 350 members, was established to formulate plans in choosing a memorial to commemorate the victims of the bombing. On July 1, 1997, the winning design was chosen unanimously by a 15-member panel from 624 submissions. The memorial was designed at a cost of $29 million, which was raised by public and private funds. The memorial is part of the National Park Service and was designed by Oklahoma City architects Hans and Torrey Butzer and Sven Berg. It was dedicated by President Clinton on April 19, 2000, exactly five years after the bombing. Within the first year, it had 700,000 visitors. The museum includes a reflecting pool flanked by two large "gates", one inscribed with the time 9:01, the opposite with 9:03, the pool between representing the moment of the blast. On the south end of the memorial is a field full of symbolic bronze and stone chairs—one for each person lost, arranged based on what floor they were on. The chairs represent the empty chairs at the dinner tables of the victims' families. The seats of the children killed are smaller than those of the adults lost. On the opposite side is the "survivor tree", part of the building's original landscaping that somehow survived the blast and fires that followed it. The memorial left part of the foundation of the building intact, so that visitors can see the scale of the destruction. Around the western edge of the memorial is a portion of the chain link fence which had amassed over 800,000 personal items which were later collected by the Oklahoma City Memorial Foundation. Zachary White, The Search For Redemption Following the Oklahoma City Bombing: Amending the Boundaries Between Public and Private Grief (San Diego: [publisher?], 1998): 70. North of the memorial is the Journal Record Building which now houses the Oklahoma City National Memorial Museum, an affiliate of the National Park Service. Also in the building is the National Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism, a non-partisan think tank. St. Joseph's Church On a corner adjacent to the memorial is a sculpture titled "And Jesus Wept", erected by St. Joseph's Catholic Church. St. Joseph's, one of the first brick and mortar churches in the city, was almost completely destroyed by the blast. The statue is not part of the memorial itself but is popular with visitors nonetheless. Remembrance observance Each year, an observance is held to remember the victims of the bombing. An annual marathon draws thousands, where runners can sponsor one of the victims of the bombing. For the tenth anniversary of the bombing, the city held 24 days of activities, including a week-long series of events known as the "National Week of Hope" from April 17 to April 24, 2005. As in previous years, the tenth anniversary of the bombing observances began with a service at 09:02 a.m. CST, marking the moment the bomb went off, with the traditional 168 seconds of silence,—one second for each person who was killed as a result of the blast. The service also included the traditional reading of the names, read by children to symbolize the future of Oklahoma City. Vice President Dick Cheney, former president Clinton, Oklahoma Governor Brad Henry, Frank Keating, Governor of Oklahoma at the time of the bombing, and other political dignitaries attended the service and gave speeches in which they emphasized that "goodness overcame evil". The relatives of the victims and the survivors of the blast also made note of it during the service at First United Methodist Church in Oklahoma City. President George W. Bush made note of the anniversary in a written statement, part of which echoes his remarks on the execution of Timothy McVeigh in 2001: "For the survivors of the crime and for the families of the dead the pain goes on." Bush was invited but did not attend the service because he was en route to Springfield, Illinois to dedicate the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum. Vice President Cheney presided over the service in his place. Conspiracy theories A variety of conspiracy theories have been proposed about the events surrounding the bombing. Many critics allege that individuals in the government, including President Bill Clinton, knew of the impending bombing and intentionally failed to act on that knowledge. Additional theories focus on the possibility of additional explosives within the building and additional conspirators involved with the bombing. It is also believed that the bombing was done by the government to frame the militia movement or enact antiterrorism legislation while using McVeigh as a scapegoat. Experts have disputed the theories and government investigations have been opened at various times after the bombing to look into the theories. See also List of terrorist incidents Domestic terrorism in the United States Lone wolf (terrorism) List of structural failures and collapses 1993 Bishopsgate bombing References Further reading Hinman, Eve E. David J. Hammond. Lessons from the Oklahoma City Bombing: Defensive Design Techniques. New York: ASCE Press, 1997. ISBN 0-784-40217-5. Jones, Stephen. Peter Israel. Others Unknown: The Oklahoma City Bombing Case and Conspiracy. New York: Public Affairs, 1998. ISBN 1-891-62007-X. Oklahoma Today. 9:02 a.m., April 19, 1995: The Official Record of the Oklahoma City Bombing. Oklahoma City: Oklahoma Today, 2005. ISBN 0-806-19957-1. Sanders, Kathy. After Oklahoma City: A Grieving Grandmother Uncovers Shocking Truths about the bombing...and Herself. Arlington, TX: Master Strategies, 2005. ISBN 0-9766485-0-4. Sherrow, Victoria. The Oklahoma City Bombing: Terror in the Heartland. Springfield, N.J.: Enslow Publishers, 1998. ISBN 0-766-01061-9. External links Oklahoma City Bombing Trial News archives and special reports at the The Denver Post (with updated links) Oklahoma City National Memorial Official website CNN Interactive List of victims of the Oklahoma City Bombing Bombing images Text, Audio, and Video of President Clinton's Oklahoma Bombing Memorial Address Oklahoma City Bombing Trial (Timothy McVeigh Trial) on the UMKC law department famous trials site Coverup in Oklahoma - A documentary that explores witness testimony that was videotaped during the day of the bombing as well as evidence that contradicts the government's official story surrounding the Oklahoma City bombing. | Oklahoma_City_bombing |@lemmatized oklahoma:57 city:49 bombing:92 april:18 american:8 timothy:8 mcveigh:106 terry:7 nichols:29 use:25 truck:28 bomb:29 destroy:9 alfred:7 p:10 murrah:22 federal:58 building:74 government:30 office:5 complex:1 downtown:3 significant:1 act:15 domestic:6 terrorism:6 history:3 prior:4 september:3 attack:17 claim:8 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2,254 | Computer_science | Computer science (or computing science) is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation, and of practical techniques for their implementation and application in computer systems. "Computer science is the study of information" New Jersey Institute of Technology, Gutenberg Information Technologies "Computer science is the study of computation." Computer Science Department, College of Saint Benedict, Saint John's University "Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects." Massey University It is frequently described as the systematic study of algorithmic processes that describe and transform information; the fundamental question underlying computer science is, "What can be (efficiently) automated?" Computer science has many sub-fields; some, such as computer graphics, emphasize the computation of specific results, while others, such as computational complexity theory, study the properties of computational problems. Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, programming language theory studies approaches to describing computations, while computer programming applies specific programming languages to solve specific computational problems, and human-computer interaction focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to people. The general public sometimes confuses computer science with vocational areas that deal with computers (such as information technology), or think that it relates to their own experience of computers, which typically involves activities such as gaming, web-browsing, and word-processing. However, the focus of computer science is more on understanding the properties of the programs used to implement software such as games and web-browsers, and using that understanding to create new programs or improve existing ones. "Common myths and preconceptions about Cambridge Computer Science" Computer Science Department, University of Cambridge History The early foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks, such as the abacus, have existed since antiquity. Wilhelm Schickard built the first mechanical calculator in 1623. Charles Babbage designed a difference engine in Victorian times helped by Ada Lovelace. Around 1900, punch-card machines were introduced. However, all of these machines were constrained to perform a single task, or at best some subset of all possible tasks. During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term computer came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s, with the creation of the first computer science departments and degree programs. http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/conference/EDSAC99/statistics.html Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own right. Although many initially believed it impossible that computers themselves could actually be a scientific field of study, in the late fifties it gradually became accepted among the greater academic population. It is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM 704 and later the IBM 709 computers, which were widely used during the exploration period of such devices. "Still, working with the IBM [computer] was frustrating...if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again". During the late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very much in its developmental stages, and such issues were commonplace. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computer science technology. Modern society has seen a significant shift from computers being used solely by experts or professionals to a more widespread user base. Major achievements The German military used the Enigma machine during World War II for communication they thought to be secret. The large-scale decryption of Enigma traffic at Bletchley Park was an important factor that contributed to Allied victory in WWII. Despite its relatively short history as a formal academic discipline, computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to science and society. These include: Started the "digital revolution", which includes the current Information Age and the Internet. http://www.cis.cornell.edu/Dean/Presentations/Slides/bgu.pdf A formal definition of computation and computability, and proof that there are computationally unsolvable and intractable problems. The concept of a programming language, a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction. In cryptography, breaking the Enigma machine was an important factor contributing to the Allied victory in World War II. David Kahn, The Codebreakers, 1967, ISBN 0-684-83130-9. Scientific computing enabled advanced study of the mind, and mapping the human genome became possible with Human Genome Project. Distributed computing projects such as Folding@home explore protein folding. Algorithmic trading has increased the efficiency and liquidity of financial markets by using artificial intelligence, machine learning, and other statistical and numerical techniques on a large scale. Black box traders are on the march The Telegraph, August 26, 2006 Fields of computer science As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software. The Computer Sciences Accreditation Board (CSAB) – which is made up of representatives of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Computer Society, and the Association for Information Systems – identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: theory of computation, algorithms and data structures, programming methodology and languages, and computer elements and architecture. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, computer-human interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic computation as being important areas of computer science. Theory of computation The study of the theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what can be computed, and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answer the first question, computability theory examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical models of computation. The second question is addressed by computational complexity theory, which studies the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a computational problem. The famous "P=NP?" problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems, Clay Mathematics Institute P=NP is an open problem in the theory of computation. {| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | || P = NP ? |- | Computability theory || Computational complexity theory |} Theoretical computer science The broader field of theoretical computer science encompasses both the classical theory of computation and a wide range of other topics that focus on the more abstract, logical, and mathematical aspects of computing. {| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | || || || || || || || |- | Mathematical logic || Automata theory || Number theory || Graph theory || Type theory || Category theory || Computational geometry || Quantum computing theory |} Algorithms and data structures {| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | || || |- | Analysis of algorithms || Algorithms || Data structures |} Programming methodology and languages {| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | || |- | Compilers || Programming languages |} Computer elements and architecture {| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | | | |- | Digital logic | Microarchitecture | Multiprocessing |} Numerical and symbolic computation {| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | || || || || || || |- | Bioinformatics || Cognitive Science || Computational chemistry || Computational neuroscience || Computational physics || Numerical algorithms || Symbolic mathematics |} Applications The following disciplines are often studied from a more theoretical, computer science viewpoint, as well as from a more practical, engineering perspective. {| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | || || || || |- | Operating systems || Computer networks || Computer graphics || Computer vision || Databases |- | || || || || |- | Computer security || Artificial intelligence || Robotics || Human-computer interaction || Ubiquitous computing |} Relationship with other fields Despite its name, a significant amount of computer science does not involve the study of computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative names have been proposed. Certain departments of major universities prefer the term computing science, to emphasize precisely that difference. Danish scientist Peter Naur suggested the term datalogy, to reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not necessarily involving computers. The first scientific institution to use the term was the Department of Datalogy at the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in the Scandinavian countries. Also, in the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of computing were suggested in the Communications of the ACM – turingineer, turologist, flow-charts-man, applied meta-mathematician, and applied epistemologist. Communications of the ACM 1(4):p.6 Three months later in the same journal, comptologist was suggested, followed next year by hypologist. Communications of the ACM 2(1):p.4 The term computics has also been suggested. IEEE Computer 28(12):p.136 Informatik was a term used in Europe with more frequency. The renowned computer scientist Edsger Dijkstra stated, "Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes." The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of computer hardware is usually considered part of computer engineering, while the study of commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called information technology or information systems. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research has also often crossed into other disciplines, such as cognitive science, economics, mathematics, physics (see quantum computing), and linguistics. Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific disciplines, with some observers saying that computing is a mathematical science. Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as Kurt Gödel and Alan Turing, and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as mathematical logic, category theory, domain theory, and algebra. The relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by disputes over what the term "software engineering" means, and how computer science is defined. David Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines. , p. 19: "Rather than treat software engineering as a subfield of computer science, I treat it as an element of the set, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, .." The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment computational science. Both types of departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not across all research. Computer science education Some universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning. These programs often feature the theory of computation, analysis of algorithms, formal methods, concurrency theory, databases, computer graphics and systems analysis, among others. They typically also teach computer programming, but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of computer science rather than a central focus of high-level study. Other colleges and universities, as well as secondary schools and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced programming rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula. Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The practical aspects of computer programming are often referred to as software engineering. However, there is a lot of disagreement over the meaning of the term, and whether or not it is the same thing as programming. See also Career domains in computer science Computer scientist Computing English in computer science Informatics Didactics of informatics Information and communication technologies for development List of academic computer science departments List of computer science conferences List of computer scientists List of open problems in computer science List of publications in computer science List of pioneers in computer science List of software engineering topics Software engineering Women in computing Philosophy of computer science References Further reading Association for Computing Machinery. 1998 ACM Computing Classification System. 1998. IEEE Computer Society and the Association for Computing Machinery. Computing Curricula 2001: Computer Science. December 15, 2001. Peter J. Denning. Is computer science science?, Communications of the ACM, April 2005. Donald E. Knuth. Selected Papers on Computer Science, CSLI Publications, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996. Peter J. Denning, Great principles in computing curricula, Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 2004. External links Directory of free university lectures in Computer Science bibliography/ Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies CS Directory and resources Photographs of computer scientists (Bertrand Meyer's gallery) Webcasts UCLA Computer Science 1 Freshman Computer Science Seminar Section 1 Berkeley Introduction to Computers | Computer_science |@lemmatized computer:106 science:68 compute:22 study:21 theoretical:8 foundation:3 information:11 computation:25 practical:7 technique:2 implementation:1 application:3 system:12 new:3 jersey:1 institute:3 technology:6 gutenberg:1 department:9 college:2 saint:2 benedict:1 john:1 university:8 aspect:5 manage:1 large:3 software:12 project:3 massey:1 frequently:1 describe:3 systematic:1 algorithmic:3 process:2 transform:1 fundamental:3 question:4 underlie:1 efficiently:1 automate:1 many:4 sub:1 field:11 graphic:4 emphasize:3 specific:4 result:1 others:3 computational:12 complexity:3 theory:22 property:3 problem:9 still:2 focus:9 challenge:2 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2,255 | Herman_Hollerith | Herman Hollerith (February 29, 1860 – November 17, 1929) was a German-American statistician who developed a mechanical tabulator based on punched cards in order to rapidly tabulate statistics from millions of pieces of data. Personal life Hollerith was born in Buffalo, New York and spent his early childhood there. He entered the City College of New York in 1875 and graduated from the Columbia University School of Mines with an "Engineer of Mines" degree in 1879. In 1880, he listed himself as a mining engineer while living in Manhattan, and he completed his Ph.D. in 1890 at Columbia University. In 1890, on September 15, he married Lucia Beverley Talcott (December 3, 1865 – August 4, 1944) of Veracruz, Mexico, and they had six children (three sons and three daughters). Other than his inventions, Hollerith "was said to cherish three things: his German heritage, his privacy and his cat Bismarck." , quoted in He also "liked good cigars, fine wine, Guernsey cows, and money.... He disliked property taxes and hard-driving salesmen." He died on November 17, 1929 of a heart attack and was buried in the Oak Hill Cemetery in Georgetown, Washington, D.C. Electronic tabulation of data At the urging of John Shaw Billings , Hollerith developed a mechanism to make electrical connections trigger a counter to record information. A key idea was that data could be coded numerically. Hollerith saw that if numbers could be punched in specified locations on a card, in the now familiar rows and columns, then the cards could be counted or sorted mechanically and the data recorded. A description of this system, An Electric Tabulating System (1889), was submitted by Hollerith to Columbia University as his doctoral thesis, and is reprinted in Randell's book. On January 8, 1889, Hollerith was issued U.S. Patent 395,782 See , claim 2 of which reads: The herein-described method of compiling statistics, which consists in recording separate statistical items pertaining to the individual by holes or combinations of holes punched in sheets of electrically non-conducting material, and bearing a specific relation to each other and to a standard, and then counting or tallying such statistical items separately or in combination by means of mechanical counters operated by electro-magnets the circuits through which are controlled by the perforated sheets, substantially as and for the purpose set forth. Inventions and businesses Hollerith punched card Hollerith had left teaching and begun working for the United States Census Office in the year he filed his first patent application. Titled "Art of Compiling Statistics", it was filed on September 23, 1884; U.S. Patent No. 395782 was granted on January 8, 1889. The Invention and Development of the Hollerith Punched Card Hollerith built machines under contract for the Census Office, which used them to tabulate the 1890 census in only one year. Hollerith's Electric Sorting and Tabulating Machine, ca. 1895 from the American Memory archives of the Library of Congress The 1880 census had taken eight years. Hollerith then started his own business in 1896, founding the Tabulating Machine Company. Most of the major census bureaus around the world leased his equipment and purchased his cards, as did major insurance companies. To make his system work, he invented the first automatic card-feed mechanism and the first key punch (i.e. a punch that was operated from a keyboard), which allowed a skilled operator to punch 200–300 cards per hour. He also invented a tabulator. The 1890 Tabulator was hardwired to operate only on 1890 Census cards. A control panel in his 1906 Type I Tabulator allowed it to do different jobs without having to be rebuilt (the first step towards programming).These inventions were the foundation of the modern information processing industry. In 1911, four corporations, including Hollerith's firm, merged to form the Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation (CTR). Some accounts of the merger forming CTR state that three corporations were merged. This reference notes that only three of the four merged corporations are represented in the CTR name. That may be the reason for the differing accounts. Under the presidency of Thomas J. Watson, it was renamed International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) in 1924. See also Hollerith constant Tabulating machine Punched card Joseph Marie Jacquard Notes Further reading External links Hollerith's grave at Oak Hill Cemetery in Washington, D.C. Hollerith's patents from 1889: Computer History Museum: Hollerith 1889 patent IBM Archives: Herman Hollerith IBM Archives: Tabulating Machine Co. plant Early Office Museum: Punched Card Tabulating Machines Hollerith page at the National Hall of Fame Map to his gravesite Columbia University Computing History: Herman Hollerith The Norwegian Historical Data Center: Census 1900 Includes a description of the use of Hollerith machines ("complicated, American enumeration machines"), together with illustrations. - Hollerith's house | Herman_Hollerith |@lemmatized herman:3 hollerith:23 february:1 november:2 german:2 american:3 statistician:1 develop:2 mechanical:2 tabulator:4 base:1 punched:2 card:11 order:1 rapidly:1 tabulate:5 statistic:3 million:1 piece:1 data:5 personal:1 life:1 bear:2 buffalo:1 new:2 york:2 spend:1 early:2 childhood:1 enter:1 city:1 college:1 graduate:1 columbia:4 university:4 school:1 mine:2 engineer:2 degree:1 list:1 mining:1 living:1 manhattan:1 complete:1 ph:1 september:2 marry:1 lucia:1 beverley:1 talcott:1 december:1 august:1 veracruz:1 mexico:1 six:1 child:1 three:5 son:1 daughter:1 invention:4 say:1 cherish:1 thing:1 heritage:1 privacy:1 cat:1 bismarck:1 quote:1 also:3 like:1 good:1 cigar:1 fine:1 wine:1 guernsey:1 cow:1 money:1 dislike:1 property:1 tax:1 hard:1 drive:1 salesman:1 die:1 heart:1 attack:1 bury:1 oak:2 hill:2 cemetery:2 georgetown:1 washington:2 c:2 electronic:1 tabulation:1 urging:1 john:1 shaw:1 billing:1 mechanism:2 make:2 electrical:1 connection:1 trigger:1 counter:2 record:4 information:2 key:2 idea:1 could:3 cod:1 numerically:1 saw:1 number:1 punch:8 specified:1 location:1 familiar:1 row:1 column:1 count:2 sort:1 mechanically:1 description:2 system:3 electric:2 tabulating:4 submit:1 doctoral:1 thesis:1 reprint:1 randell:1 book:1 january:2 issue:1 u:2 patent:5 see:2 claim:1 read:2 herein:1 described:1 method:1 compile:2 consist:1 separate:1 statistical:2 item:2 pertain:1 individual:1 hole:2 combination:2 sheet:2 electrically:1 non:1 conduct:1 material:1 specific:1 relation:1 standard:1 tally:1 separately:1 mean:1 operate:3 electro:1 magnets:1 circuit:1 control:2 perforated:1 substantially:1 purpose:1 set:1 forth:1 business:3 leave:1 teaching:1 begin:1 work:2 united:1 state:2 census:7 office:3 year:3 file:2 first:4 application:1 title:1 art:1 grant:1 development:1 build:1 machine:9 contract:1 use:2 one:1 sorting:1 ca:1 memory:1 archive:3 library:1 congress:1 take:1 eight:1 start:1 found:1 company:2 major:2 bureau:1 around:1 world:1 lease:1 equipment:1 purchase:1 insurance:1 invent:2 automatic:1 feed:1 e:1 keyboard:1 allow:2 skilled:1 operator:1 per:1 hour:1 hardwired:1 panel:1 type:1 different:1 job:1 without:1 rebuild:1 step:1 towards:1 program:1 foundation:1 modern:1 processing:1 industry:1 four:2 corporation:5 include:2 firm:1 merge:3 form:2 compute:2 ctr:3 account:2 merger:1 reference:1 note:2 represent:1 name:1 may:1 reason:1 differing:1 presidency:1 thomas:1 j:1 watson:1 rename:1 international:1 ibm:3 constant:1 joseph:1 marie:1 jacquard:1 far:1 external:1 link:1 grave:1 computer:1 history:2 museum:2 co:1 plant:1 page:1 national:1 hall:1 fame:1 map:1 gravesite:1 norwegian:1 historical:1 center:1 complicate:1 enumeration:1 together:1 illustration:1 house:1 |@bigram herman_hollerith:3 punched_card:2 veracruz_mexico:1 doctoral_thesis:1 census_bureau:1 marie_jacquard:1 external_link:1 hall_fame:1 |
2,256 | Field_hockey | Junior field hockey in Tamworth, Australia Field hockey is a team sport in which a team of players attempt to score goals by hitting, pushing or flicking the ball with hockey sticks into the opposing team's goal. Its official name is simply hockey, International Hockey Federation Official website of the Olympic movement and this is the common name for it in many countries. However, the name field hockey is used in countries where the word hockey is usually reserved for another form of hockey, such as ice hockey or street hockey. Hockey has several regular international tournaments for both men and women. These include the Olympic Games, the quadrennial Hockey World Cups, the annual Champions Trophies and World Cups for juniors. The International Hockey Federation (FIH) is the global governing body. It organizes events such as the Hockey World Cup and Women's Hockey World Cup. The Hockey Rules Board under FIH produces rules for the sport. Many countries have extensive club competitions for junior and senior players. Despite the large number of participants—hockey is thought to be the field team sport with the second largest number of participants worldwide (the first being association football)—club hockey is not a large spectator sport and few players play as full-time professionals. In countries where winter prevents play outdoors, hockey is played indoors during the off-season. This variant, indoor field hockey, differs in a number of respects. For example, it is 6-a-side rather than 11, the field is reduced to approximately 40 m x 20 m; the shooting circles are 9m; players may not raise the ball outside the circle nor hit it. The sidelines are replaced with barriers to rebound the ball. History Ancient Field Hockey players in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens Games played with curved sticks and a ball have been found throughout history and the world. There are 4000-year-old drawings from Egypt. Hurling dates to before 1272BC. and there is a depiction from 500BC in Ancient Greece when the game was called "Κερητίζειν" (pronounced "kerytezin") because it was played with a horn ("κέρας" in Greek) and a ball-like object. In Inner Mongolia, China, the Daur people have been playing Beikou (a game similar to modern field hockey) for about 1,000 years. There were hockey-like games throughout Europe during the Middle Ages and the word 'hockey' was recorded in 1363 when Edward III of England issued the proclamation: "[m]oreover we ordain that you prohibit under penalty of imprisonment all and sundry from such stone, wood and iron throwing; handball, football, or hockey; coursing and cock-fighting, or other such idle games" http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/originsofrugby.htm accessed 2009-03-12 The modern game grew from English public schools in the early 19th century. The first club was in 1849 at Blackheath in south-east London, but the modern rules grew out of a version played by Middlesex cricket clubs for winter sport. Teddington Hockey Club formed the modern game by introducing the striking circle and changing the ball to a sphere from a rubber cube. The Hockey Association was founded in 1886. The first international took place in 1895 (Ireland 3, Wales 0) and the International Rules Board was founded in 1900. Hockey was played at the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1920. It was dropped in 1924, leading to the foundation of the Fédération Internationale de Hockey sur Gazon (FIH) as an international governing body by seven continental European nations, and hockey was reinstated in 1928. Men's hockey united under the FIH in 1970. The two oldest trophies are the Irish Senior Cup, which 1st XI teams compete for, and the Irish Junior Cup. The game had been taken to India by British servicemen and the first clubs formed in Calcutta in 1885. The Beighton Cup and the Aga Khan tournament commenced within ten years. Entering the Olympics in 1928, India won all five games without conceding a goal and won from 1932 until 1956 and then in 1964 and 1980. Pakistan won in 1960, 1968 and 1984. In the early 1970s artificial turf began to be used. Synthetic pitches changed most aspects of hockey, gaining speed. New tactics and techniques such as the Indian dribble developed, followed by new rules to take account. The switch to synthetic surfaces ended Indian and Pakistani domination because artificial turf was too expensive—in comparison to the wealthier European countries—and since the 1970s Australia, The Netherlands and Germany have dominated at the Olympics. Women's hockey was first played at British universities and schools, and the first club, Molesey Ladies, was founded in 1887. The first national association was the Irish Ladies Hockey Union in 1894, and though rebuffed by the Hockey Association, women's hockey grew rapidly around the world. This led to the International Federation of Women's Hockey Associations (IFWHA) in 1927, though this did not include many continental European countries where women played as sections of men's associations and were affiliated to the FIH. The IFWHA held conferences every three years, and tournaments associated with these were the primary IFWHA competitions. These tournaments were non-competitive until 1975. By the early 1970s there were 22 associations with women's sections in the FIH and 36 associations in the IFWHA. Discussions started about a common rule book. The FIH introduced competitive tournaments in 1974, forcing the acceptance of the principle of competitive hockey by the IFWHA in 1973. It took until 1982 for the two bodies to merge, but this allowed the introduction of women's hockey to the Olympic games from 1980 where, as in the men's game, The Netherlands, Germany, and Australia have been consistently strong. Argentina has emerged as a team to be reckoned with since 2000, winning medals at the last two Olympics, and the world championship in 2002. The field of play An example of a hockey field - Sydney Olympic Park Hockey Centre 2000 Diagram of a hockey field Most hockey field dimensions were originally fixed using whole numbers of imperial measures. Nevertheless, metric measurements are now the official dimensions as laid down by the International Hockey Federation (FIH) in the "Rules of Hockey". It is these dimensions that are given in this article, with the imperial units in parentheses. The pitch is a 91.40 m × 55 m (100 × 60 yard) rectangular field. At each end is a goal 2.14 m (7 feet) high and 3.66 m (12 feet) wide measured from the inner sides of the posts and crossbar, and an approximately semi-circular area 14.63 m (16 yards) from the goal known as the shooting circle (or D or arc), This area actually consists of two quarter-circles based on the inside of each goal-post, and a 3.66 m straight-line segment connecting them bounded by a solid line, with a dotted line 5 m (5 yards 6 inches—this marking was not established until after metric conversion) from that, as well as lines across the field 22.90 m (25 yards) from each end-line (generally referred to as the 23 m lines) and in the center of the field. A spot 0.15m in diameter, called the penalty spot or stroke mark, is placed with its centre 6.40 m (7 yards) from the center of each goal. Traditional grass pitches are far less common in modern hockey with most hockey being played on synthetic surfaces. Since the 1970s, sand-based pitches were favoured as they dramatically speed up the pace of the game. However, in recent years there has been a massive increase in the number of "water-based" artificial turfs. Water-based astro turfs enable the ball to be transferred more quickly than on the original sand-based surfaces and it is this characteristic that has made them the surface of choice for international and national league competitions. Water-based surfaces are also less abrasive than the sand-based variety and hence reduce the level of injury to players when they come into contact with the surface. The FIH are now proposing that new surfaces being laid should be of a hybrid variety which require less watering. This is due to the negative ecological effects of the high water requirements of water-based synthetic fields. Rules and play The game is played between two teams of up to sixteen players, eleven of whom are permitted to be on the pitch at any one time. The remaining five players, the substitutes, may be substituted in any combination, from one to five, an unlimited number of times in the course of a game. Substitutions are permitted at any point in the game, apart from between the award and end of a penalty corner; the only exception to this rule is for injury or suspension of the defending goalkeeper. Players are permitted to play the ball with the flat of the 'face side' and with the edges of the head and handle of the hockey stick with the exception that, for reasons of safety, the ball may not be struck 'hard' with a forehand edge stroke, because of the difficulty of controlling the height and direction of the ball from that stroke. The flat side is always on the "natural" side for a right-handed person swinging the stick at the ball from right to left. Left-handed sticks are rare, but available; however they are pointless as the rules forbid their use in a game. To make a strike at the ball with a left to right swing the player must present the flat of the 'face' of the stick to the ball by 'reversing' the stick head, i.e. by turning the handle through approximately 180°(while a reverse edge hit would turn the stick head through approximately 90° from the position of an upright forehand stoke with the 'face' of the stick head. Edge hitting of the ball underwent a two year 'experimental period', twice the usual length of an 'experimental trial' and is still a matter of some controversy within the sport. Ric Charlesworth, the current Australian coach, has been a strong critic of the unrestricted use of the reverse edge hit. The 'hard' forehand edge hit was banned after similar concerns were expressed about the ability of players to direct the ball accurately, but the reverse edge hit does appear to be more predictable and controllable than its counterpart. Positions There are no fixed positions (even a goalkeeper is not required under the 2007-2008 rules), but most teams arrange themselves (in a similar way to Association football teams) into fullbacks (defence), midfielders (halfback) and forwards (front line). Many teams include a single sweeper. The rules do not specify a minimum number of players for a match to take place, but most competitions have some local ruling on this, with seven players being a common minimum . One player from each team may be designated the goalkeeper. Goalkeepers must wear at least a helmet and a different coloured shirt in order to have "goalkeeping priveleges". Although such goalkeepers may block or deflect the ball from the goal with any part of their bodies, and propel the ball with their feet, legs, the associated padding or their stick, they must always carry a stick. Goalkeepers are permitted to play the ball outside their defensive circle (scoring area or "D"), but may only use their hockey-stick in this circumstance, not their kickers; leg-guards; gloves/hand protectors or any part of the body. Fully protected goalkeepers are prohibited from passing their side's defensive 23 m line during play, unless they are taking a penalty stroke. General play For the purposes of the rules, all players on the team in possession of the ball are attackers, and those on the team without the ball are defenders. Sideline hit in a match Standard Athletic Club vs. British School of Paris (1996) The match is officiated by two field umpires. Traditionally each umpire generally controls half of the field, divided roughly diagonally. These umpires are often assisted by a technical bench including a timekeeper and record keeper. Prior to the start of the game, a coin is tossed and the winning captain can choose a starting end or start with the ball. The game time is divided into two equal halves of 35 minutes each, with five minutes for half-time. At the start of each half, as well as after goals are scored, play is started with a pass from the centre of the field. All players must start in their defensive half (apart from the player making the pass), but the ball may be played in any direction along the floor. Each team starts with the ball in one half, and the team that conceded the goal has possession for the restart. Field players may only play the ball with the face of the stick. Tackling is permitted as long as the tackler does not make contact with the attacker or his stick before playing the ball (contact after the tackle may also be penalised if the tackle was made from a position where contact was inevitable). Further, the player with the ball may not deliberately use his body to push a defender out of the way. Field players may not play the ball with their feet, but if the ball accidentally hits the feet, and the player gains no benefit from the contact, then the contact is not penalised. Although there has been a change in the wording of this rule from 1 January 2007, the current FIH umpires' briefing instructs umpires not to change the way they interpret this rule. Title of presentation Obstruction typically occurs in three circumstances - when a defender comes between the player with possession and the ball in order to prevent them tackling; when a defender's stick comes between the attacker's stick and the ball or makes contact with the attacker's stick or body; and also when blocking the opposition's attempt to tackle a teammate with the ball (called third party obstruction). When the ball passes completely over the sidelines (on the sideline is still in), it is returned to play with a sideline hit, taken by a member of the team whose players were not the last to touch the ball before crossing the sideline. The ball must be placed on the sideline, with the hit taken from as near the place the ball went out of play as possible. If it crosses the backline after last touched by an attacker, a 15 m hit. A 15 m hit is also awarded for offenses committed by the attacking side within 15 m of the end of the pitch they are attacking. Set plays Free Hits Free hits are awarded when offences are committed outside the scoring circles (the term 'free hit' is standard usage but the ball need not be hit). The ball may be hit or pushed once in any direction by the team offended against. The ball must not be intentionally raised with any hit including a free hit.(In previous rules versions hits in the area outside the circle in open play have been permitted but lifting directly from a free hit prohibited). Opponents must move 5 m from the ball when a free hit is awarded. A free hit must be taken from within playing distance of the place of the offence for which it was awarded and the ball must be stationary when the free-hit is taken. As mentioned above, a 15 m hit is awarded if an attacking player commits a foul forward of that line, or if the ball passes over the backline off an attacker. These free hits are taken in line with where the foul was committed (taking a line parallel with the sideline between where the offence was committed, or the ball went out of play). When an attacking free hit is awarded within 5 m of the circle all attackers other than the one taking the hit must also be 5 m away. If the attacking team commit a foul in the circle they are attacking, the defence additionally has the option to take the free hit anywhere in that circle. 2009 experimental changes February 2009 the FIH introduced, as a "Mandatory Experiment" for international competition, an updated version of free hit rule. The changes allows a player taking a free hit to pass the ball to themselves. Importantly, this is not a "play on" situation, but to the untrained eye it may appear to be. The player must play the ball any distance in two separate motions, before continuing as if it were a play-on situation. They may raise an aerial or overhead immediately as the second action, or any other stroke permitted by the rules of hockey. Also, all players (from both teams) must be at least 5m from any free hit awarded to the attack within the 23m area. Additionally, no free hits to the attack are permitted within 5m of the circle, so if a free hit is awarded inside this area it must be dragged back outside this zone. The ball may not travel directly into the circle from a free hit to the attack within the 23m area without first being touched by another player or being dribbled at least 5m by a player making a "self-pass". These experimental rules apply to all free hit situations, including sideline and corner hits.National Associations may also choose to introduce these rules for their domestic competitions. Corner A corner is awarded if the ball goes over the backline after last being touched by a defender. Corners are played by the attacking team and involve a free hit on the sideline 5 m from the corner of the field closest to where the ball went out of play. These restarts are also known as long corners (as opposed to short corner which is an alternative name for the penalty corner). Penalty Corner The short or penalty corner Rules of Hockey 2007. Rule 12.3 A penalty corner is awarded : (a) for an offence by a defender in the circle which does not prevent the probable scoring of a goal (b) for an intentional offence in the circle by a defender against an opponent who does not have possession of the ball or an opportunity to play the ball (c) for an intentional offence by a defender outside the circle but within the 23 metres area they are defending (d) for intentionally playing the ball over the back-line by a defender (e) when the ball becomes lodged in a player’s clothing or equipment while in the circle they are defending. Short corners begin with five defenders (including the keeper) positioned behind the backline and at least 5m from the 'insert' position of the ball. All other players in the defending team must be beyond the centre line, that is not in their 'own' half of the pitch, until the ball is in play. Attacking players begin the play standing outside the scoring circle, except for one attacker who starts the corner by playing the ball from a mark 10 m either side of the goal (the circle has a 14.63 m radius). This player puts the ball into play by pushing or hitting the ball to the other attackers outside the circle; the ball must pass outside the circle and then put back into the circle before the attackers may make a shot at the goal from which a goal can be scored. FIH rules do not forbid a shot at goal before the ball leaves the circle after being 'inserted', nor is a shot at the goal from outside the circle prohibited, but a goal cannot be scored at all if the ball has not gone out of the circle and cannot be scored from a shot from outside the circle if it is not again played by an attacking player before it enters the goal. For safety reasons, the first shot of a penalty corner must not exceed 460 mm high (the height of the "backboard" of the goal) at the point it crosses the goal line if it is hit. However, if the ball is deemed to be below backboard height, the ball can be subsequently deflected above this height by another player (defender or attacker), providing that this deflection does not lead to danger. Note that the "Slap" stroke (a sweeping motion towards the ball, where the stick is kept on or close to the ground when striking the ball) is classed as a hit, and so the first shot at goal must be below backboard height for this type of shot also. If the first shot at goal in a short corner situation is a push, flick or scoop, in particular the drag flick'' (which has become popular at international and national league standards) , the shot is permitted to rise above the height of the backboard, as long as the shot is not deemed dangerous to any opponent. This form of shooting was developed because it is not height restricted in the same way as the first hit shot at the goal and players with good technique are able to drag-flick with as much power as many others can hit a ball. Penalty Stroke A penalty stroke (often referred to as a PS, a flick, or just as a stroke) is awarded when defenders commit a deliberate foul in the circle which deprives an attacker of possession or the opportunity to play the ball, when any breach prevents a probable goal, or if defenders repeatedly "break" or start to run from the backline before a penalty corner has started. The penalty stroke is taken by a single attacker in the circle (all other being beyond the 23m line), against the goalkeeper, and is taken from a spot 6.4 m out, central and directly in front of the goal. The goalkeeper must stand with feet on the goal line, and cannot move them until the ball is played, whilst the striker must start behind the ball and within playing distance of it (in other words he must be able to touch the ball with his stick). On the umpire's whistle, the striker may push or flick the ball at the goal and goalkeeper attempts to make a 'save'. The attacker is not permitted to play the ball more than once, to fake or dummy the shot, or to move towards or interfere with the goalkeeper once the shot is taken. Hitting or dragging the ball is also forbidden. If the shot is saved, play is restarted with a 15 m hit to the defenders. When a goal is scored, play is restarted in the normal way. If the goalkeeper commits a foul which prevents a goal being scored, for example, preventing a goal with the back or rounded part of his stick, a penalty goal may be awarded; for other fouls by defenders, the result is normally that the stroke is retaken. If the taker commits a foul, it is treated as if the stroke has been saved, and play recommences with a 15 m hit. If another attacker commits a foul, then if a goal is scored it is voided, and the stroke retaken. Dangerous play and raised balls According to the current Rules of Hockey 2007 issued by the FIH there are only two criteria for a dangerously played ball; the first is legitimate evasive action by an opponent (what constitutes legitimate evasive action is an umpiring judgment). The second is specific to the rule concerning a shot at goal at a penalty corner but is generally, if somewhat inconsistently, applied throughout the game and in all parts of the pitch: it is that a ball lifted above knee height and at an opponent who is within 5m of the ball is certainly dangerous. The velocity of the ball is not mentioned in the rules concerning a dangerously played ball. A ball that hits a player above the knee may on some occasions not be penalised, this is in the umpire's discretion. A jab tackle for example, might accidentally lift the ball above knee height into an opponent from close range but at such low velocity as not to be, in the opinion of the umpire, dangerous play. In the same way a high velocity hit at very close range into an oppnent, but below knee height, could be considered to be dangerous or reckless play, especially when safer alternatives are, in the view of the umpire, open to the striker of the ball. A ball that has been lifted high so that it will fall among close opponents may be deemed to be potentially dangerous and play stopped for that reason. A lifted ball that is falling to a player in clear space may be made potentially dangerous by the actions of an opponent closing to within 5m of the receiver before the ball has been controlled to ground - a rule which is often only loosely applied; the distance allowed is often only what might be described as playing distance, 2m - 3m, and opponents tend to be permitted to close on the ball as soon as the receiver plays it: these unofficial variations are often based on the umpire's perception of the skill of the players i.e. on the level of the game, in order to maintain game flow, which umpires are in general in both Rules and Briefing instructed to do, by not penalising when it is unnecessary to do so, this is also a matter in the umpire's discretion. The term "falling ball" is important in what may be termed encroaching offences. It is generally only considered an offence to encroach on an opponent receiving a lifted ball that has been lifted to above head height (although the height is not specified in rule) and is falling. So, for example, a lifted shot at the goal which is still rising as it crosses the goal line (or would have been rising as it crossed the goal line) can be legitimately followed up by any of the attacking team looking for a rebound. In general even potentially dangerous play is not penalised if an opponent is not disadvantage by it or, obviously, not injured by it so that he cannot continue. A personal penalty, that is a caution or a suspension, rather than a team penalty, such as a free ball or a penalty corner, may be (many would say should be or even must be, but again this is in the umpire's discretion) issued to the guilty party after an advantage allowed by the umpire has been played out in any situation where an offence has occurred, including dangerous play (but once advantage has been allowed the umpire cannot then call play back and award a team penalty). It is not an offence to lift the ball over an opponent's stick (or body on the ground), provided that it is done with consideration for the safety of the opponent and not dangerously. For example, a skillful attacker may lift the ball over a defenders stick or prone body and run past them, however if the attacker lifts the ball into or at the defender's body, this would almost certainly be regarded as dangerous. It is not against the rules to bounce the ball on the stick and even to run with it while doing so, as long as that does not lead to a potentially dangerous conflict with an opponent who is attempting to make a tackle i.e. two players trying to play at the ball in the air at the same time would probably be considered a dangerous situation and it is likely that the player who first put the ball up or who was so 'carrying' it would be penalised. Dangerous play rules also apply to the usage of the stick when approaching the ball, making a stroke at it (replacing what was at one time referred to as the "sticks" rule, which once forbade the raising of any part of the stick above the shoulder during any play. This last restriction has been removed but the stick should still not be used in a way that endangers an opponent) or attempting to tackle, (fouls relating to tripping, impeding and obstruction). The use of the stick to strike an opponent will usually be much more severely dealt with by the umpires than offences such as barging, impeding and obstruction with the body, although these are also dealt with firmly, especially when these fouls are intentional: hockey is a non-contact sport. Players may not play or attempt to play at the ball above their shoulders unless trying to save a shot that could go into the goal, in which case they are permitted to stop the ball or deflect it safely away. A swing, as in a hit, at a high shot at the goal (or even wide of the goal) will probably be considered dangerous play if at opponents within 5m and such a stroke would be contrary to rule in these circumstances anyway. Warnings and suspensions Hockey uses a three-tier penalty card system of warnings and suspensions: A Green card is an official warning. A Yellow card is a temporary suspension, just like in rugby football, which must be for a minimum of 5 minutes duration without substitution; the time can be increased to emphasise the seriousness, for example the second yellow to the same player or the first for danger might be given ten minutes. It is possible to yellow-card a player for the entirety of a game. (In some modes, including indoor, shorter periods of suspension are applied, dependent on local rules). A Red card, just like in association football, is a permanent exclusion from the rest of the game, without substitution, and it usually results in the player being banned for a certain period of time or number of matches (this is governed by local playing conditions, rather than the rules of hockey). The player must also leave the pitch and surrounding area. In addition to their colours, field hockey penalty cards are often shaped differently to enable them to be recognised easily. Green cards are normally triangular, yellow cards rectangular and red cards circular. Unlike football, a player may receive more than one green or yellow card. However they cannot receive the same card for the same offence (for example two yellows for dangerous play), and the second must always be a more serious card. In the case of a second yellow card for a different breach of the rules (for example a yellow for deliberate foot, and a second later in the game for dangerous play) the temporary suspension would be expected to be of considerably longer duration than the first. However, local playing conditions may mandate that cards are awarded only progressively, and not allow any second awards. Umpires may also advance a free-hit by up to 10 m for dissent or other misconduct after a penalty has been awarded; or, if the free-hit would have been in the attacking 23 m area, upgrade the penalty to a penalty corner. Scoring The teams' object is to play the ball into their attacking circle and, from there, hit, push or flick the ball into the goal, scoring a goal. The team with more goals after two 35-minute halves wins the game. The playing time may be shortened, particularly when younger players are involved, or for some tournament play. Tie breaking Conditions for breaking ties are not laid down in the rules of hockey. In many competitions (such as regular club competition, or in pool games in tournaments such as the Olympics), a tied result stands and the overall competition standings adjusted accordingly. Where tie-breaking is required, many associations will follow the procedure laid down in FIH tournament regulations which mandate 7.5 minutes each way of "golden goal" or "sudden death" extra time (i.e. the game ends as soon as one team scores). If scores are still level, then the game will be decided with penalty strokes, in much the same way that association football penalty shoot outs are conducted. Other competitions may use alternative means of breaking a tie, for example, an extended period of golden goal extra time with a progressive reduction in the number of players each team can have on the field (usually termed "drop-offs"); if no goal is scored at the end of such extra time periods, again a result would be achieved using penalty strokes. Rule Changes - Procedure The FIH implemented a two-year rules cycle with the 2007-08 edition of the rules, with the intention that the rules be reviewed on a two-yearly basis. The 2009 rulebook was officially released in early March 2009 (effective 1 May 2009), however the FIH published the major changes in February. The FIH has adopted a policy of including major changes to the rules as "Mandatory Experiments", showing that they must be played at international level, but are treated as experimental and will be reviewed before the next rulebook is published and either changed, approved as permanent rules, or deleted. Local rules There are sometimes minor variations in rules from competition to competition; for instance, the duration of matches is often varied for junior competitions or for carnivals. Different national associations also have slightly differing rules on player equipment. The new Euro Hockey League has made major alterations to the rules to aid television viewers, such as splitting the game into four quarters, and to try to improve player behaviour, such as a two-minute suspension for green cards. In the United States, the NCAA has its own rules for inter-collegiate competitions; high school associations similarly play to different rules, usually using the rules published by the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS). This article assumes FIH rules unless otherwise stated. USA Field Hockey produces an annual summary of the differences. Summary of NCAA and NFHS rule differences In the United States, the games at the junior high level consist of two 25-minute halves, while the high school level consists of two 30 minute halves. Many private American schools play 25-minute halves, and some have adopted FIH rules rather than NFHS rules. Players are required to wear mouth guards and shin guards in order to play the game. Also, there is a newer rule requiring certain types of sticks be used. Equipment Hockey Stick Each player carries a "stick", normally either 36.5 or 37.5 inches long and traditionally made of wood but now often made with fibreglass, kevlar and carbon fibre composites, with a rounded handle flattened on the left side and with a hook at the bottom. Metal is forbidden from use in hockey sticks. There was traditionally a slight curve (called the bow, or rake) from the top to bottom of the face side of the stick and another on the 'heel' edge to the top of the handle (usually made according to the angle at which the handle part was inserted into the splice of the head part of the stick), which assisted in the positioning of the stick head in relation to the ball and made striking the ball easier and more accurate. The hook at the bottom of the stick was only recently the tight curve (Indian style) that we have nowadays. The older 'English' sticks had a longer bend, making it very hard to use the stick on the reverse. For this reason players now use the tight curved sticks. It was recently discovered that increasing the depth of the face bow made it easier to get high speeds from the dragflick and made the stroke easier to execute. At first, after this feature was introduced, the Hockey Rules Board placed a limit of 50 mm on the maximum depth of bow over the length of the stick but experience quickly demonstrated this to be excessive. New rules now limit this curve to under 25 mm so as to limit the power with which the ball can be flicked. Hockey ball The ball is hard and of plastic (sometimes over a cork core) and is often covered with indentations to reduce hydroplaning that can cause an inconsistent ball speed on wet surfaces. General player equipment Many players wear mouth guards to protect teeth and gums from impacts from the ball or stick. Some local rules require their use. Many players also wear shin guards, and again these may be required equipment in some areas. Many players wear astro gloves: a padded glove which is designed to protect hands from abrasion from contact with the ground (especially that of sand-based astro pitches), and some even protect against impact from a ball or a stick. A few competitions require goggles to protect the eyes. Defenders may sometimes use short corner masks; these are designed to reduce the impact of a drag flick from short corners, though they do not provide guaranteed protection. Goalkeeping equipment A goalkeeper makes a glove save. Equipment worn here is typical gear for a goalkeeper. The 2007 rulebook has seen major changes regarding goalkeepers. A fully-equipped goalkeeper must wear a helmet, leg guards and kickers. Usually they wear extensive additional protective equipment including chest guards, padded shorts, heavily padded hand protectors, groin protectors, neck guards, arm guards, and like all players, must carry a stick. However, such a player may not cross the 23 m line, the sole exception to this being if the goalkeeper is to take a penalty stroke at the other end of the field, when the clock is stopped. The goalkeeper can also remove their helmet for this action. However, if the goalkeeper elects to wear only a helmet (and a different coloured shirt), they may cross the 23 m line if they have removed their helmet (and placed it safely off the field of play). If play returns to the circle without them having opportunity to replace the helmet, this player still has "goalkeeping privileges", that is, they are not limited to using their stick to play the ball whilst it is in the circle. The helmet must be worn whilst defending penalty corners and penalty strokes. It is now also possible for teams to have a full eleven outfield players — and no goalkeeper at all. No player may wear a helmet or other goalkeeping equipment, nor will any player be able to play the ball other than with their stick. This may be used to offer a tactical advantage, or to allow for play to commence if no goalkeeper or kit is available. Tactics The basic tactic in hockey, as in football (soccer) and rugby and many other team games is to outnumber the opponent in a particular area of the field at a moment in time. When in possession of the ball this temporary numerical superiority can be used to pass the ball around opponents so that they cannot effect a tackle because they cannot get within playing reach of the ball and to further use this numerical advantage to gain time and create clear space for making scoring shots on the opponent's goal. When not in possession of the ball numerical superiority is used to isolate and channel an opponent in possession and 'mark out' any passing options so that an interception or a tackle may be made to gain possession. Highly skillful players can sometimes get the better of more than one opponent and retain the ball and successfully pass or shoot but this tends to use more energy than quick early passing. The main methods by which the ball is moved around the field by players are a) passing b) pushing the ball and running with it controlled to the front or right of the body and 3)"dribbling"; where the player controls the ball with the stick and moves in various directions with it to elude opponents. To make a pass the ball may be propelled with a pushing stroke, where the player uses their wrists to push the stick head through the ball while the stick head is in contact with it; the "flick" or "scoop", similar to the push but with a additional arm and leg and rotational actions to lift the ball off the ground; and the "hit", where a swing at ball is taken and contact with it is often made very forcefully, causing the ball to be propelled at velocities in excess of 70mph. In order to produce a powerful hit, usually for travel over long distances or shooting at the goal, the stick is raised higher and swung with maximum power at the ball, a stroke sometimes known as a "drive". Tackles are made by placing the stick into the path of the ball or playing the stick head or shaft directly at the ball. To increase the effectiveness of the tackle, players will often place the entire stick close to the ground horizontally, thus representing a wider barrier. To avoid the tackle, the ball carrier will either pass the ball to a teammate using any of the push, flick, or hit strokes, or attempt to maneuver or "drag" the ball around the tackle, trying to deceive the tackler. In recent years, the penalty corner has gained importance as a goal scoring opportunity. Particularly with the technical development of the drag flick. Tactics at penalty corners to set up time for a shot with a drag flick or a hit shot at the goal involve various complex plays, including multiple passes before a deflections towards the goal is made but the most common method of shooting is the direct flick or hit at the goal. At the highest level, hockey is a fast-moving, highly skilled sport, with players using fast moves with the stick, quick accurate passing, and hard hits, in attempts to keep possession and move the ball towards the goal. Tackling with physical contact and otherwise physically obstructing players is not permitted, Some of the tactics used resemble football (soccer), but with greater ball speed. With the 2009 changes to the rules regarding free hits in the attacking 23m area, the common tactic of hitting the ball hard into the circle was forbidden. Although at higher levels this was considered tactically risky and low-percentage at creating scoring opportunities, it was used with some effect to 'win' penalty corners by forcing the ball onto a defender's foot or to deflect high (and dangerously) off a defender's stick. The FIH felt it was a dangerous practice that could easily lead to raised deflections and injuries in the circle, which is often crowded at a free-hit situation, and outlawed it. Formations Formations provide structure to a hockey team on the pitch. They help players understand and share the defensive and attacking responsibilities. Although higher level teams may select from a wide range of formations, teams containing inexperienced players or teams which see frequent changes to their players are likely to select from a more limited range of formations such as 4-3-3, 5-3-2 and 4-4-2. (The numbers refer to the number of players arrayed across the pitch, starting in front of the goalkeeper with the defenders, then midfield and then attack.) The 2-3-5 formation, used predominantly in Australia from relatively lowly interschool to professional interstate competitions, provides common language for many players and helps explain why "centre half" is often a name used for a player in the centre of a defence with 4 or 5 players. Because hockey teams have 1 goalkeeper plus 10 outfield players as does association football (soccer), there are many common formations between the two sports. See formation (football). One important difference in modern hockey is the absence of an offside rule. This allows attackers (often a lone attacker) to play well up the pitch, stretching the opponents' defence and using the large spaces to be found there. To counter this, defences usually keep a matching number of defenders near those attackers. This can frequently lead to formations such as 1-4-4-1 which is an adaptation of 5-4-1. International competition The biggest two field hockey tournaments are undoubtedly the Olympic Games tournament, and the Hockey World Cup, which is also held every 4 years. Apart from this, there is the Champions Trophy held each year for the six top-ranked teams. Field hockey has also been played at the Commonwealth Games since 1998. Amongst the men, India has won 8 Olympic golds and Pakistan have lifted the World Cup 4 times. Amongst the women, Australia has 3 Olympic golds while Netherlands has clinched the World Cup 6 times. Sultan Azlan Shah Hockey Tournament held annually in Malaysia is becoming a prominent Hockey Tournament where teams from around the world participate to win the cup. India and Pakistan dominated men's hockey until the early 1980s, winning four of the first five world cups, but have become less prominent with Netherlands, Germany, New Zealand, Australia and Spain gaining importance since the late 1980s. Other notable men's nations include Argentina, England (who combine with other British "Home Nations" to form the Great Britain side at Olympic events) and Korea. The Netherlands was the predominant women's team before hockey was added to Olympic events. In the early 1990s, Australia emerged as the strongest women's country although retirement of a number of players weakened the team. Other important women's teams are India, China, Korea, Argentina and Germany. References External links The FIH - the game's international governing body FIH Rules of Hockey 2006 (pdf file) FIH Rules of Hockey 2007-08 (pdf file) FIH Rules of Hockey 2007/8 Briefing and Guidance for Umpires (pdf file) FIH Rules of Hockey 2009 (pdf file) | Field_hockey |@lemmatized junior:6 field:31 hockey:79 tamworth:1 australia:7 team:40 sport:9 player:80 attempt:8 score:17 goal:52 hit:61 push:12 flick:14 ball:131 stick:54 oppose:2 official:4 name:5 simply:1 international:14 federation:5 website:1 olympic:9 movement:1 common:8 many:15 country:7 however:10 use:33 word:3 usually:9 reserve:1 another:5 form:5 ice:1 street:1 several:1 regular:2 tournament:12 men:7 woman:12 include:13 game:36 quadrennial:1 world:12 cup:12 annual:2 champion:2 trophy:3 fih:25 global:1 governing:2 body:13 organize:1 event:3 rule:64 board:3 produce:3 extensive:2 club:9 competition:17 senior:2 despite:1 large:4 number:13 participant:2 think:1 second:8 worldwide:1 first:18 association:17 football:11 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2,257 | Diego_de_Almagro | Diego de Almagro (Almagro, Spain, c. 1475 – Cuzco, Peru, July 8, 1538), also known as El Adelantado and El Viejo (The Elder), was a Spanish conquistador and a companion and later rival of Francisco Pizarro. He participated in the Spanish conquest of Peru and is credited as the first European discoverer of Chile. Almagro lost his left eye battling with coastal natives in the New World. In 1525 he joined the Pizarro brothers and Hernándo de Luque at Panama for the conquest of Peru. First years Diego de Almagro was born in the Spanish city signified by his last name, being the illegitimate son of Juan de Montenegro and Elvira Gutiérrez. Almagro's parents had promised each other to get married, but ended their relationship before fulfilling this promise. By the time of their break up, Elvira was pregnant, leading her family members to conceal her pregnancy until she gave birth to Diego in 1479. To save Elvira's honor, her family kept her infant and took him to the near village of Bolaños, and Diego was later transferred to Aldea del Rey under the tutelage of Sancha López del Peral. When Almagro Turare was left under the tutelage of an uncle named Hernán Gutiérrez. Due to his uncle's mistreatment, Almagro fled his house at the age of 15. Upon reaching his mother, who was now living with her new husband, he informed her of what had occurred with his uncle and his plans to make a life of his own, asking her for bread and some money to live in his misery. His mother, anguished, provided him with what he asked and reputedly told him: "Here, my dear son, do not give me more passion, and leave, and let God help you in your adventure". Almagro was later found in Seville as the servant of don Luis de Polanco, who was one of that city's mayors. While in this occupation, Almagro stabbed another servant during a fight, leaving him seriously injured. Almagro did not want to face incarceration and fled Seville and became a wanderer in Andalucia. Around this time the news of the discovery of the New World had reached him, and he decided to enroll himself in the armada of Pedrarias Dávila. Upon his arrival in Panama he would meet and establish a friendship with Francisco Pizarro. Arrival in America Almagro arrived in the New World on June 30, 1514, under the expedition that Ferdinand II of Aragon had sent under the guidance of Pedrarias Dávila. The expedition had landed in the city of Santa María la Antigua del Darién, Panama, where many other future conquistadors had already arrived, among them Francisco Pizarro. There are not many details of Almagro's activities during this period, but it is known that he accompanied various sailors that left the city of Darien between 1514 and 1515, although Almagro eventually returned and settled in Darien and obtained an encomienda which helped him construct a house and make a living from agriculture. Almagro undertook his first conquest on November of 1515, when he left Darien in command of 260 men and founded Villa del Acla, located in the place of the same name, but due to illness he had to leave behind this mission to the licenciate Gaspar de Espinosa. Espinosa decided to undertake a new expedition, which left in December of the same year with 200 men including Almagro himself and Francisco Pizarro, who for the first time was designated as a captain. During this expedition, which lasted 14 months, Almagro, Pizarro and Hernando de Luque became close friends. Also during this time Almagro established a friendship with Vasco Núñez de Balboa, who during the time was in charge of Acla, with the intent of making a ship with the materials of the Espinosa expedition and later finish it in the "Great South Sea" as the Pacific Ocean first became known to the Spanish. However, according to current information, there are no indications that Almagro would participate in the expedition of Balboa and probably would eventually return to Darien. Almagro took part in the incursions, foundations and conquests developed in the Gulf of Panama, participating once again in the expeditions of Espinosa, who was known to travel in the ships of Balboa. Of this expedition it is only known that Almagro served as a witness to the lists of natives which Espinosa ordered to be carried. Almagro would remain in the newly founded city of Panama, helping to populate it. During four years he did not participate in new expeditions, occupying his time in the administration of his belongings and those of Pizarro. During this time Almagro's first son, el "Mozo", was born, whose mother was an indigenous woman named Ana Martínez. Conquest of Peru By 1524 an association of conquest regarding South America was formalized among Almagro, Pizarro and Luque. By the beginning of August of 1524, they had received the requisite permission to discover and conquer lands further south. Almagro would remain in Panama to recruit men and gather supplies for the expeditions led by Pizarro. After several expeditions to South America, Pizarro secured his stay in Peru and explored the territory held by the Incas. He succeeded in defeating the Incan army under Emperor Atahualpa during the Battle of Cajamarca in 1532. After Peru fell to the Spanish, both Pizarro and Almagro initially worked together in the founding of new cities to consolidate their dominions. As such, Pizarro dispatched Almagro to the Inca Empire's northern city of Quito to claim it as part of their jurisdiction. Their fellow conquistador Sebastián de Belalcázar, who had gone forth without Pizarro's approval, had already reached Quito and witnessed the destruction of the city by Inca general Rumiñahui. The Inca warrior had ordered the city to be burned and its gold to be buried at an undisclosed location where the Spanish could never find it. The arrival and intromission of Pedro de Alvarado from Mexico in search of Inca gold further complicated the situation for Almagro and Belalcázar. Alvarado's presence, however, did not last long as he left South America in exchange for monetary compensation from Pizarro. In an attempt to honor Pizarro before leaving, Almagro refounded the native city of Quito as "San Francisco de Quito" in August of 1534. Four months later would come the foundation of the Peruvian city of Trujillo, which Almagro named as "Villa Trujillo" in honor of Francisco Pizarro's birthplace, Trujillo in Extremadura, Spain. These events were the height of the Pizarro-Almagro friendship, which historians describe as one of the last events in which their friendship soon faded and entered a period of turmoil for the control of the historical and mythical Incan capital of Cuzco. He formed with Francisco Pizarro to conquer land of the south ocean and north ocean. Conflict with Pizarro After splitting the treasure of Inca emperor Atahualpa, both Pizarro and Almagro left towards Cuzco and took the city in 1533. However, Almagro's friendship with Pizarro showed signs of deterioration in 1526 when Pizarro, in the name of the rest of the conquistadors, called forth the "Capitulacion de Toledo" law in which King Charles I of Spain had laid out his authorization for the conquest of Peru and the awards every conquistador would receive from it. Long before, however, each conquistador had promised to equally split the benefits. Pizarro managed to have a larger stake and awards for himself. Despite this, Almagro still obtained an important fortune for his services, and the King awarded him in November of 1532 the noble title of "Don" and he was assigned a personal coat of arms. Although by this time Diego de Almagro had already acquired sufficient wealth in the conquest of Peru and was living a luxurious life in Cuzco, the prospect of conquering the lands further south was very attractive to him. Given that the dispute with Pizarro over Cuzco had kept intensifying, Almagro spent a great deal of time and money equipping a company of 500 men for a new exploration south of Peru. By 1534 the Spanish crown had determined to split the region in two parallel lines, forming the governorship of "Nueva Castilla" (from the 1° to the 14° latitude, close to Pisco), and that of "Nueva Toledo" (from the 14° to the 25° latitude, in Taltal, Chile), assigning the first to Francisco Pizarro and the second to Diego de Almagro. The crown had previously assigned Almagro the governorship of Cuzco, and as such Almagro was heading there when Charles V divided the territory between Nueva Castilla and Nueva Toledo. This might have been the reason why Almagro did not immediately confront Pizarro for Cuzco, and promptly decided to embark on his new quest for the discovery of the riches of Chile. Discovery of Chile The preparations According to the natives of Peru, who by this time had observed the Spanish lust for gold, the territories of Chile had abundances of gold which would justify any effort. Almagro quickly prepared his expedition with the help of men recruited from Cuzco and Lima within six months. With his personal fortune, he equipped the soldiers that would join him. Arms, tools, gunpowder and other necessary utensils were bought. Almagro was able to put together a force of 500 men, many of which had come with him to Peru. He was also joined by 100 African slaves and some 10,000 Yanaconas Indians to transport the weapons, clothing, and food. In total, it is estimated that everything cost 1.5 million castilian pesos. Almagro had also asked for a high ranking official from the Inca empire to prepare a route along with three of his most trusted Spanish soldiers. For this, the Inca offered the most esteemed religious chief of the empire, Villac-Umu. The Inca, however, had planned for a large force of Spaniards to leave Peru. Once gone, they thought, the Inca armies could easily initiate an armed rebellion and retake Cuzco. Almagro, who was not yet satisfied to go forward, had ordered Juan de Saavedra to advance with one hundred men that, at a distance of thirty leagues, would establish a small town that would wait for the rest with food and natives that would be captured to serve them. Following the Inca Trail and crossing the Andes Almagro left Cuzco on July 3, 1535 with his supporters and stopped at Moina until the 20th of that month. Meanwhile, Francisco Pizarro's brother, Juan Pizarro, had arrested Inca Manco Capac II, further complicating Almagro's plans as it heavily increased the missatisfaction of the Indians submitted to Spanish rule. Not having formally been appointed governor of any territories in the Capitulation of Toledo in 1528, however, forcing him to declare himself adelantado (governor) of Nueva Toledo, or southern Peru and present-day Chile. Some sources suggest Almagro recevied such a requirement in 1534 by the Spanish king and was officially declared governor of New Toledo. Once he left Moina, Almagro followed the Inca trail followed by 750 Spaniards deciding to join him in quest for the gold lost in the ransom of Atahualpa, which had mainly benefited the Pizarro brothers and their supporters. After crossing the Bolivian mountain range and traveling past Lake Titicaca, Almagro arrived on the shores of the Desaguadero River and finally set up camp in Tupiza. From there, the expedition stopped at Chicoana and then turned to the southeast to cross the Andes mountains. The expedition turned out to be a difficult and exhaustive endeavor. The hardest phase was the crossing of the Andes cordillera: at almost 4,000 meters of altitude, the cold, hunger and tiredness meant the death of various Spaniards and natives, but mainly slaves who were not accustomed to such rigorous climate. Survivors would later recount that some fellow adventurers would stop and rest, only to die frozen; others, upon taking off their boots, would watch in horror how their toes would be stuck to the boot. Almagro takes possession of Chile in the valley of Copiapo. Upon this point, Almagro determined everything was a failure. He ordered a small group to go forward on the way and search for help among the indigenous population. By luck, these men found the Valley of Copiapó, where a Spaniard called Gonzalo Calvo Barrientos, a Spaniard whom Pizarro had expelled from Peru for stealing objects the Inca had offered for his ransom, had already established a friendship with the local natives. There, in the valley of the river Copiapó, Almagro took official possession of Chile and claimed it in the name of King Charles V. Dismayed in Chile Almagro promptly initiated the exploration of the new territory starting towards the valley of the Aconcagua River, where he was well received by the natives. However, the intrigues of his interpreter, Felipillo, who had previously helped Pizarro in dealing with Atahualpa, almost thwarted Almagro's efforts. Felipillo had secretly urged the local natives to attack the Spanish but they surprisingly desisted and did not believe the dangers they posed. Almagro then dispatched Gómez de Alvarado along with 100 horsemen and 100 foot to continue the exploration, which ended in the confluence of the Ñuble and Itata rivers where the Battle of Reinohuelén between the Spanish and hostile Mapuche Indians forced them to turn back north. Almagro's own reconnaissance of the land and the bad news of Gómez de Alvarado's encounter with the fierce Mapuches, along with the bitter cold winter that settled ferociously upon them, only served to confirm that everything had failed. He never found gold or cities that Incan scouts informed him about; only communities of the indigenous population that lived from agriculture and fierce resistance from local tribes. The exploration of the territories of Nueva Toledo, which lasted 2 years, was marked by a complete failure for Almagro. Despite this, at first he thought staying and founding a city would serve well for his honor. The initial optimism that led Almagro to bring his son he had with the indigenous Panamanian Ana Martínez to Chile had faded. Some observers have pointed that out that if it were not for the urging of his explorers to leave, Almagro would have probably and permanently stayed in Chile. He was urged, however, to return to Peru and this time take a definitive possession of Cuzco so as to consolidate an inheritance for his son. Without wasting time and dismayed, Almagro initiated his plans of return to Peru on September of 1536. He never officially founded a city in the territory of what is now present Chile. The withdrawal of the Spanish from valleys of Chile was violent: Almagro authorized his soldiers to ransack the natives' properties, leaving their soil desolate; there was not one Spaniard that did not spare a native for his service. The locals were captured, tied and forced to carry the belongings of the conquistadors without compassion. Return to Peru After the exhaustive crossing of the Atacama desert mainly due to the climatic conditions, Almagro finally reached Cuzco, Peru, in 1537. According to some authors, it was during this time that the burlesque Spanish term "roto" (torn), used by Peruvians to refer to Chileans, was first mentioned given how Almagro's disappointed troops returned to Cuzco with their "torn clothes" due to the extensive and laborious passage on foot by the Atacama desert. Upon his return to Peru in 1537, Almagro was bitter and eager to once and for all claim the riches of the city of Cuzco for himself. In the previous year, the Inca Manco had briefly recaptured the royal city and weakened the Spanish hold in the Sacred Valley. Hoping to enlist the help of the Inca, Almagro offered Manco Inca a pardon on behalf of the Spanish government. Manco Inca never officially joined Almagro in his attack on Cuzco. However, most of Hernándo Pizarro's army marched into the Andes in pursuit of Manco Inca, allowing Almagro's men to claim the city for themselves. When Hernando Pizarro and his army returned, Almagro's troops quickly defeated them and took the Pizarro brothers Hernando and Gonzalo captive. After occupying Cuzco, Almagro confronted an army sent by Francisco Pizarro to liberate his brothers. The army, led by Alonso de Alvarado, was defeated during the Battle of Abancay on July 12, 1537. Later, Gonzalo Pizarro and Alvarado escaped prison. Subsequent negotiations between Francisco Pizarro and Almagro concluded with the liberation of the third brother, Hernando Pizarro, in return for the definitive control and administration of Cuzco for Almagro himself. Francisco Pizarro never had the intention of giving up Cuzco to Almagro, and only wanted to win time for himself to organize an army strong enough to defeat Almagro's troops. Capture and execution of Diego de Almagro (Engraving, around 1600). During this time Almagro fell ill, and Pizarro and his brothers finally caught the opportunity to defeat him and his followers. The Almagristas was finally defeated in at Las Salinas in April 1538, with Orgóñez being killed on the field of battle. He fled to Cuzco, still in the hands of his loyal supporters, but found only temporary refuge as the forces of the Pizarro brothers entered the city without resistance. Once captured, he was humiliated by Hernando Pizarro and ignored his requests for appeals to the King. Almagro begged for his life while Hernando responded: -"You're a gentleman with an illustrious name; do not display compassion; It marvels me that a man of our mood fears death so much. Confess why our death has no remedy"- Almagro was condemned to death and decapitated while in confinement on July 8, 1538 (other sources suggest he was garrotted, which would have been more likely for a Christian man of fame, though not sure). His cadaver was taken to the public Plaza Mayor of Cuzco and displayed as a sign of defeat. Margarita, his loyal servant and lover, took his body and buried him under the church of la Merced in Cuzco. El Mozo Diego de Almagro II (1520-1542), known as El Mozo (The Lad), son of Diego de Almagro I, whose mother was an Indian girl of Panama, became the foil of the conspirators who had put Pizzaro to the sword. The marquis was murdered on June 26, 1541; the conspirators promptly proclaimed the lad Almagro Governor of Peru. From various causes, all of the conspirators either died or were killed except for one, who was executed after the lad Almagro gave an order. The lad Almagro fought the desperate battle of Chupas on September 16, 1542, escaped to Cuzco, but was arrested, immediately condemned to death, and executed in the great square of the city. References Bibliography "Michimalonco, Pedro de Valdivia and the birth of Chile" by Carlos Keller Rueff, consulted on Feb 14, 2005. (in Spanish) "The consolidation of the Spanish dominion in Chile", consulted on Feb 14, 2005. (in Spanish) "Diego de Almagro" by Gerardo Larraín Valdés. Editorial Luxemburgo (2001), ISBN 956-272-488-3 Study of Diego de Almagro written by Miguel Luis Amunátegui in his book (p. 37-179) "Discovery and conquest of Chile" (1862), consulted on Feb 2005. (in Spanish) "Vida del mariscal y adelantado Don Diego de Almagro el viejo y de su hijo Don Diego de Almagro" written by Fernando Pizarro (1594-1640), consulted on Feb 13, 2005. (in Spanish) "Diego de Almagro" by Manuel Ballesteros Gaibrois (1911-2002). Editorial Doyma (1977), Barcelona, ISBN 84-500-2085-9 . (in Spanish) "Vida y obra de Diego de Almagro", research by Lucas Pucci (1998), consulted on Feb 13, 2005. (in Spanish) "The expedition of Diego de Almagro", article by Pedro Dermit (DMS, N° 6, 1998, pp. 55-79) (in Spanish) MacQuarrie, Kim. The Last Days of the Incas. Simon & Schuster, 2007. ISBN 978-0743260497. Other sources of information Documental sources and bibliographies for the study of the History of Chile by the University of Chile, consulted on Feb 14, 2005. (in Spanish) The conquistadores, description of the profile of the conquistador that arrived in America in search of honor and fortune in the name of the Spanish monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church, consulted on Feb 14, 2005. (in Spanish) "History of Chile" by José Del Pozo, consulted on Feb 14, 2005. 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2,258 | Collagen | Tropocollagen triple helix. Collagen is the main protein of connective tissue in animals and the most abundant protein in mammals, Gloria A. Di LulloDagger , Shawn M. Sweeney, Jarmo Körkkö, Leena Ala-Kokko, and James D. San Antonio; Mapping the Ligand-binding Sites and Disease-associated Mutations on the Most Abundant Protein in the Human, Type I Collagen; J. Biol. Chem., Vol. 277, Issue 6, 4223-4231, February 8, 2002 making up about 25% to 35% of the whole-body protein content. In muscle tissue it serves as a major component of endomysium. Collagen constitutes 1% to 2% of muscle tissue, and accounts for 6% of the weight of strong, tendinous muscles. Sikorski, Zdzisław E. (2001) Chemical and Functional Properties of Food Proteins. CRC Press. p. 242 The gelatin used in food and industry is derived from the partial hydrolysis of collagen. Uses Collagen is one of the long, fibrous structural proteins whose functions are quite different from those of globular proteins such as enzymes. Tough bundles of collagen called collagen fibers are a major component of the extracellular matrix that supports most tissues and gives cells structure from the outside, but collagen is also found inside certain cells. Collagen has great tensile strength, and is the main component of fascia, cartilage, ligaments, tendons, bone and skin. Along with soft keratin, it is responsible for skin strength and elasticity, and its degradation leads to wrinkles that accompany aging. It strengthens blood vessels and plays a role in tissue development. It is present in the cornea and lens of the eye in crystalline form. It is also used in cosmetic surgery and burns surgery. Hydrolyzed collagen can play an important role in weight management, as a protein, it can be advantageously used for its satiating power. Industrial uses If collagen is sufficiently hydrolyzed, the three tropocollagen strands separate partially or completely into globular domains, containing a different secondary structure to the normal collagen polyproline II (PPII), e.g. random coils. This process describes the formation of gelatin, which is used in many foods, including flavored gelatin desserts. Besides food, gelatin has been used in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and photography industries. Gelatin's Advantages: Health, Nutrition and Safety From a nutritional point of view, collagen and gelatin are a poor-quality sole source of protein since they do not contain all the essential amino acids in the proportions that the human body requires—they are not 'complete proteins' (as defined by food science, not that they are partially structured). Manufacturers of collagen-based dietary supplements claim that their products can improve skin and fingernail quality as well as joint health. However, mainstream scientific research has not shown strong evidence to support these claims. Individuals with problems in these areas are more likely to be suffering from some other underlying condition (such as normal aging, dry skin, arthritis etc.) rather than just a protein deficiency. From the Greek for glue, kolla, the word collagen means "glue producer" and refers to the early process of boiling the skin and sinews of horses and other animals to obtain glue. Collagen adhesive was used by Egyptians about 4,000 years ago, and Native Americans used it in bows about 1,500 years ago. The oldest glue in the world, carbon-dated as more than 8,000 years old, was found to be collagen—used as a protective lining on rope baskets and embroidered fabrics, and to hold utensils together; also in crisscross decorations on human skulls. Oldest Glue Discovered Collagen normally converts to gelatin, but survived due to the dry conditions. Animal glues are thermoplastic, softening again upon reheating, and so they are still used in making musical instruments such as fine violins and guitars, which may have to be reopened for repairs—an application incompatible with tough, synthetic plastic adhesives, which are permanent. Animal sinews and skins, including leather, have been used to make useful articles for millennia. Gelatin-resorcinol-formaldehyde glue (and with formaldehyde replaced by less-toxic pentanedial and ethanedial) has been used to repair experimental incisions in rabbit lungs. Ann Thorac Surg. 1994 Jun; 57(6): 1622–7 Medical uses Collagen has been widely used in cosmetic surgery, as a healing aid for burn patients for reconstruction of bone and a wide variety of dental, orthopedic and surgical purposes. Some points of interest are: when used cosmetically, there is a chance of allergic reactions causing prolonged redness; however, this can be virtually eliminated by simple and inconspicuous patch testing prior to cosmetic use, and most medical collagen is derived from young beef cattle (bovine) from certified BSE (Bovine spongiform encephalopathy) free animals. Most manufacturers use donor animals from either "closed herds", or from countries which have never had a reported case of BSE such as Australia, Brazil and New Zealand. porcine (pig) tissue is also widely used for producing collagen sheet for a variety of surgical purposes. alternatives using the patient's own fat, hyaluronic acid or polyacrylamide gel are readily available. Collagens are widely employed in the construction of artificial skin substitutes used in the management of severe burns. These collagens may be derived from bovine, equine or porcine, and even human, sources and are sometimes used in combination with silicones, glycosaminoglycans, fibroblasts, growth factors and other substances. Collagen is also sold commercially as a joint mobility supplement Hydrolyzed Collagen pills usages . This lacks supportive research as the proteins would just be broken down into its base amino acids during digestion, and could go to a variety of places besides the joints depending upon need and DNA orders. Recently an alternative to animal-derived collagen has become available. Although expensive, this human collagen, derived from donor cadavers, placentas and aborted fetuses, may minimize the possibility of immune reactions. Although it cannot be absorbed through the skin, collagen is now being used as a main ingredient for some cosmetic makeup. http://www.articlesbase.com/skin-care-articles/can-collagen-be-absorbed-into-the-skin-or-is-it-all-just-one-big-hoax-674325.html Conformation and structure Collagen structure is complex. Its conformation can be considered at the monomeric level (individual) collagen molecules and/or at its aggregate level, how the monomers are arranged i.e. their packing structure (fibrils, networks, etc.—see table below) Observe these structural aspect from a 3D perspective at http://www.messiah.edu/molscilab/Jmol/collagen/collagen_index.htm . History and background The molecular and packing structures of collagen have eluded scientists for decades; the first evidence that it possess a regular structure at the molecular level was presented in the mid-1930s Wyckoff, R., R. Corey, and J. Biscoe, X-ray reflections of long spacing from tendon. Science, 1935. 82: p. 175–176. Clark, G., Parker, E., Schaad, J. and Warren, W.J, New measurements of previously unknown large interplaner spaceings in natural materials. J. Amer. Chem. Soc, 1935. 57: p. 1509–1509. . Since that time many prominent scholars, including (but not limited to) Nobel laureate Crick, and Pauling, Rich, Yonath, Brodsky, Berman and Ramachandran concentrated on the conformation of the collagen monomer. Several competing models although correctly dealing with the conformation of each individual peptide chain, gave way to the triple-helical "Madras" model which provided an essentially correct model of the molecule's quaternary structure GNR — A Tribute - Resonance - October 2001 http://www.proteinscience.org/cgi/reprint/10/8/1689.pdf G.N. Ramachandran - Nature Structural & Molecular Biology although this model still required some refinement Fraser, R.D., T.P. MacRae, and E. Suzuki, Chain conformation in the collagen molecule. J Mol Biol, 1979. 129(3): p. 463–81 Okuyama, K., et al., Crystal and molecular structure of a collagen-like polypeptide (Pro-Pro-Gly)10. J Mol Biol, 1981. 152(2): p. 427–43. Traub, W., A. Yonath, and D.M. Segal, On the molecular structure of collagen. Nature, 1969. 221(5184): p. 914–7. Bella, J., M. Eaton, B. Brodsky, and H.M. Berman, Crystal and molecular structure of a collagen-like peptide at 1.9 A resolution. Science, 1994. 266(5182): p. 75–81. . The packing structure of collagen has not been defined to the same degree outside of the fibrillar collagen types, although it has been long known to be hexagonal or quasi-hexagonal Hulmes, D.J. and A. Miller, Quasi-hexagonal molecular packing in collagen fibrils. Nature, 1979. 282(5741): p. 878–80. Jesior, J.C., A. Miller, and C. Berthet-Colominas, Crystalline three-dimensional packing is general characteristic of type I collagen fibrils. FEBS Lett, 1980. 113(2): p. 238–40. Fraser, R.D.B. and T.P. MacRae, Unit cell and molecular connectivity in tendon collagen. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 1981. 3: p. 193–200. . As with its monomeric structure, several conflicting models alleged that either the packing arrangement of collagen molecules is ‘sheet-like’ or microfibrillar. Fraser, R.D., T.P. MacRae, and A. Miller, Molecular packing in type I collagen fibrils. J Mol Biol, 1987. 193(1): p. 115–25. Wess, T.J., et al., Molecular packing of type I collagen in tendon. J Mol Biol, 1998. 275(2): p. 255–67. Recently it was confirmed that the microfibrillar structure as described by Fraser, Miller, Wess (amongst others) was closest to the observed structure, although it over-simplified the topological progression of neighboring collagen molecules and hence did not predict the correct conformation of the discontinuous D-periodic pentameric arrangement termed simply: the microfibril Orgel, J.P., et al., "Microfibrillar structure of type I collagen in situ". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2006. 103(24): p. 9001–5. Molecular structure The tropocollagen or "collagen molecule" is a subunit of larger collagen aggregates such as fibrils. It is approximately 300 nm long and 1.5 nm in diameter, made up of three polypeptide strands (called alpha peptides), each possessing the conformation of a left-handed helix (its name is not to be confused with the commonly occurring alpha helix, a right-handed structure). These three left-handed helices are twisted together into a right-handed coiled coil, a triple helix or "super helix", a cooperative quaternary structure stabilized by numerous hydrogen bonds. With type I collagen and possibly all fibrillar collagens if not all collagens, each triple-helix associates into a right-handed super-super-coil that is referred to as the collagen microfibril. Each microfibril is interdigitated with its neighboring microfibrils to a degree that might suggest that they are individually unstable although within collagen fibrils they are so well ordered as to be crystalline. A distinctive feature of collagen is the regular arrangement of amino acids in each of the three chains of these collagen subunits. The sequence often follows the pattern Gly-Pro-Y or Gly-X-Hyp, where X and Y may be any of various other amino acid residues. Proline or hydroxyproline constitute about 1/6 of the total sequence. With Glycine accounting for the 1/3 of the sequence, this means that approximately half of the collagen sequence is not glycine, proline or hydroxyproline, a fact often missed due to the distraction of the unusual GXY character of collagen alpha-peptides. This kind of regular repetition and high glycine content is found in only a few other fibrous proteins, such as silk fibroin. 75-80% of silk is (approximately) -Gly-Ala-Gly-Ala- with 10% serine—and elastin is rich in glycine, proline, and alanine (Ala), whose side group is a small, inert methyl group. Such high glycine and regular repetitions are never found in globular proteins save for very short sections of their sequence. Chemically-reactive side groups are not needed in structural proteins as they are in enzymes and transport proteins, however collagen is not quite just a structural protein. Due to its key role in the determination of cell phenotype, cell adhesion, tissue regulation and infrastructure, many sections of its non-proline rich regions have cell or matrix association / regulation roles. The relatively high content of Proline and Hydroxyproline rings, with their geometrically constrained carboxyl and (secondary) amino groups, along with the rich abundance of glycine, accounts for the tendency of the individual polypeptide strands to form left-handed helices spontaneously, without any intrachain hydrogen bonding. Because glycine is the smallest amino acid with no side-chain, it plays a unique role in fibrous structural proteins. In collagen, Gly is required at every third position because the assembly of the triple helix puts this residue at the interior (axis) of the helix, where there is no space for a larger side group than glycine’s single hydrogen atom. For the same reason, the rings of the Pro and Hyp must point outward. These two amino acids help stabilize the triple helix—Hyp even more so than Pro—a lower concentration of them is required in animals such as fish, whose body temperatures are lower than most warm-blooded animals. Fibrillar structure The tropocollagen subunits spontaneously self-assemble, with regularly staggered ends, into even larger arrays in the extracellular spaces of tissues Hulmes, D.J., Building collagen molecules, fibrils, and suprafibrillar structures. J Struct Biol, 2002. 137(1-2): p. 2–10 Hulmes, D.J., The collagen superfamily—diverse structures and assemblies. Essays Biochem, 1992. 27: p. 49–67. . In the fibrillar collagens, the molecules are staggered from each other by about 67nm (a unit that is referred to as ‘D’ and changes depending upon the hydration state of the aggregate). Each D-period contains 4 and a fraction collagen molecules. This is because 300 nm divided by 67 nm does not give an integer (the length of the collagen molecule divided by the stagger distance D). Therefore in each D-period repeat of the microfibril, there is a part containing five molecules in cross-section—called the “overlap” and a part containing only 4 molecules. The triple-helices are also arranged in a hexagonal or quasi-hexagonal array in cross-section, in both the gap and overlap regions. Hulmes, D.J. and A. Miller, Quasi-hexagonal molecular packing in collagen fibrils. Nature, 1979. 282(5741): p. 878-80. . There is some covalent crosslinking within the triple helices, and a variable amount of covalent crosslinking between tropocollagen helices forming well organized aggregates (such as fibrils) Perumal, S., O. Antipova, and J.P. Orgel, Collagen fibril architecture, domain organization, and triple-helical conformation govern its proteolysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2008. 105(8): p. 2824–9. . Larger fibrillar bundles are formed with the aid of several different classes of proteins (including different collagen types), glycoproteins and proteoglycans to form the different types of mature tissues from alternate combinations of the same key players Hulmes, D.J., The collagen superfamily—diverse structures and assemblies. Essays Biochem, 1992. 27: p. 49–67. . Collagen's insolubility was a barrier to the study of monomeric collagen until it was found that tropocollagen from young animals can be extracted because it is not yet fully crosslinked. However, advances in microscopy techniques (Electron Microscopy (EM) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)) and X-ray diffraction have enabled researchers to obtain increasingly detailed images of collagen structure in situ. These later advances are particularly important to better understanding the way in which collagen structure affects cell-cell and cell-matrix communication and how tissues are constructed in growth and repair, and changed in development and disease Sweeney, S.M., et al., Candidate cell and matrix interaction domains on the collagen fibril, the predominant protein of vertebrates. J Biol Chem, 2008. 283(30): p. 21187–97. Twardowski, T., et al., Type I collagen and collagen mimetics as angiogenesis promoting superpolymers. Curr Pharm Des, 2007. 13(35): p. 3608–21. . Collagen fibrils are semi-crystalline aggregates of collagen molecules. Collagen fibers are bundles of fibrils. Collagen fibrils / aggregates are arranged in different combinations and concentrations in various tissues to provide varying tissue properties. In bone, entire collagen triple helices lie in a parallel, staggered array. 40 nm gaps between the ends of the tropocollagen subunits (approximately equal to the gap region) probably serve as nucleation sites for the deposition of long, hard, fine crystals of the mineral component, which is (approximately) hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6 (OH)2with some phosphate. It is in this way that certain kinds of cartilage turn into bone. Type I collagen gives bone its tensile strength. Types and associated disorders Collagen occurs in many places throughout the body. There are more than 28 types of collagen described in literature. Over 90% of the collagen in the body, however, are of type I, II, III, and IV. Collagen One: skin, tendon, vascular, ligature, organs, bone (main component of bone) Collagen Two: cartilage (main component of cartilage) Collagen Three: reticulate (main component of reticular fibers), commonly found alongside type I. Collagen Four: forms bases of cell basement membrane Collagen diseases commonly arise from genetic defects that affect the biosynthesis, assembly, postranslational modification, secretion, or other processes in the normal production of collagen. Type Notes Gene(s) Disorders I This is the most abundant collagen of the human body. It is present in scar tissue, the end product when tissue heals by repair. It is found in tendons, skin, artery walls, the endomysium of myofibrils, fibrocartilage, and the organic part of bones and teeth. COL1A1, COL1A2 osteogenesis imperfecta, Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome, Infantile cortical hyperostosis aka Caffey's disease II Hyaline cartilage, makes up 50% of all cartilage protein. Vitreous humour of the eye. COL2A1 Collagenopathy, types II and XI III This is the collagen of granulation tissue, and is produced quickly by young fibroblasts before the tougher type I collagen is synthesized. Reticular fiber. Also found in artery walls, skin, intestines and the uterus COL3A1 Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome IV basal lamina; eye lens. Also serves as part of the filtration system in capillaries and the glomeruli of nephron in the kidney. COL4A1, COL4A2, COL4A3, COL4A4, COL4A5, COL4A6 Alport syndrome V most interstitial tissue, assoc. with type I, associated with placenta COL5A1, COL5A2, COL5A3 Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (Classical) VI most interstitial tissue, assoc. with type I COL6A1, COL6A2, COL6A3 Ulrich myopathy and Bethlem myopathy VII forms anchoring fibrils in dermal epidermal junctions COL7A1 epidermolysis bullosa dystrophica VIII some endothelial cells COL8A1, COL8A2 - IX FACIT collagen, cartilage, assoc. with type II and XI fibrils COL9A1, COL9A2, COL9A3 - EDM2 and EDM3 X hypertrophic and mineralizing cartilage COL10A1 Schmid metaphyseal dysplasia XI cartilage COL11A1, COL11A2 Collagenopathy, types II and XI XII FACIT collagen, interacts with type I containing fibrils, decorin and glycosaminoglycans COL12A1 - XIII transmembrane collagen, interacts with integrin a1b1, fibronectin and components of basement membranes like nidogen and perlecan. COL13A1 - XIV FACIT collagen COL14A1 - XV - COL15A1 - XVI - COL16A1 - XVII transmembrane collagen, also known as BP180, a 180 kDa protein COL17A1 Bullous Pemphigoid and certain forms of junctional epidermolysis bullosa XVIII source of endostatin COL18A1 - XIX FACIT collagen COL19A1 - XX - COL20A1 - XXI FACIT collagen COL21A1 - XXII - COL22A1 - XXIII MACIT collagen - COL23A1 - XXIV - COL24A1 - XXV - COL25A1 - XXVI - EMID2 - XXVII - COL27A1 - XXVIII - COL28A1 - XXIX epidermal collagen COL29A1 Atopic Dermatitis Söderhäll C, Marenholz I, Kerscher T, Rüschendorf F, Esparza-Gordillo J, et al., Variants in a Novel Epidermal Collagen Gene (COL29A1) Are Associated with Atopic Dermatitis. PLoS Biology Vol. 5, No. 9, e242 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050242 In addition to the above mentioned disorders, excessive deposition of collagen occurs in Scleroderma. Staining In histology, collagen is brightly eosinophilic (pink) in standard H&E slides. The dye methyl violet may be used to stain the collagen in tissue samples. The dye methyl blue can also be used to stain collagen and immunohistochemical stains are available if required. The best stain for use in differentiating collagen from other fibers is Masson's trichrome stain. Synthesis |Action of lysyl oxidase (in French) Amino acids Collagen has an unusual amino acid composition and sequence: Glycine (Gly) is found at almost every third residue Proline (Pro) makes up about 9% of collagen Collagen contains two uncommon derivative amino acids not directly inserted during translation. These amino acids are found at specific locations relative to glycine and are modified post-translationally by different enzymes, both of which require vitamin C as a cofactor. Hydroxyproline (Hyp), derived from proline. Hydroxylysine, derived from lysine. Depending on the type of collagen, varying numbers of hydroxylysines have disaccharides attached to them. Cortisol stimulates degradation of amino acid from skin collagen. Houck, J.C.; Sharma, V.K.; Patel, Y.M.; Gladner, J.A. (1968) “Induction of Collagenolytic and Proteolytic Activities by AntiInflammatory Drugs in the Skin and Fibroblasts”. Biochemical Pharmacology 17: 2081, Collagen I formation Most collagen forms in a similar manner, but the following process is typical for type I: Inside the cell Three peptide chains are formed (2 alpha-1 and 1 alpha-2 chain) in ribosomes along the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER). These peptide chains (known as preprocollagen) have registration peptides on each end; and a signal peptide is also attached to each Peptide chains are sent into the lumen of the RER Signal Peptides are cleaved inside the RER and the chains are now known as procollagen Hydroxylation of lysine and proline amino acids occurs inside the lumen. This process is dependent on Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) as a cofactor Glycosylation of specific hydroxylated amino acid occurs Triple helical structure is formed inside the RER Procollagen is shipped to the golgi apparatus, where it is packaged and secreted by exocytosis Outside the cell Registration peptides are cleaved and tropocollagen is formed by procollagen peptidase. Multiple tropocollagen molecules form collagen fibrils, and multiple collagen fibrils form into collagen fibers Collagen is attached to cell membranes via several types of protein, including fibronectin and integrin. Synthetic pathogenesis Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy, a serious and painful disease in which defective collagen prevents the formation of strong connective tissue. Gums deteriorate and bleed, with loss of teeth; skin discolors, and wounds do not heal. Prior to the eighteenth century, this condition was notorious among long duration military, particularly naval, expeditions during which participants were deprived of foods containing Vitamin C. In the human body, a malfunction of the immune system, called an autoimmune disease, results in an immune response in which healthy collagen fibers are systematically destroyed with inflammation of surrounding tissues. The resulting disease processes are called Lupus erythematosus, and rheumatoid arthritis, or collagen tissue disorders. AJR article about lupus and other collagen disorders Many bacteria and viruses have virulence factors which destroy collagen or interfere with its production. Fossil record Because the synthesis of collagen requires a high level of atmospheric oxygen, complex animals may not have been able to evolve until the atmosphere was oxygenic enough for collagen synthesis. http://facstaff.gpc.edu/~pgore/geology/geo102/cambrian.htm The origin of collagen may have allowed cuticle, shell and muscle formation. However, the preservation of collagen in the fossil record is very scarce. There is mounting evidence—which remains controversial—that collagen has been preserved in dinosaur specimens dated as long ago as . Art Julian Voss-Andreae's sculpture Unravelling Collagen (2005), stainless steel, height 11'3" (3.40 m). Julian Voss-Andreae has created sculptures based on the collagen structure out of bamboo and stainless steel. His piece "Unravelling Collagen" is, according to the artist, a "metaphor for aging and growth" Interview with J. Voss-Andreae "Seeing Below the Surface" in Seed Magazine . See also Animal glue Collagenase, the enzyme involved in collagen breakdown and remodelling. For more on other proteases that target collagen see The Proteolysis Map Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome Fibrous protein Gelatine Hypermobility Syndrome LOXL1 LOXL2 LOXL3 LOXL4 Marfan Syndrome Osteoid References External links The Collagen Protein 12 types of collagen Database of type I and type III collagen mutations Science.dirbix Collagen Hydrolyzed Collagen Collagen Stability Calculator Computer-generated animations of the assembly of Type I and Type IV Collagens Integrin-Collagen interface, PMAP (The Proteolysis Map)—animation Integrin-Collagen binding model, PMAP (The Proteolysis Map)—animation Collagen-Integrin atomic detail, PMAP (The Proteolysis Map)—animation | Collagen |@lemmatized tropocollagen:9 triple:11 helix:15 collagen:145 main:6 protein:25 connective:2 tissue:21 animal:12 abundant:3 mammal:1 gloria:1 di:1 lullodagger:1 shawn:1 sweeney:2 jarmo:1 körkkö:1 leena:1 ala:4 kokko:1 james:1 san:1 antonio:1 map:5 ligand:1 binding:1 site:2 disease:6 associate:5 mutation:2 human:7 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2,259 | Foreign_relations_of_Morocco | Embassy of Morocco in Ottawa, Canada Morocco is a member of the United Nations and belongs to the Arab League, Arab Maghreb Union (UMA), Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC), and the Non-Aligned Movement. Current King Mohamed VI is the chairman of the OIC’s Al-Qods (Jerusalem) Committee. Relations with the Maghreb and Africa Morocco is very active in Maghreb and African affairs. Although no longer a member of the OAU (Organisation of African Unity) since November 12, 1984 — following the admission of the Polisario Front as the government of Western Sahara — Morocco remains involved in developing the regional economy, as the city of Casablanca contains North Africa's busiest port and serves as the country's economic center. There are significant ties with West African and Sahel countries and Morocco entertains good relationships with Senegal, Gabon and Burkina Faso. The major issue in Morocco’s foreign relations is its claim to Western Sahara. As a result of Algeria’s continued support for the Polisario Front in the dispute over Western Sahara, relations between Morocco and Algeria have remained strained over the past several decades. The state of the relationships between the two neighboring countries has hindered bilateral collaboration and has left the Arab Maghreb Union (UMA) project almost inactive. Morocco and the Middle-East Morocco's stance is supporting the search for peace in the Middle East, encouraging Israeli-Palestinian negotiations and urging moderation on both sides. In 1986, then King Hassan II took the daring step of inviting then-Israeli Prime Minister Shimon Peres for talks, becoming only the second Arab leader to host an Israeli leader. Following the September 1993 signing of the Israeli-Palestinian Declaration of Principles, Morocco accelerated its economic ties and political contacts with Israel. In September 1994, Morocco and Israel announced the opening of bilateral liaison offices. These offices were closed in 2000 following sustained Israeli-Palestinian violence. Morocco maintains close relations with Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf states, which have provided Morocco with substantial amounts of financial assistance. Morocco was the first Arab state to condemn Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait and sent troops to help defend Saudi Arabia. Morocco also was among the first Arab and Islamic states to denounce the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks in the United States and declare solidarity with the American people in the war against terrorism. It has contributed to UN peacekeeping efforts on the continent. In recognition of its support for the War on Terrorism, in June 2004 U.S. President George W. Bush designated Morocco as a major non-NATO ally. Relations with the European Union Morocco maintains close relations with the European Union, especially with the former colonial rulers, France and Spain. On October 2008, Morocco was granted a special partnership status with the EU (labelled 'advanced status') in response to the reforms undertaken at the political, social and economic levels. With that, Morocco became the first country in the southern Mediterranean region to benefit from the advanced status in its relations with the EU. The status include the establishment of an EU-Morocco summit and a direct participation of Morocco in a number of EU ministerial councils and working group meetings. Relations with the United States The last page of 1786 treaty of friendship. Morocco has close and long-standing ties with the United States. Morocco was the first nation to recognize the fledgling United States as an independent nation in 1777. In the beginning of the American Revolution, American merchant ships were subject to attack by the Barbary Pirates while sailing the Atlantic Ocean. At this time, American envoys tried to obtain protection from European powers, but to no avail. On December 20, 1777, Morocco's Sultan Mohammed III declared that the American merchant ships would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage. The Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship stands as the U.S.'s oldest non-broken friendship treaty. Negotiated by Thomas Barclay and signed by John Adams and Thomas Jefferson in 1786, it has been in continuous effect since its ratification by Congress in July 1787. Roberts, Priscilla H. and Richard S. Roberts, Thomas Barclay (1728-1793: Consul in France, Diplomat in Barbary, Lehigh University Press, 2008, pp. 206-223. Following the re-organization of the U.S. federal government upon the 1787 Constitution, President George Washington wrote a now venerated letter to the Sultan Sidi Mohamed strengthening the ties between the two countries. The United States legation (consulate) in Tangier is the first property the American government ever owned abroad. The building now houses the Tangier American Legation Museum. Relationship with Iran On March 6, 2009, Morocco severed diplomatic relations with Iran after comments made by an Iranian politician that Bahrain was historically part of Iran and as such still had a seat in the Iranian Parliament. Morocco described the comments as an attempt to "alter the religious fundamentals of the kingdom", and accused Tehran of attempting to spread Shia Islam. Morocco is a majority Sunni country and Bahrain, despite having a large Shi'ite population, is ruled by a Sunni elite which has not allowed the Shi'ites into the power structure. Iran, a majority Shia country, reportedly has an interest in empowering the Shi'ites in Bahrain in order to raise its own status in the Persian Gulf, which has strained relations between Morocco and Iran. The episode was the latest in a series of events that have weakened relations between the two countries over recent years, particularly regarding the "hard-line" leadership in Iran, who have in the past called into question the legitimacy of Bahrain's King. Morocco has cut relations with Iran once before in 1980, after the Iranian Revolution. The Western Sahara conflict The issue of sovereignty over Western Sahara remains unresolved. The territory—an area of wasteland and desert bordering the Atlantic Ocean between Mauritania and Morocco—is contested by Morocco and the Polisario (an independence movement based in the region of Tindouf, Algeria). Morocco's claim to sovereignty over the Sahara is based largely on an historical argument of traditional loyalty of the Sahrawi tribal leaders to the Moroccan sultan as spiritual leader and ruler. The Polisario Front claims to represent the aspirations of the Western Saharan inhabitants for independence. Algeria claims none of the territory for itself but maintains that Sahrawis should determine the territory’s future status. From 1904 until 1975, Spain occupied the entire territory, which is divided into a northern portion, the Saguia el-Hamra, and a southern two-thirds, known as Río de Oro. In 1973, the Polisario Front (Popular Front for the Liberation of the Saguia el Hamra and Rio de Oro) formed to combat the Spanish occupation of the territory. In November 1975, King Hassan mobilized 350,000 unarmed Moroccan citizens in what came to be known as the “Green March” into Western Sahara. The march was designed to both demonstrate and strengthen Moroccan claims to the territory. On November 14 of the same year, Spain, Morocco, and Mauritania announced a tripartite agreement for an interim administration under which Spain agreed to share administrative authority with Morocco and Mauritania, leaving aside the question of sovereignty. With the establishment of a Moroccan and Mauritanian presence throughout the territory, however, Spain’s role in the administration of the Western Sahara ceased altogether. After a period of hostilities, Mauritania withdrew from the territory in 1979 and signed a peace treaty with the Polisario relinquishing all claims to the territory. Moroccan troops took control of the region vacated by Mauritania and later proclaimed the territory reintegrated into Morocco. Morocco subsequently built the Moroccan Wall, a network of fortified berms around the largest portion of Western Sahara and has since asserted administrative control over that territory. Polisario remains in control over the easternmost part of the territory. At the Organization of African Unity (OAU) summit in June 1981, King Hassan announced his willingness to hold a referendum in the Western Sahara. Subsequent meetings of an OAU Implementation Committee proposed a cease-fire, a UN peacekeeping force, and an interim administration to assist with an OAU-UN-supervised referendum on the issue of independence or annexation. In 1984, the OAU seated a delegation of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), the shadow government of the Polisario; Morocco, consequently, withdrew from the OAU. In 1988, Moroccan and Polisario representatives agreed on a UN peace plan. A UN-brokered cease-fire and settlement plan went into effect on September 6, 1991. Implementation of the settlement plan, which calls for a popular referendum among the Sahrawi natives of the territory to determine its final status (integration into Morocco or independence), has been repeatedly postponed because of differences between the parties. In 2003 the UN launched the Baker Plan, allowing Moroccan settlers the vote and instituting a five-year Sahrawi autonomous rule under Moroccan sovereignty before the referendum. This plan won the unanimous approval of the Security Council through SC Resolution 1495, and was unexpectedly accepted by the Polisario. Morocco however refused the plan, stating that it is no longer willing to accept a referendum that includes the possibility of independence, but that it is willing to discuss an autonomy-based solution. This deadlocked the process, and the future of UN involvement is uncertain. Sahrawi demonstrations and riots that broke out in the Moroccan-held parts of Western Sahara further strained relations between the parties. The United States has consistently supported the cease-fire and the UN’s efforts at finding a peaceful settlement. While recognizing Morocco’s administrative control of Western Sahara, and generally supportive of the Moroccan government, the United States has not endorsed the country's claim of sovereignty over Western Sahara. In the UN Security Council, France has proved the strongest backer of the Moroccan view. On December 27, 2005, Sudan became the first state to recognize Moroccan sovereignty over the Sahara. Other international disputes Spain controls five "places of sovereignty" (Plazas de soberanía) on and off the north Africa coast: Ceuta and Melilla, as well as the islets of Peñón de Alhucemas, Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, and Islas Chafarinas, all contested by Morocco (see Perejil for the related incident). References External links The EU's Relations with Morocco U.S. Dept. of State's Background Note on Morocco, Oct 2004 Bibliography Morocco Foreign Policy and Government Guide (ISBN: 978-0-7397-6000-0) Analyzing Moroccan Foreign Policy and Relations with Europe (DOI: 10.1080/1475355032000240658) | Foreign_relations_of_Morocco |@lemmatized embassy:1 morocco:44 ottawa:1 canada:1 member:2 united:8 nation:3 belongs:1 arab:7 league:1 maghreb:4 union:4 uma:2 organisation:2 islamic:2 conference:1 oic:2 non:3 align:1 movement:2 current:1 king:5 mohamed:2 vi:1 chairman:1 al:1 qods:1 jerusalem:1 committee:2 relation:15 africa:3 active:1 african:4 affair:1 although:1 long:2 oau:6 unity:2 since:3 november:3 follow:4 admission:1 polisario:10 front:5 government:6 western:13 sahara:14 remain:4 involve:1 develop:1 regional:1 economy:1 city:1 casablanca:1 contains:1 north:2 busy:1 port:1 serve:1 country:9 economic:3 center:1 significant:1 tie:4 west:1 sahel:1 entertains:1 good:1 relationship:3 senegal:1 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2,260 | Feminism | International Women's Day rally in Dhaka, Bangladesh, organized by the National Women Workers Trade Union Centre on March 8, 2005. Feminism is an intellectual, philosophical and political discourse aimed at equal rights and legal protection for women. It involves various movements, theories, and philosophies, all concerned with issues of gender difference; that advocate equality for women and that campaign for women's rights and interests. According to Maggie Humm and Rebecca Walker, the history of feminism can be divided into three waves. The first wave was in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second was in the 1960s and 1970s, and the third extends from the 1990s to the present. Feminist theory emerged from these feminist movements. It is manifest in a variety of disciplines such as feminist geography, feminist history and feminist literary criticism. Feminism has altered predominant perspectives in a wide range of areas within Western society, ranging from culture to law. Feminist activists have campaigned for women's legal rights (rights of contract, property rights, voting rights); for women's right to bodily integrity and autonomy, for abortion rights, and for reproductive rights (including access to contraception and quality prenatal care); for protection of women and girls from domestic violence, sexual harassment and rape; Campaign: Stop Violence against Women for workplace rights, including maternity leave and equal pay; and against other forms of discrimination. During much of its history, most feminist movements and theories had leaders who were predominantly middle-class white women from Western Europe and North America. However, at least since Sojourner Truth's 1851 speech to American feminists, women of other races have proposed alternative feminisms. This trend accelerated in the 1960s with the Civil Rights movement in the United States and the collapse of European colonialism in Africa, the Caribbean, parts of Latin America and Southeast Asia. Since that time, women in former European colonies and the Third World have proposed "Post-colonial" and "Third World" feminisms. Some Postcolonial Feminists, such as Chandra Talpade Mohanty, are critical of Western feminism for being ethnocentric. Black feminists, such as Angela Davis and Alice Walker, share this view.Since the 1980s, standpoint feminists have argued that feminism should examine how women's experience of inequality relates to that of racism, homophobia, classism and colonization. Hill Collins, P. (2000): Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (New York: Routledge) In the late 1980s and 1990s postmodern feminists argued that gender roles are socially constructed, and that it is impossible to generalize women's experiences across cultures and histories. History A 1932 Soviet poster for International Women's Day. Feminists and scholars have divided the movement's history into three "waves". The first wave refers mainly to women's suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (mainly concerned with women's right to vote). The second wave refers to the ideas and actions associated with the women's liberation movement beginning in the 1960s (which campaigned for legal and social equality for women). The third wave refers to a continuation of, and a reaction to the perceived failures of, second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s. First wave First-wave feminism refers to an extended period of feminist activity during the nineteenth century and early twentieth century in the United Kingdom and the United States. Originally it focused on the promotion of equal contract and property rights for women and the opposition to chattel marriage and ownership of married women (and their children) by their husbands. However, by the end of the nineteenth century, activism focused primarily on gaining political power, particularly the right of women's suffrage. Yet, feminists such as Voltairine de Cleyre and Margaret Sanger were still active in campaigning for women's sexual, reproductive, and economic rights at this time. In Britain the Suffragettes and, possibly more effectively, the Suffragists campaigned for the women's vote. In 1918 the Representation of the People Act 1918 was passed granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who owned houses. In 1928 this was extended to all women over twenty-one. In the United States, leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Lucy Stone, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing women's right to vote; all were strongly influenced by Quaker thought. American first-wave feminism involved a wide range of women. Some, such as Frances Willard, belonged to conservative Christian groups such as the Woman's Christian Temperance Union. Others, such as Matilda Joslyn Gage, were more radical, and expressed themselves within the National Woman Suffrage Association or individually. American first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1919), granting women the right to vote in all states. The term first wave was coined retrospectively after the term second-wave feminism began to be used to describe a newer feminist movement that focused as much on fighting social and cultural inequalities as political inequalities. The first wave of feminists, in contrast to the second wave, focused very little on the subject of abortion. In general, they were against the concept. Though she never married, Anthony published her views about marriage, holding that a woman should be allowed to refuse sex with her husband; the American woman had no legal recourse at that time against rape by her husband. Of primary importance to Anthony was granting to woman the right to her own body which she saw as an essential element for the prevention of unwanted pregnancies, using abstinence as the method. In her newspaper, The Revolution, she wrote in 1869 about the subject, arguing that instead of merely attempting to pass a law against abortion, the root cause must also be addressed. Simply passing an anti-abortion law would, she wrote, "be only mowing off the top of the noxious weed, while the root remains." Second wave Original paperback cover from Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique (1963)Second-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity beginning in the early 1960s and lasting through the late 1980s. The scholar Imelda Whelehan suggests that the second wave was a continuation of the earlier phase of feminism involving the suffragettes in the UK and USA. Second-wave feminism has continued to exist since that time and coexists with what is termed third-wave feminism. The scholar Estelle Freedman compares first and second-wave feminism saying that the first wave focused on rights such as suffrage, whereas the second wave was largely concerned with other issues of equality, such as ending discrimination. The feminist activist and author Carol Hanisch coined the slogan "The Personal is Political" which became synonymous with the second wave. Second-wave feminists saw women's cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and encouraged women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicized and as reflecting sexist power structures. Women's Liberation in the USA The phrase "Women’s Liberation" was first used in the United States in 1964 and first appeared in print in 1966. . By 1968, although the term Women’s Liberation Front appeared in the magazine Ramparts, it was starting to refer to the whole women’s movement. Bra-burning also became associated with the movement, though the actual prevalence of bra-burning is debatable. One of the most vocal critics of the women's liberation movement has been the African American feminist and intellectual Gloria Jean Watkins (who uses the pseudonym "bell hooks") who argues that this movement glossed over race and class and thus failed to address "the issues that divided women." She highlighted the lack of minority voices in the women's movement in her book Feminist theory from margin to center (1984). The Feminine Mystique Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique (1963) criticized the idea that women could only find fulfillment through childrearing and homemaking. According to Friedan's obituary in the The New York Times, The Feminine Mystique “ignited the contemporary women's movement in 1963 and as a result permanently transformed the social fabric of the United States and countries around the world” and “is widely regarded as one of the most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century.” In the book Friedan hypothesizes that women are victims of a false belief system that requires them to find identity and meaning in their lives through their husbands and children. Such a system causes women to completely lose their identity in that of their family. Friedan specifically locates this system among post-World War II middle-class suburban communities. At the same time, America's post-war economic boom had led to the development of new technologies that were supposed to make household work less difficult, but that often had the result of making women's work less meaningful and valuable. Third wave Third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s, arising as a response to perceived failures of the second wave and also as a response to the backlash against initiatives and movements created by the second wave. Third-wave feminism seeks to challenge or avoid what it deems the second wave's essentialist definitions of femininity, which (according to them) over-emphasize the experiences of upper middle-class white women. A post-structuralist interpretation of gender and sexuality is central to much of the third wave's ideology. Third-wave feminists often focus on "micro-politics" and challenge the second wave's paradigm as to what is, or is not, good for females. The third wave has its origins in the mid-1980s. Feminist leaders rooted in the second wave like Gloria Anzaldua, bell hooks, Chela Sandoval, Cherrie Moraga, Audre Lorde, Maxine Hong Kingston, and many other black feminists, sought to negotiate a space within feminist thought for consideration of race-related subjectivities. Third-wave feminism also contains internal debates between difference feminists such as the psychologist Carol Gilligan (who believes that there are important differences between the sexes) and those who believe that there are no inherent differences between the sexes and contend that gender roles are due to social conditioning. Post-feminismPost-feminism describes a range of viewpoints reacting to feminism. While not being "anti-feminist," post-feminists believe that women have achieved second wave goals while being critical of third wave feminist goals. The term was first used in the 1980s to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism. It is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to the second wave's ideas. Other post-feminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to today's society. Amelia Jones wrote that the post-feminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity and criticized it using generalizations.<ref> Jones, Amelia. “Postfeminism, Feminist Pleasures, and Embodied Theories of Art,” in New Feminist Criticism: Art, Identity, Action',' ed. by Joana Frueh, Cassandra L. Langer and Arlene Raven. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. 16-41, 20.</ref> One of the earliest uses of the term was in Susan Bolotin's 1982 article "Voices of the Post-Feminist Generation," published in New York Times Magazine. This article was based on a number of interviews with women who largely agreed with the goals of feminism, but did not identify as feminists. Some contemporary feminists, such as Katha Pollitt or Nadine Strossen, consider feminism to hold simply that "women are people". Views that separate the sexes rather than unite them are considered by these writers to be sexist rather than feminist'.' In her book Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women, Susan Faludi argues that a backlash against second wave feminism in the 1980s has successfully re-defined feminism through its terms. She argues that it constructed the women's liberation movement as the source of many of the problems alleged to be plaguing women in the late 1980s. She also argues that many of these problems are illusory, constructed by the media without reliable evidence. According to her, this type of backlash is a historical trend, recurring when it appears that women have made substantial gains in their efforts to obtain equal rights. Angela McRobbie argues that adding the prefix post to feminism undermines the strides that feminism has made in achieving equality for everyone, including women. Post-feminism gives the impression that equality has been achieved and that feminists can now focus on something else entirely. McRobbie believes that post-feminism is most clearly seen on so-called feminist media products, such as Bridget Jones's Diary, Sex and the City, and Ally McBeal. Female characters like Bridget Jones and Carrie Bradshaw claim to be liberated and clearly enjoy their sexuality, but what they are constantly searching for is the one man who will make everything worthwhile. McRobbie, Angela (2004). Post-feminism and popular culture. Feminist Media Studies, 4:3,255 — 264. French feminism French feminism refers to a branch of feminist thought from a group of feminists in France from the 1970s to the 1990s. French feminism, compared to Anglophone feminism, is distinguished by an approach which is more philosophical and literary. Its writings tend to be effusive and metaphorical, being less concerned with political doctrine and generally focused on theories of "the body." The term includes writers who are not French, but who have worked substantially in France and the French tradition such as Julia Kristeva and Bracha Ettinger. The French author and philosopher Simone de Beauvoir wrote novels; monographs on philosophy, politics, and social issues; essays; biographies; and an autobiography. She is now best known for her metaphysical novels, including She Came to Stay and The Mandarins, and for her 1949 treatise The Second Sex, a detailed analysis of women's oppression and a foundational tract of contemporary feminism. It sets out a feminist existentialism which prescribes a moral revolution. As an existentialist, she accepted Jean-Paul Sartre's precept existence precedes essence; hence "one is not born a woman, but becomes one." Her analysis focuses on the social construction of Woman as the Other. This de Beauvoir identifies as fundamental to women's oppression. She argues women have historically been considered deviant and abnormal and contends that even Mary Wollstonecraft considered men to be the ideal toward which women should aspire. De Beauvoir argues that for feminism to move forward, this attitude must be set aside. In the 1970s French feminists approached feminism with the concept of écriture féminine, which translates as female, or feminine writing. Helene Cixous argues that writing and philosophy are phallocentric and along with other French feminists such as Luce Irigaray emphasizes "writing from the body" as a subversive exercise. The work of the feminist psychoanalyst and philosopher, Julia Kristeva, has influenced feminist theory in general and feminist literary criticism in particular. From the 1980s onwards the work of artist and psychoanalyst Bracha Ettinger has influenced literary criticism, art history and film theory. Vanda Zajko and Miriam Leonard (eds.), 'Laughing with Medusa'. Oxford University Press, 2006. 87-117. ISBN0-19-927438-X. Carol Armstrong and Catherine de Zegher, 'Women Artists as the Millennium'. Cambridge Massachusetts: October Books, MIT Press, 2006. 35-83. ISBN 978-0-262-01226-3. However, as the scholar Elizabeth Wright pointed out, "none of these French feminists align themselves with the feminist movement as it appeared in the Anglophone world." Theoretical schools Feminist theory is an extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical fields. It encompasses work in a variety of disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, economics, women's studies, literary criticism, art history, Griselda Pollock, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive. Routledge, 2007. psychoanalysis and philosophy. Brabeck, M. and Brown, L. (With Christian, L., Espin, O., Hare-Mustin, R., Kaplan, A., Kaschak, E., Miller, D., Phillips, E., Ferns, T., and Van Ormer, A.). (1997). Feminist theory and psychological practice. In J. Worell and N. Johnson (Eds.) Shaping the future of feminist psychology: Education, research, and practice) (pp.15-35). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Feminist theory aims to understand gender inequality and focuses on gender politics, power relations and sexuality. While providing a critique of these social and political relations, much of feminist theory focuses on the promotion of women's rights and interests. Themes explored in feminist theory include discrimination, stereotyping, objectification (especially sexual objectification), oppression and patriarchy. (1977) The American literary critic and feminist Elaine Showalter describes the phased development of feminist theory. The first she calls "feminist critique," in which the feminist reader examines the ideologies behind literary phenomena. The second Showalter calls "gynocriticism," in which the "woman is producer of textual meaning" including "the psychodynamics of female creativity; linguistics and the problem of a female language; the trajectory of the individual or collective female literary career and literary history." The last phase she calls "gender theory," in which the "ideological inscription and the literary effects of the sex/gender system" are explored. The scholar Toril Moi criticized this model, seeing it as an essentialist and deterministic model for female subjectivity that fails to account for the situation of women outside the West. Movements and ideologies Several submovements of feminist ideology have developed over the years; some of the major subtypes are listed below. These movements often overlap, and some feminists identify themselves with several types of feminist thought. Socialist and Marxist feminisms Clara Zetkin and Rosa Luxemburg, 1910. Socialist feminism connects the oppression of women to Marxist ideas about exploitation, oppression and labor. Socialist feminists think unequal standing in both the workplace and the domestic sphere holds women down. Socialist feminists see prostitution, domestic work, childcare and marriage as ways in which women are exploited by a patriarchal system that devalues women and the substantial work they do. Socialist feminists focus their energies on broad change that affects society as a whole, rather than on an individual basis. They see the need to work alongside not just men, but all other groups, as they see the oppression of women as a part of a larger pattern that affects everyone involved in the capitalist system. Ehrenreich, Barbara. "What is Socialist Feminism" WIN Magazine, 1976. Marx felt when class oppression was overcome, gender oppression would vanish as well. Marx, Karl, Capital translated by B. Fowkes (Penguin Classics, 1990), ISBN 9780140445688. According to some socialist feminists, this view of gender oppression as a sub-class of class oppression is naive and much of the work of socialist feminists has gone towards separating gender phenomena from class phenomena. Some contributors to socialist feminism have criticized these traditional Marxist ideas for being largely silent on gender oppression except to subsume it underneath broader class oppression. Other socialist feminists, many of whom belong to Radical Women and the Freedom Socialist Party, two long-lived American organizations, point to the classic Marxist writings of Frederick Engels and August Bebel as a powerful explanation of the link between gender oppression and class exploitation. In the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century both Clara Zetkin and Eleanor Marx were against the demonization of men and supported a proletarian revolution that would overcome as many male-female inequalities as possible. As their movement already had the most radical demands of women's equality, most Marxist leaders, including Clara Zetkin Zetkin, Clara On a Bourgeois Feminist Petition 1895. Zetkin, Clara Lenin on the Women’s Question. and Alexandra Kollontai, Kollontai, Alexandra The Social Basis of the Woman Question 1909. Kollontai, Alexandra Women Workers Struggle For Their Rights 1919. counterposed Marxism against feminism, rather than trying to combine them. Radical feminism Radical feminism considers the male controlled capitalist hierarchy, which it describes as sexist, as the defining feature of women’s oppression. Radical feminists believe that women can free themselves only when they have done away with what they consider an inherently oppressive and dominating patriarchal system. Radical feminists feel that there is a male-based authority and power structure and that it is responsible for oppression and inequality, and that as long as the system and its values are in place, society will not be able to be reformed in any significant way. Some radical feminists see no alternatives other than the total uprooting and reconstruction of society in order to achieve their goals. Over time a number of sub-types of Radical feminism have emerged, such as Cultural feminism, Separatist feminism and Anti-pornography feminism. Cultural feminism is the ideology of a "female nature" or "female essence" that attempts to revalidate what they consider undervalued female attributes. It emphasizes the difference between women and men but considers that difference to be psychological, and to be culturally constructed rather than biologically innate. Its critics assert that because it is based on an essentialist view of the differences between women and men and advocates independence and institution building, it has led feminists to retreat from politics to “life-style” Once such critic, Alice Echols (a feminist historian and cultural theorist), credits Redstockings member Brooke Williams with introducing the term cultural feminism in 1975 to describe the depoliticisation of radical feminism. Separatist feminism is a form of radical feminism that does not support heterosexual relationships. Its proponents argue that the sexual disparities between men and women are unresolvable. Separatist feminists generally do not feel that men can make positive contributions to the feminist movement and that even well-intentioned men replicate patriarchal dynamics. Author Marilyn Frye describes separatist feminism as "separation of various sorts or modes from men and from institutions, relationships, roles and activities that are male-defined, male-dominated, and operating for the benefit of males and the maintenance of male privilege this separation being initiated or maintained, at will, by women". Liberal feminism Betty Friedan in 1960 Liberal feminism asserts the equality of men and women through political and legal reform. It is an individualistic form of feminism, which focuses on women’s ability to show and maintain their equality through their own actions and choices. Liberal feminism uses the personal interactions between men and women as the place from which to transform society. According to liberal feminists, all women are capable of asserting their ability to achieve equality, therefore it is possible for change to happen without altering the structure of society. Issues important to liberal feminists include reproductive and abortion rights, sexual harassment, voting, education, "equal pay for equal work", affordable childcare, affordable health care, and bringing to light the frequency of sexual and domestic violence against women. hooks, bell. "Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center" Cambridge, MA: South End Press 1984. Black feminism Angela Davis speaking at the University of Alberta on 28 March 2006 Black feminism argues that sexism, class oppression, and racism are inextricably bound together. Forms of feminism that strive to overcome sexism and class oppression but ignore race can discriminate against many people, including women, through racial bias. The Combahee River Collective argued in 1974 that the liberation of black women entails freedom for all people, since it would require the end of racism, sexism, and class oppression. One of the theories that evolved out of this movement was Alice Walker's Womanism. It emerged after the early feminist movements that were led specifically by white women who advocated social changes such as woman’s suffrage. These movements were largely white middle-class movements and had generally ignored oppression based on racism and classism. Alice Walker and other Womanists pointed out that black women experienced a different and more intense kind of oppression from that of white women. Angela Davis was one of the first people who articulated an argument centered around the intersection of race, gender, and class in her book, Women, Race, and Class. Kimberle Crenshaw, a prominent feminist law theorist, gave the idea the name Intersectionality while discussing identity politics in her essay, "Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics and Violence Against Women of Color". Postcolonial feminism and third-world feminism Postcolonial feminists argue that oppression relating to the colonial experience, particularly racial, class, and ethnic oppression, has marginalized women in postcolonial societies. They challenge the assumption that gender oppression is the primary force of patriarchy. Postcolonial feminists object to portrayals of women of non-Western societies as passive and voiceless victims and the portrayal of Western women as modern, educated and empowered. Postcolonial feminism emerged from the gendered history of colonialism: colonial powers often imposed Western norms on colonized regions. In the 1940s and 1950s, after the formation of the United Nations, former colonies were monitored by the West for what was considered "social progress". The status of women in the developing world has been monitored by organizations such as the United Nations and as a result traditional practices and roles taken up by women—sometimes seen as distasteful by Western standards—could be considered a form of rebellion against colonial oppression. Postcolonial feminists today struggle to fight gender oppression within their own cultural models of society rather than through those imposed by the Western colonizers. Taslima Nasrin: author, physician, and feminist human rights activist Postcolonial feminism is critical of Western forms of feminism, notably radical feminism and liberal feminism and their universalization of female experience. Postcolonial feminists argue that cultures impacted by colonialism are often vastly different and should be treated as such. Colonial oppression may result in the glorification of pre-colonial culture, which, in cultures with traditions of power stratification along gender lines, could mean the acceptance of, or refusal to deal with, inherent issues of gender inequality. Greenwald, A: "Postcolonial Feminism in Anthills of the Savannah", 2002. Postcolonial feminists can be described as feminists who have reacted against both universalizing tendencies in Western feminist thought and a lack of attention to gender issues in mainstream postcolonial thought. Mills, S (1998): "Postcolonial Feminist Theory" page 98 in S. Jackson and J. Jones eds., Contemporary Feminist Theories (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press) pp. 98-112. Third-world feminism has been described as a group of feminist theories developed by feminists who acquired their views and took part in feminist politics in so-called third-world countries. Although women from the third world have been engaged in the feminist movement, Chandra Talpade Mohanty and Sarojini Sahoo criticize Western feminism on the grounds that it is ethnocentric and does not take into account the unique experiences of women from third-world countries or the existence of feminisms indigenous to third-world countries. According to Chandra Talpade Mohanty, women in the third world feel that Western feminism bases its understanding of women on "internal racism, classism and homophobia". This discourse is strongly related to African feminism and postcolonial feminism. Its development is also associated with concepts such as black feminism, womanism, "Africana womanism", "motherism", "Stiwanism", ) "negofeminism", chicana feminism, and "femalism". Multiracial feminism Multiracial feminism (also known as “women of color” feminism) offers a standpoint theory and analysis of the lives and experiences of women of color. The theory emerged in the 1990s and was developed by Dr. Maxine Baca Zinn, a Chicana feminist and Dr. Bonnie Thornton Dill, a sociology expert on African American women and family. Libertarian feminism According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "Classical liberal or libertarian feminism conceives of freedom as freedom from coercive interference. It holds that women, as well as men, have a right to such freedom due to their status as self-owners." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. There are several categories under the theory of libertarian feminism, or kinds of feminism that are linked to libertarian ideologies. Anarcha-feminism (also called anarchist feminism or anarcho-feminism) combines feminist and anarchist beliefs, embodying classical libertarianism rather than contemporary conservative libertarianism. Anarcha-feminists view patriarchy as a manifestation of hierarchy, believing that the fight against patriarchy is an essential part of the class struggle and the anarchist struggle against the state. Anarcha-feminists such as Susan Brown see the anarchist struggle as a necessary component of the feminist struggle. In Brown's words, "anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist". Recently, Wendy McElroy has defined a position (which she labels "ifeminism" or "individualist feminism") that combines feminism with anarcho-capitalism or contemporary conservative libertarianism, arguing that a pro-capitalist, anti-state position is compatible with an emphasis on equal rights and empowerment for women. Individualist anarchist-feminism has grown from the US-based individualist anarchism movement. Individualist feminism is typically defined as a feminism in opposition to what writers such as Wendy McElroy and Christina Hoff Sommers term, political or gender feminism. However, there are some differences within the discussion of individualist feminism. While some individualist feminists like McElroy oppose government interference into the choices women make with their bodies because such interference creates a coercive hierarchy (such as patriarchy), other feminists such as Christina Hoff Sommers hold that feminism's political role is simply to ensure that everyone's, including women's, right against coercive interference is respected. Sommers is described as a "socially conservative equity feminist" by the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Critics have called her an anti-feminist Female Anti-Feminism for Fame and Profit by Jennifer Pozner. Post-structural and postmodern feminismPost-structural feminism, also referred to as French feminism, uses the insights of various epistemological movements, including psychoanalysis, linguistics, political theory (Marxist and post-Marxist theory), race theory, literary theory, and other intellectual currents for feminist concerns. Many post-structural feminists maintain that difference is one of the most powerful tools that females possess in their struggle with patriarchal domination, and that to equate the feminist movement only with equality is to deny women a plethora of options because equality is still defined from the masculine or patriarchal perspective. Judith Butler at a lecture at the University of Hamburg.Postmodern feminism is an approach to feminist theory that incorporates postmodern and post-structuralist theory. The largest departure from other branches of feminism is the argument that gender is constructed through language. The most notable proponent of this argument is Judith Butler. In her 1990 book, Gender Trouble, she draws on and critiques the work of Simone de Beauvoir, Michel Foucault and Jacques Lacan. Butler criticizes the distinction drawn by previous feminisms between biological sex and socially constructed gender. She says that this does not allow for a sufficient criticism of essentialism. For Butler "woman" is a debatable category, complicated by class, ethnicity, sexuality, and other facets of identity. She states that gender is performative. This argument leads to the conclusion that there is no single cause for women's subordination and no single approach towards dealing with the issue. Donna Haraway, author of A Cyborg Manifesto, with her dog Cayenne. In A Cyborg Manifesto Donna Haraway criticizes traditional notions of feminism, particularly its emphasis on identity, rather than affinity. She uses the metaphor of a cyborg in order to construct a postmodern feminism that moves beyond dualisms and the limitations of traditional gender, feminism, and politics. Haraway's cyborg is an attempt to break away from Oedipal narratives and Christian origin-myths like Genesis. She writes: "The cyborg does not dream of community on the model of the organic family, this time without the oedipal project. The cyborg would not recognize the Garden of Eden; it is not made of mud and cannot dream of returning to dust." A major branch in postmodern feminist thought has emerged from the contemporary psychoanalytic French feminism. Other postmodern feminist works highlight stereotypical gender roles, only to portray them as parodies of the original beliefs. The history of feminism is not important in these writings—only what is going to be done about it. The history is dismissed and used to depict how ridiculous past beliefs were. Modern feminist theory has been extensively criticized as being predominantly, though not exclusively, associated with Western middle class academia. Mary Joe Frug, a postmodernist feminist, criticized mainstream feminism as being too narrowly focused and inattentive to related issues of race and class. Ecofeminism Janet Biehl is one of the premier authors on social ecology Ecofeminism links ecology with feminism. Ecofeminists see the domination of women as stemming from the same ideologies that bring about the domination of the environment. Patriarchal systems, where men own and control the land, are seen as responsible for the oppression of women and destruction of the natural environment. Ecofeminists argue that the men in power control the land, and therefore they are able to exploit it for their own profit and success. Ecofeminists argue that in this situation, women are exploited by men in power for their own profit, success, and pleasure. Ecofeminists argue that women and the environment are both exploited as passive pawns in the race to domination. Ecofeminists argue that those people in power are able to take advantage of them distinctly because they are seen as passive and rather helpless. Ecofeminism connects the exploitation and domination of women with that of the environment. As a way of repairing social and ecological injustices, ecofeminists feel that women must work towards creating a healthy environment and ending the destruction of the lands that most women rely on to provide for their families. Ecofeminism argues that there is a connection between women and nature that comes from their shared history of oppression by a patriarchal Western society. Vandana Shiva claims that women have a special connection to the environment through their daily interactions with it that has been ignored. She says that "women in subsistence economies, producing and reproducing wealth in partnership with nature, have been experts in their own right of holistic and ecological knowledge of nature’s processes. But these alternative modes of knowing, which are oriented to the social benefits and sustenance needs are not recognized by the capitalist reductionist paradigm, because it fails to perceive the interconnectedness of nature, or the connection of women’s lives, work and knowledge with the creation of wealth.” However, feminist and social ecologist Janet Biehl has criticized ecofeminism for focusing too much on a mystical connection between women and nature and not enough on the actual conditions of women. Society Woman Suffrage Headquarters, Cleveland, 1912 The feminist movement has effected change in Western society, including women's suffrage; greater access to education; more nearly equitable pay with men; the right to initiate divorce proceedings and "no fault" divorce; and the right of women to make individual decisions regarding pregnancy (including access to contraceptives and abortion); and the right to own property. Civil rights From the 1960s on the women's liberation movement campaigned for women's rights, including the same pay as men, equal rights in law, and the freedom to plan their families. Their efforts were met with mixed results. Issues commonly associated with notions of women's rights include, though are not limited to: the right to bodily integrity and autonomy; to vote (universal suffrage); to hold public office; to work; to fair wages or equal pay; to own property; to education; to serve in the military; to enter into legal contracts; and to have marital, parental and religious rights. In the UK a public groundswell of opinion in favour of legal equality gained pace, partly through the extensive employment of women in men's traditional roles during both world wars. By the 1960s the legislative process was being readied, tracing through MP Willie Hamilton's select committee report, his Equal Pay For Equal Work Bill, the creation of a Sex Discrimination Board, Lady Sear's draft sex anti-discrimination bill, a government Green Paper of 1973, until 1975 when the first British Sex Discrimination Act, an Equal Pay Act, and an Equal Opportunities Commission came into force. The Guardian, 29 December 1975. The Times, 29 December 29 1975 "Sex discrimination in advertising banned". With encouragement from the UK government, the other countries of the EEC soon followed suit with an agreement to ensure that discrimination laws would be phased out across the European Community. In the USA, the US National Organization for Women (NOW) was created in 1966 with the purpose of bringing about equality for all women. NOW was one important group that fought for the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). This amendment stated that “equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of sex.” But there was disagreement on how the proposed amendment would be understood. Supporters believed it would guarantee women equal treatment. But critics feared it might deny women the right be financially supported by their husbands. The amendment died in 1982 because not enough states had ratified it. ERAs have been included in subsequent Congresses, but have still failed to be ratified. In the final three decades of the 20th century, Western women knew a new freedom through birth control, which enabled women to plan their adult lives, often making way for both career and family. The movement had been started in the 1910s by US pioneering social reformer Margaret Sanger and in the UK and internationally by Marie Stopes. The United Nations Human Development Report 2004 estimated that when both paid employment and unpaid household tasks are accounted for, on average women work more than men. In rural areas of selected developing countries women performed an average of 20% more work than men, or an additional 102 minutes per day. In the OECD countries surveyed, on average women performed 5% more work than men, or 20 minutes per day. At the UN's Pan Pacific Southeast Asia Women's Association 21st International Conference in 2001 it was stated that "in the world as a whole, women comprise 51% of the population, do 66% of the work, receive 10% of the income and own less than one percent of the property". Language Gender-neutral language is a description of language usages which are aimed at minimizing assumptions regarding the biological sex of human referents. The advocacy of gender-neutral language reflects, at least, two different agendas: one aims to clarify the inclusion of both sexes or genders (gender-inclusive language); the other proposes that gender, as a category, is rarely worth marking in language (gender-neutral language). Gender-neutral language is sometimes described as non-sexist language by advocates and politically-correct language by opponents. Heterosexual relationships The increased entry of women into the workplace beginning in the twentieth century has affected gender roles and the division of labor within households. Sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild in The Second Shift and The Time Bind presents evidence that in two-career couples, men and women, on average, spend about equal amounts of time working, but women still spend more time on housework. Feminist writer Cathy Young responds to Hochschild's assertions by arguing that in some cases, women may prevent the equal participation of men in housework and parenting. Feminist criticisms of men's contributions to child care and domestic labor in the Western middle class are typically centered around the idea that it is unfair for women to be expected to perform more than half of a household's domestic work and child care when both members of the relationship also work outside the home. Several studies provide statistical evidence that the financial income of married men does not affect their rate of attending to household duties. In Dubious Conceptions, Kristin Luker discusses the effect of feminism on teenage women's choices to bear children, both in and out of wedlock. She says that as childbearing out of wedlock has become more socially acceptable, young women, especially poor young women, while not bearing children at a higher rate than in the 1950s, now see less of a reason to get married before having a child. Her explanation for this is that the economic prospects for poor men are slim, hence poor women have a low chance of finding a husband who will be able to provide reliable financial support. Although research suggests that to an extent, both women and men perceive feminism to be in conflict with romance, studies of undergraduates and older adults have shown that feminism has positive impacts on relationship health for women and sexual satisfaction for men, and found no support for negative stereotypes of feminists. Religion Feminist theology is a movement that reconsiders the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of religions from a feminist perspective. Some of the goals of feminist theology include increasing the role of women among the clergy and religious authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and language about God, determining women's place in relation to career and motherhood, and studying images of women in the religion's sacred texts. Christian feminism is a branch of feminist theology which seeks to interpret and understand Christianity in light of the equality of women and men. Because this equality has been historically ignored, Christian feminists believe their contributions are necessary for a complete understanding of Christianity. While there is no standard set of beliefs among Christian feminists, most agree that God does not discriminate on the basis of biologically-determined characteristics such as sex. Their major issues are the ordination of women, male dominance in Christian marriage, and claims of moral deficiency and inferiority of abilities of women compared to men. They also are concerned with the balance of parenting between mothers and fathers and the overall treatment of women in the church. Islamic feminism is concerned with the role of women in Islam and aims for the full equality of all Muslims, regardless of gender, in public and private life. Islamic feminists advocate women's rights, gender equality, and social justice grounded in an Islamic framework. Although rooted in Islam, the movement's pioneers have also utilized secular and Western feminist discourses and recognize the role of Islamic feminism as part of an integrated global feminist movement. Advocates of the movement seek to highlight the deeply rooted teachings of equality in the Quran and encourage a questioning of the patriarchal interpretation of Islamic teaching through the Quran, hadith (sayings of Muhammad), and sharia (law) towards the creation of a more equal and just society. Jewish feminism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious, legal, and social status of women within Judaism and to open up new opportunities for religious experience and leadership for Jewish women. Feminist movements, with varying approaches and successes, have opened up within all major branches of Judaism. In its modern form, the movement can be traced to the early 1970s in the United States. According to Judith Plaskow, who has focused on feminism in Reform Judaism, the main issues for early Jewish feminists in these movements were the exclusion from the all-male prayer group or minyan, the exemption from positive time-bound mitzvot, and women's inability to function as witnesses and to initiate divorce. The Dianic Wicca or Wiccan feminism is a female focused, Goddess-centered Wiccan sect; also known as a feminist religion that teaches witchcraft as every woman’s right. It is also one sect of the many practiced in Wicca. Architecture Gender-based inquiries into and conceptualization of architecture have also come about in the past fifteen years or so. Piyush Mathur coined the term "archigenderic" in his 1998 article in the British journal Women's Writing. Claiming that "architectural planning has an inextricable link with the defining and regulation of gender roles, responsibilities, rights, and limitations," Mathur came up with that term "to explore...the meaning of 'architecture" in terms of gender" and "to explore the meaning of "gender" in terms of architecture" (p. 71). Culture Women's writing Virginia Woolf Women's writing came to exist as a separate category of scholarly interest relatively recently. In the West, second-wave feminism prompted a general reevaluation of women's historical contributions, and various academic sub-disciplines, such as Women's history (or herstory) and women's writing, developed in response to the belief that women's lives and contributions have been underrepresented as areas of scholarly interest. Virginia Balisn et al. characterize the growth in interest since 1970 in women's writing as "powerful". Much of this early period of feminist literary scholarship was given over to the rediscovery and reclamation of texts written by women. Studies such as Dale Spender's Mothers of the Novel (1986) and Jane Spencer's The Rise of the Woman Novelist (1986) were ground-breaking in their insistence that women have always been writing. Commensurate with this growth in scholarly interest, various presses began the task of reissuing long-out-of-print texts. Virago Press began to publish its large list of nineteenth and early-twentieth-century novels in 1975 and became one of the first commercial presses to join in the project of reclamation. In the 1980s Pandora Press, responsible for publishing Spender's study, issued a companion line of eighteenth-century novels written by women. Sandra M. Gilbert, "Paperbacks: From Our Mothers' Libraries: women who created the novel." New York Times, May 4, 1986. More recently, Broadview Press has begun to issue eighteenth- and nineteenth-century works, many hitherto out of print and the University of Kentucky has a series of republications of early women's novels. There has been commensurate growth in the area of biographical dictionaries of women writers due to a perception, according to one editor, that "most of our women are not represented in the 'standard' reference books in the field". Another early pioneer of Feminist writing is Charlotte Perkins Gilman, whose most notable work was The Yellow Wallpaper. Full Text of The Yellow Wallpaper, retrieved January 22, 2008. Feminist science fiction In the 1960s the genre of science fiction combined its sensationalism with political and technological critiques of society. With the advent of feminism, questioning women’s roles became fair game to this "subversive, mind expanding genre". Two early texts are Ursula K. Le Guin's The Left Hand of Darkness (1969) and Joanna Russ' The Female Man (1970). They serve to highlight the socially constructed nature of gender roles by creating utopias that do away with gender. Elyce Rae Helford, in Westfahl, Gary. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Greenwood Press, 2005: 290. Both authors were also pioneers in feminist criticism of science fiction in the 1960s and 70s, in essays collected in The Language of the Night (Le Guin, 1979) and How To Suppress Women's Writing (Russ, 1983). Another major work of feminist science fiction has been Sturgis, Susanna. Octavia E. Butler: June 22, 1947–February 24, 2006: The Women's Review of Books, 23(3): 19 May 2006. Kindred by Octavia Butler. Riot grrrl movement Kathleen Hanna was the lead singer of Bikini Kill, a riot grrrl music band formed in 1990. Riot grrrl (or riot grrl) is an underground feminist punk movement that started in the 1990s and is often associated with third-wave feminism (it is sometimes seen as its starting point). It was Grounded in the DIY philosophy of punk values. Riot grrls took an anti-corporate stance of self-sufficiency and self-reliance. Riot grrrl's emphasis on universal female identity and separatism often appears more closely allied with second-wave feminism than with the third wave. Riot grrrl bands often address issues such as rape, domestic abuse, sexuality, and female empowerment. Some bands associated with the movement are: Bikini Kill, Bratmobile, Excuse 17, Free Kitten, Heavens To Betsy, Huggy Bear, L7, and Team Dresch. In addition to a music scene, riot grrrl is also a subculture; zines, the DIY ethic, art, political action, and activism are part of the movement. Riot grrrls hold meetings, start chapters, and support and organize women in music. The riot grrrl movement sprang out of Olympia, Washington and Washington, D.C. in the early 1990s. It sought to give women the power to control their voices and artistic expressions. Riot grrrls took a growling double or triple r, placing it in the word girl as a way to take back the derogatory use of the term . The Riot Grrrl’s links to social and political issues are where the beginnings of third-wave feminism can be seen. The music and zine writings are strong examples of "cultural politics in action, with strong women giving voice to important social issues though an empowered, a female oriented community, many people link the emergence of the third-wave feminism to this time". The movement encouraged and made "adolescent girls’ standpoints central," allowing them to express themselves fully. Pornography The "Feminist Sex Wars" is a term for the acrimonious debates within the feminist movement in the late 1970s through the 1980s around the issues of feminism, sexuality, sexual representation, pornography, sadomasochism, the role of transwomen in the lesbian community, and other sexual issues. The debate pitted anti-pornography feminism against sex-positive feminism, and parts of the feminist movement were deeply divided by these debates. Anti-pornography movement Anti-pornography feminists, such as Catharine MacKinnon, Andrea Dworkin, Robin Morgan and Dorchen Leidholdt, put pornography at the center of a feminist explanation of women's oppression. Some feminists, such as Diana Russell, Andrea Dworkin, Catharine MacKinnon, Susan Brownmiller, Dorchen Leidholdt, Ariel Levy, and Robin Morgan, argue that pornography is degrading to women, and complicit in violence against women both in its production (where, they charge, abuse and exploitation of women performing in pornography is rampant) and in its consumption (where, they charge, pornography eroticizes the domination, humiliation, and coercion of women, and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in rape and sexual harassment). Beginning in the late 1970s, anti-pornography radical feminists formed organizations such as Women Against Pornography that provided educational events, including slide-shows, speeches, and guided tours of the sex industry in Times Square, in order to raise awareness of the content of pornography and the sexual subculture in pornography shops and live sex shows. Andrea Dworkin and Robin Morgan began articulating a vehemently anti-porn stance based in radical feminism beginning in 1974, and anti-porn feminist groups, such as Women Against Pornography and similar organizations, became highly active in various US cities during the late 1970s. Sex-positive movement Sex-positive feminism is a movement that was formed in order to address issues of women's sexual pleasure, freedom of expression, sex work, and inclusive gender identities. Ellen Willis' 1981 essay, "Lust Horizons: Is the Women's Movement Pro-Sex?" is the origin of the term, "pro-sex feminism"; the more commonly-used variant, "sex positive feminism" arose soon after. Although some sex-positive feminists, such as Betty Dodson, were active in the early 1970s, much of sex-positive feminism largely began in the late 1970s and 1980s as a response to the increasing emphasis in radical feminism on anti-pornography activism. Sex-positive feminists are also strongly opposed to radical feminist calls for legislation against pornography, a strategy they decried as censorship, and something that could, they argued, be used by social conservatives to censor the sexual expression of women, gay people, and other sexual minorities. The initial period of intense debate and acrimony between sex-positive and anti-pornography feminists during the early 1980s is often referred to as the Feminist Sex Wars. Other sex-positive feminists became involved not in opposition to other feminists, but in direct response to what they saw as patriarchal control of sexuality. Since the 1990s, other feminists such as Patricia Petersen, have argued that pornography may serve an important function for women - reduce the likelihood that they will be raped or victims of other forms of sex crimes. Patricia Petersen: "Pornography's legitimate place in society" Relationship to political movements Socialism Since the early twentieth century some feminists have allied with socialism. In 1907 there was an International Conference of Socialist Women in Stuttgart where suffrage was described as a tool of class struggle. Clara Zetkin of the Social Democratic Party of Germany called for women's suffrage to build a "socialist order, the only one that allows for a radical solution to the women's question". In Britain, the women's movement was allied with the Labour party. In America, Betty Friedan emerged from a radical background to take command of the organized movement. Radical Women, founded in 1967 in Seattle is the oldest (and still active) socialist feminist organization in the U.S. During the Spanish Civil War, Dolores Ibárruri (La Pasionaria) led the Communist Party of Spain. Although she supported equal rights for women, she opposed women fighting on the front and clashed with the anarcho-feminist Mujeres Libres. Revolutions in Latin America brought changes in women's status in countries such as Nicaragua where Feminist ideology during the Sandinista Revolution was largely responsible for improvements in the quality of life for women but fell short of achieving a social and ideological change. Fascism Scholars have argued that Nazi Germany and the other fascist states of the 1930s and 1940s illustrates the disastrous consequences for society of a state ideology that, in glorifying women, becomes anti-feminist. In Germany after the rise of Nazism in 1933, there was a rapid dissolution of the political rights and economic opportunities that feminists had fought for during the prewar period and to some extent during the 1920s. In Franco's Spain, the right wing Catholic conservatives undid the work of feminists during the Republic. Fascist society was hierarchical with an emphasis and idealization of virility, with women maintaining a largely subordinate position to men. Scientific discourse Some feminists are critical of traditional scientific discourse, arguing that the field has historically been biased towards a masculine perspective. Evelyn Fox Keller argues that the rhetoric of science reflects a masculine perspective, and she questions the idea of scientific objectivity. Many feminist scholars rely on qualitative research methods that emphasize women’s subjective, individual experiences. According to communication scholars Thomas R. Lindlof and Bryan C. Taylor, incorporating a feminist approach to qualitative research involves treating research participants as equals who are just as much an authority as the researcher. Objectivity is eschewed in favor of open self-reflexivity and the agenda of helping women. Also part of the feminist research agenda is uncovering ways that power inequities are created and/or reinforced in society and/or in scientific and academic institutions. Lindlof and Taylor also explain that a feminist approach to research often involves nontraditional forms of presentation. . Primatologist Sarah Blaffer Hrdy notes the prevalence of masculine-coined stereotypes and theories, such as the non-sexual female, despite "the accumulation of abundant openly available evidence contradicting it". Some natural and social scientists have examined feminist ideas using scientific methods. Biology of gender Modern feminist science is based on the view that many differences between the sexes are based on socially constructed gender identities rather than on biological sex differences. For example, Anne Fausto-Sterling's book Myths of Gender explores the assumptions embodied in scientific research that purports to support a biologically essentialist view of gender. Her second book, Sexing the Body discussed the alleged possibility of more than two true biological sexes. This possibility only exists in yet-unknown extraterrestrial biospheres, as no ratios of true gametes to polar cells other than 4:0 and 1:3 (male and female, respectively) are produced on Earth. However, in The Female Brain, Louann Brizendine argues that brain differences between the sexes are a biological reality with significant implications for sex-specific functional differences. Steven Rhoads' book Taking Sex Differences Seriously illustrates sex-dependent differences across a wide scope. Carol Tavris, in The Mismeasure of Woman, uses psychology and sociology to critique theories that use biological reductionism to explain differences between men and women. She argues rather than using evidence of innate gender difference there is an over-changing hypothesis to justify inequality and perpetuate stereotypes. Evolutionary biology Sarah Kember—drawing from numerous areas such as evolutionary biology, sociobiology, artificial intelligence, and cybernetics in development with a new evolutionism—discusses the biologization of technology. She notes how feminists and sociologists have become suspect of evolutionary psychology, particularly inasmuch as sociobiology is subjected to complexity in order to strengthen sexual difference as immutable through pre-existing cultural value judgments about human nature and natural selection. Where feminist theory is criticized for its "false beliefs about human nature," Kember then argues in conclusion that "feminism is in the interesting position of needing to do more biology and evolutionary theory in order not to simply oppose their renewed hegemony, but in order to understand the conditions that make this possible, and to have a say in the construction of new ideas and artefacts." Men and feminism The relationship between men and feminism has been complex. Men have taken part in significant responses to feminism in each 'wave' of the movement. There have been positive and negative reactions and responses, depending on the individual man and the social context of the time. These responses have varied from pro-feminism to masculism to anti-feminism. In the twenty-first century new reactions to feminist ideologies have emerged including a generation of male scholars involved in gender studies, and also men's rights activists who promote male equality (including equal treatment in family, divorce and anti-discrimination law). Historically a number of men have engaged with feminism. Philosopher Jeremy Bentham demanded equal rights for women in the eighteenth century. In 1866, philosopher John Stuart Mill (author of "The Subjection of Women") presented a women’s petition to the British parliament; and supported an amendment to the 1867 Reform Bill. Others have lobbied and campaigned against feminism. Today, academics like Michael Flood, Michael Messner and Michael Kimmel are involved with men's studies and pro-feminism. Michael S. Kimmel, “Who’s Afraid of Men Doing Feminism?,” from Men Doing Feminism, Tom Digby, ed. New York: Routledge, 1993, 57-68. Michael S. Kimmel, “Introduction,” in Against the Tide: Pro-Feminist Men in the U.S., 1776-1990, A Documentary History. Boston: Beacon 1992, 1-51. A number of feminist writers maintain that identifying as a feminist is the strongest stand men can take in the struggle against sexism. They have argued that men should be allowed, or even be encouraged, to participate in the feminist movement. hooks, bell. Men: Comrades in Struggle, in Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center (1984). Harry Brod, “To Be a Man, or Not to be a Man That Is the Feminist Question,” in Men Doing Feminism, Tom Digby, ed. (NY: Routledge, 1993), 197-212. Other female feminists argue that men cannot be feminists simply because they are not women. They maintain that men are granted inherent privileges that prevent them from identifying with feminist struggles, thus making it impossible for them to identify with feminists. Russ Ervin Funk, “The Power of Naming: Why Men Can’t Be Feminists,” in Feminista!: The Journal of Feminist Construction 1, no. 4. Fidelma Ashe has approached the issue of male feminism by arguing that traditional feminist views of male experience and of "men doing feminism" have been monolithic. She explores the multiple political discourses and practices of pro-feminist politics, and evaluates each strand through an interrogation based upon its effect on feminist politics. Pro-feminism Pro-feminism is the support of feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the feminist movement. The term is most often used in reference to men who are actively supportive of feminism and of efforts to bring about gender equality. The activities of pro-feminist men's groups include anti-violence work with boys and young men in schools, offering sexual harassment workshops in workplaces, running community education campaigns, and counseling male perpetrators of violence. Pro-feminist men also are involved in men's health, activism against pornography including anti-pornography legislation, men's studies, and the development of gender equity curricula in schools. This work is sometimes in collaboration with feminists and women's services, such as domestic violence and rape crisis centers. Some activists of both genders will not refer to men as "feminists" at all, and will refer to all pro-feminist men as "pro-feminists". Anti-feminism Anti-feminism is opposition to feminism in some or all of its forms. Writers such as Camille Paglia, Christina Hoff Sommers, Jean Bethke Elshtain and Elizabeth Fox-Genovese have been labeled "anti-feminists" by feminists. Daphne Patai and Noretta Koertge argue that in this way the term "anti-feminist" is used to silence academic debate about feminism. Paul Nathanson and Katherine K. Young's books Spreading Misandry and Legalizing Misandry explore what they argue is feminist-inspired misandry. Christina Hoff-Sommers argues feminist misandry leads directly to misogyny by what she calls "establishment feminists" against (the majority of) women who love men in Who Stole Feminism: How Women Have Betrayed Women. "Marriage rights" advocates criticize feminists like Sheila Cronan who take the view that marriage constitutes slavery for women, and that freedom for women cannot be won without the abolition of marriage. See also Africana womanism Antifeminism Atheist Feminism Equal pay for women Equal Rights Amendment Feminist therapy Human trafficking Lactivism Lesbian feminism List of feminist literature Masculism Men's Rights Misogyny Protofeminist Radical feminism Roe V. Wade Separatist feminism Sex/gender distinction Social criticism Women's Environment & Development Organization Womanism References Notes Bibliography Flexner, Eleanor, Century of Struggle: The Woman's Rights Movement in the United States (The Belknap Press, 1996), ISBN 9780674106539 Mathur, Piyush. "The Archigenderic Territories: Mansfield Park and A Handful of Dust, Women's Writing 5:1,71-81. URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09699089800200034 External links FemINist INitiative Canadian effort at building a political party, archived at the Internet Archive National Organization for Women United States Sanctuary for Families ROKS Swedish women's organization Women's Forum Australia International Women's Day is a slide show in English'' of the Brazilian Vinna Mara Fonseca Feministing Third wave feminist blog Feminist Housewives Third wave domestic feminist site Gender Museum | Feminism |@lemmatized international:5 woman:237 day:5 rally:1 dhaka:1 bangladesh:1 organize:3 national:4 worker:2 trade:1 union:2 centre:1 march:2 feminism:164 intellectual:3 philosophical:3 political:19 discourse:7 aim:5 equal:24 right:52 legal:8 protection:2 involve:9 various:6 movement:60 theory:36 philosophy:9 concern:6 issue:21 gender:54 difference:18 advocate:7 equality:21 campaign:10 interest:6 accord:11 maggie:1 humm:1 rebecca:1 walker:4 history:15 divide:4 three:3 wave:52 first:18 nineteenth:8 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2,261 | Ordovician | The Ordovician is a geologic period and system, the second of six of the Paleozoic era, and covers the time between 488.3±1.7 to 443.7±1.5 million years ago . It follows the Cambrian period and is followed by the Silurian period. The Ordovician, named after the Welsh tribe of the Ordovices, was defined by Charles Lapworth in 1879, to resolve a dispute between followers of Adam Sedgwick and Roderick Murchison, who were placing the same rock beds in northern Wales into the Cambrian and Silurian periods respectively. Lapworth, recognizing that the fossil fauna in the disputed strata were different from those of either the Cambrian or the Silurian periods, realized that they should be placed in a period of their own. While recognition of the distinct Ordovician period was slow in the United Kingdom, other areas of the world accepted it quickly. It received international sanction in 1906, when it was adopted as an official period of the Paleozoic era by the International Geological Congress. Dating The Ordovician period started at a major extinction event called the Cambrian-Ordovician extinction events some time about 488.3 ± 1.7 Ma (million years ago), and lasted for about 44.6 million years. It ended with another major extinction event about 443.7 ± 1.5 Ma (ICS, 2004) that wiped out 60% of marine genera. Melott et al. (2006) suggested a ten-second gamma ray burst could have destroyed the ozone layer and exposed terrestrial and marine surface-dwelling life to deadly radiation, but most scientists agree that extinction events are complex with multiple causes (see below). The dates given are recent radiometric dates and vary slightly from those used in other sources. This second period of the Paleozoic era created abundant fossils and in some regions, major petroleum and gas reservoirs. The boundary chosen for the beginning both of the Ordovician period and the Tremadocian stage is highly useful. Since it correlates well with the occurrence of widespread graptolite, conodont, and trilobite species, the base of the Tremadocian allows scientists not only to relate these species to each other, but to species that occur with them in other areas as well. This makes it easier to place many more species in time relative to the beginning of the Ordovician Period. Subdivisions A number of regional terms have been used to refer to subdivisions of the Ordovician period. In 2008, the ICS erected a formal international system of subdivisions, illustrated to the right. Details on the Dapingian are available at The Ordovician Period in Britain was traditionally broken into Early (Tremadoc and Arenig), Middle (Llanvirn [subdivided into Abereiddian and Llandeilian]) and Late (Caradoc and Ashgill) epochs. The corresponding rocks of the Ordovician System are referred to as coming from the Lower, Middle, or Upper part of the column. The faunal stages (subdivisions of epochs) from youngest to oldest are: Hirnantian/Gamach (Late Ordovician: Ashgill) Rawtheyan/Richmond (Late Ordovician: Ashgill) Cautleyan/Richmond (Late Ordovician: Ashgill) Pusgillian/Maysville/Richmond (Late Ordovician: Ashgill) Trenton (Middle Ordovician: Caradoc) Onnian/Maysville/Eden (Middle Ordovician: Caradoc) Actonian/Eden (Middle Ordovician: Caradoc) Marshbrookian/Sherman (Middle Ordovician: Caradoc) Longvillian/Sherman (Middle Ordovician: Caradoc) Soundleyan/Kirkfield (Middle Ordovician: Caradoc) Harnagian/Rockland (Middle Ordovician: Caradoc) Costonian/Black River (Middle Ordovician: Caradoc) Chazy (Middle Ordovician: Llandeilo) Llandeilo (Middle Ordovician: Llandeilo) Whiterock (Middle Ordovician: Llanvirn) Llanvirn (Middle Ordovician: Llanvirn) Cassinian (Early Ordovician: Arenig) Arenig/Jefferson/Castleman (Early Ordovician: Arenig) Tremadoc/Deming/Gaconadian (Early Ordovician: Tremadoc) Biota In the Early Ordovician, trilobites were joined by many new types of organisms, including tabulate corals, strophomenid, rhynchonellid, and many new orthid brachiopods, bryozoans, planktonic graptolites and conodonts, and many types of molluscs and echinoderms, including the ophiuroids ("brittle stars") and the first sea stars. Nevertheless the trilobites remained abundant, with all the Late Cambrian orders continuing, and being joined by the new group Phacopida. The first evidence of land plants also appeared; see Evolutionary history of life. In the Middle Ordovician, the trilobite-dominated Early Ordovician communities were replaced by generally more mixed ecosystems, in which brachiopods, bryozoans, molluscs and echinoderms all flourished, tabulate corals diversified and the first rugose corals appeared; trilobites were no longer predominant. The planktonic graptolites remained diverse, with the Diplograptina making their appearance. Bioerosion became an important process, particularly in the thick calcitic skeletons of corals, bryozoans and brachiopods, and on the extensive carbonate hardgrounds which appear in abundance at this time. The earliest known armoured agnathan ("ostracoderm") vertebrate, Arandaspis, dates from the Middle Ordovician of Australia. For most of the Late Ordovician, life continued to flourish, but at and near the end of the period there were mass-extinction events that seriously affected planktonic forms like conodonts, graptolites, and some groups of trilobites (Agnostida and Pytchopariida, which completely died out, and the Asaphida which were much reduced). Brachiopods, bryozoans and echinoderms were also heavily affected, and the endocerid cephalopods died out completely, except for possible rare Silurian forms. The Ordovician-Silurian Extinction Events may have been caused by an ice age that occurred at the end of the Ordovician period as the end of the Late Ordovician was one of the coldest times in the last 600 million years of earth history. Paleogeography Sea levels were high during the Ordovician; in fact during the Tremadocian, marine transgressions worldwide were the greatest for which evidence is preserved in the rocks. During the Ordovician, the southern continents were collected into a single continent called Gondwana. Gondwana started the period in equatorial latitudes and, as the period progressed, drifted toward the South Pole. Early in the Ordovician, the continents Laurentia, Siberia, and Baltica were still independent continents (since the break-up of the supercontinent Pannotia earlier), but Baltica began to move towards Laurentia later in the period, causing the Iapetus Ocean to shrink between them. Also, Avalonia broke free from Gondwana and began to head north towards Laurentia. Rheic Ocean was formed as a result of this. Ordovician rocks are chiefly sedimentary. Because of the restricted area and low elevation of solid land, which set limits to erosion, marine sediments that make up a large part of the Ordovician system consist chiefly of limestone. Shale and sandstone are less conspicuous. A major mountain-building episode was the Taconic orogeny that was well under way in Cambrian times. By the end of the period, Gondwana had neared or approached the pole and was largely glaciated. The Ordovician was a time of calcite sea geochemistry in which low-magnesium calcite was the primary inorganic marine precipitate of calcium carbonate. Carbonate hardgrounds were thus very common, along with calcitic ooids, calcitic cements, and invertebrate faunas with dominantly calcitic skeletons. Climate The Early Ordovician climate was thought to be quite warm, at least in the tropics. As with North America and Europe, Gondwana was largely covered with shallow seas during the Ordovician. Shallow clear waters over continental shelves encouraged the growth of organisms that deposit calcium carbonates in their shells and hard parts. The Panthalassic Ocean covered much of the northern hemisphere, and other minor oceans included Proto-Tethys, Paleo-Tethys, Khanty Ocean which was closed off by the Late Ordovician, Iapetus Ocean, and the new Rheic Ocean. As the Ordovician progressed, we see evidence of glaciers on the land we now know as Africa and South America. At the time these land masses were sitting at the South Pole, and covered by ice caps. Life Fauna Artist impression of the Ordovician Sea. Though less famous than the Cambrian explosion, the Ordovician featured an adaptive radiation, the Ordovician radiation, that was no less remarkable; marine faunal genera increased fourfold, resulting in 12% of all known Phanerozoic marine fauna. The trilobite, inarticulate brachiopod, archaeocyathid, and eocrinoid faunas of the Cambrian were succeeded by those which would dominate for the rest of the Paleozoic, such as articulate brachiopods, cephalopods, and crinoids; articulate brachiopods, in particular, largely replaced trilobites in shelf communities. Their success epitomizes the greatly increased diversity of carbonate shell-secreting organisms in the Ordovician compared to the Cambrian. In North America and Europe, the Ordovician was a time of shallow continental seas rich in life. Trilobites and brachiopods in particular were rich and diverse. The first bryozoa appeared in the Ordovician as did the first coral reefs. Solitary corals date back to at least the Cambrian. Molluscs, which had also appeared during the Cambrian or the Ediacaran, became common and varied, especially bivalves, gastropods, and nautiloid cephalopods. It was long thought that the first true vertebrates (fish — Ostracoderms) appeared in the Ordovician, but recent discoveries in China reveal that they probably originated in the Early Cambrian. The very first jawed fish appeared in the Late Ordovician epoch. Now-extinct marine animals called graptolites thrived in the oceans. Some new cystoids and crinoids appeared. During the Middle Ordovician there was a large increase in the intensity and diversity of bioeroding organisms. This is known as the Ordovician Bioerosion Revolution. It is marked by a sudden abundance of hard substrate trace fossils such as Trypanites, Palaeosabella and Petroxestes. Trilobites in the Ordovician were very different than their predecessors in the Cambrian. Many trilobites developed bizarre spines and nodules to defend against predators such as primitive sharks and nautiloids while other trilobites such as Aeglina prisca evolved to become swimming forms. Some trilobites even developed shovel-like snouts for ploughing through muddy sea bottoms. Another unusual clade of trilobites known as the trinucleids developed a broad pitted margin around their head shields. Some trilobites such as Asaphus kowalewski evolved long eyestalks to assist in detecting predators whereas other trilobite eyes in contrast disappeared completely. A Guide to the Orders of Trilobites Flora Green algae were common in the Ordovician and Late Cambrian (perhaps earlier). Plants probably evolved from green algae. The first terrestrial plants appeared in the form of tiny non-vascular plants resembling liverworts. Fossil spores from land plants have been identified in uppermost Ordovician sediments, but among the first land fungi may have been Arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (Glomerales), playing a crucial role in facilitating the colonization of land by plants through mycorrhizal symbiosis, which makes mineral nutrients available to plant cells; such fossilized fungal hyphae and spores from the Ordovician of Wisconsin have been found with an age of about 460 million years ago, a time when the land flora most likely only consisted of plants similar to non-vascular bryophytes. Marine fungi were abundant in the Ordovician seas to decompose animal carcasses, and other wastes. End of the period The Ordovician came to a close in a series of extinction events that, taken together, comprise the second largest of the five major extinction events in Earth's history in terms of percentage of genera that went extinct. The only larger one was the Permian-Triassic extinction event. The extinctions occurred approximately 444–447 million years ago and mark the boundary between the Ordovician and the following Silurian Period. At that time all complex multicellular organisms lived in the sea, and about 49% of genera of fauna disappeared forever; brachiopods and bryozoans were greatly reduced, along with many trilobite, conodont and graptolite families. The most commonly accepted theory is that these events were triggered by the onset of an ice age, in the Hirnantian faunal stage that ended the long, stable greenhouse conditions typical of the Ordovician. The ice age was probably not as long-lasting as once thought; study of oxygen isotopes in fossil brachiopods shows that it was probably no longer than 0.5 to 1.5 million years. The event was preceded by a fall in atmospheric carbon dioxide (from 7000ppm to 4400ppm) which selectively affected the shallow seas where most organisms lived. As the southern supercontinent Gondwana drifted over the South Pole, ice caps formed on it, which have been detected in Upper Ordovician rock strata of North Africa and then-adjacent northeastern South America, which were south-polar locations at the time. Glaciation locks up water from the world-ocean, and the interglacials free it, causing sea levels repeatedly to drop and rise; the vast shallow intra-continental Ordovician seas withdrew, which eliminated many ecological niches, then returned carrying diminished founder populations lacking many whole families of organisms, then withdrew again with the next pulse of glaciation, eliminating biological diversity at each change. Emiliani (1992), 491 Species limited to a single epicontinental sea on a given landmass were severely affected. Tropical lifeforms were hit particularly hard in the first wave of extinction, while cool-water species were hit worst in the second pulse. Surviving species were those that coped with the changed conditions and filled the ecological niches left by the extinctions. At the end of the second event, melting glaciers caused the sea level to rise and stabilise once more. The rebound of life's diversity with the permanent re-flooding of continental shelves at the onset of the Silurian saw increased biodiversity within the surviving Orders. References External links An Ordovician reef in Vermont. Examples of Ordovician Fossils Ordovician fossils of the famous Cincinnatian Group The Dry Dredgers, an active group of amateur paleontologists in the Cincinnati area | Ordovician |@lemmatized ordovician:70 geologic:1 period:22 system:4 second:6 six:1 paleozoic:4 era:3 cover:4 time:12 million:7 year:7 ago:4 follow:2 cambrian:14 silurian:7 name:1 welsh:1 tribe:1 ordovices:1 define:1 charles:1 lapworth:2 resolve:1 dispute:2 follower:1 adam:1 sedgwick:1 roderick:1 murchison:1 place:3 rock:5 bed:1 northern:2 wale:1 respectively:1 recognize:1 fossil:7 fauna:6 stratum:2 different:2 either:1 realize:1 recognition:1 distinct:1 slow:1 united:1 kingdom:1 area:4 world:2 accept:1 quickly:1 receive:1 international:3 sanction:1 adopt:1 official:1 geological:1 congress:1 date:5 start:2 major:5 extinction:12 event:12 call:3 last:2 end:8 another:2 ic:2 wipe:1 marine:9 genus:4 melott:1 et:1 al:1 suggest:1 ten:1 gamma:1 ray:1 burst:1 could:1 destroy:1 ozone:1 layer:1 expose:1 terrestrial:2 surface:1 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2,262 | Halakha | Halakha () — also transliterated Halocho and Halacha — is the collective body of Jewish religious law, including biblical law (the 613 mitzvot) and later talmudic and rabbinic law, as well as customs and traditions. Judaism classically draws no distinction in its laws between religious and ostensibly non-religious life. Hence, Halakha guides not only religious practices and beliefs, but numerous aspects of day-to-day life. Halakha is often translated as "Jewish Law", although a more literal translation might be "the path" or "the way of walking." The word is derived from the Hebrew root that means to go or to walk. Historically, Halakha served many Jewish communities as an enforceable avenue of civil and religious law. In the modern era, Jewish citizens may be bound to Halakha only by their voluntary consent. Under contemporary Israeli law, however, certain areas of Israeli family and personal status law are ruled according to Halakha. Reflecting the diversity of Jewish communities, somewhat different approaches to Halakha are found among Ashkenazi, Mizrahi, Sephardi, and Yemenite Jews. Among Ashkenazi Jews, disagreements over Halakha, and over whether Jews should continue to follow Halakha, have played a pivotal role in the emergence of the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist streams of Judaism. Terminology The name Halakha is derived from the Hebrew halakh הלך, which means "to walk" or "to go"; thus a literal translation does not yield "law", but rather "the way to go". The term Halakha may refer to a single law, to the literary corpus of rabbinic legal texts, or to the overall system of religious law. The root may be Semitic aqqa, meaning "to be true, be suitable". The Halakha is often contrasted with the Aggadah, the diverse corpus of rabbinic exegetical, narrative, philosophical, mystical, and other "non-legal" literatures. At the same time, since writers of Halakha may draw upon the aggadic and even mystical literature, there is a dynamic interchange between the genres. Halakha constitutes the practical application of the 613 mitzvot ("commandments", singular: mitzvah) in the Torah, (the five books of Moses, the "Written Law") as developed through discussion and debate in the classical rabbinic literature, especially the Mishnah and the Talmud (the "Oral law"), and as codified in the Mishneh Torah or Shulkhan Arukh (the Jewish "Code of Law".) The Halakha is a comprehensive guide to all aspects of human life, both corporeal and spiritual. Its laws, guidelines, and opinions cover a vast range of situations and principles, in the attempt to realize what is implied by the central Biblical commandment to "be holy as I your God am holy". They cover what are better ways for a Jew to live, when commandments conflict how one may choose correctly, what is implicit and understood but not stated explicitly in the Bible, and what has been deduced by implication though not visible on the surface. Because Halakha is developed and applied by various halakhic authorities, rather than one sole "official voice", different individuals and communities may well have different answers to halakhic questions. Controversies lend rabbinic literature much of its creative and intellectual appeal. With few exceptions, controversies are not settled through authoritative structures because during the age of exile Jews have lacked a single judicial hierarchy or appellate review process for Halakha. Instead, Jews interested in observing Halakha typically choose to follow specific rabbis or affiliate with a more tightly-structured community. Halakha has been developed and pored over throughout the generations since before 500 BCE, in a constantly expanding collection of religious literature consolidated in the Talmud. First and foremost it forms a body of intricate judicial opinions, legislation, customs, and recommendations, many of them passed down over the centuries, and an assortment of ingrained behaviors, relayed to successive generations from the moment a child begins to speak. It is also the subject of intense study in yeshivas; see Torah study. Laws of the Torah See also Oral law; Halacha l'Moshe m'Sinai; Relationship between the Bible and the Mishnah and Talmud. Broadly, the Halakha comprises the practical application of the commandments (each one known as a mitzvah) in the Torah, as developed in subsequent rabbinic literature; see The Mitzvot and Jewish Law. According to the Talmud (Tractate Makot), there are 613 mitzvot ("commandments") in the Torah; in Hebrew these are known as the Taryag mitzvot תרי"ג מצוות. There are 248 positive mitzvot and 365 negative mitzvot given in the Torah, supplemented by seven mitzvot legislated by the rabbis of antiquity; see Rabbinical commandments. Categories Jewish law may be categorized in various ways. Besides the basic categories applied to the mitzvot in antiquity, during the medieval period Jewish law was classified by such works as Maimonides' Mishneh Torah and the Shulchan Aruch. Classical Rabbinic Judaism has two basic categories of laws: Laws believed revealed by God to the Jewish people at Mount Sinai (e.g. the written Pentateuch and elucidations therefrom, Halacha l'Moshe miSinai); Laws believed to be of human origin but divinely inspired, including Rabbinic decrees, interpretations, customs, etc. This division between revealed and rabbinic commandments (mitzvot) may influence the importance of a rule, its enforcement and the nature of its ongoing interpretation. Halakhic authorities may disagree on which laws fall into which categories or the circumstances (if any) under which prior Rabbinic rulings can be re-examined by contemporary rabbis, but all halakhic Jews hold that both categories exist and that the first category is immutable, with exceptions only for life-saving and similar emergency circumstances. A second classical distinction is between the Written Torah (laws written in the Hebrew Bible, specifically its first five books), and Oral Law, laws believed transmitted orally prior to compilation in texts such as the Mishnah, Talmud, and Rabbinic codes. Commandments are divided into positive and negative commands, which are treated differently in terms of Divine and human punishment. Positive commandments (of which tradition holds there are 248) require an action to be performed, and thus bring one closer to God. Negative commandments (traditionally 365 in number) forbid a specific action; thus violations create a distance from God. In striving to "be holy" as God is holy, one attempts so far as possible to live in accordance with God's wishes for humanity, striving to more completely live with each of these with every moment of one's life. A further division is made between chukim ("decrees" — laws without obvious explanation, such as kashrut, the dietary laws), mishpatim ("judgments") — laws with obvious social implications and eduyot — "testimonies" or "commemorations", such as the Shabbat and holidays). Through the ages, various rabbinical authorities have classified the commandments in various other ways. A different approach divides the laws into a different set of categories: Laws in relation to God (bein adam la-Makom), and Laws about relations with other people (bein adam la-chavero). There is a notion in halakha that violations of the latter are more severe, in certain ways, because of the requirement one must obtain forgiveness both from the offended person and from God in the latter case. As a practical matter, the mitzvot also may be classified in line with how they might be implemented after the destruction of the Temple. Some mitzvot are relevant only in the Land of Israel. Many laws pertaining to holiness and purity can no longer be performed, absent the holy Sanctuary in Jerusalem. Some laws require a kind of beit din (Jewish court) that no longer exists. p.11, R. Yisrael Meir haKohen (Chofetz Chayim), The Concise Book of Mitzvoth. Within Talmudic literature, Jewish law is divided into the six orders of the Mishnah, which are categories by proximate subject matter: Zeraim ("Seeds") for agricultural laws and prayer, Moed ("Festival"), for the Sabbath and the Festivals, Nashim ("Women"), dealing primarily with marriage and divorce, Nezikin ("Damages"), for civil and criminal law, Kodashim ("Holy things"), for sacrifices and the dietary laws, and Tohorot ("Purities") for ritual purity. However, Talmudic texts often deal with laws outside these apparent subject categories. As a result, Jewish law came to be categorized in other ways in the post-Talmudic period. In the major codes of Jewish law, two main categorization schemes are found in the Maimonides' Mishneh Torah and, on the other hand, the codificatory efforts that culminated in the Shulchan Aruch. Sin Judaism regards the violation of the commandments, the mitzvot, to be a sin. The term "sin" is theologically loaded, as it means different things to Jews and Christians. In Christianity a "sin" is an offense against God, by which one is separated from God's grace, and for which one would suffer punishment, unless one repents (see Sin for a more complete comparison of sin from several viewpoints). Judaism has a wider definition of the term "sin", and also uses it to include violations of Jewish law that are not necessarily a lapse in morality. Further, Judaism holds it as given that all people sin at various points in their lives, and hold that God always tempers justice with mercy. The generic Hebrew word for any kind of sin is aveira ("transgression"). Based on the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) Judaism describes three levels of sin: Pesha — an "intentional sin"; an action committed in deliberate defiance of God Avon — a "sin of lust or uncontrollable emotion". It is a sin done knowingly, but not done to defy God Chet — an "unintentional sin" Judaism holds that no human being is perfect, and all people have sinned many times. However a state of sin does not condemn a person to damnation; there is always a road of teshuva (repentance, literally: "return"). There are some classes of person for whom this is exceedingly difficult, such as the one who slanders another. In earlier days, when Jews had a functioning court system (the beth din and the Sanhedrin high court), courts were empowered to administer physical punishments for various violations, upon conviction by far stricter standards of evidence than are acceptable in American courts: corporal punishment, incarceration, excommunication. Since the fall of the Temple, executions have been forbidden. Since the fall of the autonomous Jewish communities of Europe, the other punishments have also fallen by the wayside. Today, then, one's accounts are reckoned solely by God. The Talmud says that although courts capable of executing sinners no longer exist, the prescribed penalties continue to be applied by Providence. For instance, someone who has a committed a sin punishable by stoning might fall off a roof, or someone who ought to be executed by strangulation might drown. Ketubot 30b Gentiles and Jewish law Judaism has always held that gentiles are obliged only to follow the seven Noahide Laws; these are laws that the Oral Law derives from the covenant God made with Noah after the flood, which apply to all descendants of Noah (all living non-Jews). The Noahide laws are derived in the Talmud (Tractate Sanhedrin 57a), and are listed here: Murder is forbidden. Theft is forbidden. Sexual immorality is forbidden. Eating flesh cut from a still-living animal is forbidden. Belief in and worship or prayer to "idols" is forbidden. Blaspheming against God is forbidden. Society must establish a fair system of legal justice to administer law honestly. The details to these laws are codified from the Talmudic texts in the Mishneh Torah. They can be found mainly in chapter 9 and 10 of Hilkhoth Melakhim u'Milhamothehem in Sefer Shoftim of the Mishneh Torah. Although not mentioning the Noahide Laws directly by name, the Christian convention of Apostles and elders in Jerusalem mentioned in Acts 15 appears to validate the idea that all gentiles follow the constraints established by the covenant of Noah. Supporting this idea, the list of constraints to be applied to the gentiles that are converted to Christianity, verse 15:20, is similar to the Noahide laws. Sources and process The boundaries of Jewish law are determined through the halakhic process, a religious-ethical system of legal reasoning. Rabbis generally base their opinions on the primary sources of Halakha as well as on precedent set by previous rabbinic opinions. The major sources and genre of Halakha consulted include: The foundational Talmudic literature (especially the Mishna and the Babylonian Talmud) with commentaries; The post-Talmudic codificatory literature, such as Maimonides' Mishneh Torah and the Shulchan Aruch with commentaries; Regulations and other "legislative" enactments promulgated by rabbis and communal bodies: Gezeirah: "preventative legislation" of the Rabbis, intended to prevent violations of the commandments Takkanah: "positive legislation", practices instituted by the Rabbis not based (directly) on the commandments Minhag: Customs, community practices, and customary law, as well as the exemplary deeds of prominent (or local) rabbis; The she'eloth u-teshuvoth (responsa, literally "questions and answers") literature. Dina d'malchuta dina ("the law of the land is law"): an additional source of Halakha, being the principle recognizing non-Jewish laws and non-Jewish legal jurisdiction as binding on Jewish citizens, provided that they are not contrary to any laws of Judaism. This principle applies especially in areas of commercial, civil and criminal law. In antiquity, the Sanhedrin functioned essentially as the Supreme Court and legislature for Judaism, and had the power to administer binding law, including both received law and its own Rabbinic decrees, on all Jews — rulings of the Sanhedrin became Halakha; see Oral law. That court ceased to function in its full mode in CE 40. Today, the authoritative application of Jewish law is left to the local rabbi, and the local rabbinical courts, with only local applicability. In branches of Judaism that follow halakha, lay individuals make numerous ad-hoc decisions, but are regarded as not having authority to decide definitively. Since the days of the Sanhedrin, however, no body or authority has been generally regarded as having the authority to create universally recognized precedents. As a result, Halakha has developed in a somewhat different fashion from Anglo-American legal systems with a Supreme Court able to provide universally accepted precedents. Generally, contemporary halakhic arguments are effectively, yet unofficially, peer-reviewed. When a rabbinic posek ("decisor") proposes a new interpretation of a law, that interpretation may be considered binding for the posek's questioner or immediate community. Depending on the stature of the posek and the quality of the decision, an interpretation may also be gradually accepted by rabbis and members of similar Jewish communities. Under this system, there is a tension between the relevance of earlier and later authorities in constraining halakhic interpretation and innovation. On the one hand, there is a principle in Halakha not to overrule a specific law from an earlier era, after it got accepted by the community as a law or vow Rema Choshen Mishpat Chapter 25 . On the other hand, another principle recognizes the responsibility and authority of later authorities, and especially the posek handling a concurrent question. In addition, the Halakha embodies a wide range of principles that permit judicial discretion and deviation (Ben-Menahem). Generally speaking, a rabbi in any one period will not overrule specific laws from an earlier era, unless supported by a relevant earlier precedent; see list below. There are important exceptions to this principle, which empower the posek (decisor) or beth din (court) responsible for a given opinion. Notwithstanding the potential for innovation, rabbis and Jewish communities differ greatly on how they make changes in Halakha. Notably, poskim frequently extend the application of a law to new situations, but do not consider such applications as constituting a "change" in Halakha. For example, many Orthodox rulings concerning electricity are derived from rulings concerning fire, due to its physical similarity with that other form of human-managed energy. In contrast, Conservative Poskim emphasize that electricity is physically and chemically more like turning on a water tap (which is permissible) than lighting a fire (which is not permissible) and therefore permitted its use on Shabbat. The reformative Conservative Judaism, in some cases, will also explicitly interpret Halakha to take into account its view of contemporary sociological factors. For instance, most Conservative rabbis extend the application of certain Jewish obligations and permissible activities to women. See below: How Halakha is viewed today. Within certain Jewish communities, formal organized bodies do exist. Within Modern Orthodox Judaism, there is no one committee or leader, but Modern Orthodox rabbis generally agree with the views set by consensus by the leaders of the Rabbinical Council of America. Within Conservative Judaism, the Rabbinical Assembly has an official Committee on Jewish Law and Standards. Takkanot Traditional Jewish law granted the Sages wide legislative powers. Technically, one may discern two powerful legal tools within the halakhic system: Gezeirah: "preventative legislation" of the Rabbis, intended to prevent violations of the commandments Takkanah: "positive legislation", practices instituted by the Rabbis not based (directly) on the commandments However, in common parlance sometimes people use the general term takkanah to refer either gezeirot or takkanot. Takkanot, in general, do not affect or restrict observance of Torah mitzvot. However, the Talmud states that in exceptional cases, the Sages had the authority to "uproot matters from the Torah" in certain cases. In Talmudic and classical halakhic literature, this authority refers to the authority to prohibit some things that would otherwise be biblically sanctioned (shev v'al ta'aseh). Rabbis may rule that a Torah mitzvah should not be performed, e.g. blowing the shofar on Shabbat, or blessing the lulav and etrog on Shabbat. These takkanot are executed out of fear that some might otherwise carry the mentioned items between home and the synagogue, thus inadvertently violating a Sabbath melakha. Another rare and limited form of takkanah involved overriding Torah prohibitions. In some cases, the Sages allowed the temporary violation of a prohibition in order to maintain the Jewish system as a whole. This was part of the basis for Esther's relationship with Ahasuerus. (Sanhedrin) For general usage of takkanaot in Jewish history see the article Takkanah. For examples of this being used in Conservative Judaism see Conservative Halakha. Eras of history important in Jewish law The Tannaim (literally the "repeaters") are the sages of the Mishnah (70–200) The Amoraim (literally the "sayers") are the sages of the Gemara (200–500) The Savoraim (literally the "reasoners") are the classical Persian rabbis (500–600) The Geonim (literally the "prides" or "geniuses") are the rabbis of Sura and Pumbeditha, in Babylonia (650–1250) The Rishonim (literally the "firsts") are the rabbis of the early medieval period (1250–1550) preceding the Shulchan Aruch The Acharonim (literally the "lasts") are the rabbis of 1550 to the present. Rules by which early Jewish law was derived Hermeneutics is the study of rules for the exact determination of the meaning of a text; it played a notable role in early rabbinic Jewish discussion. The sages investigated the rules by which the requirements of the oral law were derived from and established by the written law, i.e. the Torah. These rules relate to: grammar and exegesis the interpretation of certain words and letters and superfluous words, prefixes, and suffixes in general the interpretation of those letters, which, in certain words, are provided with points the interpretation of the letters in a word according to their numerical value the interpretation of a word by dividing it into two or more words the interpretation of a word according to its consonantal form or according to its vocalization the interpretation of a word by transposing its letters or by changing its vowels the logical deduction of a halakah from a Scriptural text or from another law Compilations of such hermeneutic rules were made in the earliest times. The tannaitic tradition recognizes three such collections, namely: the seven Rules of Hillel (baraita at the beginning of Sifra; Ab. R. N. xxxvii.) the thirteen Rules of R. Ishmael (baraita at the beginning of Sifra; this collection is merely an amplification of that of Hillel) the thirty-two Rules of R. Eliezer b. Jose ha-Gelili. The last-mentioned rules are contained in an independent baraita, which has been incorporated and preserved only in later works. They are intended for haggadic interpretation; but many of them are valid for the Halakah as well, coinciding with the rules of Hillel and Ishmael. Neither Hillel, Ishmael, nor Eliezer ben Jose ha-Gelili sought to give a complete enumeration of the rules of interpretation current in his day, but they omitted from their collections many rules that were then followed. They restricted themselves to a compilation of the principal methods of logical deduction, which they called "middot" (measures), although the other rules also were known by that term (comp. Midrash Sifre, Numbers 2 [ed. Friedmann, p. 2a]). One of these set of rules is found in the siddur, from the "Introduction to Sifra" by Ishmael ben Elisha, c. 200 CE. These are known as the thirteen rules of exegesis. Kal va-Chomer (a fortiori): We find a similar stringency in a more lenient case; how more so should that stringency apply to our stricter case! Gezera shava, similarity in phrase: We find a similar law in a verse containing a similar phrase to one in our verse. This method can only be used in a case where there is a tradition to use it. Binyan av, either by one or two Scriptures: We find a similar law in another case, why shouldn't we assume that the same law applies here? Now the argument may go against this inference, finding some law that applies to that case but not to ours. This type of refutation is valid only if the inference was from one Scripture, not if it was from two Scriptures. Klal ufrat, a generality and a particularity: If we find a phrase signifying a particularity following that of a generality, the particularity particularises the generality and we only take that particular case into account. Prat ukhlal, a particularity and a generality: If the order is first the particularity and then the generality, we add from the generality upon the particularity, even to a broad extent. Klal ufrat ukhlal, a generality, a particularity and a generality: If there is a particularity inserted between two generalities, we only add cases similar to the particularity. Klal shehu tzarich lifrat, a generality that requires a particularity, and a particularity that requires a generality: If it is impossible to have the more general law without more specific examples or more specific cases without the statement of the general law, the above three rules don't apply. Every thing that was within the general rule and was excluded from the rule to teach us a rule, we don't consider this rule as pertaining only to this excluded case, but to the entire general case. Anything that was included in a general rule, and was excluded to be susceptible to one rule that is according to its subject, it is only excluded to be treated more leniently but not more strictly. Anything that was included in a general rule and was excluded to be susceptible to one rule that is not according to its subject, it is excluded to be treated both more leniently and more strictly. Anything that was included in a general rule and was excluded to be treated by a new rule, we cannot restore it to its general rule unless Scripture restores it explicitly. A matter that is inferred from its context, and a matter that is inferred from its ending. The resolution of two Scriptures that contradict each other [must wait] until a third Scripture arrives and resolves their apparent contradiction. Historical analysis of rules The antiquity of the rules can be determined only by the dates of the authorities who quote them; in general, they can not safely be declared older than the tanna to whom they are first ascribed. It is certain, however, that the seven middot of Hillel and the thirteen of Ishmael are earlier than the time of Hillel himself, who was the first to transmit them. The Talmud itself gives no information concerning the origin of the middot, although the Geonim regarded them as Sinaitic. Modern historians believe that it is decidedly erroneous to consider the middot as traditional from the time of Moses on Sinai. The middot seem to have been first laid down as abstract rules by the teachers of Hillel, though they were not immediately recognized by all as valid and binding. Different schools interpreted and modified them, restricted or expanded them, in various ways. Akiba and Ishmael and their scholars especially contributed to the development or establishment of these rules. Akiba devoted his attention particularly to the grammatical and exegetical rules, while Ishmael developed the logical. The rules laid down by one school were frequently rejected by another because the principles that guided them in their respective formulations were essentially different. According to Akiba, the divine language of the Torah is distinguished from the speech of men by the fact that in the former no word or sound is superfluous. Some scholars have observed a similarity between these rabbinic rules of interpretation and the hermeneutics of ancient Hellenistic culture. For example, Saul Lieberman argues that the *names* (e.g. kal vahomer) of Rabbi Ishmael's middot are Hebrew translations of Greek terms, although the methods of those middot are not Greek in origin. Lieberman, Saul. “Rabbinic interpretation of scripture” and “The hermeneutic rules of the aggadah” in Hellenism in Jewish Palestine (NY, 1950) See also, Daube, David. "Rabbinic methods of interpretation and Hellenistic rhetoric" HUCA 22 (1949) 239ff. Views today Orthodox Judaism hold "halakha" is the divine law of the Torah (Bible), rabbinical laws, rabbinical decrees and customs combined. Rabbis made many additions and interpretations of Jewish Law, they did so only in accordance with regulations they believe were given to them by Moses on Mount Sinai see Deuteronomy 5:8-13. See Orthodox Judaism, Beliefs about Jewish law and tradition. Conservative Judaism holds that Halakha is normative and binding, and is developed as a partnership between people and God based on Sinaitic Torah. While there are a wide variety of Conservative views, a common belief is that Halakha is, and has always been, an evolving process subject to interpretation by rabbis in every time period. See Conservative Judaism, Beliefs. Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism both hold that modern views of how the Torah and rabbinic law developed imply that the body of rabbinic Jewish law is no longer normative (seen as binding) on Jews today. Those in the traditionalist wing of these movements believe that the Halakha represents a personal starting-point, holding that each Jew is obligated to interpret the Torah, Talmud and other Jewish works for themselves, and this interpretation will create separate commandments for each person. Those in the neo-traditional wing of Reform include Rabbis Eugene Borowitz and Gunther Plaut. Those in the liberal and classical wings of Reform believe that in this day and era most Jewish religious rituals are no longer necessary, and many hold that following most Jewish laws is actually counter-productive. They propose that Judaism has entered a phase of ethical monotheism, and that the laws of Judaism are only remnants of an earlier stage of religious evolution, and need not be followed. This is considered wrong (and heretical) by Orthodox and Conservative Judaism. Flexibility Throughout history, halakha has, within limits, been a flexible system, despite its internal rigidity, addressing issues on the basis of circumstance and precedent. The classical approach has permitted new rulings regarding modern technology. These rulings guide the observant about the proper use of electricity on the Sabbath and holidays within the parameters of halakhah. (Many scholarly tomes have been published and are constantly being reviewed ensuring the maximum coordination between electrical appliances and technology with the needs of the religiously observant Jew, with a great range of opinions.) Often, as to the applicability of the law in any given situation, the proviso is: "consult your local rabbi or posek." Modern critics, however, have charged that with the rise of movements that challenge the "Divine" authority of halakha, traditional Jews have greater reluctance to change, not only the laws themselves but also other customs and habits, than traditional Rabbinical Judaism did prior to the advent of Reform in the 19th century. Differences between Orthodox and Conservative Judaism Orthodox Jews believe "halakha" is the divine law of the Torah (Bible), rabbinical laws, rabbinical decrees and customs combined. They also believe there are traditional formulas that date back to Moses on how the divine law may be interpreted - see above, "Rules by which early Jewish law was derived". While Conservative Jews believe it can continuously be reinterpreted, their view of the Halakha has given rise to substantial differences in approach as well as result. Orthodox Judaism Orthodox Jews believe that, halakha is a religious system, whose core represents the revealed will of God. Although Orthodox Judaism acknowledges that rabbis made many additions and interpretations of Jewish Law, they did so only in accordance with regulations they believe were given to them by Moses on Mount Sinai (see Deuteronomy 5:8-13). These regulations were transmitted orally till shortly after the destruction of the second temple. They were then recorded in the Mishnah, and explained in the Talmud and commentaries throughout history, including today. Orthodox Judaism believes that subsequent interpretations have been derived with the utmost accuracy and care. The most widely accepted code of Jewish law is known as the Shulchan Aruch. As such, no rabbi has the right to change Jewish law unless they clearly understand how it coincides with the precepts of the Shulchan Aruch. Later commentaries were accepted by many rabbis as final rule, however, other rabbis may disagree. Orthodox Judaism has a range of opinion on the circumstances and extent to which change is permissible. Haredi Jews generally hold that even minhagim (customs) must be retained and existing precedents cannot be reconsidered. Modern Orthodox authorities are generally more inclined to permit limited changes in customs, and some reconsideration of precedent. All Orthodox authorities, however, agree that only later Rabbinical interpretations are subject to reconsideration, and hold that core sources of Divine written and oral law, such as the Torah the Mishnah and the Talmud, cannot be overridden. Conservative Judaism The view held by Conservative Judaism is that while God is real, the Torah is not the word of God in a literal sense. However, in this view the Torah is still held as mankind's record of its understanding of God's revelation, and thus still has divine authority. In this view, traditional Jewish law is still seen as binding. Jews who hold by this view generally try to use modern methods of historical study to learn how Jewish law has changed over time, and are in some cases more willing to change Jewish law in the present. A key practical difference between Conservative and Orthodox approaches is that Conservative Judaism holds that its Rabbinical body's powers are not limited to reconsidering later precedents based on earlier sources, but the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS) is empowered to override Biblical and Taanitic prohibitions by takkanah (decree) when perceived to be inconsistent with modern requirements and/or views of ethics. The CJLS has used this power on a number of occasions, most famously in the "driving teshuva", which says that if someone is unable to walk to any synagogue on the Sabbath, and their commitment to observance is so loose that not attending synagogue may lead them to drop it altogether, their rabbi may give them a dispensation to drive there and back; and more recently in its decision prohibiting the taking of evidence on Mamzer status on the grounds that implementing such a status is immoral. The CJLS has also held that the Talmudic concept of Kavod HaBriyot permits lifting rabbinic decrees (as distinct from carving narrow exceptions) on grounds of human dignity, and used this principle in a December 2006 opinion lifting all rabbinic prohibitions on homosexual conduct (the opinion held that only male-male anal sex was forbidden by the Bible and that this remained prohibited). Conservative Judaism also made a number of changes to the role of women in Judaism, including counting women in the minyan and ordaining women as rabbis. The latter was accomplished by simple vote on the faculty of the JTS. Orthodox Judaism holds that takkanot (Rabbinical decrees) can only supplement and can never nullify Biblical law, and significant decisions must be accompanied by scholarly responsa analyzing sources. An example of how different views of the origin of Jewish law inform Conservative approaches to interpreting that law involves the CJLS's acceptance of Rabbi Elie Kaplan Spitz's responsum decreeing the Biblical category of mamzer as "inoperative", in which The CJLS adopted the Responsum's view that of how, in the Conservative view of Halakha, the "morality which we learn through the unfolding narrative of our tradition" informs the application of Mosaic law: The responsum cited several examples of how, in Spitz's view, the Rabbinic Sages declined to enforce punishments explicitly mandated by Torah law. The examples include the "trial of the accused adulteress (Sotah)", the "Law of the Breaking of the Neck of the Heifer" and the application of the death penalty for the "rebellious child". Spitz argues that the punishment of the Mamzer has been effectively inoperative for nearly two thousand years due to deliberate rabbinic inaction (with a few rule-proving counterexamples, including the 18th century Orthodox rabbi Ismael ha-Kohen of Modena, who decreed that a child should have the word "mamzer" tattoed to his forehead). Further he suggested that the Rabbis have long regarded the punishment declared by the Torah as immoral, and came to the conclusion that no court should agree to hear testimony on "mamzerut". His motion was passed by the CJLS. The decision represented a watershed for Conservative Judaism because it represented an explicit abrogation of a Biblical injunction on the grounds of contemporary morality, as distinct from exigency. The dissenters, who included Rabbi Joel Roth as well as a partial concurrence by Rabbi Daniel Nevins, argued for reaffirming the classical halakhic framework in which human decrees inform and often limit but never wholly abrogate law believed to be of Divine origin, stating that "we should acknowledge that God's law is beyond our authority to eliminate", but should continue the traditional approach of applying strict evidentiary rules and presumptions that tend to render enforcement unlikely. He also argued that the current framework is moral, both because proving mamzer status sufficiently beyond all doubt is already so difficult that it is rare, and because the mere existence and possibility of mamzerut status, even if rarely enforced, creates an important incentive for divorcing parties to obtain a get (Jewish religious divorce) to avoid the sin of adultery. He cited a responsum by prominent Haredi Orthodox Rabbi Ovadiah Yosef as an example of how the traditional approach works. Rabbi Yosef was faced with the child of a woman who had left a religious marriage without religious divorce and had a child in the second marriage, seemingly an open-and-shut case of Mamzer status. Rabbi Yosef proceeded to systematically discredit the evidence that the former marriage had ever taken place. The Ketubah was mysteriously not found and hence disqualified, and the officiating Rabbi's testimony was never sufficiently corroborated and hence not credible. Rabbi Yosef then found reason to doubt that the new husband was ever the father, finding that because the ex-husband occasionally delivered alimony personally, an ancient presumption (one of many) that any time a husband and wife are alone together the law presumes intercourse has taken place governed the case. He held that Jewish law could not disprove, and hence had to conclude, that the original husband really was the child's father and there was no case of Mamzer status. Messianic Judaism Followers of Messianic Judaism still claim to follow Halakhah as well. However the basic beliefs of Messianism (that Jesus, or as they say "Yeshua") is God or part of God or the son of God are, in themselves, a violation of Jewish theology, and renders this belief set outside the realm of normative Judaism. They claim that Yeshua gave levels to Halakhah. They say that Halakhah can be broken to do a good work, as long as the commandment, or mitzvot, isn't broken. Examples of this include when Yeshua talks about the sabbath. Many messianics also believe that the Kashrut laws don't have to be followed when eating with gentiles. Numerous other examples of this are given by the practical messianic which show a deep misunderstanding of the laws of Judaism. Messianic "Judaism" is not part of normative Judaism. Codes of Jewish law The Torah and the Talmud are not formal codes of law: they are sources of law. There are many formal codes of Jewish law that have developed over the past two thousand years. These codes have influenced, and in turn, have been influenced by, the responsa; History of Responsa thus provides an informative complement to the survey below. The major codes are: The Mishnah, composed by Rabbi Judah the Prince, in 200 CE, as a basic outline of the state of the Oral Law in his time. This was the framework upon which the Talmud was based; the Talmud's dialectic analysis of the content of the Mishna (gemara; completed c. 500) became the basis for all later halakhic decisions and subsequent codes. Codifications by the Geonim of the halakhic material in the Talmud. An early work, She'iltot ("Questions") by Achai of Shabcha (c. 752), discusses over 190 Mitzvot — exploring and addressing various questions on these. The first legal codex proper, Halakhot Pesukot ("Decided Laws"), by Yehudai Gaon (c. 760), rearranges the Talmud passages in a structure manageable to the layman. (It was written in vernacular Aramaic, and subsequently translated into Hebrew as Hilkhot Riu). Halakhot Gedolot ("Great Law Book"), by R. Simeon Kayyara, published two generations later, contains extensive additional material, mainly from Responsa and Monographs of the Geonim, and is presented in a form that is closer to the original Talmud language and structure. (Probably since it was distributed, also, amongst the newly established Ashkenazi communities.) The She'iltot was influential on both subsequent works. The Hilchot of the Rif, Rabbi Isaac Alfasi (1013–1103), summations of the legal material in the Talmud. Alfasi transcribed the Talmud's halakhic conclusions verbatim, without the surrounding deliberation; he also excludes all Aggadic (non-legal, homiletic) matter. The Hilchot soon superseded the geonic codes, as it contained all the decisions and laws then relevant, and additionally, served as an accessible Talmudic commentary; it has been printed with almost every subsequent edition of the Talmud. The Mishneh Torah (also known as the Yad Ha-Hazaqah for its 14 volumes; "yad" has a numeric value of 14), by Maimonides (Rambam; 1135–1204). This work encompasses the full range of Talmudic law; it is organized and reformulated in a logical system — in 14 books, 83 sections and 1000 chapters — with each Halakha stated clearly. The Mishneh Torah is very influential to this day, and several later works reproduce passages verbatim. It also includes a section on Metaphysics and fundamental beliefs. (Some claim this section draws heavily on Aristotelian science and metaphysics; others suggest that it is within the tradition of Saadia Gaon.) It is the main source of practical Halakha for many Yemenite Jews — mainly Baladi and Dor Daim — as well as for a growing community referred to as talmidei haRambam. The work of the Rosh, Rabbi Asher ben Jehiel (1250?/1259?–1328), an abstract of the Talmud, concisely stating the final halakhic decision and quoting later authorities, notably Alfasi, Maimonides, and the Tosafists. This work superseded Rabbi Alfasi's and has been printed with almost every subsequent edition of the Talmud. The Sefer Mitzvot Gadol (The "SeMaG") of Rabbi Moses ben Jacob of Coucy (13th century, Coucy, France). "SeMaG" is organised around the 365 negative and the 248 positive commandments, separately discussing each of them according to the Talmud (in light of the commentaries of Rashi and the Tosafot) and the other codes existent at the time. "The Mordechai" — by Mordecai ben Hillel, d. Nuremberg 1298 — serves both as a source of analysis, as well of decided law. Mordechai considered about 350 halakhic authorities, and was widely influential, particularly amongst the Ashkenazi and Italian communities. Although organised around the Hilchot of the Rif, it is, in fact, an independent work. It has been printed with every edition of the Talmud since 1482. The Arba'ah Turim (The Tur, The Four Columns) by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher (1270–1343, Toledo, Spain). This work traces the Halakha from the Torah text and the Talmud through the Rishonim, with the Hilchot of Alfasi as its starting point. Ben Asher followed Maimonides's precedent in arranging his work in a topical order, however, the Tur covers only those areas of Jewish religious law that were in force in the author's time. The code is divided into four main sections; almost all codes since this time have followed the Tur's arrangement of material. Orach Chayim "The Way of Life" worship and ritual observance in the home and synagogue, through the course of the day, the weekly sabbath and the festival cycle. Yoreh De'ah "Teach Knowledge" assorted ritual prohibitions, dietary laws and regulations concerning menstrual impurity. Even Ha'ezer "The Rock of the Helpmate" marriage, divorce and other issues in family law. Choshen Mishpat "The Breastplate of Judgment" The administration and adjudication of civil law. The Beit Yosef, and the Shulchan Aruch of Rabbi Yosef Karo (1488–1575). The Beit Yosef is a huge commentary on the Tur in which Rabbi Karo traces the development of each law from the Talmud through later rabbinical literature (examining thirty-two authorities, beginning with the Talmud and ending with the works of Rabbi Israel Isserlein). The Shulchan Aruch is, in turn, a condensation of the Beit Yosef — stating each ruling simply (literally translated, Shulchan Aruch means "set table"); this work follows the chapter divisions of the Tur. The Shulchan Aruch, together with its related commentaries, is considered by many to be the most authoritative compilation of halakha since the Talmud. In writing the Shulchan Aruch, Rabbi Karo based his rulings on three authorities — Maimonides (Rambam), Asher ben Jehiel (Rosh), and Isaac Alfasi (Rif); he considered the Mordechai in inconclusive cases. Sephardic Jews, generally, refer to the Shulchan Aruch as the basis for their daily practice. The works of Rabbi Moshe Isserles ("Rema"; Kraków, Poland, 1525 to 1572). Rema noted that the Shulkhan Arukh was based on the Sephardic tradition, and he created a series of glosses to be appended to the text of the Shulkhan Arukh for cases where Sephardi and Ashkenazi customs differed (based on the works of Yaakov Moelin, Israel Isserlein and Israel Bruna). The glosses are called Hamapah, the "Tablecloth" for the "Set Table". His comments are now incorporated into the body of all printed editions of the Shulkhan Arukh, typeset in a different script; today, "Shulchan Aruch" refers to the combined work of Karo and Isserles. Isserles' Darkhei Moshe is similarly a commentary on the Tur and the Beit Yosef. The Shulchan Aruch HaRav of Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (c. 1800) was an attempt to recodify the law as it stood at that time — incorporating commentaries on the Shulchan Aruch, and subsequent responsa — and thus stating the decided halakha, as well as the underlying reasoning. The work was written, partly, so that laymen would be able to study Jewish law. Unfortunately, most of the work was lost in a fire prior to publication. It is the basis of practice for Chabad-Lubavitch and other Hasidic groups, and is quoted as authoritative by many subsequent works, Hasidic and non-Hasidic alike. "Layman oriented" digests of Halakha. The Kitzur Shulkhan Arukh of Rabbi Shlomo Ganzfried (Hungary 1804–1886), based on the very strict Hungarian customs of the 19th century, became immensely popular after its publication due to its simplicity. This work is not binding in the same way as the Mishneh Torah or the Shulchan Aruch. It is still popular in Orthodox Judaism as a framework for study, if not always for practice. Chayei Adam and Chochmat Adam by Avraham Danzig (Poland, 1748–1820) are similar Ashkenazi works, but are regarded as a more appropriate basis for practice. The Ben Ish Chai by Yosef Chaim (Baghdad, 1832–1909) is a corresponding Sephardi work. Works structured directly on the Shulchan Aruch, providing analysis in light of Acharonic material and codes. The Mishnah Berurah of Rabbi Yisroel Meir ha-Kohen, (the "Chofetz Chaim", Poland, 1838–1933) is a commentary on the "Orach Chayim" section of the Shulchan Aruch, discussing the application of each Halakha in light of all subsequent Acharonic decisions. It has become the authoritative halakhic guide for much of Orthodox Ashkenazic Jewry in the postwar period. Arukh HaShulkhan by Rabbi Yechiel Michel Epstein (1829–1888) is a scholarly analysis of Halakha through the perspective of the major Rishonim. The work follows the structure of the Tur and the Shulkhan Arukh; rules dealing with vows, agriculture, and ritual purity, are discussed in a second work known as Arukh HaShulkhan he'Atid. Kaf HaChaim on Orach Chayim and parts of Yoreh De'ah, by the Sephardi sage Yaakov Chaim Sofer (Baghdad and Jerusalem, 1870–1939) is similar in scope, authority and approach to the Mishnah Berurah. Yalkut Yosef, by Rabbi Yitzchak Yosef, is a voluminous, widely cited and contemporary work of Halakha, based on the rulings of Rabbi Ovadia Yosef. Temimei Haderech ("A Guide To Jewish Religious Practice") by Rabbi Isaac Klein z'l' with contributions from the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly. This scholarly work is based on the previous traditional law codes, but written from a Conservative Jewish point of view. It is not accepted among Orthodox Jews. See also Mishpat Ivri Jewish ethics Jewish medical ethics References External links Bibliography J. David Bleich, Contemporary Halakhic Problems (5 vols), Ktav. ISBN 0-87068-450-7, ISBN 0-88125-474-6, ISBN 0-88125-315-4, ISBN 0-87068-275-X, Feldheim ISBN 1-56871-353-3 Menachem Elon, Ha-Mishpat ha-Ivri (trans. Jewish Law: History, Sources, Principles ISBN 0-8276-0389-4), Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 0-8276-0537-4 Jacob Katz, Divine Law in Human Hands — Case Studies in Halakhic Flexibility, Magnes Press. ISBN 965-223-980-1 Mendell Lewittes, Jewish Law: An Introduction, Jason Aronson. ISBN 1-56821-302-6 Daniel Pollack ed., Contrasts in American and Jewish Law, Ktav. ISBN 0-88125-750-8 Emanuel Quint, A Restatement of Rabbinic Civil Law (11 vols), Gefen Publishing. ISBN 0-87668-765-6, ISBN 0-87668-799-0, ISBN 0-87668-678-1, ISBN 0-87668-396-0, ISBN 0-87668-197-6, ISBN 1-56821-167-8, ISBN 1-56821-319-0, ISBN 1-56821-907-5, ISBN 0-7657-9969-3, ISBN 965-229-322-9, ISBN 965-229-323-7, ISBN 965-229-375-X Emanuel Quint, Jewish Jurisprudence: Its Sources & Modern Applications , Taylor and Francis. ISBN 3-7186-0293-8 Joel Roth, Halakhic Process: A Systemic Analysis, Jewish Theological Seminary. ISBN 0-87334-035-3 Joseph Soloveitchik, Halakhic Man, Jewish Publication Society trans. Lawrence Kaplan. ISBN 0-8276-0397-5 Full-text resources of major halakhic works Mishneh Torah (Hebrew only) Kitzur Shulchan Aruch (Hebrew only) Ben Ish Chai (Hebrew only) Mishna Berura (With .mp3 and .wma files) | Halakha |@lemmatized halakha:53 also:21 transliterate:1 halocho:1 halacha:3 collective:1 body:8 jewish:68 religious:16 law:139 include:16 biblical:6 mitzvot:17 later:8 talmudic:11 rabbinic:25 well:11 custom:11 tradition:8 judaism:45 classically:1 draw:3 distinction:2 ostensibly:1 non:7 life:7 hence:4 guide:6 practice:9 belief:7 numerous:3 aspect:2 day:8 often:5 translate:3 although:8 literal:3 translation:3 might:5 path:1 way:10 walk:4 word:13 derive:8 hebrew:11 root:2 mean:5 go:4 historically:1 serve:3 many:18 community:14 enforceable:1 avenue:1 civil:5 modern:11 era:5 citizen:2 may:19 bind:6 voluntary:1 consent:1 contemporary:7 israeli:2 however:13 certain:8 area:3 family:2 personal:2 status:7 rule:43 accord:9 reflect:1 diversity:1 somewhat:2 different:11 approach:9 find:12 among:3 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2,263 | Dog_tag | A pair of blank dog tags on ball chain A Korean War memorial in the U.S.; the statue holds a handful of dog tags A dog tag is the informal name for the identification tags worn by military personnel, because of their resemblance to actual dog tags. The tag is primarily used for the identification of dead and wounded along with providing essential basic medical information for the treatment of the latter such as blood type U.S. Soldiers "tagged" for blood transfusion, Popular Science, February 1942, p71, Scanned by Google Books: http://books.google.com/books?id=pScDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA71-IA1 and history of inoculations. In the event the member has a medical condition that requires special attention, an additional red tag with the pertinent information is issued and worn with the dog tags. Wearing of the tag is required at all times by soldiers in the field. It may contain two copies of the information and be designed to break easily into two pieces. This allows half the tag to be collected for notification while the other half remains with the body when battle conditions do not allow the casualty to be immediately recovered. Alternatively, two identical tags are issued. One is worn on a long chain around the neck; the second on a much smaller chain attached to the first chain. In the event the wearer is killed the second tag is collected and the first remains with the body. Dog tag tattoos, alternately known as "meat tags" are growing in popularity for active U.S. soldiers. These are tattoos that are usually featured on the torso, and can be used for identification in case the deceased is otherwise unidentifiable. http://tattoos.lovetoknow.com/Dog_Tag_Tattoos Military ID Tag Ball Chain Specifications and Lore Standard military chains are issued with one, 2.5 mm, 24-inch neck chain, and one, 2.5 mm, 4-inch duplicate chain. The secondary chain, and duplicate tag, are recovered if needed. The primary chain and tag remain with the soldier at all times. Ball Chain may be upgraded to 3 mm diameter by individual soldiers. Chains smaller than 2.5 mm and larger than 3 mm are not generally authorized due to the risk of breakage/loss or inability to recover the duplicate tag from larger chains. Prisoner of War time-keeping utility: Dog Tag Ball Chains were clipped to length to help captured soldiers count time in the event they were captured. The large chain was counted to 365 ball links and the small chain was counted to 52 ball links. A soldier could then bite, or break-off one link each day from the large chain, and remove one link from the small chain each week. This accounted for one year of time before the cycle consumed the chain completely. No verified comparison between the standard 24" and 4" chain lengths and number of "beads" per length has been performed. The typical length of 365/52 however, is adequate for mounting and wearing standard I.D. tags. Dog tags in history Dog tags of a U.S. Army soldier who served in World War II During the American Civil War of 1861-1865, some soldiers pinned paper notes with their name and home address to the backs of their coats. Other soldiers stencilled identification on their knapsacks or scratched it in the soft lead backing of the Army belt buckle. Manufacturers of identification badges recognized a market and began advertising in periodicals. Their pins were usually shaped to suggest a branch of service and engraved with soldier's name and unit. Machine-stamped tags were also made of brass or lead with a hole and usually had (on one side) an eagle or shield and such phrases as "War for the Union" or "Liberty, Union, and Equality." The other side had the soldier's name and unit and sometimes a list of battles in which he had participated. A New Yorker named John Kennedy wrote to the U.S. Army in 1862, offering to furnish discs for all officers and men in the Federal Army, enclosing a design for the disc. The National Archives now has the letter along with the reply, a summary refusal without explanation. In the Spanish-American War, soldiers purchased crude stamped identification tags, sometimes with misleading information. Franco-Prussian War The Prussian Army issued identification tags for its troops at the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. They were nicknamed Hundemarken ("dog tags") and compared to a similar identification system instituted for dogs in the Prussian capital city of Berlin at about the same time. Law, Clive M. Article in Military Artifact, Service Publications First World War The British Army and their Imperial forces in Canada, Australia and New Zealand issued identification tags from the beginning of the First World War. The tags were made of fibre, one in red and one in green and suspended around the neck by butcher's twine. The same pattern was worn into the Second World War and the Korean War by Commonwealth forces. The U.S. Army first authorized identification tags in War Department General Order No. 204, dated December 20, 1906, which essentially prescribes the Kennedy identification tag: "An aluminum identification tag, the size of a silver half dollar and of suitable thickness, stamped with the name, rank, company, regiment, or corps of the wearer, will be worn by each officer and enlisted man of the Army whenever the field kit is worn, the tag to be suspended from the neck, underneath the clothing, by a cord or thong passed through a small hole in the tab. It is prescribed as a part of the uniform and when not worn as directed herein will be habitually kept in the possession of the owner. The tag will be issued by the Quartermaster's Department gratuitously to enlisted men and at cost price to officers..." The Army changed regulations on July 6, 1916, so that all soldiers were issued two tags: one to stay with the body and the other to go to the person in charge of the burial for record-keeping purposes. In 1918, the Army adopted and allotted the serial number system, and name and serial numbers were ordered stamped on the identification tags of all enlisted troops. (Serial number 1 was assigned to enlisted man Arthur B. Crean of Chicago in the course of his fifth enlistment period.) In 1969 the Army converted to the Social Security number for personnel identification. Some nations (e.g. Germany) had instead a single tag with identical information stamped on both sides of it, which could easily be broken off for the purpose of record-keeping. World War II There is a recurring myth about the notch situated in one end of the dog tags issued to United States Army personnel during World War II. It was rumored that the notch's purpose was so that if a soldier found one of his comrades on the battlefield, he could take one tag to the commanding officer and kick the other between the teeth of the soldier to ensure that the tag would remain with the body and be identified. According to Snopes, the notch is there simply to hold the tag in place on the embossing machine. Barbara Mikkelson. "Notch for the Faint Hearted", Snopes.com, 2 August 2007, retrieved 12 September 2007 As a side note, it appears instructions that would confirm this myth were issued at least unofficially during the Vietnam war to Army troops headed overseas. Col. David G. Fitz-Enz (Ret.): Why A Soldier? A Signal Corpsman's Tour from Vietnam to the Moscow Hotline, page 166. Ballantine, 2000. ISBN 0-8041-1938-4 Following World War II, the US Navy Department adopted the dog tags used by the US Army and Air Force, so a single shape and size became the American standard. Vietnam In the Vietnam War, American soldiers were allowed to place rubber silencers on their dog tags so the enemy would not hear the metallic clanking. Others chose to tape the two tags together with black tape. Still others chose to wear one tag around the neck, and the other tag on the lace of one boot. All three variations were commonly seen among U.S. troops. Prior to the use of Social Security Numbers on dog tags beginning in the 1960s, the military printed the individual's military service (or serial) number. Dog tags are traditionally part of the makeshift battlefield memorials soldiers create to their fallen comrades. The casualty's rifle with bayonet affixed is stood vertically atop the empty boots, with the helmet over the stock of the rifle. The dog tags hang from the rifle's handle or trigger guard. Service members also often give them to loved ones before deployments or when dating, similar to the student practice of giving a sweetheart one's letterman jacket or ring to wear. Non-military wear Close-up of a teenager wearing custom-made dog tags Also, dog tags have recently found their way into youth fashion by way of military chic. Originally worn as a part of a military uniform by youths wishing to present a tough or militaristic image, dog tags have since seeped out into wider fashion circles. They may be inscribed with a person's details, their beliefs or tastes, a favorite quote, or may bear the name or logo of a band or performer. Some people also prefer to have the information on their tags transferred to a smaller, sometimes golden or silver tag by a jeweller, as the original tag can be considered too large and bulky by some. Some are also used for health problems such as heart problems or epilepsy. The Billy Graham Evangelistic Association offers dog tags with bible verses on them and steps to converting others to Christianity. National variations Australia The Australian Defence Force issues soldiers with two tags of different shape: Number 1 Tag (the octagonal shaped disc) and Number 2 Tag (the circular disc). They are embossed with the title AS, the member's PMKeyS number, initials and name, religion and blood group. Belgium Belgian Forces identity tags are, like the Canadian and Norwegian, designed to be broken in two in case of fatality; the lower half is returned to Belgian Defence Headquarters, while the upper half remains on the body. The tags contain the following information: Upper half: Belgisch Leger (Belgian Army) Service Number Surname Gender Date of birth Religion and blood group with RH factor Lower half: identical.ses Canada Canadian Forces identity discs (abbreviated "I discs") are designed to be broken in two in the case of fatality; the lower half is returned to National Defence Headquarters with the member's personal documents, while the upper half remains on the body. The tags contain the following information: Canadian Forces Administrative Order 26-4 - Identity Discs Canadian Forces Finance & Corporate Services website Upper half: Service Number (SN) Initials and surname Religion and blood group with RH factor The legend "CDN FORCES CDN" (or for foreign nationals, the name of the country the individual represents) The text "DO NOT REMOVE / NE PAS ENLEVER" on the reverse Lower half: identical, except it does not contain the blood type, and the reverse is blank. Before the Service Number was introduced in the 1990s, military personnel were identified on the I discs (as well as other documents) by their Social Insurance Number. Cyprus In Cyprus, identification tags include the following information Surname First Name Service Number (eg. 11111/00/00B where the first numbers are the ID / the second two are the year you closed 18 years old / the last 2 numbers are the year you enlisted and the letter either A or B is the enlistment group) Blood Group Denmark Danish dog tags are a small metallic plate, designed to be broken in two. The information on the tag is: Personal identification number Last name First name Blood group Religious orientation On the right hand side of the tag it says 'Danmark' - the Danish word for Denmark Finland Finnish dog tags are also designed to be broken in two, however the only text on it is the personal identification number. Germany German Bundeswehr ID tags are an oval-shaped disc designed to be broken in half. Both sides contain different Informations, which are mirrored upside-down on the lower half of the ID tag. They feature the following information on segmented and numbered fields: On the frontside Field 1: blank Field 2: DEU (for "Deutschland" / until 90ies GE for Germany ) Field 3: Religious preference (usually "rk" for Roman Catholic, or "ev" for Protestant) Field 4: Personenkennziffer (service number: birth date in DDMMYY format, dash, capitalized first letter of last name, dash, and five-digit number based on soldier's home military administrative district), ex. 101281-S-45568 on the backside Field 5: Blood group (ABO) Field 6: Rhesusfaktor Field 7: Vaccination Status Fields 8 - 10: blank Greece In Greece, identification tags include the following information Surname First Name Service Number (where date of birth is included as "class") Blood Group Not all corps are given ID tags in the Greek forces (for example, soldiers in the engineer corps are not issued tags, while those in the Infantry and Artillery are). Israel Israeli dog tags are designed to be broken in two. the information appears in three lines (twice): Army identification number ("mispar ishi", literally: personal number. A seven digit number that is different from the nine digit identification number for citizens). Last name First Name In case of capture, Israeli soldiers are instructed to provide the information that appears on the dog tag and their rank only. Another dog tag is kept inside the military boot in order to identify dead soldiers. The Netherlands The Dutch Armed Forces' identity tags, like the Canadian and Norwegian ones, are designed to be broken in two, in case of fatality; the lower half is returned to Dutch Defence Headquarters, while the upper half remains on the body. There is a difference in the Army and Airforce service number and the Navy service number: Army number is made up by the date of birth: YY.MM.DD. and a 3-digit number, e.g. 83.01.15.654 Navy number is made up out of random 5- or 6-digit numbers. The tags contain the following information: Upper half: Name and family name Service Number Nationality (NL) and religion Blood group with RH factor Lower half: identical. Poland The first dog tags were issued in Poland following the order of the General Staff of December 12, 1920. The earliest design (dubbed kapala in Polish, more properly called "kapsel legitymacyjny" or "ID cap") consisted of a tin-made rectangle frame 30 by 50 milimetres and a rectangle cap fitting into the frame. Soldiers' details were filled in a small ID card placed inside the frame, as well as on the inside of the frame itself. The dog tag was similar to the tags used by Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I. In case the soldier died, the frame was left with his body, while the lid was returned to his unit together with a note on his death. The ID card was handed over to the chaplain or the rabbi. In 1928 a new type of dog tag was proposed by gen. bryg. Stanisław Rouppert, Poland's representative at the International Red Cross. It was slightly modified and adopted in 1931 under the name of Nieśmiertelnik wz. 1931 (literally Immortalizer mark 1931). The new design consisted of an oval piece of metal (ideally steel, but in most cases aluminium alloy was used), roughly 40 by 50 milimetres. There were two notches on both sides of the tag, as well as two rectangular holes in the middle to allow for easier breaking the tag in two halves. The halves contained the same set of data and were identical, except the upper half had two holes for a string or twine to go through. The data stamped on the dog tag included: Obverse Name Surname Optionally: abbreviation of soldiers' religion (KAT for Catholics, GR-KAT for Greek Catholics, PRAW for Orthodox, MOJ for Jewish, AUG for Lutherans, ANG for Anglicans and MAH for Muslims) Reverse Soldiers' ID card number and first letter of the powiat the soldier came from name of the Recruitment Commission (usually name of the town or city the soldier was attached to) Year of birth Sometimes the rank of the soldier was added to the reverse and most members of the medical corps had a tiny cross stamped near the string holes, regardless of their religion. Norway Norwegian dog tags are designed to be broken in two like the Canadian version: The top half containing the nationality, the eleven digit birth number and the blood type. The bottom half contains the nationality, birth number and has a hole so the broken off half can be hung on a ring. Singapore The Singapore Armed Forces-issued dog tags are inscribed (not embossed) with three items: NRIC number blood type religion The dog tags consist of two metal pieces, one oval with two holes, and one round with one hole. A synthetic lanyard is threaded through both holes in the oval piece, and tied around the wearer's neck. The round piece is tied to the main loop on a shorter loop. When a soldier is killed in action, the round piece is removed by cutting the short loop with a bayonet, while the oval piece remains with the body. Sweden Swedish civilian dog tag (1970s). Swedish dog tags are designed to be able to break apart. The information on them is: Personal identity number (twice, once in the upper part and once below) Full name Place of birth Blood type Switzerland Swiss Armed Forces ID tags are oval-shaped and are not designed to be broken in two. In case of fatality, the tag will be completely removed. They contain the following information: Social Insurance Number Surname First Name Date of birth in DD.MM.YY format United Kingdom UK Forces have the "Big 6" embossed on a circular tag, the Big 6 being: Blood Group Service Number Surname Initials Religion Uses a two-letter code: CE (Church of England; the official religion of England) or OD (Other Denomination; all other religions). United States US Armed Forces typically carry two identical oval tags containing: U.S. Air Force Format 1: Surname, first name, middle initial Social Security Number, followed by "AF" indicating branch of Blood Group "blank" Religion U.S. Air Force Format 2: Surname First name and middle initial Social Security Number, followed by "AF" indicating branch of service. Blood Group Religion U.S. Marine Corps: Surname First and middle initials,blood group Social Security Number with no dashes and no spaces Branch ("USMC"),Gas Mask size (S-small, M-medium, L-large) Religious preference (or "NO PREFERENCE") or medical allergy if red medical tag. U.S. Navy: Surname, first name, middle initial "blank" Social Security Number with no dashes or spaces followed immediately by branch blood group "blank" Religion U.S. Army: Surname First name, middle initial Social Security Number Blood type Religion U.S.Coast Guard: Surname, first name, middle initial Social Security Number with no dashes or spaces followed immediately by branch blood group "blank" Religion Recently, the U.S. Army stopped using the term "Dog tags", replacing it with "I.D tags". US Forces are also permitted to wear a small religious medallion, usually provided for them, on the smaller chain (e.g. a Cross or Star of David). This provides a quick, easily identifiable reference for a chaplain should his services be required. Notes External links "A Battlefield Souvenir?" - The Story of a Union Identity Disk in the Civil War´ Captain Richard W. Wooley. "A Short History of Identification Tags". Quartermaster Professional Bulletin, December, 1988. 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2,264 | Malleus_Maleficarum | Cover of the seventh Cologne edition of the Malleus Maleficarum, 1520 (from the University of Sydney Library). The Latin title is "MALLEUS MALEFICARUM, Maleficas, & earum hæresim, ut phramea potentissima conterens." (English: The Hammer of Witches which destroyeth Witches and their heresy like a most powerful spear). The English translation is from this note to Summers' 1928 introduction. The Malleus Maleficarum Translator Montague Summers consistently uses "the Malleus Maleficarum" (or simply "the Malleus") in his 1928 and 1948 introductions. (Latin for "The Hammer Against Witches", or "Der Hexenhammer" in German) is a famous treatise on witches, written in 1486 by Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, two Inquisitors of the Catholic Church, and was first published in Germany in 1487. Ruickbie (2004), 71, highlights the problems of dating; Ankarloo (2002), 239 The main purpose of the Malleus was systematically to refute arguments claiming that witchcraft does not exist, refute those who expressed skepticism about its reality, to prove that witches were more often women than men, and to educate magistrates on the procedures that could find them out and convict them. Ankarloo, 240 Genesis The Malleus Maleficarum was published in 1487 by Heinrich Kramer (Latinized Institoris) and James Sprenger (also known as Jacob or Jakob Sprenger). Scholars have debated how much Sprenger contributed to the work. Some say his role was minor Russell (1972), 230 while others say there is little evidence for this claim. Mackay (2006), 103 In 1484 Kramer made one of the first attempts at a systematic persecution of witches in the region of Tyrol. It was not a success, Kramer was thrown out of the territory, and dismissed by the local bishop as a "senile old man". According to Diarmaid MacCulloch , writing the book was Kramer’s act of self-justification and revenge. Some scholars have suggested that following the failed efforts in Tyrol, Kramer and Sprenger requested and received a papal bull Summis desiderantes affectibus in 1484. It allegedly gave full papal approval for the Inquisition to prosecute witchcraft in general and for Kramer and Sprenger specifically. Russell, 229 Malleus Maleficarum was written in 1484 or 1485 and the papal bull was included as part of the preface. Russell, 229 The preface also includes an approbation from the University of Cologne’s Faculty of Theology. The authenticity of the Cologne endorsement was first questioned by Joseph Hansen but Christopher S. Mackay rejects his theory as a misunderstanding. Mackay (2006), 128 The Malleus Maleficarum drew on earlier sources like the Johannes Nider's treatise Formicarius, written 1435/37. Bailey (2003), 30 The book became the handbook for witch-hunters and Inquisitors throughout Late Medieval Europe. Between the years 1487 and 1520, the work was published thirteen times. It was again published between the years of 1574 to 1669 a total of sixteen times. Regardless of the authenticity of the papal bull and endorsements which appear at the beginning of the book, its presence contributed to the Malleus's popularity. Ancient pre-Christian beliefs in reality of witchcraft had been denied by the church in earlier centuries; the first Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne had specifically outlawed the old practice of witch burning "in the manner of the pagans". By the 15th century belief in witches was once again openly accepted in European society, but they typically suffered penalties no more harsh than public penances such as a day in the stocks Persecution of witches became more brutal following the publication of the Malleus, with witchcraft now accepted as a real and dangerous phenomenon. Trevor-Roper (1968), 102-105 Contents The Malleus Maleficarum asserts that three elements are necessary for witchcraft: the evil-intentioned witch, the help of the Devil, and the Permission of God. Russell, 232 The treatise is divided up into three sections. The first section refutes critics who denied the reality of witchcraft, thereby hindering its prosecution. The second section describes the actual forms of witchcraft and its remedies. The third section is to assist judges confronting and combating witchcraft. However, each of these three sections has the prevailing themes of what is witchcraft and who is a witch. The Malleus Maleficarum can hardly be called an original text, for it heavily relies upon earlier works such as Visconti and, most famously, Johannes Nider's Formicarius (1435). Russell, 279 Section I Section I argues that because the Devil exists and has the power to do astounding things, witches exist to help, if done through the aid of the Devil and with the permission of God. Broedel, 22 The Devil’s power is greatest where human sexuality is concerned, for it was believed that women were more sexual than men. Loose women had sex with the Devil, thus paving their way to become witches. To quote the Malleus “all witchcraft comes from carnal lust, which is in women insatiable.” Section II In section II of the Malleus Maleficarum, the authors turn to matters of practice by discussing actual cases. This section first discusses the powers of witches, and then goes into recruitment strategies. Broedel, 30 It is mostly witches as opposed to the Devil who do the recruiting, by making something go wrong in the life of a respectable matron that makes her consult the knowledge of a witch, or by introducing young maidens to tempting young devils. This section also details how witches cast spells and remedies that can be taken to prevent witchcraft or help those that have been affected by it. Mackay, 214 Section III Section III is the legal part of the Malleus that describes how to prosecute a witch. The arguments are clearly laid for the lay magistrates prosecuting witches. Institoris and Sprenger offer a step-by-step guide to the conduct of a witch trial, from the method of initiating the process and assembling accusations, to the interrogation (including torture) of witnesses, and the formal charging of the accused. Broedel, 34 Women who did not cry during their trial were automatically believed to be witches. Mackay, 502 Major themes Misogyny is widespread in the Malleus Maleficarum. The treatise singled out women as specifically inclined for witchcraft, claiming they were susceptible to demonic temptations through their manifold weaknesses. It was believed that they were weaker in faith and were more carnal than men. Bailey, 49 Michael Bailey claims that most of the women accused as witches had strong personalities and were known to defy convention by overstepping the lines of proper female decorum. Bailey, 51 After the publication of the Malleus, most of those who were prosecuted as witches were women. Russell, 145 Indeed, the very title of the Malleus Maleficarum is feminine, alluding to the idea that it was women who were the villains. Otherwise, it would be the Malleus Maleficorum (the masculine form of the Latin noun maleficus or malefica, 'witch'), which would mean The Hammer of (Male) Witches. In Latin, the feminine "Maleficarum" would only be used for women while the masculine "Maleficorum" could be used for either sex. Maxwell-Stewart, 30 The Malleus Maleficarum accuses witches of infanticide, cannibalism, casting evil spells to harm their enemies, and having the power to steal men’s penises. It goes on to give accounts of witches committing these crimes. The Malleus Maleficarum was heavily influenced by humanistic ideologies. The ancient subjects of astronomy, philosophy, and medicine were being reintroduced to the West at this time, as well as a plethora of ancient texts being rediscovered and studied. The Malleus often makes reference to the Bible and Aristotelian thought, and it is also heavily influenced by the philosophical tenets of Neo-Platonism. Kieckhefer (2000), 145 It also mentions astrology and astronomy, which had recently been reintroduced to the West by the ancient works of Pythagoras. Kieckhefer, 146 Reasons for widespread use The Malleus Maleficarum was able to spread throughout Europe so rapidly in the late fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century due to the innovation of the printing press in the middle of the fifteenth century by Johannes Gutenberg. That printing should have been invented thirty years before the first publication of the Malleus, which instigated the fervor of witch hunting, and, in the words of Russell, "the swift propagation of the witch hysteria by the press was the first evidence that Gutenberg had not liberated man from original sin." Russell, 234 The Malleus is also heavily influenced by the subjects of divination, astrology, and healing rituals the Church inherited from antiquity. Ankarloo, 77 The late fifteenth century was also a period of religious turmoil, for the Protestant Reformation was but a few decades in the future. The Malleus Maleficarum and the witch craze that ensued took advantage of the increasing intolerance of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation in Europe, where the Protestant and Catholic camps each zealously strove to maintain the purity of faith. Henningsen (1980), 15 Consequences Between 1487 and 1520, twenty editions of the Malleus were published, and another sixteen editions were published between 1574 to 1669. Russell, 79 Popular accounts suggest that the extensive publishing of the Malleus Maleficarum in 1487 launched centuries of witch-hunts in Europe. Estimations of deaths have varied widely, but among scholars the more commonly accepted estimates are between 40,000 and 60,000 people, mostly women, because they were accused as witches. According to MacCulloch, the Malleus was one of several key causes of the witch craze, along with popular superstition, jealously of witches knowledge from humanist scholars, and tensions created by the Reformation. However, as some researchers have noted, the fact that the Malleus was popular does not imply that it accurately reflected or influenced actual practice; one researcher compared it to confusing a "television docu-drama" with "actual court proceedings." Estimates about the effect of the Malleus should thus be weighed accordingly. See also Witchcraft and divination in the Bible Christian views on witchcraft Torture of witches Notes and Citations References Flint, Valerie. The Rise of Magic in Early Medieval Europe. Princeton University Press. Princeton, NJ. 1991 (payment required) Henningsen, Gustav. The Witches' Advocate: Basque Witchcraft and the Spanish Inquisition. University of Nevada Press. Reno, NV. 1980 This is the edition held by the University of Sydney Library. Kieckhefer, Richard. Magic in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, England. 2000 (bibrec) (editor's home page) Volume 1 is the Latin text of the first edition of 1486-7 with annotations and an introduction. Volume 2 is an English translation with explanatory notes. (bibrec) (payment required for full text) External links Malleus Maleficarum - Online version of Latin text and scanned pages of Malleus Maleficarum published in 1580. Malleus Maleficarum - Full text of the 1928 English translation by Montague Summers. His 1948 introduction is also included. 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2,265 | Euclidean_geometry | A Greek mathematician performing a geometric construction with a compass, from The School of Athens by Raphael. (The figure depicted may be either Archimedes or Euclid, and despite the painting's popular name, neither was Athenian.) Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to the Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria. Euclid's Elements is the earliest known systematic discussion of geometry. It has been one of the most influential books in history, as much for its method as for its mathematical content. The method consists of assuming a small set of intuitively appealing axioms, and then proving many other propositions (theorems) from those axioms. Although many of Euclid's results had been stated by earlier mathematicians, Eves, vol. 1., p. 19 Euclid was the first to show how these propositions could be fit together into a comprehensive deductive and logical system. Eves (1963), vol. 1, p. 10 The Elements begin with plane geometry, still taught in secondary school as the first axiomatic system and the first examples of formal proof. It goes on to the solid geometry of three dimensions. Much of the Elements states results of what are now called algebra and number theory, couched in geometrical language. Eves, p. 19 For over two thousand years, the adjective "Euclidean" was unnecessary because no other sort of geometry had been conceived. Euclid's axioms seemed so intuitively obvious that any theorem proved from them was deemed true in an absolute sense. Today, however, many other self-consistent non-Euclidean geometries are known, the first ones having been discovered in the early 19th century. It also is no longer taken for granted that Euclidean geometry describes physical space. An implication of Einstein's theory of general relativity is that Euclidean geometry is a good approximation to the properties of physical space only if the gravitational field is not too strong. Misner, Thorne, and Wheeler (1973), p. 47 The Elements The Elements are mainly a systematization of earlier knowledge of geometry. Its superiority over earlier treatments was rapidly recognized, with the result that there was little interest in preserving the earlier ones, and they are now nearly all lost. Books I-IV discuss plane geometry. Many results about plane figures are proved, e.g., If a triangle has two equal angles, then the sides subtended by the angles are equal. The Pythagorean theorem is proved. Euclid, book IX, proposition 20 Books V-X deal with number theory, with numbers treated geometrically via their representation as line segments with various lengths. Notions such as prime numbers and rational and irrational numbers are introduced. The infinitude of prime numbers is proved. Books XI-XIII concern solid geometry. A typical result is the 1:3 ratio between the volume of a cone and a cylinder with the same height and base. The parallel postulate: If two lines intersect a third in such a way that the sum of the inner angles on one side is less than two right angles, then the two lines inevitably must intersect each other on that side if extended far enough. Axioms Euclidean geometry is an axiomatic system, in which all theorems ("true statements") are derived from a small number of axioms. Near the beginning of the first book of the Elements, Euclid gives five postulates (axioms) for plane geometry, stated in terms of constructions: tr. Heath, pp. 195-202. Let the following be postulated: to draw a straight line from any point to any point. To produce [extend] a finite straight line continuously in a straight line. To describe a circle with any center and distance [radius]. That all right angles are equal to one another. The parallel postulate: That, if a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles. Although Euclid's statement of the postulates only explicitly asserts the existence of the constructions, they are also taken to be unique. The Elements also include the following five "common notions": Things that equal the same thing also equal one another. If equals are added to equals, then the wholes are equal. If equals are subtracted from equals, then the remainders are equal. Things that coincide with one another equal one another. The whole is greater than the part. The parallel postulate To the ancients, the parallel postulate seemed less obvious than the others. Euclid himself seems to have considered it as being qualitatively different from the others, as evidenced by the organization of the Elements: the first 28 propositions he presents are those that can be proved without it. Many alternative axioms can be formulated that have the same logical consequences as the parallel postulate. For example Playfair's axiom states: Through a point not on a given straight line, at most one line can be drawn that never meets the given line. A proof from Euclid's elements that, given a line segment, an equilateral triangle exists that includes the segment as one of its sides. The proof is by construction: an equilateral triangle ΑΒΓ is made by drawing circles Δ and Ε centered on the points Α and Β, and taking one intersection of the circles as the third vertex of the triangle. Methods of proof Euclidean geometry is constructive. Postulates 1, 2, 3, and 5 assert the existence and uniqueness of certain geometric figures, and these assertions are of a constructive nature: that is, we are not only told that certain things exist, but are also given methods for creating them with no more than a compass and an unmarked straightedge. Ball, p. 56 In this sense, Euclidean geometry is more concrete than many modern axiomatic systems such as set theory, which often assert the existence of objects without saying how to construct them, or even assert the existence of objects that cannot be constructed within the theory. Strictly speaking, the lines on paper are models of the objects defined within the formal system, rather than instances of those objects. For example a Euclidean straight line has no width, but any real drawn line will. Although nonconstructive methods are today considered by nearly all mathematicians to be just as sound as constructive ones, Euclid's constructive proofs often supplanted fallacious nonconstructive ones, e.g., some of the Pythagoreans' proofs involving irrational numbers, which usually required a statement such as "Find the greatest common measure of ..." Euclid often used proof by contradiction. Euclidean geometry also allows the method of superposition, in which a figure is transferred to another point in space. For example, proposition I.4, side-angle-side congruence of triangles, is proved by moving one of the two triangles so that one of its sides coincides with the other triangle's equal side, and then proving that the other sides coincide as well. Some modern treatments add a sixth postulate, the rigidity of the triangle, which can be used as an alternative to superposition. Coxeter, p. 5 System of measurement and arithmetic Euclidean geometry has two fundamental types of measurements: angle and distance. The angle scale is absolute, and Euclid uses the right angle as his basic unit, so that, e.g., a 45-degree angle would be referred to as half of a right angle. The distance scale is relative; one arbitrarily picks a line with a certain length as the unit, and other distances are expressed in relation to it. A line in Euclidean geometry is a model of the real number line. Addition is represented by a construction in which one line is copied onto the end of another line to extend its length, and similarly for subtraction. Measurements of area and volume are derived from distances. For example, a rectangle with a width of 3 and a length of 4 has an area that represents the product, 12. Because this geometrical interpretation of multiplication was limited to three dimensions, there was no direct way of interpreting the product of four or more numbers, and Euclid avoided such products, although they are implied, e.g., in the proof of book IX, proposition 20. An example of congruence. The two figures on the left are congruent, while the third is similar to them. The last figure is neither. Note that congruences alter some properties, such as location and orientation, but leave others unchanged, like distance and angles. The latter sort of properties are called invariants and studying them is the essence of geometry. Euclid refers to a pair of lines, or a pair of planar or solid figures, as "equal" (ἴσος) if their lengths, areas, or volumes are equal, and similarly for angles. The stronger term "congruent" refers to the idea that an entire figure is the same size and shape as another figure. Alternatively, two figures are congruent if one can be moved on top of the other so that it matches up with it exactly. (Flipping it over is allowed.) Thus, for example, a 2x6 rectangle and a 3x4 rectangle are equal but not congruent, and the letter R is congruent to its mirror image. Figures that would be congruent except for their differing sizes are referred to as similar. Notation and terminology Naming of points and figures Points are customarily named using capital letters of the alphabet. Other figures, such as lines, triangles, or circles, are named by listing a sufficient number of points to pick them out unambiguously from the relevant figure, e.g., triangle ABC would typically be a triangle with vertices at points A, B, and C. Complementary and supplementary angles Angles whose sum is a right angle are called complementary, those whose sum is two right angles supplementary. Modern versions of Euclid's notation In modern terminology, angles would normally be measured in degrees or radians. Modern school textbooks often define separate figures called lines (infinite), rays (semi-infinite), and line segments (of finite length). Euclid, rather than discussing a ray as an object that extends to infinity in one direction, would normally use locutions such as "if the line is extended to a sufficient length," although he occasionally referred to "infinite lines." A "line" in Euclid could be either straight or curved, and he used the more specific term "straight line" when necessary. Some important or well known results The Bridge of Asses The Bridge of Asses (Pons Asinorum) states that in isosceles triangles the angles at the base equal one another, and, if the equal straight lines are produced further, then the angles under the base equal one another. Euclid, book I, proposition 5, tr. Heath, p. 251 Its name may be attributed to its frequent role as the first real test in the Elements of the intelligence of the reader and as a bridge to the harder propositions that followed. It might also be so named because of the geometrical figure's resemblance to a steep bridge which could only be crossed by a sure–footed donkey. Ignoring the alleged difficulty of Book I, Proposition 5, Sir Thomas L. Heath mentions another interpretation. This rests on the resemblance of the figure's lower straight lines to a steeply–inclined bridge which could be crossed by an ass but not by a horse. "But there is another view (as I have learnt lately) which is more complimentary to the ass. It is that, the figure of the proposition being like that of a trestle–bridge, with a ramp at each end which is more practicable the flatter the figure is drawn, the bridge is such that, while a horse could not surmount the ramp, an ass could; in other words, the term is meant to refer to the surefootedness of the ass rather than to any want of intelligence on his part." (in "Excursis II," volume 1 of Heath's translation of The Thirteen Books of the Elements.) Congruence of triangles is determined by specifying two sides and the angle between them (SAS), two angles and the side between them (ASA) or two angles and a corresponding adjacent side (AAS). Specifying two sides and an adjacent angle (SSA), however, can yield two distinct possible triangles. Congruence of triangles Triangles are congruent if they have all three sides equal (SSS), two sides and the angle between them equal (SAS), or two angles and a side equal (AAS) (Book I, propositions 4, 8, and 26). (Triangles with three equal angles are generally similar, but not necessarily congruent. Also, triangles with two equal sides and an adjacent angle are not necessarily equal.) Sum of the angles of a triangle The sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles (180 degrees). Euclid, book I, proposition 32 The Pythagorean theorem The celebrated Pythagorean theorem (book I, proposition 47) states that in any right triangle, the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares whose sides are the two legs (the two sides that meet at a right angle). Thales' theorem Thales' theorem (book I, proposition 32, named after Thales of Miletus) states that if A, B, and C are points on a circle where the line AC is a diameter of the circle, then the angle ABC is a right angle. Tradition has it that Thales sacrificed an ox to celebrate this theorem. Heath, p. 318 Scaling of area and volume In modern terminology, the area of a plane figure is proportional to the square of any of its linear dimensions, , and the volume of a solid to the cube, . Euclid proved these results in various special cases such as the area of a circle Euclid, book XII, proposition 2 and the volume of a parallelepipedal solid Euclid, book XI, proposition 33 . Euclid determined some, but not all, of the relevant constants of proportionality. E.g., it was his successor Archimedes who proved that a sphere has 2/3 the volume of the circumscribing cylinder. Ball, p. 66 Applications Because of Euclidean geometry's fundamental status in mathematics, it would be impossible to give more than a representative sampling of applications here. As suggested by the etymology of the word, one of the earliest reasons for interest in geometry was surveying, Ball, p. 5 and certain practical results from Euclidean geometry, such as the right-angle property of the 3-4-5 triangle, were used long before they were proved formally. Eves, vol. 1, p. 5; Mlodinow, p. 7 The fundamental types of measurements in Euclidean geometry are distances and angles, and both of these quantities can be measured directly by a surveyor. Historically, distances were often measured by chains such as Gunter's chain, and angles using graduated circles and, later, the theodolite. An application of Euclidean solid geometry is the determination of packing arrangements, such as the problem of finding the most efficient packing of spheres in n dimensions. This problem has applications in error detection and correction. Geometric optics uses Euclidean geometry to analyze the focusing of light by lenses and mirrors. Geometry is used extensively in architecture. Geometry can be used to design origami. Some classical construction problems of geometry are impossible using compass and straightedge, but can be solved using origami. Origami Geometric Constructions, accessed 2009 Feb 25 As a description of the structure of space Euclid believed that his axioms were self-evident statements about physical reality. Taken as a physical description of space, postulate 2 (extending a line) asserts that space does not have holes or boundaries (i.e., space is homogenous); postulate 4 (equality of right angles) says that space is homogeneous and isotropic, so that figures may be moved to any location while maintaining congruence; and postulate 5 that space is flat (has no intrinsic curvature). Roger Penrose, The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe, 2005, p. 29 As discussed in more detail below, Einstein's theory of relativity significantly modifies this view. The ambiguous character of the axioms as originally formulated by Euclid makes it possible for different commentators to disagree about some of their other implications for the structure of space, such as whether or not it is infinite Heath, p. 200 (see below) and what its topology is. Modern, more rigorous reformulations of the system e.g., Tarski (1951) typically aim for a cleaner separation of these issues. Interpreting Euclid's axioms in the spirit of this more modern approach, axioms 1-4 are consistent with either infinite or finite space (as in elliptic geometry), and all five axioms are consistent with a variety of topologies (e.g., a plane, a cylinder, or a torus for two-dimensional Euclidean geometry). Later work Archimedes and Apollonius A sphere has 2/3 the volume and surface area of its circumscribing cylinder. A sphere and cylinder were placed on the tomb of Archimedes at his request. Archimedes (ca. 287 BCE – ca. 212 BCE), a colorful figure about whom many historical anecdotes are recorded, is remembered along with Euclid as one of the greatest of ancient mathematicians. Although the foundations of his work were put in place by Euclid, his work, unlike Euclid's, is believed to have been entirely his own original accomplishment. Eves, p. 27 He proved equations for the volumes and areas of various figures in two and three dimensions, and enunciated the Archimedean property of finite numbers. Apollonius of Perga (ca. 262 BCE–ca. 190 BCE) is mainly known for his investigation of conic sections. René Descartes. Portrait after Frans Hals, 1648. The 17th century: Descartes René Descartes (1596-1650) developed analytic geometry, an alternative method for formalizing geometry. Ball, pp. 268ff In this approach, a point is represented by its Cartesian (x,y) coordinates, a line is represented by its equation, and so on. In Euclid's original approach, the Pythagorean theorem follows from Euclid's axioms. In the Cartesian approach, the axioms are the axioms of algebra, and the equation expressing the Pythagorean theorem is then a definition of one of the terms in Euclid's axioms, which are now considered to be theorems. The equation:defining the distance between two points and is then known as the Euclidean metric, and other metrics define non-Euclidean geometries. In terms of analytic geometry, the restriction of classical geometry to compass and straightedge constructions means a restriction to first- and second-order equations, e.g., y=2x+1 (a line), or x2+y2=7 (a circle). Also in the 17th century, Girard Desargues, motivated by the theory of perspective, introduced the concept of idealized points, lines, and planes at infinity. The result can be considered as a type of generalized geometry, projective geometry, but it can also be used to produce proofs in ordinary Euclidean geometry in which the number of special cases is reduced. Eves (1963) Squaring the circle: the areas of this square and this circle are equal. In 1882, it was proven that this figure cannot be constructed in a finite number of steps with an idealized compass and straightedge. The 18th century Geometers of the 18th century struggled to define the boundaries of the Euclidean system. Many tried in vain to prove the fifth postulate from the first four. By 1763 at least 28 different proofs had been published, but all were found to be incorrect. Hofstadter 1979, p. 91. Leading up to this period, geometers also tried to determine what constructions could be accomplished in Euclidean geometry. For example, the problem of trisecting an angle with a compass and straightedge is one that naturally occurs within the theory, since the axioms refer to constructive operations that can be carried out with those tools. However, centuries of efforts failed to find a solution to this problem, until Pierre Wantzel published a proof in 1837 that such a construction was impossible. Other constructions that were proved to be impossible include doubling the cube and squaring the circle. In the case of doubling the cube, the impossibility of the construction originates from the fact that the compass and straightedge method involve first- and second-order equations, while doubling a cube requires the solution of a third-order equation. Euler discussed a generalization of Euclidean geometry called affine geometry, which retains the fifth postulate unmodified while weakening postulates three and four in a way that eliminates the notions of angle (whence right triangles become meaningless) and of equality of length of line segments in general (whence circles become meaningless) while retaining the notions of parallelism as an equivalence relation between lines, and equality of length of parallel line segments (so line segments continue to have a midpoint). The 19th century and noneuclidean geometry In the early 19th century, Carnot and Möbius systematically developed the use of signed angles and line segments as a way of simplifying and unifying results. Eves (1963), p. 64 The century's most significant development in geometry occurred when, around 1830, János Bolyai and Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky separately published work on noneuclidean geometry, in which the parallel postulate is not valid. Ball, p. 485 Since noneuclidean geometry is provably self-consistent, the parallel postulate cannot be proved from the other postulates. In the 19th century, it was also realized that Euclid's ten axioms and common notions do not suffice to prove all of theorems stated in the Elements. For example, Euclid assumed implicitly that any line contains at least two points, but this assumption cannot be proved from the other axioms, and therefore needs to be an axiom itself. The very first geometric proof in the Elements, shown in the figure above, is that any line segment is part of a triangle; Euclid constructs this in the usual way, by drawing circles around both endpoints and taking their intersection as the third vertex. His axioms, however, do not guarantee that the circles actually intersect, because they do not assert the geometrical property of continuity, which in Cartesian terms is equivalent to the completeness property of the real numbers. Starting with Moritz Pasch in 1882, many improved axiomatic systems for geometry have been proposed, the best known being those of Hilbert, * Howard Eves, 1997 (1958). Foundations and Fundamental Concepts of Mathematics. Dover. George Birkhoff, Birkhoff, G. D., 1932, "A Set of Postulates for Plane Geometry (Based on Scale and Protractors)," Annals of Mathematics 33. and Tarski. Tarski (1951) The 20th century and general relativity A disproof of Euclidean geometry as a description of physical space. In a 1919 test of the general theory of relativity, stars (marked with short horizontal lines) were photographed during a solar eclipse. The rays of starlight were bent by the Sun's gravity on their way to the earth. This is interpreted as evidence in favor of Einstein's prediction that gravity would cause deviations from Euclidean geometry. Einstein's theory of general relativity shows that the true geometry of spacetime is non-Euclidean geometry. Misner, Thorne, and Wheeler (1973), p. 191 For example, if a triangle is constructed out of three rays of light, then in general the interior angles do not add up to 180 degrees due to gravity. A relatively weak gravitational field, such as the Earth's or the sun's, is represented by a metric that is approximately, but not exactly, Euclidean. Until the 20th century, there was no technology capable of detecting the deviations from Euclidean geometry, but Einstein predicted that such deviations would exist. They were later verified by observations such as the observation of the slight bending of starlight by the Sun during a solar eclipse in 1919, and non-Euclidean geometry is now, for example, an integral part of the software that runs the GPS system. Rizos, Chris. University of New South Wales. GPS Satellite Signals. 1999. It is possible to object to the non-Euclidean interpretation of general relativity on the grounds that light rays might be improper physical models of Euclid's lines, or that relativity could be rephrased so as to avoid the geometrical interpretations. However, one of the consequences of Einstein's theory is that there is no possible physical test that can do any better than a beam of light as a model of geometry. Thus, the only logical possibilities are to accept non-Euclidean geometry as physically real, or to reject the entire notion of physical tests of the axioms of geometry, which can then be imagined as a formal system without any intrinsic real-world meaning. Treatment of infinity Infinite objects Euclid sometimes distinguished explicitly between "finite lines" (e.g., Postulate 2) and "infinite lines" (book I, proposition 12). However, he typically did not make such distinctions unless they were necessary. The postulates do not explicitly refer to infinite lines, although for example some commentators interpret postulate 3, existence of a circle with any radius, as implying that space is infinite. Heath, p. 200 The notion of infinitesimally small quantities had previously been discussed extensively by the Eleatic School, but nobody had been able to put them on a firm logical basis, with paradoxes such as Zeno's paradox occurring that had not been resolved to universal satisfaction. Euclid used the method of exhaustion rather than infinitesimals. Ball, p. 31 Later ancient commentators such as Proclus (410-485 CE) treated many questions about infinity as issues demanding proof and, e.g., Proclus claimed to prove the infinite divisibility of a line, based on a proof by contradiction in which he considered the cases of even and odd numbers of points constituting it. Heath, p. 268 At the turn of the 20th century, Giuseppe Veronese produced controversial work on non-Archimedean models of Euclidean geometry, in which the distance between two points may be infinite or infinitesimal, in the Newton-Leibniz sense. Giuseppe Veronese, On Non-Archimedean Geometry, 1908. English translation in Real Numbers, Generalizations of the Reals, and Theories of Continua, ed. Philip Ehrlich, Kluwer, 1994. Fifty years later, Abraham Robinson provided a rigorous logical foundation for Veronese's work. Robinson, Abraham (1966). Non-standard analysis. Infinite processes One reason that the ancients treated the parallel postulate as less certain than the others is that verifying it physically would require us to inspect two lines to check that they never intersected, even at some very distant point, and this inspection could potentially take an infinite amount of time. For the assertion that this was the historical reason for the ancients considering the parallel postulate less obvious than the others, see Nagel and Newman 1958, p. 9. The modern formulation of proof by induction was not developed until the 17th century, but some later commentators consider it to be implicit in some of Euclid's proofs, e.g., the proof of the infinitude of primes. Cajori (1918), p. 197 Supposed paradoxes involving infinite series, such as Zeno's paradox, predated Euclid. Euclid avoided such discussions, giving, for example, the expression for the partial sums of the geometric series in IX.35 without commenting on the possibility of letting the number of terms become infinite. Logical basis Euclid frequently used the method of proof by contradiction, and therefore the traditional presentation of Euclidean geometry assumes classical logic, in which every proposition is either true or false, i.e., for any proposition P, the proposition "P or not P" is automatically true. Tarski (1902-1983) and his students demonstrated for the first time that Euclidean geometry can be expressed as a first-order theory. That is, it can be written entirely in a form that allows statements such as "for all triangles ...", without those like "for all sets of triangles ..." This is important because it shows that the subject does not depend on set theory for its logical basis. Tarski proved his axiomatic formulation of Euclidean geometry to be consistent and complete in a certain sense: there is an algorithm which, for every proposition, can show it to be either true or false. Tarski (1951) (This doesn't violate Gödel's theorem, because Euclidean geometry cannot describe a sufficient amount of arithmetic for the theorem to apply. Franzén 2005, p. 25-26. ) This is equivalent to the decidability of real closed fields, which Euclidean geometry is a model of. See also Analytic geometry Interactive geometry software Non-Euclidean geometry Ordered geometry Incidence geometry Birkhoff's axioms Hilbert's axioms Tarski's axioms Parallel postulate Schopenhauer's criticism of the proofs of the Parallel Postulate Cartesian coordinate system Classical theorems Ceva's theorem Heron's formula Nine-point circle Pythagorean theorem Tartaglia's formula Menelaus's theorem Angle bisector theorem Butterfly theorem References Notes Sources Euclid, Elements, ca. 300 BCE Heath's authoritative translation of Euclid's Elements plus his extensive historical research and detailed commentary throughout the text. Alfred Tarski (1951) A Decision Method for Elementary Algebra and Geometry. Univ. of California Press. 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2,266 | Exeter | Exeter (, ) is a city, district and county town of Devon, England. Exeter is located approximately northeast of Plymouth, and southwest of Bristol, on the River Exe. The city has a population of 111,076 according to the 2001 Census. Exeter was the most south-westerly Roman fortified settlement in Britain and has existed since time immemorial. Exeter Cathedral, founded in 1050 is Anglican. Tourism forms a vital part of the city's economy, and in 2004 Exeter was granted Fairtrade City status. Exeter has been identified as one of the top ten most profitable locations for a business to be based. Dun & Bradstreet, 2001 The city has good transport links, with Exeter St David's railway station, Exeter Central railway station, the M5 motorway and Exeter International Airport connecting the city both nationally and internationally. History Roman times The Latin name for Exeter, Isca Dumnoniorum ("Isca of the Dumnones"), suggests that the city was of Celtic origin. This oppidum, (a Latin term meaning an important town), on the banks of the River Exe certainly existed prior to the foundation of the Roman city in about AD 50, however the name may have been suggested by a Celtic adviser to the Romans, rather than by the original inhabitants of the place. An illustration of Exeter in 1563, entitled Civitas Exoniae (vulgo Excester) urbs primaria in comitatu Devoniae Such early towns, or proto-cities, had been a feature of pre-Roman Gaul as described by Julius Caesar in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico ("Commentaries on the Gallic Wars") and it is possible that they existed in neighbouring Great Britain as well. Isca is derived from a Brythonic Celtic word for flowing water, which was given to the Exe and, elsewhere, to the River Usk on which Caerleon in Monmouthshire stands. The Romans gave the city the name Isca Dumnoniorum in order to distinguish it from Isca Augusta, modern Caerleon. Significant parts of the Roman wall remain, though the present visible structure was largely built on the orders of Alfred the Great to protect the far west of his kingdom following the Viking occupation of 876. Most of its route can be traced on foot. There is a substantial Roman baths complex that was excavated in the 1970s, but because of its proximity to the cathedral, it has not been practicable to retain the excavation for public view. Exeter was also the southern starting point for the Fosse Way Roman road. Saxon times Exeter in 1844. A print by William Spreat showing St David's shortly after its consecration in 1844 In 876 Exeter (then known as Escanceaster) was attacked and captured by the Danes. King Alfred (Alfred the Great) drove them out the next year. In 894 the city held off another siege by the Danes. However, the city fell to the Danes a second time in 1001. In 927 Athelstan drove out the Cornish people who had continued to live in their own quarter (the north west quarter, known as Britayne) of the walled city since Roman times. It is considered that the Cornishmen returned to Exeter sometime later and their language could still be heard in the city until the 13th Century. In 1067 the city rebelled against William the Conqueror who promptly marched west and laid siege. The city submitted after only 18 days. Part of the capitulation agreement was that all the nobles in the city would be confirmed in their positions as long as a castle was built. Medieval times Exeter was held against King Stephen by Baldwin de Redvers in 1140 and submitted only after a three month siege when the supplies of fresh water ran out. Tudor and Stuart times Plaque on St Mary Steps Church commemorating the old West Gate and some of the military campaigns in which it featured In 1537, the city was made a county corporate. In 1549 the city successfully withstood a month-long siege by the Prayer Book rebels. The Livery Dole Almshouses and Chapel at Heavitree were founded in March 1591 and finished in 1594. They can still be seen today in the street which bears the name Livery Dole. The city's motto, Semper fidelis, is traditionally held to have been suggested by Elizabeth I, in acknowledgement of the city's contribution of ships to help defeat the Spanish Armada in 1588 ; however its first documented use is in 1660. Exeter was at first a Parliamentary town in the English Civil War in the largely Royalist South West, but it was captured by the Royalists on 4 September 1643 and it remained in their control until near the end of the war, being one of the final Royalist cities to fall into Parliamentary hands. During this period, Exeter was an economically powerful city, with a strong trade of wool. This was partly due to the surrounding area which was "more fertile and better inhabited than that passed over the preceding day" according to Count Lorenzo Magalotti who visited the city when he was 26 years old. Magalotti writes of over thirty thousand people being employed in the county of Devon as part of the wool and cloth industries, merchandise that was sold to "the West Indies, Spain, France and Italy". Celia Fiennes also visited Exeter during this period, in the early 1700s. She remarked on the "vast trade" and "incredible quantity" in Exeter, recording that "it turns the most money in a week of anything in England", between £10,000—£15,000. Georgian and Victorian times The High Street ca. 1895 Early in the Industrial Revolution, Exeter's industry developed on the basis of locally available agricultural products and, since the city's location on a fast-flowing river gave it ready access to water power, an early industrial site developed on drained marshland to the west of the city, at Exe Island. However when steam power replaced water in the 19th century, Exeter was too far from sources of coal (or iron) to develop further. As a result the city declined in relative importance, and was spared the rapid 19th century development that changed many historic European cities. Extensive canal redevelopments during this period further expanded Exeter's economy, with "vessels of 15 to 16 tons burthen [bringing] up goods and merchandise from Topsham to the City Quay". The first railway to arrive in Exeter was the Bristol and Exeter Railway that opened a station at St Davids on the western edge in 1844. The South Devon Railway Company extended the line westwards to Plymouth, opening their own smaller station at St Thomas, near the lower end of Fore Street. A more central railway station, that at Queen Street, was opened by the London and South Western Railway in 1860 when it opened its alternative route to London. Wartime and post-war times Two people cannot easily pass in Parliament Street, one of the narrowest streets in the United Kingdom. Exeter was bombed by the German Luftwaffe in the Second World War, when a total of 18 raids between 1940 and 1942 flattened much of the city centre. In 1942, as part of the Baedeker Blitz and specifically in response to the RAF bombing of Lübeck, forty acres (160,000 m²) of the city, particularly adjacent to its central High Street and Sidwell Street, were levelled by incendiary bombing. Many historic buildings were destroyed, and others, including the grand Cathedral of St Peter in the heart of the city, were damaged. Large areas of the city were rebuilt in the 1950s, when little attempt was made to preserve Exeter's ancient heritage. Damaged buildings were generally demolished rather than restored, and even the street plan was altered in an attempt to improve traffic circulation. The post-war buildings are generally perceived as being of little architectural merit, unlike many of those that they replaced, such as Bedford Circus and a section of the ancient city wall. Despite some local opposition, the Princesshay shopping centre has been redeveloped between the Cathedral Close and the High Street. The development was completed and opened on time on 20 September 2007. There are 123 varied residential units incorporated into the new Princesshay . In order to enable people with limited mobility to enjoy the city, Exeter Community Transport Association provides shopmobility for use by anyone suffering from short or long-term mobility impairment to access to the city centre and shopping facilities, events and meetings with friends and company. Previously regarded as second only to Bath as an architectural site in southern England, since the 1942 bombing and subsequent reconstruction Exeter has been a city with some beautiful buildings rather than a beautiful city. As a result, although there is a significant tourist trade, Exeter is not dominated by tourism. In May 2008 there was an attempted terrorist attack in Princesshay. Governance Exeter forms a single parliamentary constituency. It is relatively marginal, and since World War II its Member of Parliament has usually been drawn from the governing party. At the United Kingdom general election, 1997, Ben Bradshaw was elected as MP for Exeter, and he retained the seat at the elections of 2001 and 2005. Exeter is part of the South West England European constituency, which elects 7 MEPs. Exeter's city council is a district authority, and shares responsibility for local government with the Devon County Council. Since 2003, no party has had a majority on the council. Exeter has had a mayor since at least 1207 and until 2002, the city was the oldest 'Right Worshipful' Mayoralty in England. As part of the Queen's 2002 Golden Jubilee celebrations Exeter was chosen to receive the title of Lord Mayor. Councillor Granville Baldwin became the first Lord Mayor of Exeter on 1 May 2002 when Letters Patent were awarded to the city during a visit by the Queen. The Lord Mayor is elected each year from amongst the 40 Exeter city councillors and is non-political for the term of office. Devon and Cornwall Constabulary have their headquarters based at Middlemoor in the east of the city. Geography The city of Exeter was established on the eastern bank of the River Exe on a ridge of land backed by a steep hill. It is at this point that the Exe, having just been joined by the River Creedy, opens onto a wide flood plain and estuary which results in quite common flooding. Historically this was the lowest bridging point of the River Exe which was tidal and navigable up to the city until the construction of weirs later in its history. This combined with the easily defensible higher ground of the ridge made the current location of the city a natural choice for settlement and trade. In George Oliver's The History of the City of Exeter, it is noted that the most likely reasons for the original settling of what would become modern Exeter was the "fertility of the surrounding countryside" and the area's "beautiful and commanding elevation [and] its rapid and navigable river". Its woodland would also have been ideal for natural resources and hunting. Exeter sits predominantly on sandstone and conglomerate geology, although the structure of the surrounding areas is varied. The topography of the ridge which forms the backbone of the city includes a volcanic plug, on which the Rougemont Castle is situated. The Cathedral is located on the edge of this ridge and is therefore visible for a considerable distance. Climate Demographics The city has been expanding in size quite considerably in recent years, with a population estimate of 119,600 in 2006, up over 8,000 from the census in 2001. The racial makeup of the city is as follows (2005 Estimates): White - 97.5% Asian - 1.4% (0.7% Indian, 0.4% Other, 0.2% Pakistani, 0.2% Bangladeshi) Mixed Race - 1.1% (0.4% Asian and White, 0.3% Black and White, 0.3% Other Mixed) Chinese - 0.6% Black - 0.4% (0.2% African,0.1% Caribbean,0.1% Other) Other - 0.5% In the 2004-05 period the population of "White Other" increased by 24% from 2.9% to 3.6% - higher than any other town or city in the United Kingdom. The Office for National Statistics estimated that Exeter's population in mid-2007 was 122,400. Little Britayne It is recorded by William of Malmesbury that Athelstan, the king of England, drove the Cornishmen from the city of Exeter in 928AD. The Cornish had continued to live in Exeter (then known as Isca or Kaer Uisc) from the end of the Roman occupation until this time and had maintained the practise of Christianity within the city. After the Anglo-Saxon Conquest of Dumnonia in the early 9th Century the Cornishmen had been confined to their own quarter of the old city of Exeter and enjoyed their own laws. Their quarter was in the north-west corner of the city which was closest to the West Gate which received traffic from Cornwall and was also considered the least desirable as it was down hill and suffered from the pollution which washed through towards the River Exe. Several churches with Celtic names including Saint Petroc and Saint Kerrian existed close to their quarter and may have been based on sub-Roman foundations. It is generally believed that the Cornishmen returned to the city at some time before the Norman Conquest as the Cornish language could still be heard in the city until the 13th Century. A street called Britayne existed in their old quarter until the 17th Century when it was renamed Bartholomew Street. Economy The city provides strong industries and services to a sizable area. The Met Office, the main weather forecasting organisation for the United Kingdom and one of the most significant in the world, relocated from Bracknell in Berkshire to Exeter in early 2004. It is one of the three largest employers in the area (together with the University of Exeter and Devon County Council). Exeter City Council is bidding for the city to become an Independent Unitary Authority, a status granted to nearby Plymouth and Torbay in 1998. An outline case was submitted to the Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government in May 2006. If successful, a new unitary city council could be up and running in Exeter by April 2009. On 26 June 2004, Exeter was granted Fairtrade City status. A NEF survey in 2005 rated Exeter as the worst example of a clone town in the UK, with only a single independent store in the city's High Street, and less diversity (in terms of different categories of shop) than any other town surveyed. However, Exeter has many independent shops off the High Street such as those in Gandy Street, which was reconstructed after bombing in 1942. Princesshay, a post-war retail area running parallel to the High Street was also home to a number of independent stores prior to redevelopment in 2007. It is an innovative varied development and it is still intended that a number of the new units will be let to local independent stores. Landmarks A statue of Richard Hooker stands on the Cathedral Green. Among the notable buildings in Exeter are: The cathedral, founded in 1050 when the bishop's seat was moved from the nearby town of Crediton (birthplace of Saint Boniface) because Exeter's Roman walls offered better protection against "pirates", presumably Vikings. A statue of Richard Hooker, the 16th century Anglican theologian, who was born in Exeter, has a prominent place in the Cathedral Close. The ruins of Rougemont Castle, built soon after the Norman Conquest; later parts of the castle were still in use as an Assize court until early 2006 when a new Crown Courts building opened. A plaque near the ruined Norman gatehouse recalls that in 1685 Alice Molland, the last person executed for witchcraft in England, was imprisoned in Exeter. The future of the castle is at the moment uncertain, but moves are afoot to alter its use, possibly to a restaurant and housing. The Guildhall, the oldest municipal building in England still in use. Mols Coffee House Historic building in the Cathedral close. The Guild of Tuckers and Weavers, a fine old building that is still used for smart functions. The Custom House in the attractive Quay area, which is the oldest brick building surviving in the city. St Nicholas Priory in Mint Lane, the remains of a monastery, later used as a private house and now a museum owned by the city council. A number of medieval churches including St Mary Steps which has an elaborate clock. "The House That Moved", a 14th century Tudor building, earned its name in 1961 when it was moved from its original location on the corner of Edmund Street in order for a new road to be built in its place. Weighing more than twenty-one tonnes, it was strapped together and slowly moved a few inches at a time to its present day position. Parliament Street in the city centre is one of the narrowest streets in the United Kingdom (see photograph). The Butts Ferry, an ancient cable ferry across the River Exe. Ruined gatehouse at Rougemont Castle. Note the red sandstone, characteristic of many older Exeter buildings. Many of these are built in the local dark red sandstone, which gives its name to the castle and the park that now surrounds it (Rougemont means red hill). The pavements on Queen Street are composed of the rock Diorite and exhbit some fine feldspar crystals, while those around Princesshay are composed of Granodiorite Northernhay Gardens located just outside the castle, is the oldest public open space in the whole of England, being originally laid out in 1612 as a pleasure walk for Exeter residents. Much of Northernhay Gardens now represent Victorian design, with a beautiful display of trees, mature shrubs and bushes and plenty of flower beds. There are also many statues here, most importantly the war memorial by John Angel and the Deerstalker by E.B. Stephens. The Volunteer Memorial from 1895, also in the gardens, commemorates the formation of the 1st Rifle Volunteers in 1852. Other statues include John Dinham, Thomas Dyke Acland and Stafford Northcote (a local landowner who was a Victorian Chancellor of the Exchequer). Transport Car The M5 motorway to Bristol and Birmingham starts at Exeter, and connects at Bristol with the M4 to London and South Wales. The older A30 road provides a more direct route to London via the A303 and M3. The M5 is the modern lowest bridging point of the River Exe. Going westwards, the A38 connects Exeter to Plymouth and south east Cornwall, whilst the A30 continues via Okehampton to north and west Cornwall. Travel by car in the city is often difficult with regular jams centred on the Exe Bridges area. To address the problem, Devon County Council is considering the introduction of congestion charges. Bus Exeter's main operator of local buses is Stagecoach Devon, which operates most of the services in the city. Dartline is a minor operator in the City. Former Cooks Coaches were taken over by Stagecoach forming Stagecoach Cooks Coaches. Western Greyhound is also a main operator connecting Exeter to Cornwall, Somerset and many different places in South West England. The High Street, pedestrianised except for bus and bicycle traffic, serves as the main hub for local buses. Country and express services operate from the city's bus station, in Paris Street, which intersects the High Street at its eastern end; some also call at Exeter St Davids railway station for direct connection to train services. Country bus services, mostly operated by Stagecoach, run from Exeter to most places in East and North Devon, but some are very infrequent. Regional express services run to Plymouth, Torbay, Bude, and along the Jurassic Coast to Lyme Regis and Weymouth, some operated by Stagecoach and others by First Bus. National Express operates long distance routes, for example to Heathrow and London. Train There are two main line railway routes from Exeter to London, the faster route via Taunton to London Paddington and the slower West of England Main Line via Salisbury to London Waterloo. Another main line, the Cross-Country Route, links Exeter with Bristol, Birmingham, the Midlands, Northern England, and Scotland. Many trains on all three lines continue westwards from Exeter, variously serving Torbay, Plymouth and Cornwall. Local branch lines run to Paignton (see Riviera Line), Exmouth (see Avocet Line) and Barnstaple (see Tarka Line). There is also a summer weekend service to Okehampton for access to Dartmoor. Exeter is served by two main railway stations. Exeter St Davids is served by all services, whilst Exeter Central is more convenient for the city centre but served only by local services and the main line route to London Waterloo. There are also six suburban stations, Topsham, St James Park, Exeter St Thomas, Polsloe Bridge, Pinhoe and Digby & Sowton, served only by local services. Aircraft Exeter International Airport lies east of the city and the local airline, previously called Jersey European and British European but now known as Flybe, is a significant local employer. The airport offers a range of scheduled flights to and Irish regional airports and charter flights including a seasonal service to Toronto, Canada. Connections to international hubs began with Paris Charles de Gaulle in 2005 and later a daily service to Amsterdam Schiphol Airport. Canal The Exeter Canal was built in 1558, making it one of the oldest artificial waterways in Britain. It was cut to bypass weirs that had been built across the River Exe to prevent trade in the city and to force boats to unload at Topsham from where the Earls of Devon were able to exact large tolls to transport goods to Exeter. Originally 3 feet deep and 16 feet wide (0.9 m by 5 m), it ran 1.75 miles (2.8 km) from just below the Countess Weir to the centre of Exeter. It was later extended to Topsham, deepened and widened, and was successful until the middle of the 19th century since when its use gradually declined - the last commercial use was in 1972. However it is now widely used for leisure purposes, and the city basin is being included as part of a £24 million redevelopment scheme. Education The University of Exeter has two campuses in the city, both notable for their attractive parkland. It is one of the largest employers in the city. Exeter is one of the four main sites of the University of Plymouth The Peninsula Medical School, a joint operation of the two universities, has one of its main sites in Exeter St Loye's School of Health Studies, well-known for training in occupational therapy has now been incorporated into the University of Plymouth. Exeter College is a major further education college. It operates as a sixth form for the entire maintained school sector in the city. For about 30 years the city of Exeter operated a maintained school system in which the divisions between phases came at different ages from most of the United Kingdom, with first, middle and high rather than infant, junior and secondary schools, so that children transferred between schools at the age of about 8 and 12 rather than 7 and 11. From 2005, however, it has adopted the more usual pattern, because of the pressures of the UK National Curriculum. The changeover back to the more typical structure led to a city-wide, PFI funded, rebuilding programme for the high schools and led to the changing of names for some schools. Following the reorganisation there are 25 primary schools, 4 referral schools, 3 special schools and 5 secondary schools within Exeter. The secondary schools are: Isca College of Media Arts (formerly Priory High School) St James' School (formerly St James' High School) St Luke's (Church of England) Science & Sports College (formerly Vincent Thompson High School) St Peter's Church of England Aided School - A Language College West Exe Technology College (formerly St Thomas High School) In addition: Exeter School is the oldest of several independent schools in the city. Exeter tutorial college, a small independent college on Magdalen Road. Exeter is home to several substantial language schools Exeter is also home to the Royal West of England School for the Deaf & the West of England School for the Partially Sighted. The Atkinson Unit is a secure specialist residential and educational complex for children in care or remanded by the courts. Religion Exeter Cathedral. There are many churches in Exeter belonging to different Christian movements and an Anglican cathedral. It is the seat of the Bishop of Exeter. The present building was complete by about 1400, and has the longest uninterrupted vaulted ceiling in England, and other notable features. The Anglican churches form the Deanery of Christianity (Exeter) There is also a synagogue on Mary Arches Street - the third oldest in England, built in 1761. Exeter's mosque & Islamic Centre is on York Road, and serves the Southwest region as well as the city. There are plans to construct a purpose-built mosque on the same site. According to the last census, in 2001 69.12% of the population stated their religion as Christian, which is lower than the regional average of 73.99% and the national average of 71.74%. All other religions were under 1%, which was slighter higher than regional averages, although much lower than national averages, except for Buddhism, which was slightly higher than the average. 20.45% stated as having no religion, which was higher than the regional average of 16.75% and the national average of 14.59 and the percentage of people not stating their religion was also slightly higher. Sport Rugby union is popular in the South West: Exeter's clubs are the Exeter Chiefs (who currently play in National Division One and were runners-up in the 2007/08 season), Wessex and Exeter Saracens. The city's leading football club, and only professional side, is Exeter City. The club became founder members of the Football League's new Third Division (south) in 1920, but have never progressed beyond the third tier of the English football league system and in 2003 were relegated to the Conference, reclaiming thier place in 2008, before completing succesive promotions to League One in 2009. Exeter Cricket Club play in the Premier Division of the Devon Cricket League at both First and Second XI level. The University of Exeter has a strong reputation in sport and regularly wins or comes close to winning national trophies in inter-university sports. Exeter rowing Club enjoys much success both locally and nationally, and has a recorded history stretching back to the early 1800s. The Devon & Exeter Squash club is one of the most active squash clubs in the region, annually hosting the Exeter Diamonds which is a professional team of world class players. The club also has a strong membership, high standards and a notable junior team. The Great West Run half marathon is run through the streets of Exeter in late April or early May each year Exeter's speedway team, Exeter Falcons, was founded in 1929 and were located at the County Ground until its closure in 2005. In a fixture during the 2004 season, they beat Rye House by the maximum score of 75-18 scoring 5-1s in every heat. Exeter Falcons are hoping to ride again in a proposed new location, possibly at Exeter Racecourse in 2008. The site was where Exeter Falcons legend Australian Jack Geran trained youngsters in the art of the shale sport on a speedway training track in the late 1970s and early-1980s. Speedway was also staged briefly at tracks in Alphington and Peamore after the Second World War. The history of Speedway in Exeter up to the mid-1950s has been recorded in three books by Tony Lethbridge. Public services Home Office policing in Exeter is provided by The Devon and Cornwall Constabulary. The emergency fire brigade is provided by The Devon and Somerset Fire and Rescue Service, which is headquartered at Clyst St. George near Exeter. It has one fire station with two water tender ladders, a water tender, an aerial ladder platform, a water foam carrier, a handyman vehicle, a prime mover, an environmental pod and an incident support unit. Exeters Howell Road fire station taking shape By the end of 2009, Exeter will have two new fire stations. Exeter's original fire station has been demolished, and will be replaced with a new station on the existing site, in Howell Road. http://www.dsfire.gov.uk/Newsdesk/ViewPressRelease.asp?ReleaseID=203 . A second fire station is currently being constructed to cover the east of the city, at Middlemoor http://www.dsfire.gov.uk/Newsdesk/ViewPressRelease.asp?ReleaseID=162 . A temporary fire station, in Howell Road, currently accommodates the personnel and appliances. The Royal Devon and Exeter NHS Foundation Trust has a large hospital located to the south east of the city centre. Ambulance services in Exeter are provided by South Western Ambulance Service NHS Trust. The West Trust Divisional HQ and 999 control is in Exeter which provides cover for Devon, Cornwall, Somerset and the Isles of Scilly. Notable people from Exeter See List of people from Exeter Culture Literature The Riddles in the High St The Exeter Book, an original manuscript and one of the most important documents in Anglo-Saxon literature, is kept in the vaults of the cathedral. The Exeter Book dates back to the 10th century and is one of four manuscripts that between them contain virtually all the surviving poetry in Old English. It includes most of the more highly regarded shorter poems, some religious pieces, and a series of riddles, a handful of which are famously lewd. Some of the riddles are inscribed on a highly polished steel obelisk in the High Street, placed on 30 March 2005. The Inquisitio Eliensis, the "Exon Domesday" (so called from the preservation of the volume at Exeter), is a volume of Domesday Book that contains the full details which the original returns supplied. One of Rosemary Sutcliff's best-known children's books, The Eagle of the Ninth, begins in Roman Isca Dumnoniorum. The Crowner John Mysteries by Bernard Knight are a series of books set in 12th century Exeter. Theatre The Northcott Theatre is located on the campus of the university and is one of relatively few provincial English theatres to maintain its own repertory company. Its annual open air Shakespeare performance in the grounds of Rougemont Castle is well regarded nationally. This theatre is the successor to the former Theatre Royal, Exeter. Barnfield Theatre There are also two other theatre buildings with associated companies. The Barnfield Theatre was converted in 1972 from the Barnfield Hall which was built towards the end of the 19th century by Exeter Literary Society. The theatre is a charity and is used as a venue for both amateur and professional theatrical companies. In January 2007 it received £200,000, about the same as the original cost to build it, to refurbish its interior. The New Theatre is the home of the Cygnet Training Theatre, a member of the Conference of Drama Schools. In addition, more innovative and contemporary performances, theatrical productions and dance pieces are programmed by Exeter Phoenix off Gandy Street in the City centre. Music Exeter has a diverse and thriving music scene for a city of its size. Factory Gigs is one of the first music nights in the UK run by just teenagers, and hosts gigs for the younger crowd in the city. Phonic FM, the community radio station, features local DJs, live broadcasts from gigs around Exeter, interviews with artists and guests. Exeter Phoenix is a venue for live music and DJs in many genres The Cavern Club in Queen Street is a popular venue for live punk, indie and underground dance music. The Angel pup, across from central station, also hosts much live music. The Hub in Mary Arches street is also a popular live music venue. Amber Rooms on Sidwell Street holds dance and alternative world beats nights. The Globe Inn on Clifton Road in Newtown holds live events most nights (including world music, open mic nights and local rock bands). Timepiece has three floors, with various discounts available with student union card Exeter does not have a resident professional orchestra, but the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra tours to the city regularly. The largest orchestra based in Exeter is the EMG Symphony Orchestra which presents regular concerts at the University of Exeter and in Exeter Cathedral. Exeter Children's Orchestra is a youth orchestra with patrons Marin Alsop and Sir Colin Davis Kagemusha Taiko is a drumming ensemble that combines theatrical performance with excellent drumming The cathedral choir is nationally known, and the cathedral is frequently the venue for concerts by visiting orchestras. There are two festivals each year, of all the arts but with a particular concentration of musical events The annual "Vibraphonic" festival held in March provides a fortnight of soul, blues, jazz, funk, reggae and electronic music. Exeter has held a "Respect Festival" since 2002 to promote cultural differences and that they need to be accepted and not discriminated. Exeter is the home of Mansons Guitar Shop and is where Matthew Bellamy of MUSE gets his guitars custom made. Museums and galleries The city museum is the Royal Albert Memorial Museum in Queen Street. The Museum also runs St Nicholas Priory which is just off Fore street. Exeter Phoenix and the adjacent digital Media Centre occupies the former university site in Gandy Street and programmes international, national and outstanding regional artists. Spacex is a long established modern art gallery Newspapers Exeter List Website, is a monthly 'what's on' listings guide for Exeter and the Heart of Devon. Exeter's Essential Guide.Exeter list Express and Echo, daily (current) The Exeter Times, formerly known as the Exeter Leader, weekly, free Flying Post, weekly (discontinued 1917, but title revived in 1975 as an alternative (polemical) community magazine) The Western Morning News, a Plymouth-printed daily regional paper, is also popular Twinnings Exeter is twinned with: – Rennes, France – Bad Homburg, Germany – Yaroslavl, Russia – Terracina, Italy The city also seeks to maintain a relationship with HMS Exeter. See also Exeter Book Exeter (HM Prison) Henry Phillpotts References The Cathedral Town, Time-Travel Britain [Clayton Trapp], http://www.timetravel-britain.com/articles/towns/exeter.shtml External links Exeter City Council History of Exeter from White's Devonshire Directory, 1850 Exeter on Wikitravel | Exeter |@lemmatized exeter:148 city:92 district:2 county:7 town:10 devon:17 england:18 locate:6 approximately:1 northeast:1 plymouth:9 southwest:2 bristol:5 river:12 exe:13 population:5 accord:3 census:3 south:12 westerly:1 roman:14 fortify:1 settlement:2 britain:5 exist:6 since:9 time:15 immemorial:1 cathedral:16 found:4 anglican:4 tourism:2 form:6 vital:1 part:9 economy:3 grant:3 fairtrade:2 status:3 identify:1 one:20 top:1 ten:1 profitable:1 location:5 business:1 base:4 dun:1 bradstreet:1 good:5 transport:4 link:3 st:21 david:5 railway:10 station:18 central:5 motorway:2 international:4 airport:5 connect:3 nationally:4 internationally:1 history:6 latin:2 name:8 isca:8 dumnoniorum:3 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2,267 | Mojito | Mojito (; ) is a traditional Cuban highball. A mojito is traditionally made of five ingredients: white rum, sugar (traditionally sugar cane juice), lime, carbonated water, and mint. Traditional Mojito recipe from Cuba About.com Mojito Its combination of sweetness, refreshing citrus and mint flavors is intended to complement the potent kick of the rum, and have made this clear highball a popular summer drink. Summer Cocktail News: Mojitos Go Fruity Shake It Up, Baby: Cuban Cocktail Is Making a Splash When preparing a mojito, lime juice is added to sugar (or syrup) and mint leaves. The mixture is then gently mashed with a muddler. The mint leaves should only be bruised to release the essential oils and should not be shredded. How to Muddle a Mojito Then rum is added and the mixture is briefly stirred to dissolve the sugar and to lift the mint sprigs up from the bottom for better presentation. Finally, the drink is topped with ice cubes and sparkling water, and mint leaves and lime wedges are used to garnish the glass. The Classic Cuban Mojito The mojito is one of the more famous rum-based highballs. There are several versions of the mojito. Cuban Mojito Recipe or American Mojito Recipe Origin Cuba is the birthplace of the mojito, although the exact origin of this classic cocktail is the subject of debate. Mojito History One story traces the mojito to a similar 16th century drink, the “El Draque,” in honor of Sir Francis Drake. It was made initially with tafia/aguardiente, a primitive predecessor of rum, but as soon as Spanish rum became widely available to the British (ca. 1650) they changed it to rum. Mint, lime and sugar were also helpful in hiding the harsh taste of this spirit. While this drink was not called a mojito at this time, it was still the original combination of these ingredients. Some historians contend that African slaves that worked in the Cuban sugar cane fields during the 19th century were instrumental in the cocktail's origin. Guarapo, the sugar cane juice often used in mojitos, was a popular drink amongst the slaves who helped coin the name of the sweet nectar. There are several theories behind the origin of the name mojito; one such theory holds that name relates to mojo, a Cuban seasoning made from lime and used to flavour dishes. Mojito is derived from the Spanish mojo sauce, which often contains lime juice (see "mojito" at Dictionary.com, citing the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, 2006, Houghton Mifflin), while mojo is derived from the Spanish verb mojar, meaning "to make wet" (see definition 3 of "mojo" at Dictionary.com, citing Webster's New Millennium Dictionary of English, Preview Edition (v 0.9.7), 2003-2007, Lexico Publishing Group, LLC) Another theory is that the name mojito is simply a derivative of mojadito, Spanish for "a little wet", or simply the diminutive of "mojado" (wet). Mojito & Apple-soaked Mojito Variations Many hotels in Havana also add Angostura bitters to cut the sweetness of the mojito; while a popular variation, it is not the original version created in La Bodeguita del Medio. In some places in Cuba, dark or golden rums are used along with brown sugar to create a stronger and heavier version compared to the original version. BBC: How to mix a Mojito Whole lime wedges, which are left in the drink, may be muddled in the bottom along with the mint and sugar. Mojito sweetness can vary significantly. Icing sugar is often muddled with the mint leaves rather than cane sugar, and many establishments simply use sugar syrup to control sweetness. Food: Mojito - The Austin Chronicle Fruit flavored vodkas or rums are often substituted, such as mango, strawberry, lychee or mandarin mojitos. See also List of cocktails Mint Julep References | Mojito |@lemmatized mojito:25 traditional:2 cuban:6 highball:3 traditionally:2 make:6 five:1 ingredient:2 white:1 rum:9 sugar:12 cane:4 juice:4 lime:7 carbonated:1 water:2 mint:10 recipe:3 cuba:3 com:3 combination:2 sweetness:4 refresh:1 citrus:1 flavor:2 intend:1 complement:1 potent:1 kick:1 clear:1 popular:3 summer:2 drink:6 cocktail:5 news:1 mojitos:3 go:1 fruity:1 shake:1 baby:1 splash:1 prepare:1 add:3 syrup:2 leaf:2 mixture:2 gently:1 mash:1 muddler:1 leave:3 bruise:1 release:1 essential:1 oil:1 shred:1 muddle:3 briefly:1 stir:1 dissolve:1 lift:1 sprigs:1 bottom:2 good:1 presentation:1 finally:1 top:1 ice:2 cube:1 sparkling:1 wedge:2 use:5 garnish:1 glass:1 classic:2 one:3 famous:1 base:1 several:2 version:4 american:2 origin:4 birthplace:1 although:1 exact:1 subject:1 debate:1 history:1 story:1 trace:1 similar:1 century:2 el:1 draque:1 honor:1 sir:1 francis:1 drake:1 initially:1 tafia:1 aguardiente:1 primitive:1 predecessor:1 soon:1 spanish:4 become:1 widely:1 available:1 british:1 ca:1 change:1 also:3 helpful:1 hide:1 harsh:1 taste:1 spirit:1 call:1 time:1 still:1 original:3 historian:1 contend:1 african:1 slave:2 work:1 field:1 instrumental:1 guarapo:1 often:4 amongst:1 help:1 coin:1 name:4 sweet:1 nectar:1 theory:3 behind:1 hold:1 relate:1 mojo:4 season:1 flavour:1 dish:1 derive:2 sauce:1 contain:1 see:3 dictionary:4 cite:2 heritage:1 english:2 language:1 fourth:1 edition:2 houghton:1 mifflin:1 verb:1 mojar:1 mean:1 wet:3 definition:1 webster:1 new:1 millennium:1 preview:1 v:1 lexico:1 publish:1 group:1 llc:1 another:1 simply:3 derivative:1 mojadito:1 little:1 diminutive:1 mojado:1 apple:1 soak:1 variation:2 many:2 hotel:1 havana:1 angostura:1 bitter:1 cut:1 create:2 la:1 bodeguita:1 del:1 medio:1 place:1 dark:1 golden:1 along:2 brown:1 strong:1 heavy:1 compare:1 bbc:1 mix:1 whole:1 may:1 vary:1 significantly:1 rather:1 establishment:1 control:1 food:1 austin:1 chronicle:1 fruit:1 vodka:1 substitute:1 mango:1 strawberry:1 lychee:1 mandarin:1 list:1 julep:1 reference:1 |@bigram sugar_cane:3 cane_juice:2 lime_juice:2 sugar_syrup:2 ice_cube:1 francis_drake:1 houghton_mifflin:1 angostura_bitter:1 |
2,268 | John_Frankenheimer | John Michael Frankenheimer (February 19, 1930 – July 6, 2002) was an American filmmaker. He is best known for making The Manchurian Candidate (1962), Birdman of Alcatraz (also 1962), The Train, (1964) and Seven Days in May (also 1964). Biography Frankenheimer was born in New York, the son of a German-born Jewish father and an Irish American Roman Catholic mother. He was graduated from Williams College, in Williamstown, Massachusetts, in 1951. He became a film maker while serving as a U.S. Air Force lieutenant during the Korean War, directing service films for the Air Force and became interested in directing after his military service. Career Frankenheimer began his directing career in live television shortly after the service. He recalled after being discharged, he had an interview with CBS and had a conversation with the hiring manager. The manager had also been a member of the armed forces and told Frankenheimer that while they had no openings at the time, he would call when needed. According to the director in an interview with The Directors Series, he had spent two weeks in his hotel room waiting for a phone call as the hotel didn't provide a messaging service. At the end of this period, Frankenheimer did receive a phone call and was put to work as a live television director. Throughout the 1950s he directed over 140 episodes of shows like Playhouse 90, Climax!, and Danger, including The Comedian, written by Rod Serling and starring Mickey Rooney as a ragingly vicious television comedian. His first theatrical film was 1957's The Young Stranger, starring James MacArthur as a rebellious teenager. Frankenheimer helmed the production, based on a Climax! episode called "Deal a Blow", at the age of 26. He returned to television through the rest of the 1950s, only moving to film permanently in 1961 with The Young Savages, which teamed him for the first time with Burt Lancaster in a story of a young boy murdered by a New York gang. Birdman of Alcatraz His next film, Birdman of Alcatraz, shot in 1961, came to him after production had already begun under another director (Charles Crichton). Burt Lancaster, who was producing, as well as starring, asked Frankenheimer to take over the film. As Frankenheimer describes in Charles Champlin's interview book, he told Lancaster the script was too long, but was told he had to shoot everything that was written. Sure enough, the first cut of the film was four and a half hours long, the length Frankenheimer had predicted. Moreover, as he had said at the beginning, the film was constructed so that it couldn't be cut and still be coherent. Frankenheimer said the film would have to be rewritten and partly reshot. Lancaster was committed to star in Judgment at Nuremberg, so he made that film while Frankenheimer prepared the reshoots. The finished film, released in 1962, was a huge success and was nominated for four Oscars, including one for Lancaster's performance. Frankenheimer was next hired by producer John Houseman to direct All Fall Down, a family drama starring Eva Marie Saint and Warren Beatty. Because of the production difficulties with Birdman of Alcatraz, All Fall Down was actually released first. The Manchurian Candidate He followed this with his most iconic film, The Manchurian Candidate. Frankenheimer and producer George Axelrod bought Richard Condon's 1959 novel after it had already been turned down by many Hollywood studios. After getting Frank Sinatra to commit to the film, they secured backing from United Artists and shot the film in 1962. The story of a Korean War vet, brainwashed by the Communist Chinese to assassinate the candidate for President co-starred Laurence Harvey and Janet Leigh. The film also starred Angela Lansbury as Harvey's evil mother. Frankenheimer had to fight to cast the actress, who had worked with him on All Fall Down, and was just two years older than Harvey. Sinatra's choice had been Lucille Ball. The film was nominated for two Oscars, including one for Lansbury. The film was unseen for many years. Urban legend has it that the film was pulled from circulation due to the similarity of its plot to the death of President Kennedy the following year, but Frankenheimer states in the Champlin book that it was pulled because of a legal battle between producer Sinatra and the studio over Sinatra's share of the profits. In any event, it was re-released to great acclaim in 1988. On the Set of Seven Days in May: Directing Fredric March. Seven Days in May He followed this up with another hugely successful political thriller, Seven Days in May (1964). He again bought the rights to a bestselling book, this time by Charles Bailey II and Fletcher Knebel, and again produced the film with his star, this time Kirk Douglas. Douglas intended to play the role of the General who attempts to lead a coup against the President, who is about to sign a disarmament treaty with the Soviets. Douglas then decided he wanted to work with Burt Lancaster, with whom he had just costarred in another film. To entice Lancaster, Douglas agreed to let him play the General, while Douglas took the less showy lead role of the General's aide, who turns against him and helps the President. The film, written by Rod Serling, and costarring Fredric March as the President and Ava Gardner as a former flame of Lancaster's, was a great success and was nominated for two Oscars. The Train Frankenheimer's next film was again taken over from another director (Arthur Penn). The Train had already begun shooting in France when star Burt Lancaster had the original director fired and called in Frankenheimer to save the film. As he recounts in the Champlin book, Frankenheimer used the production's desperation to his advantage in negotiations. He demanded and got the following: his name was made part of the title, "John Frankenheimer's The Train"; the French co-director, demanded by French tax laws, was not allowed to ever set foot on set; he was given total final cut; and a Ferrari. Again saddled with an unfilmably long script, Frankenheimer threw it out and took the locations and actors left from the previous film and began filming, with writers working in Paris as the production shot in Normandy. The poorly chosen locations caused endless weather delays. This film is the last large black and white action film and contains multiple real train wrecks. The Allied bombing of a rail yard was accomplished with real dynamite, as the French rail authority needed to enlarge the track gauge. This can be observed by the shockwaves traveling through the ground during the action sequence. Producers realized after filming that the story needed another action scene, and reassembled some of the cast for a Spitfire attack scene that was inserted into the first third of the film. The finished movie was an enormous success and the script was nominated for an Oscar. Seconds Seconds (1966), starring Rock Hudson as an elderly man given the body of a young man through experimental surgery, was poorly received on its release, but has come to be one of the director's most respected and popular films in the decades since. The film is an expressionistic, part-horror, part-thriller, part-science fiction film about the obsession with eternal youth and misplaced faith in the ability of medical science to achieve it. Grand Prix He followed this with his most spectacular production, 1966's Grand Prix. Shot on location at the Grand Prix races throughout Europe, on 65mm Cinerama cameras, the film starred James Garner and Eva Marie Saint. The making was a race itself, as John Sturges and Steve McQueen planned to make a similar movie titled Day of the Champion. My Husband, My Friend, Neile McQueen Toffel, A Signet Book, 1986 Due to their contract with the German Nürburgring, Frankenheimer had to turn over 27 reels shot there to Sturges. Frankenheimer was ahead in schedule anyway, and the McQueen/Sturges project was called off, while the German race track was only mentioned briefly in Grand Prix. Introducing methods of photographing high-speed auto racing that had never been seen before, mounting cameras on the cars, at full speed and putting the stars in the actual cars, instead of against rear-projections, the film was an international success and won three Oscars, for editing, sound and sound effects. 1960s and 1970s His next film, 1967's all-star anti-war comedy The Extraordinary Seaman, starred David Niven, Faye Dunaway, Alan Alda and Mickey Rooney. The film was a failure at the box office and critically. Frankenheimer calls it in the Champlin book "the only movie I've made which I would say was a total disaster." Then came 1968's The Fixer, about a Jew in Tsarist Russia and based on the novel by Bernard Malamud. The film was shot in Communist Hungary. It starred Alan Bates and was not a major success, but Bates was nominated for an Oscar. Frankenheimer was a close friend of Senator Robert Kennedy and in fact drove him to the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles the night Kennedy was assassinated in June 1968. The Gypsy Moths was a romantic drama about a troupe of barnstorming skydivers and the impact they have on a small midwestern town. The celebration of Americana starred Frankenheimer regular Lancaster, reuniting him with From Here to Eternity co-star Deborah Kerr, and it also featured Gene Hackman. The film failed to find an audience, but Frankenheimer always called it one of his personal favorites. He followed this with I Walk the Line in 1970. The film, starring Gregory Peck and Tuesday Weld,about a Tennessee sheriff who falls in love with a moonshiner's daughter, was set to songs by Johnny Cash. Frankenheimer's next project took him to Afghanistan. The Horseman focused on the relationship between a father and son, played by Jack Palance and Omar Sharif. Sharif's character, an expert horseman, played the Afghan national sport of buzkashi. Impossible Object, also known as Story of a Love Story, suffered distribution difficulties and was not widely released. He followed this in 1973 with a four-hour film of O'Neill's The Iceman Cometh, starring Lee Marvin, and the decidedly offbeat 99 and 44/100% Dead a crime black comedy starring Richard Harris. With his fluent French and knowledge of the culture, Frankenheimer was next asked to direct French Connection II, set entirely in Marseille. With Hackman reprising his role as New York cop Popeye Doyle, the film was a major success and got Frankenheimer his next job, Black Sunday in 1976. Black Sunday, based on author Thomas Harris's only non-Hannibal Lecter novel, involves an Israeli Mossad agent (Robert Shaw), chasing a Palestinian terrorist (Marthe Keller) and a disgruntled Vietnam vet (Bruce Dern) who plan to blow up the Goodyear blimp over the Super Bowl. It was shot on location at the actual Super Bowl X in January 1976 in Miami, with the use of a real Goodyear Blimp. The film tested very highly, and Paramount and Frankenheimer had high expectations for it. When it failed to become the hit that was expected, Frankenheimer admitted he developed a serious problem with alcohol. He is quoted in Champlin's biography as saying that his alcohol problem caused him to do work that was below his own standards on his next film, 1979's Prophecy, an ecological monster movie about a mutant grizzly bear terrorizing a forest in Maine. 1980s The director's output lessened considerably during this period. In the next fifteen years, in fact, he directed only seven films including Dead Bang in 1989 starring Don Johnson. In 1990, Frankenheimer returned to his forte of the cold-war political thriller when he made The Fourth War. This film starred Roy Scheider as a loose cannon Army colonel drawn into a dangerous personal war with a Russian officer. It was not a commercial success. 1990s Frankenheimer was able to make a comeback in the 1990s by returning to television. He directed two films for HBO in 1994: Against the Wall and The Burning Season that won him several awards and renewed acclaim. The director also helmed two films for Turner Network Television in 1996 and 1997, Andersonville and George Wallace, that were highly praised. He even acted for the first time, playing a desperate U.S. General in The General's Daughter (1999) in a crucial cameo appearance. His 1996 film The Island of Doctor Moreau, which he took over a few weeks into production from Richard Stanley, was the cause of countless stories of production woes and personality clashes, and it received scathing reviews. It was said that the veteran director could not stand Val Kilmer, the young star of the film. When Kilmer's last scene was completed it was reported that Frankenheimer said, "Now get that bastard off my set." In an interview, Frankenheimer refused to discuss the film, saying only that he had a miserable time making it. However, his next film, 1998's Ronin, starring Robert De Niro, was a return to form, featuring Frankenheimer's now trademark elaborate car chases woven into a labyrinthine espionage plot. Co-starring an international cast including Jean Reno and Jonathan Pryce, it was a critical and box-office success. 2000s His last theatrical film, 2000's Reindeer Games, starring Ben Affleck, underperformed. But then came his final film, Path to War for HBO in 2002, which brought him back to his strengths - political machinations, 1960s America and character-based drama, and was nominated for numerous awards. A look back at the Vietnam war, it starred Michael Gambon as President Lyndon Johnson along with Alec Baldwin and Donald Sutherland. Frankenheimer was scheduled to direct a prequel to The Exorcist but died suddenly in Los Angeles, California, from a stroke due to complications following spinal surgery at the age of 72, shortly before filming started. Despite the many celebrated films he directed, many of which won Academy Awards in various categories, Frankenheimer was never nominated for a Best Director Oscar. Filmography The Young Stranger (1957) The Young Savages (1961) All Fall Down (1962) Birdman of Alcatraz (1962) The Manchurian Candidate (1962) Seven Days in May (1964) The Train (1965) Seconds (1966) Grand Prix (1966) The Fixer (1968) The Extraordinary Seaman (1969) The Gypsy Moths (1969) I Walk the Line (1970) The Horseman (1971) The Iceman Cometh (1973) Impossible Object (1973) 99 and 44/100% Dead (1974) French Connection II (1975) Black Sunday (1977) Prophecy (1979) The Rainmaker (HBO 1982) The Challenge (1982) The Holcroft Covenant (1985) 52 Pick-Up (1986) Dead Bang (1989) The Fourth War (1990) Year of the Gun (1991) Against the Wall (HBO 1994) The Burning Season (HBO 1994) Andersonville (TNT 1996) The Island of Dr. Moreau (1996) George Wallace (TNT 1997) Ronin (1998) Reindeer Games (2000) The Hire (BMW Short Movie) - Ambush (2002) Path to War (HBO 2002) References Mitchell, Lisa, Thiede, Karl, and Champlin, Charles (1995). John Frankenheimer: A Conversation With Charles Champlin (Riverwood Press). ISBN 9781880756096. 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2,269 | Game_Boy_Color | The is Nintendo's successor to the Game Boy and was released on October 21, 1998 in Japan and in November 19, 1998 in North America and November 23, 1998 in Europe. It features a color screen and is slightly thicker and taller than the Game Boy Pocket, but smaller than the original Game Boy, and has an 8-bit CPU as did the original Game Boy . The Game Boy and Game Boy Color combined have sold 118.69 million units worldwide. History The Game Boy Color was a response to pressure from game developers for a new and much more sophisticated system of playing, as they felt that the Game Boy, even in its latest incarnation, the Game Boy Pocket, was insufficient. The resultant product was backward compatible, a first for a handheld system, and leveraged the large library of games and great installed base of the predecessor system. This became a major feature of the Game Boy line, since it allowed each new launch to begin with a significantly larger library than any of its competitors. Specifications The processor, which is a Z80 workalike made by Sharp with a few extra (bit manipulation) instructions, has a clock speed of approx. 8 MHz, twice as fast as that of the original Game Boy. The Game Boy Color also has four times as much memory as the original (32 kilobytes system RAM, 16 kilobytes video RAM). Additionally, the Game Boy Color could address more ROM, allowing games as much as eight times the maximum size of those for the original Game Boy. The screen resolution was the same as the original Game Boy, which is 160x144 pixels. The Game Boy Color also featured an infrared communications port for wireless linking. However, the feature was only supported in a few games, and the infrared port was dropped for the Game Boy Advance and later releases. The console was capable of showing up to 56 different colors simultaneously on screen from its palette of 32,768, and could add basic four-color shading to games that had been developed for the original Game Boy. It could also give the sprites and backgrounds separate colors, for a total of more than four colors. This, however, resulted in graphic artifacts in certain games; a sprite that was supposed to meld into the background was now colored separately, exposing the trick. In Super Mario Land, there are many hidden sprites (in the form of hidden enemies/opportunities) exposed by using a multicolored palette. These and other "spoilers" can be avoided by using the monochromatic color palette as described below. In The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening (original version) there is an area full of statues, some of which are enemies and some of which are normal. The enemy statues blend in normally but the palette trick in the GBC makes them stand out. In Pokémon Red, Blue, and Yellow, the inside of the Fuchsia City Gym contains a maze made of hidden walls which normally cannot be seen. These are exposed when using a multicolored palette. Cartridges The cartridges are designed for, and therefore will only work with, the Game Boy Color or the Game Boy Original. Black cartridges are designed for the Game Boy Color and will also work on previous systems, as they have a similar design to the original grey Game Boy cartridges. The black cartridges can be easily identified from the grey ones. The European and American releases of the Pokémon games feature different-colored cartridges. Color palettes used for original Game Boy games When playing an original Game Boy game on a later system, the user can choose which color palette is used. This is achieved by pressing certain button combinations, namely either A or B (or neither) and a direction key while the Game Boy logo is displayed on the screen. Key combination Palette Key combination Palette Key combination Palette Up Brown Up + A Red Up + B Dark brown Down Pastel mix Down + A Orange Down + B Yellow Left Blue Left + A Dark blue Left + B Grayscale Right Green Right + A Dark green Right + B Inverted These palettes each contain up to ten colors. In most games, the four shades displayed on the original Game Boy would translate to different subsets of this 10-color palette, such as by displaying movable sprites in one subset and backgrounds, etc. in another. The grayscale (Left + B) palette produces an appearance essentially identical to that experienced on the original Game Boy. In addition, most Game Boy games published by Nintendo have a special palette that is enabled when no buttons are pressed. Any game that does not have a special palette will default to the dark green (Right + A) palette. Notable games that do have preset palettes are Metroid II: Return of Samus, Kirby's Dream Land 2, Super Mario Land, and the Wario Land series. Colors produced The Atomic Purple Game Boy Color system has a purple tinted translucent case The logo for Game Boy Color spelled out the word COLOR in the five original colors in which the unit was manufactured. They were named: Strawberry Grape Kiwi Dandelion Teal Another color released at the same time was "Atomic Purple", made of a translucent purple plastic. Other colors were sold as limited editions or in specific countries. These included: Color-shifting gold/silver paint (Pokémon Gold/Silver edition) Metallic silver paint with a Pikachu & a Pichu around the screen. Pikachu's cheek lights up instead of the usual power light. (Pichu/Pikachu edition) Yellow front, blue back with a red A button, a green B button, and a blue arrow. Has Poké Ball in place of power light. Has Pokémon logo above Start and Select buttons. Has pictures of Pikachu, Togepi, and Jigglypuff around screen (Pokémon edition) Yellow with one orange button, one green button, and a light blue arrow decorated in various Pokémon (Pokémon Center edition) Pastel pink with Hello Kitty head in the middle (Japan - Hello Kitty edition) Yellow with Tommy Hilfiger Logo above Start/Select (Tommy Hilfiger edition) Clear (Japan) Clear black Clear green (Japan) Midnight blue Ice blue Clear orange (Japan, produced for Turkish soft drink company Yedigün) Clear blue Green and Yellow (Australian Edition) Yellow Tommy Hilfiger gamboy with the Tommy Hilfiger logo Games The last Game Boy Color game released in Japan that was also compatible with the Game Boy and Super Game Boy was From TV Animation - One Piece: Maboroshi no Grand Line Boukenhen! (July 2002). This gave the original Game Boy (1989-2002) one of the longest continuous lifespans of any console, only bested by the Atari 2600 (1977-1992), and the Neo-Geo AES/MVS (1990-2006). In the US, the last game was Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. Sales The Game Boy and Game Boy Color combined have sold 118.69 million units worldwide, with 32.47 million units in Japan, 44.06 million in the Americas, and 42.16 million in other regions. See also List of Game Boy Color games List of Player's Choice games References External links Official website Game Boy Color at Nintendo.com (archived versions at the Internet Archive Wayback Machine) Game Boy Color games list at Nintendo.com (archived from the original at the Internet Archive Wayback Machine) | Game_Boy_Color |@lemmatized nintendo:4 successor:1 game:58 boy:39 release:5 october:1 japan:7 november:2 north:1 america:2 europe:1 feature:5 color:32 screen:6 slightly:1 thick:1 tall:1 pocket:2 small:1 original:17 bit:1 cpu:1 combine:2 sell:3 million:5 unit:4 worldwide:2 history:1 response:1 pressure:1 developer:1 new:2 much:3 sophisticated:1 system:7 play:2 felt:1 even:1 late:3 incarnation:1 insufficient:1 resultant:1 product:1 backward:1 compatible:2 first:1 handheld:1 leverage:1 large:2 library:2 great:1 installed:1 base:1 predecessor:1 become:1 major:1 line:2 since:1 allow:2 launch:1 begin:1 significantly:1 competitor:1 specification:1 processor:1 workalike:1 make:4 sharp:1 extra:1 bite:1 manipulation:1 instruction:1 clock:1 speed:1 approx:1 mhz:1 twice:1 fast:1 also:6 four:4 time:3 memory:1 kilobyte:2 ram:2 video:1 additionally:1 could:3 address:1 rom:1 eight:1 maximum:1 size:1 resolution:1 pixel:1 infrared:2 communication:1 port:2 wireless:1 linking:1 however:2 support:1 drop:1 advance:1 console:2 capable:1 show:1 different:3 simultaneously:1 palette:17 add:1 basic:1 shade:2 develop:1 give:2 sprite:4 background:3 separate:1 total:1 result:1 graphic:1 artifact:1 certain:2 suppose:1 meld:1 separately:1 expose:3 trick:2 super:3 mario:2 land:4 many:1 hidden:3 form:1 enemy:3 opportunity:1 use:5 multicolored:2 spoiler:1 avoid:1 monochromatic:1 describe:1 legend:1 zelda:1 link:2 awakening:1 version:2 area:1 full:1 statue:2 normal:1 blend:1 normally:2 gbc:1 stand:1 pokémon:7 red:3 blue:9 yellow:7 inside:1 fuchsia:1 city:1 gym:1 contain:2 maze:1 wall:1 cannot:1 see:2 cartridges:1 cartridge:5 design:3 therefore:1 work:2 black:3 previous:1 similar:1 grey:2 easily:1 identify:1 one:6 european:1 american:1 user:1 choose:1 achieve:1 press:2 button:7 combination:4 namely:1 either:1 b:7 neither:1 direction:1 key:4 logo:5 display:3 brown:2 dark:4 pastel:2 mix:1 orange:3 leave:3 grayscale:2 right:4 green:7 invert:1 ten:1 would:1 translate:1 subset:2 movable:1 etc:1 another:2 left:1 produce:3 appearance:1 essentially:1 identical:1 experience:1 addition:1 publish:1 special:2 enable:1 default:1 notable:1 preset:1 metroid:1 ii:1 return:1 samus:1 kirby:1 dream:1 wario:1 series:1 atomic:2 purple:4 tint:1 translucent:2 case:1 spell:1 word:1 five:1 manufacture:1 name:1 strawberry:1 grape:1 kiwi:1 dandelion:1 teal:1 plastic:1 limited:1 edition:8 specific:1 country:1 include:1 shift:1 gold:2 silver:3 paint:2 metallic:1 pikachu:4 pichu:2 around:2 cheek:1 light:4 instead:1 usual:1 power:2 front:1 back:1 arrow:2 poké:1 ball:1 place:1 start:2 select:2 picture:1 togepi:1 jigglypuff:1 decorate:1 various:1 center:1 pink:1 hello:2 kitty:2 head:1 middle:1 tommy:4 hilfiger:4 clear:5 midnight:1 ice:1 turkish:1 soft:1 drink:1 company:1 yedigün:1 australian:1 gamboy:1 last:2 tv:1 animation:1 piece:1 maboroshi:1 grand:1 boukenhen:1 july:1 long:1 continuous:1 lifespan:1 best:1 atari:1 neo:1 geo:1 aes:1 mv:1 u:1 harry:1 potter:1 chamber:1 secret:1 sale:1 region:1 list:3 player:1 choice:1 reference:1 external:1 official:1 website:1 com:2 archived:1 internet:2 archive:3 wayback:2 machine:2 |@bigram backward_compatible:1 super_mario:2 color_palette:4 legend_zelda:1 gold_silver:2 tommy_hilfiger:4 soft_drink:1 neo_geo:1 harry_potter:1 external_link:1 archived_version:1 archive_wayback:2 wayback_machine:2 |
2,270 | Bahá'í_Faith | Seat of the Universal House of Justice, governing body of the Bahá'ís, in Haifa, Israel The Bahá'í Faith is a monotheistic religion founded by Bahá'u'lláh in nineteenth-century Persia, emphasizing the spiritual unity of all humankind. There are an estimated five to six million Bahá'ís around the world in more than 200 countries and territories. See Bahá'í statistics for a breakdown of different estimates. Bahá'í teachings emphasize the underlying unity of the major world religions. Religious history is seen to have unfolded through a series of divine messengers, each of whom established a religion that was suited to the needs of the time and the capacity of the people. These messengers have included Abraham, Krishna, Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad and others, including most recently Bahá'u'lláh. In Bahá'í belief, each messenger taught of the next, and Bahá'u'lláh's life and teachings fulfill the end-time promises of previous scriptures. Humanity is understood to be involved in a process of collective evolution, and the need of the present time is for the gradual establishment of peace, justice and unity on a global scale. The word "Bahá’í" () In English with two syllables, in Farsi with three syllables. The exact realization of the English pronunciation varies. The Oxford English Dictionary has , Merriam-Webster has , and the Random House Dictionary has . See Amin Banani: A Baha'i Glossary and Pronunciation Guide and Darius Shahrokh: Windows to the Past Series – A Guide to Pronunciation part 1 and 2, for more pronunciation instructions is used either as an adjective to refer to the Bahá'í Faith or as a term for a follower of Bahá'u'lláh, and the word is not a noun meaning the religion as a whole. It is derived from the Arabic Bahá’, meaning "glory" or "splendour". Bahá'ís prefer the orthographies "Bahá'í", "Bahá'ís", "the Báb", "Bahá'u'lláh", and "`Abdu'l-Bahá", using a particular transcription of the Arabic and Persian in publications. "Bahai", "Bahais", "Baha'i", "the Bab", "Bahaullah" and "Baha'u'llah" are often used when diacriticals are unavailable. The term "Bahaism" (or "Baha'ism") has been used in the past, but is fading from use. Beliefs Three core principles establish a basis for Bahá'í teachings and doctrine: the unity of God, the unity of religion, and the unity of humankind. From these postulates stems the belief that God periodically reveals his will through divine educators, whose purpose is to transform the character of humankind and develop, within those who respond, moral and spiritual qualities. Religion is thus seen as orderly, unified, and progressive from age to age. God Bahá'í Temple, Ingleside, Sydney, Australia The Bahá'í writings describe a single, personal, inaccessible, omniscient, omnipresent, imperishable, and almighty God who is the creator of all things in the universe. The existence of God and the universe is thought to be eternal, without a beginning or end. Though inaccessible directly, God is nevertheless seen as conscious of creation, with a will and purpose that is expressed through messengers termed Manifestations of God. Bahá'í teachings state that God is too great for humans to fully comprehend, or to create a complete and accurate image, by themselves; human understanding of God is through his revelation via his Manifestations of God. In the Bahá'í religion God is often referred to by titles and attributes (e.g. the All-Powerful, or the All-Loving), and there is a substantial emphasis on monotheism; such doctrines as the Trinity contradict the Bahá'í view that God is single and has no equal. The Bahá'í teachings state that the attributes which are applied to God are used to translate Godliness into human terms and also to help individuals concentrate on their own attributes in worshipping God to develop their potentialities on their spiritual path. According to the Bahá'í teachings the human purpose is to learn to know and love God through such methods as prayer and reflection. Symbols of many religions on the pillar of the Bahá'í House of Worship in Wilmette, Illinois ReligionSee also: Progressive revelationBahá'í notions of progressive religious revelation result in their accepting the validity of most of the world's religions, whose founders and central figures are seen as Manifestations of God. Religious history is interpreted as a series of dispensations, where each manifestation brings a somewhat broader and more advanced revelation, suited for the time and place in which it was expressed. Specific religious social teachings (e.g. the direction of prayer, or dietary restrictions) may be revoked by a subsequent manifestation so that a more appropriate requirement for the time and place may be established. Conversely, certain general principles (e.g. neighbourliness, or charity) are seen to be universal and consistent. In Bahá'í belief, this process of progressive revelation will not end; however, it is believed to be cyclical. Bahá'ís do not expect a new manifestation of God to appear within 1000 years of Bahá'u'lláh's revelation. Bahá'í beliefs are sometimes described as syncretic combinations of earlier religions' beliefs. Bahá'ís, however, assert that their religion is a distinct tradition with its own scriptures, teachings, laws, and history. Its religious background in Shi'a Islam is seen as analogous to the Jewish context in which Christianity was established. Bahá'ís describe their faith as an independent world religion, differing from the other traditions in its relative age and in the appropriateness of Bahá'u'lláh's teachings to the modern context. Bahá'u'lláh is believed to have fulfilled the messianic expectations of these precursor faiths. Human beings The Ringstone symbol represents humanity's connection to God The Bahá'í writings state that human beings have a "rational soul", and that this provides the species with a unique capacity to recognize God's station and humanity's relationship with its creator. Every human is seen to have a duty to recognize God through His messengers, and to conform to their teachings. Through recognition and obedience, service to humanity and regular prayer and spiritual practice, the Bahá'í writings state that the soul becomes closer to God, the spiritual ideal in Bahá'í belief. When a human dies, the soul passes into the next world, where its spiritual development in the physical world becomes a basis for judgement and advancement in the spiritual world. Heaven and Hell are taught to be spiritual states of nearness or distance from God that describe relationships in this world and the next, and not physical places of reward and punishment achieved after death. The Bahá'í writings emphasize the essential equality of human beings, and the abolition of prejudice. Humanity is seen as essentially one, though highly varied; its diversity of race and culture are seen as worthy of appreciation and acceptance. Doctrines of racism, nationalism, caste, social class and gender-based hierarchy are seen as artificial impediments to unity. The Bahá'í teachings state that the unification of humankind is the paramount issue in the religious and political conditions of the present world. Teachings Summary Shoghi Effendi, the appointed head of the religion from 1921 to 1957, wrote the following summary of what he considered to be the distinguishing principles of Bahá'u'lláh's teachings, which, he said, together with the laws and ordinances of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas constitute the bed-rock of the Bahá'í Faith: Social principles The following principles are frequently listed as a quick summary of the Bahá'í teachings. They are derived from transcripts of speeches given by `Abdu'l-Bahá during his tour of Europe and North America in 1912. The list is not authoritative and a variety of such lists circulate. Unity of God Unity of religion Unity of humankind Equality between men and women Elimination of all forms of prejudice World peace Harmony of religion and science Independent investigation of truth Universal compulsory education Universal auxiliary language Obedience to government and non-involvement in partisan politics Elimination of extremes of wealth and poverty With specific regard to the pursuit of world peace, Bahá'u'lláh prescribed a world-embracing collective security arrangement as necessary for the establishment of a lasting peace. Mystical teachings Although the Bahá'í teachings have a strong emphasis on social and ethical issues, there exist a number of foundational texts that have been described as mystical. The Seven Valleys is considered Bahá'u'lláh's "greatest mystical composition." It was written to a follower of Sufism, in the style of `Attar. It was first translated into English in 1906, becoming one of the earliest available books of Bahá'u'lláh to the West. The Hidden Words is another book written by Bahá'u'lláh during the same period, containing 153 short passages in which Bahá'u'lláh claims to have taken the basic essence of certain spiritual truths and written them in brief form. Covenant The Bahá'í teachings speak of both a "Greater Covenant", being universal and endless, and a "Lesser Covenant", being unique to each religious dispensation. The Lesser Covenant is viewed as an agreement between a Messenger of God and his followers and includes social practices and the continuation of authority in the religion. At this time Bahá'ís view Bahá'u'lláh's revelation as a binding lesser covenant for his followers; in the Bahá'í writings being firm in the covenant is considered a virtue to work toward. The Greater Covenant is viewed as a more enduring agreement between God and mankind, where a manifestation of God is expected to come about every thousand years at times of turmoil. With unity as an essential teaching of the religion, Bahá'ís follow an administration they believe is divinely ordained, and therefore see attempts to create schisms and divisions as efforts that are contrary to the teachings of Bahá'u'lláh. Schisms have occurred over the succession of authority, but any Bahá'í divisions have had relatively little success and have failed to attract a sizeable following. Denis MacEoin, Encyclopædia Iranica, p. 448 The followers of such divisions are regarded as Covenant-breakers and shunned, essentially excommunicated. History Bahá'í timeline1844The Báb declares his mission in Shiraz, Iran1850The Báb is publicly executed in Tabriz, Iran1852Thousands of Bábís are executedBahá'u'lláh is imprisoned and forced into exile1863Bahá'u'lláh first announces his claim to divine revelationHe is forced to leave Baghdad for Constantinople, then Adrianople1868Bahá'u'lláh is forced into harsher confinement in `Akká, Palestine1892Bahá'u'lláh dies at the age of 75 near `AkkáHis will appointed `Abdu'l-Bahá as successor1908`Abdu'l-Bahá is released from prison1921`Abdu'l-Bahá dies in HaifaHis will appoints Shoghi Effendi as Guardian1963The Universal House of Justice is first elected Bahá'í history is often traced through a sequence of leaders, beginning with the Báb's May 23, 1844 declaration in Shiraz, Iran, and ultimately resting on an administrative order established by the central figures of the religion. The tradition was mostly isolated to the Persian and Ottoman empires until after the death of Bahá'u'lláh in 1892, at which time he had followers in thirteen countries of Asia and Africa. Under the leadership of his son, `Abdu'l-Bahá, the religion gained a footing in Europe and America, and was consolidated in Iran, where it still suffers intense persecution. After the death of `Abdu'l-Bahá in 1921, the leadership of the Bahá'í community entered a new phase, evolving from that of a single individual to an administrative order with a system of both elected bodies and appointed individuals. The Báb Shrine of the Báb in Haifa, Israel. On May 23 1844 Siyyid `Alí-Muhammad of Shiraz, Iran proclaimed that he was "the Báb" ( "the Gate"), after a Shi`a religious concept. His followers were therefore known as Bábís. As the Báb's teachings spread, which the Islamic clergy saw as a threat, his followers came under increased persecution and torture. The conflicts escalated in several places to military sieges by the Shah's army. The Báb himself was imprisoned and eventually executed in 1850. Bahá'ís see the Báb as the forerunner of the Bahá'í Faith, because the Báb's writings introduced the concept of "He whom God shall make manifest", a Messianic figure whose coming, according to Bahá'ís, was announced in the scriptures of all of the world's great religions, and whom Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, claimed to be in 1863. The Báb's tomb, located in Haifa, Israel, is an important place of pilgrimage for Bahá'ís. The remains of the Báb were brought secretly from Iran to the Holy Land and were eventually interred in the tomb built for them in a spot specifically designated by Bahá'u'lláh. Bahá'u'lláh Mírzá Husayn `Alí Núrí was one of the early followers of the Báb, who later took the title of Bahá'u'lláh. He was arrested and imprisoned for this involvement in 1852. Bahá'u'lláh relates that in 1853, while incarcerated in the dungeon of the Síyáh-Chál in Tehran, he received the first intimations that he was the one anticipated by the Báb. Shortly thereafter he was expelled from Tehran to Baghdad, in the Ottoman Empire; then to Constantinople (now Istanbul); and then to Adrianople (now Edirne). In 1863, at the time of his banishment from Baghdad to Constantinople, Bahá'u'lláh declared his claim to a divine mission to his family and followers. Tensions then grew between him and Subh-i-Azal, the appointed leader of the Bábís who did not recognize Bahá'u'lláh's claim. Throughout the rest of his life Bahá'u'lláh gained the allegiance of most of the Bábís, who came to be known as Bahá'ís. Beginning in 1866, he began declaring his mission as a Messenger of God in letters to the world's religious and secular rulers, including Pope Pius IX, Napoleon III, and Queen Victoria. In 1868 Bahá'u'lláh was banished by Sultan Abdülâziz a final time to the Ottoman penal colony of `Akká, in present-day Israel. Towards the end of his life, the strict and harsh confinement was gradually relaxed, and he was allowed to live in a home near `Akká, while still officially a prisoner of that city. He died there in 1892. Bahá'ís regard his resting place at Bahjí as the Qiblih to which they turn in prayer each day. During his lifetime, Bahá'u'lláh left a large volume of writings. The Kitáb-i-Aqdas (The Most Holy Book), and the Kitáb-i-Íqán (The Book of Certitude) are recognized as major theological works, and the Hidden Words and the Seven Valleys as mystical treatises. `Abdu'l-Bahá `Abbás Effendi was Bahá'u'lláh's eldest son, known by the title of `Abdu'l-Bahá (Servant of Bahá). His father left a Will that appointed `Abdu'l-Bahá as the leader of the Bahá'í community, and designated him as the "Centre of the Covenant", "Head of the Faith", and the sole authoritative interpreter of Bahá'u'lláh's writings. `Abdu'l-Bahá had shared his father's long exile and imprisonment, which continued until `Abdu'l-Bahá's own release as a result of the Young Turk Revolution in 1908. Following his release he led a life of travelling, speaking, teaching, and maintaining correspondence with communities of believers and individuals, expounding the principles of the Bahá'í Faith. Bahá'í administration Bahá'u'lláh's Kitáb-i-Aqdas and The Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá are foundational documents of the Bahá'í administrative order. Bahá'u'lláh established the elected Universal House of Justice, and `Abdu'l-Bahá established the appointed hereditary Guardianship and clarified the relationship between the two institutions. In his Will, `Abdu'l-Bahá appointed his eldest grandson, Shoghi Effendi, as the first Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith. Shoghi Effendi throughout his lifetime translated Bahá'í texts; developed global plans for the expansion of the Bahá'í community; developed the Bahá'í World Centre; carried on a voluminous correspondence with communities and individuals around the world; and built the administrative structure of the religion, preparing the community for the election of the Universal House of Justice. He died in 1957 under conditions that did not allow for a successor to be appointed. At local, regional, and national levels, Bahá'ís elect members to nine-person Spiritual Assemblies, which run the affairs of the religion. There are also appointed individuals working at various levels, including locally and internationally, which perform the function of propagating the teachings and protecting the community. The latter do not serve as clergy, which the Bahá'í Faith does not have. The Universal House of Justice, first elected in 1963, remains the successor and supreme governing body of the Bahá'í Faith, and its 9 members are elected every five years by the members of all National Spiritual Assemblies. Any male Bahá'í, 21 years or older, is eligible to be elected to the Universal House of Justice; all other positions are open to male and female Bahá'ís. International plans In 1937 Shoghi Effendi launched a seven year plan for the Bahá'ís of North America , followed by another in 1946. In 1953, he launched the first international plan, the Ten Year World Crusade. This plan included extremely ambitious goals for the expansion of Bahá'í communities and institutions, the translation of Bahá'í texts into several new languages, and the sending of Bahá'í pioneers into previously unreached nations. He announced in letters during the Ten Year Crusade that it would be followed by other plans under the direction of the Universal House of Justice, which was elected in 1963 at the culmination of the Crusade. The House of Justice then launched a nine year plan in 1964, and a series of subsequent multi-year plans of varying length and goals followed, guiding the direction of the international Bahá'í community. Since 1996 the House of Justice has been directing communities to prepare for large-scale expansion, creating new institutions and training institutes. The Bahá'ís around the world are currently being encouraged to focus on children's classes, youth classes, devotional gatherings, and a systematic study of the religion known as study circles. The years from 2001 until 2021 represent four successive five-year plans, culminating in the centennial anniversary of the passing of `Abdu'l-Bahá. Demographics The Bahá'í House of Worship in New Delhi, India attracts an average of 4 million visitors a year. It is popularly known as the Lotus Temple. Bahá'í sources usually estimate the worldwide Bahá'í population to be above 5 million. Most encyclopedias and similar sources estimate between 5 and 6 million Bahá'ís in the world in the early twenty-first century. From its origins in the Persian and Ottoman Empires, by the early 20th century there were a number of converts in South and South East Asia, Europe, and North America. During the 1950s and 1960s vast travel teaching efforts brought the religion to almost every country and territory of the world. By the 1990s Bahá'ís were developing programs for systematic consolidation on a large scale, and the early 21st century saw large influxes of new adherents around the world. The Bahá'í Faith is currently the largest religious minority in Iran. According to The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2004: The Bahá'í religion was listed in The Britannica Book of the Year (1992–present) as the second most widespread of the world's independent religions in terms of the number of countries represented. Britannica claims that it is established in 247 countries and territories; represents over 2,100 ethnic, racial, and tribal groups; has scriptures translated into over 800 languages; and has seven million adherents worldwide [2005]. Additionally, Bahá'ís have self organized in most of the nations of the earth. The Bahá'í religion was ranked by the FP magazine as the world's second fastest growing religion by percentage (1.7%) in 2007. Social practices Laws Students of School for Girls, Tehran, 13 August 1933. This photograph may be of the students of Tarbiyat School for Girls which was established by the Bahá'í Community of Tehran in 1911; the school was closed by government decree in 1934. Source: History of Bahá'í Educational Efforts in Iran. The laws of the Bahá'í Faith primarily come from the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, written by Bahá'u'lláh. The following are a few examples of basic laws and religious observances, Bahá'ís over the age of 15 should recite an obligatory prayer each day. There are three such prayers among which one can be chosen each day. Backbiting and gossip are prohibited and denounced. Adult Bahá'ís in good health should observe a nineteen-day sunrise-to-sunset fast each year from March 2 through March 20. Bahá'ís are forbidden to drink alcohol or to take drugs, unless prescribed by doctors. Sexual relationships are permitted only between a husband and wife, and thus premarital and homosexual sex are forbidden. Gambling is forbidden. While some of the laws from the Kitáb-i-Aqdas are applicable at the present time and may be enforced to a degree by the administrative institutions, Bahá'u'lláh has provided for the progressive application of other laws that are dependent upon the existence of a predominantly Bahá'í society. The laws, when not in direct conflict with the civil laws of the country of residence, are binding on every Bahá'í, and the observance of personal laws, such as prayer or fasting, is the sole responsibility of the individual. Marriage Bahá'í marriage is the union of a man and a woman. Its purpose is mainly to foster spiritual harmony, fellowship and unity between the two partners and to provide a stable and loving environment for the rearing of children. The Bahá'í teachings on marriage call it a fortress for well-being and salvation'' and place marriage and the family as the foundation of the structure of human society. Bahá'u'lláh highly praised marriage, declaring it an eternal command of God, also discouraging divorce and homosexuality, and requiring chastity outside of marriage; Bahá'u'lláh taught that a husband and wife should strive to improve the spiritual life of each other. Interracial marriage is also highly praised throughout Bahá'í scripture. Bahá'ís intending to marry are asked to obtain a thorough understanding of the other's character before deciding to marry. Although parents should not choose partners for their children, once two individuals decide to marry, they must receive the consent of all living biological parents, even if one partner is not a Bahá'í. The Bahá'í marriage ceremony is simple; the only compulsory part of the wedding is the reading of the wedding vows prescribed by Bahá'u'lláh which both the groom and the bride read, in the presence of two witnesses. The vows are "We will all, verily, abide by the Will of God." Work Monasticism is forbidden, and Bahá'ís attempt to ground their spirituality in ordinary daily life. Performing useful work, for example, is not only required but considered a form of worship. Bahá'u'lláh prohibited a mendicant and ascetic lifestyle, encouraging Bahá'ís to "Be anxiously concerned" with the needs of society. The importance of self-exertion and service to humanity in one's spiritual life is emphasised further in Bahá'u'lláh's writings, where he states that work done in the spirit of service to humanity enjoys a rank equal to that of prayer and worship in the sight of God. Places of worship Bahá'í House of Worship, Langenhain, Germany Most Bahá'í meetings occur in individuals' homes, local Bahá'í centers, or rented facilities. Worldwide, there are currently seven Bahá'í Houses of Worship, one per continent, with an eighth under construction in Chile. Bahá'í writings refer to an institution called a "Mashriqu'l-Adhkár" (Dawning-place of the Mention of God), which is to form the center of a complex of institutions including a hospital, university, and so on. The first ever Mashriqu'l-Adhkár in `Ishqábád, Turkmenistan, has been the most complete House of Worship. Calendar The Bahá'í calendar is based upon the calendar established by the Báb. The year consists of 19 months, each having 19 days, with four or five intercalary days, to make a full solar year. The Bahá'í New Year corresponds to the traditional Persian New Year, called Naw Rúz, and occurs on the vernal equinox, March 21, at the end of the month of fasting. Bahá'í communities gather at the beginning of each month at a meeting called a Feast for worship, consultation and socializing. Each of the 19 months is given a name which is an attribute of God; some examples include Bahá’ (Splendour), ‘Ilm (Knowledge), and Jamál (Beauty). The Bahá'í week is familiar in that it consists of seven days, with each day of the week also named after an attribute of God. Bahá'ís observe 11 Holy Days throughout the year, with work suspended on 9 of these. These days commemorate important anniversaries in the history of the religion. Symbols The calligraphy of the Greatest Name The symbols of the religion are derived from the Arabic word Bahá’ ( "splendor" or "glory"), with a numerical value of 9, which is why the most common symbol is the nine-pointed star. The ringstone symbol and calligraphy of the Greatest Name are also often encountered. The former consists of two stars interspersed with a stylized Bahá’ whose shape is meant to recall the three onenesses, while the latter is a calligraphic rendering of the phrase Yá Bahá'u'l-Abhá ( "O Glory of the Most Glorious!"). United Nations Bahá'í gardens in Haifa, Israel. Bahá'u'lláh wrote of the need for world government in this age of humanity's collective life. Because of this emphasis the international Bahá'í community has chosen to support efforts of improving international relations through organizations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations. The Bahá'í International Community is an agency under the direction of the Universal House of Justice in Haifa, and has consultative status with the following organizations: United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) World Health Organization (WHO) United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) The Bahá'í International Community has offices at the United Nations in New York and Geneva and representations to United Nations regional commissions and other offices in Addis Ababa, Bangkok, Nairobi, Rome, Santiago, and Vienna. In recent years an Office of the Environment and an Office for the Advancement of Women were established as part of its United Nations Office. The Bahá'í Faith has also undertaken joint development programs with various other United Nations agencies. In the 2000 Millennium Forum of the United Nations a Bahá'í was invited as the only non-governmental speaker during the summit. See this article for further information on the relationship between the Bahá'í International Community and the United Nations. Persecution The Bahá'í cemetery in Yazd after its desecration by the government Bahá'ís continue to be persecuted in Islamic countries, especially Iran, where over 200 believers were executed between 1978 and 1998. The marginalization of the Iranian Bahá'ís by current governments is rooted in historical efforts by Shi`a clergy to persecute the religious minority. When the Báb started attracting a large following, the clergy hoped to stop the movement from spreading by stating that its followers were enemies of God, and these led to mob attacks and public executions. Starting in the twentieth century, in addition to repression that impacted individual Bahá'ís, centrally-directed campaigns that targeted the entire Bahá'í community and institutions were initiated. In one case in Yazd in 1903 more than 100 Bahá'ís were killed. Later on Bahá'í schools, such as the Tarbiyat boys' and girl's schools in Tehran, were closed in the 1930s and 40s, Bahá'í marriages were not recognized and Bahá'í texts were censored. During the reign of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, due to the growing nationalism and the economic difficulties in the country, the Shah gave up control over certain religious affairs to the clergy of the country. This resulted in a campaign of persecution against the Bahá'ís. They approved and coordinated the anti-Bahá'í campaign to incite public passion against the Bahá'ís started in 1955 and included the spreading of anti-Bahá'í propaganda in national radio stations and official newspapers. In the late 1970s the Shah's regime, due to criticism that he was pro-Western, consistently lost legitimacy. As the anti-Shah movement gained ground and support, revolutionary propaganda was spread that some of the Shah's advisors were Bahá'ís. Bahá'ís were portrayed as economic threats, supporters of Israel and the West and popular hatred for the Bahá'ís increased. Since the Islamic Revolution of 1979 Iranian Bahá'ís have regularly had their homes ransacked or been banned from attending university or holding government jobs, and several hundred have received prison sentences for their religious beliefs, most recently for participating in study circles. Bahá'í cemeteries have been desecrated and property seized and occasionally demolished, including the House of Mírzá Buzurg, Bahá'u'lláh's father. The House of the Báb in Shiraz has been destroyed twice, and is one of three sites to which Bahá'ís perform pilgrimage. According to a US panel, attacks on Bahá'ís in Iran have increased since Mahmoud Ahmadinejad became president. The United Nations Commission on Human Rights revealed an October 2005 confidential letter from Command Headquarters of the Armed Forces of Iran to identify Bahá'ís and to monitor their activities. Due to these actions, the Special Rapporteur of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights stated on March 20, 2006, that she "also expresses concern that the information gained as a result of such monitoring will be used as a basis for the increased persecution of, and discrimination against, members of the Bahá'í faith, in violation of international standards… The Special Rapporteur is concerned that this latest development indicates that the situation with regard to religious minorities in Iran is, in fact, deteriorating." On May 14, 2008, members of an informal body known as the Friends that oversaw the needs of the Bahá'í community in Iran were arrested and taken to Evin prison. On 17 February 2009 IRNA news agency reported about this case that "next week, an indictment will be issued and will be discussed in court" Washinton Post: Iran Accuses 7 Jailed Leaders of Bahai Faith of Espionage The Bahá'ís in Egypt have also faced hardship; on December 16, 2006 the Supreme Administrative Council of Egypt ruled the government may not recognize the Bahá'í Faith in official identification numbers. The ruling left Egyptian Bahá'ís unable to obtain government documents, including ID cards, birth, death, marriage or divorce certificates, or passports, all of which require a person's religion to be listed. They also could not be employed, educated, treated in hospitals or vote, among other things. On January 29, 2008 Cairo's court of Administrative Justice, ruling on two related court cases, ruled in favour of the Bahá'ís, allowing them to obtain birth certificates and identification documents, so long as they omit their religion on court documents, however as of April 22, 2008 the Egyptian Ministry of Interior has yet to implement the ruling, and Bahá'ís remain without identification cards. Reactions Bernard Lewis states that the Muslim laity and Islamic authorities have always had great difficulty in accommodating post-Islamic monotheistic religions such as the Bahá'í Faith, since the followers of such religions cannot be dismissed either as benighted heathens, like the polytheists of Asia and the animists of Africa, nor as outdated precursors, like the Jews and Christians. Moreover, their very existence presents a challenge to the Islamic doctrine of the perfection and finality of Muhammad's revelation. See also Bahá'í apologetics—for critical viewpoints. Bahá'í Faith in fiction Bahá'í orthography List of Bahá'ís Bahá'í Terraces, the Hanging Gardens of Haifa Notes References External links The Bahá'ís, the official presence of the Bahá'í International Community on the Web The Bahá’í Encyclopedia Project BBC Religion and Ethics special: Bahá'í, BBC on the Bahá'í Faith The Baha’i Faith Index, a search engine and directory of Bahá'í web sites Baha'i Library, a site containing collection of Bahá'í writings and is also home to an active forum. 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2,271 | Jewellery | Amber pendants Jewellery ( or /ˈdʒuːələri/ (UK only)) or jewelry is an item of personal adornment, such as a necklace, ring, brooch or bracelet, that is worn by a person. It may be made from gemstones or precious metals, but may be from any other material, and may be appreciated because of geometric or other patterns, or meaningful symbols. Earrings and other body rings are also considered to be jewellery, while body art is not. Also, items affixed to a garment, such as buttons, are not considered to be jewellery, even if they are unusual and highly decorative. Also, items such as belts and handbags etc. are not considered to be jewellery, and are considered to be accessories. The word jewellery is derived from the word jewel, which was anglicised from the Old French "jouel" circa the 13th century. jewel. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved on August 7, 2007, from the Dictionary.com website. Further tracing leads back to the Latin word "jocale", meaning plaything. Jewellery is one of the oldest forms of body adornment; recently found 100,000 year-old beads made from Nassarius shells are thought to be the oldest known jewellery. Study reveals 'oldest jewellery', BBC News, June 22, 2006. Jewellery is sometimes seen as wealth storage or functionally as holding a garment or hair together. It has from very early times also been regarded as a form of personal adornment. The first pieces of jewellery were made from natural materials, such as bone, animal teeth, shell, wood and carved stone. More exotic jewellery was probably made for wealthy people or as indications of social status. In some cases people were buried with their jewellery. Jewellery has been made to adorn nearly every body part, from hairpins to toe rings and many more types of jewellery. While high-quality jewellery is made with gemstones and precious metals, such as silver or gold, there is also a growing demand for art jewellery where design and creativity is prized above material value. In addition, there is the less costly costume jewellery, made from lower value materials and mass-produced. Other variations include wire sculpture (wrap) jewellery, using anything from base metal wire with rock tumbled stone to precious metals and precious gemstones. Form and function Kenyan man wearing tribal beads Jewellery has been used for a number of reasons: Currency, wealth display and storage, Functional use (such as clasps, pins and buckles) Symbolism (to show membership or status) Protection (in the form of amulets and magical wards), URL: Magic Of jewels: Chapter VII Amulets George Frederick Kunz was gemmologist for Tiffany's built the collections of banker J.P. Morgan and the American Natural History Museum in NY City. This chapter deals entirely with using jewels and gemstones in jewellery for talismanic purposes in Western Cultures. The next chapter deals with other, indigenous cultures. Artistic display Most cultures have at some point had a practice of keeping large amounts of wealth stored in the form of jewellery. Numerous cultures move wedding dowries in the form of jewellery, or create jewellery as a means to store or display coins. Alternatively, jewellery has been used as a currency or trade good; an example being the use of slave beads. Many items of jewellery, such as brooches and buckles originated as purely functional items, but evolved into decorative items as their functional requirement diminished. Holland, J. 1999. The Kingfisher History Encyclopedia. Kingfisher books. Jewellery can also be symbolic of group membership, as in the case of the Christian crucifix or Jewish Star of David, or of status, as in the case of chains of office, or the Western practice of married people wearing a wedding ring. Wearing of amulets and devotional medals to provide protection or ward off evil is common in some cultures; these may take the form of symbols (such as the ankh), stones, plants, animals, body parts (such as the Khamsa), or glyphs (such as stylized versions of the Throne Verse in Islamic art). Morris, Desmond. Body Guards: Protective Amulets and Charms. Element, 1999, ISBN 1-86204-572-0. Although artistic display has clearly been a function of jewellery from the very beginning, the other roles described above tended to take primacy. It was only in the late 19th century, with the work of such masters as Peter Carl Fabergé and René Lalique, that art began to take primacy over function and wealth. This trend has continued into modern times, expanded upon by artists such as Robert Lee Morris and Ed Levin. Materials and methods Anticlastic forged sterling bracelet. In creating jewellery, gemstones, coins, or other precious items are often used, and they are typically set into precious metals. Alloys of nearly every metal known have been encountered in jewellery -- bronze, for example, was common in Roman times. Modern fine jewellery usually includes gold, white gold, platinum, palladium, titanium or silver. Most American and European gold jewellery is made of an alloy of gold, the purity of which is stated in karats, indicated by a number followed by the letter K. American gold jewellery must be of at least 10K purity (41.7% pure gold), (though in England the number is 9K (37.5% pure gold) and is typically found up to 18K (75% pure gold). Higher purity levels are less common with alloys at 22 K (91.6% pure gold), and 24 K (99.9% pure gold) being considered too soft for jewellery use in America and Europe. These high purity alloys, however, are widely used across Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. Platinum alloys range from 900 (90% pure) to 950 (95.0% pure). The silver used in jewellery is usually sterling silver, or 92.5% fine silver. In costume jewellery, stainless steel findings are sometimes used. Other commonly used materials include glass, such as fused-glass or enamel; wood, often carved or turned; shells and other natural animal substances such as bone and ivory; natural clay; polymer clay; and even plastics. Hemp and other twines have been used as well to create jewellery that has more of a natural feel. However, any inclusion of lead or lead solder will cause an English Assay office (the building which gives English jewellery its stamp of approval, the Hallmark) to destroy the piece. Bead embroidery design. Beads are frequently used in jewellery. These may be made of glass, gemstones, metal, wood, shells, clay and polymer clay. Beaded jewellery commonly encompasses necklaces, bracelets, earrings, belts, and rings. Beads may be large or small, the smallest type of beads used are known as seed beads, these are the beads used for the "woven" style of beaded jewellery. Another use of seed beads is an embroidery technique where seed beads are sewn onto fabric backings to create broad collar neck pieces and beaded bracelets. Bead embroidery, a popular type of handwork during the Victorian era is enjoying a renaissance in modern jewellery making. Beading, or beadwork, is also very popular in many African cultures. Advanced glass and glass beadmaking techniques by Murano and Venetian glassmasters developed crystalline glass, enameled glass (smalto), glass with threads of gold (goldstone), multicoloured glass (millefiori), milk-glass (lattimo) and imitation gemstones made of glass. As early as the 13th century, Murano glass and Murano beads were popular. Silversmiths, goldsmiths, and lapidaries methods include forging, casting, soldering or welding, cutting, carving, and "cold-joining" (using adhesives, staples, and rivets to assemble parts). McCreight, Tim. Jewelry: Fundamentals of Metalsmithing. Design Books International, 1997 ISBN 1-880140-29-2 Diamonds Diamonds. Diamonds were first mined in India. http://lgdl.gia.edu/pdfs/janse-table1.pdf Pliny may have mentioned them, although there is some debate as to the exact nature of the stone he referred to as Adamas; Pliny. Natural History XXXVI, 15 In 2005, Australia, Botswana, Russia and Canada ranked among the primary sources of gemstone diamond production. Microsoft Word - WMP 2001-2005 title.doc Natural Diamond: World Production, By Country And Type The British crown jewels contain the Cullinan Diamond, part of the largest gem-quality rough diamond ever found (1905), at 3,106.75 carats (621.35 g). Now popular in engagement rings, this usage dates back to the marriage of Maximilian I to Mary of Burgundy in 1477. Other gemstones Many precious and semiprecious stones are used for jewellery. Among them are: Amber: Amber, an ancient organic gemstone, is composed of tree resin that has hardened over time. The stone must be at least 1 million years old to be classified as amber, and some amber can be up to 120 million years old. Amethyst: Amethyst has historically been the most prized gemstone in the quartz family. It is treasured for its purple hue, which can range in tone from light to dark. Emerald: Emeralds are one of the three main precious gemstones (along with rubies and sapphires) and are known for their fine green to bluish green colour. They have been treasured throughout history, and some historians report that the Egyptians mined emerald as early as 3500 BC. Jade: Jade is most commonly associated with the colour green, but can come in a number of other colours as well. Jade is closely linked to Asian culture, history, and tradition, and is sometimes referred to as the “stone of heaven.” Jasper: Jasper is a gemstone of the chalcedony family that comes in a variety of colours. Often, jasper will feature unique and interesting patterns within the coloured stone. Picture jasper is a type of jasper known for the colours (often beiges and browns) and swirls in the stone’s pattern. Quartz: Quartz refers to a family of crystalline gemstones of various colours and sizes. Among the well-known types of quartz are rose quartz (which has a delicate pink colour), and smoky quartz (which comes in a variety of shades of translucent brown). A number of other gemstones — like Amethyst and Citrine — are also part of the quartz family. Rutilated quartz is a popular type of quartz containing needle-like inclusions. Ruby: Rubies are known for their intense red colour, and are among the most highly valued precious gemstones. Rubies have been treasured for millennia. In Sanskrit, the word for ruby is “ratnaraj”, meaning “king of precious stones.” Sapphire: The most popular form of sapphire is blue sapphire, which is known for its medium to deep blue colour and strong saturation. Fancy coloured sapphires in various colours are also available. In the United States, blue sapphire tends to be the most popular and most affordable of the three major precious gemstones (emerald, ruby, and sapphire). Turquoise: Turquoise is found in only a few places on earth, and the world’s largest turquoise producing region is the southwest United States. Turquoise is prized for its attractive colour — most often an intense medium blue or a greenish blue — and its ancient heritage. Turquoise is used in a great variety of jewellery styles. It is perhaps most closely associated with southwest and Native American jewellery, but it is also used in many sleek, modern styles. Some turquoise contains a matrix of dark brown markings, which provides an interesting contrast to the gemstone’s bright blue colour. Some gemstones (like pearls, coral, and amber) are classified as organic, meaning that they are produced by living organisms. Others are inorganic, meaning that they are generally composed of and arise from minerals. Silver Stars Collection Gemstone Glossary Some gems, for example, amethyst, have become less valued as methods of extracting and importing them have progressed. Some man-made gems can serve in place of natural gems, an example is the cubic zirconia, used in place of the diamond. Nassau, K. (1980).Gems made by man. ISBN 0801967732 Metal finishes For platinum, gold, and silver jewellery there are many techniques to create finishes. The most common are high-polish, satin/matte, brushed, and hammered. High-polished jewellery is by far the most common and gives the metal the highly-reflective and shiny look. Satin, or matte finish reduces the shine and reflection of the jewellery and is commonly used to accentuate gemstones such as diamonds. Brushed finishes give the jewellery a textured look, and are created by brushing a material (similar to sandpaper) against the metal, leaving 'brush strokes'. Hammered finishes are typically created by using a soft, rounded hammer and hammering the jewellery to give it a wavy texture. Some jewellery is plated to give it a shiny, reflective look or to achieve a desired colour. Sterling silver jewellery may be plated with a thin layer of .999 fine silver (a process known as flashing) or may be plated with rhodium or gold. Base metal costume jewellery may also be plated with silver, gold, or rhodium for a more attractive finish. Jewelry-Encyclopedia.com Impact on society Jewellery has been used to denote status. In ancient Rome, for instance, only certain ranks could wear rings; Pliny the Elder. The Natural History. ed. John Bostock, H.T. Riley, Book XXXIII The Natural History of Metals Online at the Perseus Project Chapter 4. Accessed July 2006 Later, sumptuary laws dictated who could wear what type of jewellery; again based on rank. Cultural dictates have also played a significant role; for example, the wearing of earrings by Western men was considered "effeminate" in the 19th and early 20th centuries. More recently, the display of body jewellery, such as piercings, has become a mark of acceptance or seen as a badge of courage within some groups, but is completely rejected in others. Likewise, the hip-hop culture has popularized the slang term bling, which refers to ostentatious display of jewellery by men or women. Conversely, the jewellery industry in the early 20th century launched a campaign to popularize wedding rings for men — which caught on — as well as engagement rings for men - which did not, going so far as to create a false history and claim that the practice had Medieval roots. By the mid 1940s, 85% of weddings in the U.S. featured a double-ring ceremony, up from 15% in the 1920s. Howard, Vicky. "A real Man's Ring: Gender and the Invention of Tradition." Journal of Social History, Summer 2003, pp 837-856. Religion has also played a role: Islam, for instance, considers the wearing of gold by men as a social taboo, Yusuf al-Qaradawi. The Lawful and Prohibited in Islam (online) and many religions have edicts against excessive display. Greenbaum, Toni. "SILVER SPEAKS: TRADITIONAL JEWELRY FROM THE MIDDLE EAST". Metalsmith, Winter2004, Vol. 24, Issue 1, p.56. Greenbaum provides the explanation for the lack of historical examples; the majority of Islamic jewellery was in the form of bridal dowries, and traditionally was not handed down from generation to generation; instead, on a woman's death it was sold at the souk and recycled or sold to passers-by. Islamic jewellery from before the 19th century is thus exceedingly rare. History The history of jewellery is a long one, with many different uses among different cultures. It has endured for thousands of years and has provided various insights into how ancient cultures worked. Early history The first signs of jewellery came from the Homo sapiens in Africa. Perforated beads made from snail shells have been found dating to 75,000 years ago at Blombos Cave. In Kenya, at Enkapune Ya Muto, beads made from perforated ostrich egg shells have been dating to more than 40,000 years ago. Outside of Africa, the Cro-Magnons had crude necklaces and bracelets of bone, teeth and stone hung on pieces of string or animal sinew, or pieces of carved bone used to secure clothing together. In some cases, jewellery had shell or mother-of-pearl pieces. In southern Russia, carved bracelets made of mammoth tusk have been found. The Venus of Hohle Fels features a perforation at the top, showing that it was intended to be worn as a pendant. Around 7,000 years ago, the first sign of copper jewellery was seen. Egypt Amulet pendant (254 BCE) made from gold, lapis lazuli, turquoise and carnelian, 14 cm wide. The first signs of established jewellery making in Ancient Egypt was around 3,000-5,000 years ago. Reader's Digest Association. 1986. The last 2 million years. Reader's Digest. ISBN 0-86438-007-0 The Egyptians preferred the luxury, rarity, and workability of gold over other metals. Predynastic Egypt had Jewellery in Egypt soon began to symbolize power and religious power in the community. Although it was worn by wealthy Egyptians in life, it was also worn by them in death, with jewellery commonly placed among grave goods. In conjunction with gold jewellery, Egyptians used coloured glass in place of precious gems. Although the Egyptians had access to gemstones, they preferred the colours they could create in glass over the natural colours of stones. For nearly each gemstone, there was a glass formulation used by the Egyptians to mimic it. The colour of the jewellery was very important, as different colours meant different things; the Book of the Dead dictated that the necklace of Isis around a mummy’s neck must be red to satisfy Isis’s need for blood, while green jewellery meant new growth for crops and fertility. Although lapis lazuli and silver had to be imported from beyond the country’s borders, most other materials for jewellery were found in or near Egypt, for example in the Red Sea, where the Egyptians mined Cleopatra's favourite gem, the emerald. Egyptian jewellery was predominantly made in large workshops attached to temples or palaces. Egyptian designs were most common in Phoenician jewellery. Also, ancient Turkish designs found in Persian jewellery suggest that trade between the Middle East and Europe was not uncommon. Women wore elaborate gold and silver pieces that were used in ceremonies. Europe and the Middle East Mesopotamia By approximately 4,000 years ago, jewellery-making had become a significant craft in the cities of Sumer and Akkad. The most significant archaeological evidence comes from the Royal Cemetery of Ur, where hundreds of burials dating 2900–2300 BC were unearthed; tombs such as that of Puabi contained a multitude of artifacts in gold, silver, and semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli crowns embellished with gold figurines, close-fitting collar necklaces, and jewel-headed pins. In Assyria, men and women both wore extensive amounts of jewellery, including amulets, ankle bracelets, heavy multi-strand necklaces, and cylinder seals. Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 155–157. Jewellery in Mesopotamia tended to be manufactured from thin metal leaf and was set with large numbers of brightly-coloured stones (chiefly agate, lapis, carnelian, and jasper). Favoured shapes included leaves, spirals, cones, and bunches of grapes. Jewellers created works both for human use and for adorning statues and idols; they employed a wide variety of sophisticated metalworking techniques, such as cloisonne, engraving, fine granulation, and filigree. Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 295–297. Extensive and meticulously maintained records pertaining to the trade and manufacture of jewellery have also been unearthed throughout Mesopotamian archaeological sites. One record in the Mari royal archives, for example, gives the composition of various items of jewellery: Greece Gold earring from Mycenae, 16th century BCE. The Greeks started using gold and gems in jewellery in 1,400 BC, although beads shaped as shells and animals were produced widely in earlier times. By 300 BC, the Greeks had mastered making coloured jewellery and using amethysts, pearl and emeralds. Also, the first signs of cameos appeared, with the Greeks creating them from Indian Sardonyx, a striped brown pink and cream agate stone. Greek jewellery was often simpler than in other cultures, with simple designs and workmanship. However, as time progressed the designs grew in complexity different materials were soon utilized. Pendant with naked woman, made from electrum, Rhodes, around 630-620 BCE. Jewellery in Greece was hardly worn and was mostly used for public appearances or on special occasions. It was frequently given as a gift and was predominantly worn by women to show their wealth, social status and beauty. The jewellery was often supposed to give the wearer protection from the “Evil Eye” or endowed the owner with supernatural powers, while others had a religious symbolism. Older pieces of jewellery that have been found were dedicated to the Gods. The largest production of jewellery in these times came from Northern Greece and Macedon. However, although much of the jewellery in Greece was made of gold and silver with ivory and gems, bronze and clay copies were made also. Ancient Greek jewellery from 300 BCE. They worked two styles of pieces; cast pieces and pieces hammered out of sheet metal. Fewer pieces of cast jewellery have been recovered; it was made by casting the metal onto two stone or clay moulds. Then the two halves were joined together and wax and then molten metal, was placed in the centre. This technique had been practised since the late Bronze Age. The more common form of jewellery was the hammered sheet type. Sheets of metal would be hammered to thickness and then soldered together. The inside of the two sheets would be filled with wax or another liquid to preserve the metal work. Different techniques, such as using a stamp or engraving, were then used to create motifs on the jewellery. Jewels may then be added to hollows or glass poured into special cavities on the surface.' The Greeks took much of their designs from outer origins, such as Asia when Alexander the Great conquered part of it. In earlier designs, other European influences can also be detected. When Roman rule came to Greece, no change in jewellery designs was detected. However, by 27 BC, Greek designs were heavily influenced by the Roman culture. That is not to say that indigenous design did not thrive; numerous polychrome butterfly pendants on silver foxtail chains, dating from the 1st century, have been found near Olbia, with only one example ever found anywhere else. Treister, Mikhail YU. "Polychrome Necklaces from the Late Hellenistic Period." Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 2004, Vol. 10 Issue 3/4, p199-257, 59p. Rome Roman Amethyst intaglio pendant, c. 212 CE; later converted to St. Peter medallion. Although jewellery work was abundantly diverse in earlier times, especially among the barbarian tribes such as the Celts, when the Romans conquered most of Europe, jewellery was changed as smaller factions developed the Roman designs. The most common artefact of early Rome was the brooch, which was used to secure clothing together. The Romans used a diverse range of materials for their jewellery from their extensive resources across the continent. Although they used gold, they sometimes used bronze or bone and in earlier times, glass beads & pearl. As early as 2,000 years ago, they imported Sri Lankan sapphires and Indian diamonds and used emeralds and amber in their jewellery. In Roman-ruled England, fossilized wood called jet from Northern England was often carved into pieces of jewellery. The early Italians worked in crude gold and created clasps, necklaces, earrings and bracelets. They also produced larger pendants which could be filled with perfume. Like the Greeks, often the purpose of Roman jewellery was to ward off the “Evil Eye” given by other people. Although women wore a vast array of jewellery, men often only wore a finger ring. Although they were expected to wear at least one ring, some Roman men wore a ring on every finger, while others wore none. Roman men and women wore rings with a carved stone on it that was used with wax to seal documents, an act that continued into medieval times when kings and noblemen used the same method. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the jewellery designs were absorbed by neighbouring countries and tribes. Middle Ages Merovingian fibulae, Bibliothèque Nationale de France. 6th century bronze eagle-shaped Visigothic cloisonné fibula from Guadalajara, Spain. Post-Roman Europe continued to develop jewellery making skills; the Celts and Merovingians in particular are noted for their jewellery, which in terms of quality matched or exceeded that of Byzantium. Clothing fasteners, amulets, and to a lesser extent signet rings are the most common artefacts known to us; a particularly striking celtic example is the Tara Brooch. The Torc was common throughout Europe as a symbol of status and power. By the 8th century, jewelled weaponry was common for men, while other jewellery (with the exception of signet rings) seems to become the domain of women. Grave goods found in a 6th-7th century burial near Chalon-sur-Saône are illustrative; the young girl was buried with: 2 silver fibulae, a necklace (with coins), bracelet, gold earings, a pair of hair-pins, comb, and buckle. Duby Georges and Philippe Ariès, eds. A History of Private Life Vol 1 - From Pagan Rome to Byzantium. Harvard, 1987. p 506 The Celts specialized in continuous patterns and designs; while Merovingian designs are best known for stylized animal figures. Duby, throughout. They were not the only groups known for high quality work; note the Visigoth work shown here, and the numerous decorative objects found at the Anglo-Saxon Ship burial at Sutton Hoo Suffolk, England, are a particularly well-known example. On the continent, cloisonné and garnet were perhaps the quintessential method and gemstone of the period. Byzantine wedding ring. The Eastern successor of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, continued many of the methods of the Romans, though religious themes came to predominate. Unlike the Romans, the Franks, and the Celts, however; Byzantium used light-weight gold leaf rather than solid gold, and more emphasis was placed on stones and gems. As in the West, Byzantine jewellery was worn by wealthier females, with male jewellery apparently restricted to signet rings. Like other contemporary cultures, jewellery was commonly buried with its owner. Sherrard, P. 1972. Great Ages of Man: Byzantium. Time-Life International. Renaissance Sardonyx cameo. The Renaissance and exploration both had significant impacts on the development of jewellery in Europe. By the 17th century, increasing exploration and trade lead to increased availability of a wide variety of gemstones as well as exposure to the art of other cultures. Whereas prior to this the working of gold and precious metal had been at the forefront of jewellery, this period saw increasing dominance of gemstones and their settings. A fascinating example of this is the Cheapside Hoard, the stock of a jeweller hidden in London England during the Commonwealth period and not found again until 1912. It contained Colombian emerald, topaz, amazonite from Brazil, spinel, iolite, and chrysoberyl from Sri Lanka, ruby from India, Afghani lapis lazuli, Persian turquoise, Red Sea peridot, as well as Bohemian and Hungarian opal, garnet, and amethyst. Large stones were frequently set in box-bezels on enamelled rings. Scarisbrick, Diana. Rings: Symbols of Wealth, Power, and Affection. New York: Abrams, 1993. ISBN 0-8109-3775-1 p77. Notable among merchants of the period was Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who in the 1660s brought the precursor stone of the Hope Diamond to France. When Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned as Emperor of the French in 1804, he revived the style and grandeur of jewellery and fashion in France. Under Napoleon’s rule, jewellers introduced parures, suites of matching jewellery, such as a diamond tiara, diamond earrings, diamond rings, a diamond brooch and a diamond necklace. Both of Napoleon’s wives had beautiful sets such as these and wore them regularly. Another fashion trend resurrected by Napoleon was the cameo. Soon after his cameo decorated crown was seen, cameos were highly sought after. The period also saw the early stages of costume jewellery, with fish scale covered glass beads in place of pearls or conch shell cameos instead of stone cameos. New terms were coined to differentiate the arts: jewellers who worked in cheaper materials were called bijoutiers, while jewellers who worked with expensive materials were called joailliers; a practice which continues to this day. Romanticism Mourning jewellery in the form of a jet brooch, 19th century. Starting in the late 18th century, Romanticism had a profound impact on the development of western jewellery. Perhaps the most significant influences were the public’s fascination with the treasures being discovered through the birth of modern archaeology, and the fascination with Medieval and Renaissance art. Changing social conditions and the onset of the industrial revolution also lead to growth of a middle class that wanted and could afford jewellery. As a result, the use of industrial processes, cheaper alloys, and stone substitutes, lead to the development of paste or costume jewellery. Distinguished goldsmiths continued to flourish, however, as wealthier patrons sought to ensure that what they wore still stood apart from the jewellery of the masses, not only through use of precious metals and stones but also though superior artistic and technical work; one such artist was the French goldsmith Françoise Désire Fromment Meurice. A category unique to this period and quite appropriate to the philosophy of romanticism was mourning jewellery. It originated in England, where Queen Victoria was often seen wearing jet jewellery after the death of Prince Albert; and allowed the wearer to continue wearing jewellery while expressing a state of mourning at the death of a loved one. In the United states, this period saw the founding in 1837 of Tiffany & Co. by Charles Lewis Tiffany. Tiffany's put the United States on the world map in terms of jewellery, and gained fame creating dazzling commissions for people such as the wife of Abraham Lincoln; later it would gain popular notoriety as the setting of the film Breakfast at Tiffany's. In France, Pierre Cartier founded Cartier SA in 1847, while 1884 saw the founding of Bulgari in Italy. The modern production studio had been born; a step away from the former dominance of individual craftsmen and patronage. This period also saw the first major collaboration between East and West; collaboration in Pforzheim between German and Japanese artists lead to Shakudo plaques set into Filigree frames being created by the Stoeffler firm in 1885). Ilse-Neuman, Ursula. Book review “Schmuck/Jewellery 1840-1940: Highlights from the Schmuckmuseum Pforzheim.’’ ‘’Metalsmith’’. Fall2006, Vol. 26 Issue 3, p12-13, 2p Perhaps the grand finalé – and an appropriate transition to the following period – were the masterful creations of the Russian artist Peter Carl Fabergé, working for the Imperial Russian court, whose Fabergé eggs and jewellery pieces are still considered as the epitome of the goldsmith’s art. Art Nouveau In the 1890s, jewellers began to explore the potential of the growing Art Nouveau style. Very closely related were the German Jugendstil, British (and to some extent American) Arts and Crafts movement. Art Nouveau jewellery encompassed many distinct features including a focus on the female form and an emphasis on colour, most commonly rendered through the use of enamelling techniques including basse-taille, champleve, cloisonné and plique a jour. Motifs included orchids, irises, pansies, vines, swans, peacocks, snakes, dragonflies, mythological creatures and the female silhouette. Rene Lalique, working for the Paris shop of Samuel Bing, was recognized by contemporaries as a leading figure in this trend. The Darmstadt Artists' Colony and Wiener Werkstaette provided perhaps the most significant German input to the trend, while in Denmark Georg Jensen, though best known for his Silverware, also contributed significant pieces. In England, Liberty & Co and the British arts & crafts movement of Charles Robert Ashbee contributed slightly more linear but still characteristic designs. The new style moved the focus of the jeweller's art from the setting of stones to the artistic design of the piece itself; Lalique's dragonfly design is one of the best examples of this. Enamels played a large role in technique, while sinuous organic lines are the most recognizable design feature. The end of World War One once again changed public attitudes; and a more sober style came in. Constantino, Maria. Art Nouveau. Knickerbocker Press; 1999 ISBN 1-57715-074-0 as well as Ilse-Neuman 2006. Art Deco Growing political tensions, the after-effects of the war, and a reaction against the perceived decadence of the turn of the century led to simpler forms, combined with more effective manufacturing for mass production of high-quality jewellery. Covering the period of the 1920s and 1930s, the style has become popularly known as Art Deco. Walter Gropius and the German Bauhaus movement, with their philosophy of "no barriers between artists and craftsmen" lead to some interesting and stylistically simplified forms. Modern materials were also introduced: plastics and aluminum were first used in jewellery, and of note are the chromed pendants of Russian born Bauhaus master Naum Slutzky. Technical mastery became as valued as the material itself; in the west, this period saw the reinvention of granulation by the German Elizabeth Treskow (although development of the re-invention has continued into the 1990s). Jewish jewellery Jewellery has been a part of Jewish culture since biblical times. There are references in the bible to the wearing of jewellery, both as a decoration and as a symbol. Now, Jewish jewellery is worn to show affiliation with Judaism, as well as talismans and amulets. One of the most common symbols in Jewish jewellery is the Star of David. Another popular symbol is the Hamsa, also known as the "Hamesh hand". The Hamsa appears often in a stylized form, as a hand with three fingers raised, and sometimes with two thumbs arranged symmetrically. Its five fingers are said to symbolize the five books if the Torah. The symbol is used for protection and as a talisman to ward off the Evil eye in amulets and charms and can also be found in various places such as home entrances and cars. It is also common to place other symbols in the middle of the Hamsa that are believed to help against the evil eye such as fish, eyes and the Star of David. The colour blue, or more specifically light blue, is also considered protective against the evil eye and many Hamsas are in that colour or with embedded gemstones in different shades of blue. The Chai is also a popular Jewish motif for necklaces. Other motifs found in Jewish jewellery are symbols from the Kabbalah, such as the Merkaba, a three-dimensional Star of David, and the Tree of life. Pieces of jewellery are decorated with parts or initials of known Jewish prayers and with 3-letters combinations, believed to represent different names of the Jewish God. Asia Royal earrings, Andhra Pradesh, 1st Century BC. In Asia, the Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery making anywhere, with a history of over 5,000 years. Untracht, Oppi. Traditional Jewellery of India. New York: Abrams, 1997 ISBN 0-8109-3886-3. p15. One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization. Early jewellery making in China started around the same period, but it became widespread with the spread of Buddhism around 2,000 years ago. China The earliest culture to begin making jewellery in Asia was the Chinese around 5,000 years ago. Chinese jewellery designs were very religion-oriented and contained Buddhist symbols, a tradition which continues to this day. Jade coiled serpent, Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) The Chinese used silver in their jewellery more often than gold, and decorated it with their favourite colour, blue. Blue kingfisher feathers were tied onto early Chinese jewellery and later, blue gems and glass were incorporated into designs. However, Chinese preferred jade over any other stone. They fashioned it using diamonds. The Chinese revered jade because of the human-like qualities they assigned to it, such as its hardness, durability and beauty. The first jade pieces were very simple, but as time progressed, more complex designs evolved. Jade rings from between the 4th and 7th centuries BCE show evidence of having been worked with a compound milling machine; hundreds of years before the first mention of such equipment in the west. Lu, Peter J., "Early Precision Compound Machine from Ancient China." Science, 6/11/2004, Vol. 304, Issue 5677 In China, jewellery was worn frequently by both sexes to show their nobility and wealth. However, in later years, it was used to accentuate beauty. Women wore highly detailed gold and silver head dresses and other items, while men wore decorative hat buttons which showed rank and gold or silver rings. Woman also wore strips of gold on their foreheads, much like women in the Indus Valley. The band was an early form of tiara and was often decorated with precious gems. The most common piece of jewellery worn by Chinese was the earring, which was worn by both men and women. Amulets were also common too, often with a Chinese symbol or dragon. In fact, dragons, Chinese symbols and also phoenixes were frequently depicted on jewellery designs. The Chinese often placed their jewellery in their graves; most Chinese graves found by archaeologists contain decorative jewellery. Reader's Digest Association. 1983. Vanished Civilisations. Reader's Digest. India The Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery making anywhere since Ramayana and Mahabharata times. While Western traditions were heavily influenced by waxing and waning empires, India enjoyed a continuous development of art forms for some 5000 years. Untracht, Oppi. Traditional Jewellery of India. New York: Abrams, 1997 ISBN 0-8109-3886-3. p15. One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization. By 1,500 BC the peoples of the Indus Valley were creating gold earrings and necklaces, bead necklaces and metallic bangles. Before 2,100 BC, prior to the period when metals were widely used, the largest jewellery trade in the Indus Valley region was the bead trade. Beads in the Indus Valley were made using simple techniques. First, a bead maker would need a rough stone, which would be bought from an eastern stone trader. The stone would then be placed into a hot oven where it would be heated until it turned deep red, a colour highly prized by people of the Indus Valley. The red stone would then be chipped to the right size and a hole drilled through it with primitive drills. The beads were then polished. Some beads were also painted with designs. This art form was often passed down through family; children of bead makers often learnt how to work beads from a young age. Jewellery in the Indus Valley was worn predominantly by females, who wore numerous clay or shell bracelets on their wrists. They were often shaped like doughnuts and painted black. Over time, clay bangles were discarded for more durable ones. In India today, bangles are made out of metal or glass. Other pieces that women frequently wore were thin bands of gold that would be worn on the forehead, earrings, primitive brooches, chokers and gold rings. Although women wore jewellery the most, some men in the Indus Valley wore beads. Small beads were often crafted to be placed in men and women’s hair. The beads were about one millimetre long. A female skeleton (presently on display at the National Museum, New Delhi, India) wears a carlinean bangle ( a bracelet) on her left hand. India was the first country to mine diamonds, with some mines dating back to 296 BC. India traded the diamonds, realising their valuable qualities. This trade almost vanished 1,000 years after Christianity grew as a religion, as Christians rejected the diamonds which were used in Indian religious amulets. Along with Arabians from the Middle East restricting the trade, India’s diamond jewellery trade lulled. Today, many of the jewellery designs and traditions are still used and jewellery is commonplace in Indian ceremonies and weddings. Americas Jewellery played a major role in the fate of the Americas when the Spanish established an empire to seize South American gold. Jewellery making developed in the Americas 5,000 years ago in Central and South America. Large amounts of gold was easily accessible, and the Aztecs, the Mayans and numerous Andean cultures like the Mochica of Peru created beautiful pieces of jewellery. With the Mochica culture, goldwork flourished. The pieces are no longer simple metalwork, but are now masterful examples of jewellery making. Pieces are sophisticated in their design, and feature inlays of turquoise, mother of pearl, spondylus shell, and amethyst. The nose and ear ornaments, chest plates, small containers and whistles are considered masterpieces of ancient Peruvian culture. Moche Ear Ornaments. 1-800 AD. Larco Museum Collection, Lima-Peru Among the Aztecs, only nobility wore gold jewellery, as it showed their rank, power and wealth. Gold jewellery was most common in the Aztec Empire and was often decorated with feathers from birds. The main purpose of Aztec jewellery was to draw attention, with richer and more powerful Aztecs wearing brighter, more expensive jewellery and clothes. Although gold was the most common and popular material used in Aztec jewellery, silver was also readily available throughout the American empires. In addition to adornment and status, the Aztecs also used jewellery in sacrifices to appease the gods. Priests also used gem encrusted daggers to perform animal and human sacrifices. Farndon, J. 2001. 1,000 Facts on Modern History. Miles Kelly Publishing. Another ancient American civilization with expertise in jewellery making was the Maya. At the peak of their civilization, the Maya were making jewellery from jade, gold, silver, bronze and copper. Maya designs were similar to those of the Aztecs, with lavish head dresses and jewellery. The Maya also traded in precious gems. However, in earlier times, the Maya had little access to metal, so made the majority of their jewellery out of bone or stone. Merchants and nobility were the only few that wore expensive jewellery in the Maya Empire, much the same as with the Aztecs. In North America, Native Americans used shells, wood, turquoise, and soapstone, almost unavailable in South and Central America. The turquoise was used in necklaces and to be placed in earrings. Native Americans with access to oyster shells, often located in only one location in America, traded the shells with other tribes, showing the great importance of the body adornment trade in Northern America. Josephy Jr, A.M. 1994. 500 Nations: The Illustrated History of North American Indians. Alfred A. Knopf. Inc. Pacific Jewellery making in the Pacific started later than in other areas because of recent human settlement. Early Pacific jewellery was made of bone, wood and other natural materials, and thus has not survived. Most Pacific jewellery is worn above the waist, with headdresses, necklaces, hair pins and arm and waist belts being the most common pieces. Jewellery in the Pacific, with the exception of Australia, is worn to be a symbol of either fertility or power. Elaborate headdresses are worn by many Pacific cultures and some, such as the inhabitants of Papua New Guinea, wear certain headresses once they have killed an enemy. Tribesman may wear boar bones through their noses. Island jewellery is still very much primal because of the lack of communication with outside cultures; some areas of Borneo and Papua New Guinea are yet to be explored by Western nations. However, the island nations which were flooded with Western missionaries have had drastic changes made to their jewellery designs. Missionaries saw any type of tribal jewellery as a sign of the wearer's devotion to paganism. Thus many tribal designs were lost forever in the mass conversion to Christianity. Neich, R., Pereira, F. 2004. Pacific Jewellery and Adornment. David Bateman & Auckland Museum. ISBN 1-86953-535-9. A modern opal bracelet Australia is now the number one supplier of opals in the world. Opals had already been mined in Europe and South America for many years prior, but in the late 1800s, the Australian opal market became predominant. Australian opals are only mined in a few select places around the country, making it one the most profitable stones in the Pacific. Dorling Kindersley Ltd. 1989. Facts and Fallacies: Stories of the Strange and Unusual. Reader's Digest. 11-13. One of the few cultures to today still create their jewellery as they did many centuries prior is the New Zealand Māori, who create Hei-tiki. The reason the hei-tiki is worn is not apparent; it may either relate to ancestral connections, as Tiki was the first Māori, or fertility, as there is a strong connection between this and Tiki. Another suggestion from historians is that the Tiki is a product of the ancient belief of a god named Tiki, perhaps dating back to before the Māoris settled in New Zealand. Hei-tikis are traditionally carved by hand from bone (commonly whale), nephrite or bowenite; a lengthy and spiritual process. The Hei-tiki is now popular amongst tourists who can buy it from souvenir or jeweller shops. Other than jewellery created through Māori influence, jewellery in New Zealand remains similar to other western civilizations; multi cultural and varied. This is more noticeable in New Zealand because of its high levels of non-European citizens. Modern The modern jewellery movement began in the late 1940s at the end of World War II with a renewed interest in artistic and leisurely pursuits. The movement is most noted with works by Georg Jensen and other jewellery designers who advanced the concept of wearable art. The advent of new materials, such as plastics, Precious Metal Clay (PMC) and colouring techniques, has led to increased variety in styles. Other advances, such as the development of improved pearl harvesting by people such as Kokichi Mikimoto and the development of improved quality artificial gemstones such as moissanite (a diamond simulant), has placed jewellery within the economic grasp of a much larger segment of the population. The "jewellery as art" movement was spearheaded by artisans such as Robert Lee Morris and continued by designers such as Gill Forsbrook in the UK. Influence from other cultural forms is also evident; one example of this is bling-bling style jewellery, popularized by hip-hop and rap artists in the early 21st century. The late 20th century saw the blending of European design with oriental techniques such as Mokume-gane. The following are innovations in the decades stradling the year 2000: "Mokume-gane, hydraulic die forming, anti-clastic raising, fold-forming, reactive metal anodizing, shell forms, PMC, photoetching, and [use of] CAD/CAM." McCrieght, Tim. "What's New?" Metalsmith Spring 2006, Vol. 26 Issue 1, p42-45, 4p Artisan jewellery continues to grow as both a hobby and a profession. With more than 17 United States periodicals about beading alone, resources, accessibility and a low initial cost of entry continues to expand production of hand-made adornments. Some fine examples of artisan jewellery can be seen at The Metropolitan Museum. Nineteenth-Century American Jewelry | Thematic Essay | Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art Body modification Young girl from the Padaung tribe. Jewellery used in body modification is usually plain; the use of simple silver studs, rings and earrings predominates. Common jewellery pieces such as earrings, are themselves a form of body modification, as they are accommodated by creating a small hole in the ear. Padaung women in Myanmar place large golden rings around their necks. From as early as 5 years old, girls are introduced to their first neck ring. Over the years, more rings are added. In addition to the twenty-plus pounds of rings on her neck, a woman will also wear just as many rings on her calves too. At their extent, some necks modified like this can reach 10-15 inches long; the practice has obvious health impacts, however, and has in recent years declined from cultural norm to tourist curiosity. Packard, M. 2002. Ripley's Believe it or not: Special Edition. Scholastic Inc. 22. Tribes related to the Paduang, as well as other cultures throughout the world, use jewellery to stretch their earlobes, or enlarge ear piercings. In the Americas, labrets have been worn since before first contact by Innu and first nations peoples of the northwest coast. Moss, Madonna L. "George Catlin among the Nayas: Understanding the practice of labret wearing on the Northwest Coast." Ethnohistory Winter99, Vol. 46 Issue 1, p31, 35p. Lip plates are worn by the African Mursi and Sara people, as well as some South American peoples. In the late 20th century, the influence of modern primitivism led to many of these practices being incorporated into western subcultures. Many of these practices rely on a combination of body modification and decorative objects; thus keeping the distinction between these two types of decoration blurred. In many cultures, jewellery is used as a temporary body modifier, with in some cases, hooks or even objects as large as bike bars being placed into the recipient's skin. Although this procedure is often carried out by tribal or semi-tribal groups, often acting under a trance during religious ceremonies, this practise has seeped into western culture. Many extreme-jewellery shops now cater to people wanting large hooks or spikes set into their skin. Most often, these hooks are used in conjunction with pulleys to hoist the recipient into the air. This practise is said to give an erotic feeling to the person and some couples have even performed their marriage ceremony whilst being suspended by hooks. Jewellery market According to a recent KPMG study the largest jewellery market is the United States with a market share of 30.8%, Japan, India and China and the Middle East each with 8 - 9% and finally Italy with 5%. The authors of the study predict a dramatic change in market shares by 2015, where the market share of the United States will have dropped to around 25%, and China and India will increase theirs to over 13%. The Middle East will remain more or less constant at 9%, whereas Europe's and Japan's marketshare will be halved and become less than 4% for Japan, and less than 3% for the biggest individual European countries: Italy and the UK. The nature of jewelry products has changed over the last forty years. Forty years ago the products retailed by the jewelry industry mainly consisted of rings, necklaces, earrings and standard men's and ladies watches. Today, products found in jewelry stores are more diverse. For example, according the the US Census Bureau the Jewelry and Silverware manufacturing industry in the US includes engraving, chasing, or etching jewelry, metal personal goods, precious solid metals, precious clad metals, pewter cutlery, flatware and stamping coins. It also includes assembling jewelry parts and stock shop products, such as sheet, wire as well as tubing, cutting, slabbing, tumbling, carving, engraving, polishing, or faceting precious or semiprecious stones and gems. Jewelry manufacturing is also defined as including recutting, repolishing, setting gem stones as well as drilling, sawing, and peeling cultured and costume pearls <ref> "U.S Census Bureau, 2002</ref>. In most of the developed world, there has been a change in the products competing against jewelry at the high-end of the retail market. Forty years ago, jewelry was the most common traditional luxury good. Today there are several other industries that compete in the same market. Given the advent of these new products at the high-end of the retail market, the jewelry store industry today faces the challenge of a wider range of competing products in the luxury goods market. For example, technological change has given rise to the expansion of the home entertainment industry, with most homes containing videos, computers and DVD players. The real price of luxury cars around the world has also fallen, with an increase in the number of car companies competing against each other. The growth of scheduled aviation has made overseas travel a genuine consumption option for the high-end retail consumer Stores in the US Industry Report" IBISWorld, 2009</ref>. According to the United States Census Bureau, the Jewelry Stores industry in the US in 2008 consists of firms retailing new jewelry (except costume jewelry), new sterling and plated silverware and new watches and clocks. It also includes stores that retail these products in combination with lapidary work and or repair services. <ref> "U.S Census Bureau, 2002 See also Artisan Art jewellery Etruscan jewellery List of jewellery types Costume jewellery Denim jewelry Fashion Gemology Gemstone Goldsmithing Human physical appearance Jewellery cleaning Silversmithing Murano glass Murano beads Three Jewels Watches Wire sculpture jewellery Handmade jewellery Self-defense jewellery References Further reading Borel, F. 1994. The Splendor of Ethnic Jewelry: from the Colette and Jean-Pierre Ghysels Collection. New York: H.N. Abrams (ISBN 0-8109-2993-7). Evans, J. 1989. A History of Jewellery 1100-1870 (ISBN 0-486-26122-0). Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea 1998. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press (ISBN 0-313-29497-6). Tait, H. 1986. Seven Thousand Years of Jewellery. London: British Museum Publications (ISBN 0-7141-2034-0). 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2,272 | Deccan_Traps | Deccan Traps near Matheran, east of Mumbai. The Deccan Traps near Pune. The Deccan Traps are a large igneous province located on the Deccan Plateau of west-central India (between 17–24N, 73–74E) and one of the largest volcanic features on Earth. They consist of multiple layers of solidified flood basalt that together are more than 2,000 m thick and cover an area of 500,000 km². The term 'trap', used in geology for such rock formations, is derived from the Swedish word for stairs (trappa, or sometimes trapp) "Dictionary Definition of trap." Encyclopedia.com Free Online Dictionary. Accessed on 1 January 2009. , referring to the step-like hills forming the landscape of the region. History The Deccan Traps formed between 60 and 68 million years ago, Sheth, Hetu C. "The Deccan Beyond the Plume Hypothesis." MantlePlumes.org, 2006. at the end of the Cretaceous period. The bulk of the volcanic eruption occurred at the Western Ghats (near Mumbai) some 66 million years ago. This series of eruptions may have lasted fewer than 30,000 years in total. "India's Smoking Gun: Dino-killing Eruptions." ScienceDaily, 10 August 2005. The gases released in the process may have played a role in the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, which included the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. Before the Deccan Traps region was reduced to its current size by erosion and continental drift, it is estimated that the original area covered by the lava flows was as large as 1.5 million km², approximately half the size of modern India. The present area of directly observable lava flows is estimated to be around 512,000 km². The release of volcanic gases during the formation of the traps "contributed to an apparently massive global warming. Some data point to an average rise in temperature of 8 °C (14 °F) in the last half million years before the impact at Chicxulub." Ayres, Yolanda (Production Manager). "What Really Killed the Dinosaurs." BBC Horizon. Chemical Composition Within the Deccan Traps at least 95% of the lavas are tholeiitic basalts, however other rock types occur: Alkali basalts Nephelinites Lamprophyre Carbonatites Mantle xenoliths have been described from Kachchh (northwestern India) and elsewhere in the western Deccan. Fossils The Deccan Traps are famous for the fossils that have been collected from the intertrappean beds. Particularly well known species include the frog Oxyglossus pusillus (Owen) of the Eocene of India and the toothed bufonid Indobatrachus allied to Australian forms. Noble, Gladwyn Kingsley, "The Fossil Frogs of the Intertrappean Beds of Bombay, India." American Museum of Natural History, Volume 401, 1930. Theories of formation It is postulated that the Deccan Traps eruption was associated with a deep mantle plume. The area of long-term eruption (the hotspot), known as the Réunion hotspot, is suspected of both causing the Deccan Traps eruption and opening the rift that once separated the Seychelles plateau from India. Seafloor spreading at the boundary between the Indian and African Plates subsequently pushed India north over the plume, which now lies under Réunion island in the Indian Ocean, southwest of India. The mantle plume model has, however, been challenged. Link to Shiva Crater A suspected large impact crater has been recently reported in the sea floor off the west coast of India. Called the Shiva crater, it has also been dated at sixty-five million years, right at the K–T boundary. The researchers suggest that the impact may have been the triggering event for the Deccan Traps as well as contributing to the acceleration of the Indian plate in the early Tertiary. Chatterjee, Sankar. "The Shiva Crater: Implications for Deccan Volcanism, India-Seychelles Rifting, Dinosaur Extinction, and Petroleum Entrapment at the KT Boundary." Paper No. 60-8, Seattle Annual Meeting, November 2003. However, opinion in the geologic community is not unanimous that this feature is actually an impact crater. Mullen, Leslie. "Shiva: Another K-T Impact?" Astrobiology Magazine, 4 November 2004. Also, the reported age is in the middle of the ages given for the Deccan rocks. Formation's effects on life Due to the volcanic gases causing a drastic climate change, the formation of the traps is seen as a major stressor on all life at the time. Dr. Norman Macleod, of the Natural History Museum in London, points out “We're talking about catastrophic effects in terms of changes in habitat, changes in rain fall patterns, changes in climate, all of these you can think of all of the things that are going on in the modern world magnified many many times, many many orders of magnitude indeed.” While the fossil record of dinosaurs at this time is hard to interpret, those of other types of life are more conclusive, as Macleod states “Six million years prior to the K–T boundary there were about twenty species of ammonites in the world's oceans. Three million years before the K–T boundary there were only fifteen or so and one million years prior to the K–T boundary we have less than half of what we started out with, we have less than ten species so the extinction event has already been going on for millions of years. The amazing thing is that we see the same pattern in the fish record, we see the same pattern in the terrestrial reptile record, we even see the same pattern in the mammal record. All of these groups were undergoing an extinction event for millions of years and it would be absolutely amazing to me if dinosaurs weren't undergoing the same sort of extinction and indeed I think they were undergoing the same sort of long term extinction.” Many scientists theorize that due to the climate change caused by the volcanic formation of the traps the dinosaurs were already doomed, but the impact of the meteoroid that formed the Chicxulub Crater (which made a sunlight blocking dust cloud that killed much of the plants) pushed them over the edge into extinction. Choi, Charles Q. ""Double Trouble: What Really Killed the Dinosaurs." LiveScience.com, 12 November 2007. See also List of volcanoes in India Siberian Traps Emeishan Traps Geology of India References | Deccan_Traps |@lemmatized deccan:15 trap:16 near:3 matheran:1 east:1 mumbai:2 pune:1 large:4 igneous:1 province:1 locate:1 plateau:2 west:2 central:1 india:13 one:2 volcanic:5 feature:2 earth:1 consist:1 multiple:1 layer:1 solidified:1 flood:1 basalt:3 together:1 thick:1 cover:2 area:4 term:4 use:1 geology:2 rock:3 formation:6 derive:1 swedish:1 word:1 stair:1 trappa:1 sometimes:1 trapp:1 dictionary:2 definition:1 encyclopedia:1 com:2 free:1 online:1 access:1 january:1 refer:1 step:1 like:1 hill:1 form:4 landscape:1 region:2 history:3 million:10 year:10 ago:2 sheth:1 hetu:1 c:2 beyond:1 plume:4 hypothesis:1 mantleplumes:1 org:1 end:1 cretaceous:2 period:1 bulk:1 eruption:6 occur:2 western:2 ghat:1 series:1 may:3 last:2 total:1 smoke:1 gun:1 dino:1 kill:4 sciencedaily:1 august:1 gas:3 release:2 process:1 play:1 role:1 tertiary:2 extinction:8 event:4 include:2 non:1 avian:1 dinosaur:7 reduce:1 current:1 size:2 erosion:1 continental:1 drift:1 estimate:2 original:1 lava:3 flow:2 approximately:1 half:3 modern:2 present:1 directly:1 observable:1 around:1 contribute:2 apparently:1 massive:1 global:1 warming:1 data:1 point:2 average:1 rise:1 temperature:1 f:1 impact:6 chicxulub:2 ayres:1 yolanda:1 production:1 manager:1 really:2 bbc:1 horizon:1 chemical:1 composition:1 within:1 least:1 tholeiitic:1 however:3 type:2 alkali:1 nephelinites:1 lamprophyre:1 carbonatites:1 mantle:3 xenolith:1 describe:1 kachchh:1 northwestern:1 elsewhere:1 fossils:1 famous:1 fossil:3 collect:1 intertrappean:2 bed:2 particularly:1 well:2 know:2 specie:3 frog:2 oxyglossus:1 pusillus:1 owen:1 eocene:1 toothed:1 bufonid:1 indobatrachus:1 ally:1 australian:1 noble:1 gladwyn:1 kingsley:1 bombay:1 american:1 museum:2 natural:2 volume:1 theory:1 postulate:1 associate:1 deep:1 long:2 hotspot:2 réunion:2 suspect:1 cause:3 open:1 rift:1 separate:1 seychelles:2 seafloor:1 spreading:1 boundary:6 indian:3 african:1 plate:2 subsequently:1 push:2 north:1 lie:1 island:1 ocean:2 southwest:1 model:1 challenge:1 link:1 shiva:4 crater:6 suspected:1 recently:1 report:2 sea:1 floor:1 coast:1 call:1 also:3 date:1 sixty:1 five:1 right:1 k:5 researcher:1 suggest:1 trigger:1 acceleration:1 early:1 chatterjee:1 sankar:1 implication:1 volcanism:1 rifting:1 petroleum:1 entrapment:1 kt:1 paper:1 seattle:1 annual:1 meeting:1 november:3 opinion:1 geologic:1 community:1 unanimous:1 actually:1 mullen:1 leslie:1 another:1 astrobiology:1 magazine:1 age:2 middle:1 give:1 effect:2 life:3 due:2 drastic:1 climate:3 change:5 see:5 major:1 stressor:1 time:3 dr:1 norman:1 macleod:2 london:1 talk:1 catastrophic:1 habitat:1 rain:1 fall:1 pattern:4 think:2 thing:2 go:2 world:2 magnify:1 many:5 order:1 magnitude:1 indeed:2 record:4 hard:1 interpret:1 conclusive:1 state:1 six:1 prior:2 twenty:1 ammonite:1 three:1 fifteen:1 less:2 start:1 ten:1 already:2 amazing:1 fish:1 terrestrial:1 reptile:1 even:1 mammal:1 group:1 undergo:3 would:1 absolutely:1 amaze:1 sort:2 scientist:1 theorize:1 doom:1 meteoroid:1 make:1 sunlight:1 blocking:1 dust:1 cloud:1 much:1 plant:1 edge:1 choi:1 charles:1 q:1 double:1 trouble:1 livescience:1 list:1 volcano:1 siberian:1 emeishan:1 traps:1 reference:1 |@bigram deccan_trap:10 deccan_plateau:1 flood_basalt:1 volcanic_eruption:1 western_ghat:1 cretaceous_tertiary:1 tertiary_extinction:1 avian_dinosaur:1 continental_drift:1 lava_flow:2 global_warming:1 mantle_plume:2 impact_crater:2 chicxulub_crater:1 livescience_com:1 |
2,273 | Life_expectancy | Life expectancy is the average number of years of life remaining at a given age. It is the average expected lifespan of an individual. Life expectancy is heavily dependent on the criteria used to select the group. In countries with high infant mortality rates, the life expectancy at birth is highly sensitive to the rate of death in the first few years of life. In these cases, another measure such as life expectancy at age 5 (e5) can be used to exclude the effects of infant mortality to reveal the effects of causes of death other than early childhood causes. Humans Variation over time Humans live on average 31.99 years in Swaziland and on average 81 years in Japan (2008 est.). The oldest confirmed recorded age for any human is 122 years (see Jeanne Calment), though some people are reported to have lived longer. This is referred to as the Life span, which is the upper boundary of life, the maximum number of years an individual can live Santrock, John (2007). Life Expectancy. A Topical Approach to: Life-Span Development(pp. 128-132). New York, New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. .The following information is derived from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1961, as well as other sources and represent estimates of the life expectancies of the population as a whole. In many instances life expectancy varied considerably according to class and gender. It is important to note that life expectancy rises sharply in all cases for those who reach puberty. A pre 20th Century individual who lived past the teenage years could expect to live to an age close to the life expectancy of today. The ages listed below are an average that includes infant mortalities, but not miscarriage or abortion. This table also rejects certain beliefs that the ancient humans had life expectancy of hundreds of years. Humans by Era Average Lifespan at Birth(years) Comment Upper Paleolithic 33 At age 15: 39 (to age 54) Hillard Kaplan, ect. al, in "A Theory of Human Life History Evolution: Diet, Intelligence,weed knowledge and Longevity" (Evolutionary Anthropology, 2000, p. 156-185, - http://www.soc.upenn.edu/courses/2003/spring/soc621_iliana/readings/kapl00d.pdf Caspari & Lee 'Older age becomes common late in human evolution' (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 2004, p. 10895-10900 Neolithic 20 Bronze Age James Trefil, "Can We Live Forever?" 101 Things You Don't Know About Science and No One Else Does Either (1996) 18 Bronze age, Sweden http://www.kulturarv.vimmerby.se/bronsaldern/sjukdom_dod/index.htm 40-60 Classical Greece Average Life Expectancy at Birth 20-30 Classical Rome Life expectancy (sociology) 20-30 Pre-Columbian North America Pre-European Exploration, Prehistory through 1540 25-35 Medieval Islamic Caliphate 35+ The average lifespans of the ruling class were 59–84.3 years in the Middle East and 69–75 in Islamic Spain. Medieval Britain Time traveller's guide to Medieval Britain A millennium of health improvement 20-30 Early 20th Century World Health Organization Our Special Place in History 30-40 Current world average CIA - The World Factbook -- Rank Order - Life expectancy at birth World Bank - http://www.worldbank.org/depweb/english/modules/social/life/index.html 70 (2008 est.) During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730-1749 to 31.8% in 1810-1829. Mabel C. Buer, Health, Wealth and Population in the Early Days of the Industrial Revolution, London: George Routledge & Sons, 1926, page 30 ISBN 0-415-38218-1 Public health measures are credited with much of the recent increase in life expectancy. During the 20th century, the average lifespan in the United States increased by more than 30 years; 25 years of which can be attributed to advances in public health. Reprinted in: In order to assess the quality of these additional years of life, health expectancies have been calculated since some thirty years. Since 2001, the World Health Organization is publishing a statistics called Healthy life expectancy (HALE) defined as the average number that a person can expect to live in "full health" by taking into account the years lived in less than full health due to disease and/or injury. Since 2004, Eurostat is yearly publishing a statistics called Healthy Life Years (HLY) based on reported activity limitations. The United States of America use similar indicators in the framework of their nationwide health promotion and disease prevention plan "Healthy People 2010". An increasing number of countries are using health expectancy indicators to monitor the health of their population. Variation in the world today CIA World Factbook 2008 Estimates for Life Expectancy at birth (years). There are great variations in life expectancy worldwide, mostly caused by differences in public health, medical care and diet from country to country. Much of the early death in poorer nations is due to war, starvation, or diseases (Aids, Malaria). Over the past 200 years, countries with Black or African citizens have not had improvements in the mortality rates that persons in colonials countries have. And even in colonial countries (America, England, France), Black citizens have shorter life expectancies than their white counterparts. Climate may also have an effect, and the way data is collected may also be an important influence. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Andorra has the world's longest life expectancy of 83.5 years. There are also variations between groups within single countries. For example, in the U.S. non-Latino Whites are expected to live until age 78, but African Americans only until age 71 . Significant differences still remain in life expectancy between men and women in France and other developed countries, with women outliving men by five years or more. On average women tend to live until 80 years old whereas men are only expected to live until 74 . These gender differences have been increasing in recent years. Poverty, in particular, has a very substantial effect on life expectancy. In the United Kingdom life expectancy in the wealthiest areas is on average ten years longer than the poorest areas and the gap appears to be increasing as life expectancy for the prosperous continues to increase while in more deprived communities there is little increase. Department of Health -Tackling health inequalities: Status report on the Programme for Action However, in Glasgow the disparity is among the highest in the world with life expectancy for males in the heavily deprived Calton standing at 54 — 28 years less than in the affluent area of Lenzie, which is only eight kilometres away. Life expectancy may also be reduced for people exposed to high levels of highway air pollution or industrial air pollution. Occupation may also have a major effect on life expectancy. Well-educated professionals working in offices have a high life expectancy, while coal miners (and in prior generations, asbestos cutters) do not. Other factors affecting an individual's life expectancy are genetic disorders, obesity, access to health care, diet, exercise, tobacco smoking, and excessive drug and alcohol use. As pointed out above, AIDS has recently had a negative effect on life expectancy, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sex differences Women tend to have a lower mortality rate at every age. In the womb, male fetuses have a higher mortality rate (males are conceived at a ratio of about 124 males/100 females, but by birth, the ratio is only 105 males/100 females). Among the smallest premature babies (those under 2 pounds), females have a higher survival rate. About 90 percent of those aged 110 are female, and this increases still higher to about 92 percent by age 112. If one does not consider the many women who die while giving birth or in pregnancy, or infanticide, the female human life expectancy is considerably higher than those of men. The reasons for this are not entirely certain. Traditional arguments tend to favor socio-environmental factors: men, on average, consume more tobacco, alcohol and drugs than females in most societies, and are more likely to die from some associated diseases such as lung cancer, tuberculosis and cirrhosis of the liver. Men are more likely to die from injuries, whether unintentional (automotive accidents, etc.), or intentional (suicide, violence, war). . Men are also more likely to die from the leading causes of death (some already stated above) than women. Some of these in the United States include: cancer of the respiratory system, motor vehicle accidents, suicide, cirrhosis of the liver, emphysema, and coronary heart disease . However, such arguments are not entirely satisfactory and, even if the statistics are corrected for known socio-environmental effects on mortality, females still have longer life expectancy. Interestingly, the age of equalization (about 13) tends to be close to the age of menarche, suggesting a potential reproductive-equilibrium explanation. Women, whose reproductive cycle tends to result in regular blood loss, are better-able to cope with blood loss and trauma. Some argue that shorter male life expectancy is merely another manifestation of the general rule, seen in all mammal species, that larger individuals tend on average to have shorter lives. http://jerrymondo.tripod.com/lgev/id1.html Samaras, Thomas T. und Heigh, Gregory H.: How human size affects longevity and mortality from degenerative diseases. Townsend Letter for Doctors & Patients 159: 78-85, 133-139 . This biological difference occurs because women have more resistance to infections and degenerative diseases . However, many do not agree that there is a difference and there is reason to suspect that this varies over a period of time and that gender is not a significant correlator of living longer. Centenarians and the Okinawans The number of centenarians is increasing at a rate of 7 percent per year. Japan has the highest ratio of Centenarians. In Okinawa, there are 34.7 centenarians for every 100,000 inhabitants . In the United States, the number of centenarians grew from 15,000 in 1980 to 77,000 in 2000. Evolution and aging rate The differing lifespans within various species of plants and animals, including humans, raises the question of why such lifespans are observed. The evolutionary theory states that organisms that are able by virtue of their defenses or lifestyle to live for long periods whilst avoiding accidents, disease, predation, etc., are likely to have genes that code for slow aging - good repair. This is so because if a random genetic trait found in the organism increases its survivability, it is more likely to pass on its genes to the next generation. Thus, a member of the population with genes that lend to increased survivability will tend to reproduce more and have more successors. This gene which increases survivability will thus be increasingly spread throughout the species, increasing the survivability of the species as a whole. Conversely a change to the environment that means that organisms die younger from a common disease or a new threat from a predator will mean that organisms that have genes that code for putting more energy into reproduction than repair will do better. The support for this theory includes the fact that better-defended animals, for example, small birds that can fly away from danger, live for a decade or more, whereas mice, which cannot, die of old age in a year or two. Tortoises and turtles are very well defended indeed and can live for over a hundred years. A classic study comparing opossums on a protected island with unprotected opossums also supports this theory. But there are also counterexamples, suggesting that there is more to the story. Guppies in predator-free habitats evolve shorter life spans than nearby populations of guppies where predators exact a large toll. A broad survey of mammals indicates many more exceptions. The theory of evolution of aging may be in flux. Another main counterexample is that the evolutionary traits best for short term survival may be detrimental to long term survival. For example, a hummingbird's extremely fast wings allow it to escape from predators and to find mates, assuring that the genetic trait for fast wings is passed on, explained by natural selection. However, these fast wings can be detrimental to the hummingbird's long term health, as the wings consume vast amounts of adenosine triphosphate (cellular energy molecules) and cause the hummingbird's heart to deteriorate with permanent and long-term wear. This allows for hummingbirds to effectively survive and reproduce; as a result, however, hummingbirds usually die shortly after reproducing. Natural selection tends to favor short-term survival traits. Human-technology-driven artificial selection, however, now appears to have prioritized long-term survival traits, having previously improved short-term survival rates through global food-chain dominance. Calculating life expectancies The starting point for calculating life expectancies is the age-specific death rates of the population members. For example, if 10% of a group of people alive at their 90th birthday die before their 91st birthday, then the age-specific death rate at age 90 would be 10%. These values are then used to calculate a life table, from which one can calculate the probability of surviving to each age. In actuarial notation the probability of surviving from age x to age x+n is denoted and the probability of dying during age x (i.e. between ages x and x+1) is denoted . The life expectancy at age x, denoted , is then calculated by adding up the probabilities to survive to every age. This is the expected number of complete years lived (one may think of it as the number of birthdays they celebrate). Because age is rounded down to the last birthday, on average people live half a year beyond their final birthday, so half a year is added to the life expectancy to calculate the full life expectancy. An average age for death expectancy is very close life expectancy (and exactly same for the exponential growth of death rate with increasing age). Life expectancy is by definition an arithmetic mean. It can be calculated also by integrating the survival curve from ages 0 to positive infinity (the maximum lifespan, sometimes called 'omega'). For an extinct cohort (all people born in year 1850, for example), of course, it can simply be calculated by averaging the ages at death. For cohorts with some survivors it is estimated by using mortality experience in recent years. Note that no allowance has been made in this calculation for expected changes in life expectancy in the future. Usually when life expectancy figures are quoted, they have been calculated like this with no allowance for expected future changes. This means that quoted life expectancy figures are not generally appropriate for calculating how long any given individual of a particular age is expected to live, as they effectively assume that current death rates will be "frozen" and not change in the future. Instead, life expectancy figures can be thought of as a useful statistic to summarize the current health status of a population. Some models do exist to account for the evolution of mortality (e.g., the Lee-Carter model Ronald D. Lee and Lawrence Carter. 1992. "Modeling and Forecasting the Time Series of U.S. Mortality," Journal of the American Statistical Association 87 (September): 659-671. ). On an individual basis, there are a number of factors that have been shown to correlate with a longer life. Some factors that appear to influence life expectancy include family history, maritial status, economic status, physique, exercise, diet, drug use including smoking and alcohol consumption, disposition, education, environment, sleep, climate, and health care. Life Expectancy Index The Life Expectancy Index is a statistical measure used to determine the average lifespan of the population of a certain nation or area. Life expectancy is one of the factors in measuring the Human Development Index (HDI) of each nation, along with adult literacy, education, and standard of living. http://hdrstats.undp.org/indicators/6.html Life expectancy is also a factor in finding the physical quality of life of an area. The formula to find the life expectancy of an area is: LE: Life expectancy at birth See also Biodemography Calorie restriction Demography DNA damage theory of aging Economics Indefinite lifespan Life table List of countries by life expectancy Maximum life span Medieval demography Mitohormesis Mortality rate List of long-living organisms Senescence Healthcare inequality Increasing life expectancy Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence (SENS) John Sperling Life extension Longevity Rejuvenation Public health Infant mortality References Santrock, John (2007). Life Expectancy. A Topical Approach to: Life-Span Development(pp. 128-132). New York, New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Further reading Leonid A. Gavrilov & Natalia S. Gavrilova (1991), The Biology of Life Span: A Quantitative Approach. New York: Harwood Academic Publisher, ISBN 3-7186-4983-7 External links Calculate your life expectancy online (based on the Austrian generation and annuity valuation life tables) Rank Order - Life expectancy at birth from the CIA's World Factbook. CDC year-by-year life expectancy figures for USA from the USA Centers for Disease Controls and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics. Life expectancy in Roman times from the University of Texas. The changing influence of sex and race on life expectancy in the US from Western Washington University. Database of life expectancy from multiple countries from The human Mortality Database. Animal lifespans: Animal Lifespans from Tesarta Online (Internet Archive); The Life Span of Animals from Dr Bob's All Creatures Site. Life expectancy among the countries in the European Union (2007) Scientists Have Found the Gene That Decides How Long We Live Hans Rosling presents animated data showing global life expectancy from 1820-2020 (video) from TED Conference Information on life expectancy Life expectancy tables | Life_expectancy |@lemmatized life:85 expectancy:66 average:19 number:9 year:34 remain:2 give:3 age:39 expected:2 lifespan:11 individual:7 heavily:2 dependent:1 criterion:1 use:9 select:1 group:3 country:12 high:9 infant:4 mortality:14 rate:14 birth:9 highly:1 sensitive:1 death:10 first:1 case:2 another:3 measure:4 exclude:1 effect:7 reveal:1 cause:5 early:4 childhood:1 human:13 variation:4 time:5 live:18 swaziland:1 japan:2 est:2 old:4 confirmed:1 record:1 see:3 jeanne:1 calment:1 though:1 people:6 report:2 longer:4 refer:1 span:7 upper:2 boundary:1 maximum:3 santrock:2 john:3 topical:2 approach:3 development:3 pp:2 new:6 york:5 mcgraw:2 hill:2 company:2 inc:2 following:1 information:2 derive:1 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2,274 | Horatio_Nelson,_1st_Viscount_Nelson | Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, 1st Duke of Bronté, KB (29 September 1758 – 21 October 1805) was a British flag officer famous for his service in the Royal Navy, particularly during the Napoleonic Wars. He won several victories, including the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, during which he was killed. Nelson was born into a moderately prosperous Norfolk family, and joined the navy through the influence of his uncle, Maurice Suckling. He rose rapidly through the ranks and served with leading naval commanders of the period before obtaining his own command in 1778. He developed a reputation in the service through his personal valour and firm grasp of tactics, but suffered periods of illness and unemployment after the end of the American War of Independence. The outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars allowed Nelson to return to service, where he was particularly active in the Mediterranean. He fought in several minor engagements off Toulon, and was important in the capture of Corsica and subsequent diplomatic duties with the Italian states. In 1797 he distinguished himself while in command of at the Battle of Cape St Vincent. Shortly after the battle, Nelson took part in the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, where he was badly wounded and forced to return to England to recuperate. The following year he won a decisive victory over the French at the Battle of the Nile and remained in the Mediterranean to support the Kingdom of Naples against a French invasion. In 1801 he was dispatched to the Baltic and won another victory, this time over the Danes at the Battle of Copenhagen. He subsequently commanded the blockade of the French and Spanish fleets at Toulon, and after their escape chased them to the West Indies and back but failed to bring them to battle. After a brief return to England, he took over the Cádiz blockade in 1805. On 21 October 1805 the Franco-Spanish fleet came out of port and Nelson's fleet engaged them at the Battle of Trafalgar. The battle was Britain's greatest naval victory, but Nelson was hit by a French sniper and mortally wounded. His body was brought back to England where he was accorded a state funeral. Nelson was noted for his ability to inspire and bring out the best in his men: the 'Nelson touch'. His grasp of strategy and unconventional tactics produced a number of decisive victories. Some aspects of his behaviour were controversial during his lifetime and after: he began a notorious affair with Emma, Lady Hamilton while both were married, which lasted until his death. Also, his actions during the Neapolitan campaign resulted in allegations of excessive brutality. Nelson could at times be vain, insecure and overly anxious for recognition, but he was also zealous, patriotic and dutiful, as well as courageous. He was wounded several times in combat, losing most of one arm and the sight in one eye. His death at Trafalgar secured his position as one of England's most heroic figures. Numerous monuments, including Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square, London, have been created in his memory and his legacy remains highly influential. Early life Horatio Nelson was born on 29 September 1758 in a rectory in Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, England, the sixth of eleven children of the Reverend Edmund Nelson and his wife Catherine Nelson. Sugden, 2004, p. 36 His mother, who died when he was nine, was a grandniece of Sir Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, the de facto first prime minister of the British Parliament. Britannica 11th edition, p. 352 She lived in the village of Barsham, Suffolk, and married the Reverend Edmund Nelson at Beccles church, Suffolk, in 1749. Nelson attended Paston Grammar School, North Walsham, until he was 12 years old; also attending King Edward VI’s Grammar School in Norwich. His naval career began on 1 January 1771, when he reported to the third-rate as an Ordinary Seaman and coxswain under his maternal uncle, Captain Maurice Suckling, who commanded the vessel. Shortly after reporting aboard, Nelson was appointed a midshipman and began officer training. Early in his service, Nelson discovered that he suffered from seasickness, a chronic complaint that dogged him for the rest of his life. Sugden, 2004, p. 56 Early naval career HMS Raisonnable had been commissioned during a period of tension with Spain, but when this passed Suckling was transferred to the Nore guardship and Nelson was despatched to serve aboard the West Indiamen of the merchant shipping firm of Hibbert, Purrier and Horton, in order to gain experience of life at sea. Hibbert 1994, p. 13 In this capacity he twice crossed the Atlantic, before returning to serve under his uncle as the commander of Suckling's longboat, which carried men and despatches to and from the shore. Nelson then learned of a planned expedition under the command of Constantine Phipps, intended to survey a passage in the Arctic by which it was hoped that India could be reached: the fabled Northwest Passage. At his nephew's request, Suckling arranged for Nelson to join the expedition and serve as a midshipman aboard the converted bomb vessel . The expedition reached within ten degrees of the North Pole, but unable to find a way through the dense ice floes, was forced to turn back. Nelson briefly returned to the Triumph after the expedition's return to Britain in September 1773. Suckling then arranged for his transfer to , one of two ships about to sail to the East Indies. Sugden 2004, p. 81. Captain Horatio Nelson, painted by John Francis Rigaud in 1781, with Fort San Juan—the scene of his most notable achievement to date—in the background. The painting itself was begun and nearly finished prior to the battle, when Nelson held the rank of lieutenant; when Nelson returned, the artist added the new captain's gold-braided sleeves. Sugden 2004, p. 464. Nelson sailed for the East Indies on 19 November 1773 and arrived at the British outpost at Madras on 25 May 1774. Sugden 2004, pp. 92–3. Nelson and the Seahorse spent the rest of the year cruising off the coast and escorting merchantmen. With the outbreak of the First Anglo-Maratha War, the British fleet operated in support of the East India Company and in early 1775 the Seahorse was despatched to carry a cargo of the company's money to Bombay. On 19 February two of Hyder Ali's ketches attacked the Seahorse, which drove them off after a brief exchange of fire. This was Nelson's first experience of battle. Sugden 2004, pp. 95-7. The rest of the year he spent escorting convoys, during which he continued to develop his navigation and ship handling skills. In early 1776 Nelson contracted malaria and, seriously ill, was discharged from the Seahorse on 14 March and returned to England aboard . Sugden 2004, p. 103. He spent the six month voyage recuperating and had almost recovered by the time he arrived in Britain in September 1776. His patron, Suckling, had risen to the post of Comptroller of the Navy in 1775, and used his influence to help Nelson gain further promotion. Nelson was appointed acting lieutenant aboard , which was about to sail to Gibraltar. Sugden 2004, p. 106 The Worcester, under the command of Captain Mark Robinson, sailed as a convoy escort on 3 December and returned with another convoy in April 1777. Sugden 2004, pp. 109–11. Nelson then travelled to London to take his lieutenant's examination on 9 April; his examining board consisted of Captains John Campbell, Abraham North, and his uncle, Maurice Suckling. Nelson passed, and the next day received his commission and an appointment to , which was preparing to sail to Jamaica under Captain William Locker. Sugden 2004, p. 113. She sailed on 16 May, arrived on 19 July, and after reprovisioning, carried out several cruises in Caribbean waters. After the outbreak of the American War of Independence the Worcester took several prizes, one of which was taken into Navy service as the tender Little Lucy. Nelson asked for and was given command of her, and took her on two cruises of his own. Sugden 2004, p. 126. As well as giving him his first taste of command, it gave Nelson the opportunity to explore his fledgling interest in science. During his first cruise, Nelson led an expeditionary party to the Caicos islands, White 2006, p87 where he made detailed notes of the wildlife and in particular a bird—now believed to be the White-necked Jacobin. Locker, impressed by Nelson's abilities, recommended him to the new commander-in-chief at Jamaica, Sir Peter Parker. Parker duly took Nelson onto his flagship, . Sugden 2004, p. 128. The entry of the French into the war, in support of the Americans, meant further targets for Parker's fleet and it took a large number of prizes towards the end of 1778, which brought Nelson an estimated £400 in prize money. Parker subsequently appointed him as Master and Commander of the brig on 8 December. Sugden 2004, p. 131. Nelson and the Badger spent most of 1779 cruising off the Central American coast, ranging as far as the British settlements at Honduras and Nicaragua, but without much success at interception of enemy prizes. Sugden 2004, p. 135. On his return to Port Royal he learned that Parker had promoted him to post-captain on 11 June, and intended to give him another command. Nelson handed over the Badger to Cuthbert Collingwood while he awaited the arrival of his new ship, the 28-gun frigate , newly captured from the French. Goodwin 2002, p. 81. While Nelson waited, news reached Parker that a French fleet under the command of Charles Hector, comte d'Estaing was approaching Jamaica. Parker hastily organized his defences and placed Nelson in command of Fort Charles, which covered the approaches to Kingston. Sugden 2004, p. 143. D'Estaing instead headed north, and the anticipated invasion attempt never materialised. Nelson duly took command of the Hinchinbrook on 1 September. Sugden 2004, p. 145. The Hinchinbrook sailed from Port Royal on 5 October 1779 and, in company with other British ships, proceeded to capture a number of American prizes. Sugden 2004, p. 147. On his return to Jamaica in December, Nelson began to be troubled by a recurrent attack of malaria, but remained in the West Indies in order to be able to take part in Major-General John Dalling's attempt to capture the Spanish colonies in Central America, including an assault on the fortress of San Juan in Nicaragua. Oman 1987, p.30 The Hinchinbrook sailed from Jamaica in February 1780, as an escort for Dalling's invasion force. After sailing up the mouth of the Colorado River, Nelson led a successful assault on a Spanish look-out post. Sugden 2004, p. 163. Despite this quick success, the main force's attack on Fort San Juan was long and drawn out, though Nelson was praised for his efforts. Report from Colonel Polson on the capture of the fort at San Juan. Parker recalled Nelson and gave him command of the 44-gun frigate . Sugden 2004, p. 168. Nelson had however fallen seriously ill in the jungles of Costa Rica, probably a recurrence of malaria, and was unable to take command. He was discharged in August and returned to Britain aboard . Sugden 2004, p. 182. He arrived in late November, and spent several months recuperating. He gradually recovered his health and soon began agitating for a command. He was appointed to the frigate on 15 August 1781. Sugden 2004, p. 187. Command Captain of the Albemarle Nelson received orders on 23 October to take the newly refitted Albemarle to sea. He was instructed to collect an inbound convoy of the Russia Company at Elsinore, and escort them back to Britain. For this operation, the Admiralty placed the frigates and under his command. Sugden 2004, p.190 Nelson successfully organised the convoy and escorted it into British waters. He then left the convoy to return to port, but severe storms hampered him. Sugden 2004, p.195 Gales almost wrecked Albemarle as she was a poorly designed ship and an earlier accident had left her damaged, but Nelson eventually brought her into Portsmouth in February 1782. Sugden 2004, p.197 There the Admiralty ordered him to fit the Albemarle for sea and join the escort for a convoy collecting at Cork to sail for Quebec. Sugden 2004, p.202 Nelson arrived off Newfoundland with the convoy in late May, then detached on a cruise to hunt American privateers. Nelson was generally unsuccessful; he succeeded only in retaking several captured British merchant ships and capturing a number of small fishing boats and assorted craft. Sugden 2004, p.204–5 In August he had a narrow escape from a far superior French force under Louis-Philippe de Vaudreuil, only evading them after a prolonged chase. Sugden 2004, p.206 Nelson arrived at Quebec on 18 September. Sugden 2004, p.209 He sailed again as part of the escort for a convoy to New York. He arrived in mid-November and reported to Admiral Samuel Hood, commander of the New York station. Sugden 2004, p. 215 At Nelson's request, Hood transferred him to his fleet and Albemarle sailed in company with Hood, bound for the West Indies. Sugden 2004, p. 219 On their arrival, the British fleet took up position off Jamaica to await the arrival of de Vaudreuil's force. Nelson and the Albemarle were ordered to scout the numerous passages for signs of the enemy, but it became clear by early 1783 that the French had eluded Hood. Sugden 2004, p. 220 During his scouting operations, Nelson had developed a plan to assault the French garrison of the Turks Islands. Commanding a small flotilla of frigates and smaller vessels, he landed a force of 167 seamen and marines early on the morning of 8 March under a supporting bombardment. Sugden 2004, p. 222–3 The French were found to be heavily entrenched and after several hours Nelson called off the assault. Several of the officers involved criticised Nelson, but Hood does not appear to have reprimanded him. Sugden 2004, p. 224 Nelson spent the rest of the war cruising in the West Indies, where he captured a number of French and Spanish prizes. Sugden 2004, p. 225 After news of the peace reached Hood, Nelson returned to Britain in late June 1783. Sugden 2004, p. 227 Nevis and marriage Nelson visited France in late 1783, stayed with acquaintances at Saint-Omer and briefly attempted to learn French. He returned to England in January 1784, and attended court as part of Lord Hood's entourage. Sugden 2004, p. 241–3 Influenced by the factional politics of the time, he contemplated standing for Parliament as a supporter of William Pitt, but was unable to find a seat. Sugden 2004, p. 243 In 1784 he received command of the frigate with the assignment to enforce the Navigation Act in the vicinity of Antigua. Sugden 2004 The acts were unpopular with both the Americans and the colonies. Sugden 2004, p. 265 Nelson served on the station under Admiral Sir Richard Hughes, but often came into conflict with his superior officer over their differing interpretation of the Navigation Acts. Sugden 2004, p. 292 The captains of the American vessels Nelson seized sued him for illegal seizure. As the merchants of Nevis supported the American claim, Nelson was in peril of imprisonment; he therefore remained sequestered on Boreas for eight months before the courts ruled in his favour. In the interim, Nelson met Frances "Fanny" Nisbet, a young widow of a Nevis plantation family. Sugden 2004, p. 307 Nelson and Nisbet were married at Montpelier Estate on the island of Nevis on 11 March 1787, shortly before the end of his tour of duty in the Caribbean. name="Sugden 351">Sugden 2004, p. 351 The marriage was registered at Fig Tree Church, St. John's Parish, Nevis. Nelson returned to England in July, with Fanny following later. Sugden 2004, p. 366 During the peace Nelson remained with Boreas until she was paid off in November that year. Sugden 2004, p. 371 He and Fanny then divided their time between Bath and London, occasionally visiting Nelson's relations in Norfolk. In 1788, they eventually settled at Nelson's childhood home at Burnham Thorpe. Sugden 2004, p. 378–80 Now in reserve on half pay, he attempted to persuade the Admiralty and other senior figures he was acquainted with, such as Hood, to provide him with a command. He was unsuccessful as there were too few ships in the peacetime navy and Hood did not intercede on his behalf. Sugden 2004, p. 397 Nelson spent his time acting on behalf of former crew members, attending to family affairs, and cajoling contacts in the navy for employment. In 1792 the French revolutionary government annexed the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium), which were traditionally preserved as a buffer state. The Admiralty recalled Nelson to service and gave him command of the 64-gun in January 1793. On 1 February France declared war. Sugden 2004, p. 412 Mediterranean service In May, Nelson sailed as part of a division under the command of Vice-Admiral William Hotham, joined later in the month by the rest of Lord Hood's fleet. Sugden 2004, p. 422 The force initially sailed to Gibraltar and, with the intention of establishing naval superiority in the Mediterranean, made their way to Toulon, anchoring off the port in July. Sugden 2004, p. 427 Toulon was largely under the control of moderate republicans and royalists, but was threatened by the forces of the National Convention, which were marching on the city. Short of supplies and doubting their ability to defend themselves, the city authorities requested that Hood take the city under his protection. Hood readily acquiesced and sent Nelson to carry despatches to Sardinia and Naples requesting reinforcements. Sugden 2004, p. 429 After delivering the despatches to Sardinia, Agamemnon arrived at Naples in early September. There Nelson met Ferdinand VI, King of Naples, Sugden 2004, p. 431 followed by the British ambassador to the kingdom, William Hamilton. Sugden 2004, p. 434 At some point during the negotiations for reinforcements, Nelson was introduced to Hamilton's new wife, Emma Hamilton. Sugden 2004, p. 437 The negotiations were successful, and 2,000 men and several ships were mustered by mid-September. Nelson put to sea in pursuit of a French frigate, but on failing to catch her, sailed for Leghorn, and then to Corsica. Sugden 2004, p. 444 He arrived at Toulon on 5 October, where he found that a large French army had occupied the hills surrounding the city and was bombarding it. Hood still hoped the city could be held if more reinforcements arrived and sent Nelson to join a squadron operating off Cagliari. Sugden 2004, p. 445–6 Corsica Early on the morning of 22 October 1793, the Agamemnon sighted five sails. Nelson closed with them, eventually revealing a French squadron. Nelson promptly gave chase, firing on the 40-gun Melpomene. Sugden 2004, p. 446–7 He inflicted considerable damage but the remaining French ships turned to join the battle and, realising he was outnumbered, Nelson withdrew and continued to Cagliari, arriving on 24 October. After making repairs Nelson and the Agamemnon sailed again on 26 October, bound for Tunis with a squadron under Commodore Robert Linzee. On arrival, Nelson was given command of a small squadron consisting of the Agamemnon, three frigates and a sloop, and ordered to blockade the French garrison on Corsica. Sugden 2004, p. 452–3 At the end of December 1793, the fall of Toulon severely damaged British fortunes in the Mediterranean. Hood had failed to make adequate provision for a withdrawal and 18 French ships-of-the-line fell into republican hands. Sugden 2004, p. 455 Nelson's mission to Corsica took on added significance, as it could provide the British a naval base close to the French coast. Hood therefore reinforced Nelson with extra ships during January 1794. A British assault force landed on the island on 7 February, after which Nelson moved to intensify the blockade off Bastia. For the rest of the month he carried out raids along the coast and intercepted enemy shipping. By late February St Fiorenzo had fallen and British troops under Lieutenant-General David Dundas entered the outskirts of Bastia. Sugden 2004, p. 471 However Dundas merely assessed the enemy positions and then withdrew, arguing the French were too well entrenched to risk an assault. Nelson convinced Hood otherwise, but a protracted debate between the army and naval commanders meant that Nelson did not receive permission to proceed until late March. Nelson began to land guns from his ships, and emplace them in the hills surrounding the town. On 11 April the British squadron entered the harbour and opened fire, whilst Nelson took command of the land forces and commenced bombardment. Sugden 2004, p. 487 After 45 days, the town surrendered. Sugden 2004, p. 493 Nelson subsequently prepared for an assault on Calvi, working in company with Lieutenant-General Charles Stuart. British forces landed at Calvi on 19 June, and immediately began moving guns ashore to occupy the heights surrounding the town. While Nelson directed a continuous bombardment of the enemy positions, Stuart's men began to advance . On 12 July Nelson was at one of the forward batteries early in the morning, when a shot struck one of the sandbags protecting the position, spraying Nelson and the position with stones and sand. Nelson was struck by debris in his right eye and was forced to retire from the position, although his wound was soon bandaged and he returned to action. Sugden 2004, p. 509–10 By 18 July most of the enemy positions had been disabled, and that night Stuart, supported by Nelson, stormed the main defensive position and captured it. Repositioning their guns, the British brought Calvi under constant bombardment, and the town surrendered on 10 August. Sugden 2004, p. 513–4 However, Nelson's right eye had been irreparably damaged and he eventually lost sight in it. Sugden 2004, p. 515 Genoa and the fight of the Ça Ira The fight of the Ça Ira After the occupation of Corsica, Hood ordered Nelson to open diplomatic relations with the city state of Genoa, a strategically important potential ally. Sugden 2004, p. 522 Soon afterwards, Hood returned to England and was succeeded by Admiral William Hotham as commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean. Nelson put into Leghorn, and while the Agamemnon underwent repairs, met with other naval officers at the port and entertained a brief affair with a local woman, Adelaide Correglia. Sugden 2004, p. 533 Hotham arrived with the rest of the fleet in December; Nelson and the Agamemnon sailed on a number of cruises with them in late 1794 and early 1795. Sugden 2004, p. 537 On 8 March, news reached Hotham that the French fleet was at sea and heading for Corsica. He immediately put to sea to intercept them; Nelson eagerly anticipating his first fleet action. The French however were reluctant to engage and the two fleets shadowed each other throughout 12 March. The following day two of the French ships collided, allowing Nelson to engage the much larger 84-gun Ça Ira for two and a half hours until the arrival of another two French ships forced Nelson to veer away, having inflicted heavy casualties and considerable damage. Sugden 2004, p. 546 The two fleets then continued to shadow each other before making contact again, on 14 March, in the Battle of Genoa. Nelson joined the other British ships in attacking the battered Ça Ira, now under tow from the Censeur. Heavily damaged, the two French ships were eventually forced to surrender and Nelson took possession of the Censeur. Defeated at sea, the French abandoned their plan to invade Corsica and returned to port. Sugden 2004, p. 550 Skirmishes and the retreat from Italy Nelson and the fleet remained in the Mediterranean throughout the summer and on 4 July the Agamemnon sailed from St Fiorenzo with a small force of frigates and sloops, bound for Genoa. On 6 July however he ran into the French fleet and found himself pursued by several much larger ships of the line. He retreated to St Fiorenzo, arriving just ahead of the pursuing French, who broke off as Nelson's signal guns alerted the British fleet in harbour. Sugden 2004, p. 556 Hotham pursued the French to the Hyères Islands, but failed to bring them to a decisive action. A number of small engagements were fought but to Nelson's dismay, he saw little action. Nelson returned to operate out of Genoa, intercepting and inspecting merchants and cutting-out suspicious vessels in both enemy and neutral harbours. Sugden 2004, p. 574 He formulated ambitious plans for amphibious landings and naval assaults to frustrate the progress of the French Army of Italy that was now advancing on Genoa, but could excite little interest in Hotham. Sugden 2004, p. 579 In November Hotham was replaced by Sir Hyde Parker but the situation in Italy was rapidly deteriorating: the French raiding around Genoa and strong Jacobin sentiment rife within the city itself. Sugden 2004, p. 584 A large French assault at the end of November broke the allied lines, and despite Nelson's attempts to cover the subsequent retreat he had too few ships and the British were forced to withdraw from the Italian ports. Nelson returned to Corsica on 30 November, angry and depressed at the British failure and questioning his future career in the navy. Sugden 2004, p. 588 Jervis and the evacuation of the Mediterranean In January 1796 the position of commander-in-chief of the fleet in the Mediterranean passed to Sir John Jervis, who appointed Nelson to exercise independent command over the ships blockading the French coast as a commodore. Sugden 2004, p. 594 Nelson spent the first half of the year conducting operations to frustrate French advances and bolster Britain's Italian allies. Despite some minor successes in intercepting small French warships, Nelson began to feel the British presence on the Italian peninsula was rapidly becoming useless. Sugden 2004, p. 603 In June the Agamemnon was sent back to Britain for repairs, and Nelson appointed to the 74-gun . In the same month, the French thrust towards Leghorn and were certain to capture the city. Nelson hurried there to oversee the evacuation of British nationals and transport them to Corsica, after which Jervis ordered him to blockade the newly captured French port. Sugden 2004, p. 641 In July he oversaw the occupation of Elba, but by September the Genoese had broken their neutrality to declare in favour of the French. Sugden 2004, p. 647 By October, the Genoese position and the continued French advances led the British to decide that the Mediterranean fleet could no longer be supplied and ordered it to be evacuated to Gibraltar. Nelson helped oversee the withdrawal from Corsica, and by December 1796 was aboard the frigate HMS Minerve, covering the evacuation of the garrison at Elba. He then sailed to Gibraltar. Sugden 2004, p. 683 During the passage, Nelson captured the Spanish frigate Santa Sabina, placed Lieutenant Hardy in charge of the captured vessel, and took on board the captain of the Spanish frigate. The following morning, two Spanish ships of the line and a frigate appeared. Nelson initially determined to fight but Hardy, in order to save his commodore, sacrificed his own ship by drawing the Spanish fire, giving Nelson the opportunity to escape. The Spanish recovered Santa Sabina, capturing Hardy. Nelson then rendezvoused with the British fleet. Sugden 2004, p. 685 Later, in Gibraltar, the British exchanged the Spanish captain of Santa Sabina for Hardy. Admiralty Battle of Cape St Vincent Nelson receives the surrender of the San Nicholas, an 1806 portrait by Richard Westall Nelson joined Sir John Jervis's fleet off Cape St Vincent, and reported the presence of a Spanish fleet that had sailed from Cartagena. Coleman 2001, p. 126 Jervis decided to give battle and the two fleets met on 14 February. Nelson found himself towards the rear of the British line and realised that it would be a long time before he could bring Captain into action. Instead of continuing to follow the line, Nelson disobeyed orders and wore ship, breaking from the line and heading to engage the Spanish van, consisting of the 112-gun San Josef, the 80-gun San Nicolas and the 130-gun Santísima Trinidad. She engaged all three, assisted by which had come to Nelson's aid. After an hour of exchanging broadsides had left both Captain and Culloden heavily damaged, Nelson found himself alongside the San Nicolas. He led a boarding party across, crying 'Westminster Abbey! or, glorious victory!' and forced her surrender. Coleman 2001, p. 128 San Josef attempted to come to the San Nicolas’s aid, but became entangled with compatriot and was left immobile. Nelson led his party from the deck of the San Nicolas onto the San Josef and captured her as well. As night fell the Spanish fleet broke off and sailed for Cadiz. Four ships had surrendered to the British and two of them were Nelson's captures. Nelson was victorious, but had disobeyed direct orders. Jervis liked Nelson and so did not officially reprimand him, Coleman 2001, p. 127 but in his official report of the battle he did not mention Nelson's actions. Report of the battle from Jervis. He did write a private letter to George Spencer in which he said that Nelson 'contributed very much to the fortune of the day'. Nelson also wrote several letters about his victory, reporting that his action was being referred to amongst the fleet as 'Nelson's Patent Bridge for boarding first rates'. Nelson's account was later challenged by Rear-Admiral William Parker, who had been aboard . He claimed that Nelson had been supported by several more ships than he had acknowledged in his attack on the Spanish van, and that by the time he had boarded the San Josef, she had already struck her colours. Coleman 2001, p. 120 It was Nelson's account of his role that prevailed and the victory was well received in Britain: Jervis was made Earl St Vincent and Nelson was made a Knight of the Bath. Coleman 2001, p. 130 On 20 February, in a standard promotion according to his seniority unrelated to the battle, he was promoted to Rear Admiral of the Blue. Coleman 2001, p. 131 Action off Cadiz In the aftermath of the battle, Nelson was given command of and on 27 May 1797 was ordered to lie off Cadiz, monitoring the Spanish fleet and awaiting the arrival of Spanish treasure ships from the American colonies. Hibbert 1994, p. 118 He soon pressed an attack on the city, carrying out a bombardment and an amphibious assault on 3 July. Personally leading the action, his barge collided with that of the Spanish commander, and a hand to hand struggle ensued between the two crews. Twice Nelson was nearly cut down and both times his life was saved by a seaman named John Sykes who took the blows and was badly wounded. The British raiding force captured the Spanish boat and towed it back to the Theseus. Reports of the attack from Jervis and Nelson. During this period he developed a scheme to capture Santa Cruz de Tenerife, aiming to seize a large quantity of specie from the treasure ship Principe de Asturias, which was reported to have recently arrived. Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife Nelson is wounded during the battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, an 1806 painting by Richard Westall. The battle plan called for a combination of naval bombardments and an amphibious landing. The initial attempt was called off after adverse currents hampered the assault and the element of surprise was lost. Hibbert 1994, p. 121 Nelson immediately ordered another assault but this was beaten back. He prepared for third attempt, to take place during the night. Although he personally led one of the battalions, the operation ended in failure: the Spanish were better prepared than had been expected and had secured strong defensive positions. Hibbert 1994, p. 122 Several of the boats failed to land at the correct positions in the confusion, while those that did were swept by gunfire and grapeshot. Nelson's boat reached its intended landing point but as he stepped ashore he was hit in the right arm by a musketball, fracturing his humerus bone in multiple places. He was rowed back to the Theseus to be attended to by the surgeon. On arriving on his ship he refused to be helped aboard, declaring 'Leave me alone! I have got my legs left and one arm.' He was taken to the surgeon, instructing him to prepare his instruments and 'the sooner it was off the better'. Most of the right arm was amputated and within half an hour Nelson had returned to issuing orders to his captains. Hibbert 1994, p. 123 Years later he would still excuse himself to Commodore John Thomas Duckworth for not writing longer letters due to being left-handed. p.251, Nelson Meanwhile a force under Sir Thomas Troubridge had fought their way to the main square but could go no further. Unable to return to the fleet because their boats had been sunk, Troubridge was forced to enter into negotiations with the Spanish commander, and the British were subsequently allowed to withdraw. Bradford 2005, p. 160 The expedition had failed to achieve any of its objectives and had left a quarter of the landing force dead or wounded. Reports of the battle from Earl St Vincent and Nelson. The squadron remained off Tenerife for a further three days and by 16 August had rejoined Jervis's fleet off Cadiz. Despondently Nelson wrote to Jervis: 'A left-handed Admiral will never again be considered as useful, therefore the sooner I get to a very humble cottage the better, and make room for a better man to serve the state...' Bradford 2005, p. 162 He returned to England aboard HMS Seahorse, arriving at Spithead on 1 September. He was met with a hero's welcome: the British public had lionised Nelson after Cape St. Vincent and his wound earned him sympathy. Bradford 2005, p. 164 They refused to attribute the defeat at Tenerife to him, preferring instead to blame poor planning on the part of St. Vincent, the Secretary at War or even William Pitt. Return to England Nelson returned to Bath with Fanny, before moving to London in October to seek medical expertise concerning his amputated arm. Whilst in London news reached him that Admiral Duncan had defeated the Dutch fleet at the Battle of Camperdown. Bradford 2005, p. 166 Nelson exclaimed that he would have given his other arm to have been present. He spent the last months of 1797 recuperating in London, during which he was awarded the Freedom of the City of London and an annual pension of £1,000 a year. He used the money to buy Round Wood Farm near Ipswich, and intended to retire there with Fanny. Bradford 2005, p. 167 Despite his plans, Nelson was never to live there. Although surgeons had been unable to remove the central ligature in his amputated arm, which had caused considerable inflammation and poisoning, in early December it came out of its own accord and Nelson rapidly began to recover. Eager to return to sea, he began agitating the Admiralty for a command and was promised the 80-gun . As she was not yet ready for sea, Nelson was instead given command of the 74-gun , to which he appointed Edward Berry as his flag captain. Bradford 2005, p. 168 French activities in the Mediterranean theatre were concerning the Admiralty: Napoleon was gathering forces in Southern France but the destination of his army, the invasion of Egypt, was unknown to the Admiralty. Nelson and the Vanguard were to be despatched to Cadiz to reinforce the fleet. On 28 March 1798, Nelson hoisted his flag and sailed to join Earl St. Vincent. St. Vincent sent him on to Gibraltar with a small force to reconnoitre French activities. Bradford 2005, p. 172 Hunting the French While Nelson was sailing to Gibraltar through a fierce storm, Napoleon had sailed with his invasion fleet under the command of Vice-admiral François-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers. When news of the French departure reached St. Vincent, Nelson was reinforced with a number of 74s and ordered to intercept the French. Bradford 2005, p. 175 Nelson immediately began searching the Italian coast for Napoleon's fleet, but was hampered by a lack of frigates that could operate as fast scouts. Napoleon had already arrived at Malta and after a show of force, secured the island's surrender. Bradford 2005, pp. 176–7 Nelson followed him there, but had again missed the French who had already left for Egypt. After a conference with his captains, he decided that Egypt was Napoleon's most likely destination and headed for Alexandria. On his arrival on 28 June though he found no sign of the French and, dismayed, he withdrew and began searching to the east of the port. While he was absent, Napoleon's fleet arrived on 1 July and landed their forces unopposed. Bradford 2005, pp. 188–9 Brueys then anchored his fleet in Abu Qir Bay, ready to support Napoleon if required. Bradford 2005, p. 192 Nelson meanwhile had recrossed the Mediterranean again in a fruitless attempt to locate the French and had returned to Naples to re-provision. Bradford 2005, pp. 193–4 He sailed again, intending to search the seas off Cyprus, but decided to pass Alexandria again for a final check. In doing so his force captured a French merchant, which provided the first news of the French fleet: that they had passed south-east of Crete a month before heading to Alexandria. Bradford 2005, p. 196 Nelson hurried to the port but again found it empty of the French. Searching along the coast, he finally discovered the French fleet in Abu Qir Bay on 1 August 1798. Oman 1987, p. 252 The Battle of the Nile Nelson immediately prepared for battle, repeating a sentiment he had expressed at the battle of Cape St. Vincent that "Before this time tomorrow, I shall have gained a peerage or Westminster Abbey." Bradford 2005, p. 198 It was late by the time the British arrived and the French, anchored in a strong position with a combined fire power greater than that of Nelson's fleet, did not expect them to attack. Bradford 2005, p. 200 Nelson however immediately ordered his ships to advance. The French line was anchored close to a line of shoals, in the belief that this would secure their port side from attack; Brueys had assumed the British would follow convention and attack his centre from the starboard side. However, Captain Thomas Foley aboard discovered a gap between the shoals and the French ships wide enough for a British ship to pass, and took Goliath into the channel. The unprepared French found themselves attacked on both sides, the British fleet splitting, with some following Foley and others passing down the starboard side of the French line. Bradford 2005, p. 203 The Battle of the Nile, depicted in an 1801 painting by Thomas Luny. The British fleet was soon heavily engaged, passing down the French line and engaging their ships one by one. Nelson on Vanguard personally engaged Spartiate, also coming under fire from Aquilon. At about eight o'clock, he was with Berry on the quarter-deck when a piece of French shot struck him in his forehead. He fell to the deck, a flap of torn skin obscuring his good eye. Blinded and half stunned, he felt sure he would die and cried out "I am killed. Remember me to my wife." He was taken below to be seen by the surgeon. Bradford 2005, p. 205 After examining Nelson, the surgeon pronounced the wound non-threatening and applied a temporary bandage. The French van, pounded by British fire from both sides, had begun to surrender, the victorious British ships continuing to move down the line, bringing Brueys's 118-gun flagship Orient under constant heavy fire. Orient caught fire under this bombardment, and later exploded. Nelson briefly came up on deck to direct the battle, but returned to the surgeon after watching the destruction of Orient. Bradford 2005, p. 209 The Battle of the Nile was a major blow to Napoleon's ambitions in the east. The fleet had been destroyed; Orient, another ship and two frigates had been burnt, seven 74s and two 80s had been captured and only two ships of the line and two frigates escaped, Reports of the battle from Nelson. while the forces Napoleon had brought to Egypt were stranded. Napoleon attacked north along the Mediterranean coast, but Turkish defenders supported by Captain Sir Sidney Smith defeated his army at the Siege of Acre. Napoleon then left his army and sailed back to France, evading detection by British ships. Given its strategic importance, some historians regard Nelson's achievement at the Nile as the most significant of his career, even greater than that at Trafalgar seven years later. Bradford 2005, p. 209—Bradford describes it as "the most complete victory ever recorded in naval history". Rewards Nelson wrote despatches to the Admiralty and oversaw temporary repairs to the Vanguard, before sailing to Naples where he was met with enthusiastic celebrations. Hibbert 1994, p. 147 The King of Naples, in company with the Hamiltons, greeted him in person when he arrived at the port and William Hamilton invited Nelson to stay at their house. Hibbert 1994, p. 153 Celebrations were held in honour of Nelson's birthday that September, and he attended a banquet at the Hamilton's, where other officers had begun to notice his attention to Emma. Jervis himself had begun to grow concerned at the reports he received of Nelson's behaviour but in early October, the news of Nelson's victory had reached London. The First Lord of the Admiralty, Earl Spencer, fainted on hearing the news. Hibbert 1994, p. 156 Scenes of celebration erupted across the country, balls and victory feasts were held and church bells were rung. The City of London awarded Nelson and his captains with swords, whilst the King ordered them to be presented with special medals. Tsar of Russia sent him a gift, and the Selim III, the Sultan of Turkey, awarded Nelson the Order of the Turkish Crescent for his role in restoring Ottoman rule in Egypt. Lord Hood, after a conversation with the Prime Minister, told Fanny that Nelson would likely be given a Viscountcy, similar to Jervis's earldom after Cape St Vincent, and Duncan's viscountcy after Camperdown. Hibbert 1994, p. 159 Earl Spencer however demurred, arguing that as Nelson had only been detached in command of a squadron, rather than being the commander in chief of the fleet, such an award would create an unwelcome precedent. Instead, Nelson received the title, Baron Nelson of the Nile. Hibbert 1994, p. 160 Emma Hamilton, in a 1782-84 portrait by George Romney, depicting Emma at the height of her beauty The Neapolitan campaign Nelson was dismayed by Spencer's decision, and declared that he would rather have received no title than that of a mere barony. He was however cheered by the attention showered on him by the citizens of Naples, the prestige accorded him by the kingdom's elite, and the comforts he received at the Hamiltons' residence. He made frequent visits to attend functions in his honour, or to tour nearby attractions with Emma, with whom he had by now fallen deeply in love, almost constantly at his side. Hibbert 1994, p. 162 Orders arrived from the Admiralty to blockade the French forces in Alexandria and Malta, a task Nelson delegated to his captains, Samuel Hood and Alexander Ball. Despite enjoying his lifestyle in Naples Nelson began to think of returning to England, but after a long period of pressure from his wife Maria Carolina of Austria and Sir William Hamilton, King Ferdinand of Naples finally agreed to declare war on France. The Neapolitan army, led by the Austrian General Mack and supported by Nelson's fleet, retook Rome from the French in late November but the French regrouped outside the city and, after being reinforced, routed the Neapolitans. In disarray, the Neapolitan army fled back to Naples, with the pursuing French close behind. Hibbert 1994, p. 165 Nelson hastily organised the evacuation of the Royal Family, several nobles and the British nationals, including the Hamiltons. The evacuation got underway on 23 December and sailed through heavy gales before reaching the safety of Palermo on 26 December. Hibbert 1994, p. 170 With the departure of the Royal Family, Naples descended into anarchy and news reached Palermo in January that the French had entered the city under General Championnet and proclaimed the Parthenopaean Republic. Hibbert 1994, p. 178 Nelson was promoted to Rear Admiral of the Red on 14 February 1799, and was occupied for the several months in blockading Naples, while a force under Cardinal Ruffo marched to retake the city. In late June Ruffo's army entered Naples, forcing the French and their supporters to withdraw to the city's fortifications as rioting and looting broke out amongst the ill-disciplined Neapolitan troops. Hibbert 1994, p. 181 Dismayed by the bloodshed, Ruffo agreed a general amnesty with the Jacobin forces that allowed them safe conduct to France. Nelson, now aboard the Foudroyant, was outraged, and backed by King Ferdinand, insisted that the rebels must surrender unconditionally. Hibbert 1994, p. 184 He took those who had surrendered under the amnesty under armed guard, including the former Admiral Francesco Caracciolo, who had commanded the Neapolitan navy under King Ferdinand but had changed sides during the brief Jacobin rule. Hibbert 1994, p. 186 Nelson ordered his trial by court-martial and refused Caracciolo's request that it be held by British officers. Caracciolo was tried by royalist Neapolitan officers and sentenced to death. He asked to be shot rather than hanged, but Nelson also refused this request and ignored the court's request to allow 24 hours for Caracciolo to prepare himself. Caracciolo was hanged aboard the Neapolitan frigate Minerva at 5 p.m. the same afternoon. Hibbert 1994, p. 187 Nelson kept the Jacobins imprisoned and approved of a wave of further executions, refusing to intervene despite pleas for clemency from the Hamiltons and the Queen of Naples. Hibbert 1994, p. 190 When transports were finally allowed to carry the Jacobins to France, less than a third were still alive. Hibbert 1994, p. 193 For his support for the monarchy Nelson was made Duke of Bronte by King Ferdinand. Hibbert 1994, p. 194 Nelson returned to Palermo in August and in September became the senior officer in the Mediterranean after Jervis' successor Lord Keith left to chase the French and Spanish fleets into the Atlantic. Hibbert 1994, p. 197 Nelson spent the rest of 1799 at the Neapolitan court but put to sea again in February 1800 after Lord Keith's return. On 18 February Généreux, a survivor of the Nile, was sighted and Nelson gave chase, capturing her after a short battle and winning Keith's approval. Hibbert 1994, p. 203 Nelson had a difficult relationship with his superior officer: he was gaining a reputation for insubordination, having initially refused to send ships when Keith requested him and on occasion returning to Palermo without orders, pleading poor health. Hibbert 1994, p. 204 Keith's reports, and rumours of Nelson's close relationship with Emma Hamilton were also circulating in London, and Earl Spencer wrote a pointed letter suggesting that he return home as You will be more likely to recover your health and strength in England than in any inactive situation at a foreign Court, however pleasing the respect and gratitude shown to you for your services may be. Hibbert 1994, p. 205 Return to England The recall of Sir William Hamilton to Britain was a further incentive for Nelson to return, although he and the Hamiltons initially sailed from Naples on a brief cruise around Malta aboard the Foudroyant in April 1800. It was on this voyage that Horatio and Emma's illegitimate daughter Horatia was probably conceived. Hibbert 1994, p. 207 After the cruise, Nelson conveyed the Queen of Naples and her suite to Leghorn. On his arrival, Nelson shifted his flag to , but again disobeyed Keith's orders by refusing to join the main fleet. Keith came to Leghorn in person to demand an explanation, and refused to be moved by the Queen's pleas to allow her to be conveyed in a British ship. Hibbert 1994, p. 211 In the face of Keith's demands, Nelson reluctantly struck his flag and bowed to Emma Hamilton's request to return to England by land. Hibbert 1994, p. 212 Nelson, the Hamiltons and several other British travellers left Leghorn for Florence on 13 July. They made stops at Trieste and Vienna, spending three weeks in the latter where they were entertained by the local nobility and heard the Missa in Angustiis by Haydn that now bears Nelson's name. Hibbert 1994, p. 216 By September they were in Prague, and later called at Dresden, Dessau and Hamburg, from where they caught a packet ship to Great Yarmouth, arriving on 6 November. Hibbert 1994, p. 224 Nelson was given a hero's welcome and after being sworn in as a freeman of the borough and received the massed crowd's applause. He subsequently made his way to London, arriving on 9 November. He attended court and was guest of honour at a number of banquets and balls. It was during this period that Fanny Nelson and Emma Hamilton met for the first time. During this period, Nelson was reported as being cold and distant to his wife and his attention to Emma became the subject of gossip. Hibbert 1994, p. 230 With the marriage breaking down, Nelson began to hate even being in the same room as Fanny. Events came to a head around Christmas, when according to Nelson's solicitor, Fanny issued an ultimatum on whether he was to choose her or Emma. Nelson replied I love you sincerely but I cannot forget my obligations to Lady Hamilton or speak of her otherwise than with affection and admiration. Hibbert 1994, p. 235 The two never lived together again after this. Parker and the Baltic Shortly after his arrival in England Nelson was appointed to be second-in-command of the Channel Fleet under Lord St Vincent. Hibbert 1994, p. 237 He was promoted to Vice Admiral of the Blue on 1 January 1801, and travelled to Plymouth, where on 22 January he was granted the freedom of the city, and on 29 January Emma gave birth to their daughter, Horatia. Hibbert 1994, p. 242 Nelson was delighted, but subsequently disappointed when he was instructed to move his flag from to in preparation for a planned expedition to the Baltic. Hibbert 1994, p. 246 Tired of British ships imposing a blockade against French trade and stopping and searching their merchants, the Russian, Prussian, Danish and Swedish governments had formed an alliance to break the blockade. Nelson joined Admiral Sir Hyde Parker's fleet at Yarmouth, from where they sailed for the Danish coast in March. On their arrival Parker was inclined to blockade the Danish and control the entrance to the Baltic, but Nelson urged a pre-emptive attack on the Danish fleet at harbour in Copenhagen. Hibbert 1994, p. 254 He convinced Parker to allow him to make an assault, and was given significant reinforcements. Parker himself would wait in the Kattegat, covering Nelson's fleet in case of the arrival of the Swedish or Russian fleets. Hibbert 1994, p. 256 Battle of Copenhagen Nicholas Pocock's Battle of Copenhagen. Nelson's fleet exchanges fire with the Danish, with the city of Copenhagen in the background. On the morning of 2 April 1801, Nelson began to advance into Copenhagen harbour. The battle began badly for the British, with HMS Agamemnon, and running aground, and the rest of the fleet encountering heavier fire from the Danish shore batteries than had been anticipated. Parker sent the signal for Nelson to withdraw, reasoning:I will make the signal for recall for Nelson's sake. If he is in a condition to continue the action he will disregard it; if he is not, it will be an excuse for his retreat and no blame can be attached to him. Hibbert 1994, p. 260 Nelson, directing action aboard , was informed of the signal by the signal lieutenant, Frederick Langford, but angrily responded: 'I told you to look out on the Danish commodore and let me know when he surrendered. Keep your eyes fixed on him.' Hibbert 1994, p. 261 He then turned to his flag captain, Thomas Foley and said 'You know, Foley, I have only one eye. I have a right to be blind sometimes.' He raised the telescope to his blind eye, and said 'I really do not see the signal.' Pocock 1987, p. 237 The battle lasted three hours, leaving both Danish and British fleets heavily damaged. At length Nelson despatched a letter to the Danish commander, Crown Prince Frederick calling for a truce, which the Prince accepted. Hibbert 1994, p. 263 Parker approved of Nelson's actions in retrospect, and Nelson was given the honour of going into Copenhagen the next day to open formal negotiations. Hibbert 1994, p. 264 Report of the battle from Nelson. At a banquet that evening he told Prince Frederick that the battle had been the most severe he had ever been in. Hibbert 1994, p. 265 The outcome of the battle and several weeks of ensuing negotiations was a 14 week armistice, and on Parker's recall in May, Nelson became commander-in-chief in the Baltic Sea. Hibbert 1994, p. 268 As a reward for the victory, he was created Viscount Nelson of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk, on 19 May 1801. In addition, on 4 August 1801, he was created Baron Nelson, of the Nile and of Hilborough in the County of Norfolk, this time with a special remainder to his father and sisters. Nelson subsequently sailed to the Russian base at Tallinn in May, and there learned that the pact of armed neutrality was to be disbanded. Satisfied with the outcome of the expedition, he returned to England, arriving on 1 July. Hibbert 1994, p. 272 Leave in England In France, Napoleon was massing forces to invade Great Britain. After a brief spell in London, where he again visited the Hamiltons, Nelson was placed in charge of defending the English Channel to prevent the invasion. Hibbert 1994, p. 279 He spent the summer reconnoitring the French coast, but apart from a failed attack on Boulogne in August, saw little action. Hibbert 1994, p. 281 On 22 October 1801 the Peace of Amiens was signed between the British and the French, and Nelson – in poor health again – retired to Britain where he stayed with Sir William and Lady Hamilton. On 30 October Nelson spoke in support of the Addington government in the House of Lords, and afterwards made regular visits to attend sessions. Hibbert 1994, p. 298 The three embarked on a tour of England and Wales, visiting Birmingham, Warwick, Gloucester, Swansea, Monmouth and numerous other towns and villages. Nelson often found himself received as a hero and was the centre of celebrations and events held in his honour. In 1802, Nelson bought Merton Place, a country estate in Merton, Surrey (now south-west London) where he lived briefly with the Hamiltons until William's death in April 1803. Coleman 2001, p.298 The following month, war broke out again and Nelson prepared to return to sea. Hibbert 1994, p. 323 Return to sea Nelson was appointed commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean and given the first-rate as his flagship. He joined her at Portsmouth, where he received orders to sail to Malta and take command of a squadron there before joining the blockade of Toulon. Hibbert 1994, p. 326 Nelson arrived off Toulon in July 1803 and spent the next year and a half enforcing the blockade. He was promoted to Vice Admiral of the White while still at sea, on 23 April 1804. In January 1805 the French fleet, under Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, escaped Toulon and eluded the blockading British. Nelson set off in pursuit but after searching the eastern Mediterranean he learned that the French had been blown back into Toulon. Hibbert 1994, p. 336 Villeneuve managed to break out a second time in April, and this time succeeded in passing through the Strait of Gibraltar and into the Atlantic, bound for the West Indies. Nelson gave chase, but after arriving in the Caribbean spent June in a fruitless search for the fleet. Villeneuve had briefly cruised around the islands before heading back to Europe, in contravention of Napoleon's orders. Hibbert 1994, p. 337 The returning French fleet was intercepted by a British fleet under Sir Robert Calder and engaged in the Battle of Cape Finisterre, but managed to reach Ferrol with only minor losses. Hibbert 1994, p. 338 Nelson returned to Gibraltar at the end of July, and travelled from there to England, dismayed at his failure to bring the French to battle and expecting to be censured. Hibbert 1994, p. 339 To his surprise he was given a rapturous reception from crowds who had gathered to view his arrival, while senior British officials congratulated him for sustaining the close pursuit and credited him for saving the West Indies from a French invasion. Nelson briefly stayed in London, where he was cheered wherever he went, before visiting Merton to see Emma, arriving in late August. He entertained a number of his friends and relations there over the coming month, and began plans for a grand engagement with the enemy fleet, one that would surprise his foes by forcing a pell-mell battle on them. Hibbert 1994, p. 350 Captain Henry Blackwood arrived at Merton early on 2 September, bringing news that the French and Spanish fleets had combined and were currently at anchor in Cádiz. Nelson hurried to London where he met with cabinet ministers and was given command of the fleet blockading Cádiz. Hibbert 1994, p. 351 Nelson returned briefly to Merton to set his affairs in order and bid farewell to Emma. He then journeyed to Portsmouth and embarked aboard the Victory, with crowds lining the dockside to cheer him. Hibbert 1994, p. 356 Victory joined the British fleet off Cádiz on 27 September, Nelson taking over from Rear-Admiral Collingwood. Hibbert 1994, p. 362 He spent the following weeks preparing and refining his tactics for the anticipated battle and dining with his captains to ensure they understood his intentions. Hibbert 1994, p. 360 Nelson had devised a plan of attack that anticipated the allied fleet would form up in a traditional line of battle. Drawing on his own experience from the Nile and Copenhagen, and the examples of Duncan at Camperdown and Rodney at the Saintes, Nelson decided to split his fleet into squadrons rather than forming it into a similar line parallel to the enemy. Adkin 2007, p.411 These squadrons would then cut the enemy's line in a number of places, allowing a pell-mell battle to develop in which the British ships could overwhelm and destroy parts of their opponents' formation, before the unengaged enemy ships could come to their aid. Battle of Trafalgar Preparation The combined French and Spanish fleet under Villeneuve's command numbered 33 ships of the line. Napoleon Bonaparte had intended for Villeneuve to sail into the English Channel and cover the planned invasion of Britain, but the entry of Austria and Russia into the war forced Napoleon to call off the planned invasion and transfer troops to Germany. Villeneuve had been reluctant to risk an engagement with the British, and this reluctance led Napoleon to order Vice-Admiral François Rosily to go to Cádiz and take command of the fleet, sail it into the Mediterranean to land troops at Naples, before making port at Toulon. Villeneuve decided to sail the fleet out before his successor arrived. On 20 October the fleet was sighted making its way out of harbour by patrolling British frigates, and Nelson was informed that they appeared to be headed to the west. Hibbert 1994, p. 363 The Battle of Trafalgar by J. M. W. Turner (oil on canvas, 1822–1824) shows the last three letters of the famous signal, "England expects that every man will do his duty" flying from Victory. At four o'clock in the morning of 21 October Nelson ordered the Victory to turn towards the approaching enemy fleet, and signalled the rest of his force to battle stations. He then went below and made his will, before returning to the quarterdeck to carry out an inspection. Hibbert 1994, p. 365 Despite having 27 ships to Villeneuve's 33, Nelson was confident of success, declaring that he would not be satisfied with taking less than 20 prizes. He returned briefly to his cabin to write a final prayer, after which he joined Victory’s signal lieutenant, John Pasco. Mr Pasco, I wish to say to the fleet "England confides that every man will do his duty". You must be quick, for I have one more signal to make, which is for close action. Hibbert 1994, p. 366 Pasco suggested changing 'confides' to 'expects', which being in the Signal Book, could be signalled by the use of a single flag, whereas 'confides' would have to spelt out letter by letter. Nelson agreed, and the signal was hoisted. As the fleets converged, the Victory’s captain, Thomas Hardy suggested that Nelson remove the decorations on his coat, so that he would not be so easily identified by enemy sharpshooters. Nelson replied that it was too late 'to be shifting a coat', adding that they were 'military orders and he did not fear to show them to the enemy'. Hibbert 1994, p. 368 Captain Henry Blackwood, of the frigate , suggested Nelson come aboard his ship to better observe the battle. Nelson refused, and also turned down Hardy's suggestion to let Eliab Harvey's come ahead of the Victory and lead the line into battle. Battle is joined Victory came under fire, initially passing wide, but then with greater accuracy as the distances decreased. A cannon ball struck and killed Nelson's secretary, John Scott, nearly cutting him in two. Hardy's clerk took over, but he too was almost immediately killed. Victory’s wheel was shot away, and another cannon ball cut down eight marines. Hardy, standing next to Nelson on the quarterdeck, had his shoe buckle dented by a splinter. Nelson observed 'this is too warm work to last long'. Hibbert 1994, p. 370 The Victory had by now reached the enemy line, and Hardy asked Nelson which ship to engage first. Nelson told him to take his pick, and Hardy moved Victory across the stern of the 80-gun French flagship Bucentaure. Victory then came under fire from the 74-gun Redoutable, lying off the Bucentaure’s stern, and the 130-gun Santísima Trinidad. As snipers from the enemy ships fired onto Victory’s deck from their rigging, Nelson and Hardy continued to walk about, directing and giving orders. Nelson is hit Shortly after one o'clock, Hardy realised that Nelson was not by his side. He turned to see Nelson kneeling on the deck, supporting himself with his hand, before falling onto his side. Hardy rushed to him, at which point Nelson smiled Hardy, I do believe they have done it at last... my backbone is shot through. Nelson is shot on the quarterdeck, painted by Denis Dighton, c. 1825. He had been hit by a marksman from the Redoutable, firing at a range of 50 feet. The bullet had entered his left shoulder, pierced his lung, and come to rest at the base of his spine. Nelson was carried below by a sergeant-major of marines and two seamen. As he was being carried down, he asked them to pause while he gave some advice to a midshipman on the handling of the tiller. Hibbert 1994, p. 371 He then draped a handkerchief over his face to avoid causing alarm amongst the crew. He was taken to the surgeon William Beatty, telling him You can do nothing for me. I have but a short time to live. My back is shot through. Hibbert 1994, p. 372 Nelson was made comfortable, fanned and brought lemonade and watered wine to drink after he complained of feeling hot and thirsty. He asked several times to see Hardy, who was on deck supervising the battle, and asked Beatty to remember him to Emma, his daughter and his friends. Hardy came below deck to see Nelson just after half-past two, and informed him that a number of enemy ships had surrendered. Nelson told him that he was sure to die, and begged him to pass his possessions to Emma. Hibbert 1994, p. 376 </blockquote> With Nelson at this point were the chaplain Alexander Scott, the purser Walter Burke, Nelson's steward, Chevalier, and Beatty. Nelson, fearing that a gale was blowing up, instructed Hardy to be sure to anchor. After reminding him to 'take care of poor Lady Hamilton', Nelson said 'Kiss me, Hardy'. Beatty recorded that Hardy knelt and kissed Nelson on the cheek. He then stood for a minute or two and then kissed him again. Nelson asked 'Who is that?', and on hearing that it was Hardy, replied 'God bless you Hardy.' Hibbert 1994, p. 376. By now very weak, Nelson continued to murmur instructions to Burke and Scott, 'fan, fan ... rub, rub ... drink, drink.' Beatty heard Nelson murmur 'Thank God I have done my duty' and when he returned, Nelson's voice had faded and his pulse was very weak. He looked up as Beatty took his pulse, then closed his eyes. Scott, who remained by Nelson as he died, recorded his last words as 'God and my country'. Hayward 2003, p.63 Nelson died at half-past four, three hours after he was shot. Return to England Detail from an 1805 poster commemorating the Battle of Trafalgar. Nelson's body was placed in a cask of brandy mixed with camphor and myrrh, which was then lashed to the Victory’s mainmast and placed under guard. Hibbert 1994, p. 378 Victory was towed to Gibraltar after the battle, and on arrival the body was transferred to a lead-lined coffin filled with spirits of wine. Collingwood's dispatches about the battle were carried to England aboard , and when the news arrived in London, a messenger was sent to Merton Place to bring the news of Nelson's death to Emma Hamilton. She later recalled They brought me word, Mr Whitby from the Admiralty. 'Show him in directly,' I said. He came in, and with a pale countenance and faint voice, said, 'We have gained a great Victory.' - 'Never mind your Victory,' I said. 'My letters - give me my letters' - Captain Whitby was unable to speak - tears in his eyes and a deathly paleness over his face made me comprehend him. I believe I gave a scream and fell back, and for ten hours I could neither speak nor shed a tear. Hibbert 1994, p. 379 The King, on receiving the news, is alleged to have said, in tears 'We have lost more than we have gained.' Hibbert 1994, p. 381 The Times reported We do not know whether we should mourn or rejoice. The country has gained the most splendid and decisive Victory that has ever graced the naval annals of England; but it has been dearly purchased. The first tribute to Nelson was fittingly offered at sea by sailors of Vice-Admiral Dmitry Senyavin's passing Russian squadron which saluted on learning of the death. von Pivka 1980, p. 101; Senyavin had previously served in the Royal Navy for 6 years Funeral Nelson's coffin was returned to Britain aboard the Victory. Unloaded at the Nore it was taken to Greenwich and placed in a lead coffin, and that in another wooden one, made from the mast of L'Orient which had been salvaged after the Battle of the Nile. He lay in state in the Painted Hall at Greenwich for three days, before being taken up river aboard a barge, accompanied by Lord Hood, Sir Peter Parker, and the Prince of Wales. Hibbert 1994, p. 392 The coffin was taken into the Admiralty for the night, attended by Nelson's chaplain, Alexander Scott. The next day, 9 January a funeral procession consisting of 32 admirals, over a hundred captains, and escorted by 10,000 troops took the coffin from the Admiralty to St. Paul's Cathedral. After a four hour service he was laid to rest within a sarcophagus originally carved for Thomas Cardinal Wolsey. Hibbert 1994, p. 394 Assessment Scott Pierre Nicolas Legrand's Apotheosis of Nelson, c. 1805-18. Nelson ascends into immortality as the Battle of Trafalgar rages in the background. He is supported by Neptune, whilst Fame holds a crown of stars as a symbol of immortality over Nelson's head. A grieving Britannia holds out her arms, whilst Hercules, Mars, Minerva and Jupiter look on. Nelson was regarded as a highly effective leader, and someone who was able to sympathise with the needs of his men. He based his command on love rather than authority, inspiring both his superiors and his subordinates with his considerable courage, commitment and charisma, dubbed 'the Nelson touch'. Lambert 2004, p.XVII Nelson combined this talent with an adept grasp of strategy and politics, making him a highly successful naval commander. However, Nelson's personality was complex, often characterised by a desire to be noticed, both by his superiors, and the general public. He was easily flattered by praise, and dismayed when he felt he was not given sufficient credit for his actions. Lambert 2004, p.44 This led him to take risks, and to enthusiastically publicise his resultant successes. Lambert 2004, p.64 Nelson was also highly confident in his abilities, determined and able to make important decisions. Lambert 2004, p.52-3 His active career meant that he was considerably experienced in combat, and was a shrewd judge of his opponents, able to identify and exploit his enemies' weaknesses. Lambert 2004, p.107-8 He was often prone to insecurities however, as well as violent mood swings, Lambert 2004, p.4 and was extremely vain: he loved to receive decorations, tributes and praise. Lambert 2004, p.151 Despite his personality, he remained a highly professional leader and was driven all his life by a strong sense of duty. Nelson's fame reached new heights after his death, and he came to be regarded as one of Britain's greatest military heroes, ranked alongside the Duke of Marlborough and the Duke of Wellington. Lee 2005, p.3–4 In the BBC's 100 Greatest Britons programme in 2002, Nelson was voted the ninth greatest Briton of all time. Aspects of Nelson's life and career were controversial, both during his lifetime and after his death. His affair with Emma Hamilton was widely remarked upon and disapproved of, to the extent that Emma was denied permission to attend Nelson's funeral and was subsequently ignored by the government, who awarded money and titles to Nelson's legitimate family. Oman 1987, p.571-2 Nelson's actions during the reoccupation of Naples have also been the subject of debate: His approval of the wave of reprisals against the Jacobins who had surrendered under the terms agreed by Cardinal Ruffo, and his personal intervention in securing the execution of Caracciolo, are considered by some biographers, such as Robert Southey, to have been a shameful breach of honour. Prominent contemporary politician Charles James Fox was among those who attacked Nelson for his actions at Naples, declaring in the House of Commons I wish that the atrocities of which we hear so much and which I abhor as much as any man, were indeed unexampled. I fear that they do not belong exclusively to the French ... Naples for instance has been what is called "delivered", and yet, if I am rightly informed, it has been stained and polluted by murders so ferocious, and by cruelties of every kind so abhorrent, that the heart shudders at the recital ... [The besieged rebels] demanded that a British officer should be brought forward, and to him they capitulated. They made terms with him under the sanction of the British name ... Before they sailed their property was confiscated, numbers ... were thrown into dungeons, and some of them, I understand, notwithstanding the British guarantee, were actually executed. Coleman 2001, p.228 Other pro-republican writers produced books and pamphlets decrying the events in Naples as atrocities. Lambert 2004, p.365-6 Later assessments, including one by Andrew Lambert, have stressed that the armistice had not been authorised by the King of Naples, and that the retribution meted out by the Neapolitans was not unusual for the time. Lambert also suggests that Nelson in fact acted to put an end to the bloodshed, using his ships and men to restore order in the city. Legacy Nelson's influence continued long after his death, and saw periodic revivals of interest, especially during times of crisis in Britain. In the 1860s Poet Laureate Alfred Tennyson, appealed to the image and tradition of Nelson, in order to oppose the defence cuts being made by Prime Minister William Gladstone. Lambert 2004, p.340 First Sea Lord Jackie Fisher was a keen exponent of Nelson during the early years of the twentieth century, and often emphasised his legacy during his period of naval reform. Lambert 2004, p.346 Winston Churchill also found Nelson to be a source of inspiration during the Second World War. Lambert 2004, p.354 Nelson has been frequently depicted in art and literature; he appeared in paintings by Benjamin West and Arthur William Devis, and in books and biographies by John McArthur, James Stanier Clarke and Robert Southey. Lambert 2004, p.323 A number of monuments and memorials were constructed across the country to honour his memory and achievements, with Dublin being first city to create its own monument to Nelson, with work beginning on Nelson's Pillar in 1808. Lambert 2004, p.327 Others followed across the country, with London's Trafalgar Square being created in his memory in 1835 and the centrepiece, Nelson's Column, finished in 1843. Lambert 2004, p.328 Titles Nelson's titles, as inscribed on his coffin and read out at the funeral by the Garter King at Arms, Sir Isaac Heard, were: The Most Noble Lord Horatio Nelson, Viscount and Baron Nelson, of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk, Baron Nelson of the Nile and of Hilborough in the said County, Knight of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath, Vice Admiral of the White Squadron of the Fleet, Commander in Chief of his Majesty's Ships and Vessels in the Mediterranean, Duke of Bronte in Sicily, Knight Grand Cross of the Sicilian Order of St Ferdinand and of Merit, Member of the Ottoman Order of the Crescent, Knight Grand Commander of the Order of St. Joachim. He was a Colonel of the Royal Marines and voted a Freeman of Bath, Salisbury, Exeter, Plymouth, Monmouth, Sandwich, Oxford, Hereford, and Worcester. Pettigrew 1849, p.96 The University of Oxford, in full Congregation, bestowed the honorary degree of Doctor of Civil Law upon Nelson in 1802. Lambert 2004, p.237 Nelson was created Duke of Bronte by the King of Naples in July 1799, and after briefly experimenting with the signature "Brontë Nelson of the Nile" signed himself "Nelson & Brontë" for the rest of his life. Coleman 2001, p.353 Nelson had no legitimate children; his daughter, Horatia, subsequently married the Rev. Philip Ward, with whom she had ten children before her death in 1881. Oman 1987, p.571 Because Lord Nelson died without legitimate issue, his viscountcy and his barony created in 1798, both "of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk", became extinct upon his death. Haydn 1851, p.550 However, the barony created in 1801, "of the Nile and of Hilborough in the County of Norfolk", passed by a special remainder, which included Lord Nelson's father and sisters and their male issue, to Lord Nelson's brother, The Reverend William Nelson. William Nelson was created Earl Nelson and Viscount Merton of Trafalgar and Merton in the County of Surrey in recognition of his brother's services, and also inherited the Dukedom of Bronté. Lambert 2004, p.312 Armorial bearings Arms were originally granted and confirmed on 20 October 1797. The original Nelson family arms were adapted by him to accommodate his naval victories. After the Battle of Cape St Vincent in 1797, Nelson was dubbed a Knight of the Bath and granted supporters of a sailor and lion with a rolled up union flag and red ensign in his mouthness. Adkin 2007, p.550 Later modifications have, in the top of the shield, a palm tree in the centre separating a disabled ship on the left and a ruined fort on the right, indicating the Battle of the Nile in 1798. Nelson’s motto, Palmam qui meruit ferat, (‘let him who has earned it bear the palm’) is inscribed in a scroll along the bottom. Notes a. The spelling of the name was widely varied, and numerous versions exist even in the current literature. Variations include Hinchinbroke, Hinchinbrooke, Hinchingbroke, Hinchingbrook and Hinchingbrooke. Footnotes References Nelson, Horatio, Lord Viscount, The Dispatches and Letters of Vice Admiral Lord Viscount Nelson: With Notes by Sir Nicholas Harris Nicolas G.C.M.G., The Third Volume, January 1798 to August 1799, Henry Colburn, London, 1845 Further reading External links Nelson Chronology World History Database The Nelson Society An essay on Nelson in The Oxonian Review of Books Collections related to Nelson held by the National Maritime Museum Nelson, history Norfolk Nelson Museum | Horatio_Nelson,_1st_Viscount_Nelson |@lemmatized vice:9 admiral:22 horatio:6 nelson:336 viscount:6 duke:6 bronté:2 kb:1 september:15 october:16 british:57 flag:9 officer:11 famous:2 service:10 royal:7 navy:9 particularly:2 napoleonic:1 war:13 win:4 several:19 victory:32 include:8 battle:59 trafalgar:11 kill:4 bear:4 moderately:1 prosperous:1 norfolk:9 family:7 join:16 influence:4 uncle:4 maurice:3 suckling:5 rise:2 rapidly:4 rank:3 serve:7 lead:14 naval:15 commander:17 period:8 obtain:1 command:37 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2,275 | Linux_kernel | The Linux kernel is an operating system kernel used by a family of Unix-like README operating systems. The term Linux distribution is used to refer to the various operating systems that run on top of the Linux Kernel. The Linux kernel is released under the GNU General Public License version 2 (GPLv2) COPYING plus proprietary licenses for some controversial BLOBs and is developed by contributors worldwide; Linux is one of the most prominent examples of Free / Open Source software. The Linux kernel was initially conceived and created by Finnish software engineer Linus Torvalds in 1991. Early on, the MINIX community contributed code and ideas to the Linux kernel. At the time, the GNU Project had created many of the components required for a free software operating system, but its own kernel, GNU Hurd, was incomplete and unavailable. The BSD operating system had not yet freed itself from legal encumbrances. This meant that despite the limited functionality of the early versions, Linux rapidly accumulated developers and users who adopted code from those projects for use with the new operating system. Free as in Freedom by Sam Williams. O'Reilly books, 2002 Today the Linux kernel has received contributions from thousands of programmers. History In April 1991, Linus Torvalds, then 21 years old, started working on some simple ideas for an operating system. He started with a task switcher in Intel 80386 assembly language and a terminal driver. Then, on 26 August 1991, Torvalds posted to comp.os.minix: {{cquote|I'm doing a (free) operating system (just a hobby, won't be big and professional like gnu) for 386(486) AT clones. This has been brewing since April, and is starting to get ready. I'd like any feedback on things people like/dislike in minix, as my OS resembles it somewhat (same physical layout of the file-system (due to practical reasons) among other things). I've currently ported bash(1.08) and gcc(1.40), and things seem to work. This implies that I'll get something practical within a few months [...] Yes - it's free of any minix code, and it has a multi-threaded fs. It is NOT portable (uses 386 task switching etc), and it probably never will support anything other than AT-harddisks, as that's all I have :-(.[...] It's mostly in C, but most people wouldn't call what I write C. It uses every conceivable feature of the 386 I could find, as it was also a project to teach me about the 386. As already mentioned, it uses a MMU, for both paging (not to disk yet) and segmentation. It's the segmentation that makes it REALLY 386 dependent (every task has a 64Mb segment for code & data - max 64 tasks in 4Gb. Anybody who needs more than 64Mb/task - tough cookies). [...] Some of my "C"-files (specifically mm.c) are almost as much assembler as C. [...] Unlike minix, I also happen to LIKE interrupts, so interrupts are handled without trying to hide the reason behind them. }} After that, many people contributed code to the project. By September 1991, Linux version 0.01 was released. It had 10,239 lines of code. In October 1991, Linux version 0.02 was released. In December 1991, Linux 0.11 was released. This version was the first to be self-hosted - Linux 0.11 could be compiled by a computer running Linux 0.11. When he released version 0.12 in February 1992, Torvalds adopted the GNU General Public License (GPL) over his previous self-drafted license, which did not permit commercial redistribution. A newsgroup alt.os.linux was started, and on 19 January 1992, the first post to alt.os.linux was made. On 31 March 1992, alt.os.linux became comp.os.linux. The X Window System was soon ported to Linux. In March 1992, Linux version 0.95 was the first to be capable of running X. This large version number jump (from 0.1x to 0.9x) was due to a feeling that a version 1.0 with no major missing pieces was imminent. However, this proved to be somewhat overoptimistic, and from 1993 to early 1994, 15 development versions of version 0.99 appeared. On 14 March 1994, Linux 1.0.0 was released, with 176,250 lines of code. In March 1995, Linux 1.2.0 was released (310,950 lines of code). Version 2 of Linux, released on 9 June 1996, was followed by additional major versions under the version 2 header: 25 January 1999 - Linux 2.2.0 was released (1,800,847 lines of code). 18 December 1999 - IBM mainframe patches for 2.2.13 were published, allowing Linux to be used on enterprise-class machines. 4 January 2001 - Linux 2.4.0 was released (3,377,902 lines of code). 17 December 2003 - Linux 2.6.0 was released (5,929,913 lines of code). 23 March 2009 - Linux 2.6.29 was released (11,010,647 lines of code). "Linux Kernel Data." Legal aspects Licensing terms Initially, Torvalds released Linux under a license which forbade any commercial exploitation. This was soon changed to the GNU General Public License (GPL), as of version 0.12. This license allows distribution and sale of possibly modified and unmodified versions of Linux but requires that all those copies be released under the same license and be accompanied by the complete corresponding source code. Torvalds has described licensing Linux under the GPL as the "best thing I ever did." GPL version 3 Currently, Linux is licensed only under version 2 of the GPL, with (unlike much GPL software) no option to use a later version, and there is some controversy over how easily it could be changed to use later GPL versions such as the new version 3 (and whether this is desirable). Torvalds himself specifically indicated upon the release of version 2.4.0 that his own code is only under version 2. However, the terms of the GPL state that if no version is specified, then any version may be used, and Alan Cox pointed out that very few other Linux contributors have specified a particular version of the GPL. One blogger concluded that around 40% of Linux code is specifically "GPL2 or above", and another approximately 10% is "GPL" (with no version specified), making for about half of the kernel, put together. In September of 2006, a survey of 29 key kernel programmers indicated 28 preferred GPLv2 to the then-current GPLv3 draft. Torvalds commented, "I think a number of outsiders...believed that I personally was just the odd man out, because I've been so publicly not a huge fan of the GPLv3." Loadable Kernel Modules and firmware It is debated whether Loadable Kernel Modules (LKMs) should be considered derivative works under copyright law, and thereby fall under the terms of the GPL. Torvalds has stated his belief that LKMs using only a limited, "public" subset of the kernel interfaces can sometimes be non-derived works, thus allowing some binary-only drivers and other LKMs that are not licensed under the GPL. Not all Linux contributors agree with this interpretation, however, and even Torvalds agrees that many LKMs are clearly derived works, and indeed he writes that "kernel modules ARE derivative 'by default'". On the other hand Torvalds has also said that "one gray area in particular is something like a driver that was originally written for another operating system (ie. clearly not a derived work of Linux in origin). [...] THAT is a gray area, and _that_ is the area where I personally believe that some modules may be considered to not be derived works simply because they weren't designed for Linux and don't depend on any special Linux behaviour." Re: Linux GPL and binary module exception clause? Proprietary graphics drivers, in particular, are heavily discussed. Ultimately, it is likely that such questions can only be resolved by a court. One point of licensing controversy is Linux's use of firmware "binary blobs" to support some hardware devices. Richard Stallman claims that these blobs make Linux partially non-free software, and that distributing Linux may even be violating the GPL (which requires "complete corresponding source code" to be available). Trademark Linux is a registered trademark of Linus Torvalds in the United States and some other countries. This is the result of an incident in which William Della Croce, Jr., who was not involved in the Linux project, trademarked the name and subsequently demanded royalties for its use. Several Linux backers retained legal counsel and filed suit against Della Croce, who agreed in 1998 to assign the trademark to Torvalds. SCO litigation In March 2003, the SCO Group (SCO) filed a lawsuit against IBM claiming that IBM had violated copyrights that SCO claimed to hold over the Unix source code, by contributing portions of that code to Linux. Additionally, SCO sent letters to a number of companies warning that their use of Linux without a license from SCO may be a violation of copyright law, and claimed in the press that they would be suing individual Linux users. IBM then promised to defend its Linux customers on their behalf. This controversy has generated lawsuits by SCO against Novell, DaimlerChrysler (partially dismissed in July, 2004), and AutoZone, and retaliatory lawsuits by Red Hat and others against SCO. In early 2007 SCO filed the specific details of the purported copyright infringement. Despite previous claims that SCO was the rightful owner of 1 million lines of code, they specified only 326 lines of code, most of which were uncopyrightable. Groklaw article In August 2007, the court in the Novell case ruled that SCO did not actually own the Unix copyrights to begin with. Groklaw article Technical features Linux supports true preemptive multitasking (both in user mode and kernel mode), virtual memory, shared libraries, demand loading, shared copy-on-write executables, memory management, the Internet protocol suite, and threading. Architecture Linux kernel map and bigger Interactive map Linux is a monolithic kernel. Device drivers and kernel extensions run in kernel space (ring 0 in many CPU architectures), with full access to the hardware, although some exceptions run in user space. The graphics system most people use with Linux doesn't run in the kernel, in contrast to that found in Microsoft Windows. Kernel mode preemption allows device drivers to be preempted under certain conditions. This feature was added to handle hardware interrupts correctly and improve support for symmetric multiprocessing (SMP). Preemption also improves latency, increasing responsiveness and making Linux more suitable for real-time applications. Kernel panic Kernel Panic In Linux, a "panic" is an unrecoverable system error detected by the kernel as opposed to similar errors detected by user space code. It is possible for kernel code to indicate such a condition by calling the panic function located in the header file sys/system.h. However, most panics are the result of unhandled processor exceptions in kernel code, such as references to invalid memory addresses. These are typically indicative of a bug somewhere in the call chain leading to the panic. They can also indicate a failure of hardware, such as a failed RAM cell or errors in arithmetic functions in the processor caused by a processor bug, overheating/damaged processor, or a soft error. Tanenbaum-Torvalds debate The fact that Linux is a monolithic kernel rather than a microkernel was the topic of the Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate between Andrew S. Tanenbaum and Linus Torvalds. The debate started in 1992 about Linux and kernel architecture in general on the Usenet discussion group comp.os.minix. Tanenbaum argued that microkernels are superior to monolithic kernels and that therefore Linux is obsolete. Unlike traditional monolithic kernels, device drivers are easily configured as Loadable Kernel Modules, and loaded or unloaded while running the system. This subject was revisited on 9 May 2006, and on 12 May 2006 Tanenbaum wrote a position statement. Programming languages Linux is written in the version of the C programming language supported by GCC (which has introduced a number of extensions and changes to standard C), together with a number of short sections of code written in the assembly language (in GCC's "AT&T-style" syntax) of the target architecture. Because of the extensions to C it supports, GCC was for a long time the only compiler capable of correctly building Linux. In 2004, Intel claimed to have modified the kernel so that its C compiler also was capable of compiling it. Linux kernel patch for Intel Compiler There was another such reported success in 2009 with a modified 2.6.22. http://linux.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=09/02/26/2216241 http://www.linuxjournal.com/content/linuxdna-supercharges-linux-intel-cc-compiler Many other languages are used in some way, primarily in connection with the kernel build process (the methods whereby the bootable image is created from the sources). These include Perl, Python, and various shell scripting languages. Some drivers may also be written in C++, Fortran, or other languages, but this is strongly discouraged. Linux's build system only officially supports GCC as a kernel and driver compiler. Portability iPodLinux booting Linux While not originally designed to be portable, Linux is now one of the most widely ported operating system kernels, running on a diverse range of systems from the iPAQ (a handheld computer) to the IBM System z9 (a massive mainframe server that can run hundreds or even thousands of concurrent Linux instances). Linux runs as the main operating system on IBM's Blue Gene supercomputers. , Linux is the OS on more than 87% of systems on the Top 500 supercomputers list. Also, Linux has been ported to various handheld devices such as TuxPhone and Apple's iPod. Cooperative Linux Cooperative Linux, abbreviated as coLinux, is software which allows Microsoft Windows and the Linux kernel to run simultaneously in parallel on the same machine. coLinux main website Cooperative Linux utilizes the concept of a Cooperative Virtual Machine (CVM). In contrast to traditional VMs, the CVM shares resources that already exist in the host OS. In traditional (host) VMs, resources are virtualized for every (guest) OS. The CVM gives both OSs complete control of the host machine while the traditional VM sets every guest OS in an unprivileged state to access the real machine. Virtual machine architectures See Comparison of platform virtual machines for more details on product support for Linux.See Hypervisor for more details on terminology used with virtual machines.The Linux kernel has extensive support for and runs on many virtual machine architectures both as the host operating system and as a client operating system. The virtual machines usually emulate Intel x86 family of processors, though in a few cases PowerPC or AMD processors are also emulated. Estimated cost to redevelop The cost to redevelop the Linux kernel version 2.6.0 in a traditional proprietary development setting has been estimated to be $612 million USD (€467 million euro) in 2004 prices using the COCOMO man-month estimation model. In 2006, a study funded by the European Union put the redevelopment cost of kernel version 2.6.8 higher, at €882 million euro ($1.14 billion USD). Economic impact of FLOSS on innovation and competitiveness of the EU ICT sector, Table 3 on page 50. Versions Further developing his own code and integrating changes made by other programmers, Linus Torvalds keeps releasing new versions of the Linux kernel. These are called "vanilla" kernels, meaning they have not been further modified by anyone. Many Linux operating system vendors modify the kernels of their product, mainly in order to add support for drivers or features which have not officially been released as stable, while some distributions rely on vanilla kernels. Version numbering The Linux kernel has had three different numbering schemes. Early versions: The first version of the kernel was 0.01. This was followed by 0.02, 0.03, 0.10, 0.11, 0.12 (the first GPL version), 0.95, 0.96, 0.97, 0.98, 0.99 and then 1.0. Linux Kernel Archives - Volume 1 (Riley Williams) From 0.95 on there were many patch releases between versions. The old scheme (after 1.0 and prior to version 2.6): The A number denotes the kernel version. It is rarely changed, and only when major changes in the code and the concept of the kernel occur. It has been changed twice in the history of the kernel: In 1994 (version 1.0) and in 1996 (version 2.0). The B number denotes the major revision of the kernel The kernel used the traditional even-odd system version numbering system. The C number indicates the minor revision of the kernel. This number was changed when security patches, bug fixes, new features or drivers were implemented in the kernel. After the release of 2.6.0 (Dec 2003 http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v2.6/ ) it was realized that a much shorter release cycle would be beneficial. Since then: A and B are largely irrelevant C is the version of the kernel D counts from and bug and security fixes (only) to the C version (all development occurs on release candidates—'rc') A D number first occurred when a grave error, which required immediate fixing, was encountered in 2.6.8's NFS code. However, there were not enough other changes to legitimize the release of a new minor revision (which would have been 2.6.9). So, 2.6.8.1 was released, with the only change being the fix of that error. With 2.6.11, this was adopted as the new official versioning policy. Some bug-fixes and security patches are back-ported to released kernels and managed by the fourth, D number. Development only occurs under the C number. Also, sometimes after the version there will be some more letters such as 'rc1' or 'mm2'. The 'rc' refers to release candidate and indicates a non-official pre-release. Other letters are usually (but not always) the initials of a person. This indicates a development branch of the kernel by that person. e.g. ck stands for Con Kolivas, ac stands for Alan Cox, whereas mm stood for Andrew Morton. Sometimes, the letters are related to the primary development area of the branch the kernel is built from, for example, wl indicates a wireless networking test build. Also, distributors may have different numbering systems for their own versions (appended to the official numbering, at least to C) and for back-ports to their "Enterprise" (ie, old versions) of Linux. Timeline Ref:www.kernel.org http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/ Development model The development model for Linux 2.6 was a significant change from the development model for Linux 2.5. Previously there was a stable branch (2.4) where only relatively minor and safe changes were merged, and an unstable branch (2.5), where bigger changes and cleanups were allowed. This meant that users would always have a well-tested 2.4 version with the latest security and bug fixes to use, though they would have to wait for the features which went into the 2.5 branch. The downside of this was that the "stable" kernel ended up so far behind that it no longer supported recent hardware and lacked needed features. In the late 2.5.x series kernel some maintainers elected to try and back port their changes to the stable series kernel which resulted in bugs being introduced into the 2.4.x series kernel. The 2.5 branch was then eventually declared stable and renamed to 2.6. But instead of opening an unstable 2.7 branch, the kernel developers elected to continue putting major changes into the 2.6 "stable" branch. This had the desirable effect of breaking changes into smaller and easier to test batches, making new features quickly available, and getting more testing of the latest code. However, the new 2.6 development model also meant that there was no stable branch for people just wanting security and bug fixes, and not needing the latest features. Fixes were only put into the latest version, so if a user wanted a version with all known bugs fixed they would also get all the latest features, which had not been well tested, and risked breaking things which had previously worked. A partial fix for this was the previously mentioned fourth version number digit (y in 2.6.x.y), which are series of point releases created by the stable team (Greg Kroah-Hartman, Chris Wright, maybe others). The stable team only released updates for the most recent kernel however, so this did not solve the problem of the missing stable kernel series. Linux distribution vendors, such as Red Hat and Debian, maintain the kernels which ship with their releases, so a solution for some people is to just follow a vendor kernel. As a response to the lack of a stable kernel tree where people could coordinate the collection of bug fixes, in December 2005 Adrian Bunk announced that he would keep releasing 2.6.16.y kernels when the stable team moved on to 2.6.17. http://kerneltrap.org/node/6930 He also plans to include driver updates, making the maintenance of the 2.6.16 series very similar to the old rules for maintenance of a stable series such as 2.4. http://kerneltrap.org/node/6386 In October 2008 Adrian Bunk announced that he will maintain 2.6.27 for a few years as a replacement of 2.6.16. http://marc.info/?l=linux-kernel&m=122375909403298&w=2 As of 2009-04-04, the latest stable kernel version is 2.6.29. http://kernel.org/ In February 2008, the developers also responded to the lack of what one might call an unstable kernel tree - the linux-next tree was created to serve as a place where patches aimed to be merged during the next development cycle are gathered. http://lwn.net/Articles/269120/ Maintenance While Linus Torvalds supervises code changes and releases to the latest kernel versions, he has delegated the maintenance of older versions to other programmers. Major releases as old as 2.0 (officially obsoleted with the kernel 2.2.0 release in January 1999) are maintained as needed, although at a very slow pace. Kernel series Current version Maintainer 2.0 2.0.40 David Weinehall 2.2 2.2.27-rc2 Marc-Christian Petersen (former maintainer Alan Cox) 2.4 2.4.37.1 Willy Tarreau (former maintainer Marcelo Tosatti) 2.6.16 2.6.16.62 Adrian Bunk 2.6.x (current only) (releases every three months) Linus Torvalds 2.6.x-linux-next latest development version 2.6.x-mm (changes rapidly) Andrew Morton Other Linux kernel programmers include Robert Love and Ingo Molnár. See the Linux MAINTAINERS file. Revision control The Linux kernel source code used to be maintained without the help of an automated source code management system, mostly because of Linus Torvalds' dislike of centralized SCM systems. In 2002, Linux kernel development switched to BitKeeper, a SCM system which satisfied Linus Torvalds' technical requirements. BitKeeper was made available to Linus and several others free of charge, but was not free software, which was a source of controversy. The system did provide some interoperability with free SCM systems such as CVS and Subversion. In April 2005, however, efforts to reverse-engineer the BitKeeper system by Andrew Tridgell led BitMover, the company which maintained BitKeeper, to stop supporting the Linux development community. In response, Linus Torvalds and others wrote a new source code control system for the purpose, called Git. The new system was written within weeks, and in two months the first official kernel release was made using git . Git soon developed into a separate project in its own right and gained wider adoption in the free software community. Stable version history There were two major stable versions of the 1.x Linux kernel: 1.0 and 1.2. Version 1.0 of the Linux kernel was released on 14 March 1994 Kernel 1.0 Source Code Release (last checked 2008-10-27) This release of the Linux kernel only supported single-processor i386-based computer systems. Portability became a concern, and so version 1.2 (released 7 March 1995 Kernel 1.2 Source Code Release (last checked 2008-10-27) ) gained support for computer systems based on the DEC Alpha, SPARC, and MIPS architectures. This was the last stable release in the 1.x series of the Linux kernel. Version 2.x of the Linux kernel has seen a great number of changes, notably in the 2.6 series and how it is now developed, maintained, and released. Versions 2.0, 2.2, and 2.4 were done using the old system of development wherein each one of the kernels were a stable release tree that was based on previous development. Version 2.0 was released 9 June 1996 Kernel 2.0.x Source Code Releases (last checked 2008-10-27) . There were 41 releases in the series. The major feature of 2.0 was SMP support (that is, support for multiple processors in a single system) and support for more types of processors. Version 2.2 (released 26 January 1999 Kernel 2.2.x Source Code Releases (last checked 2008-10-27 ) removed the global spinlock and provided improved SMP support, and added support for the m68k and PowerPC architectures as well as new filesystems (including read-only support for Microsoft’s NTFS filesystem). The Wonderful World of Linux 2.2 (last checked 2008-10-27) Development for 2.4.x changed a bit in that more features were made available throughout the duration of the series. Version 2.4.0, released on 4 January 2001, Kernel 2.4.x Source Code Releases (last checked 2008-10-27) contained support for ISA Plug and Play, USB, and PC Cards. The Wonderful World of Linux 2.4 (last checked 2008-10-27) It also included support for the PA-RISC processor from Hewlett-Packard. Throughout the 2.4.x series new features were added including: support for Bluetooth, Logical Volume Manager (LVM) version 1, RAID support, InterMezzo and ext3 filesystems. With the coming of 2.6.x of the Linux kernel, the versioning has changed such that there can now be four numbers to the kernel version, giving releases the format of 2.6.x.y (where .y is optional). Features are now added between x releases, and y releases usually consist of bugfixes. Version 2.6.0 was released on 18 December 2003. Kernel 2.6.x.y Source Code Releases (last checked 2008-10-27) The 2.6 series of kernels is still the active series of stable kernels as of 1 January 2009. Among the changes that have been made in the 2.6 series are: integration of µClinux into the mainline kernel sources, PAE support, support for several new lines of CPUs, integration of ALSA into the mainline kernel sources, support for up to 232 users (up from 216), support for up to 229 process IDs (up from 215), substantially increased the number of device types and the number of devices of each type, improved 64-bit support, support for filesystems of up to 16 terabytes, in-kernel preemption, support for the Native POSIX Thread Library, User-mode Linux integration into the mainline kernel sources, SELinux integration into the mainline kernel sources, Infiniband support, and considerably more. Also notable are the addition of several filesystems throughout the 2.6.x releases: FUSE, JFS, XFS, ext4 and more. Details on the history of the 2.6 kernel series can be found in the ChangeLog files on the 2.6 kernel series source code release area of kernel.org. Kernel resources Kernel items Kernel items are functions, variables, header files, and macros. Linux Device Drivers, 2nd Edition: Chapter 2: Building and Running Modules Kernel headers Kernel headers are C header files which provide some definitions of the low-level kernel ABI, to be shared between the kernel and userspace programs. Most userspace programs should not include kernel headers; they are only intended to be used directly by system libraries and low-level tools and daemons. Gmane Loom The "make headers_install" command, when executed in the kernel's source tree, exports the kernel's header files in a form suitable for use by userspace programs. Linux Kernel Documentation :: make : headers_install.txt When exported, most kernel headers reside in the /usr/include/asm and /usr/include/linux directories. See also Git (software) GNU Operating System Ksplice - Linux Kernel Update invented by Massachusetts Institute of Technology List of Linux kernel names menuconfig, an ncurses-based target for the Linux kernel Makefile Modprobe System.map User space References (audio tape, abridged ed., read by David Diamond) - on the beginnings of the Linux kernel Nikolai Bezroukov, Portraits of Open Source Pioneers. Ch 4: A benevolent dictator (Softpanorama e-book). FreeBSD/Linux kernel source code cross-reference. Browsable Linux (and other operating system) kernel source cross-reference. LXR: The Linux Cross-Reference project. Browsable Linux kernel source. KernelHQ - a browsable kernel source tree - with all'' versions present, and with browsable diffs The LWN 2001 Linux Timeline Everyone's Favorite Linux Mascot Linux Timeline History of Linux Upgrade to 2.6 kernel The Wonderful World of Linux 2.6; Joseph Pranevich; December 2003 Understanding the Linux 2.6.8.1 CPU Scheduler; Josh Aas, 17 February 2005 LinuxChanges Seminar Paper on Linux Kernel 2.6 Linux Device Drivers, 3rd Edition Understanding the Linux Kernel, 3rd Edition (Book) Linux: The GPL And Binary Modules Anatomy of the Linux kernel External links Linux Kernel Archives, the official kernel repository Kernel Newbies Site - Excellent source of information for people new to kernel Linus' kernel tree for 2.6 An article about kernel memory management internals | Linux_kernel |@lemmatized linux:128 kernel:140 operating:9 system:43 use:25 family:2 unix:3 like:6 readme:1 operate:7 term:4 distribution:4 refer:1 various:3 run:13 top:2 release:57 gnu:7 general:4 public:4 license:13 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2,276 | Hebrew_calendar | The Hebrew calendar ( ha'luach ha'ivri) or Jewish calendar is a lunisolar calendar used by Jews and the followers of Judaism, now predominantly for religious purposes. It is used to reckon the Jewish New Year and dates for Jewish holidays, and also to determine appropriate public reading of Torah portions, Yahrzeits (dates to commemorate the death of a relative), and daily Psalm reading, among many ceremonial uses. Originally the Hebrew calendar was used by Jews for all daily purposes. Following the conquest of Jerusalem by Pompey in 63 BCE (see also Iudaea province), Jews began additionally following the imperial civil calendar (which was decreed in 45 BCE) for civic matters such as the payment of taxes and dealings with government officials. The principles of the Hebrew calendar are found in the Torah, which contains several calendar-related commandments, including God's commandment during the Exodus from Egypt to fix the month of Aviv as the first month of the year. Exodus 12:2 The Babylonian exile in the 6th century BCE influenced the calendar, including the adoption of Babylonian names for the months. The Babylonians also employed a lunisolar calendar derived from the Sumerian calendar. During Temple times and through the Tannaitic period, the Hebrew calendar was observational, with the beginning of each month determined by the high court based on the testimony of witnesses who had observed a new crescent moon. Periodically, the court ordered an extra month added to keep Passover in the spring, again based on observation of natural events. Through the Amoraic period and into the Geonic period, the purely empirical calendar was displaced by calendrical rules, which finally became systematically arranged into a computed calendar. The principles and rules of the current calendar are fully described by Maimonides in the Mishneh Torah. Because of the roughly eleven-day difference between twelve lunar months and one solar year, the year lengths of the Hebrew calendar vary in a repeating 19-year Metonic cycle of 235 lunar months, with an intercalary lunar month added according to defined rules every two or three years, for a total of 7 times per 19 years. Seasonal references in the Hebrew calendar reflect its development in the region east of the Mediterranean Sea and the times and climate of the Northern Hemisphere. The Hebrew calendar's year is longer by about 6 minutes and 25+25/57 seconds than the present-day mean solar year, so that every 224 years, the Hebrew calendar will fall a full day behind the modern fixed solar year, and about every 231 years it will fall a full day behind the Gregorian calendar year. Years in the Hebrew calendar are labeled with the era designation Anno Mundi (Latin for "in the year of the world"), abbreviated AM and A.M., and are numbered from the epoch that, by Rabbinical reckoning, is a year before the date of Creation. Early 2009 corresponds to Hebrew year 5769; the Hebrew year 5770 will begin at sundown on the evening of 18 September 2009. Structure The Jewish calendar is a lunisolar calendar, or "fixed lunar year," based on twelve lunar months of twenty-nine or thirty days, with an intercalary lunar month added seven times every nineteen years (once every two to three years) to synchronize the twelve lunar cycles with the slightly longer solar year. Each Jewish lunar month starts with the new moon. Although originally the new lunar crescent had to be observed and certified by witnesses, the timing of the new moon is now determined mathematically. Concurrently there is a weekly cycle of seven days, mirroring the seven-day period of the Book of Genesis in which the world is created. The names for the days of the week, like those in the Creation story, are simply the day number within the week, with Shabbat being the seventh day. The Jewish day always runs from sunset to the next sunset; the formal adjustments used to specify a standard time and time zones are not relevant to the Jewish calendar. The twelve regular months are: Nisan (30 days), Iyar (29 days), Sivan (30 days), Tammuz (29 days), Av (30 days), Elul (29 days), Tishrei (30 days), Cheshvan (29 or 30 days), Kislev (29 or 30 days), Tevet (29 days), Shevat (30 days), and Adar (29 days). In the leap years an additional month, Adar I (30 days) is added after Shevat, and the regular Adar is referred to as "Adar II". The first month of the festival year is Nisan. The 15th of Nisan is the start of the festival of Pesach, corresponding to the full moon of Nisan. Pesach is a spring festival associated with the barley harvest, Josephus, Antiquities 3.248-251, Loeb Classical Library, 1930, pp. 437-438. so the leap-month mentioned above is intercalated periodically to keep this festival in the northern hemisphere's spring season. Since the adoption of a fixed calendar, intercalations in the Hebrew calendar have been at fixed points in a 19-year cycle. Prior to this, the intercalation was determined empirically:The year may be intercalated on three grounds: 'aviv [i.e.the ripeness of barley], fruits of trees, and the equinox. On two of these grounds it should be intercalated, but not on one of them alone. Tosefta Sanhedrin 2.2, Herbert Danby, Trans., Tractate Sanhedrin Mishnah and Tosefta, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London and New York, 1919, p. 31. Also quoted in Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community: A History of the Jewish Calendar Second Century BCE-Tenth Century CE, Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 70. The Bible designates Nisan, which it calls Aviv (), as the first month of the year (). At the same time, the season of the fall Festival of Booths (Sukkoth), is called "the end of the year" (). The Sabbatical year in which the land was to lie fallow, necessarily began at the time the winter barley and winter wheat would have been sown, in the fall. The Gezer calendar, an Israelite or Canaanite inscription ca. 900 BCE, also begins in the fall. And Josephus, in the first century CE, states that while Moses...appointed Nisan...as the first month for the festivals...the commencement of the year for everything relating to divine worship, but for selling and buying and other ordinary affairs he preserved the ancient order [i. e. the year beginning with Tishrei]." Josephus, Antiquities 1.81, Loeb Classical Library, 1930. So a multiplicity of new years for different purposes has long been in use. By the time of the redaction of the Mishnah (ca. 200 CE), jurists had identified four new-year datesThe 1st of Nisan is the new year for kings and feasts; the 1st of Elul is the new year for the tithe of cattle... the 1st of Tishri is the new year for years, of the years of release and jubilee years, for the planting and for vegetables; and the 1st of Shevat is the new year for trees-so the school of Shammai; and the school of Hillel say: On the 15th thereof. M. Rosh Hashanah 1, in Herbert Danby, trans., The Mishnah, Oxford University Press, 1933, p. 188. Modern practice follows the scheme described in the Mishnah: Rosh Hashanah, which means "the head of the year", and is celebrated in the month of Tishrei, is "the new year for years." This is when the numbered year changes, and most Jews today view Tishrei as the de facto beginning of the year. The 15th of Shevat, the New Year of the Trees, has become a popular minor holiday in recent decades. Sources and history The Torah contains several commandments related to the keeping of the calendar and the lunar cycle. Day For smaller units of time, see Measurement of hours below. The Jewish day is of no fixed length. The Jewish day is modeled on the reference to "...there was evening and there was morning..." , , , , , and . in the Creation story. Accordingly, it runs from sunset (start of "the evening") to the next sunset. However, some apply special rules at very high latitudes when the sun remains above or below the horizon for longer than a civil day. "In higher latitudes, where during the summer the sun does not sink below the horizon, and during the winter does not rise above it, the days are counted in summer from midday., i.e., from one upper crossing of the meridian by the sun to the next crossing; in the winter, from midnight to midnight, i.e., from one lower crossing of the meridian by the sun to the next," Entry "Calendar" in The Jewish Encyclopedia Volume 3, Funk and Wagnalls, New York, 1916. There is no clock in the Jewish scheme, so that a civil clock is used. Though the civil clock incorporates local adoptions of various conventions such as time zones, standard times and daylight saving, these have no place in the Jewish scheme. The civil clock is used only as a reference point - in expressions such as: "Shabbat starts at ...". The steady progression of sunset around the world and seasonal changes results in gradual civil time changes from one day to the next based on observable astronomical phenomena (the sunset) and not on man-made laws and conventions. Instead of the international date line convention, the antimeridian of Jerusalem is used. (Jerusalem is 35°13’ east of the prime meridian, so the antimeridian is at 144°47' W, passing through eastern Alaska.) Weeks A bronze Shabbat candlestick holder made in Israel in the 1940s. The Hebrew calendar follows a seven-day weekly cycle, which runs concurrently but independently of the monthly and annual cycles. The names for the days of the week are simply the day number within the week. In Hebrew, these names may be abbreviated using the numerical value of the Hebrew letters, for example יום א׳ (Day 1, or Yom Rishon (): Yom Rishon (יום ראשון), abbreviated יום א׳ = "first day" = Sunday Yom Sheni (יום שני), abbr. יום ב׳ = "second day" = Monday Yom Shlishi (יום שלישי), abbr. יום ג׳ = "third day" = Tuesday Yom Reviʻi (יום רבעי), abbr. יום ד׳ = "fourth day" = Wednesday Yom Chamishi (יום חמישי), abbr. יום ה׳ = "fifth day" = Thursday Yom Shishi (יום ששי), abbr. יום ו׳ = "sixth day" = Friday Yom Shabbat (יום שבת or more usually שבת - Shabbat), abbr. יום ש׳ = "Sabbath day (Rest day)" = Saturday The names of the days of the week are modeled on the seven days mentioned in the Creation story. For example, "... And there was evening and there was morning, one day". "One day" also translates to "first day" or "day one". Similarly, see , , , , and . The Jewish Shabbat has a special place in the Jewish weekly cycle. There are many special rules which relate to the Shabbat, discussed more fully in the Talmudic tractate "Shabbat". In Hebrew, the word "Shabbat" (שַׁבָּת) can also mean "(Talmudic) week", For example, according to Morfix מילון מורפיקס, Morfix Dictionary, which is based upon Prof. Yaakov Choeka's Rav Milim dictionary. But the word meaning a non-Talmudic week is שָׁבוּע (shavuʻa), according to the same "מילון מורפיקס". so that in ritual liturgy a phrase like "Yom Reviʻi bəShabbat" means "the fourth day in the week". For example, when referring to the daily psalm recited in the morning prayer (Shacharit). Importance of Lunar Months stresses the importance of the new moon and consequently lunar months, "... in your new moons, ye shall blow with the trumpets over your burnt-offerings," Numbers 10:10. . Similarly in . In his work Mishneh Torah, of 1178, Maimonides included a chapter "Sanctification of the New Moon," in which he discusses the calendrical rules and their scriptural basis. He notes, "By how much does the solar year exceed the lunar year? By approximately 11 days. Therefore, whenever this excess accumulates to about 30 days, or a little more or less, one month is added and the particular year is made to consist of 13 months, and this is the so-called embolismic (intercalated) year. For the year could not consist of twelve months plus so-and-so many days, since it is said: throughout the months of the year (), which implies that we should count the year by months and not by days." Sanctification of the New Moon. Translated from the Hebrew by Solomon Gandz; supplemented, introduced, and edited by Julian Obermann; with an astronomical commentary by Otto Neugebauer. Yale Judaica Series, Volume 11, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1956 Months Mosaic pavement of a zodiac in the 6th century synagogue at Beit Alpha, Israel. Biblical references to the pre-Jewish calendar include ten months identified by number rather than by name. In parts of the Torah portion Noach (Noah) (specifically, , , ) it is implied that the months are thirty days long. says "... on the seventeenth day of the second month—on that day all the springs of the great deep burst forth..." and say "...At the end of the hundred and fifty days the water had gone down, (4) and on the seventeenth day of the seventh month the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat..." There is an interval of 5 months and 150 days, making each month 30 days long. There is no indication as to the total number of months in the annual cycle. In the parts of the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) prior to the Babylonian exile, only four months are named: Aviv (first; literally "spring", which originally probably meant "the ripening of barley"), Ziv (second; literally "light"), Ethanim (literally "strong" in plural, perhaps referring to strong rains) : seventh month; and Bul : eighth month. All of these are Canaanite names, and at least two are Phoenician (Northern Canaanite). According to the Book of Exodus, the first commandment the Jewish people received as a nation was to determine the new moon: states, "This month [Nisan] is for you the first of months." refers to a specific month: "Observe the month of Aviv (HE: spring), and keep the passover unto the LORD thy God; for in the month of Aviv the LORD thy God brought thee forth out of Egypt by night." During the Babylonian exile, which started in 586 BCE, Jews adopted Babylonian names for the months, which are still in use. The Babylonian calendar also used a lunisolar calendar, derived from the Sumerian calendar. Hebrew names and romanized transliteration may somewhat differ, as they do for חשוון / Marheshvan or כסלו / Kislev: the Hebrew words shown here are those commonly indicated e.g. in newspapers. The Syrian calendar used in the Levant countries shares many of the same names for months as the Hebrew calendar, such as Nisan, Iyyar, Tammuz, Ab, Elul, Tishri, and Adar. In a short (chaser) year, both Cheshvan and Kislev have 29 days. In a regular (kesidran) year, Cheshvan has 29 days and Kislev has 30 days. In a full (maleh) year, both Cheshvan and Kislev have 30 days. The calendar rules have been designed to ensure that Rosh Hashanah does not fall on a Sunday, Wednesday or Friday. This is to ensure that Yom Kippur does not directly precede or follow Shabbat, which would create practical difficulties, and that Hoshana Rabbah is not on a Shabbat, in which case certain ceremonies would be lost for a year. Leap months The solar year is about eleven days longer than twelve lunar months. The Bible does not directly mention the addition of "embolismic" or intercalary months. However, without the insertion of embolismic months, Jewish festivals would gradually shift outside of the seasons required by the Torah. This has been ruled as implying a requirement for the insertion of embolismic months to reconcile the lunar cycles to the seasons, which are integral to solar yearly cycles. When the observational form of the calendar was in use, whether or not an embolismic month was announced after the "last month" (Adar) depended on whether "the barley was ripe". It may be noted that in the Bible the name of the first month, Aviv, literally means "spring" but originally it probably meant "the ripening of barley". Thus, if Adar was over and the barley was not yet ripe, an additional month was observed. However, according to some traditions, the announcement of the month of Aviv could also be postponed depending on the condition of roads used by families to come to Jerusalem for Passover, adequate numbers of lambs to be sacrificed at the Temple, and on the ripeness of the barley that was needed for the first fruits ceremony. Under the codified rules, the Jewish calendar is based on the Metonic cycle of 19 years, of which 12 are common years (12 months) and 7 leap years (13 months). The leap years are years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 of the Metonic cycle. Year 19 (there is no year 0) of the Metonic cycle is a year exactly divisible by 19 (when the Jewish year number, when divided by 19, has no remainder). In the same manner, the remainder of the division indicates the year in the Metonic cycle (years 1 to 18) the year is in. During leap years, a month, Adar II is added before Nisan. During leap years Adar I (or Adar Aleph — "first Adar") is actually considered to be the extra month, and has 30 days. Adar II (or Adar Bet — "second Adar") is the "real" Adar, and has the usual 29 days. For this reason, during a leap year, holidays such as Purim are observed in Adar II, not Adar I. New year A shofar made from a ram's horn is traditionally blown in observance of Rosh Hashanah, the beginning of the Jewish civic year. The Jewish year has four distinct starting points, according to the Mishnah, Rosh Hashanah 1:1: The day most commonly referred to as the "New Year" is the first of Tishrei, when the formal New Year festival, Rosh Hashanah ("head of the year") is observed. (see , which uses the phrase "beginning of the year".) This is the beginning of the civil year, and the point at which the year number advances. Certain agricultural practices are also marked from this date. See Maaser Rishon, Maaser Sheni, Maaser Ani. However, the first month of the year as prescribed in is Aviv: "This month shall be to you the beginning of months". This means that the civil new year, Rosh Hashanah, actually begins in the seventh month of the year. The month of Elul is the new year for counting animal tithes (ma'aser). Tu Bishvat ("the 15th of Shevat") marks the new year for trees (and agricultural tithes). There may be an echo here of a controversy in the Talmud about whether the world was created in Tishrei or Nisan; it was determined that the answer is Tishrei, and this is now reflected in the prayers on Rosh Hashanah. The Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Book Three, Treatise Eight: Sanctification of the New Moon. Translated by Solomon Gandz. Yale Judaica Series Volume XI, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1956. The use of multiple starting dates for a year is comparable to different starting dates for civil "calendar years", "tax or fiscal years", "academic years", "religious cycles", etc. Epoch The Jewish calendar's reference point is traditionally held to be about one year before the Creation of the world. Since about the third century CE, the Jewish calendar has used a calendar era anno mundi ("in the year of the world"), abbreviated AM. The beginning of "year 1" is not Creation, but about one year before Creation. This caused the new moon of its first month (Tishrei) to be called molad tohu (the mean new moon of chaos or nothing). The Jewish calendar's epoch (reference date), 1 Tishrei 1 AM, is equivalent to Monday, October 7 3761 BCE in the proleptic Julian calendar, the equivalent tabular date (same daylight period) and is about one year before the traditional Jewish date of Creation on 25 Elul AM 1, based upon the Seder Olam Rabbah of Rabbi Yossi ben Halafta, a second century CE sage. A minority opinion places Creation on 25 Adar AM 1, six months earlier, or six months after the modern epoch. Thus, adding 3760 before Rosh Hashanah or 3761 after to a Julian or Gregorian year number after 1 CE will yield the Hebrew year. For earlier years there may be a discrepancy (see: "Missing Years" in the Hebrew Calendar). The Jewish year starting on Rosh Hashanah, 1 Tishrei, 5769 AM is equivalent to 29 September 2008. Karaite calendar For several centuries, many Karaites, especially those outside Israel, followed the calculated Rabbinical calendar used by Jews for the sake of convenience. However, in recent years most Karaites have chosen to again follow the observational method. Karaites use the lunar month and the solar year, but the Karaite calendar differs from the Rabbinical calendar in a number of ways. For Karaites, the beginning of each month, the Rosh Chodesh, can be calculated, but is confirmed by the observation in Israel of the first sightings of the new moon. The Karaite Korner: The New Moon in the Hebrew Bible This may result in an occasional variation of a maximum of one day, depending on the inability to observe the new moon. The day is usually "picked up" in the next month. The addition of the leap month (Adar II) is determined by observing in Israel the ripening of barley (called aviv), The Karaite Korner: Aviv (Barley) rather than using the calculated and fixed calendar of Rabbinic Judaism. Occasionally this results in Karaites being one month ahead of Jews using the calculated Rabbinic calendar. The "lost" month would be "picked up" in the next cycle when Karaites would observe a leap month while other Jews would not. Furthermore, the seasonal drift of the Rabbinical calendar is avoided, resulting in the years affected by the drift starting one month earlier in the Karaite calendar. Also, the four rules of postponement of the Rabbinical calendar are not applied, as they are not found in the Tanakh. This affects the dates observed for all the Jewish holidays by one day. Change to a calculated calendar Observational principles A stone (2.43x1 m) with Hebrew inscription "To the Trumpeting Place" is believed to be a part of the Second Temple. Persian period: evidence of the papyri Calendrical evidence for the postexilic Persian period is found in papyri from the Jewish colony at Elephantine, in Egypt. These documents show that the Jewish community of Elephantine used the Egyptian and Babylonian calendars. Sacha Stern, "The Babylonian Calendar at Elephantine", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 130 , 159–171(2000). Lester L. Grabbe, A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period, Volume 1: Yehud: A History of the Persian Province of Judah, T&T Clark, London, 2004, p. 186. Later postexilic period: evidence of the Mishnah In the Maccabean, Herodian, and Mishnaic periods, according to the evidence of the Mishnah and Tosefta, the Hebrew calendar operated on an observational basis. The beginning of each lunar month was decided on the basis of two eye witnesses testifying to the Sanhedrin to having seen the new lunar crescent at sunset. M. Rosh Hashanah 1.7 Patriarch Gamaliel II (c. 100) would ask the witnesses to select the appearance of the moon from a collection of drawings that depicted the crescent in a variety of orientations, only a few of which could be valid in any given month. M. Rosh Hashanah 2.6-8 These observations were compared against calculations. b. Rosh Hashanah 20b: "This is what Abba the father of R. Simlai meant: 'We calculate the new moon's birth. If it is born before midday, then certainly it will have been seen shortly before sunset. If it was not born before midday, certainly it will not have been seen shortly before sunset.' What is the practical value of this remark? R. Ashi said: Confuting the witnesses." I. Epstein, Ed., The Babylonian Talmud Seder Mo'ed, Soncino Press, London, 1938, p. 85. When thirty days elapsed since the last new moon, the witnesses were readily believed. At first the beginning of each Jewish month was signaled to the communities of Israel and beyond by fires lit on mountaintops, but after the Samaritans began to light false fires, messengers were sent. M. Rosh Hashanah 2.2 The inability of the messengers to reach communities outside Israel before mid-month High Holy Days (Succot and Passover) led outlying communities to celebrate scriptural festivals for two days rather than one, observing the second feast-day of the Jewish diaspora because of uncertainty of whether the previous month ended after 29 or 30 days. b. Betzah 4b Evaluation of the Mishnaic evidence It has been noted Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community, Oxford University Press, 2001, pp. 162ff. that the procedures described in the Mishnah and Tosefta are all plausible procedures for regulating an empirical lunar calendar. Fire-signals, for example, or smoke-signals, are known from the pre-exilic Lachish ostraca. James B. Pritchard, ed., The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, Vol. 1, Princeton University Press, p. 213. Furthermore, the Mishnah contains laws that reflect the uncertainties of an empirical calendar. Mishnah Sanhedrin, for example, holds that when one witness holds that an event took place on a certain day of the month, and another that the same event took place on the following day, their testimony can be held to agree, since the length of the preceding month was uncertain. M. Sanhedrin 5.3: "If one testifies, 'on the second of the month, and the other, 'on the third of the month:' their evidence is valid, for one may have been aware of the intercalation of the month and the other may not have been aware of it. But if one says, 'on the third', and the other 'on the fifth', their evidence is invalid." Another Mishnah takes it for granted that it cannot be known in advance whether a year's lease is for twelve of thirteen months. M. Baba Metzia 8.8. Hence it is a reasonable conclusion that the Mishnaic calendar was actually used in the Mishnaic period. The accuracy of the Mishnah's claim that the Mishnaic calendar was also used in the late 2nd temple period is less certain. One scholar has noted Solomon Gandz, "The origin of the Two New Moon Days", Jewish Quarterly Review (New Series), v. 40, 1949-50. Reprinted in Shlomo Sternberg, ed., Studies in Hebrew Astronomy and Mathematics by Solomon Gandz, KTAV, New York, 1970, pp. 72-73. that there are no laws from Second Temple period sources that indicate any doubts about the length of a month or of a year. This led him to propose that the priests must have had some form of computed calendar or calendrical rules that allowed them to know in advance whether a month would have 30 or 29 days, and whether a year would have 12 or 13 months. Epoch year One notable difference between the calendar of that era and the modern form was the date of the epoch (the fixed reference point at the beginning of year 1), which at that time was one year later than the epoch of the modern calendar. Most of the present rules of the calendar appear to have been in place by about 820, according to a treatise by the Muslim astronomer Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Ḵwārizmī (c. 780-850 CE) a Persian polymath noted for his contributions to Islamic mathematics, astronomy, astrology and geography. Al-Khwārizmī's study of the Jewish calendar, "Extraction of the Jewish Era" describes the 19-year intercalation cycle, the rules for determining on what day of the week the first day of the month Tishrī shall fall, the interval between the Jewish era (creation of Adam) and the Seleucid era, and the rules for determining the mean longitude of the sun and the moon using the Jewish calendar. In 921, Aaron ben Meir proposed changes to the calendar. Though the proposals were rejected, it indicates that all of the rules of the modern calendar (except for the epoch) were in place before that date. In 1000, the Muslim chronologist al-Biruni described all of the modern rules of the Hebrew calendar, except that he specified three different epochs used by various Jewish communities being one, two, or three years later than the modern epoch. See The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries. Modern Calendar In Rome the Arch of Titus still stands, depicting the enslaved Judeans and objects from the Temple being brought to Rome. Between 70 CE and 1178 CE, the observation based calendar was replaced by a mathematically calculated one. Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community. Except for the epoch year number, the calendar rules reached their current form before 820 or 921. There is a tradition, first mentioned by Hai Gaon (d.1038 CE), that Hillel b. R. Yehuda "in the year 670 of the Seleucid era" (i.e. 358-359 CE) was responsible for the new calculated calendar with a fixed intercalation cycle. Later writers, such as Nachmanides, explained Hai Gaon's words to mean that the entire computed calendar was due to Hillel b. Yehuda. Maimonides, in the 12th century, stated that the Mishnaic calendar was used "until the days of Abaye and Rava", who flourished ca. 320-350 CE, and that the change came when "the land of Israel was destroyed, and no permanent court was left." Taken together, these two traditions suggest that Hillel b. Yehuda (whom they identify with the mid-4th century Jewish patriarch Ioulos, attested in a letter of the Emperor Julian Julian, Letter 25, in John Duncombe, Select Works of the Emperor Julian and some Pieces of the Sophist Libanius, Vol. 2, Cadell, London, 1784, pp. 57-62. , and the Jewish patriarch Ellel, mentioned by Epiphanius Epiphanius, Adversus Haereses 30.4.1, in Frank Williams, trans., The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis Book I (Sects 1-46), Leiden, E. J.Brill, 1987, p. 122. ) instituted the computed Hebrew Calendar because of persecution. H. Graetz attempted H. Graetz, Popular History of the Jews, (A. B. Rhine, trans.,) Hebrew Publishing Company, New York, 1919, Vol. II, pp. 410-411. Quoted in Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community, p. 216. to link the introduction of the computed calendar to a sharp repression following a failed Jewish insurrection that occurred during the rule of Constantius and Gallus. A later writer, S. Lieberman, argued S Lieberman, "Palestine in the 3rd and 4th Centuries", Jewish Quarterly Review, New Series 36, pp. 329-370(1946). Quoted in Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community, pp. 216-217. instead that the introduction of the fixed calendar was due to measures taken by Roman authorities to prevent the Jewish patriarch from sending calendrical messengers. Both the tradition that Hillel b. Yehuda instituted the complete computed calendar, and the theory that the computed calendar was introduced due to repression or persecution, have been questioned. Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community: A History of the Jewish Calendar Second Century BCE-Tenth Century CE, Oxford University Press, 2001. In particular section 5.1.1, discussion of the "Persecution theory." Samuel Poznanski, "Ben Meir and the Origin of the Jewish Calendar", Jewish Quarterly Review, Original Series, Vol. 10, pp. 152-161(1898). "While it is not unreasonable to attribute to Hillel II the fixing of the regular order of intercalations, his full share in the present fixed calendar is doubtful". Entry "Calendar", Encyclopedia Judaica, Keter, Jerusalem, 1971. Furthermore, Jewish dates during post-Talmudic times (specifically in 506 and 776) are inconsistent with those given in other calendars, a possible solution being that the arithmetic rules of the modern calendar were developed in Babylonia during the times of the Geonim (seventh to eighth centuries), under the Abbasid Caliphate. The Babylonian rules required the delay of the first day of Tishrei when the new moon occurred after noon. The Talmuds do, however, indicate at least the beginnings of a transition from a purely empirical to a computed calendar. According to a statement attributed to Yose, an Amora who lived during the second half of the third century, the feast of Purim, 14 Adar, could not fall on a Sabbath nor a Monday, lest 10 Tishrei (Yom Kippur) fall on a Friday or a Sunday. Yerushalmi Megillah 70b. This indicates that, by the time of the redaction of the Jerusalem Talmud (ca. 400 CE), there were a fixed number of days in all months from Adar to Elul, also implying that the extra month was already a second Adar added before the regular Adar. In another passage, a sage is reported to have counseled "those who make the computations" not to set the first day of Tishrei or the Day of the Willow on the sabbath. Yerushalmi Sukkah 54b. This indicates that there was a group which "made computations" and was in a position to control, to some extent, the weekday on which Rosh Hashanah would fall. Practice Outside of Rabbinic circles, the evidence shows a diversity of Jewish practice. The Sardica paschal table shows that the Jewish community of some eastern city, possibly Antioch, used a calendrical scheme that kept Nisan 14 within the limits of the Julian month of March Eduard Schwartz, Christliche und jüdische Ostertafeln, (Abhandlungen der königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. Philologisch-Historische Klasse. Neue Folge, Band viii, Berlin, 1905. . Some of the dates in the document are clearly corrupt, but they can be emended to make the sixteen years in the table consistent with a regular intercalation scheme. Peter, the bishop of Alexandria (early 4th century CE), mentions that the Jews of his city "hold their Passover according to the course of the moon in the month of Phamenoth, or according to the intercalary month every third year in the month of Pharmuthi" Peter of Alexandria, quoted in the Chronicon Paschale. Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae, Chronicon Paschale Vol. 1, Weber, Bonn, 1832, p. 7 , suggesting a fairly consistent intercalation scheme that kept Nisan 14 approximately between the Phamenoth 10 (March 6 in the 4th century CE) and Pharmuthi 10 (April 5). Jewish funerary inscriptions from Zoar, south of the Dead Sea, dated from the 3rd to the 5th century CE, indicate that when years were intercalated, the intercalary month was at least sometimes a repeated month of Adar. But the inscriptions reveal no clear pattern of regular intercalations, nor do they indicate any consistent rule for determining the start of the lunar month. Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community, pp. 87-97, 146-153. In 1178, Maimonides included all the rules for the calculated calendar and their scriptural basis, including the modern epochal year in his work, Mishneh Torah. The rules quoted in Maimonides' code are those used throughout the Jewish world today. Principles Measurement of month Synodic month A synodic month is the period between two lunar conjunctions, such as between two new moons. Since the actual length of a synodic month varies by several hours from month to month, the calendar is based on a long-term average length called the mean synodic month. The virtual lunar conjunctions at the start of each mean synodic month are called molads. The mean synodic month used in the Hebrew calendar is exactly 765433/25920 days, or 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 parts (44+1/18 minutes) (ie 29.5306 days). This interval exactly matches the mean synodic month determined by the Babylonians before 250 BCE Neugebauer, Astronomical cuneiform texts, Vol 1, pp 271-273 and as adopted by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus and the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy. Its remarkable accuracy (less than one second from the true value) is thought to have been achieved using records of lunar eclipses from the eighth to fifth centuries BCE. G. J. Toomer, Hipparcus' Empirical Basis for his Lunar Mean Motions, Centaurus, Vol 24, 1980, pp. 97-109 Traditional new moon A "new moon" is the day on which the first visible crescent of the moon is observed. It occurs 29 or 30 days after the preceding visible crescent and traditionally signaled the start of a Jewish lunar month. Combining the observation method with the scientific lunar month length works as follows. Assume one begins at a particular new month of 29 days. As the mean lunar month is 29.5306 days long, there would be a carry forward into the next month of 0.5306 days (ie 12 hours, 44+1/18 minutes). Adding that carry forward amount to the next month will make it equal 30.0612 days (30 days, 1 hour and 24+2/18 minutes). So the second month would be 30 days long, and 0.0612 days (or 1 hour 24+2/18 minutes) would be carried forward to be added to the next cycle, and so on. Then every 17 lunar months the carry forward amounts would exceed 24 hours (0.0612 x 17 = 1.0404), which would require an additional day to be added to that month. In summary, the progression becomes: year 1 | 29 – 30 – 29 – 30 – 29 – 30 – 29 – 30 – 29 – 30 – 29 – 30 | year 2 | 29 – 30 – 29 – 30 – 30 – 29 – etc. Pattern of calendar years The Jewish calendar is based on the Metonic cycle of 19 years, of which 12 are common years (12 months) and 7 leap years (13 months). A Metonic cycle equates to 235 lunar months in each 19-year cycle. This gives an average of 6939 days, 16 hours and 595 parts for each cycle. But due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules (see below), a cycle of 19 Jewish years can be either 6939, 6940, 6941, or 6942 days in duration. Since none of these values is evenly divisible by seven, the Jewish calendar repeats exactly only following 36,288 Metonic cycles, or 689,472 Jewish years. There is a near-repetition every 247 years, except for an excess of 50 minutes (905 parts). There are 14 different patterns that Jewish years may take. Each of these patterns is called a "keviyah" (Hebrew for "a setting" or "an established thing"), and is distinguished by the day of the week for Rosh Hashanah of that particular year and by that particular year's length. A Jewish non-leap year can only have 353, 354, or 355 days. A leap year can have 383, 384, or 385 days (always 30 days longer than the non-leap length). A chaserah year (Hebrew for "deficient" or "incomplete") is 353 or 383 days long. Both Kislev and Cheshvan have 29 days. The Hebrew letter ח "het", and the letter for the weekday denotes this pattern. A kesidrah year ("regular" or "in-order") is 354 or 384 days long. Kislev has 30 days and Cheshvan has 29 days. The Hebrew letter כ "kaf", and the letter for the week-day denotes this pattern. A shlemah year ("abundant" or "complete") is 355 or 385 days long. Both Kislev and Cheshvan have 30 days. The Hebrew letter ש "shin", and the letter for the week-day denotes this pattern. Determining leap years The Jewish leap years are years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 of the Metonic cycle. To determine whether a year is a leap year, find the remainder when dividing the Jewish year number by 19. If the remainder is 3, 6, 8, 11, 14 or 17, the year is a leap year and an extra month, Adar II, is added. If the remainder is zero, the year is also a leap year since year 19 of the Metonic cycle is a year exactly divisible by 19. Another way to check a specific year is to find the remainder in the following calculation: ( 7 x the Jewish year number + 1 ) / 19. If the remainder is less than 7, the year is a leap year. A mnemonic word in Hebrew is GUCHADZaT "גוחאדז"ט" (the Hebrew letters gimel-vav-het aleph-dalet-zayin-tet, i.e. 3, 6, 8, 1, 4, 7, 9. See Hebrew numerals). A variant of this pattern of naming includes another letter which specifies the day of the week for the first day of Pesach (Passover) in the year. Another memory aid notes that intervals of the major scale follow the same pattern as do Jewish leap years, with do corresponding to year 19 (or 0): a whole step in the scale corresponds to two common years between consecutive leap years, and a half step to one common year between two leap years. Special holiday rules Adjustments are made to ensure certain holy days and festivals do or do not fall on certain days of the week. Yom Kippur Adjustments are made to ensure that Yom Kippur, on which no work can be done, does not fall on Friday (the day prior to the Sabbath) to avoid having Yom Kippur's restrictions still going on at the start of Sabbath, or on Sunday (the day after Shabbat) to avoid having the Shabbat restrictions still going on at the start of Yom Kippur. The Rosh Hashanah postponement rules are the mechanism used to make the adjustments. As Yom Kippur falls on Tishrei 10, and Rosh Hashanah falls on the 1st, the adjustment is made so that Rosh Hashanah does not fall on a Wednesday or Friday. Rosh Hashanah postponement rules Day of week Number of days Monday 353 355 383 385 Tuesday 354 384 Thursday 354 355 383 385 Saturday 353 355 383 385 To ensure that Yom Kippur does not directly precede or follow Shabbat, and that Hoshana Rabbah is not on a Shabbat, in which case certain ceremonies would be lost for a year, the first day of Rosh Hashanah may only occur on Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays (the "four gates"). Adjustments are made to ensure that Rosh Hashanah does not fall on the other three days. To achieve that result the year may be made into a short (chaser) year (both Kislev and Cheshvan have 29 days) or full (maleh) year (both Kislev and Cheshvan have 30 days). (see table) The day of the week on which Rosh Hashanah falls in any given year will also be the day on which Sukkot and Shmini Atzeret will occur. Short or full years A leap year (ie. one which has 13 months) has an average length of 383½ days, so that in discrete numbers a leap year may have either 383 or 384 days. Also, whether either Chesvan or Kislev both have 29 days, or both have 30 days, or one has 29 days and the other 30 days depends upon the number of days needed in each year. The period from Adar 29 (or Adar II, in leap years) to Heshvan 29 contains all of the festivals specified in the Bible - Pesach (Nisan 15), Shavuot (Sivan 6), Rosh Hashanah (Tishrei 1), Yom Kippur (Tishrei 10), Sukkot (Tishrei 15), and Shemini Atzeret (Tishrei 22). This period is fixed, during which no adjustments are made. Days of week of holidays PurimPassover(first day)Shavuot(first day)Seventeenth of Tamuz/Tisha B'AvRosh Hashanah/Sukkot/Shmini Atzeret/(first day)Yom KippurChanukah(first day)Tenth of TevetTu BishvatSUNTUEWEDTUETHUSATWED or THUWED, THU, or FRITUE, WED, or THUTUETHUFRITHUSATMONFRI or SATFRI or SUNTHU or SATTHUSATSUNSUN*MONWEDSUN or MONSUN or TUESAT or MONFRISUNMONSUNTUETHUMONTUEMON *Postponed to not be held on Shabbat Measurement of hours Every hour is divided into 1080 halakim or parts. A part is 3⅓ seconds or 1/18 minute. The ultimate ancestor of the helek was a small Babylonian time period called a barleycorn, itself equal to 1/72 of a Babylonian time degree (1° of celestial rotation). Actually, the barleycorn or she was the name applied to the smallest units of all Babylonian measurements, whether of length, area, volume, weight, angle, or time. But by the twelfth century that source had been forgotten, causing Maimonides to speculate that there were 1080 parts in an hour because that number was evenly divisible by all numbers from 1 to 10 except 7. But the same statement can be made regarding 360. The weekdays start with Sunday (day 1) and proceed to Saturday (day 7). Since some calculations use division, a remainder of 0 signifies Saturday. While calculations of days, months and years are based on fixed hours equal to 1/24 of a day, the beginning of each halachic day is based on the local time of sunset. The end of the Shabbat and other Jewish holidays is based on nightfall (Tzeth haKochabim) which occurs some amount of time, typically 42 to 72 minutes, after sunset. According to Maimonides, nightfall occurs when three medium-sized stars become visible after sunset. By the seventeenth century this had become three second-magnitude stars. The modern definition is when the center of the sun is 7° below the geometric (airless) horizon, somewhat later than civil twilight at 6°. The beginning of the daytime portion of each day is determined both by dawn and sunrise. Most halachic times are based on some combination of these four times and vary from day to day throughout the year and also vary significantly depending on location. The daytime hours are often divided into Sha`oth Zemaniyoth or "Halachic hours" by taking the time between sunrise and sunset or between dawn and nightfall and dividing it into 12 equal hours. The nighttime hours are similarly divided into 12 equal portions, albeit a different amount of time than the "hours" of the daytime. The earliest and latest times for Jewish services, the latest time to eat Chametz on the day before Passover and many other rules are based on Sha`oth Zemaniyoth. For convenience, the modern day using Sha`oth Zemaniyoth is often discussed as if sunset were at 6:00pm, sunrise at 6:00am and each hour were equal to a fixed hour. For example, halachic noon may be after 1:00pm in some areas during daylight saving time. Within the Mishnah, however, the numbering of the hours starts with the "first" hour after the start of the day. See, for example, Berachot chapter 1, Mishnah 2. Accuracy Seasonal drift The Hebrew calendar's mean year is 365.2468 days long (exactly 365 days 5 hours 55 minutes and 25+25/57 seconds - ie. the molad/monthly interval × 235 months per 19-year cycle ÷ 19 years per cycle). As the present-era mean northward equinoctal year is about 365.2424 days long, the Hebrew calendar mean year is slightly longer than this tropical year. This results in a "drift" of the Hebrew calendar of about a day every 224 years. Also, the mean Gregorian calendar year is 365.2425 days long (365 days 5 hours 49 minutes and 12 seconds), resulting in a drift of the Hebrew calendar in relation to the Gregorian calendar of about a day every 231 years. The impact of the drift is reflected in the drift of the date of Passover from the vernal full moon: + Comparison of vernal full moon to actual dates of Passover - 2001–2020 Source: World Council of Churches, 1997 - Towards a common date of Easter. In Gregorian dates Year Astronomical vernal full moon Passover* 2001 April 8 April 8 2002 March 28 March 28 2003 April 16 April 17 2004 April 5 April 6 2005 March 25 April 24 2006 April 13 April 13 2007 April 2 April 3 2008 March 21 April 20 2009 April 9 April 9 2010 March 30 March 30 2011 April 18 April 19 2012 April 6 April 7 2013 March 27 March 26 2014 April 15 April 15 2015 April 4 April 4 2016 March 23 April 23 2017 April 11 April 11 2018 March 31 March 31 2019 March 21 April 20 2020 April 8 April 9 *Note: Passover commences at sunset preceding the date indicated. Molad intervals The value 29-12-793 for the molad interval was taken from Ptolemy's Almagest (2nd century CE), and is equal to 29.530594 days. This is as close to the correct value of 29.530589 days as it is possible for a value to come that is rounded off to whole parts (1/18 minute). So the molad interval is about 0.6 seconds too long. Put another way, if the molad is taken as the time of mean conjunction at some reference meridian, then this reference meridian is drifting slowly eastward. If this drift of the reference meridian is traced back to the mid-4th century CE, the traditional (but probably incorrect) date of the introduction of the fixed calendar, then it is found to correspond to a longitude midway between the Nile River and the end of the Euphrates River. The modern molad moments match the mean solar times of the lunar conjunction moments near the meridian of Kandahar, Afghanistan, more than 30° east of Jerusalem. In the present era actual lunar conjunction intervals can be as short as 29 days 6 hours and 30 minutes to as long as 29 days and 20 hours, a variation range of about 13 hours and 30 minutes. Furthermore, due to the eccentricity of Earth's orbit, series of shorter lunations alternate with series of longer lunations. Consequently the actual lunar conjunction moments can range from 12 hours earlier than to 16 hours later than the molad moment, in terms of Jerusalem mean solar time. Furthermore, the discrepancy between the molad interval and the mean synodic month is accumulating at an accelerating rate, since the mean synodic month is progressively shortening due to gravitational tidal effects. Measured on a strictly uniform time scale, such as that provided by an atomic clock, the mean synodic month is becoming gradually longer, but since the tides slow Earth's rotation rate even more, the mean synodic month is becoming gradually shorter in terms of mean solar time. Implications for Jewish ritual This figure, in a detail of a medieval Hebrew calendar, reminded Jews of the palm branch (Lulav), the myrtle twigs, the willow branches, and the citron (Etrog) to be held in the hand and to be brought to the synagogue during the holiday of sukkot, near the end of the autumn holiday season. Although the molad of Tishrei is the only molad moment that is not ritually announced, it is actually the only one that is relevant to the Hebrew calendar, for it determines the provisional date of Rosh Hashanah, subject to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules. The other monthly molad moments are announced for mystical reasons. With the moladot on average almost 100 minutes late, this means that the molad of Tishrei lands one day later than it ought to in (100 minutes) ÷ (1440 minutes per day) = 5 of 72 years or nearly 7% of years! Therefore the seemingly small drift of the moladot is already significant enough to affect the date of Rosh Hashanah, which then cascades to many other dates in the calendar year and sometimes, due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules, also interacts with the dates of the prior or next year. The molad drift could be corrected by using a progressively shorter molad interval that corresponds to the actual mean lunar conjunction interval at the original molad reference meridian. Furthermore, the molad interval determines the calendar mean year, so using a progressively shorter molad interval would help correct the excessive length of the Hebrew calendar mean year, as well as helping it to "hold onto" the northward equinox for the maximum duration. If the intention of the calendar is that Passover should fall near the first full moon after the northward equinox, or that the northward equinox should land within one lunation before 16 days after the molad of Nisan, then this is still the case in about 80% of years, but in about 20% of years Passover is a month late by these criteria (as it was in Hebrew year 5765, an 8th year of the 19-year cycle = Gregorian 2005 AD). Presently this occurs after the "premature" insertion of a leap month in years 8, 19, and 11 of each 19-year cycle, which causes the northward equinox to land at exceptionally early moments in such years. This problem will get worse over time, and so beginning in Hebrew year 5817 the 3rd year of each 19-year cycle will also be a month late. Furthermore, the drift will accelerate in the future as perihelion approaches and then passes the northward equinox, and if the calendar is not amended then Passover will start to land on or after the summer solstice around Hebrew year 16652, or about 10885 years from the present. (The exact year when this will begin to occur depends on uncertainties in the future tidal slowing of the Earth rotation rate, and on the accuracy of predictions of precession and Earth axial tilt.) The seriousness of the spring equinox drift is widely discounted on the grounds that Passover will remain in the spring season for many millennia, and the text of the Torah is generally not interpreted as having specified tight calendrical limits. On the other hand, the mean southward equinoctial year length is considerably shorter, so the Hebrew calendar has been drifting faster with respect to the autumn equinox, and at least part of the harvest festival of Sukkot is already more than a month after the equinox in years 9, 1, 12 and 4 of each 19-year cycle (these are the same year numbers as were mentioned for the spring season in the previous paragraph, except that they get incremented at Rosh Hashanah). This progressively increases the probability that Sukkot will be cold and wet, making it uncomfortable or impractical to dwell in the traditional succah during Sukkot. The first winter seasonal prayer for rain is not recited until Shemini Atzeret, after the end of Sukkot, yet it is becoming increasingly likely that the rainy season in Israel will start before the end of Sukkot. "Rectifying" the Hebrew calendar Given the importance in Jewish ritual of establishing the accurate timing of monthly and annual times, some futurist writers and researchers have considered whether a "corrected" system of establishing the Hebrew date is required, due to the small but accelerating changes in the actual lunar cycle interval. Further religious questions include how such a system might be implemented and administered throughout the diverse aspects of the world Jewish community. It is traditionally held that the fixed arithmetic Hebrew calendar was established on the authority of Hillel ben Yehudah, President of the Sanhedrin in Hebrew year 4119, and therefore only an equal authority (the modern Sanhedrin) can either amend it or reinstate the observational Hebrew calendar. A 353-year leap cycle of 4366 months, including 130 leap months, along with use of a progressively shorter molad interval, could keep an amended fixed arithmetic Hebrew calendar from drifting for more than 7 millennia. Bromberg, Irv. Irregularities and "Missing Years" The traditional dates of events in Jewish history are often used interchangeably with the modern secular dates according to the Gregorian calendar. For example, the traditional Jewish date for the destruction of the First Temple (3338 AM = 423 BCE) differs from the modern scientific date, which is usually expressed using the Gregorian calendar (586 BCE). Implicit in this practice is the view that if all the differences in structure between the Hebrew and Gregorian calendars are taken into consideration, the two dates can be derived from each other. This is not the case. If the traditional dates of events before the Second Temple era are assumed to be using the standard Hebrew calendar, they refer to different objective years than those of the secular dates. The discrepancy is some 165 years. The conflict does not necessarily imply that either the traditional dates or the secular dates must be objectively wrong. It is possible that the traditional dates did not use a consistent calendar matching the year count of the standard Hebrew calendar. It could be that one or more substantial calendar shifts have occurred, or the years counted might in certain periods have differed from astronomical years. Taking into account the possibility of a changing structure of the Hebrew calendar, theoretically, both the traditional dates and those of secular scholars could be correct. Even so, the account of history in the traditional sourcebook Seder Olam Rabba, and in particular its description of the period of Persian domination, seems to be irrevocably at odds with modern scientific understanding. Furthermore, the modern Hebrew calendar cannot be used to calculate Biblical dates because new moon dates may be in error by ±2 days and months may be in error by ±2 months. The latter accounts for the irregular intercalation (adding of extra months) that was performed in three successive years in the early second century, according to the Talmud. Usage in contemporary Israel Early Zionist pioneers were impressed by the fact that the calendar preserved by Jews over many centuries in far-flung diasporas, as a matter of religious ritual, was geared to the climate of their original country: the Jewish New Year marks the moment of transition from the Dry Season to the Rainy one, and major Jewish Holidays such as Sukkot, Passover or Shavuot correspond to major points of the country's agricultural year such as planting and harvest. Accordingly, in the early 20th Century the Hebrew Calendar was re-interpreted as an agricultural rather than religious calendar. The Kibbutz movement was especially inventive in creating new rituals fitting this interpretation. With the creation of the State of Israel the Hebrew Calendar was made one of its official calendars (along with the Gregorian calendar). New holidays and commemorations not derived from previous Jewish tradition invariably were to be defined according to their Hebrew dates — notably the Israeli Independence Day on Iyar 5, Jerusalem Reunification Day on 28 Iyar, and the Holocaust Commemoration Day on Nisan 27 (close to the Hebrew date of the start of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising). Nevertheless, since the 1950s the Hebrew calendar steadily declined in importance in Israeli daily life, in favor of the worldwide Gregorian Calendar. At present, Israelis — except for the minority of religiously observant — conduct their private and public life according to the Gregorian Calendar, although the Hebrew calendar is still widely acknowledged, appearing in public venues such as banks (where it is legal for use on checks and other documents, though only rarely do people make use of this option) and on the mastheads of newspapers. The Jewish New Year (Rosh Hashanah) is a two-day public holiday in Israel. However, since the 1980s an increasing number of secularist Israelis had taken up the habit of celebrating the Gregorian New Year (usually known as "Sylvester Night" — "ליל סילבסטר") by holding all-night parties on the night between December 31 and January 1. Prominent Rabbis have on several occasions sharply denounced this practice, but with no noticeable effect on the secularist celebrants. [citation needed] The disparity between the two calendars is especially noticeable with regard to commemoration of the assassinated Prime Minister Yitzchak Rabin. The official Day of Commemoration, instituted by a special Knesset law, is marked according to the Hebrew Calendar - on Heshvan 12. However, left-leaning Israelis, who revere Rabin as a martyr for the cause of peace and who are predominantly secularist, prefer to hold their own mass memorial rallies on November 4. In some years the two competing Rabin Memorial Days are separated by as much as two weeks. The wall calendars commonly used in Israel are hybrids — organised according to Gregorian rather than Jewish months, but beginning in September, where the Jewish New Year usually falls, and providing the Jewish date in small characters. Notes References Wikibooks Wikibooks has on the topic of al-Biruni. The Chronology of Ancient Nations, Chapter VII. tr. C. Edward Sachau. London, 1879. Ari Belenkiy. "A Unique Feature of the Jewish Calendar — Dehiyot". Culture and Cosmos 6 (2002) 3-22. Bonnie Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens. The Oxford Companion to the Year: An Exploration of Calendar Customs and Time-reckoning. Oxford University Press; USA, 2000. pp * Sherrard Beaumont Burnaby. Elements of the Jewish and Muhammadan Calendars. George Bell and Sons, London, 1901. Nathan Bushwick. Understanding the Jewish Calendar. Moznaim, 1989. ISBN 0940118173 W.H. Feldman. Rabbinical Mathematics and Astronomy,3rd edition, Sepher-Hermon Press, 1978. Otto Neugebauer. Ethiopic astronomy and computus. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, philosophisch-historische klasse, sitzungsberichte 347. Vienna, 1979. The Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Book Three, Treatise Eight: Sanctification of the New Moon. Translated by Solomon Gandz. Yale Judaica Series Volume XI, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1956. Samuel Poznanski. "Calendar (Jewish)". Encylopædia of Religion and Ethics, 1911. Edward M. Reingold and Nachum Dershowitz. Calendrical Calculations: The Millennium Edition. Cambridge University Press; 2 edition (2001). ISBN 0-521-77752-6 723-730. L.A. Resnikoff. "Jewish calendar calculations", Scripta Mathematica 9 (1943) 191-195, 274-277. Eduard Schwartz, Christliche und jüdische Ostertafeln, (Abhandlungen der königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. Philologisch-Historische Klasse. Neue Folge, Band viii, Berlin, 1905. Arthur Spier. The Comprehensive Hebrew Calendar. Feldheim, 1986. Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community: A History of the Jewish Calendar Second Century BCE-Tenth Century CE, Oxford University Press, 2001. Ernest Wiesenberg. "Appendix: Addenda and Corrigenda to Treatise VIII". The Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Book Three: The Book of Seasons. Yale Judaica Series Volume XIV, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1961. pp.557-602. F.H. Woods. "Calendar (Hebrew)", Encylopædia of Religion and Ethics, 1911. See also Babylonian calendar Jewish holidays 2000-2050 molad Biblical and Talmudic units of measurement External links Perpetual Hebrew / Civil Calendar Jewish Calendar Details various Jewish points-of-view about the history of the Jewish calendar/Hebrew calendar. Includes several charts. Hebrew Calendar Science and Myth gives complete rules of the Hebrew calendar and a lot more. The Jewish Controversy about Calendar Postponements Jewish Calendar with Zmanim - Halachic times and date converter chabad.org Jewish calendar scientific explanation at the NASA web site Jewish Encyclopedia: Calendar Karaite Holidays Karaite website Hebrew Calendar Dates and Holydays (Diaspora or Israel) for both the Traditional and the Rectified calendars Hebrew - Gregorian Calendar with options (Multilingual) Date converters Jewish Calendar for Outlook - Incorporate Jewish dates and holidays into Microsoft Office Outlook. Molad - Jewish Calendar with Zmanim and holidays for Mobiles. Jewish Calendar for many platforms Kaluach - Hebrew/civil calendars Hebcal Hebrew Date Converter Jewish/Gregorian/Julian Perpetual Calendar Converter - Also contains a full year view for the Hebrew Calendar. Sample VB.Net and Javascript code to convert the Hebrew Date to the Gregorian Date Jewish / Civil Date Converter Software program that converts Hebrew dates to the civil calendar and vice versa Gregorian-Mayan-Julian-Islamic-Persian-Hebrew Calendar Converter Kalendis Calendar Calculator Gregorian to Hebrew date with weekly Parshat HaShavua. Firefox Add-ons. 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2,277 | Crete | Crete (, transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea at 8,336 km² (3,219 square miles). Crete was the center of the Minoan civilization (ca. 2600–1400 BC), the oldest Greek civilization. Today Crete is one of the thirteen peripheries of Greece and a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece. While it retains its own local cultural traits (such as its own music and dialect), Cretans identify themselves as Greeks. For centuries the island was known by its Italian name Candia, from the medieval name of its capital Heraklion, Chandax (Greek: Χάνδαξ or Χάνδακας, "moat", Turkish: Kandiye). In Classical Latin it was called Creta and in Turkish Girit. Crete is the location of significant ancient history, which provides popular modern day tourist destinations. They include the Minoan sites of Knossos and Phaistos, the classical site of Gortys, the Venetian old city and port of Chania, the Venetian castle at Rethymno, and the Samaria Gorge. History Typical summer landscape of Crete The first human settlements on the island, dating to the aceramic Neolithic, used cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs, as well as domesticated cereals and legumes; ancient Knossos was the site of one of these major Neolithic (then later Minoan) sites. C. Michael Hogan. 2007 Knossos fieldnotes, The Modern Antiquarian Crete was the center of Europe's most ancient civilization; the Minoan. Early Cretan history is replete with legends such as those of King Minos, Theseus, Minotaur, Daedalus and Icarus passed on orally via poets such as Homer. Crete was involved in the Mithridatic Wars, initially repelling an attack by Roman general Marcus Antonius Creticus in 71 BC. Nevertheless, a ferocious three-year campaign soon followed under Quintus Caecilius Metellus, equipped with three legions, and Crete was finally conquered by Rome in 69 BC, earning for Metellus the title "Creticus". Gortyn was made capital of the island, and Crete became a Roman province, along with Cyrenaica. Crete was part of the Byzantine empire, but then was captured by Iberian Muslims led by Abo Hafs Omer Al-Baloty Reinhart Dozy, Histoire des Mussulmans d'Espagne: jusqu'à la conquéte de l'Andalousie par les Almoravides (French) pg. 711-1110, Leiden, 1861 & 1881, 2nd edition who established a piratical emirate on the island. In 960 Nicephorus Phocas reconquered the island, which remained under Byzantine control until 1204, when it fell into the hands of the Venetians at the time of the Fourth Crusade. During Venice's rule, which lasted more than four centuries, a Renaissance swept through the island as is evident from the plethora of artistic works dating to that period. The most notable representatives of this Cretan renaissance were the painter El Greco and the writer Vitsentzos Kornaros. Under the rule of Christian Venetians, the city of Candia was reputed to be the best fortified city of the eastern Mediterranean. M. Greene. 2001. Ruling an island without a navy. A comparative view of Venetian and Ottoman Crete. Oriente moderno, 20(81), 193-207 Jewish Armenians were the largest minority group living in Crete. The Jews were attracted during the period of the mass expulsion from Spain in 1492. A.J. Schoenfeld. 2007. Immigration and Assimilation in the Jewish Community of Late Venetian Crete (15th–17th Centuries). Journal of Modern Greek Studies, 25(1), 1-15 In 1627, there were 800 Jews in the city of Candia, about seven percent of the city's population. Starr,J. (1942). Jewish Life in Crete Under The Rule Of Venice.Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, Vol. 12, pp. 59-114. In 1574-77, Crete was under the rule of Giacomo Foscarini as Proveditor General, Sindace and Inquistor. According to Starr (1942), the rule of Giacomo Foscarini was the dark age for Jews and Greeks. Under his rule, non-Catholics had to pay high taxes with no allowances. This practice ended when the Ottomans conquered Crete in 1669, after a 21-year siege of the capital, Candia. Historic map of Crete by Piri Reis During Ottoman rule, many churches and monasteries were converted to mosques. However, freedoms and rights were still provided. Church attendance was permitted. Still, many Christians converted to Islam. The city was surrounded by high walls and bastions and extended westward and southward by the 17th century. The most opulent area of the city was the Northeastern quadrant where all the elite were gathered together. The city had received another name under the rule of the Ottomans, the deserted city. M. Greene. 2001. Ruling an island without a navy. A comparative view of Venetian and Ottoman Crete. Oriente moderno, 20(81), 193-207 The urban policy that the Ottoman applied to Candia was a two-pronged approach. M. Greene. 2001. Ruling an island without a navy. A comparative view of Venetian and Ottoman Crete. Oriente moderno, 20(81), 193-207 The first was the religious endowments. It made the Ottoman elite contribute to building and rehabilitating the ruined city. The other method was to boost the population and the urban revenue by selling off urban properties. According to Molly Greene (2001) there were numerous records of real-estate transactions during the Ottoman rule. In the deserted city, minorities received equal rights in purchasing property. Christians and Jews were also able to buy and sell in the real-estate market. Muslim presence on the island started with the Arab occupation but was cemented by the Ottoman conquest. Most Cretan Muslims were local Greek converts who spoke Cretan Greek, but in the island's nineteenth century political context they came to be viewed by the Christian population as Turks. Demetres Tziovas, Greece and the Balkans: Identities, Perceptions and Cultural Encounters Since the Enlightenment; William Yale, The Near East: A modern history Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1958) Contemporary estimates vary, but on the eve of the Greek War of Independence, as much as 45% of the population of the island may have been Muslim. William Yale, The Near East: A modern history by (Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press, 1958) Many amongst them were crypto-Christians who converted back to Christianity in subsequent years, while many others fled Crete because of the unrest, settling in Turkey, Rhodes, Syria and elsewhere. By 1900, 11% of the population was Muslim. Those remaining were forced to leave in 1924 in the Population exchange between Greece and Turkey. Uprisings by Christians were met with a fierce response from the Ottoman authorities who executed bishops, regarded as ringleaders on several occasions.. Crete was left out of the modern Greek state by the London Protocol of 1830, and soon it was yielded to Egypt by the Ottoman sultan. Egyptian rule was short-lived and sovereignty was returned to the Ottoman Empire by the Convention of London on July 3 1840. Between 1833 and 1897, several more Christian uprisings took place, and in 1898, Crete, a complex autonomous Cretan State under Ottoman suzerainty, was nevertheless garrisoned by an international military force, with a High Commissioner (Armostis), chosen by Greece . Finally, Crete was joined with Greece on 1 December , 1913. During World War II, the island was the scene of the famous Battle of Crete where, in May 1941, German paratroopers sustained almost 7,000 casualties, meeting fierce resistance from both locals and the British Commonwealth force, commanded by General Sir Bernard Freyberg. As a result, Adolf Hitler forbade further large scale airborne operations. Geography Greece and Crete Crete, with a population of 650,000 in year 2005, is one of the 13 regions into which Greece is divided. It forms the largest island in Greece and the second largest (after Cyprus) in the East Mediterranean. The island has an elongated shape : it spans 260 km from east to west and 60 km at its widest, although the island is narrower at certain points, such as in the region close to Ierapetra , where it reaches a width of only 12 km. Crete covers an area of 8,336 km², with a coastline of 1046 km ; to the north it broaches the Sea of Crete (Greek: Κρητικό Πέλαγος); to the south the Libyan Sea (Greek: Λιβυκό Πέλαγος); in the west the Myrtoan Sea, and toward the east the Karpathion Sea. It lies approximately 160 km south of the Greek mainland. Crete is extremely mountainous, and its character is defined by a high mountain range crossing from West to East, formed by three different groups of mountains. These are: the White Mountains or Lefka Ori (2,452 m); the Idi range (Psiloritis () 2,456 m); the Dikti mountains (2,148 m); Kedros (1,777 m); Thripti (1,489 m) These mountains gifted Crete with fertile plateaux, such as Lasithi, Omalos and Nidha; caves, such as Diktaion and Idaion; and gorges, such as the famous Gorge of Samaria. The protected area of the Samaria Gorge is the home of kri-kri, while Cretan mountains and gorges are refuges for the endangered vulture Lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus). There are a number of rivers on Crete, including the Ieropotamos River on the southern part of the island. Climate Crete straddles two climatic zones, the Mediterranean and the North African, mainly falling within the former. As such, the climate in Crete is primarily temperate. The atmosphere can be quite humid, depending on the proximity to the sea, while winter is fairly mild. Snowfall is common on the mountains between November and May, but rare in the low lying areas, especially near the coast when it only stays on the ground for a few minutes or hours. However, a truly exceptional cold snap swept the island in February 2004, during which period the whole island was blanketed with snow. During the Cretan summer, average temperatures reach the high 20s-low 30s Celsius (mid 80s to mid 90s Fahrenheit), with maxima touching the upper 30s to mid 40s (above 110 Fahrenheit). The south coast, including the Messara plain and Asterousia mountains, falls in the North African climatic zone, and thus enjoys significantly more sunny days and high temperatures throughout the year. In southern Crete date palms bear fruit and swallows remain year around, not migrating to Africa. Cretan culture For centuries Crete has held intact its own distinctive rich and proud culture. Cretan Greek has been maintained as the spoken dialect, and Cretan wine is a traditional drink. The island is known for its music, and it has many indigenous dances, the most noted of which is probably the Pentozali. Economy The economy of Crete, which was mainly based on farming, began to change visibly during the 1970s. While an emphasis remains on farming and stock breeding, due to the climate and terrain of the island, there has been a drop in manufacturing and an observable expansion in its service industries (mainly tourism-related). All three sectors of the Cretan economy (agriculture, processing-packaging, services), are directly connected and interdependent. The island has a per capita income close to 100% of the Greek average, while unemployment is at approximately 4%, half of that of the country overall. As in other regions of Greece, olive growing is also a significant industry; a small amount of citrons are still cultivated on the island. The island has three significant airports, Nikos Kazantzakis at Heraklion, the Daskalogiannis airport at Chania and a smaller one in Sitia. The first two serve international routes, as the main gateways to the island for travellers. Tourism Spinalonga Island Leper Colony Crete is one of the most popular holiday destinations in Greece. Fifteen percent of all arrivals in Greece come through the city of Heraklion (port and airport), while charter journeys to Heraklion last year made up 20% of all charter flights in Greece. Overall, more than two million tourists visited Crete last year, and this increase in tourism is reflected on the number of hotel beds, rising by 53% in the period between 1986 to 1991, when the rest of Greece saw increases of only 25%. Today, the island's tourism infrastructure caters to all tastes, including a very wide range of accommodation; the island's facilities take in large luxury hotels with their complete facilities, swimming pools, sports and recreation, smaller family-owned apartments, camping facilities and others. Visitors reach the island via two international airports in Heraklion and Chania, or by boat to the main ports of Heraklion, Chania, Rethimno, and Agios Nikolaos. Plans for a container port Topographic map of Crete Newspapers have reported that the Ministry of Mercantile Marine is ready to support the agreement between Greece, South Korea, Dubai Ports World and China for the construction of a large international container port and free trade zone in southern Crete near Tympaki; the plan is to expropriate 850 ha of land. The port would handle 2 million containers per year, while as of 2007, there has been no official announcement of a project not universally welcomed due to its environmental, economic and cultural impact. "No Container Transshipment Hub in Timbaki", retrieved 27 May 2007. Notable Cretans Satellite photo of Crete (NASA) Giorgio Sideri's map of Crete (1562). Minos, an ancient, legendary King of Crete Idomeneus, an ancient, legendary King of Crete Epimenides 6th century BC seer, philosopher and poet Nearchus (4th century BC) officer in the army of Alexander the Great Aenesidemus 1st century BC philosopher Saint Eumenes 7th century bishop of Gortyna Pope Alexander V (1339-1410) Marcus Musurus (1470-1517) scholar and philosopher Francesco Barozzi (1537-1604) mathematician and astronomer El Greco (1541-1614) Greek-Spanish painter Georgios Chortatsis (c. 1545-1610) Renaissance dramatist Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553-1613) poet of the Greek Renaissance Ahmed Resmî Efendi 18th century Ottoman statesman, diplomat and author Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi 18th century Ottoman author, diplomat Daskalogiannis (?-1771) rebel against Ottoman rule Salacıoğlu (1750-1825) 18th century Turkish folk literature poet Dimitri Kalergis (1803-1867) statesman Ioannis Kondylakis (1862-1920) Writer Giritli Sırrı Pasha (1844-1895) Ottoman author, statesman Eleftherios Venizelos (1864-1936) politician, Prime Minister of Greece Rahmizâde Bahaeddin Bediz (1875-1951) The first Turkish professional photographer Evangelos Sarris (1881-1917) army officer Emmanouil Tsouderos (1882-1956) economist and politician Paul Mulla (1882-1959) (alias Mollazade Mehmed Ali) Roman Catholic bishop and author Ali Fuat Cebesoy (1882-1968) Turkish statesman Nikos Kazantzakis (1885-1957) poet and author Mustafa Ertuğrul (1892-1961) Turkish naval officer Alexis Minotis (1898-1990) actor Mustafa Fehmi Kubilay (1906-1930) Turkish national hero who was lynched by anti-secular religious fundamentalists in the Menemen Incident Sapfo Notara (1907-1985) actress Manos Katrakis (1909-1984) actor Odysseas Elitis (1911-1996) poet, Nobel laureate Stylianos Pattakos (1912) member of Greek military junta Konstantinos Mitsotakis (1918) politician, Prime Minister of Greece Rena Kyriakou (1918-1994) pianist Ίλυα Λιβυκού (1919-2002) Actress George Psychoundakis (1920-2006) World War II resistance fighter, poet and translator Thanasis Skordalos (1920-1998) folk singer and composer Lili Zografou (1922-1998) Journalist and writer Kostas Mountakis (1926) folk singer and composer Terpsichori Chryssoulaki-Vlachou (1926-1944) member of the Greek resistance Michalis Kounelis (1928-1999) musician Hüsamettin Cindoruk (1933) Former Chairman of the Turkish Grand National Assembly Rika Diallina (1934) actress Nana Mouskouri (1934) singer and politician Rita Sakellariou (1934-1999) singer Nikos Xilouris (1936-1980) composer and singer Konstantinos Volanakis (1937) painter Giannis Markopoulos 1939 composer Yoryis Yatromanolakis (1940) author Manolis Mavrommatis (1941) sports journalist and politician Psarantonis (1942) musician and singer Christoforos Liontakis (1945) poet Yannis Smaragdis (1946) film director Maro Douka (1947) author Giannis Dragasakis (1947) politician Fotis Kafatos biologist Joseph Sifakis (1946) computer scientist, laureate of the 2007 Turing Award Halil Berktay (1947) Turkish historian Nikolaos Sifounakis (1949) politician Mimis Androulakis (1951) author and politician Maria Damanaki (1952) politician Manolis Kefalogiannis (1959) politician Kostas Hatzidakis (1965) politician Cities Crete's principal cities are: Heraklion (Iraklion or Candia) (137,711 inhabitants) Chania (Haniá) (53,373 inhabitants) Rethymno (31,687 inhabitants) Ierapetra (23,707 inhabitants) Agios Nikolaos (19,462 inhabitants) Sitia (14,338 inhabitants) Political organization The island of Crete is a periphery of Greece, consisting of four prefectures (): Chania Heraklion Lasithi Rethymno For amateur radio purposes it is considered to be a separate "entity," ITU prefix SV9. Expatriate EU communities Crete's mild climate is attracting growing interest from Northern Europeans to have a holiday home or residence on the island. citizens have the right to freely buy property and reside with little formality. On the Rights of Citizens of the Union, EC Directive 2004/58 EC (2004) A growing number of real estate companies cater to mainly British expatriates, followed by German, Dutch, Scandinavian and other European nationalities wishing to own a home in Crete. The British expatriates are concentrated in the western prefectures of Chania and Rethymno and to a lesser extent in Heraklion and Lasithi. Some 40% of Britons in late 2006 said they were planning to live outside the United Kingdom or retire abroad due to socio-economic changes in the country. One in ten Britons do so already. See also History of Crete Eileithyia Cave Battle of Crete Cretan Greek Cretan wine Minoan civilization Linear B Knossos Phaistos Music of Crete List of novels set in Crete Minoan eruption Cretan Turks Cretan dwarf elephant OFI Crete Technical University of Crete TEI of Crete University of Crete Former countries in Europe after 1815 List of Greek islands Captain Michalis (novel) References External links | Crete |@lemmatized crete:56 transliteration:2 krētē:1 modern:7 kriti:1 large:8 greek:21 island:34 fifth:1 mediterranean:4 sea:6 square:1 mile:1 center:2 minoan:6 civilization:4 ca:1 bc:6 old:2 today:2 one:6 thirteen:1 periphery:2 greece:18 significant:4 part:3 economy:4 cultural:4 heritage:1 retain:1 local:3 trait:1 music:3 dialect:2 cretan:17 identify:1 century:13 know:2 italian:1 name:3 candia:6 medieval:1 capital:3 heraklion:9 chandax:1 χάνδαξ:1 χάνδακας:1 moat:1 turkish:9 kandiye:1 classical:2 latin:1 call:1 creta:1 girit:1 location:1 ancient:5 history:6 provide:2 popular:2 day:2 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2,278 | Transport_in_Iraq | Railways See also Iraqi Republic Railways. total: 2,032 km standard gauge: 2,032 km 1.435-m gauge For more than two decades there have been plans for building a metro system in Baghdad. It is possible that part of the tunnels have been built, but that they are now used militarily for sheltering, hiding and escaping purposes. U.N. inspectors have heard of the tunnels for years, but have not found their entrances. map In November, 2008, an overground service dubbed the Baghdad Metro began service. The first Iraqi Republic Railways train to Basra since the overthrow of Saddam Hussein's regime arrived on April 26 2003. British troops hope to use the 68 km long railway to transport much-needed aid supplies from the port town of Umm Qasr to Basra. Maps UNHCR Atlas Map UN Map Railway links with adjacent countries All adjacent countries generally use standard gauge (1435mm) but may vary in couplings or brakes. Neighbours with electrified railways - Turkey and Iran - both use the world standard 25kVAC Turkey - via Syria Iran - one link partially under construction and a second link planned Khorramshahr, Iran, to Basra, Iraq - almost complete (2006) Kermanshah, Iran, and the Iraqi province of Diyala - construction commenced. see () or 2005. Kuwait - no railways Saudi Arabia - no railways Jordan - partially constructed - break of gauge 1435mm/1050mm Syria - same gauge - at Rabiya/Nurabiya Highways total: 45,550 km Expressway connecting Amman and Baghdad in Al-Anbar paved: 38,400 km, unpaved: 7,150 km (1996 est.) Waterways 1,015 km; Shatt al Arab is usually navigable by maritime traffic for about 130 km; channel has been dredged to 3 m and is in use; Tigris and Euphrates Rivers have navigable sections for shallow-draft watercraft; Shatt al Basrah canal was navigable by shallow-draft craft before closing in 1991 because of the Gulf War Pipelines crude oil 4,350 km; petroleum products 725 km; natural gas 1,360 km Ports and harbors Persian Gulf Umm Qasr Port Khawr az Zubayr Al Basrah has limited functionality Merchant marine total: 32 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling / ships by type: cargo ship 14, passenger ship 1, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 13, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off ship 2 (1999 est.) Airports There are about 113 airports. (1999 est.) Major airports include Baghdad International Airport Basra International Airport Mosul International Airport Erbil International Airport Sulaimaniyah International Airport Airports - with paved runways total: 80 over 3,047 m: 20 2,438 to 3,047 m: 39 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 7 under 914 m: 10 (1999 est.) Airports - with unpaved runways total: 33 over 3,047 m: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 10 under 914 m: 12 (2008 est.) Heliports 5 (1999 est.) See also Iraq Iraqi Republic Railways | Transport_in_Iraq |@lemmatized railway:8 see:3 also:2 iraqi:4 republic:3 total:6 km:11 standard:3 gauge:5 two:1 decade:1 plan:2 build:2 metro:2 system:1 baghdad:4 possible:1 part:1 tunnel:2 use:5 militarily:1 shelter:1 hiding:1 escaping:1 purpose:1 u:1 n:1 inspector:1 hear:1 year:1 find:1 entrance:1 map:4 november:1 overground:1 service:2 dub:1 begin:1 first:1 railways:1 train:1 basra:4 since:1 overthrow:1 saddam:1 hussein:1 regime:1 arrive:1 april:1 british:1 troop:1 hope:1 long:1 transport:1 much:1 need:1 aid:1 supply:1 port:3 town:1 umm:2 qasr:2 unhcr:1 atlas:1 un:1 link:3 adjacent:2 country:2 generally:1 may:1 vary:1 coupling:1 brake:1 neighbour:1 electrified:1 turkey:2 iran:4 world:1 via:1 syria:2 one:1 partially:2 construction:2 second:1 khorramshahr:1 iraq:2 almost:1 complete:1 kermanshah:1 province:1 diyala:1 commence:1 kuwait:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 jordan:1 construct:1 break:1 rabiya:1 nurabiya:1 highway:1 expressway:1 connect:1 amman:1 al:4 anbar:1 pave:2 unpaved:2 est:6 waterways:1 shatt:2 arab:1 usually:1 navigable:3 maritime:1 traffic:1 channel:1 dredge:1 tigris:1 euphrates:1 river:1 section:1 shallow:2 draft:2 watercraft:1 basrah:2 canal:1 craft:1 closing:1 gulf:2 war:1 pipeline:1 crude:1 oil:1 petroleum:2 product:1 natural:1 gas:1 harbor:1 persian:1 khawr:1 az:1 zubayr:1 limit:1 functionality:1 merchant:1 marine:1 ship:5 volume:1 type:1 cargo:3 passenger:2 tanker:1 refrigerate:1 roll:2 airport:10 major:1 include:1 international:5 mosul:1 erbil:1 sulaimaniyah:1 runway:2 heliport:1 |@bigram saddam_hussein:1 saudi_arabia:1 al_anbar:1 km_unpaved:1 unpaved_km:1 waterways_km:1 shatt_al:2 tigris_euphrates:1 pipeline_crude:1 crude_oil:1 persian_gulf:1 merchant_marine:1 petroleum_tanker:1 tanker_refrigerate:1 refrigerate_cargo:1 pave_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 est_heliport:1 |
2,279 | Learning_object | A learning object is a resource, usually digital and web-based, that can be used and re-used to support learning. Learning objects offer a new conceptualization of the learning process: rather than the traditional "several hour chunk", they provide smaller, self-contained, re-usable units of learning. They will typically have a number of different components, that range from descriptive data to information about rights and educational level. At their core, however, will be instructional content, and probably assessment tools. A key issue is the use of metadata. Learning object design raises issues of portability, and of the object's relation to a broader learning management system. Definitions There are various definitions of the term. As David Wiley observes, "the proliferation of definitions for the term 'learning object' makes communication confusing and difficult". Most generally, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) defines a learning object as "any entity, digital or non-digital, that may be used for learning, education or training". More specifically, and pointing out the extreme breadth of the IEEE's definition, Wiley describes a learning object as "any digital resource that can be reused to support learning". . (Emphasis added.) Chiappe defined Learning Objects as: "A digital self-contained and reusable entity, with a clear educational purpose, with at least three internal and editable components: content, learning activities and elements of context. The learning objects must have an external structure of information to facilitate their identification, storage and retrieval: the metadata. " (Chiappe, Segovia, & Rincon, 2007). . The following definitions focus on the relation between learning object and digital media. RLO-CETL, a British inter-university Learning Objects Center, defines "reusable learning objects" as "web-based interactive chunks of e-learning designed to explain a stand-alone learning objective". . Daniel Rehak and Robin Mason define it as "a digitized entity which can be used, reused or referenced during technology supported learning". Adapting a definition from the Wisconsin Online Resource Center, Robert J. Beck suggests that learning objects have the following key characteristics: Learning objects are a new way of thinking about learning content. Traditionally, content comes in a several hour chunk. Learning objects are much smaller units of learning, typically ranging from 2 minutes to 15 minutes. Are self-contained – each learning object can be taken independently Are reusable – a single learning object may be used in multiple contexts for multiple purposes Can be aggregated – learning objects can be grouped into larger collections of content, including traditional course structures Are tagged with metadata – every learning object has descriptive information allowing it to be easily found by a search Components The following is a list of some of the types of information that may be included in a learning object and its metadata: General Course Descriptive Data, including: course identifiers, language of content (English, Spanish, etc.), subject area (Maths, Reading, etc.), descriptive text, descriptive keywords Life Cycle, including: version, status Instructional Content, including: text, web pages, images, sound, video Glossary of Terms, including: terms, definition, acronyms Quizzes and Assessments, including: questions, answers Rights, including: cost, copyrights, restrictions on Use Relationships to Other Courses, including prerequisite courses Educational Level, including: grade level, age range, typical learning time, and difficulty. [IEEE 1484.12.1:2002] Metadata One of the key issues in using learning objects is their identification by search engines. This is usually facilitated by assigning descriptive learning object metadata. Just as a book in a library has a record in the card catalog, learning objects must also be tagged with metadata. Mutability A mutated learning object is, according to Michael Shaw, a learning object that has been "re-purposed and/or re-engineered, changed or simply re-used in some way different from its original intended design". Shaw also introduces the term "contextual learning object", to describe a learning object that has been "designed to have specific meaning and purpose to an intended learner". Portability Before any institution invests a great deal of time and energy into building high-quality e-learning content (which can cost over $10,000 per classroom hour), Rumble, Greville. 2001. The Cost and Costing of Networked Learning.Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, Volume 5, Issue 2. it needs to consider how this content can be easily loaded into a Learning Management System. It is possible for example, to package learning objects with SCORM specification and load it at Moodle Learning Management System. If all of the properties of a course can be precisely defined in a common format, the content can be serialized into a standard format such as XML and loaded into other systems. When you consider that some e-learning courses need to include video, mathematical equations using MathML, chemistry equations using CML and other complex structures the issues become very complex, especially if the systems needs to understand and validate each structure and then place it correctly in a database. Learning object projects Some examples of learning object projects include: AGORA, a publicly accessible online learning environment at the Virtual Museum of Canada. Content is created and produced by Canadian museum educators. Learning Centre | Online Classroom | Free Lesson | Virtual Museum of Canada eduSource, a Canada-wide project to create the infrastructure for a network of inter-operable learning object repositories. The eduSource project is based on national and international standards; it is bilingual (French and English) and designed to be fully accessible. eduSource Canada: Canadian Network of Learning Object Repositories MERLOT (Multimedia Educational Resource for Learning and Online Teaching), a free and open resource designed primarily for faculty and students of higher education. IQity Reactor is a learning object repository that allows educators to create and share custom curriculum, organized by state educational standards. Reactor is integrated with a learning management system. See also Digital Audio Learning Objects Intelligent tutoring system Notes References . . . . . | Learning_object |@lemmatized learning:29 object:34 resource:5 usually:2 digital:7 web:3 base:3 use:11 support:3 learn:27 offer:1 new:2 conceptualization:1 process:1 rather:1 traditional:2 several:2 hour:3 chunk:3 provide:1 small:2 self:3 contain:3 usable:1 unit:2 typically:2 number:1 different:2 component:2 range:3 descriptive:6 data:2 information:4 right:2 educational:5 level:3 core:1 however:1 instructional:2 content:11 probably:1 assessment:2 tool:1 key:3 issue:5 metadata:7 design:6 raise:1 portability:2 relation:2 broad:1 management:4 system:7 definition:7 various:1 term:5 david:1 wiley:2 observes:1 proliferation:1 make:1 communication:1 confuse:1 difficult:1 generally:1 institute:1 electrical:1 electronics:1 engineer:2 ieee:3 define:5 entity:3 non:1 may:3 education:2 train:1 specifically:1 point:1 extreme:1 breadth:1 describe:2 reuse:2 emphasis:1 add:1 chiappe:2 reusable:3 clear:1 purpose:4 least:1 three:1 internal:1 editable:1 activity:1 element:1 context:2 must:2 external:1 structure:4 facilitate:2 identification:2 storage:1 retrieval:1 segovia:1 rincon:1 following:3 focus:1 medium:1 rlo:1 cetl:1 british:1 inter:2 university:1 center:2 interactive:1 e:3 explain:1 stand:1 alone:1 objective:1 daniel:1 rehak:1 robin:1 mason:1 digitize:1 reference:2 technology:1 adapt:1 wisconsin:1 online:4 robert:1 j:1 beck:1 suggest:1 characteristic:1 way:2 think:1 traditionally:1 come:1 much:1 minute:2 take:1 independently:1 single:1 multiple:2 aggregate:1 group:1 large:1 collection:1 include:12 course:7 tag:2 every:1 allow:2 easily:2 find:1 search:2 components:1 list:1 type:1 general:1 identifier:1 language:1 english:2 spanish:1 etc:2 subject:1 area:1 math:1 reading:1 text:2 keywords:1 life:1 cycle:1 version:1 status:1 page:1 image:1 sound:1 video:2 glossary:1 acronym:1 quiz:1 question:1 answer:1 cost:3 copyright:1 restriction:1 relationship:1 prerequisite:1 grade:1 age:1 typical:1 time:2 difficulty:1 one:1 engine:1 assign:1 book:1 library:1 record:1 card:1 catalog:1 also:3 mutability:1 mutate:1 accord:1 michael:1 shaw:2 change:1 simply:1 original:1 intend:1 introduce:1 contextual:1 specific:1 meaning:1 intended:1 learner:1 institution:1 invest:1 great:1 deal:1 energy:1 build:1 high:2 quality:1 per:1 classroom:2 rumble:1 greville:1 costing:1 networked:1 journal:1 asynchronous:1 network:3 volume:1 need:3 consider:2 load:3 possible:1 example:2 package:1 scorm:1 specification:1 moodle:1 property:1 precisely:1 common:1 format:2 serialize:1 standard:3 xml:1 mathematical:1 equation:2 mathml:1 chemistry:1 cml:1 complex:2 become:1 especially:1 understand:1 validate:1 place:1 correctly:1 database:1 project:4 agora:1 publicly:1 accessible:2 environment:1 virtual:2 museum:3 canada:4 create:3 produce:1 canadian:2 educator:2 centre:1 free:2 lesson:1 edusource:3 wide:1 infrastructure:1 operable:1 repository:3 national:1 international:1 bilingual:1 french:1 fully:1 merlot:1 multimedia:1 teaching:1 open:1 primarily:1 faculty:1 student:1 iqity:1 reactor:2 share:1 custom:1 curriculum:1 organize:1 state:1 integrate:1 see:1 audio:1 intelligent:1 tutor:1 note:1 |@bigram storage_retrieval:1 |
2,280 | Martin_of_Tours | Saint Martin of Tours (), (Savaria, Pannonia {now Szombathely, Hungary}, 316 – November 8, 397 in Candes-Saint-Martin, Gaul {central France}; buried November 11, 397, Candes, Gaul) was a Bishop of Tours whose shrine became a famous stopping-point for pilgrims on the road to Santiago de Compostela. Around his name much legendary material accrued and he has become one of the most familiar and recognizable Roman Catholic saints. He is considered a spiritual bridge across Europe, given his association with both France and Hungary. Some of the accounts of his travels may have been interpolated into his vita to give credence to early sites of his cult. His life was recorded by a contemporary, the hagiographer Sulpicius Severus. He is a patron saint of France and of soldiers. Early life Martin was named after Mars, god of war, which Sulpicius Severus interpreted as "the brave, the courageous". His father was a senior officer (tribune) in the Imperial Horse Guard, a unit of the Roman army, and was later stationed at Ticinum, Cisalpine Gaul (now Pavia, Italy), where Martin grew up. At the age of ten, he went to the church against the wishes of his parents and became a catechumen or candidate for baptism. At this time, Christianity had been made a legal religion (in 316), but it was by no means the dominant religion of the Roman Empire. It had many more adherents in the Eastern Empire, whence it had sprung, and was concentrated in cities, brought along the trade routes by converted Jews and Greeks (the term 'pagan' literally means 'country-dweller'). Christianity was still far from accepted amongst the higher echelons of society, and in the army the cult of Mithras would have been stronger. Although the conversion of the Emperor Constantine, and the subsequent programme of church-building, gave a greater impetus to the spread of the religion, it was still a minority faith. When Martin was fifteen, as the son of a veteran officer, he was required to join a cavalry ala himself and thus, around 334, was stationed at Ambianensium civitas or Samarobriva in Gaul (now Amiens, France). It is therefore likely that he joined the equites catafractarii Ambianenses, a unit of cataphracti listed in the Notitia Dignitatum. The Legend of the Cloak The Charity of St. Martin, by Jean Fouquet While Martin was still a soldier at Amiens he experienced the vision that became the most-repeated story about his life. He was at the gates of the city of Amiens with his soldiers when he met a scantily dressed beggar. He impulsively cut his own military cloak in half and shared it with the beggar. That night he dreamed of Jesus wearing the half-cloak Martin had given away. He heard Jesus say to the angels: "Here is Martin, the Roman soldier who is not baptised; he has clad me." (Sulpicius, ch 2). In another story, when Martin woke his cloak was restored, and the miraculous cloak was preserved among the relic collection of the Merovingian kings of the Franks. St Martin and the Beggar, by El Greco, ca. 1597-99 (National Gallery of Art, Washington) The dream confirmed Martin in his piety and he was baptized at the age of 18. Patron Saints Index: Saint Martin of Tours He served in the military for another two years until, just before a battle with the Gauls at Worms in 336, Martin determined that his faith prohibited him from fighting, saying, "I am a soldier of Christ. I cannot fight." He was charged with cowardice and jailed, but in response to the charge, he volunteered to go unarmed to the front of the troops. His superiors planned to take him up on the offer, but before they could, the invaders sued for peace, the battle never occurred, and Martin was released from military service. Kurlansky, Mark (2006). Nonviolence: twenty-five lessons from the history of a dangerous idea. Pp 26-27. Martin declared his vocation and made his way to the city of Tours, where he became a disciple of Hilary of Poitiers, a chief proponent of Trinitarian Christianity, opposing the Arianism of the Visigothic nobility. When Hilary was forced into exile from Poitiers, Martin returned to Italy, converting an Alpine brigand on the way, according to his biographer Sulpicius Severus, and confronting the Devil himself. Returning from Illyria, he was confronted by the Arian archbishop of Milan Auxentius, who expelled him from the city. According to the early sources, he decided to seek shelter on the island then called Gallinaria, now Isola d'Albenga, in the Tyrrhenian Sea, where he lived the solitary life of a hermit. During the Middle Ages, the relic of St. Martin’s cloak, (cappa Sancti Martini), conserved at Marmoutiers, one of the most sacred relics of the Frankish kings, would be carried everywhere the king went, even into battle, as a holy relic upon which oaths were sworn. The cloak is first attested in the royal treasury in 679, when it was conserved at the palatium of Luzarches, a royal villa that was later ceded to the monks of Saint-Denis by Charlemagne, in 798/99. J.-P. Brunterch, in Un village au temps de Charlemagne, pp. 90-93, noted in François-Olivier Touati, Maladie et société au Moyen âge (Paris/Brussels, 1998) p. 216 note 100. The priest who cared for the cloak in its reliquary was called a cappellanu, and ultimately all priests who served the military were called cappellani. The French translation is chapelains, which is where the English word, chaplain derives from. Ducange, Glossarium, s.v "Capella)", noted in Encyclopaedia Britannica 1911, s.v. "Chapel". One of the many services a chaplain can provide is spiritual and pastoral support for military service personnel by performing religious services at sea or in the battlefield. Dreher, Rod (2003). "National Review". Pp 30. Attacking polytheists, countering the Arians With the return of Hilary to his see in 361, Martin joined him and established a monastery nearby, at the site that developed into the Benedictine Ligugé Abbey, the first in Gaul; it became a center for the evangelization of the country districts. He traveled and preached through western Gaul: "The memory of these apostolic journeyings survives to our day in the numerous local legends of which Martin is the hero and which indicate roughly the routes that he followed." (Catholic Encyclopedia). St Martin as a bishop: modern icon in the chapel of the Eastern Orthodox Monastery of the Theotokos and St Martin, Cantauque, Provence. In 371 Martin was acclaimed bishop of Tours, where he impressed the city with his demeanor, and by the enthusiasm with which he had pagan temples, altars and sculptures destroyed. It may indicate the depth of the Druidic folk religion compared to the veneer of Roman classical culture in the area, that "when in a certain village he had demolished a very ancient temple, and had set about cutting down a pine-tree, which stood close to the temple, the chief priest of that place, and a crowd of other heathens began to oppose him; and these people, though, under the influence of the Lord, they had been quiet while the temple was being overthrown, could not patiently allow the tree to be cut down" (Sulpicius, Vita ch. xiii). Sulpicius affirms that he withdrew from the press of attention in the city to live in Marmoutier (Majus Monasterium), the monastery he founded, which faces Tours from the opposite shore of the Loire. Martin introduced a rudimentary parish system. Martin's order at Marmoutier The Abbey of Marmoutier was a monastery just outside Tours in Indre-et-Loire, France. It was founded by St. Martin approximately around 372 A.D. after he had been made Bishop of Tours in 371 A.D. The saint founded the monastery in order to escape attention and live a life of monasticism. Martin was not just the source of status for the abbey, he was also responsible for drafting the blueprint for Marmoutier’s institutional inviolability by appointing the abbot, Walbert. Walbert’s story demonstrated that that while Martin was Bishop of Tours, Marmoutier possessed its own abbot, which meant the abbey should remain “outside the dominion of every bishop except as it is necessary for the ordaining of canons.” The best way to protect the abbey’s autonomy was to give it its own abbot. The abbey was destroyed and ransacked by Normans in 853. The abbey continued to grow and in 1096, Pope Urban II consecrated a new chapel. In 1162, Pope Alexander III consecrated the Chapel of Saint Benoit. Huguenot Protestants pillaged the abbey a second time at the onset of the French Wars of Religion. The abbey recovered only to be disestablished in 1799 during the French Revolution. Farmer, Sharon (1991). Communities of St. Martin: Legend and Ritual in Medieval Tours. Pp. 78-96. Sulpicius Severus described the severe restrictions of the life of Martin among the cave-dwelling cenobites who gathered around him, a rare view of a monastic community that preceded the Benedictine rule: Many also of the brethren had, in the same manner, fashioned retreats for themselves, but most of them had formed these out of the rock of the overhanging mountain, hollowed into caves. There were altogether eighty disciples, who were being disciplined after the example of the saintly master. No one there had anything which was called his own; all things were possessed in common. It was not allowed either to buy or to sell anything, as is the custom among most monks. No art was practiced there, except that of transcribers, and even this was assigned to the brethren of younger years, while the elders spent their time in prayer. Rarely did any one of them go beyond the cell, unless when they assembled at the place of prayer. They all took their food together, after the hour of fasting was past. No one used wine, except when illness compelled them to do so. Most of them were clothed in garments of camels' hair. Any dress approaching to softness was there deemed criminal, and this must be thought the more remarkable, because many among them were such as are deemed of noble rank. (Sulpicius, Vita, X) Defender of the Priscillianists His role in the matter of the followers of Priscillian was especially remarkable. The First Council of Saragossa had condemned Priscillian and his supporters as heretics. Priscillian and his supporters had fled, and some bishops of Hispania, led by Bishop Ithacius brought charges before Emperor Magnus Maximus. Although greatly opposed to the Priscillianists, Martin hurried to the Imperial court of Trier on an errand of mercy to remove them from the secular jurisdiction of the emperor. At first, Maximus acceded to his entreaty, but, when Martin had departed, yielded to the solicitations of Ithacius and ordered Priscillian and his followers to be beheaded (385), the first Christians executed for heresy. Deeply grieved, Martin refused to communicate with Ithacius, until pressured by the Emperor. St Martin leaves the life of chivalry and renounces the army (fresco by Simone Martini) The shrine and the devotion The veneration of Martin was hugely popular in the Middle Ages, above all in the region between the Loire and the Marne, where Le Roy Ladurie and Zysberg noted the densest accretion of hagiotoponyms A hagiotoponym is a place-name that commemorates a saint. commemorating Martin, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie and A. Zysberg, "Géographie des hagiotoponymes en France", ''''Annales E.S.C. (1983), map p. 1331. but Fortunat declared, "Partout où le Christ est connu, Martin est honoré." "Whereever Chist is known, Martin is honoured"; quoted by Louis Réau, Iconographie de I'art chretien, p. 902. When Bishop Perpetuus took office at Tours in 461, the little chapel over Martin's grave, built in the previous century by Martin's immediate successor, Bricius, "Hic aedificavit basilicam parvulam super corpus beati Martini, in qua et ipse sepultus est" (Gregory, Libri historiarum 10.31, quoted in Werner Jacobsen, "Saints' Tombs in Frankish Church Architecture" Speculum 72.4 (October 1997:1107-1143) p. 1108. was no longer sufficient for the crowd of pilgrims it was already drawing. Perpetuus built a more suitably grand basilica, 160 ft long and wide, with 120 columns. The details are in Gregory, Libri historiarum 2.14 His body was taken from the simple chapel at his hermitage at Candes-St-Martin to Tours and his sarcophagus was reburied behind the high altar of the great new basilica; May Viellard-Troiëkouroff, "La basilique de Saint-Martin de Tours de Perpetuus (470) d'après les fouilles archéologiques", Actes du 22e Congrès international d'histoire d'art 1966. (Budapest 1972), vol. 2:839-46); Charles Lelong, La basilique de Saint-Martin de Tours (Chambray-lès-Tours 1986). A large block of marble above the tomb, the gift of bishop Euphronius of Autun (472-475), rendered it visible to the faithful gathered behind the high altar, and perhaps, Werner Jacobsen suggests, Jacobsen 1997:1108f. also to pilgrims encamped in the atrium of the basilica, which, contrary to the usual arrangement, was sited behind the church, close to the tomb in the apse, which may have been visible through a fenestrella in the apse wall. Reliquary for the head of St. Martin, silver and copper, part gilt, from the church at Soudeilles, late 14th century (Louvre) St. Martin's popularity can be partially attributed to his adoption by successive royal houses of France. Clovis (Cholodovech), King of the Salian Franks, one of many warring tribes in sixth century France, promised his Christian wife Clotilda that he would be baptised if he was victorious over the Alemanni; he credited the intervention of St Martin with his success, and with several following triumphs, including the defeat of Alaric II. As a result, Clovis was able to move his capital to Paris, and he is considered to be the 'Founder of France'. The popular devotion to St Martin continued to be closely identified with the Merovingian monarchy: in the early seventh century Dagobert commissioned the goldsmith Saint Eligius to make a wonderful work in gold and gems for the tomb-shrine. Vita Eligii: "miro opificio exaure et gemmis contextuit sepulchrum:; quoted in Jacobsen 1997:1109 note 11. The later bishop, Gregory of Tours, made it his business to write and see distributed an influential Life filled with miraculous events of the saint's career. Martin's cultus survived the passage of power to their successors, the Carolinginian dynasty. The Abbey of Saint-Martin at Tours was one of the most prominent and influential establishments in medieval France. Charlemagne awarded the position of Abbot to his friend and adviser, the great English scholar and educator Alcuin. At this time the Abbot was able to travel between Tours and the court at Trier in Germany and always stay overnight at one of his own properties. It was at Tours that Alcuin's scriptorium developed Caroline minuscule, the clear round hand which made manuscripts far more legible. The basilica was destroyed by fire on several occasions, and it and the monastery were sacked by Norman Vikings in 996. Rebuilt beginning in 1014, by Hervé de Buzançais, treasurer of Saint Martin, both to accommodate the crowds of pilgrims and to attract them, the shrine of St. Martin of Tours became a major stopping-point on pilgrimages; Gothic vaults replaced the Romanesque ones and in 1453 the remains of Saint Martin were transferred to a magnificent new reliquary offered by Charles VII of France and Agnes Sorel. The basilica was sacked by Huguenots in 1562, during the French Wars of Religion, then during the French Revolution, deconsecrated, used as a stable, then utterly demolished, its dressed stones sold in 1802 when two streets were opened on the site, to ensure it would not be rebuilt. The basilica of Saint-Martin In 1860, excavations of Leo Dupont (1797-1876) established the dimensions of its former site and recovered some fragments of architecture. The project for a new basilica took shape in the resurgence of conservative Catholic piety after the radical Paris Commune of 1871. The architect selected was Victor Laloux; the style eschewed Gothic for a mix of Romanesque and Byzantine. Pilgrimage basilicas in comparable Romanesque-Byzantine taste being erected during the same period are the Basilique du Sacré-Cœur, Paris, and in Lyon the basilica of Notre-Dame de Fourvière. The new Basilique Saint-Martin on a portion of its former site that was repurchased from the owners, was consecrated 4 July 1925. Revival of the popular devotion to St. Martin in the Third Republic The tomb of St. Martin was rediscovered on December 14, 1860, which aided in the nineteenth century revival of the popular devotion to St. Martin. Martin’s renewed popularity was in large part due to his promotion as a military saint during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. During the military and political crisis of the Franco-Prussian war, the Napoleon III’s second empire collapsed. After the surrender of Napoleon to the Prussians after the Battle of Sedan in September 1870, a provisional government of national defense was established and France’s Third Republic was proclaimed. Paris was evacuated due to the advancing enemy and for a brief time, Tours (September-December 1870) became the effective capital of France. St Martin was promoted by the clerical right as the protector of the nation against the German threat. Conservatives associated the dramatic collapse of Napoleon III’s regime as a sign of divine retribution on the irreligious emperor. Priests interpreted it as punishment for a nation led astray due to years of anti-clericalism. They preached repentance and a return to religion for political stability. The ruined towers of the royal basilica of St. Martin at Tours symbolized the decline of traditional Catholic France. Brennan, Brian (1997). “The Revival of the Cult of Martin of Tours in the Third Republic”. Pp 489-491. With the government’s move to Tours in 1870, a great number of pilgrims were attracted to St. Martin’s tomb, which was covered by a temporary chapel that Monsignor Guibert (archbishop of Tours, 1857-1871) built. The popular devotion to St. Martin was also associated with the nationalistic devotion to the Sacred Heart. “The Flag of Sacre-Coeur, borne by right-wing pontifical zouaves who fought at Patay, had been first placed overnight in St. Martin’s Tomb before being taken into battle on October 9, 1870. The banner read “Heart of Jesus Save France” and on the reverse side Carmelite Nuns of Tours embroidered “Saint Martin Protect France.” Brennan, Brian (1997). “The Revival of the Cult of Martin of Tours in the Third Republic”. Pp 499. The French army was victorious in Patay, which led many among the faithful to believe that the victory was due to divine favor. Popular hymns of the 1870s developed the theme of national protection under the cover of Martin’s cloak, the “first flag of France.” Brennan, Brian (1997). “The Revival of the Cult of Martin of Tours in the Third Republic”. Pp 489-491. The popularity of devotion to St Martin among men is significant because historical evidence shows that “feminization” had affected French Catholicism in the nineteenth century. During the nineteenth century Frenchmen influenced by secularism, agnosticism, and anti-clericalism deserted the church in great numbers. Martin was a man’s saint and the devotion to him was an exception to this trend. For men serving in the military, Martin of Tours was presented by the Catholic Right as the masculine model of principled behavior. He was a brave fighter, knew his obligation to the poor, shared his goods, performed his required military service, followed legitimate orders, and respected secular authority. Brennan, Brian (1997). “The Revival of the Cult of Martin of Tours in the Third Republic”. Pp 491-492. Opposition from Anticlericals During the 1870s, the procession to St. Martin’s tomb at Tours became an impressive display of ecclesiastical and military cooperation. Army officers in full uniform acted as military escorts, symbolically protecting the clergy and clearing the path for them. Anti-clerics viewed the holding of public religious processions as a violation of civic space. In 1878, M. Rivière, the provisional mayor of Tours with anticlerical support banned the November procession in honor of St. Martin. To anti-clerics, religion was supposed to be a private matter and religious devotions were to be practiced at home or church. With the resignation of President Patrice de Mac-Mahon, the first president of the Third Republic, came Republican Jules Grevy, who created a new anticlerical offensive on a national level. On the opposite side of the spectrum, Bishop Pie of Poitiers united conservatives and devised a massive demonstration for the November 1879 procession. Pie’s ultimate hope was that St Martin would stop the “chariot” of modern society and create a France where the religious and secular sectors merged. The struggle between the two can be seen with the struggle between conservatives and anti-clerics over the church’s power in the army. From 1874, military chaplains were allowed in the army in times of peace, but anti-clerics viewed the chaplains as sinister monarchists and counter-revolutionaries. Conservatives responded by creating the short lived Legion de Saint Maurice in 1878 and the society, Notre Dame de Soldats to provided unpaid voluntary chaplains with financial resources. Ultimately, the anticlerical Duvaux Bill of 1880 reduced the number of chaplains in the French army. Anticlerical legislators wanted commanders, not chaplains, to provide troops with moral support and to supervise their formation in the established faith of patriotic Republicanism. Brennan, Brian (1997). “The Revival of the Cult of Martin of Tours in the Third Republic”. Pp 495-496. St. Martin as French Republican Patron St. Martin has long been associated with France’s Royal heritage, however it was not until the episcopate of Monsignor René François Renou (Archbishop of Tours, 1896-1913) that St. Martin was regarded as a specifically republican patron. He served as a chaplain to the 88e Régiment des mobils d'Indre-et-Loire during the Franco-Prussian war and was known as the army bishop. Renou was a strong supporter of St. Martin and believed that the national destiny of France and all its victories are attributed to him. He linked the military to the cloak of St. Martin, which was the “first flag of France” to the tricolore, “the symbol of the union of the old and new.” This flag symbolism connected the devotion to St. Martin with the Third Republic. However, the tensions of the Dreyfus Affair renewed anti-clericalism in France and drove a wedge between the Church and the Republic. By 1905, under Rene Waldeck-Rousseau and Emile Combes combined with deteriorating relations with the Vatican, church and state was separated. Brennan, Brian (1997). “The Revival of the Cult of Martin of Tours in the Third Republic”. Pp 497-499. Popular devotion During First World War St. Martin’s popularity was renewed with the First World War. Anticlericalism declined as priests served in the French forces as chaplains, which led to over five thousand of them killed during the war. In 1916, Assumptionists organized a national pilgrimage to Tours that attracted people from all of France. The devotion to St. Martin was further amplified in the dioceses of France, where special prayers were offered to the patron saint. When the armistice fell on the Saint Martin’s Day, 11 November 1918, the French people saw it was a sign of his intercession in the affairs of France. Brennan, Brian (1997). “The Revival of the Cult of Martin of Tours in the Third Republic”. Pp 499-501. Hagiography The early life of Saint Martin that was written by Sulpicius Severus who knew him personally Life of St. Martin: Contents at www.users.csbsju.edu , while it expresses the intimate closeness the 4th century Christian felt with the Devil in all his disguises, is at the same time filled with accounts of miracles so extravagant as apparently to challenge disbelief. Some follow familiar conventions— casting out devils, raising the paralytic and the dead— others are more unusual: turning back the flames from a house while Martin was burning down the Roman temple it adjoined; deflecting the path of a felled sacred pine; the healing power of a letter written from Martin, indeed "threads from Martin's garment, or such as had been plucked from the sackcloth which he wore, wrought frequent miracles upon those who were sick." The first occasion on which Martin restored the dead to life was that of the catechumen who lived with him in his cell near Poitiers. He returned from a three-day absence to find The body being laid out in public was being honored by the last sad offices on the part of the mourning brethren, when Martin hurries up to them with tears and lamentations. But then laying hold; as it were, of the Holy Spirit, with the whole powers of his mind, he orders the others to quit the cell in which the body was lying; and bolting the door, he stretches himself at full length on the dead limbs of the departed brother. Having given himself for some time to earnest prayer, and perceiving by means of the Spirit of God that power was present, he then rose up for a little, and gazing on the countenance of the deceased, he waited without misgiving for the result of his prayer and of the mercy of the Lord. And scarcely had the space of two hours elapsed, when he saw the dead man begin to move a little in all his members, and to tremble with his eyes opened for the practice of sight. Then indeed, turning to the Lord with a loud voice and giving thanks, he filled the cell with his ejaculations (Sulpicius Severus, Vita). In one instance, the pagans agreed to fell their sacred fir tree, if Martin would stand directly in the path of its fall. He did so, and it miraculously missed him very narrowly. Sulpicius, a classically educated aristocrat, related this anecdote with dramatic details, as a set piece. Sulpicius could not have failed to know the incident the Roman poet Horace recalls in several Odes, of his narrow escape from a falling tree (Odes ii.13 and .17 and iii.4) — a tree that Horace says, addressing it, was "reared with a sacrilegious hand for the destruction of posterity" (sacrilega manu produxit, arbos, in nepotum perniciem). Monument of Saint Martin of Tours in Odolanów, by Jerzy Sobociński Folklore From the late 4th century to the late Middle Ages, much of Western Europe, including Great Britain, engaged in a period of fasting beginning on the day after St. Martin's Day, November 11. This fast period lasted 40 days, and was, therefore, called "Quadragesima Sancti Martini," which means in Latin "the forty days of St. Martin." At St. Martin's eve and on the feast day, people ate and drank very heartily for a last time before they started to fast. This fasting time was later called "Advent" by the Church. On St. Martin's Day, children in Flanders, the southern and north-western parts of the Netherlands, the Catholic areas of Germany and Austria participate in paper lantern processions. Often, a man dressed as St. Martin rides on a horse in front of the procession. The children sing songs about St. Martin and about their lanterns. The food traditionally eaten on the day is goose. According to legend, Martin was reluctant to become bishop, which is why he hid in a stable filled with geese. The noise made by the geese betrayed his location to the people who were looking for him. Statue of Saint Martin of Tours on the church grounds of Saint Martin de Tours Roman Catholic Church in Saint Martinville, Louisiana In Malta, children are sometimes given a bag full of nuts, hazelnuts, oranges and tangerines. In old days, nuts were then used by the children in their games. The parish of Baħrija is dedicated to Saint Martin and on his feast a fair with agricultural produce and animals is organized. Also, in the east part of the Belgian province of East-Flanders (Aalst) and the west part of West Flanders (Ypres), children receive presents from St. Martin on November 11, instead of from Saint Nicholas on December 6 or Santa Claus on December 25. There are also lantern processions, for which children make lanterns out of beets. In recent years, the lantern processions have become widespread, even in Protestant areas of Germany and the Netherlands, despite the fact that most Protestant churches do not recognize Saints as a distinct class of believers from the laity. In Portugal, where the saint's day is celebrated across the country, it is common for families and friends to gather around the fire in reunions called "magustos", where they typically eat roasted chestnuts and drink wine, "jeropiga" (drink made of grape must and firewater) and "aguapé" (a sort of weak and watered-down wine). According to the most widespread variation of the cloak story, Saint Martin cut off half of his cloak in order to offer it to a beggar and along the way he gave the remaining part to a second beggar. As he faced a long ride in a freezing weather, the dark clouds cleared away and the sun shone so intensely that the frost melted away. As this evolution was extremely odd for the time of the year (early November), it is credited to God's intervention. The phenomena of a sunny break to the chilly weather on Saint Martin's Day (11 November), which curiously enough still occurs today is called "Verão de São Martinho" (Saint Martin's Summer) in honor of the cloak legend. Stained Glass Decoration of St. Martin of Tours Church in Vegreville, Alberta, Canada. Many churches in Europe are named after Saint Martinus, also known as Saint Martin of Tours. St. Martin is the patron saint of Szombathely, Hungary with a church dedicated to him, and also the patron saint of Buenos Aires. In the Netherlands he is the patron of the cathedral and city of Utrecht. In Latin America, he has a strong popular following and is frequently referred to as San Martín Caballero, in reference to his common depiction on horseback. San Martín de Loba is the name of a municipality in the Bolívar Department of Colombia. Saint Martin, as San Martín de Loba, is the patron saint of Vasquez, a small village in Colombia. Though no mention of St. Martin's connection with viticulture is made by Gregory of Tours or other early hagiographers, he is now credited with a prominent role in spreading wine-making throughout the Touraine region and facilitated the planting of many vines. The Greek myth that Aristaeus first discovered the concept of pruning the vines after watching a goat eat some of the foliage has been applied to Martin. For instance in Hugh Johnson, Vintage: The Story of Wine 1989, p 97. He is also credited with introducing the Chenin Blanc grape varietal, from which most of the white wine of western Touraine and Anjou is made. Martin Luther was named after St. Martin, as he was baptized on November 11 (St. Martin's Day), 1483. Many Lutheran congregations are named after St. Martin which is unusual (for Lutherans) because he is a saint who does not appear in the Bible. (Lutherans regularly name congregations after the evangelists and other saints who appear in the Bible but are hesitant to name congregations after post-Biblical saints.) Martin of Tours is the patron saint of the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps, which has a medal in his name. Quartermaster Corps: The Order of Saint Martin Notes References Sulpicius Severus On the Life of St. Martin. Translation and Notes by Alexander Roberts. In A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, New York, 1894, available online Clare Stancliffe, St Martin and his hagiographer: History and miracle in Sulpicius Severus (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1983), pp. xvi+400 (Oxford Historical Monographs). Timothy D. Barnes, "The Military Career of Martin of Tours," Analecta Bollandiana, Т. 114,1-2 (1996). Virginia Burrus, "Domination and Submission in the Life of Martin," in Eadem, The Sex Lives of Saints: An Erotics of Ancient Hagiography (Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), pp 94–103. Meinolf Vielberg, Der Mönchsbischof von Tours im 'Martinellus'. Zur Form des hagiographischen Dossiers und seines spätantiken Leitbilds (Berlin und New York, Walter de Gruyter 2006), IX + 354 S. (= Untersuchungen zur antiken Literatur und Geschichte; Bd. 79). Mark Kurlansky (2006). Nonviolence: twenty-five lessons from the history of a dangerous idea. Modern Library chronicles book, Random House, Inc., New York. ISBN 0-679-64335-4. Internal link The Community of Saint Martin, an association of Roman Catholic priests. 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2,281 | Bookkeeping | Bookkeeping is the recording of financial transactions. Transactions include sales, purchases, income, and payments by an individual or organization. Bookkeeping is usually performed by a bookkeeper. Bookkeeping should not be confused with accounting. The accounting process is usually performed by an accountant. The accountant creates reports from the recorded financial transactions recorded by the bookkeeper. There are some common methods of bookkeeping such as the Single-entry bookkeeping system and the Double-entry bookkeeping system. But while these systems may be seen as "real" bookkeeping, any process that involves the recording of financial transactions is a bookkeeping process. Bookkeeper A bookkeeper (or book-keeper), also known as an accounting clerk or accounting technician, is a person who records the day-to-day financial transactions of an organization. A bookkeeper is usually responsible for writing the "daybooks." The daybooks consist of purchase, sales, receipts, and payments. The bookkeeper is responsible for ensuring all transactions are recorded in the correct daybook, suppliers ledger, customer ledger, and general ledger. The bookkeeper brings the books to the trial balance stage. An accountant may prepare the income statement and balance sheet using the trial balance and ledgers prepared by the bookkeeper. Bookkeeping systems Two common bookkeeping systems used by businesses and other organizations are the single-entry bookkeeping system and the double-entry bookkeeping system. Single-entry bookkeeping uses only income and expense accounts, recorded primarily in a revenue and expense journal. Single-entry bookkeeping is adequate for many small businesses. Double-entry bookkeeping requires posting (recording) each transaction twice, using debits and credits. Single-entry system The primary bookkeeping record in single-entry bookkeeping is the cash book, which is similar to a checking (chequing) account register but allocates the income and expenses to various income and expense accounts. Separate account records are maintained for petty cash, accounts payable and receivable, and other relevant transactions such as inventory and travel expenses. Sample revenue and expense journal for single-entry bookkeeping Pinson, p.25. No.DateDescriptionRevenueExpenseSalesSales TaxServicesInventoryAdvert.FreightOffice SupplMisc 7/13Balance forward1,826.00835.001,218.0098.00510.00295.00245.00150.0083.5061.5010417/13Printer- Advert flyers 450.00 450.00 10427/13Wholesaler - inventory 380.00 380.00 10437/16office supplies 92.50 92.50 -- 7/17bank deposit1,232.00 - Taxable sales 400.0032.00 - Out-of-state sales 165.00 - Resales 370.00 - Service sales 265.00 bank7/19bank charge 23.40 23.4010447/19petty cash 100.00 100.00 TOTALS3058.001,880.902,153.00130.00775.00675.00695.00150.00176.00184.90 Single account bookkeeping Simple bookkeeping for individuals and families involves recording income, expenses, and current balance in a cash record book or a checking account register. Sample checking account register (United States, 2003) Illustration based on transaction register provided with personal checks from http://www.deluxe.com in 2003. AD=Automatic Deposit, AP=Automatic Payment, ATM=Teller Machine, DC=Debit Card NUMBEROR CODE DATE TRANSACTION DESCRIPTION PAYMENT AMOUNT / FEE DEPOSIT AMOUNT BALANCE balance forward 1331 85 AD 3/15 paycheck 1823 56 3155 41 AP 3/26 electricity 104 31 3051 10 704 3/26 car registration 58 50 2992 60 ATM 3/30 cash withdrawal 100 00 1.00 2891 60 DC 4/2 groceries 127 35 2764 25 Double-entry system Daybooks A daybook is a descriptive and chronological (diary-like) record of day-to-day financial transactions also called a book of original entry. The daybook's details must be entered formally into journals to enable posting to ledgers. Daybooks include: Sales daybook, for recording all the sales invoices. Sales credits daybook, for recording all the sales credit notes. Purchases daybook, for recording all the purchase invoices. Purchases credits daybook, for recording all the purchase credit notes. Cash daybook, usually known as the cash book, for recording all money received as well as money paid out. It may be split into two daybooks: receipts daybook for money received in, and payments daybook for money paid out. Petty cash book A petty cash book is a record of small value purchases usually controlled by imprest system. Journals A journal is a formal and chronological record of financial transactions before their values are accounted in general ledger as debits and credits. If daybooks are not kept, the journals are books of original entry, where the transactions are first recorded, hence often considered synonymous with daybooks. Special journals include: sales, purchases, cash receipts, cash disbursements, and payroll. A general journal is a record of the entries not included in other journals. Ledgers A ledger (also known as a book of final entry) is a record of accounts, each recorded individually (on a separate page) with its balance. Unlike the journal listing chronologically all financial transactions without balances, the ledger summarizes values of one type of financial transactions per account, which constitute the basis for the balance sheet and income statement. Ledgers include: Customer ledger, for financial transactions with a customer (sometimes called a sales ledger). Supplier ledger, for financial transactions with a supplier (sometimes called a purchase ledger). General (nominal) ledger representing assets, liabilities, income, and expenses. Chart of accounts A chart of accounts is a list of the accounts codes that can be identified with numeric, alphabetical, or alphanumeric codes allowing the account to be located in the general ledger. Computerized bookkeeping Computerized bookkeeping removes many of the paper "books" that are used to record transactions and usually enforces double entry bookkeeping. Computer software increases the speed at which bookkeeping can be performed. Online bookkeeping Online bookkeeping allows source documents and data to reside in web-based applications which allow remote access for bookkeepers and accountants. All entries made into the online software are recorded and stored in a remote location. The online software can be accessed from any location in the world and permit the bookkeeper or data entry person to work out of an office. The paperwork can either be delivered to the bookkeeper, or a company can scan its business documents and upload them to a secure location or into an online bookkeeping application on a regular basis. This allows the bookkeeper to work remotely with these documents to update the books. Users of this technology include: Mobile employees scanning and sending in their receipts and bills while on the road to get reimbursed more quickly. Organizations with multiple offices centralizing their accounting department and having the documents scanned and sent to this location. Terminology US/International English spelling US English Int. English Check Cheque Checking Account Current Account Jargon Footing and cross-footing are bookkeeping terms for summing a table of numbers by column (down) and by row (across), respectively. Other names for these terms are casting and cross-casting as well as totting and cross-totting. Notes and references | Bookkeeping |@lemmatized bookkeeping:28 recording:2 financial:10 transaction:18 include:6 sale:11 purchase:9 income:8 payment:5 individual:2 organization:4 usually:6 perform:3 bookkeeper:12 confuse:1 accounting:5 process:3 accountant:4 creates:1 report:1 record:24 common:2 method:1 single:8 entry:18 system:10 double:5 may:3 see:1 real:1 involve:2 book:12 keeper:1 also:3 know:3 clerk:1 technician:1 person:2 day:4 responsible:2 write:1 daybooks:2 daybook:15 consist:1 receipt:4 ensure:1 correct:1 supplier:3 ledger:16 customer:3 general:5 bring:1 trial:2 balance:9 stage:1 prepare:2 statement:2 sheet:2 use:5 two:2 business:3 expense:8 account:17 primarily:1 revenue:2 journal:10 adequate:1 many:2 small:2 require:1 post:2 twice:1 debit:3 credit:6 primary:1 cash:11 similar:1 checking:2 cheque:2 register:4 allocate:1 various:1 separate:2 maintain:1 petty:3 payable:1 receivable:1 relevant:1 inventory:2 travel:1 sample:2 pinson:1 p:1 datedescriptionrevenueexpensesalessales:1 taxservicesinventoryadvert:1 freightoffice:1 supplmisc:1 advert:1 flyer:1 supply:1 taxable:1 state:2 resale:1 service:1 charge:1 simple:1 family:1 current:2 check:4 united:1 illustration:1 base:2 provide:1 personal:1 http:1 www:1 deluxe:1 com:1 ad:2 automatic:2 deposit:2 ap:2 atm:2 teller:1 machine:1 dc:2 card:1 numberor:1 code:2 date:1 description:1 amount:2 fee:1 forward:1 paycheck:1 electricity:1 car:1 registration:1 withdrawal:1 grocery:1 descriptive:1 chronological:2 diary:1 like:1 call:3 original:2 detail:1 must:1 enter:1 formally:1 enable:1 invoice:2 note:3 money:4 receive:2 well:2 pay:2 split:1 value:3 control:1 imprest:1 formal:1 keep:1 first:1 hence:1 often:1 consider:1 synonymous:1 special:1 disbursement:1 payroll:1 final:1 individually:1 page:1 unlike:1 listing:1 chronologically:1 without:1 summarize:1 one:1 type:1 per:1 constitute:1 basis:2 sometimes:2 nominal:1 represent:1 asset:1 liability:1 chart:2 list:1 cod:1 identify:1 numeric:1 alphabetical:1 alphanumeric:1 allow:4 locate:1 computerized:2 remove:1 paper:1 enforces:1 computer:1 software:3 increase:1 speed:1 online:5 source:1 document:4 data:2 reside:1 web:1 application:2 remote:2 access:2 make:1 store:1 location:4 world:1 permit:1 work:2 office:2 paperwork:1 either:1 deliver:1 company:1 scan:3 upload:1 secure:1 regular:1 remotely:1 update:1 user:1 technology:1 mobile:1 employee:1 send:2 bill:1 road:1 get:1 reimburse:1 quickly:1 multiple:1 centralize:1 department:1 terminology:1 u:2 international:1 english:3 spell:1 int:1 jargon:1 footing:2 cross:3 term:2 sum:1 table:1 number:1 column:1 row:1 across:1 respectively:1 name:1 cast:1 casting:1 totting:2 reference:1 |@bigram entry_bookkeeping:10 http_www:1 debit_card:1 asset_liability:1 |
2,282 | Angst | Angst is a German, Danish, and Dutch word for fear or anxiety. (Anguish is its Latinate equivalent.) It is used in English to describe an intense feeling of strife. The term Angst distinguishes itself from the word Furcht (German for "fear") in that Furcht usually refers to a material threat (arranged fear), while Angst is usually a nondirectional emotion. Angst normally means a feeling or fear towards anything strange coming up. In other languages having the meaning of the Latin word pavor, the derived words differ in meaning, e.g. as in the French anxiété and peur. The word Angst has existed since the 8th century, coming from the base-Indoeuropean *anghu-, "restraint" from which Old High German angust develops. It is pre-cognate with the Latin angustia, "tensity, tightness" and angor, "choking, clogging"; compare to the Greek "άγχος" (ankhos): stress. Existentialism Existentialist philosophers use the term "angst" with a different connotation. The use of the term was first attributed to Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855). In The Concept of Dread (also known as "The Concept of Anxiety", depending on the translation), Kierkegaard used the word Angest (in common Danish, angst, meaning "dread" or "anxiety") to describe a profound and deep-seated spiritual condition of insecurity and despair in the free human being. Where the animal is a slave to its instincts but always conscious in its own actions, Kierkegaard believed that the freedom given to people leaves the human in a constant fear of failing his/her responsibilities to God. Kierkegaard's concept of angst is considered to be an important stepping stone for 20th-century existentialism. While Kierkegaard's feeling of angst is fear of actual responsibility to God, in modern use, angst was broadened by the later existentialists to include general frustration associated with the conflict between actual responsibilities to self, one's principles, and others (possibly including God). Martin Heidegger used the term in a slightly different way. Classical music Angst in serious musical composition has been a reflection of the times. Musical composition embodying angst as a primary theme have primarily come from European Jewish composers such as Gustav Mahler and Alban Berg, written during a period a great persecution of the Jewish people shortly before and during European Nazi rule. A notable exception is the Russian composer Dmitri Shostakovich whose symphonies use the theme of angst in post-WWII compositions depicting Russian strife during the war. However, it is the Jewish artists, Gustav Mahler and Franz Kafka in music and literature that have embraced the theme of angst so highly in their work that they have become synonymous with the term to the point of popular joking and cartoons today. Angst appears to be absent from important French music. Erik Satie’s Gymnopédie and Maurice Ravel’s Pavane pour une infante défunte, composed before WWII, reflect melancholy sentiment without angst in soft, quiet compositions. The effect of angst is achieved by Shostakovich, Mahler and Berg in compositions of wide dynamic range, at times seemingly spinning out of control (Mahler), and atonal music using the twelve-tone row method of composition (Berg and others) to create an angst ridden atmosphere of grotesque sound. The theme of angst is vividly portrayed in Mahler's Symphony No. 6 (The Tragic) and in Alban Berg's poignant Violin Concerto, dedicated to "To the memory of an angel", for the death of friend Gustav Mahler’s daughter. In popular music Angst, in contemporary connotative use, most often describes the intense frustration and other related emotions of teenagers and the mood of the music and art with which they identify. Heavy metal, punk rock, grunge, nu metal, emo, and virtually any alternative rock dramatically combining elements of discord, melancholy and excitement may be said to express angst. Angst was probably first discussed in relation to popular music in the mid- to late 1950s that was popular amongst the nuclear disarmament and antiwar protester subculture. Folk rock songs like Bob Dylan's 1963 Masters of War and A Hard Rain's a-Gonna Fall articulated the dread caused by the threat of nuclear war. A key text is Jeff Nuttall's book Bomb Culture (1968) which traced this pervasive theme in popular culture back to Hiroshima. In the 1980s "teen angst" was expressed in music to a certain extent in the rise of punk, post punk, and alternative music with which it is currently more associated. It was used in reference to the grunge movement and the band Nirvana. Nirvana themselves seem to have been aware of this, as evidenced by the first line of "Serve the Servants" in which Kurt Cobain describes the success of writing songs dealing with the subject (Teenage angst has paid off well | Now I'm bored and old...). In addition, rock band Placebo released a single from their first album entitled Teenage Angst. Also, From First To Last's first full-length album quotes a line of dialogue from black comedy film Heathers, entitled Dear Diary, My Teen Angst Has A Body Count, and the same line appears in their single "Ride The Wings Of Pestilence". Another band that has done this is The Wombats in which their line (In their single "Kill the Director") is "And with the angst of a teenage band, here's another song about a gender I'll never understand." Another song to mention the term is Silverchair's song "Miss You Love", which says: "I love the way you love/But I hate the way I'm supposed to love you back/It's just a fad/Part of the, teen, teenage angst brigade". another band that mentions angst is Rise Against with their song Six Ways til Sunday "You're the new revolution/The angst-filled adolescent/You fit the stereotype well" Angst in My Pants is the eleventh album by Sparks. In fiction and film The term "angst" is now widely used as a theme by many great modern writers. Often, the expression is used as a common adolescent experience of malaise, as in J.D. Salinger's novel The Catcher in the Rye. It has become one of the central themes in modern fiction. Franz Kafka is the writer whose work is most associated with the theme of angst. His novels The Trial and The Castle, and the short story The Metamorphosis all share this theme. See also Anguish Anxiety Anger Existentialism Alienation Byronic hero, an archetypal "rebel" in literature, described by Byron in 1812, with attitudes similar to those with angst in modernity. Kafkaesque Weltschmerz Fear of death Terror management theory | Angst |@lemmatized angst:34 german:3 danish:3 dutch:1 word:6 fear:7 anxiety:4 anguish:2 latinate:1 equivalent:1 use:12 english:1 describe:5 intense:2 feeling:3 strife:2 term:7 distinguishes:1 furcht:2 usually:2 refer:1 material:1 threat:2 arrange:1 nondirectional:1 emotion:2 normally:1 mean:2 towards:1 anything:1 strange:1 come:3 language:1 meaning:2 latin:2 pavor:1 derived:1 differ:1 e:1 g:1 french:2 anxiété:1 peur:1 exist:1 since:1 century:2 base:1 indoeuropean:1 anghu:1 restraint:1 old:2 high:1 angust:1 develop:1 pre:1 cognate:1 angustia:1 tensity:1 tightness:1 angor:1 choking:1 clog:1 compare:1 greek:1 άγχος:1 ankhos:1 stress:1 existentialism:3 existentialist:2 philosopher:2 different:2 connotation:1 first:6 attribute:1 søren:1 kierkegaard:5 concept:3 dread:3 also:3 know:1 depend:1 translation:1 angest:1 common:2 profound:1 deep:1 seat:1 spiritual:1 condition:1 insecurity:1 despair:1 free:1 human:2 animal:1 slave:1 instinct:1 always:1 conscious:1 action:1 believe:1 freedom:1 give:1 people:2 leave:1 constant:1 fail:1 responsibility:3 god:3 consider:1 important:2 stepping:1 stone:1 actual:2 modern:3 broaden:1 late:2 include:2 general:1 frustration:2 associate:1 conflict:1 self:1 one:2 principle:1 others:2 possibly:1 martin:1 heidegger:1 slightly:1 way:4 classical:1 music:9 serious:1 musical:2 composition:6 reflection:1 time:2 embody:1 primary:1 theme:9 primarily:1 european:2 jewish:3 composer:2 gustav:3 mahler:6 alban:2 berg:4 write:2 period:1 great:2 persecution:1 shortly:1 nazi:1 rule:1 notable:1 exception:1 russian:2 dmitri:1 shostakovich:2 whose:2 symphony:2 post:2 wwii:2 depict:1 war:3 however:1 artist:1 franz:2 kafka:2 literature:2 embrace:1 highly:1 work:2 become:2 synonymous:1 point:1 popular:5 joking:1 cartoon:1 today:1 appear:2 absent:1 erik:1 satie:1 gymnopédie:1 maurice:1 ravel:1 pavane:1 pour:1 une:1 infante:1 défunte:1 compose:1 reflect:1 melancholy:2 sentiment:1 without:1 soft:1 quiet:1 effect:1 achieve:1 wide:1 dynamic:1 range:1 seemingly:1 spin:1 control:1 atonal:1 twelve:1 tone:1 row:1 method:1 create:1 ridden:1 atmosphere:1 grotesque:1 sound:1 vividly:1 portray:1 tragic:1 poignant:1 violin:1 concerto:1 dedicate:1 memory:1 angel:1 death:2 friend:1 daughter:1 contemporary:1 connotative:1 often:2 related:1 teenager:1 mood:1 art:1 identify:1 heavy:1 metal:2 punk:3 rock:4 grunge:2 nu:1 emo:1 virtually:1 alternative:2 dramatically:1 combine:1 element:1 discord:1 excitement:1 may:1 say:2 express:2 probably:1 discuss:1 relation:1 mid:1 amongst:1 nuclear:2 disarmament:1 antiwar:1 protester:1 subculture:1 folk:1 song:6 like:1 bob:1 dylan:1 master:1 hard:1 rain:1 gonna:1 fall:1 articulate:1 cause:1 key:1 text:1 jeff:1 nuttall:1 book:1 bomb:1 culture:2 trace:1 pervasive:1 back:2 hiroshima:1 teen:3 certain:1 extent:1 rise:2 currently:1 associated:2 reference:1 movement:1 band:5 nirvana:2 seem:1 aware:1 evidence:1 line:4 serve:1 servant:1 kurt:1 cobain:1 success:1 deal:1 subject:1 teenage:4 pay:1 well:2 bore:1 addition:1 placebo:1 release:1 single:3 album:3 entitle:2 last:1 full:1 length:1 quote:1 dialogue:1 black:1 comedy:1 film:2 heather:1 dear:1 diary:1 body:1 count:1 ride:1 wing:1 pestilence:1 another:4 wombat:1 kill:1 director:1 gender:1 never:1 understand:1 mention:2 silverchair:1 miss:1 love:4 hate:1 suppose:1 fad:1 part:1 brigade:1 six:1 til:1 sunday:1 new:1 revolution:1 fill:1 adolescent:2 fit:1 stereotype:1 pant:1 eleventh:1 spark:1 fiction:2 widely:1 many:1 writer:2 expression:1 experience:1 malaise:1 j:1 salinger:1 novel:2 catcher:1 rye:1 central:1 trial:1 castle:1 short:1 story:1 metamorphosis:1 share:1 see:1 anger:1 alienation:1 byronic:1 hero:1 archetypal:1 rebel:1 byron:1 attitude:1 similar:1 modernity:1 kafkaesque:1 weltschmerz:1 terror:1 management:1 theory:1 |@bigram existentialist_philosopher:1 philosopher_søren:1 søren_kierkegaard:1 martin_heidegger:1 gustav_mahler:3 alban_berg:2 dmitri_shostakovich:1 franz_kafka:2 erik_satie:1 maurice_ravel:1 pour_une:1 violin_concerto:1 punk_rock:1 nu_metal:1 nuclear_disarmament:1 bob_dylan:1 nirvana_nirvana:1 kurt_cobain:1 teenage_angst:3 j_salinger:1 byronic_hero:1 |
2,283 | Gyula_Andrássy | Gyula, Count Andrássy de Csíkszentkirály et Krasznahorka (; sometimes called Count Julius Andrassy in English) (March 3, 1823 – February 18, 1890) was a Hungarian statesman. The son of Count Károly Andrássy and Etelka Szapáry, he was born in Kassa, the Kingdom of Hungary (now Košice, Slovakia). The son of a Liberal father, who belonged to the Opposition at a time when to be in opposition was to be in danger, Andrássy at a very early age threw himself into the political struggles of the day, adopting at the outset the patriotic side. Count István Széchenyi was the first adequately to appreciate his capacity, when in 1845 the young man first began his public career as president of the society for the regulation of the waters of the Upper Tisza river. In 1846, he attracted attention by his bitter articles against the government in Kossuth's paper, the Pesti Hírlap, and was returned as one of the Radical candidates to the diet of 1848, where his generous, impulsive nature made him one of the most thorough-going of the patriots. When the Croats under Josip Jelačić attempted to annex part of Hungary, Andrássy placed himself at the head of the gentry of his county, and served with distinction at the battles of Pákozd and Schwechat, as Arthur Görgey's adjutant (1848). Towards the end of the war Andrássy was sent to Constantinople by the revolutionary government to obtain at least the neutrality of Ottoman Empire during the struggle. After the catastrophe of Világos he migrated first to London and then to Paris. On September 21, 1851 he was hanged in effigy by the Austrian government for his share in the Hungarian revolt. He employed his ten years of exile in studying politics in what was then the centre of European diplomacy, and it is memorable that his keen eye detected the inherent weakness of the second French empire beneath its imposing exterior. Andrássy returned home from exile in 1858, but his position was very difficult. He had never petitioned for an amnesty, steadily rejected all the overtures both of the Austrian government and of the Magyar Conservatives (who would have accepted something short of full autonomy), and clung enthusiastically to the Deák party. On December 21, 1865 he was chosen vice-president of the diet, and in March 1866 became president of the sub-committee appointed by the parliamentary commission to draw up the Composition (commonly known as the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867) between Austria and Hungary, of which the central idea, that of the "Delegations," originated with him. It was said at that time that he was the only member of the commission who could persuade the court of the justice of the national claims. After Königgrätz he was formally consulted by Emperor Franz Joseph for the first time. He advised the re-establishment of the constitution and the appointment of a responsible ministry. On February 17, 1867 the king appointed him the first constitutional Hungarian premier. It was on this occasion that Ferenc Deák called him "the providential statesman given to Hungary by the grace of God." As premier, Andrássy by his firmness, amiability and dexterity as a debater, soon won for himself a commanding position. Yet his position continued to be difficult, inasmuch as the authority of Deák dwarfed that of all the party leaders, however eminent. Andrássy chose for himself the departments of war and foreign affairs. It was he who reorganized the Honvéd system (state army), and he used often to say that the regulation of the military border districts was the most difficult labour of his life. On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Andrássy resolutely defended the neutrality of the Austrian monarchy, and in his speech on July 28, 1870 warmly protested against the assumption that it was in the interests of Austria to seek to recover the position she had held in Germany before 1863. On the fall of Beust (November 6, 1871), Andrássy stepped into his place. His tenure of the chancellorship was epoch-making. Hitherto the empire of the Habsburgs had never been able to dissociate itself from its Holy Roman traditions. But its loss of influence in Italy and Germany, and the consequent formation of the Dual State, had at length indicated the proper, and, indeed, the only field for its diplomacy in the future – the Near East, where the process of the crystallization of the Balkan peoples into nationalities was still incomplete. The question was whether these nationalities were to be allowed to become independent or were only to exchange the tyranny of the sultan for the tyranny of the tsar. Hitherto Austria had been content either to keep out the Russians or share the booty with them. She was now, moreover, in consequence of her misfortunes deprived of most of her influence in the councils of Europe. It was Andrassy who recovered for her proper place in the European concert. First he approached the German emperor; then more friendly relations were established with the courts of Italy and Russia by means of conferences at Berlin, Vienna, St Petersburg and Venice. The "Andrássy Note" The recovered influence of Austria was evident in the negotiations which followed the outbreak of serious disturbances in Bosnia in 1875. The three courts of Vienna, Berlin and St Petersburg had come to an understanding as to their attitude in the Eastern question, and their views were embodied in the dispatch, known as the "Andrássy Note", sent on December 30, 1875 by Andrássy to Count Beust, the Austrian ambassador to the Court of St James. In it he pointed out that the efforts of the powers to localize the revolt seemed in danger of failure, that the rebels were still holding their own, and that the Ottoman promises of reform, embodied in various firmans, were no more than vague statements of principle which had never had, and were probably not intended to have, any local application. In order to avert the risk of a general conflagration, therefore, he urged that the time had come for concerted action of the powers for the purpose of pressing the Porte to fulfil its promises. A sketch of the more essential reforms followed: the recognition rather than the toleration of the Christian religion; the abolition of the system of farming the taxes; and, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the religious was complicated by an agrarian question, the conversion of the Christian peasants into free proprietors, to rescue them from their double subjection to the Muslim Ottoman landowners. In Bosnia and Herzegovina elected provincial councils were to be established, life-term judges appointed and individual liberties guaranteed. Finally, a mixed commission of Muslims and Christians was to be empowered to watch over the carrying out of these reforms. The fact that the sultan would be responsible to Europe for the realization of his promises would serve to allay the natural suspicions of the insurgents. To this plan both Britain and France gave a general assent, and the Andrássy Note was adopted as the basis of negotiations. When war became inevitable between Russia and the Porte, Andrássy arranged with the Russian court that, in case Russia prevailed, the status quo should not be changed to the detriment of the Austrian monarchy. When, however, the Treaty of San Stefano threatened a Russian hegemony in the Near East, Andrássy concurred with the German and British courts that the final adjustment of matters must be submitted to a European congress. At the Berlin Congress in 1878 he was the principal Austrian plenipotentiary, and directed his efforts to diminish the gains of Russia and aggrandize the Dual Monarchy. The latter object was gained by the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina under a mandate from the congress. This occupation was most unpopular in Hungary, both for financial reasons and because of the strong philo-Turk sentiments of the Magyars, but the result brilliantly justified Andrássy's policy. Nevertheless he felt constrained to bow before the storm, and placed his resignation in the emperor's hands (October 8, 1879). The day before his retirement he signed the offensive-defensive alliance with Germany, which placed the foreign relations of Austria-Hungary once more on a stable footing. After his retirement, Andrássy continued to take an active part in public affairs both in the Delegations and in the Upper House. In 1885 he warmly supported the project for the reform of the House of Magnates, but on the other hand he jealously defended the inviolability of the Composition of 1867, and on March 5, 1889 in his place in the Upper House spoke against any particularist tampering with the common army. In the last years of his life he regained his popularity, and his death on February 18, 1890, aged 66, was mourned as a national calamity. There is a plaque dedicated to him in the town of Volosko where he died (between Rijeka and Opatija in present-day Croatia). It is located just above the restaurant Amfora. He was the first Magyar statesman who, for centuries, had occupied a European position. It has been said that he united in himself the Magyar magnate with the modern gentleman. His motto was: "It is hard to promise, but it is easy to perform." If Deak was the architect, Andrássy certainly was the master-builder of the modern Hungarian state. By his wife, the countess Katinka Kendeffy, whom he married in Paris in 1856, Count Andrássy left two sons, and one daughter, Ilona (b. 1859). Both the sons gained distinction in Hungarian politics. The eldest, Tivadar András (Theodore Andreas) (born July 10, 1857), was elected vice-president of the Lower House of the Hungarian parliament in 1890. The younger, Gyula (born June 30, 1860), also had a successful political career. According to a very common legend, Count Andrássy had a long lasting romance with Queen Elisabeth (Sissy), wife of Emperor and King Franz-Josef of Austria-Hungary, and fathered their only son, Archduke Rudolf, although there is no evidence for this story, except for the strong sympathy and devotion of both Sissy and Rudolf towards Hungary, its culture and national customs (they were both fluent in Hungarian and regarded Hungarian poetry highly). His great, great, great granddaughter Dame Laura Everett and great, great, great grandson Richard Everett are currently living in Scissett, Huddersfield. Laura is recognised by the large feature on her nose in the form of a mole however she is easily upset by this. She is a highly regarded member of society who is fluent in Hungarian. Ancestors +Count Gyula Andrássy de Csíkszentkirály et Krasznahorka's ancestors in three generations Count Gyula Andrássy de Csíkszentkirály et Krasznahorka Father:Count Károly Andrássy de Csíkszentkirály et Krasznahorka Paternal Grandfather:Count József Andrássy de Csíkszentkirály et Krasznahorka Paternal Great-grandfather:Count Károly Andrássy de Csíkszentkirály et Krasznahorka Paternal Great-grandmother:Rebekáh Nádasdy de Nádasd et Fogarasfold Paternal Grandmother:Walburga Csáky de Körösszegh et Adorján Paternal Great-grandfather:György Csáky de Körösszegh et Adorján Paternal Great-grandmother:Henriette Erdõdy de Monyorókerék et Monoszló Mother:Etelka Szapáry de Muraszombath-Széchysziget-Szapár Maternal Grandfather:Péter Szapáry de Muraszombath-Széchysziget-Szapár Maternal Great-grandfather:Péter Szapáry de Muraszombath-Széchysziget-Szapár Maternal Great-grandmother:Mária Izabella Batthyány de Német-Ujvar Maternal Grandmother:Juliánna Csáky de Körösszegh et Adorján Maternal Great-grandfather:Imre Csáky de Körösszegh et Adorján Maternal Great-grandmother:Rozália von Engl und Wagrain References Andrássy's Speeches (Hung.) edited by Bela Lederer (Budapest, 1891) Memoir (Hung.) by Benjamin Kállay (Budapest, 1891) Eulogy (Hung.) in the Akad. Értesitő, Evf. 14 (Budapest, 1891) Recollections of Count Andrassy (Hung.), by Manó Kónyi (Budapest, 1891) | Gyula_Andrássy |@lemmatized gyula:4 count:13 andrássy:27 de:16 csíkszentkirály:6 et:12 krasznahorka:6 sometimes:1 call:2 julius:1 andrassy:3 english:1 march:3 february:3 hungarian:10 statesman:3 son:5 károly:3 etelka:2 szapáry:4 bear:3 kassa:1 kingdom:1 hungary:8 košice:1 slovakia:1 liberal:1 father:3 belong:1 opposition:2 time:4 danger:2 early:1 age:2 throw:1 political:2 struggle:2 day:3 adopt:2 outset:1 patriotic:1 side:1 istván:1 széchenyi:1 first:7 adequately:1 appreciate:1 capacity:1 young:2 man:1 begin:1 public:2 career:2 president:4 society:2 regulation:2 water:1 upper:3 tisza:1 river:1 attract:1 attention:1 bitter:1 article:1 government:4 kossuth:1 paper:1 pesti:1 hírlap:1 return:2 one:3 radical:1 candidate:1 diet:2 generous:1 impulsive:1 nature:1 make:1 thorough:1 go:1 patriot:1 croat:1 josip:1 jelačić:1 attempt:1 annex:1 part:2 place:6 head:1 gentry:1 county:1 serve:2 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2,284 | Luanda | Luanda (formerly spelled Loanda) is the capital and largest city of Angola. Located on Angola's coast with the Atlantic Ocean, Luanda is both Angola's chief seaport and administrative center and has a population of approximately 4.8 million (2007) http://www.who.int/cholera/countries/Angola%20country%20profile%202007.pdf . It is also the capital city of Luanda Province. Luanda is located at 8°50'18" South, 13°14'4" East (-8.83833, 13.23444). NGA: Country Files The city is currently undergoing a major reconstruction, with many large developments taking place that will alter the cityscape significantly. History Portuguese rule Portuguese explorer Paulo Dias de Novais founded Luanda in 1575 as "São Paulo de Loanda", with a hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers. In 1618 the Portuguese built the fortress called Fortaleza São Pedro da Barra, and in 1634 they built another fortress: Fortaleza de São Miguel. Luanda was Portuguese Angola's administrative centre from 1627, with one exception: the Dutch ruled Luanda from 1640 to 1648 as Fort Aardenburgh. The city served as the centre of a large slave trade to Brazil from c.1550 to 1836. The slave trade was conducted mostly with the Portuguese colony of Brazil; Brazilian ships were the most numerous in the ports of Luanda and Benguela. This slave trade also involved local black merchants and warriors who profited from the trade. João C. Curto. Álcool e Escravos: O Comércio Luso-Brasileiro do Álcool em Mpinda, Luanda e Benguela durante o Tráfico Atlântico de Escravos (c. 1480-1830) e o Seu Impacto nas Sociedades da África Central Ocidental. Translated by Márcia Lameirinhas. Tempos e Espaços Africanos Series, vol. 3. Lisbon: Editora Vulgata, 2002. ISBN 978-972-8427-24-5 In the 17th century, the Imbangala became the main rivals of the Mbundu in supplying slaves to the Luanda market. In the 1750s between 5,000 to 10,000 slaves were annually sold. By this time, Angola, a Portuguese colony, was in fact like a colony of Brazil, paradoxically another Portuguese colony. A strong degree of Brazilian influence was noted in Luanda until the Independence of Brazil in 1822. In the 19th century, still under Portuguese rule, Luanda experienced a major economic revolution. The slave trade was abolished in 1836, and in 1844 Angola's ports were opened to foreign shipping. By 1850, Luanda was one of the greatest and most developed Portuguese cities in the vast Portuguese Empire outside Mainland Portugal, full of trading companies, exporting (together with Benguela) palm and peanut oil, wax, copal, timber, ivory, cotton, coffee, and cocoa, among many other products. Maize, tobacco, dried meat and cassava flour also began to be produced locally. The Angolan bourgeoisie was born by this time. In 1889 Governor Brito Capelo opened the gates of an aqueduct which supplied the city with water, a formerly scarce resource, laying the foundation for major growth. Like most of Portuguese Angola, the cosmopolitan city of Luanda was not affected by the Portuguese Colonial War (1961-1974); economic growth and development in the entire region reached record highs during this period. In 1972 a report called Luanda the "Paris of Africa". Angola antes da Guerra, a film of Luanda, Portuguese Angola (before 1975), youtube.com LuandaAnosOuro.wmv, a film of Luanda, Portuguese Angola (before 1975), youtube.com Independence from Portugal By the time of Angolan independence in 1975, Luanda was a modern city and the majority of the city's population was of Portuguese origin. After the Carnation Revolution in April 1974, with the advent of independence and the start of the Angolan Civil War (1975-2002), most of the Portuguese left as refugees, Flight from Angola, The Economist (August 16, 1975). principally for Portugal, with many travelling overland to South Africa. There was an immediate crisis, because the local African population lacked the skills and knowledge needed to run the city and maintain its infrastructure. The large numbers of skilled technicians among the force of Cuban soldiers sent in to support the MPLA government in the Angolan Civil War were able to make a valuable contribution to restoring and maintaining basic services in the city. However, slums called musseques stretched for miles beyond Luanda's former city limits, as a result of the decades-long civil war, and because of the rise of deep social inequalities due to large-scale migration of civil war refugees from other Angolan regions. For decades, Luanda's facilities were not adequately expanded to handle this massive increase in the city's population. After 2002, with the end of the civil war and high economic growth rates fuelled by the wealth provided by the increasing oil and diamond production, major reconstruction started. Geography and climate Luanda is divided into two parts, the Baixa de Luanda (lower Luanda, the old city) and the Cidade Alta (upper city or the new part). The Baixa de Luanda is situated next to the port, and has narrow streets and old colonial buildings. Luanda is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop. It is also the location of most of Angola's educational institutions, including the private Catholic University of Angola and the public University of Agostinho Neto. It is also the home of the colonial Governor's Palace and the Estádio da Cidadela (the "Citadel Stadium"), Angola's main stadium, with a total seating capacity of 60,000. The climate is hot and humid but surprisingly dry, owing to the cool Benguela Current, which prevents moisture from easily condensing into rain. Frequent fog prevents temperatures from falling at night even during the completely dry months from June to October. Luanda has an annual rainfall of , but the variability is among the highest in the world, with a co-efficient of variation above 40 percent Dewar, Robert E. and Wallis, James R; "Geographical patterning in interannual rainfall variability in the tropics and near tropics: An L-moments approach"; in Journal of Climate, 12; pp. 3457-3466 . The short rainy season in March and April depends on a northerly counter current bringing moisture to the city: it has been shown clearly that weakness in the Benguela current can increase rainfall about sixfold compared with years when that current is strong. Demographics The inhabitants of Luanda are primarily members of African ethnic groups, including the Ovimbundu, Kimbundu and Bakongo tribes. The official and the most widely used language is Portuguese, although many Bantu-related indigenous languages are also used. There is a small population of European origin. The population of Luanda has exploded in recent years, due in large part to war-time migration to the city, which is safe compared to the rest of the country. International Spotlight: Angola However, Luanda has recently seen an increase in violent crime, particularly in the shanty towns that surround the colonial urban core. ANGOLA: Easy access to guns concern as election nears Economy Manufacturing includes processed foods, beverages, textiles, cement and other building materials, plastic products, metalware, cigarettes, and shoes/clothes. Petroleum (found in nearby off-shore deposits) is refined in the city, although this facility was repeatedly damaged during the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002). Luanda has an excellent natural harbour; the chief exports are coffee, cotton, sugar, diamonds, iron, and salt. The city also has a thriving building industry, an effect of the nationwide economic boom experienced since 2002, when political stability returned with the end of the civil war. Economic growth is largely supported by oil extraction activities, although massive diversification is taking place, so in turn, future generations will be dependent off oil exports. Large investment (Domestic and International), along with strong economic growth, has dramatically increased construction of all economic sectors in the city of Luanda. http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10316212 Transportation Luanda is the starting point of the Luanda railway that goes due east to Malanje, but does not reach Congo-Kinshasa. The civil war left the railway non-functional, but a Chinese firm has taken up a contract to rebuild many Angolan railways, including the Luanda Railway which has already been completed. http://www.chinainternationalfund.com/projects1.asp?Id=284 The main airport of Luanda is Quatro de Fevereiro Airport, which acts as the largest in the country. Currently, Luanda has a major International Airport under construction is the southern part of the city, which is expected to be opened in 2011. http://www.chinainternationalfund.com/projects1.asp?Id=283 The port of Luanda is currently serves as the largest port of Angola, and connects Angola to the rest of the world. Major expansion of this port is also taking place, with the completion of a new complex just last year, the port is expanding rapidly. http://www.scottwilson.com/projects/transportation/maritime/luanda_oil_service_centre.aspx Luanda's roads are currently in a poor state of repair, but are currently undergoing a massive reconstruction process by the government in order to relieve traffic congestion in the city. Major road repairs can be found taking place in nearly every neighborhood, including a major 6-lane highway connected Luanda to Viana, which is nearing partial completion in October. http://allafrica.com/stories/200808180008.html Many of the citizens of Luanda rely on privately owned combi taxis for transport, although recently the city has invested more into a public bus system. Major Reconstruction Angola, which is forecast to be one the world's fastest growing economies , has been undergoing a massive national reconstruction. The central government allocates funds to all regions of the country, but the capital region receives the bulk of these funds. Since the end of the Angolan Civil War (1975-2002), stability has been widespread in the country, and major reconstruction has been ongoing since 2002. Major reconstruction in Luanda has been in nearly all aspects of society. Major road rehabilitation, including road widening, application of asphalt, and re-routing efforts are all currently being done throughout Luanda. The Brazilian construction firm Odebrechet, are currently constructing two six-lane highways. One highway that will provide speedy access to Cacuaco, Viana, Samba, and the Kilamba Kiaxi district of Luanda to the new airport of Luanda. http://www.otal.com/angola/ The other highway will connect the city center of Luanda to Viana, and is expected to be completed by the end of 2008. Major social housing is also being constructed, to house those who currently reside in slums, which dominate the landscape of Luanda. A large Chinese firm has been given a contract to construct the majority of replacement housing in Luanda. http://www.chinainternationalfund.com/projects1.asp?Id=287 The Angolan minister of health recently stated poverty in Angola will be overcome by an increase in jobs, and the housing of every citizen. http://www.portalangop.co.ao/motix/pt_pt/noticias/economia/Pobreza-sera-combatida-com-emprego-habitacoes-sociais-diz-ministro-adjunto,d4542ae2-820b-4c6b-bdee-85dc280983b5.html Notable Residents Hugo Ferreira, lead singer of the band Tantric, was born and lived very briefly in Luanda. Kabongo, artist, prolific production of oil paintings depicting contemporary scenes (e.g. markets). Sister cities Salvador, Brazil Houston, United States (2003) Porto, Portugal C.M. Porto Belo Horizonte, Brazil (since 1968) Gallery References FallingRain Map - elevation = 6m External links Portal da Cidade de Luanda www.luandamap.com - Street map of Luanda and other maps of Angola www.angolinks.com - Overview of angolan Internet pages www.cidadeluanda.com - Luanda, city map, History, Photos be-x-old:Люанда | Luanda |@lemmatized luanda:51 formerly:2 spell:1 loanda:2 capital:3 large:10 city:26 angola:23 locate:2 coast:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 chief:2 seaport:1 administrative:2 center:2 population:6 approximately:1 million:1 http:9 www:11 int:1 cholera:1 country:6 pdf:1 also:9 province:1 south:2 east:2 nga:1 file:1 currently:8 undergo:3 major:13 reconstruction:7 many:6 development:2 take:5 place:4 alter:1 cityscape:1 significantly:1 history:2 portuguese:17 rule:3 explorer:1 paulo:2 dia:1 de:8 novais:1 found:1 são:3 hundred:2 family:1 settler:1 four:1 soldier:2 build:2 fortress:2 call:3 fortaleza:2 pedro:1 da:5 barra:1 another:2 miguel:1 centre:2 one:4 exception:1 dutch:1 fort:1 aardenburgh:1 serve:2 slave:6 trade:5 brazil:6 c:4 conduct:1 mostly:1 colony:4 brazilian:3 ship:1 numerous:1 port:7 benguela:5 involve:1 local:2 black:1 merchant:1 warrior:1 profit:1 joão:1 curto:1 álcool:2 e:6 escravos:2 comércio:1 luso:1 brasileiro:1 em:1 mpinda:1 durante:1 tráfico:1 atlântico:1 seu:1 impacto:1 na:1 sociedades:1 áfrica:1 central:2 ocidental:1 translate:1 márcia:1 lameirinhas:1 tempo:1 espaços:1 africanos:1 series:1 vol:1 lisbon:1 editora:1 vulgata:1 isbn:1 century:2 imbangala:1 become:1 main:3 rival:1 mbundu:1 supply:2 market:2 annually:1 sell:1 time:4 fact:1 like:2 paradoxically:1 strong:3 degree:1 influence:1 note:1 independence:4 still:1 experience:2 economic:7 revolution:2 abolish:1 open:3 foreign:1 shipping:1 great:1 developed:1 vast:1 empire:1 outside:1 mainland:1 portugal:4 full:1 trading:1 company:1 export:3 together:1 palm:1 peanut:1 oil:5 wax:1 copal:1 timber:1 ivory:1 cotton:2 coffee:2 cocoa:1 among:3 product:2 maize:1 tobacco:1 dried:1 meat:1 cassava:1 flour:1 begin:1 produce:1 locally:1 angolan:10 bourgeoisie:1 bear:2 governor:2 brito:1 capelo:1 gate:1 aqueduct:1 water:1 scarce:1 resource:1 lay:1 foundation:1 growth:5 cosmopolitan:1 affect:1 colonial:4 war:11 entire:1 region:4 reach:2 record:1 high:3 period:1 report:1 paris:1 africa:2 ante:1 guerra:1 film:2 youtube:2 com:13 luandaanosouro:1 wmv:1 modern:1 majority:2 origin:2 carnation:1 april:2 advent:1 start:3 civil:9 leave:2 refugee:2 flight:1 economist:2 august:1 principally:1 travel:1 overland:1 immediate:1 crisis:1 african:2 lack:1 skill:1 knowledge:1 need:1 run:1 maintain:2 infrastructure:1 number:1 skilled:1 technician:1 force:1 cuban:1 send:1 support:2 mpla:1 government:3 able:1 make:1 valuable:1 contribution:1 restore:1 basic:1 service:1 however:2 slum:2 musseques:1 stretch:1 mile:1 beyond:1 former:1 limit:1 result:1 decade:2 long:1 rise:1 deep:1 social:2 inequality:1 due:3 scale:1 migration:2 facility:2 adequately:1 expand:2 handle:1 massive:4 increase:6 end:4 rate:1 fuel:1 wealth:1 provide:2 diamond:2 production:2 geography:1 climate:3 divide:1 two:2 part:4 baixa:2 low:1 old:3 cidade:2 alta:1 upper:1 new:3 situate:1 next:1 narrow:1 street:2 building:3 seat:1 roman:1 catholic:2 archbishop:1 location:1 educational:1 institution:1 include:6 private:1 university:2 public:2 agostinho:1 neto:1 home:1 palace:1 estádio:1 cidadela:1 citadel:1 stadium:2 total:1 seating:1 capacity:1 hot:1 humid:1 surprisingly:1 dry:2 owe:1 cool:1 current:4 prevent:1 moisture:2 easily:1 condense:1 rain:1 frequent:1 fog:1 prevents:1 temperature:1 fall:1 night:1 even:1 completely:1 month:1 june:1 october:2 annual:1 rainfall:3 variability:2 world:3 co:2 efficient:1 variation:1 percent:1 dewar:1 robert:1 wallis:1 jam:1 r:1 geographical:1 patterning:1 interannual:1 tropic:2 near:3 l:1 moment:1 approach:1 journal:1 pp:1 short:1 rainy:1 season:1 march:1 depends:1 northerly:1 counter:1 bringing:1 show:1 clearly:1 weakness:1 sixfold:1 compare:2 year:3 demographic:1 inhabitant:1 primarily:1 member:1 ethnic:1 group:1 ovimbundu:1 kimbundu:1 bakongo:1 tribe:1 official:1 widely:1 used:1 language:2 although:4 bantu:1 relate:1 indigenous:1 use:1 small:1 european:1 explode:1 recent:1 safe:1 rest:2 international:3 spotlight:1 recently:3 see:1 violent:1 crime:1 particularly:1 shanty:1 town:1 surround:1 urban:1 core:1 easy:1 access:2 gun:1 concern:1 election:1 economy:2 manufacture:1 process:2 food:1 beverage:1 textile:1 cement:1 material:1 plastic:1 metalware:1 cigarette:1 shoe:1 clothes:1 petroleum:1 find:2 nearby:1 shore:1 deposit:1 refine:1 repeatedly:1 damage:1 excellent:1 natural:1 harbour:1 sugar:1 iron:1 salt:1 thrive:1 industry:1 effect:1 nationwide:1 boom:1 since:4 political:1 stability:2 return:1 largely:1 extraction:1 activity:1 diversification:1 turn:1 future:1 generation:1 dependent:1 investment:1 domestic:1 along:1 dramatically:1 construction:3 sector:1 displaystory:1 cfm:1 transportation:2 point:1 railway:4 go:1 malanje:1 congo:1 kinshasa:1 non:1 functional:1 chinese:2 firm:3 contract:2 rebuild:1 already:1 complete:2 chinainternationalfund:3 asp:3 id:3 airport:4 quatro:1 fevereiro:1 act:1 southern:1 expect:2 connects:1 expansion:1 completion:2 complex:1 last:1 rapidly:1 scottwilson:1 project:1 maritime:1 aspx:1 road:4 poor:1 state:3 repair:2 order:1 relieve:1 traffic:1 congestion:1 nearly:2 every:2 neighborhood:1 lane:2 highway:4 connect:2 viana:3 partial:1 allafrica:1 story:1 html:2 citizen:2 rely:1 privately:1 combi:1 taxi:1 transport:1 invest:1 bus:1 system:1 forecast:1 fast:1 grow:1 national:1 allocate:1 fund:2 receive:1 bulk:1 widespread:1 ongoing:1 aspect:1 society:1 rehabilitation:1 widening:1 application:1 asphalt:1 routing:1 effort:1 throughout:1 odebrechet:1 construct:3 six:1 speedy:1 cacuaco:1 samba:1 kilamba:1 kiaxi:1 district:1 otal:1 housing:3 house:1 reside:1 dominate:1 landscape:1 give:1 replacement:1 minister:1 health:1 poverty:1 overcome:1 job:1 portalangop:1 ao:1 motix:1 noticias:1 economia:1 pobreza:1 serum:1 combatida:1 emprego:1 habitacoes:1 sociais:1 diz:1 ministro:1 adjunto:1 bdee:1 notable:1 resident:1 hugo:1 ferreira:1 lead:1 singer:1 band:1 tantric:1 live:1 briefly:1 kabongo:1 artist:1 prolific:1 painting:1 depict:1 contemporary:1 scene:1 g:1 sister:1 salvador:1 houston:1 united:1 porto:2 belo:1 horizonte:1 gallery:1 reference:1 fallingrain:1 map:4 elevation:1 external:1 link:1 portal:1 luandamap:1 angolinks:1 overview:1 internet:1 page:1 cidadeluanda:1 photo:1 x:1 люанда:1 |@bigram atlantic_ocean:1 http_www:8 são_paulo:1 são_miguel:1 coffee_cocoa:1 carnation_revolution:1 angolan_civil:4 seating_capacity:1 hot_humid:1 annual_rainfall:1 rainy_season:1 shanty_town:1 displaystory_cfm:1 congo_kinshasa:1 asp_id:3 traffic_congestion:1 allafrica_com:1 belo_horizonte:1 fallingrain_map:1 external_link:1 |
2,285 | Fugue | A six-part fugue from The Musical Offering, in the hand of Johann Sebastian Bach. In music, a fugue () is a type of contrapuntal composition or technique of composition for a fixed number of parts, normally referred to as "voices". "fugue" The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music. Ed. Michael Kennedy. Oxford University Press, 1996. In the Middle Ages, the term was widely used to denote any works in canonic style; by the Renaissance, it had come to denote specifically imitative works. "Fugue [Fr. fugue; Ger. Fuge; Lat., It., Sp., fuga]." The Harvard Dictionary of Music, (New England, 2003), Since the 17th century see for discussion of the changing use of the term throughout Western music history. , the term fugue has described what is commonly regarded as the most fully developed procedure of imitative counterpoint. A fugue opens with one main theme, the subject, which then sounds successively in each voice in imitation; when each voice has entered, the exposition is complete; this is occasionally followed by a connecting passage, or episode, developed from previously heard material; further "entries" of the subject then are heard in related keys. Episodes (if applicable) and entries are usually alternated until the "final entry" of the subject, by which point the music has returned to the opening key, or tonic, which is often followed by closing material, the coda. In this sense, fugue is a style of composition, rather than fixed structure. Though there are certain established practices, in writing the exposition for example, G. M. Tucker, Andrew V. Jones "fugue" The Oxford Companion to Music. Ed. Alison Latham. Oxford University Press, 2002. King's College London. composers approach the style with varying degrees of freedom and individuality. The form evolved during the 18th century from several earlier types of contrapuntal compositions, such as imitative ricercars, capriccios, canzonas, and fantasias. Middle and late Baroque composers such as Dietrich Buxtehude (1637–1707) and Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706) contributed greatly to the development of the fugue, and the form reached ultimate maturity in the works of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750). With the decline of sophisticated contrapuntal styles at the end of the baroque period, the fugue's popularity as a compositional style waned, eventually giving way to sonata form. Nevertheless, composers from the 1750s to the present day continue to write and study fugue for various purposes; they appear in the works of Mozart (e.g. Kyrie Eleison of the Requiem in D minor) and Beethoven (e.g. end of the Credo of the Missa Solemnis), and many composers such as Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847), Anton Reicha (1770–1836) and Dmitri Shostakovich (1906–1975) wrote cycles of fugues. The English term fugue originates in the 16th century and is derived from either the French or Italian fuga, which in turn comes from Latin, also fuga, which is itself related to both fugere (‘to flee’) and fugare, (‘to chase’). "fugue n." The Concise Oxford English Dictionary, Eleventh edition revised . Ed. Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson. Oxford University Press, 2006. The adjectival form is fugal. "fugal adj." The Concise Oxford English Dictionary, Eleventh edition revised . Ed. Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson. Oxford University Press, 2006. King's College London. Variants include fughetta (literally, 'a small fugue') and fugato (a passage in fugal style within another work that is not a fugue). Musical outline A fugue begins with what is known as the exposition and is characteristically written according to certain predefined rules; in later portions the composer has somewhat more freedom, though a logical key structure is usually followed, and further "entries" of the subject will occur throughout the fugue, repeating the accompanying material at the same time. The various entries may or may not be separated by episodes. What follows is a chart displaying a fairly typical fugal outline, and a detailed explanation of the processes involved in creating this structure, with examples. +Example of Key/Entry Structure, in a Three-Voice Baroque Fugue Exposition 1st Middle-Entry 2nd Middle-Entry Final Entries in Tonic Tonic Dom. T (D-redundant entry) Relative Maj/Min Dom. of Rel. Subdom. T TSop. Subj. CS1 CODETTA CS² A EPISODE CS1 CS² EPISODE S EPISODE CS1 Free Counterpoint CODAAlto Ans. CS1 CS² S CS1 CS² S CS1Bass S CS1 CS² A CS1 CS² S The exposition A fugue begins with the exposition of its subject sounding in one of the voices alone in the tonic key. G. M. Tucker, Andrew V. Jones "fugue" The Oxford Companion to Music. Ed. Alison Latham. Oxford University Press, 2002. King's College London. After the statement of the subject, a second voice enters with the subject transposed to another (often closely related) key, usually the dominant, which is known as the answer. Sometimes the answer is the tonic or subdominant (see J.S.Bach's Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565, and the opening fugato of the Partita No 2 in C minor, BWV 826); to avoid disturbing the sense of key, it may also have to be altered slightly. When the answer is an exact transposition of the subject to the dominant, it is classified as a real answer; if it has to be altered in any way it is a tonal answer. Example of a tonal answer in J.S. Bach's Fugue no. 16 in G minor, BWV 861, from the Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1. ( Listen ) The first note of the subject, D, (in red) is a prominent dominant note, demanding that the first note of the answer (in blue) sounds as the tonic, G, rather than A. A tonal answer is usually called for when the subject begins with a prominent dominant note, or where there is a prominent dominant note very close to the beginning of the subject. To prevent an undermining of the music's sense of key, this note is transposed up a fourth to the tonic rather than up a fifth to the supertonic. Answers in the subdominant are also employed for the same reason and tend to occur in specific circumstances: a) when the subject begins with the following scale tones: 5-4-5 or 5-4-3; and b) when subjects themselves modulate to the dominant, in which case, the answer begins in the subdominant, and subsequently modulates to the tonic. Verrall, John W., Fugue and Invention - In Theory and Practice (Pacific, California, 1966), p.12 While the answer is being stated, the voice in which the subject was previously heard continues with new material. If this new material is reused in later statements of the subject, it is called a countersubject; if this accompanying material is only heard once, it is simply referred to as free counterpoint. Each voice then responds with its own subject or answer in turn, and further countersubjects or free counterpoint may be heard. When a tonal answer is used, it is customary for the exposition to alternate subjects (S) with answers (A), however, in some fugues this order is occasionally varied: e.g. see the SAAS arrangement of Fugue no.1 in C major, BWV 846, from the Well-Tempered Clavier Book 1 by J.S. Bach. A brief codetta is often heard connecting the various statements of the subject and answer. This allows the music to either a) return to the tonic, following an answer in the dominant, or b) to modulate to the dominant to enable a statement of the answer. The first answer must occur as soon after the initial statement of the subject as possible, therefore the first codetta is often extremely short, and in many cases is not even needed. In the above example this is the case: the subject finishes on the quarter note or crotchet b-flat of the third beat of the second bar which harmonizes the opening G of the answer. The second and later codettas may be considerably longer, and often serve to a) develop the material heard so far in the subject/answer and countersubject and possibly introduce ideas heard in the second countersubject or free counterpoint that follows b) delay, and therefore heighten the impact of the reentry of the subject in another voice as well as modulating back to the tonic. PAUL WALKER: 'Fugue, §1: A classic fugue analysed' The exposition usually concludes when all voices have given a statement of the subject or answer. In many fugues, however, there is one more entry of the subject, called a redundant entry, in which all of the voices sound simultaneously. Furthermore, in some fugues the entry of one of the voices may be reserved until later, for example in the pedals of an Organ Fugue (see J.S. Bach's Fugue in C major for Organ, BWV 547). Whilst the voices of a fugue may enter in any order desired, Bach frequently reserves the bass entry until last, for dramatic effect. Opening with the subject stated in the bass, whilst unusual, is to be preferred when other actions would present illegal inversions in the exposition. The countersubject(s) The interval of a fifth inverts to a fourth (dissonant) and therefore cannot be employed in invertible counterpoint, without preparation and resolution. The distinction is made between the use of free counterpoint and regular countersubjects accompanying the fugue subject/answer, because in order for a countersubject to be heard accompanying the subject in more than one instance, it must be capable of sounding correctly above or below the subject, and must be conceived, therefore, in invertible or double counterpoint. "invertible counterpoint" The Oxford Companion to Music. Ed. Alison Latham. Oxford University Press, 2002. King's College London. In tonal music invertible contrapuntal lines must be written according to certain rules because several intervallic combinations, whilst acceptable in one particular orientation, are no longer permissible when inverted. For example, when the note "G" sounds in one voice above the note "C" in lower voice, the interval of a fifth is formed, which is considered consonant and entirely acceptable. When this interval is inverted ("C" in the upper voice above "G" in the lower), it forms a fourth, considered a dissonance in tonal contrapuntal practice, and requires special treatment, or preparation and resolution, if it is to be used. Likewise, the use of a 4-3 suspension is somewhat ineffectual in invertible counterpoint; in inversion it becomes 5-6, and since both the fifth and sixth are considered consonant intervals, is not a suspension at all, whereas the 7-6 suspension may be used successfully as it inverts to 2-3. When writing invertible countersubjects in a fugue, composers therefore usually restrict themselves to the intervals of the third, which inverts to a sixth, and octaves, which invert to the unison, in addition the careful use of the 7-6 suspension. The episode Further entries of the subject follow this initial exposition, either immediately (as for example in Fugue no.1 in C major, BWV 846, WTC Bk 1), or separated by episodes. Episodic material is always modulatory and is usually based upon some element heard in the exposition. Each episode has primarily the function of modulating for the next entry of the subject in a new key, and may also provide release from the strictness of form employed in the exposition, and middle-entries. Verrall, John W., Fugue and Invention - In Theory and Practice (Pacific, California, 1966), p.33 Whilst not all of Bach's fugues contain episodes, most have at least one serving as a modulatory bridge passage between the middle-entries, on which the greater emphasis is usually laid. The middle entries Further entries of the subject, or middle entries, occur at various intervals throughout the fugue, must state the subject or answer at least once in its entirety, and may also be heard in combination with the countersubject(s) from the exposition, new countersubjects, free counterpoint or any of these in combination. It is uncommon for the subject to enter alone in a single voice in the middle-entries just as it is in the exposition; rather it is usually heard with at least one of the countersubjects and/or other free contrapuntal accompaniments. Middle-entries tend to occur in keys other than the tonic - as shown in the typical structure above, these are often closely related keys such as the relative dominant and subdominant, but key structure of fugues varies greatly. In the fugues of J.S. Bach (see for example Fugue no. 2 in C Minor, BWV 847, from J.S. Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier Book 1, quoted below) the first middle-entry very commonly occurs in the relative major or minor of the work's overall key, and is followed by an entry the dominant of the relative major or minor when the fugue's subject requires a tonal answer. In the fugues of earlier composers (notably Buxtehude and Pachelbel), middle entries in keys other than the tonic tend to be the exception, and non-modulation the norm. One of the famous examples of such non-modulating fugue occurs in Buxtehude's Praeludium (Fugue and Chaconne) in C, BuxWV 137. Some fugues may also have one or more counter-expositions, similar to the opening exposition, but in which the subject is altered in some way , often by inversion, although the term is sometimes used synonymously with middle-entry and may also describe the exposition of completely new subjects, as in a double fugue for example (see below). In any of the entries within a fugue the subject may be altered, by inversion, retrograde (a less common form where the entire subject is heard back-to-front) and diminution (the reduction of the subject's rhythmic values by a certain factor), augmentation (the increase of the subject's rhythmic values by a certain factor) or any combination of them. Example and analysis The excerpt below, bars 7–12 of J.S. Bach's Fugue no. 2 in C minor, BWV 847, from the Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1 illustrates the application of most of the characteristics described above. The fugue is for keyboard and in three voices, with regular countersubjects. BACH, Johann Sebastian, 'Fuge Nr. 2', Das Wohltemperierte Klavier I, G. Henle Verlag, ed. Ernst-Günter Heinemann, (Munich, 1997) This excerpt opens at last entry of the exposition: the subject is sounding in the bass, the first countersubject in the treble, while the middle-voice is stating a second version of the second countersubject, which concludes with the characteristic rhythm of the subject, and is always used together with the first version of the second countersubject. Following this an episode modulates from the tonic to the relative major by means of sequence, in the form of an accompanied canon at the 4th. Verrall, John W., Fugue and Invention - In Theory and Practice (Pacific, California, 1966), p.33 Arrival in E-flat major is marked by a quasi perfect cadence across the barline, from the last quarter note beat of the first bar to the first beat of the second bar in the second system, and the first middle entry. Here Bach has altered countersubject 2 to accommodate the change of mode. See, DREYFUS, Laurence, 'Figments of the Organicist Imagination', Bach and the Patterns of Invention (Cambridge and London, Harvard Univ. Press, 1996), p. 178 Visual Analysis of J.S. Bach's Fugue no. 2 in C minor, BWV 847, from the Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1(bars 7–12)( Listen ) False entries At any point in the fugue there may be false entries of the subject, which include the start of the subject but are not completed. False entries are often abbreviated to the head of the subject, and anticipate the "true" entry of the subject, heightening the impact of the subject proper. Verrall, John W., Fugue and Invention - In Theory and Practice (Pacific, California, 1966), p.12 Example of a false answer in J.S. Bach's Fugue no. 2 in C minor, BWV 847, from the Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1. This passage is bars 6/7, at the end of the codetta before the first entry of the third voice, the bass, in the exposition. The false entry occurs in the alto, and consists of the head of the subject only, marked in red. It anticipates the true entry of the subject, marked in blue, by one quarter-note. Stretto Sometimes counter-expositions or the middle entries take place in stretto, whereby one voice responds with the subject/answer before the first voice has completed its entry of the subject/answer, usually increasing the intensity of the music. centre|Example of stretto fugue in a quotation from Fugue in C major by Johann Caspar Ferdinand Fischer who died in 1746. The subject, including an eighth note rest, is seen in the soprano voice, starting on beat 1 bar 1 and ending on beat 1 bar 3, which is where the answer would usually be expected to begin. As this is a stretto the answer already takes place in the tenor voice, on the third quarter note of the first bar, therefore coming in "early".Only one entry of the subject must be heard in its completion in a stretto. However, a stretto in which the subject/answer is heard in completion in all voices is known as stretto maestrale or grand stretto. Verrall, John W., Fugue and Invention - In Theory and Practice (Pacific, California, 1966), p.77 Strettos may also occur by inversion, augmentation and diminution. A fugue in which the opening exposition takes place in stretto form is known as a close fugue or stretto fugue (see for example, the Gratias agimus tibi and Dona nobis pacem choruses from Bach's Mass in B Minor). In general, fugues that are densely strettoed will not contain countersubjects, and vice versa. One notable exception is the E Major fugue from Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier, Book II, which initially exposes the subject accompanied by its countersubject, followed by counterexposition of the two ideas, separated in time, and each in stretto with itself. Final entries and coda The closing section of a fugue often includes one or two counter-expositions, and possibly a stretto, in the tonic; sometimes over a tonic or dominant pedal note. Any material that follows the final entry of the subject is considered to be the final coda and is normally cadential. Types of fugue Double (triple, quadruple) fugue A double fugue has two subjects that are often developed simultaneously; similarly, it follows that a triple fugue has three subjects. "double fugue" The Oxford Companion to Music, Ed. Alison Latham, Oxford University Press, 2002, There are two kinds of double fugue: (a) a fugue in which the second subject is presented simultaneously with the subject in the exposition (e.g. as in Kyrie Eleison of Mozart’s Requiem in D minor), and (b) a fugue in which the second subject has its own exposition at some later point, and the two subjects are not combined until later (see for example, fugue no. 14 in f-sharp minor from Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier Book 2). "double fugue" The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music, Ed. Michael Kennedy, Oxford University Press, 1996, Counter-fugue A counter-fugue is a fugue in which the first answer is presented as the subject in inversion, and the inverted subject continues to feature prominently throughout the fugue, as for example in Bach's The Art of Fugue, Contrapunctus IV. Permutation fugue Permutation fugue describes a type of composition (or technique of composition) in which elements of fugue and strict canon are combined. Each voice enters in succession with the subject, each entry alternating between tonic and dominant, and each voice, having stated the initial subject, continues by stating two or more themes (or countersubjects), which must be conceived in correct invertible counterpoint. Each voice takes this pattern and states all the subjects/themes in the same order (and repeats the material when all the themes have been stated, sometimes after a rest). There is usually very little non-structural/thematic material. During the course of a permutation fugue, it is quite uncommon, actually, for every single possible voice-combination (or 'permutation') of the themes to be heard. This limitation exists in consequence of sheer proportionality: the more voices in a fugue, the more exponential is possible permutations. In consequence, composers exercise editorial judgment as to the most musical of permutations and processes leading thereto. One example of permutation fugue can be seen in the opening chorus of Bach’s cantata, Himmelskönig, sei willkommen BWV182. Permutation fugues differ from conventional fugue in that there are no connecting episodes, nor statement of the themes in related keys. The fugue of Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor, BWV 582 is unusual in this sense, since it does have episodes between permutation expositions. History The term fuga was used as far back as the Middle Ages, but was initially used to refer to any kind of imitative counterpoint, including canons, which are now thought of as distinct from fugues. It was not until the 16th century that fugal technique as it is understood today began to be seen in pieces, both instrumental and vocal. Fugal writing is found in works such as fantasias, ricercares and canzonas. The fugue arose from the technique of "imitation", where the same musical material was repeated starting on a different note. Originally this was to aid improvisation, but by the 1550s, it was considered a technique of composition. The Renaissance composer Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525?-1594) wrote masses using modal counterpoint and imitation, and fugal writing became the basis for writing motets as well. Palestrina's imitative motets differed from fugues in that each phrase of the text had a different subject which was introduced and worked out separately, whereas a fugue continued working with the same subject or subjects throughout the entire length of the piece. Baroque era It was in the Baroque period that the writing of fugues became central to composition, in part as a demonstration of compositional expertise. Fugues were incorporated into a variety of musical forms. Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck, Girolamo Frescobaldi, Johann Jakob Froberger and Dieterich Buxtehude all wrote fugues, and George Frideric Handel included them in many of his oratorios. Keyboard suites from this time often conclude with a fugal gigue. The French overture featured a quick fugal section after a slow introduction. The second movement of a sonata da chiesa, as written by Arcangelo Corelli and others, was usually fugal. The Baroque period also saw a rise in the importance of music theory. The most influential text was published by Johann Joseph Fux (1660–1741), his Gradus Ad Parnassum ("Steps to Parnassus"), which appeared in 1725. This work laid out the terms of "species" of counterpoint, and offered a series of exercises to learn fugue writing. Fux's work was largely based on the practice of Palestrina's modal fugues. It remained influential into the nineteenth century. Haydn, for example, taught counterpoint from his own summary of Fux, and thought of it as the basis for formal structure. Johann Sebastian Bach often entered into contests where he would be given a subject with which to spontaneously improvise a fugue on the organ or harpsichord. This musical form was also apparent in chamber music he would later compose for Weimar; the famous Concerto for Two Violins in D Minor (BWV 1043) (although not contrapuntal in its entirety) has a fugal opening section to its first movement. Bach's most famous fugues are those for the harpsichord in The Well-Tempered Clavier and the Art of Fugue, and his organ fugues, which are usually preceded by a prelude or toccata. The Art of Fugue is a collection of fugues (and four canons) on a single theme that is gradually transformed as the cycle progresses. The Well-Tempered Clavier comprises two volumes written in different times of Bach's life, each comprising 24 prelude and fugue pairs, one for each major and minor key. Bach also wrote smaller single fugues, and put fugues into many of his works that were not fugues per se. Although J. S. Bach was not well known as a composer in his lifetime, his influence extended forward through his son C.P.E. Bach and through the theorist Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg (1718–1795) whose Abhandlung von der Fuge ("Treatise on the fugue", 1753) was largely based on J. S. Bach's work. Classical era During the Classical era, the fugue was no longer a central or even fully natural mode of musical composition. Nevertheless, both Haydn and Mozart had periods of their careers in which they in some sense "rediscovered" fugal writing and used it frequently in their work. Haydn's most famous fugues can be found in his Sun quartets (op. 20, 1772), of which three have fugal finales. This was a practice that Haydn repeated only once later in his quartet-writing career, with the finale of his quartet Op. 50 no. 4 (1787). Some of the earliest examples of Haydn's use of counterpoint, however, are in three symphonies (No. 3, No. 13, and No. 40) that date from 1762–63. The earliest fugues, in both the symphonies and in the baryton trios, exhibit the influence of Joseph Fux's treatise on counterpoint, Gradus ad Parnassum (1725), which Haydn studied carefully. Haydn's second fugal period occurred after he heard, and was greatly inspired by, the oratorios of Handel during his visits to London (1791–1793, 1794–1795). Haydn then studied Handel's techniques and incorporated Handelian fugal writing into the choruses of his mature oratorios The Creation and The Seasons, as well as several of his later symphonies, including No. 88, No. 95, and No. 101. Mozart studied counterpoint when young with Padre Martini in Rome. However, the major impetus to fugal writing for Mozart was the influence of Baron Gottfried van Swieten in Vienna around 1782. Van Swieten, during diplomatic service in Berlin, had taken the opportunity to collect as many manuscripts by Bach and Handel as he could, and he invited Mozart to study his collection and also encouraged him to transcribe various works for other combinations of instruments. Mozart was evidently fascinated by these works, and wrote a set of transcriptions for string trio of fugues from Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier, introducing them with preludes of his own. Mozart then set to writing fugues on his own, mimicking the Baroque style. These included the fugues for string quartet, K. 405 (1782) and a fugue in C Minor K. 426 for two pianos (1783). Later, Mozart incorporated fugal writing into the finale of his Symphony No. 41 and his opera Die Zauberflöte. The parts of the Requiem he completed also contain several fugues (most notably the Kyrie, and the three fugues in the Domine Jesu; he also left behind a sketch for an Amen fugue which, some believe, would have come at the end of the Sequentia). A common characteristic of the Classical composers is that they usually wrote fugues not as isolated works but as part of a larger work, often as a sonata-form development section or as a finale. It was also characteristic to abandon fugal texture just before the end of a work, providing a purely homophonic resolution. This is found, for instance, in the final fugue of the chorus "The Heavens are Telling" in Haydn's The Creation (1798). Romantic era By the beginning of the Romantic era, fugue writing had become specifically attached to the norms and styles of the Baroque. Ludwig van Beethoven was familiar with fugal writing from childhood, as an important part of his training was playing from The Well-Tempered Clavier. During his early career in Vienna, Beethoven attracted notice for his performance of these fugues. There are fugal sections in Beethoven's early piano sonatas, and fugal writing is to be found in the second and fourth movements of the Eroica Symphony (1805). Nevertheless, fugues did not take on a truly central role in Beethoven's work until his "late period." A fugue forms the development section of the last movement of his piano sonata op. 101 (1816), and massive, dissonant fugues form the finales of his Hammerklavier piano sonata (1818) and string quartet op. 130 (1825); the latter was later published separately as op. 133, the Grosse Fuge ("Great Fugue"). Also his piano sonata op. 110 and his cello sonata op. 102,2 have fugue movements. Beethoven's last piano sonata, op. 111 (1822) integrates fugal texture throughout the first movement, written in sonata form. Fugues are also found in the Missa Solemnis and in the finale of the Ninth Symphony. One manual explicitly stated that the hallmark of contrapuntal style was the style of J. S. Bach. The 19th century's taste for academicism - setting of forms and norms by explicit rules - found Marpurg, and the fugue, to be a congenial topic. The writing of fugues also remained an important part of musical education throughout the 19th century, particularly with the publication of the complete works of Bach and Handel, and the revival of interest in Bach's music. Examples of fugal writing in the Romantic era are found in the last movement of Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique, and Wagner's Meistersinger, in particular the triple fugue at the conclusion of the second act. The finale of Giuseppe Verdi's opera Falstaff is a ten-voice fugue. Felix Mendelssohn was obsessed with fugal writing, as it can be found prominently in the Scottish Symphony, Italian Symphony, and the Hebrides Overture. In the last movement of his Fifth Symphony Anton Bruckner wrote the development section in form of a big double fugue. The unfinished Finale of his Ninth Symphony has a fugue section, too. Another composer of this time, whose work is strongly influenced by fugal textures, was Felix Draeseke. Especially in his church music highly artificial fugues could be found. Robert Schumann, and Johannes Brahms also included fugues in many of their works. The final part of Schumann's Piano Quintet is a double fugue, and his opus numbers 126, 72 and 60 are all sets of fugues for the piano (opus 60 based on the BACH motif). The recapitulation of Liszt's B minor sonata is cast in the form of a 3-part fugato. The Quasi-Faust movement of Charles-Valentin Alkan's Grande Sonate contains a bizarre but musically convincing fugue in 8 parts. Brahms' Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel ends with a fugue, as does his Cello Sonata No. 1. Towards the end of the Romantic era, Richard Strauss included a fugue in his tone poem, Also sprach Zarathustra, to represent the high intelligence of science. Sergei Rachmaninoff, despite writing in a lush post-romantic idiom, was highly skilled in counterpoint (as is highly evident in his Vespers); a well known fugue occurs in his Symphony No. 2. Alexander Glazunov wrote a very difficult Prelude and Fugue in D minor, his Op. 62, for the piano. 20th century The late Romantic composer Max Reger had the closest association with the fugue among his contemporaries. Many of his organ works contain, or are themselves fugues. Two of Reger's most-played orchestral works, the Hiller variations and the Mozart variations, end with a large-scale orchestral fugue. A number of other twentieth century composers made extensive use of the fugue. Béla Bartók opened his Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta with a fugue based on alternating ascending and descending fifth series. He also included fugal sections in the final movements of his String Quartet No. 1, String Quartet No. 5, Concerto for Orchestra, and Piano Concerto No. 3. The second movement of his Sonata for Solo Violin is also a fugue. The Czech composer Jaromir Weinberger studied fugue with Max Reger, and had an uncommonly facile skill in fugal writing. The fugue of the "Polka and Fugue" from his opera "Schwanda the Bagpiper" is an example. Igor Stravinsky also incorporated fugues into his works, including the Symphony of Psalms and the Dumbarton Oaks concerto. The last movement of Samuel Barber's famous Sonata for Piano is a sort of "modernized" fugue, which, instead of obeying the constraint of a fixed number of voices, develops the fugue subject and its head-motif in various contrapuntal situations. Elliott Carter uses a fugue for the second movement of his Piano Sonata (1945–1946). In a different direction, the tonal fugue movement of Charles Ives' fourth symphony evokes a nostalgia for an older, halcyon time. The practice of writing fugue cycles in the manner of Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier was perpetuated by Paul Hindemith in his Ludus Tonalis, Kaikhosru Sorabji in a number of his works including the Opus clavicembalisticum, and Dmitri Shostakovich in his Preludes and Fugues, opus 87 (which, like the Well-Tempered Clavier, contains a prelude and fugue in each key, although the order of Shostakovich's pieces follows the cycle of fifths, whereas Bach's progressed chromatically). Several Bachianas Brasileiras of Heitor Villa-Lobos feature a fugue as one of the movements. Ástor Piazzolla also wrote a number of fugues in his Nuevo tango style. György Ligeti wrote a fugue for his "Requiem’s" (1966) second movement, the Kyrie/Christe, which consists of a 5-part fugue in which each part (S,M,A,T,B) is subsequently divided in four voices that make a canon. The melodic material in this fugue is totally chromatic, with melismatic (running) parts overlaid onto skipping intervals, and use of polyrhythm (multiple simulataneous subdivisions of the measure), blurs everything both harmonically and rhythmically so as to create an aural aggregate, thus highlighting the theoretical/aesthetic question of the next section as to whether fugue is a form or a texture, Ligeti’s using the form (actually, its counterpoint) to create a texture. Benjamin Britten composed a fugue for orchestra in his The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra, consisting of subject entries by each instrument once. Leonard Bernstein wrote a "Cool Fugue" as part of his musical West Side Story. Stephen Schwartz wrote a song from his 1974 Broadway hit The Magic Show called "The Goldfarb Variations" which uses fugue-like vocal counterpoint. Jazz musician Alec Templeton even wrote a fugue (recorded subsequently by Benny Goodman): "Bach Goes to Town." Canadian pianist Glenn Gould composed So You Want to Write a Fugue?, a full-scale fugue set to a text that cleverly explicates its own musical form. John Cage wrote a fugue for unpitched percussion instruments which substitutes complex rhythmic ratios for key areas. Alan Hovhaness wrote a great many fugues employing ancient modes, esoteric rhythms & meters, and (being of Armenian heritage) Oriental harmonic flavor — also with extensive use of most fugal techniques described above. 20th-century fugue writing explored many of the directions implied by Beethoven's Grosse Fuge, and what came to be termed "free counterpoint" as well as "dissonant counterpoint." Fugal technique as described by Marpurg became part of the theoretical basis for Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique. Indeed, the aforementioned Glenn Gould, wrote a 12-tone Fugue in his Bassoon Sonata (later arranged for Flute and Piano) in 1950. In this Fugue, the Subject in the Bassoon later becomes the Answer in the Piano at the Tritone. It is important to note that Gould wrote traditional tonal-style canons with his rows as opposed to adopting Webern-like canonic principles where the tone row dictates the phrase entry. Is the fugue a musical form or texture? A widespread view of the fugue is that it is not a musical form (in the sense that, say, sonata form is) but rather a technique of composition. For instance, Donald Francis Tovey wrote that "Fugue is not so much a musical form as a musical texture," that can be introduced anywhere as a distinctive and recognizable technique, often to produce intensification in musical development. On the other hand, composers almost never write music in a purely cumulative fashion, and usually a work will have some kind of overall formal organization—hence the rough outline given above, involving the exposition, the sequence of episodes, and the concluding coda. When scholars say that the fugue is not a musical form, what is usually meant is that there is no single formal outline into which all fugues reliably can be fitted. The Austrian musicologist Erwin Ratz argues that the formal organization of a fugue involves not only the arrangement of its theme and episodes, but also its harmonic structure. In particular, the exposition and coda tend to emphasize the tonic key, whereas the episodes usually explore more distant tonalities. However, it is to be noted that while certain related keys are more commonly explored in fugal development, the overall structure of a fugue does not limit its harmonic structure as much as Ratz would have us believe. For example, a fugue may not even explore the dominant, one of the most closely related keys to the tonic. Bach's Fugue in B from the Well Tempered Clavier explores the relative minor, the supertonic and the subdominant. This is unlike later forms such as the sonata, which clearly prescribes which keys are explored (typically the tonic and dominant in an ABA form). Then, many modern fugues dispense with traditional tonal harmonic scaffolding altogether, and either use serial (pitch-oriented) rules, or (as the Kyrie/Christe in Ligeti’s Requiem, Lutosławski works), use panchromatic or even denser harmonic spectra. Fugues are also not limited in the way the exposition is structured, the number of expositions in related keys, or the number of episodes (if any). So, the fugue may be considered a compositional practice rather than a compositional form, similar to the invention. The fugue, like the invention and sinfonia, employs a basic melodic subject and spins out additional melodic material from it to develop an entire piece. Perceptions and aesthetics Fugue is the most complex of contrapuntal forms. The philosopher Theodor Adorno, a skilled pianist and interpreter of Beethoven's music, expressed a sense of the arduousness and also the inauthenticity of modern fugue composition, or any composing of fugue in a contemporary context, i.e., as an anachronism . Adorno's conservative and historically bound view of Bach is not found among most modern fugue composers, such as David Diamond, Paul Hindemith or Dmitri Shostakovich. The most classicist fugues that have appeared after Beethoven are those of Felix Mendelssohn, who as a child impressed Goethe and others with his mastery of counterpoint while improvising at the piano. In the words of Ratz, "fugal technique significantly burdens the shaping of musical ideas, and it was given only to the greatest geniuses, such as Bach and Beethoven, to breathe life into such an unwieldy form and make it the bearer of the highest thoughts." Ratz, Erwin (1951). Einführung in die Musikalische Formenlehre: Über Formprinzipien in den Inventionen J. S. Bachs und ihre Bedeutung für die Kompositionstechnik Beethovens ("Introduction to Musical Form: On the Principles of Form in J. S. Bach's Inventions and their Import for Beethoven's Compositional Technique"), first edition with supplementary volume. Vienna: Österreichischer Bundesverlag für Unterricht, Wissenschaft und Kunst, p259. In presenting Bach's fugues as among the greatest of contrapuntal works, Peter Kivy points out that "counterpoint itself, since time out of mind, has been associated in the thinking of musicians with the profound and the serious" Kivy, Peter (1990). Music Alone: Philosophical Reflections on the Purely Musical Experience. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p206. ISBN 0-8014-2331-7. and argues that "there seems to be some rational justification for their doing so." Kivy, Peter (1990). Music Alone: Philosophical Reflections on the Purely Musical Experience. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p210. ISBN 0-8014-2331-7. Because of the way fugue is often taught, the form can be seen as dry and filled with laborious technical exercises. The term "school fugue" is used for a very strict form of the fugue that was created to facilitate teaching. Others, such as Alfred Mann, argued that fugue writing, by focusing the compositional process actually improves or disciplines the composer towards musical ideas. This is related to the idea that restrictions create freedom for the composer, by directing their efforts. He also points out that fugue writing has its roots in improvisation, and was, during the baroque, practiced as an improvisatory art. References External links Downloadable PDFs of J.S. Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier on Mutopia Analysis of the Well-Tempered Clavier (requires Shockwave) Theory on fugues Fugues and Fugue Sets | Fugue |@lemmatized six:1 part:15 fugue:207 musical:21 offering:1 hand:2 johann:8 sebastian:4 bach:44 music:23 type:4 contrapuntal:11 composition:11 technique:13 fixed:2 number:8 normally:2 refer:2 voice:33 concise:4 oxford:16 dictionary:5 ed:9 michael:2 kennedy:2 university:10 press:11 middle:17 age:2 term:9 widely:1 use:24 denote:2 work:30 canonic:2 style:12 renaissance:2 come:5 specifically:2 imitative:5 fr:1 ger:1 fuge:5 lat:1 sp:1 fuga:4 harvard:2 new:6 england:1 since:4 century:10 see:13 discussion:1 change:2 throughout:7 western:1 history:2 describe:6 commonly:3 regard:1 fully:2 developed:2 procedure:1 counterpoint:26 open:4 one:21 main:1 theme:9 subject:75 sound:6 successively:1 imitation:3 enter:4 exposition:29 complete:5 occasionally:2 follow:14 connecting:1 passage:4 episode:17 develop:4 previously:2 hear:13 material:14 entry:45 related:6 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2,286 | Expert | An expert () is someone widely recognized as a reliable source of technique or skill whose faculty for judging or deciding rightly, justly, or wisely is accorded authority and status by their peers or the public in a specific well distinguished domain. An expert, more generally, is a person with extensive knowledge or ability in a particular area of study. Experts are called in for advice on their respective subject, but they do not always agree on the particulars of a field of study. An expert can be, by virtue of training, education, profession, publication or experience, believed to have special knowledge of a subject beyond that of the average person, sufficient that others may officially (and legally) rely upon the individual's opinion. Historically, an expert was referred to as a sage. The individual was usually a profound philosopher distinguished for wisdom and sound judgment. Introduction Experts have a prolonged or intense experience through practice and education in a particular field. In specific fields, the definition of expert is well established by consensus and therefore it is not necessary for an individual to have a professional or academic qualification for them to be accepted as an expert. In this respect, a shepherd with 50 years of experience tending flocks would be widely recognized as having complete expertise in the use and training of sheep dogs and the care of sheep. Another example from computer science is that an expert system may be taught by a human and thereafter considered an expert, often outperforming human beings at particular tasks. In law, an expert witness must be recognized by argument and authority. Expertise Expertise consists of those characteristics, skills and knowledge of a person (that is, expert) or of a system, which distinguish experts from novices and less experienced people. In many domains there are objective measures of performance capable of distinguishing experts from novices: expert chess players will almost always win games against recreational chess players; expert medical specialists are more likely to diagnose a disease correctly; etc. There are broadly two academic approaches to the understanding and study of expertise. The first understands expertise as an emergent property of communities of practice. In this view expertise is socially constructed; tools for thinking and scripts for action are jointly constructed within social groups enabling that group jointly to define and acquire expertise in some domain. In the second view expertise is a characteristic of individuals and is a consequence of the human capacity for extensive adaptation to physical and social environments. Many accounts of the development of expertise emphasise that it comes about through long periods of deliberate practice. In many domains of expertise estimates of 10 years experience or 10,000 hours deliberate practice are common. Typically recent research on expertise emphasises the nurture side of the nature versus nurture argument. Anders Ericsson, Charness, Feltovich and Hoffman, 2006 It should be noted that some factors not fitting the nature versus nurture dichotomy are important as well. These typically are biological but not genetic factors, and include starting age, handedness, and season of birth. Gobet F. & Chassy, P. (in press). Gobet F. & Campitelli, G. (2007). A number of computational models have been developed in cognitive science to explain the development from novice to expert. In particular, Herbert Simon and Kevin Gilmartin proposed a model of learning in chess called MAPP (Memory-Aided Pattern Recognizer). Simon and Gilmartin, 1973 Based on simulations, they estimated that about 50,000 chunks (units of memory) are necessary to become an expert, and hence the many years needed to reach this level. More recently, the CHREST model (Chunk Hierarchy and REtrieval STructures) has simulated in detail a number of phenomena in chess expertise (eye movements, performance in a variety of memory tasks, development from novice to expert) and in other domains. Gobet and Simon (2000) Gobet, de Voogt, & Retschitzki (2004) Work on expert systems typically works from the premise that expertise is based on acquired repertoires of rules and frameworks for decision making which can be elicited as the basis for computer supported judgement and decision-making. However, there is increasing evidence that expertise does not work in this fashion. Rather, experts recognise situations based on experience of many prior situations. They are in consequence able to make rapid decisions in complex and dynamic situtions relying on recognition-primed decision-making. In a critique of the expert systems literature, Dreyfus and Dreyfus Dreyfus and Dreyfus (2005) suggest: If one asks an expert for the rules he or she is using, one will, in effect, force the expert to regress to the level of a beginner and state the rules learned in school. Thus, instead of using rules he or she no longer remembers, as the knowledge engineers suppose, the expert is forced to remember rules he or she no longer uses. … No amount of rules and facts can capture the knowledge an expert has when he or she has stored experience of the actual outcomes of tens of thousands of situations.” Dreyfus and Dreyfus, 2005: 788 An important feature of expert performance seems to be the way in which experts are able to rapidly retrieve complex configurations of information from long-term memory. They recognise situations because they have meaning. It is perhaps this central concern with meaning and how it attaches to situations which provides an important link between the individual and social approaches to the development of expertise. In line with the socially constructed view of expertise, expertise can also be understood a form of power; that is, experts have the ability to influence others as a result of their defined social status. Value Plato’s ‘Noble Lie’, albeit arguably a notion of ideological propaganda, is often where the debate begins concerning ‘expertise’. Plato did not believe most people were clever enough to look after their own and society’s best interest, so the few ‘clever’ people of the world needed to lead the rest of the flock. Therefore, the idea was born that only the elite should know the truth in its complete form and the rulers, Plato said, must tell the people of the city ‘The Noble Lie’ to keep them passive and content, without the risk of upheaval and unrest. Thus, the creation of an elite form of specialist and authoritative knowledge came about. In contemporary society, doctors and scientists, for example, are considered to be experts in that they hold a body of dominant knowledge that is, on the whole, inaccessible to the layman (Fuller: 2005: 141). However, this inaccessibility and perhaps even mystery that surrounds expertise does not cause the layman to disregard the opinion of the experts on account of the unknown. Instead, the complete opposite occurs whereby members of the public believe in and highly value the opinion of medical professionals or of scientific discoveries (Fuller: 2005: 144), despite not understanding it. Contrasts and comparisons An expert differs from the specialist in that a specialist has to be able to solve a problem and an expert has to know its solution. The opposite of an expert is generally known as a layperson, while someone who occupies a middle grade of understanding is generally known as a technician and often employed to assist experts. A person may well be an expert in one field and a layperson in many other fields. The concepts of experts and expertise are debated within the field of epistemology under the general heading of expert knowledge. In contrast, the opposite of a specialist would be a generalist, somebody with expertise in many fields. The term is widely used informally, with people being described as 'experts' in order to bolster the relative value of their opinion, when no objective criteria for their expertise is available. The term crank is likewise used to disparage opinions. Academic elitism arises when experts become convinced that only their opinion is useful, sometimes on matters beyond their personal expertise. By a similar token, a fear of experts can arise from fear of an intellectual elite's power. In earlier periods of history, simply being able to read made one part of an intellectual elite. The introduction of the printing press in Europe during the fifteenth century and the diffusion of printed matter contributed to higher literacy rates and wider access to the once-rarefied knowledge of academia. The subsequent spread of education and learning changed society, and initiated an era of widespread education whose elite would now instead be those who produced the written content itself for consumption, in education and all other spheres. In contrast to an expert, a novice (known colloquially as a newbie or 'greenhorn') is any person that is new to any science or field of study or activity or social cause and who is undergoing training in order to meet normal requirements of being regarded a mature and equal participant. Developmental characteristics Some characteristics of the development of an expert have been found to include At a minimum usually 10 years of consistent practice, sometimes more for certain fields A characterization of this practice as "deliberate practice", which forces the practitioner to come up with new ways to encourage and enable themselves to reach new levels of performance An early phase of learning which is characterized by enjoyment, excitement, and participation without outcome-related goals Janet L. Starkes, K Anders Ericsson (2003) Expert Performance in Sports: Advances in Research on Sport Expertise. p. 91 The ability to rearrange or construct a higher dimension of creativity. Due to such familiarity or advanced knowledge experts can develop more abstract perspectives of their concepts and/or performances. Germain's Expertise Scale Marie-Line Germain (Germain, 2006) developed a measure of perception of employee expertise called the Generalized Expertise Measure (GEM). She also found that there is a behavioral dimension found in "experts", in addition to the dimensions suggested by Swanson and Holton (2001). The 16-item scale contains objective expertise items and subjective expertise items. Objective items (the first 5 items of the measure below) were named Evidence-Based items. Subjective items (the remaining 11 items from the measure below) were named Self-Enhancement items because of their behavioral component. This person has knowledge that is specific to his or her field of work. This person shows that they have the education necessary to be an expert in his/her field. This person has knowledge about his/her field. This person has the qualifications required to be an expert in his/her field. This person has been trained in his or her area of expertise. This person is ambitious about their work in the company. This person can assess whether a work-related situation is important or not. This person is capable of improving himself or herself. This person is charismatic. This person can deduce things from work-related situations easily. This person is intuitive in the job. This person is able to judge what things are important in his/her job. This person has the drive to become what he or she is capable of becoming in his/her field. This person is self-assured. This person has self-confidence. This person is an expert who is outgoing. (Germain, 2006). With a sample of N=307, the scale reliability (internal consistency, Cronbach Alpha coefficient) of the 16-item scale was high (.91 for the five Evidence-Based items and .92 for the eleven Self-Enhancement items). References Germain, M. L. (2009). The impact of perceived administrators' expertise on subordinates' job satisfaction and turnover intention. Academy of Human Resource Development. Arlington, VA. February 18-22, 2009. Germain, M. L. (2006). Development and preliminary validation of a psychometric measure of expertise: The Generalized Expertise Measure (GEM). Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Barry University, Florida. Germain, M. L. (2006). Perception of Instructors’ Expertise by College Students: An Exploratory Qualitative Research Study. American Educational Research Association annual conference, San Francisco, CA. April 7-11. Germain, M. L. (2006, February). What experts are not: Factors identified by managers as disqualifiers for selecting subordinates for expert team membership. Academy of Human Resource Development Conference. Columbus, OH. February 22-26. Germain, M. L. (2005). Apperception and self-identification of managerial and subordinate expertise. Academy of Human Resource Development. Estes Park, CO. February 24-27. Swanson, R. A., & Holton III, E. F. (2001). Foundations of Human Resource Development. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc. Use in literature Mark Twain defined an expert as "an ordinary fellow from another town". Funny, Witty and Inspirational Quotes and Sayings - Doc's Ever-Changing Home Pages Are Entertaining the World, One Person at a Time © Will Rogers described an expert as "A man fifty miles from home with a briefcase." See also General Scholar, Know-how, Skill, Competence, Excellence, Technical government, Insider, Tutor expertise in adult education Criticism Anti-intellectualism, Denialism Notes References An example: Black Tech Expert Dreyfus, H. and Dreyfus, S. (2005) Expertise in real world contexts, Organization Studies, 26(5), 779-792. Ericsson, K. A. (2000). Expert Performance and Deliberate Practice Ericsson, K. Anders, Neil Charness, Paul Feltovich & Robert R. Hoffman (Eds.), 2006: Cambridge handbook on expertise and expert performance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Gibbons, M. (1994). The new production of knowledge: the dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies. London: SAGE Publications. Gobet. F. & Campitelli, G. (2007). The role of domain-specific practice, handedness and starting age in chess. Developmental Psychology, 43, 159-172. Available online at Retrieved 22 July 2007. Gobet. F. & Chassy, P. (in press). Season of birth and chess expertise. Journal of Biosocial Science. Available online at Retrieved 22 July 2007. Gobet, F., de Voogt, A. J., & Retschitzki, J. (2004). Moves in mind: The psychology of board games. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. Gobet, F., & Simon, H. A. (2000). Five seconds or sixty? Presentation time in expert memory. Cognitive Science, 24, 651-682. Goldman, A. I. (1999). Knowledge in a Social World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mieg, Harald A. (2001). The social psychology of expertise. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Shanteau, J., D.J. Weiss, R.P. Thomas, and J.C. Pounds, Performance-based assessment of expertise: How to decide if someone is an expert or not. European Journal of Operational Research, Volume 136, Number 2, 16 January 2002, pp. 253–263(11). Simon, H. A., & Gilmartin, K. J. (1973). A simulation of memory for chess positions. Cognitive Psychology, 5, 29-46. Sowell, T. (1980). Knowledge and decisions. New York: Basic Books, Inc. Swanson, R. A., & Holton III, E. F. (2001). Foundations of Human Resource Development. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc. Tynjala, P. Towards expert knowledge? A comparison between a constructivist and a traditional learning environment in the university. Educational Research, 1999. ece.uncc.edu. Fuller, S. (2005). The Intellectual. Icon Books Collins, R. (1979). The Credential Society Dewey, J. (1927). The Public and its Problems Nettleton, S., Burrows, R. and O’Malley, L. (2005) ‘The mundane realities of the everyday use of the internet for health, and their consequences for media convergence.’ Sociology of Health and Illness. 27: 7: 972-992 Wasa, M. Hacker Further reading Books and publications Ikujiro Nonaka, Georg von Krogh, and Sven Voelpel, Organizational Knowledge Creation Theory: Evolutionary Paths and Future Advances. Organization Studies, Vol. 27, No. 8, 1179-1208 (2006). SAGE Publications, 2006. DOI 10.1177/0170840606066312 Lennart Sjöberg (2001), Limits of Knowledge and the Limited Importance of Trust. Risk Analysis 21 (1), 189–198. doi 10.1111/0272-4332.211101 Barbara K. Hofer and Paul R. Pintrich, The Development of Epistemological Theories: Beliefs about Knowledge and Knowing and Their Relation to Learning. Review of Educational Research, Vol. 67, No. 1 (Spring, 1997), pp. 88–140 doi 10.2307/1170620 B Wynne, May the sheep safely graze? A reflexive view of the expert-lay knowledge divide. Risk, Environment and Modernity: Towards a New Ecology, 1996. TH Davenport, et al., Working knowledge . 1998, knowledge.hut.fi. Mats Alvesson, Knowledge work: Ambiguity, image and identity. Human Relations, Vol. 54, No. 7, 863-886 (2001). The Tavistock Institute, 2001. Peter J. Laugharne, Parliament and Specialist Advice, Manutius Press, 1994. Jay Liebowitz, Knowledge Management Handbook. CRC Press, 1999. 328 pages. ISBN 0849302382 C. Nadine Wathen and Jacquelyn Burkell, Believe it or not: Factors influencing credibility on the Web. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, VL. 53, NO. 2. PG 134-144. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002. DOI 10.1002/asi.10016 Nico Stehr, Knowledge Societies. Sage Publications, 1994. 304 pages. ISBN 0803978928 Patents , Basic expert system tool, Steven Hardy et al., Filed November 25, 1987, Issued February 7, 1989. | Expert |@lemmatized expert:61 someone:3 widely:3 recognize:3 reliable:1 source:1 technique:1 skill:3 whose:2 faculty:1 judge:2 decide:2 rightly:1 justly:1 wisely:1 accord:1 authority:2 status:2 peer:1 public:3 specific:4 well:4 distinguished:1 domain:6 generally:3 person:22 extensive:2 knowledge:25 ability:3 particular:5 area:2 study:7 call:3 advice:2 respective:1 subject:2 always:2 agree:1 field:14 virtue:1 training:2 education:7 profession:1 publication:5 experience:6 believe:4 special:1 beyond:2 average:1 sufficient:1 others:2 may:4 officially:1 legally:1 rely:2 upon:1 individual:5 opinion:6 historically:1 refer:1 sage:4 usually:2 profound:1 philosopher:1 distinguish:3 wisdom:1 sound:1 judgment:1 introduction:2 prolonged:1 intense:1 practice:9 definition:1 establish:1 consensus:1 therefore:2 necessary:3 professional:2 academic:3 qualification:2 accept:1 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2,287 | Lanthanum | Lanthanum () is a chemical element with the symbol La and atomic number 57. Lanthanum is a silvery white metallic element that belongs to group 3 of the periodic table and is a lanthanoid. It is found in some rare-earth minerals, usually in combination with cerium and other rare earth elements. Lanthanum is malleable, ductile, and soft enough to be cut with a knife. It is one of the most reactive of the rare-earth metals. The metal reacts directly with elemental carbon, nitrogen, boron, selenium, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, and with halogens. It oxidizes rapidly when exposed to air. Cold water attacks lanthanum slowly, while hot water attacks it much more rapidly. </div> History Lanthanum was discovered in 1839 by Swedish chemist Carl Gustav Mosander, when he partially decomposed a sample of cerium nitrate by heating and treating the resulting salt with dilute nitric acid. From the resulting solution, he isolated a new rare earth he called lantana. Lanthanum was isolated in relatively pure form in 1923. The word lanthanum comes from the Greek λανθανω [lanthanō] = to lie hidden. Lanthanum is the most strongly basic of all the trivalent lanthanoids, and this property is what allowed Mosander to isolate and purify the salts of this element. Basicity separation as operated commercially involved the fractional precipitation of the weaker bases (such as didymium) from nitrate solution by the addition of magnesium oxide or dilute ammonia gas. Purified lanthanum remained in solution. (The basicity methods were only suitable for lanthanum purification; didymium could not be efficiently further separated in this manner.) The alternative technique of fractional crystallization was invented by Dimitry Mendeleev himself, in the form of the double ammonium nitrate tetrahydrate, which he used to separate the less-soluble lanthanum from the more-soluble didymium in the 1870s. This system would be used commercially in lanthanum purification until the development of practical solvent extraction methods that started in the late 1950s. (A detailed process using the double ammonium nitrates to provide 4N pure lanthanum, neodymium concentrates and praseodymium concentrates is presented in Callow 1967, at a time when the process was just becoming obsolete.) As operated for lanthanum purification, the double ammonium nitrates were recrystallized from water. When later adapted by Carl Auer von Welsbach for the splitting of didymium, nitric acid was used as solvent to lower the solubility of the system. Lanthanum is relatively easy to purify, since it has only one adjacent lanthanoid, cerium, which itself is very readily removed due to its potential tetravalency. The fractional crystallization purification of lanthanum as the double ammonium nitrate was sufficiently rapid and efficient, that lanthanum purified in this manner was not expensive. The Lindsay Chemical Division of American Potash and Chemical Corporation, for a while the largest producer of rare earths in the world, in a price list dated October 1, 1958 priced 99.9% lanthanum ammonium nitrate (oxide content of 29%) at $3.15 per pound, or $1.93 per pound in 50-pound quantities. The corresponding oxide (slightly purer at 99.99%) was priced at $11.70 or $7.15 per pound for the two quantity ranges. The price for their purest grade of oxide (99.997%) was $21.60 and $13.20, respectively. Properties Solid lanthanum has hexagonal crystal structure at room temperature. At 310°C, lanthanum changes to a face-centered cubic structure, and at 865°C into a body-centered cubic structure . Biological role Lanthanum has no known biological role. The element is not absorbed orally, and when injected its elimination is very slow. Lanthanum carbonate was approved as a medication (Fosrenol, Shire Pharmaceuticals) to absorb excess phosphate in cases of end-stage renal failure. Some rare-earth chlorides, such as lanthanum chloride (LaCl3), are known to have anticoagulant properties. While Lanthanum has pharmacological effects on several receptors and ion channels, its specificity for the GABA receptor is unique among divalent cations. Lanthanum acts at the same modulatory site on the GABAR as zinc- a known negative allosteric modulator. The Lanthanum cation La3+ is a positive allosteric modulator at native and recombinant GABA receptors, increasing open channel time and decreasing desensitization in a subunit configuration dependent manner. Occurrence Although lanthanum belongs to chemical elements group called rare earth metals, it is not rare at all. Lanthanum is available in relatively large quantities (32 ppm in Earth’s crust). "Rare earths" got their name since they were indeed rare as compared to the "common" earths such as lime or magnesia, and historically only a few deposits were known. Monazite (Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y)PO4, and bastnäsite (Ce, La, Y)CO3F, are the principal ores in which lanthanum occurs, in percentages of up to 25 to 38 percent of the total lanthanoid content. Lanthanum is more generally enriched in bastnäsite as opposed to monazite, in commercial orebodies. Until 1949, bastnäsite was a rare and obscure mineral, not even remotely contemplated as a potential commercial source for lanthanoids. In that year, the vast deposit at Mountain Pass, California was discovered. This discovery alerted geologists as to the existence of a whole new class of rare earth deposit, the rare-earth bearing carbonatite, other examples of which soon surfaced, particularly in Africa and China. See also :category:Lanthanide minerals Isotopes Naturally occurring lanthanum is composed of one stable (139La) and one radioactive (138La) isotope, with the stable isotope, 139La, being the most abundant (99.91% natural abundance). 38 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 138La with a half-life of 1.05×1011 years, and 137La with a half-life of 60,000 years. Most of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 24 hours and the majority of these have half lives that are less than 1 minute. This element also has 3 meta states. The isotopes of lanthanum range in atomic weight from 117 u (117La) to 155 u (155La). Applications Uses of lanthanum include: Carbon lighting applications, especially by the motion picture industry for studio lighting and projection. These application consume about 25% of the rare-earth compounds produced. . La2O3 improves the alkali resistance of glass, and is used in making special optical glasses, such as: Infrared absorbing glass. Camera and telescope lenses, because of the high refractive index and low dispersion of rare-earth glasses . Small amounts of lanthanum added to steel improves its malleability, resistance to impact and ductility. Small amounts of lanthanum added to iron helps to produce nodular cast iron . Small amounts of lanthanum added to molybdenum decreases the hardness of this metal and its sensitivity to temperature variations. Small amounts of lanthanum are present in many pool products to remove the phosphates that feed algae. Mischmetal, a pyrophoric alloy used in such things as lighter flints, contains 25% to 45% lanthanum C. R. Hammond, "The Elements", in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81th edition, CRC press. . Lanthanum oxide and the boride are used in electronic vacuum tubes as hot cathode materials with strong emissivity of electrons. Crystals of LaB6 are used in high brightness, extended life, thermionic electron emission sources for scanning electron microscopes and Hall effect thrusters. in Gas tungsten arc welding electrodes, as a substitute for radioactive thorium. Hydrogen sponge alloys can contain lanthanum. These alloys are capable of storing up to 400 times their own volume of hydrogen gas in a reversible adsorption process. Heat energy is released every time they do so; therefore these alloys have possibilities in energy conservation systems . Petroleum cracking catalysts. Gas lantern mantles. Glass and lapidary polishing compound. La-Ba age dating of rocks and ores. Lanthanum carbonate is used medically as a phosphate binder for the treatment of hyperphosphatemia. See details below under Biological Role. Lanthanum nitrate is mainly applied in specialty glass, water treatment and catalyst. Cerium activated Lanthanum bromide is the recent inorganic scintillator which has a combination of high light yield and the best energy resolution. Lanthanum fluoride is used with Europium flouride in the crystal membrane of Fluoride Ion-Selective Electrodes Lanthanum oxide is used as a grain growth additive during the liquid phase sintering of silicon nitride. Like horseradish peroxidase, lanthanum is used as an electron-dense tracer in molecular biology . Lanthanum is an intermetallic component of nickel-metal hydride batteries. Precautions Lanthanum has a low to moderate level of toxicity, and should be handled with care. In animals, the injection of lanthanum solutions produces glycaemia, low blood pressure, degeneration of the spleen and hepatic alterations. References "The Industrial Chemistry of the Lanthanons, Yttrium, Thorium and Uranium", by R.J. Callow, Pergamon Press 1967 "Chemistry of the Lanthanons", by R.C. Vickery, Butterworths 1953 "Nouveau Traite de Chimie Minerale, Vol. VII. Scandium, Yttrium, Elements des Terres Rares, Actinium", P. Pascal, Editor, Masson & Cie 1959 "Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths", by C.K. Gupta and N. Krishnamurthy, CRC Press 2005 WebElements.com – Lanthanum See also Lanthanum compounds External links | Lanthanum |@lemmatized lanthanum:51 chemical:4 element:9 symbol:1 la:4 atomic:2 number:1 silvery:1 white:1 metallic:1 belong:1 group:2 periodic:1 table:1 lanthanoid:5 find:1 rare:16 earth:15 mineral:3 usually:1 combination:2 cerium:4 malleable:1 ductile:1 soft:1 enough:1 cut:1 knife:1 one:4 reactive:1 metal:5 react:1 directly:1 elemental:1 carbon:2 nitrogen:1 boron:1 selenium:1 silicon:2 phosphorus:1 sulfur:1 halogen:1 oxidize:1 rapidly:2 expose:1 air:1 cold:1 water:4 attack:2 slowly:1 hot:2 much:1 div:1 history:1 discover:2 swedish:1 chemist:1 carl:2 gustav:1 mosander:2 partially:1 decompose:1 sample:1 nitrate:8 heat:2 treat:1 result:2 salt:2 dilute:2 nitric:2 acid:2 solution:4 isolate:3 new:2 call:2 lantana:1 relatively:3 pure:3 form:2 word:1 come:1 greek:1 λανθανω:1 lanthanō:1 lie:1 hidden:1 strongly:1 basic:1 trivalent:1 property:3 allow:1 purify:4 basicity:2 separation:1 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2,288 | Foreign_relations_of_Mali | Following independence in 1960, Mali initially followed a socialist path and was aligned ideologically with the communist bloc. But Mali’s foreign policy orientation became increasingly pragmatic and pro-Western over time. Since the institution of a democratic form of government in 2002, Mali’s relations with the West in general and the United States in particular have improved significantly. U.S.-Malian relations are described by the U.S. Department of State as “excellent and expanding,” especially given Mali’s recent record of democratic stability in the volatile area of West Africa and its avowed support of the war on terrorism. Mali is reported to be one of the largest recipients of U.S. aid in Africa. Mali country profile. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (January 2005). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Mali has a longstanding relationship with France, its former colonial ruler, but relations have been described as ambivalent rather than close. Mali dropped out of the Franc Zone shortly after independence, not rejoining until 1967. One contentious issue between the two nations is the frequent expulsion of illegal Malian immigrants from France since 1996. Mali is active in regional organizations such as the African Union. Working to control and resolve regional conflicts, such as in Côte d’Ivoire, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, is one of Mali’s major foreign policy goals. Mali feels threatened by the potential for the spillover of conflicts in neighboring states, and relations with those neighbors are often uneasy. General insecurity along borders in the north, including cross-border banditry and terrorism, remain troubling issues in regional relations. Mali is a member of the United Nations (and many of its specialized agencies), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, the International Labour Organization (ILO), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the Universal Postal Union (UPU) and the International Criminal Court (ICC). It also belongs to the Organization of African Unity (OAU); Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC); Non-Aligned Movement (NAM); an associate member of the European Community (EC); and African Development Bank (ADB). Mali is active in regional organizations. It participates in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the West African Economic Monetary Union (UEMOA) for regional economic integration; Liptako-Gourma Authority, which seeks to develop the contiguous areas of Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso; the Niger River Commission; the Permanent Interstate Committee for drought control in the Sahel (CILSS); and the Senegal River Valley Development Organization (OMVS). In 2005, H.E. Abdoulaye Diop, Mali’s Ambassador to the United States, assumed the Chairmanship of the Convening Group of the Community of Democracies on behalf of Mali, which will host the next Ministerial Conference in Bamako in 2007. On November 23, 2006 the Governor General of Canada Michaëlle Jean, made a visit to Mali, encouraging women's rights. References See also Malian diplomatic missions Mali – United States relations Mali–Russia relations Mali–Mauritania relations | Foreign_relations_of_Mali |@lemmatized follow:2 independence:2 mali:20 initially:1 socialist:1 path:1 align:2 ideologically:1 communist:1 bloc:1 foreign:2 policy:2 orientation:1 become:1 increasingly:1 pragmatic:1 pro:1 western:1 time:1 since:2 institution:1 democratic:2 form:1 government:1 relation:8 west:4 general:3 united:4 state:6 particular:1 improve:1 significantly:1 u:3 malian:3 describe:2 department:1 excellent:1 expand:1 especially:1 give:1 recent:1 record:1 stability:1 volatile:1 area:2 africa:2 avowed:1 support:1 war:1 terrorism:2 report:1 one:3 large:1 recipient:1 aid:1 country:1 profile:1 library:1 congress:1 federal:1 research:1 division:1 january:1 article:1 incorporate:1 text:1 source:1 public:1 domain:1 longstanding:1 relationship:1 france:2 former:1 colonial:1 ruler:1 ambivalent:1 rather:1 close:1 drop:1 franc:1 zone:1 shortly:1 rejoin:1 contentious:1 issue:2 two:1 nation:2 frequent:1 expulsion:1 illegal:1 immigrant:1 active:2 regional:5 organization:5 african:5 union:4 work:1 control:2 resolve:1 conflict:2 côte:1 ivoire:1 liberia:1 sierra:1 leone:1 major:1 goal:1 feel:1 threaten:1 potential:1 spillover:1 neighbor:2 often:1 uneasy:1 insecurity:1 along:1 border:2 north:1 include:1 cross:1 banditry:1 remain:1 troubling:1 member:2 many:1 specialized:1 agency:1 international:4 monetary:2 fund:1 imf:1 world:1 bank:2 labour:1 ilo:1 telecommunication:1 itu:1 universal:1 postal:1 upu:1 criminal:1 court:1 icc:1 also:2 belong:1 unity:1 oau:1 organisation:1 islamic:1 conference:2 oic:1 non:1 movement:1 nam:1 associate:1 european:1 community:3 ec:1 development:2 adb:1 participate:1 economic:3 ecowas:1 uemoa:1 integration:1 liptako:1 gourma:1 authority:1 seek:1 develop:1 contiguous:1 niger:2 burkina:1 faso:1 river:2 commission:1 permanent:1 interstate:1 committee:1 drought:1 sahel:1 cilss:1 senegal:1 valley:1 omvs:1 h:1 e:1 abdoulaye:1 diop:1 ambassador:1 assume:1 chairmanship:1 convene:1 group:1 democracy:1 behalf:1 host:1 next:1 ministerial:1 bamako:1 november:1 governor:1 canada:1 michaëlle:1 jean:1 make:1 visit:1 encourage:1 woman:1 right:1 reference:1 see:1 diplomatic:1 mission:1 russia:1 mauritania:1 |@bigram côte_ivoire:1 liberia_sierra:1 sierra_leone:1 monetary_fund:1 fund_imf:1 universal_postal:1 unity_oau:1 conference_oic:1 mali_niger:1 burkina_faso:1 diplomatic_mission:1 |
2,289 | Analog_signal | An analog or analogue signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature (variable) of the signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity, i.e analogous to another time varying signal. It differs from a digital signal in that small fluctuations in the signal are meaningful. Analog is usually thought of in an electrical context; however, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey analog signals. Essentially an analogue signal can be thought of as a simulation or duplication of one continuous time varying quantity in another, possibly different, time varying quantity. It is then a mapping of one time varying quantity to another, often with the intent of recording or transmitting information about the former within the medium of the latter. An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information. For example, an aneroid barometer uses rotary position as the signal to convey pressure information. Electrically, the property most commonly used is voltage followed closely by frequency, current, and charge. Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal; often such a signal is a measured response to changes in physical phenomena, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or pressure, and is achieved using a transducer. For example, in sound recording, fluctuations in air pressure (that is to say, sound) strike the diaphragm of a microphone which causes corresponding fluctuations in a voltage or the current in an electric circuit. The voltage or the current is said to be an "analog" of the sound. Any measured analog signal must theoretically have noise and a finite slew rate. Therefore, both analog and digital systems are subject to limitations in resolution and bandwidth. In practice, as analog systems become more complex, effects such as non-linearity and noise ultimately degrade analog resolution to such extent that the performance of digital systems may surpass it. In analog systems, it is difficult to detect when such degradation occurs. However, in digital systems, degradation can not only be detected but corrected as well. Advantages The main advantage is the fine definition of the analog signal which has the potential for an infinite amount of signal resolution. "Digital Signal Processing: Instant access." Butterworth-Heinemann - Page 3 Compared to digital signals, analog signals are of higher density. "Concise Dictionary of Computing." Penguin Reference - Penguin Books - pages 11-12. . Another advantage with analog signals is that their processing may be achieved more simply than with the digital equivalent. An analog signal may be processed directly by analog components, "Digital Signal Processing: Instant access." Butterworth-Heinemann - pages 2-3 though some processes aren't available except in digital form. Disadvantages The primary disadvantage of analog signaling is that any system has noise – i.e., random unwanted variation. As the signal is copied and re-copied, or transmitted over long distances, these apparently random variations become dominant. Electrically, these losses can be diminished by shielding, good connections, and several cable types such as coaxial or twisted pair. The effects of noise create signal loss and distortion. This is impossible to recover, since amplifying the signal to recover attenuated parts of the signal amplifies the noise (distortion/interference) as well. Even if the resolution of an analog signal is higher than a comparable digital signal, in many cases, the difference is overshadowed by the noise in the signal. Modulation Another method of conveying an analog signal is to use modulation. In this, some base signal (e.g., a sinusoidal carrier wave) has one of its properties modulated: amplitude modulation involves altering the amplitude of a sinusoidal voltage waveform by the source information, frequency modulation changes the frequency. Other techniques, such as changing the phase of the base signal also work. Analog circuits do not involve quantisation of information into digital format. The concept being measured over the circuit, whether sound, light, pressure, temperature, or an exceeded limit, remains from end to end. See digital for a discussion of digital vs. analog. Sources: Parts of an earlier version of this article were originally taken from Federal Standard 1037C in support of MIL-STD-188. See also Analog device Analog sound vs. digital sound Digital signal Analog signal processing Analog-to-digital converter References | Analog_signal |@lemmatized analog:25 analogue:2 signal:35 continuous:2 time:6 vary:6 feature:1 variable:1 representation:1 quantity:4 e:3 analogous:1 another:5 differ:1 digital:16 small:1 fluctuation:3 meaningful:1 usually:1 think:2 electrical:1 context:1 however:2 mechanical:1 pneumatic:1 hydraulic:1 system:7 may:5 also:3 convey:5 essentially:1 simulation:1 duplication:1 one:3 possibly:1 different:1 mapping:1 often:2 intent:1 record:1 transmit:2 information:6 former:1 within:1 medium:2 latter:1 use:5 property:3 example:2 aneroid:1 barometer:1 rotary:1 position:2 pressure:4 electrically:2 commonly:1 voltage:4 follow:1 closely:1 frequency:3 current:3 charge:1 measured:2 response:1 change:3 physical:1 phenomenon:1 sound:7 light:2 temperature:2 achieve:2 transducer:1 recording:1 air:1 say:2 strike:1 diaphragm:1 microphone:1 cause:1 correspond:1 electric:1 circuit:3 must:1 theoretically:1 noise:6 finite:1 slew:1 rate:1 therefore:1 subject:1 limitation:1 resolution:4 bandwidth:1 practice:1 become:2 complex:1 effect:2 non:1 linearity:1 ultimately:1 degrade:1 extent:1 performance:1 surpass:1 difficult:1 detect:2 degradation:2 occurs:1 correct:1 well:2 advantage:3 main:1 fine:1 definition:1 potential:1 infinite:1 amount:1 processing:4 instant:2 access:2 butterworth:2 heinemann:2 page:3 compare:1 high:2 density:1 concise:1 dictionary:1 compute:1 penguin:2 reference:2 book:1 simply:1 equivalent:1 process:2 directly:1 component:1 though:1 available:1 except:1 form:1 disadvantage:2 primary:1 random:2 unwanted:1 variation:2 copy:2 long:1 distance:1 apparently:1 dominant:1 loss:2 diminish:1 shield:1 good:1 connection:1 several:1 cable:1 type:1 coaxial:1 twisted:1 pair:1 create:1 distortion:2 impossible:1 recover:2 since:1 amplify:1 attenuated:1 part:2 amplifies:1 interference:1 even:1 comparable:1 many:1 case:1 difference:1 overshadow:1 modulation:4 method:1 base:2 g:1 sinusoidal:2 carrier:1 wave:1 modulate:1 amplitude:2 involve:2 alter:1 waveform:1 source:2 technique:1 phase:1 work:1 quantisation:1 format:1 concept:1 measure:1 whether:1 exceeded:1 limit:1 remain:1 end:2 see:2 discussion:1 v:2 early:1 version:1 article:1 originally:1 take:1 federal:1 standard:1 support:1 mil:1 std:1 device:1 converter:1 |@bigram signal_processing:4 butterworth_heinemann:2 twisted_pair:1 amplitude_modulation:1 frequency_modulation:1 mil_std:1 digital_converter:1 |
2,290 | Consilience | Consilience, or the unity of knowledge (literally a "jumping together" of knowledge), has its roots in the ancient Greek concept of an intrinsic orderliness that governs our cosmos, inherently comprehensible by logical process, a vision at odds with mystical views in many cultures that surrounded the Hellenes. The rational view was recovered during the high Middle Ages, separated from theology during the Renaissance and found its apogee in the Age of Enlightenment. Then, with the rise of the modern sciences, the sense of unity gradually was lost in the increasing fragmentation and specialization of knowledge in the last two centuries. The converse of consilience in this way is Reductionism. Modern usage The word consilience was apparently coined by William Whewell, in The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, 1840. In this synthesis Whewell explained that, "The Consilience of Inductions takes place when an Induction, obtained from one class of facts, coincides with an Induction obtained from another different class. Thus Consilience is a test of the truth of the Theory in which it occurs." Modern views understand that each branch of knowledge studies a subset of reality that depends on factors studied in other branches. Atomic physics underlies the workings of chemistry, which studies emergent properties that in turn are the basis of biology. Psychology can no longer be separated from the study of properties emergent from the interaction of neurons and synapses. Sociology, economics, and anthropology are each, in turn, studies of properties emergent from the interaction of countless individual humans. The fact that all these different areas of research are studying one real, existing universe is an apparent explanation of why generalizations arrived at in one area have often helped in understanding other areas. Consilience is thus often used as an argument for scientific realism by philosophers of science. Edward O. Wilson Although the concept of consilience in Whewell's sense was widely discussed by philosophers of science, the term was unfamiliar to the broader public until the end of the 20th century, when it was vividly revived in Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge, a 1998 book by the humanist biologist Edward Osborne Wilson, as an attempt to bridge the culture gap between the sciences and the humanities that was the subject of C. P. Snow's The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution, 1959. Wilson's assertion was that the sciences, humanities, and arts have a common goal: to give a purpose to understanding the details, to lend to all inquirers "a conviction, far deeper than a mere working proposition, that the world is orderly and can be explained by a small number of natural laws." This is a very different notion of consilience from that of Whewell, who was merely pointing out that generalizations invented to account for one set of phenomena often account for others as well. A parallel view lies in the term universology, which literally means "the science of the universe." Universology was first advocated for the study of the interconnecting principles and truths of all domains of knowledge by Stephen Pearl Andrews, a 19th century utopian futurist and anarchist. Election Methods The word consilience has been adapted to refer to a specific process of checks and balances in election methods that satisfy the following conditions: (1) At least two different ballot tabulation methods shall be relied upon to achieve the official election tally; (2) Each tabulation method employed shall have separate and distinct oversight; (3) Neither tabulation method, nor its oversight and personnel involved, shall communicate with one another during this checking process to prevent cheating; (4) Tallies derived from each ballot method must agree within a margin of discrepancy that would not overturn the outcome of the election; (5) There must be physical paper evidence of the ballots, i.e., at least one of the two methods employed must rely on hand-counted paper ballots or hand-counted voter verified paper trails; (6) At least two of the tabulation methods must occur at the location where the votes are cast, e.g. the precinct, the poll site; and (7) The process shall commence immediately upon the close of polls and preferably shall conclude without severing the chain of custody of the participants conducting the process. If consilience is not achieved upon the first exercise of the election's checks and balances process described above (i.e., the margin of discrepancy of the ballot tallies do not agree), then an investigation including more tabulation shall immediately ensue. Commonly, consilience refers to two full hand count tabulation methods if they are achieved by separate and distinct oversight that do not communicate; but, for example, in races surpassing 400,000 ballots cast (to ensure 99% statistical accuracy), it can also mean the concordance of tallies from a 10% sample of paper ballots randomly selected from each and every voting site when compared with the tallies from optiscan-type electronic voting machines. Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development On February 18, 2008, students at Columbia University launched the inaugural issue of Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development. Consilience purports to be a global, online publication dedicated to the promotion of interdisciplinary dialogue on sustainable development. Consilience (inspired by E.O. Wilson’s book of the same title) has student, professor and practitioner participation and promotes solution-oriented research. Noticeable is its cross-pollination of methodologies between disciplines as evidenced by the inaugural issue's articles exploring issues of physician migration in global health, the role of uncertainty in climate change, and human rights, and biotechnology in healthcare, among others. Issue One of the journal features thirteen articles, including academic papers, field notes and opinion pieces. Also included is a photo essay displaying events in Afghanistan. The Consilience launch event was conducted on February 18, 2008 in Low Rotunda on Columbia University's campus with Dr. Jeffrey D. Sachs, Director of the Earth Institute at Columbia University, as the keynote speaker. See also Holism Reductionism Syncretism Tree of Knowledge System ReferencesConsilience: The Unity of Knowledge''; E.O. Wilson; Vintage; (paperback, 1999) External links Princeton - Consilience- Background and rationale behind the class A conversation with Edward O. Wilson William Whewell (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Neuroeconomics: The Consilience of Brain and Decision Experiments in Consilience | Consilience |@lemmatized consilience:20 unity:4 knowledge:8 literally:2 jump:1 together:1 root:1 ancient:1 greek:1 concept:2 intrinsic:1 orderliness:1 govern:1 cosmos:1 inherently:1 comprehensible:1 logical:1 process:6 vision:1 odds:1 mystical:1 view:4 many:1 culture:3 surround:1 hellene:1 rational:1 recover:1 high:1 middle:1 age:2 separate:4 theology:1 renaissance:1 find:1 apogee:1 enlightenment:1 rise:1 modern:3 science:7 sense:2 gradually:1 lose:1 increase:1 fragmentation:1 specialization:1 last:1 two:6 century:3 converse:1 way:1 reductionism:2 usage:1 word:2 apparently:1 coin:1 william:2 whewell:5 philosophy:2 inductive:1 synthesis:1 explain:2 induction:3 take:1 place:1 obtain:2 one:7 class:3 fact:2 coincides:1 another:2 different:4 thus:2 test:1 truth:2 theory:1 occur:2 understand:3 branch:2 study:7 subset:1 reality:1 depend:1 factor:1 atomic:1 physic:1 underlie:1 working:1 chemistry:1 emergent:3 property:3 turn:2 basis:1 biology:1 psychology:1 longer:1 interaction:2 neuron:1 synapsis:1 sociology:1 economics:1 anthropology:1 countless:1 individual:1 human:2 area:3 research:2 real:1 exist:1 universe:2 apparent:1 explanation:1 generalization:2 arrive:1 often:3 help:1 use:1 argument:1 scientific:2 realism:1 philosopher:2 edward:3 wilson:6 although:1 widely:1 discuss:1 term:2 unfamiliar:1 broad:1 public:1 end:1 vividly:1 revive:1 book:2 humanist:1 biologist:1 osborne:1 attempt:1 bridge:1 gap:1 humanity:2 subject:1 c:1 p:1 snow:1 revolution:1 assertion:1 art:1 common:1 goal:1 give:1 purpose:1 detail:1 lend:1 inquirer:1 conviction:1 far:1 deep:1 mere:1 work:1 proposition:1 world:1 orderly:1 small:1 number:1 natural:1 law:1 notion:1 merely:1 point:1 invent:1 account:2 set:1 phenomenon:1 others:2 well:1 parallel:1 lie:1 universology:2 mean:2 first:2 advocate:1 interconnecting:1 principle:1 domain:1 stephen:1 pearl:1 andrew:1 utopian:1 futurist:1 anarchist:1 election:5 methods:1 adapt:1 refer:1 specific:1 check:3 balance:2 method:8 satisfy:1 following:1 condition:1 least:3 ballot:7 tabulation:6 shall:6 rely:2 upon:3 achieve:3 official:1 tally:5 employ:2 distinct:2 oversight:3 neither:1 personnel:1 involve:1 communicate:2 prevent:1 cheating:1 derive:1 must:4 agree:2 within:1 margin:2 discrepancy:2 would:1 overturn:1 outcome:1 physical:1 paper:5 evidence:2 e:5 hand:3 count:3 voter:1 verify:1 trail:1 location:1 vote:1 cast:2 g:1 precinct:1 poll:2 site:2 commence:1 immediately:2 close:1 preferably:1 conclude:1 without:1 sever:1 chain:1 custody:1 participant:1 conduct:2 exercise:1 describe:1 investigation:1 include:3 ensue:1 commonly:1 refers:1 full:1 example:1 race:1 surpass:1 ensure:1 statistical:1 accuracy:1 also:3 concordance:1 sample:1 randomly:1 select:1 every:1 voting:2 compare:1 optiscan:1 type:1 electronic:1 machine:1 journal:3 sustainable:3 development:3 february:2 student:2 columbia:3 university:3 launch:2 inaugural:2 issue:4 purport:1 global:2 online:1 publication:1 dedicate:1 promotion:1 interdisciplinary:1 dialogue:1 inspire:1 title:1 professor:1 practitioner:1 participation:1 promote:1 solution:1 orient:1 noticeable:1 cross:1 pollination:1 methodology:1 discipline:1 article:2 explore:1 physician:1 migration:1 health:1 role:1 uncertainty:1 climate:1 change:1 right:1 biotechnology:1 healthcare:1 among:1 feature:1 thirteen:1 academic:1 field:1 note:1 opinion:1 piece:1 photo:1 essay:1 display:1 event:2 afghanistan:1 low:1 rotunda:1 campus:1 dr:1 jeffrey:1 sachs:1 director:1 earth:1 institute:1 keynote:1 speaker:1 see:1 holism:1 syncretism:1 tree:1 system:1 referencesconsilience:1 vintage:1 paperback:1 external:1 link:1 princeton:1 background:1 rationale:1 behind:1 conversation:1 stanford:1 encyclopedia:1 neuroeconomics:1 brain:1 decision:1 experiment:1 |@bigram consilience_unity:2 william_whewell:2 neuron_synapsis:1 randomly_select:1 cross_pollination:1 keynote_speaker:1 external_link:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1 |
2,291 | Macbeth,_King_of_Scotland | Mac Bethad mac Findlaích (Modern Gaelic: MacBheatha mac Fhionnlaigh), Mac Bethad mac Findlaích is the Medieval Gaelic form. anglicised as Macbeth, and nicknamed Rí Deircc, "the Red King" William Forbes Skene, Chronicles, p. 102. (died 15 August 1057), was King of the Scots (also known as the King of Alba, and earlier as King of Moray and King of Fortriu) from 1040 until his death. He is best known as the subject of William Shakespeare's tragedy Macbeth and the many works it has inspired, although the play is historically inaccurate. Origins and family Macbeth was the son of Findláech mac Ruaidrí, Mormaer of Moray. His mother, who is not mentioned in contemporary sources, is sometimes supposed to have been a daughter of the Scottish king Malcolm II (Máel Coluim mac Cináeda). This may be derived from Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland which makes Macbeth's mother a granddaughter, rather than a daughter, of Malcolm. Hudson, Prophecy of Berchán, pp. 224–225, discusses the question, and the reliability of Wyntoun's chronicle. Findláech was killed in 1020. According to the Annals of Ulster he was killed by his own people while the Annals of Tigernach say that the sons of his brother Máel Brigte were responsible. One of these sons, Máel Coluim son of Máel Brigte, died in 1029. A second son, Gille Coemgáin, was killed in 1032, burned in a house with fifty of his men. Gille Coemgáin had been married to Gruoch with whom he had a son, the future king Lulach. It has been proposed that Gille Coemgáin's death was the doing of Mac Bethad, in revenge for his father's death, or of Máel Coluim son of Cináed, to rid himself of a rival. The origin myth of the kingdom of Alba traced its foundation to the supposed destruction of Pictland by Kenneth MacAlpin, and its kings were chosen from the male line descendants of Kenneth, with the possible exception of the shadowy Eochaid, said to be Kenneth's daughter's son. During the century in which the lists correspond well with the annals, the succession to the kingship of Alba was held in an alternating fashion by two branches of the descendants of Kenneth MacAlpin, one descended from Kenneth's son Constantín, Clann Constantín mac Cináeda, and one from Constantín's brother Áed, Clann Áeda mac Cináeda. This alternating succession is also seen in Ireland, where the High Kings of Ireland come from two branches of the Uí Néill, the northern Cenél nEógain and the southern Clann Cholmáin. Both systems have been compared with the concept of tanistry found in Early Irish Law, although the political reality appears to have been more complex. Both systems of alternating succession coincidentally failed in the early 11th century. In Ireland, the failure of the northern Uí Néill to support their southern kinsman Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill against Brian Bóruma, and the resulting end to the system of Uí Néill High Kingship appears to have been caused by political geography. In northern Britain, the violent struggle between the various candidates for power seems to have removed Clann Áeda mac Cináeda from the contest, leaving only Clann Constantín mac Cináeda, in the person of Máel Coluim son of Cináed, to claim the kingship. Máel Coluim appears to have had rivals from within Clann Constantín killed during his reign. It has been proposed that the base of Clann Áeda mac Cináeda's power lay in the north of the kingdom of Alba, beyond the Mounth (eastern Grampians) in what had once been Fortriu and which was now called Moray (in Irish annals of the period, MacBethad is occasionally referred to as King of Fortriu, as well as King/Mormaer of Moray, before his succession to the throne of Alba). It was in this region that Mac Bethad's kin appear to have been based. Later in the eleventh century, from the time of Gille Coemgáin's grandson Máel Snechtai, a genealogy was compiled which traced Máel Snechtai's descent and Clann Ruadrí's origins to the Cenél Loairn founder Loarn mac Eirc. Loarn was supposedly the brother of Fergus Mór, whom the descendants of Kenneth claimed as an ancestor. The genealogy as it survives is apparently constructed by combining two distinct genealogies which are found attached to the Senchus fer n-Alban, that of Ainbcellach mac Ferchair (died 719), to which has been appended that of Ainbcellach's kinsman Mongán mac Domnaill. Woolf, "Moray Question", pp. 148–149. The originals are in Bannerman, "Studies", p. 66. That the ancestry of Clann Ruadrí is a confection is not exceptional. The genealogies of Kenneth's descendants are equally unreliable and have been the subject of manipulation to provide a pedigree which links Kenneth to the Cenél nGabráin and thence to Fergus Mór. For these genealogies and related king-lists see Broun, Irish Origins ...; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, ... It is likely that this conception of Clann Ruadrí's origins predates Máel Snechtai and was prevalent in Mac Bethad's time or even earlier. Byrne, "Ireland and her neighbours", pp. 896–897; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 226–227. The extent to which Gaelic kingship rested on cognatic, male line descent can be seen in the case of Kenneth MacAlpin's daughter's daughter's son Congalach Cnogba. Congalach was the grandson of High King Flann Sinna of Clann Cholmáin and succeeded to the Uí Néill High Kingship in unusual circumstances on death of his mother's half-brother Donnchad Donn. Rather than proclaim his near kinship with recent kings—grandson of Flann, nephew of Donnchad and Niall Glúndub—Congalach's propagandists preferred to advance his claim to rule as a male-line descendant in the tenth generation of Áed Sláine (died circa 604). Like Congalach, Clann Ruadrí may have had a claim to the kingship in the female line which legal tradition would have considered to be of little importance. It is possible that Ruaidrí, or his father Domnall if he existed, may have married into Clann Áeda mac Cináeda and so inherited the allegiance of that family's supporters. It is not clear whether Gruoch's father was a son of King Kenneth II (Cináed mac Maíl Coluim) (d. 1005) or of King Kenneth III (Cináed mac Duib)(d. 997), either is possible chronologically. See Duncan, Kingship of the Scots, p. 345; Lynch, Oxford Companion, p. 680; Woolf, "Macbeth". After Gille Coemgáin's death, Macbeth married his widow and took Lulach as his stepson. Gruoch's brother, or nephew (his name is not recorded), was killed in 1033 by Malcolm II. Annals of Ulster 1033.7. The victim is reported as M. m. Boite m. Cináedha, which is variously read as "the son of the son of Boite" or as "M. son of Boite". Mormaer and dux When Canute the Great came north in 1031 to accept the submission of King Malcolm II, Macbeth too submitted to him: Some have seen this as a sign of Macbeth's power, others have seen his presence, together with Iehmarc, who may be Echmarcach mac Ragnaill, as proof that Malcolm II was overlord of Moray and of the Kingdom of the Isles. Compare Duncan, Kingship of the Scots, pp. 29–30 with Hudson, Prophecy of Berchán, pp. 222–223. Whatever the true state of affairs in the early 1030s, it seems more probable that Macbeth was subject to the king of Alba, Malcolm II, who died at Glamis, on 25 November 1034. The Prophecy of Berchan is apparently alone in near contemporary sources in reporting a violent death, calling it a kinslaying. Hudson, Prophecy of Berchán, p. 223; Duncan, Kingship of the Scots, p. 33. Tigernan's chronicle says only: Malcolm II's grandson Duncan (Donnchad mac Crínáin), later King Duncan I, was acclaimed as king of Alba on 30 November 1034, apparently without opposition. Duncan appears to have been tánaise ríg, the king in waiting, so that far from being an abandonment of tanistry, as has sometimes been argued, his kingship was a vindication of the practice. Previous successions had involved strife between various rígdomna - men of royal blood. Duncan I as tánaise ríg, the chosen heir, see Duncan, The Kingship of the Scots, pp. 33–34; Hudson, Prophecy of Berchán,pp. 223–224, where it is accepted that Duncan was king of Strathclyde. For tanistry, etc., in Ireland, see Ó Cróinín, Early Medieval Ireland, 63–71. Byrne, Irish Kings and High-Kings, pp. 35–39, offers a different perspective. Far from being the aged King Duncan of Shakespeare's play, the real King Duncan was a young man in 1034, and even at his death in 1040 his youthfulness is remarked upon. Annals of Tigernach 1040.1. Due to his youth, Duncan's early reign was apparently uneventful. His later reign, in line with his description as "the man of many sorrows" in the Prophecy of Berchán, was not successful. In 1039, Strathclyde was attacked by the Northumbrians, and a retaliatory raid led by Duncan against Durham in 1040 turned into a disaster. Later that year Duncan led an army into Moray, where he was killed by Macbeth on 15 August 1040 at Pitgaveny (then called Bothnagowan) near Elgin. Hudson, Prophecy of Berchán, p.223–224; Duncan, The Kingship of the Scots, pp.33–34. High-King of Alba On Duncan's death, Macbeth became king. No resistance is known at this time, but it would be entirely normal if his reign were not universally accepted. In 1045, Duncan's father Crínán of Dunkeld (a scion of the Scottish branch of the Cenel Conaill and Hereditary Abbot of Iona) was killed in a battle between two Scottish armies. Annals of Tigernach 1045.10; Annals of Ulster 1045.6. John of Fordun wrote that Duncan's wife fled Scotland, taking her children, including the future kings Malcolm III (Máel Coluim mac Donnchada) and Donald III (Domnall Bán mac Donnchada, or Donalbane) with her. Based on the author's beliefs as to whom Duncan married, various places of exile, Northumbria and Orkney among them, have been proposed. However, the simplest solution is that offered long ago by E. William Robertson: the safest place for Duncan's widow and her children would be with her or Duncan's kin and supporters in Atholl. Robertson, Scotland under her Early Kings, p. 122. Hudson, Prophecy of Berchán, p. 224, refers to Earl Siward as Malcolm III's "patron"; Duncan, The Kingship of the Scots, pp. 40–42 favours Orkney; Woolf offers no opinion. Northumbria is evidently a misapprehension, further than that cannot be said with certainty. After the defeat of Crínán, Macbeth was evidently unchallenged. Marianus Scotus tells how the king made a pilgrimage to Rome in 1050, where, Marianus says, he gave money to the poor as if it were seed. Karl Hundason The Orkneyinga Saga says that a dispute between Thorfinn Sigurdsson, Earl of Orkney, and Karl Hundason began when Karl Hundason became "King of Scots" and claimed Caithness. The identity of Karl Hundason, unknown to Scots and Irish sources, has long been a matter of dispute, and it is far from clear that the matter is settled. The most common assumption is that Karl Hundason was an insulting byname (Old Norse for "Churl, son of a Dog") given to Macbeth by his enemies. However Macbeth's father may be called "jarl Hundi" in Njál's saga; Crawford, p. 72. William Forbes Skene's suggestion that he was Duncan I of Scotland has been revived in recent years. Lastly, the idea that the whole affair is a poetic invention has been raised. Anderson, ESSH, p. 576, note 7, refers to the account as "a fabulous story" and concludes that "[n]o solution to the riddle seems to be justified". According to the Orkneyinga Saga, in the war which followed, Thorfinn defeated Karl in a sea-battle off Deerness at the east end of the Orkney Mainland. Then Karl's nephew Mutatan or Muddan, appointed to rule Caithness for him, was killed at Thurso by Thorkel the Fosterer. Finally, a great battle at Tarbat Ness on the south side of the Dornoch Firth ended with Karl defeated and fugitive or dead. Thorfinn, the saga says, then marched south through Scotland as far as Fife, burning and plundering as he passed. A later note in the saga claims that Thorfinn won nine Scottish earldoms. Orkneyinga Saga, cc. 20 & 32. Whoever Karl son of Hundi may have been, it appears that the saga is reporting a local conflict with a Scots ruler of Moray or Ross: Final years In 1052, Macbeth was involved indirectly in the strife in the Kingdom of England between Godwin, Earl of Wessex and Edward the Confessor when he received a number of Norman exiles from England in his court, perhaps becoming the first king of Scots to introduce feudalism to Scotland. In 1054, Edward's Earl of Northumbria, Siward, led a very large invasion of Scotland. The campaign led to a bloody battle in which the Annals of Ulster report 3,000 Scots and 1,500 English dead, which can be taken as meaning very many on both sides, and one of Siward's sons and a son-in-law were among the dead. The result of the invasion was that one Máel Coluim, "son of the king of the Cumbrians" (not to be confused with Máel Coluim mac Donnchada, the future Malcolm III of Scotland) was restored to his throne, i.e., as ruler of the kingdom of Strathclyde. Florence of Worcester, 1052; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Ms. D, 1054; Annals of Ulster 1054.6; and discussed by Duncan, The Kingship of the Scots, pp. 38–41; see also Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 260–263. It may be that the events of 1054 are responsible for the idea, which appears in Shakespeare's play, that Malcolm III was put in power by the English. Macbeth certainly survived the English invasion, for he was defeated and mortally wounded or killed by the future Malcolm III on the north side of the Mounth in 1057, after retreating with his men over the Cairnamounth Pass to take his last stand at the battle at Lumphanan. Andrew Wyntoun, Original Chronicle, ed. F.J. Amours, vol. 4, pp 298-299 and 300-301 (c. 1420) The Prophecy of Berchán has it that he was wounded and died at Scone, sixty miles to the south, some days later. The exact dates are uncertain, Woolf gives 15 August, Hudson 14 August and Duncan, following John of Fordun, gives 5 December; Annals of Tigernach 1058.5; Annals of Ulster 1058.6. Macbeth's stepson Lulach mac Gille Coemgáin was installed as king soon after. Unlike later writers, no near contemporary source remarks on Macbeth as a tyrant. The Duan Albanach, which survives in a form dating to the reign of Malcolm III, calls him "Mac Bethad the renowned". The Prophecy of Berchán, a verse history which purports to be a prophecy, describes him as "the generous king of Fortriu", and says: Life to legend Macbeth and the witches by Henry Fuseli (Johann Heinrich Füssli) (1741-1825) Macbeth's life, like that of King Duncan I, had progressed far towards legend by the end of the 14th century, when John of Fordun and Andrew of Wyntoun wrote their histories. Hector Boece, Walter Bower, and George Buchanan all contributed to the legend. The influence of William Shakespeare's Macbeth towers over mere histories, and has made the name of Macbeth infamous. In Shakespeare's play, Macbeth is portrayed as a good-hearted general to King Duncan, but is manipulated by his own wife and three witches and as the play progresses, he is portrayed as a villainous, homicidal maniac. Even his wife has gained some fame along the way, lending her Shakespeare-given title to a short story by Nikolai Leskov and the opera by Dmitri Shostakovich entitled Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk. The historical content of Shakespeare's play is drawn from Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland, which in turn borrows from Boece's 1527 Scotorum Historiae which flattered the antecedents of Boece's patron, King James V of Scotland. In modern times, Dorothy Dunnett's novel King Hereafter aims to portray a historical Macbeth, but proposes that Macbeth and his rival and sometime ally Thorfinn of Orkney are one and the same (Thorfinn is his birth name and Macbeth is his baptismal name). John Cargill Thompson's play Macbeth Speaks 1997, a reworking of his earlier Macbeth Speaks, is a monologue delivered by the historical Macbeth, aware of what Shakespeare and posterity have done to him. Scottish author Nigel Tranter based one of his historical novels on the historical figure (MacBeth the King). Tranter, a recognized expert among modern historians, describes Macbeth as originally the King of Moray, under the rule of Duncan, who fell suspect to Duncan's insecurities, and was attacked. Macbeth joined forces with his half-brother Thorfinn, who was the son of Macbeth's father's second wife, a Norse woman. Duncan was defeated and killed in battle, and Macbeth took the throne. The book mentions various feats during Macbeth's tenure as king, which are based on some fact, such as his support of the Celtic Catholic church, as opposed to the Roman Catholic branch which was in charge in England. It mentions his trip to Rome to petition the Celtic church to the Pope, claiming he travelled in his brother's Viking ships. (There was mention in the annuals in Rome of Vikings sailing up to the city, though the claims cannot be confirmed accurately.) It also mentions his defiance of England's claim over the Scottish throne, with that being the reason Macbeth was attacked and the more English-friendly Malcolm III installed to replace him as king. Notes References Further reading Tranter, Nigel MacBeth the King Hodder & Stoughton, 1978. Aitchison, Nick Macbeth Sutton Publishing, 2001 , ISBN 0750926406. Dunnett, Dorothy King Hereafter Knopf, 1982 , ISBN 0394523784. Ellis, Peter Berresford Macbeth: High King of Scotland 1040-57 Learning Links, 1991 , ISBN 0856404489. Marsden, John Alba of the Ravens: In Search of the Celtic Kingdom of the Scots Constable, 1997, ISBN 0094757607. 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2,292 | Achill_Island | Location of Achill Island Overlooking the west coast of Achill Island Achill Island (; ) in County Mayo is the largest island of Ireland, and is situated off the west coast. It has a population of 2,700. Its area is . Achill is attached to the mainland by Michael Davitt Bridge, between the villages of Gob an Choire (Achill Sound) and Poll Raithní (Polranny), so it is possible to drive onto the island (as of August 2008, this bridge is undergoing renovation, and a temporary causeway is in place). This is a causeway and swing bridge which allows the passage of small boats. A bridge was first completed here in 1887, and replaced by the current structure in 1949. Other centres of population include the villages of Keel, Dooagh, Dumha Éige (Dooega) and Dugort. The parish's main Gaelic football pitch and two secondary schools are on the mainland at Poll Raithní. Early human settlements are believed to have been established on Achill around 3000 BCE. A paddle dating from this period was found at the crannóg near Dookinella. The island is 87% peat bog. The parish of Achill also includes the Curraun peninsula. The people of Curraun consider themselves Achill people, and most natives of Achill refer to this area as being "in Achill". In the summer of 1996, the RNLI decided to station a lifeboat at Kildownet. History It is believed that at the end of the Neolithic Period (around 4000 BCE), Achill had a population of 500–1,000 people. The island would have been mostly forest until the Neolithic people began crop cultivation. Settlement increased during the Iron Age, and the dispersal of small forts around the coast indicate the warlike nature of the times. Granuaile maintained a castle at Kildownet in the 16th century. Keel Strand Achill Island lies in the Barony of Burrishoole, in the territory of ancient Umhall (Umhall Uactarach and Umhall Ioctarach), that originally encompassed an area extending from the Galway/Mayo border to Achill Head in Co. Mayo. The hereditary chieftains of Umhall were the O’Malleys, recorded in the area in 814 AD when they successfully repelled an onslaught by the Vikings in Clew Bay. The Anglo/Norman invasion of Connacht in 1235 AD saw the territory of Umhall taken over by the Butlers and later by the de Burgos. The Butler Lordship of Burrishoole continued into the late fourteenth century when Thomas le Botiller was recorded as being in possession of Akkyll & Owyll. In the 17th and 18th centuries, there was much migration to Achill from other parts of Ireland, particularly Ulster, due to the political and religious turmoil of the time. For a while there were two different dialects of Irish being spoken on Achill. This led to many townlands being recorded as having two names during the 1824 Ordnance Survey, and some maps today give different names for the same place. Achill Irish still has many traces of Ulster Irish. Archaeology Keem Bay*Achill Archaeological Field School is based at the Achill Archaeology Centre in Dooagh. It was founded in 1991 and is a training school for students of archaeology and anthropology. Since 1991, several thousand students from 21 countries have come to Achill to study. The school is involved in a study of the prehistoric and historic landscape at Slievemore, incorporating a research excavation at a number of sites within the Deserted Village of Slievemore. Slievemore is rich in archaeological monuments that span a 5000 year period from the Neolithic to the Post Medieval. Recent archaeological research suggests the village was occupied year-round at least as early as the 19th century, though it is known to have served as a seasonally occupied booley village by the first half of the 20th century. A booley village is a village occupied only during part of the year, such as a resort community, a lake community, or (as the case on Achill) a place to live while tending flocks or herds of ruminants during winter or summer pasturing. Deserted village, Slievemore, Achill Island, achill247.com Retrieved on 2008-02-17. Specifically, some of the people of Dooagh and Pollagh would migrate in the summer to Slievemore (Transhumance), and then go back to Dooagh in the autumn. Places of interest Despite some unsympathetic development, the island retains some striking natural beauty. The cliffs of Croaghaun on the western end of the island are the highest sea cliffs in Europe but are inaccessible by road. Near the westernmost point of Achill, Achill Head, is Keem Bay. Keel Beach is quite popular with tourists and some locals as a surfing location. South of Keem beach is Moytoge Head, which with its rounded appearance drops dramatically down to the ocean. An old British observation post, built during World War I to prevent the Germans from landing arms for the Irish Republican Army, is still standing on Moytoge. During the Second World War this post was rebuilt by the Irish Defence Forces as a Look Out Post for the Coast Watching Service wing of the Defence Forces. It operated from 1939 to 1945. See Michael Kennedy, 'Guarding Neutral Ireland' (Dublin, 2008), p. 50 Slievemore mountain dominates the centre of the island The mountain Slievemore (672 m) rises dramatically in the north of the island and the Atlantic Drive (along the south/west of the island) has some dramatically beautiful views. On the slopes of Slievemore, there is an abandoned village (the "Deserted Village") The Deserted Village is traditionally thought to be a remnant village from An Gorta Mór (The Great Hunger of 1845-1849). Just west of the deserted village is an old Martello tower, again built by the British to warn of any possible French invasion during the Napoleonic Wars. The area also boasts an approximately 5000-year old Neolithic tomb. Achillbeg (, Little Achill) is a small island just off Achill's southern tip. Its inhabitants were resettled on Achill in the 1960s. Jonathan Beaumont (2005), Achillbeg: The Life of an Island, ISBN 0 853616310 Mural on handball alley. Muralist: Karen Forde Economy While a number of attempts at setting up small industrial units on the island have been made, the economy of the island is largely dependent on tourism. Subventions from Achill people working abroad, in particular in the United Kingdom and the United States allowed many families to remain living in Achill throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Since the advent of Ireland's "Celtic Tiger" economy fewer Achill people are forced to look for work abroad. Agriculture plays a small role and is only profitable because of European Union subsidies. The fact that the island is mostly bog means that its potential for agriculture is limited largely to sheep farming. In the past, fishing was a significant activity but this aspect of the economy is small now. At one stage, the island was known for its shark fishing, basking shark in particular was fished for its valuable liver oil. There was a big spurt of growth in tourism in the 1960s and 1970s before which life was tough and difficult on the island. Since that heyday, the common perception is that tourism in Achill has been slowly declining. Transport Achill railway station opened on 13 May 1895, but finally closed on 1 October 1937. Bus Éireann provide daily commutes to Westport and beyond from the island's scattered villages. Population In 2006, the population was 2,700. The island's population has declined from around 6,000 before the Great Hunger. Architecture Because of the inhospitable climate, very few houses date from before the 20th century. The "Deserted Village" at the foot of Slievemore was a Booley village; see Transhumance The location of the village is relatively sheltered An example of the style of earlier housing can be seen in the "Deserted Village" ruins near the graveyard at the foot of Slievemore. Even the houses in this village represent a relatively comfortable class of dwelling as, even as recently as a hundred years ago, some people still used "Beehive" style houses (small circular single roomed dwellings with a hole in ceiling to let out smoke). Many of the oldest and most picturesque inhabited cottages date from the activities of the Congested Districts Board for Ireland—a body set up around the turn of the 20th century in Ireland to improve the welfare for inhabitants of small villages and towns. Most of the homes in Achill at the time were very small and tightly packed together in villages. The CDB subsidised the building of new, more spacious (though still small by modern standards) homes outside of the traditional villages. Some of the recent building development on the island (over the last 30 years or so) has been contentious and in many cases is not as sympathetic to the landscape as the earlier style of whitewashed raised gable cottages. Because of generous tax incentives, many holiday homes have been built over the last ten years. This building boom has brought benefits but at a cost. On the one hand it has provided much-needed employment for the local people, has increased the demand and value for suitable development land and has allows the island to support more tourists. On the other hand, many of these houses have been built in prominent scenic areas and have damaged traditional views of the island while lying empty for most of the year. They may also be contributing to the declining fortunes for the traditional beneficiaries of tourism - bed and breakfasts, public houses and guesthouses. People Achill football team celebrate winning the Junior county title, Castlebar, 21 October 2007 The artist Paul Henry stayed on the island for a number of years in the early 1900s and some of his most famous paintings are of the dramatic landscape of the island. Not long after arriving, he threw his return train ticket into the sea near Purteen Harbour. The Nobel Prize winning author, Heinrich Böll, visited the island and wrote of his experience in his "Irish Journal" (Irisches Tagebuch). The Bölls later bought a cottage near Dugort and lived in it periodically until 2001 when they donated it to be used as an artists' residence. English writer Honor Tracy lived there. Singer James Kilbane lives on the island. Other notable residents include country and western starlet Ciara Levelle, whose bid for the 2008 eurovision contest was dashed after losing to Dustin the Turkey. The famous contemparary poet Milhouse Vermolen is known to spend summers in Bunnacurry TM, and can be met on occasion out walking. Novelist Graham Greene, visited and stayed on Achill Island a number of times in the late 1940s. He wrote parts of the novels The Heart of the Matter (subsequently banned in Ireland) and The Fallen Idol in Dooagh, and Achill Island is also said to have inspired Greene to write some of his best poetry. He retained a special affection for Achill Island, which he mentioned frequently in his letters and notes, although this was largely due to the circumstances of his visits, as he was introduced to Achill by his mistress, Catherine Walston. She rented a cottage in Dooagh, with no electricity, one outside tap for water, and a corrugated iron roof on the traditional stone cottage, now since demolished. Artist Robert Henri came to Achill on a regular basis in the early decades of the 20th century. He painted a famous portrait of Johnny and Biddy Commins in Dooagh in 1913, entitled 'Himself and Herself'. This painting is now regarded as a master-piece and reproductions are in big demand in America. The painting won the coveted Beck Gold Medal Award. It was during his early trips to Achill prior to the outbreak of World War I that Henri painted extensively and is reputed to have done portraits of almost all the children in Dooagh village. He bought Corrymore House on the hill above Dooagh in 1924. He died in America in 1929. In the centre of Dooagh is a commemoration plaque to Don Allum, the first man to row across the Atlantic Ocean in both directions. He landed close to the memorial on Dooagh beach on 4 September 1987, completing the second leg of his voyage. Footballers Kevin Kilbane(Hull City AFC and Football Association Of Ireland),Darren Fletcher(Man Utd and Scottish FA)and John Joe O Toole(Sheffield Utd and Football Association Of Ireland U21s)parents and cousins hail from the island Literature Heinrich Böll: Irisches Tagebuch, Berlin 1957 Kingston, Bob: The Deserted Village at Slievemore, Castlebar 1990 McDonald, Theresa: Achill: 5000 B.C. to 1900 A.D. Archeology History Folklore, I.A.S. Publications [1992] Meehan, Rosa: The Story of Mayo, Castlebar 2003 See also Connacht Irish Achill Sound List of RNLI stations References External links Achill Island Maritime Archaeology Project Achill Island web site Achill Island Local News & Events Achill Archaeological Field School web site VisitAchill multilingual visitor's site Latest News from Achill Island | Achill_Island |@lemmatized location:3 achill:46 island:38 overlook:1 west:4 coast:4 county:2 mayo:4 large:1 ireland:9 situate:1 population:6 area:6 attach:1 mainland:2 michael:2 davitt:1 bridge:4 village:24 gob:1 choire:1 sound:2 poll:2 raithní:2 polranny:1 possible:2 drive:2 onto:1 august:1 undergoing:1 renovation:1 temporary:1 causeway:2 place:4 swing:1 allow:3 passage:1 small:10 boat:1 first:3 complete:2 replace:1 current:1 structure:1 centre:4 include:3 keel:3 dooagh:11 dumha:1 éige:1 dooega:1 dugort:2 parish:2 main:1 gaelic:1 football:4 pitch:1 two:3 secondary:1 school:5 early:7 human:1 settlement:2 believe:2 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2,293 | Bunge_y_Born | Bunge y Born was an Argentina-based multinational corporation. It was an international grain and oilseed trader with an annual turnover of about $13 bn. It is now known as Bunge Limited. History Started by European immigrants arriving in Argentina in the late 19th century to take advantage of the newly created wheatlands. Two families join forces to play a large role in the grain and oilseed business, initially in Argentina and then worldwide. The owning families expanded their business into industry in Argentina and Brazil. Including textiles, paint, chemicals, fertilizer, banking and insurance. Throughout the early and mid-20th century they continued to be successful until 1974 when two third generation family members Jorge and Juan Born, were kidnapped by the Montoneros and recovered only after the payment of a $60m ransom. Concern over the terrorists use of the money was one of the factors that led to the military coup in April 1976. The families became even more low profile; but in July 1989, Jorge Born, president of the company from 1987 (replacing the "business genius" Mario Hirsch), began working closely with the government of Carlos Menem. Bunge provided the government with its first two economy ministers. This foray into government policy making, however, ended in a new currency crisis that December. This failure upset the other shareholders and compounded by the company's lackluster business performance, this crisis resulted in Born's 1991 ouster from the board; he was replaced by Chief Operations Officer Octavio Caraballo. Beset by the rift between Jorge Born and his brother, Juan, the prior unity between the shareholders disintegrated as Caraballo struggled to modernize the company. Bizarrely the ousted Jorge Born has started working with one of his former kidnappers, Rodolfo Galimberti. Bunge International In 1994 the Bermuda-registered Bunge International was created as the main company in which the families have shares. There are around 180 shareholders - the main families are Hirsch, Bunge, Born, Engels and De La Tour. This replaced the older structure in which individual shareholders had stakes in all the different Bunge companies. Now only in Argentina does the Bunge y Born name still exist. | Bunge_y_Born |@lemmatized bunge:8 born:3 argentina:5 base:1 multinational:1 corporation:1 international:3 grain:2 oilseed:2 trader:1 annual:1 turnover:1 bn:1 know:1 limit:1 history:1 start:2 european:1 immigrant:1 arrive:1 late:1 century:2 take:1 advantage:1 newly:1 create:2 wheatlands:1 two:3 family:6 join:1 force:1 play:1 large:1 role:1 business:4 initially:1 worldwide:1 expand:1 industry:1 brazil:1 include:1 textile:1 paint:1 chemical:1 fertilizer:1 banking:1 insurance:1 throughout:1 early:1 mid:1 continue:1 successful:1 third:1 generation:1 member:1 jorge:4 juan:2 bear:5 kidnap:1 montoneros:1 recover:1 payment:1 ransom:1 concern:1 terrorist:1 use:1 money:1 one:2 factor:1 lead:1 military:1 coup:1 april:1 become:1 even:1 low:1 profile:1 july:1 president:1 company:5 replace:3 genius:1 mario:1 hirsch:2 begin:1 work:2 closely:1 government:3 carlos:1 menem:1 provide:1 first:1 economy:1 minister:1 foray:1 policy:1 making:1 however:1 end:1 new:1 currency:1 crisis:2 december:1 failure:1 upset:1 shareholder:4 compound:1 lackluster:1 performance:1 result:1 ouster:1 board:1 chief:1 operation:1 officer:1 octavio:1 caraballo:2 beset:1 rift:1 brother:1 prior:1 unity:1 disintegrate:1 struggle:1 modernize:1 bizarrely:1 oust:1 former:1 kidnapper:1 rodolfo:1 galimberti:1 bermuda:1 registered:1 main:2 share:1 around:1 engels:1 de:1 la:1 tour:1 old:1 structure:1 individual:1 stake:1 different:1 name:1 still:1 exist:1 |@bigram multinational_corporation:1 banking_insurance:1 |
2,294 | Murray_Rothbard | Murray Newton Rothbard (March 2, 1926 – January 7, 1995) was an American intellectual, individualist anarchist , F. Eugene Heathe. Encyclopedia of Business Ethics and Society. SAGE. 2007. p. 89 , author and economist of the Austrian School who helped define modern libertarianism and popularized a form of free-market anarchism he termed "anarcho-capitalism". Building on the Austrian School's concept of spontaneous order in markets, support for a free market in money production and condemnation of central planning, Free Market Money System by F.A. Hayek Rothbard sought to minimize coercive government control of the economy and considered the monopoly force of government the greatest danger to liberty and the long-term wellbeing of the populace. Rothbard concluded that taxation represents theft on a grand scale, and "a compulsory monopoly of force" prohibiting the voluntary procurement of defense and judicial services. He also considered central banking and fractional reserve banking under a fiat money system a form of institutionalized, legalized financial fraud, antithetical to libertarian principles and ethics. Rothbard, Murray. The Mystery of Banking Ludwig von Mises Institute. 2008. p. 111 Rothbard opposed military, political and economic interventionism in the affairs of other nations. Rothbard on War, excerpts from a 1973 Reason Magazine article and other materials, published at Antiwar.com, undated. Murray N. Rothbard For a New Liberty, p. 265. Life and work Rothbard was born to David and Rae Rothbard, who raised their Jewish family in the Bronx. "I grew up in a Communist culture," he recalled. Life in the Old Right by Murray N. Rothbard, LewRockwell.com, first published in Chronicles, August 1994. He attended Columbia University, where he was awarded a Bachelor of Arts degree in mathematics and economics in 1945 and a Master of Arts degree in 1946. He earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree in economics in 1956 at Columbia under Arthur Burns. David Gordon, Murray N. Rothbard (1926-1995) biography, Ludwig Von Mises Institute. Gary North, Ron Paul on Greenspan’s Fed , Lew Rockwell.com, February 28, 2004. During the early 1950s, he studied under the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises at his seminars at New York University and was greatly influenced by Mises' book Human Action. In the 1950s and 1960s he worked for the classical liberal William Volker Fund on a book project that resulted in Man, Economy, and State, published in 1962. From 1963 to 1985, he taught at Polytechnic Institute of New York University in Brooklyn, New York. From 1986 until his death he was a distinguished professor at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Rothbard founded the Center for Libertarian Studies in 1976 and the Journal of Libertarian Studies in 1977. He was associated with the 1982 creation of the Ludwig von Mises Institute and later was its academic vice president. In 1987 he started the scholarly "Review of Austrian Economics," now called the Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics. In 1953 he married JoAnn Schumacher in New York City whom he called the “indispensable framework” for his life and work. He died in 1995 in Manhattan of a heart attack. The New York Times obituary called Rothbard "an economist and social philosopher who fiercely defended individual freedom against government intervention." David Stout, Obituary: Murray N. Rothbard, Economist And Free-Market Exponent, 68, New York Times, January 11, 1995. Austrian School writings Cover of the 2004 edition of Man, Economy, and State. The Austrian School attempts to discover axioms of human action (called "praxeology" in the Austrian tradition). It supports free market economics and criticizes command economies because they destroy the information function of prices and inevitably lead to totalitarianism. Influential advocates were Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Friedrich Hayek and Ludwig von Mises. Rothbard argued that the entire Austrian economic theory is the working out of the logical implications of the fact that humans engage in purposeful action. Grimm, Curtis M.; Hunn, Lee; Smith, Ken G. Strategy as Action: Competitive Dynamics and Competitive Advantage. New York Oxford University Press (US). 2006. p. 43 In working out these axioms he came to the position that a monopoly price could not exist on the free market. He also anticipated much of the “rational expectations” viewpoint in economics. His free market views convinced him that individual protection and national defense also should be offered on the market, rather than supplied by government’s coercive monopoly. Rothbard was an ardent critic of Keynesian economic thought See Robthbard's essay Keynes the Man, originally published in Dissent on Keynes: A Critical Appraisal of Keynesian Economics, Edited by Mark Skousen. New York: Praeger, 1992, 171–198; Online edition at The Ludwig von Mises Institute. as well as the utilitarian theory of philosopher Jeremy Bentham. See Rothbard's essay, "Jeremy Bentham: The Utilitarian as Big Brother" published in his work, Classical Economics. In Man, Economy and State Rothbard divides the various kinds of state intervention in three categories: autistic intervention, which is interference with private non-exchange activities; binary intervention, which is forced exchange between individuals and the state; and triangular intervention, which is state-mandated exchange between individuals. According to Sanford Ikeda, Rothbard's typology "eliminates the gaps and inconsistencies that appear in Mises's original formulation." Ikeda, Sanford, Dyamics of the Mixed Economy: Toward a Theory of Interventionism, Routledge UK, 1997, 245. Review of The Case Against the Fed by Murray N. Rothbard, www.asiaing.com, April 5, 2008. Murray Rothbard, Chapter 2 "Fundamentals of Intervention" from Man, Economy and State, Ludwig von Mises Institute. Rothbard also was knowledgeable in history and political philosophy. Rothbard's books, such as Man, Economy, and State, Power and Market, The Ethics of Liberty, and For a New Liberty, are considered by some to be classics of natural law libertarian thought. He studied the pre-Adam Smith economic schools, such as the Scholastics and the Physiocrats and discussed them in his unfinished, multi-volume work, An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought. Murray Rothbard points out in Power and Market that the role of the economist in a free market is limited, but the role in a government which intervenes in the market expands. Thus the prejudice of many economists for increased government intervention. Peter G. Klein, Why Intellectuals Still Support Socialism, Ludwig von Mises Institute, November 15, 2006 Man, Economy, and State, Chapter 7-Conclusion: Economics and Public Policy, Ludwig Von Mises Institute. Rothbard created "Rothbard's law" that "people tend to specialize in what they are worst at. Henry George, for example, is great on everything but land, so therefore he writes about land 90% of the time. Friedman is great except on money, so he concentrates on money." Interview with Murray N. Rothbard, Ludwig von Mises Institute, Summer 1990. Political views Rothbard "combined the laissez-faire economics of his teacher Ludwig von Mises with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the nineteenth century such as Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker." Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought, 1987, ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 290 He connected these to more modern views, writing: "There is, in the body of thought known as 'Austrian economics', a scientific explanation of the workings of the free market (and of the consequences of government intervention in that market) which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social Weltanschauung." "The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View" Rothbard opposed what he considered the overspecialization of the academy and sought to fuse the disciplines of economics, history, ethics, and political science to create a "science of liberty." Rothbard described the moral basis for his anarcho-capitalist position in two of his books: For a New Liberty, published in 1972, and The Ethics of Liberty, published in 1982. In his Power and Market (1970), Rothbard described how a stateless economy would function. Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Anarcho-Capitalism: An Annotated Bibliography, LewRockwell.com. Self-ownership In The Ethics of Liberty, Rothbard asserted the right of total self-ownership, as the only principle compatible with a moral code that applies to every person a "universal ethic" and that it is a natural law by being what is naturally best for man. Rothbard, Murray Newton. The Ethics of Liberty. NYU Press. 2003. pp. 45 - 45 He believed that, as a result, individuals owned the fruits of their labor. Accordingly, each person had the right to exchange his property with others. He believed that if an individual mixes his labor with unowned land then he is the proper owner, and from that point on it is private property that may only exchange hands by trade or gift. He also argued that such land would tend not to remain unused unless it makes economic sense to not put it to use. Kyriazi, Harold. Reckoning With Rothbard (2004). American Journal of Economics and Sociology 63 (2), 451 Anarcho-capitalism Rothbard began to consider himself a private property anarchist in the 1950s and later began to use "anarcho-capitalist." Roberta Modugno Crocetta, Murray Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism in the contemporary debate. A critical defense, Ludwig Von Mises Institute. Michael Oliver, 'Exclusive Interview With Murray Rothbard, originally published in "The New Banner: A Fortnightly Libertarian Journal", February 25, 1972. He wrote: "Capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism, and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism." "Exclusive Interview With Murray Rothbard" The New Banner: A Fortnightly Libertarian Journal (February 25, 1972) In his anarcho-capitalist model, a system of protection agencies compete in a free market and are voluntarily supported by consumers who choose to use their protective and judicial services. Anarcho-capitalism would mean the end of the state monopoly on force. Free Market Money See also free banking and Gold Standard Rothbard believed the monopoly power of government over the issuance and distribution of money was inherently destructive. The belief derived from Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek's Austrian theory of the business cycle, which holds that undue credit expansion inevitably leads to a gross misallocation of capital resources, triggering unsustainable credit bubbles and, eventually, economic depressions. He therefore strongly opposed central banking and fractional reserve banking under a fiat money system and supported full reserve banking and free banking, which he also called "free market money," as an alternative: Rothbard, Murray. The Mystery of Banking, Ludwig von Mises Institute. 2008. p. 111, 278 He wrote: "Let us also define a system of free banking as one where banks are treated like any other business on the free market. Hence, they are not subjected to any government control or regulation, and entry into the banking business is completely free. There is one and only one government “regulation”: that they, like any other business, must pay their debts promptly or else be declared insolvent and be put out of business." He strongly advocated a voluntary, nongovernmental gold standard and the benefits of full reserve banking. See also these Rothbard articles: What Has Government Done to Our Money?, The Case for the 100% Gold Dollar; The Fed as Cartel, Private Coinage, Repudiate the National Debt; Taking Money Back, Anatomy of the Bank Run, Money and the Individual He believed fractional reserve banking to be a form of embezzlement and therefore inherently fraudulent. Rothbard, Murray. The Mystery of Banking, p. 90-94 However, also believing it was impractical to prevent, he argued that banks should be allowed to engage in fractional reserve banking in a free banking system: Rothbard, Murray. The Mystery of Banking, p. 261 "Given this dismal monetary and banking situation, given a 39:1 pyramiding of checkable deposits and currency on top of gold, given a Fed unchecked and out of control, given a world of fiat moneys, how can we possibly return to a sound noninflationary market money? The objectives, after the discussion in this work, should be clear: (a) to return to a gold standard, a commodity standard unhampered by government intervention; (b) to abolish the Federal Reserve System and return to a system of free and competitive banking; (c) to separate the government from money; and (d) either to enforce 100 percent reserve banking on the commercial banks, or at least to arrive at a system where any bank, at the slightest hint of nonpayment of its demand liabilities, is forced quickly into bankruptcy and liquidation. While the outlawing of fractional reserve as fraud would be preferable if it could be enforced, the problems of enforcement, especially where banks can continually innovate in forms of credit, make free banking an attractive alternative." Noninterventionism Believing like Randolph Bourne that “war is the health of the state” Rothbard opposed aggressive foreign policy. He criticized imperialism and the rise of the American empire which needed war to sustain itself and to expand its global control. Stopping new wars was necessary and knowledge of how government had seduced citizens into earlier wars was important. Two essays expanded on these views "War, Peace, and the State" and "The Anatomy of the State." Rothbard used insights of the elitism theorists Vilfredo Pareto, Gaetano Mosca and Robert Michels to build a model of state personnel, goals and ideology. Joseph R. Stromberg, Murray Rothbard on States, War, and Peace: Part I (also see Part II), Antiwar.com, originally published June 2000. See both essays, Murray N. Rothbard, War, Peace, and the State, first published 1963; Anatomy of the State, first published 1974, both at LewRockwell.com. In an obituary for historian Harry Elmer Barnes Rothbard explained why historical knowledge is important: “Our entry into World War II was the crucial act in foisting a permanent militarization upon the economy and society, in bringing to the country a permanent garrison state, an overweening military-industrial complex, a permanent system of conscription. It was the crucial act in creating a mixed economy run by Big Government, a system of state-monopoly capitalism run by the central government in collaboration with Big Business and Big Unionism.” Murray N. Rothbard, Harry Elmer Barnes, RIP, from “Left and Right” final issue, 1968, republished at LewRockwell.com. Rothbard discussed his views on the principles of a libertarian foreign policy in a 1973 interview: “minimize State power as much as possible, down to zero, and isolationism is the full expression in foreign affairs of the domestic objective of whittling down State power.” He further called for "abstinence from any kind of American military intervention and political and economic intervention." Rothbard on War, excerpts from a 1973 Reason Magazine article and other materials, published at Antiwar.com, undated. In For a New Liberty he writes: "In a purely libertarian world, therefore, there would be no 'foreign policy' because there would be no States, no governments with a monopoly of coercion over particular territorial areas." Murray N. Rothbard For a New Liberty, p. 265. In "War Guilt in the Middle East" Rothbard details Israel's "aggression against Middle East Arabs," confiscatory policies and its "refusal to let these refugees return and reclaim the property taken from them." Murray Rothbard, War Guilt in the Middle East, "Left and Right", Vol. 3 No. 3 (Autumn 1967) (cited here.) Rothbard also criticized the “organized Anti-Anti-Semitism” that critics of the state of Israel have to suffer. Murray N. Rothbard, Pat Buchanan and the Menace of Anti-anti-semitism, December 1990, from The Irrepressible Rothbard, published at LewRockwell.com. Rothbard criticized as terrorism the actions of the United States, Israel and any nation that "retaliates" against innocents because they cannot pinpoint actual perpetrators. He held no retaliation that injures or kills innocent people is justified, writing "Anything else is an apologia for unremitting and unending mass murder." Murray N. Rothbard, Who are the terrorsts?, first published in the Libertarian Party News, March/April 1986, reproduced at LewRockwell.com. Children and rights In the Ethics of Liberty Rothbard explores in terms of self-ownership and contract several contentious issues regarding children's rights. These include women's right to abortion, proscriptions on parents aggressing against children once they are born, and the issue of the state forcing parents to care for children, including those with severe health problems. He also holds children have the right to "run away" from parents and seek new guardians as soon as they are able to choose to do so. He suggested parents have the right to put a child out for adoption or even sell the rights to the child in a voluntary contract, which he feels is more humane than artificial governmental restriction of the number of children available to willing and often superior parents. He also discusses how the current juvenile justice system punishes children for making "adult" choices, removes children unnecessarily and against their will from parents, often putting them in uncaring and even brutal foster care or juvenile facilities. The Ethics of Liberty, Chapter 14 "Children and Rights." See also Ronald Hamowy, The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism, Cato Institute, SAGE, 2008, 59-61 ISBN 1412965802, 9781412965804 Political activism When young, he considered himself part of the Old Right, an anti-statist and anti-interventionist branch of the U.S. Republican party. When interventionist cold warriors of the National Review, such as William F. Buckley, Jr., gained influence in the Republican party in the 1950s, Rothbard quit the party. William F. Buckley later would write a bitter obituary in the National Review criticizing Rothbard's political views. William F. Buckley, Murray Rothbard, RIP - professor and Libertarian Party founder, National Review, February 6, 1995. During the late 1950s, Rothbard was an associate of Ayn Rand and her Objectivist philosophy, but later had a falling out. He later lampooned the relationship in his play Mozart Was a Red. In the late 1960s, Rothbard advocated an alliance with the New Left anti-war movement, on the grounds that the conservative movement had been completely subsumed by the statist establishment. However, Rothbard later criticized the New Left for supporting a "People's Republic" style draft. It was during this phase that he associated with Karl Hess and founded Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought with Leonard Liggio and George Resch, which existed from 1965 to 1968. From 1969 to 1984 he edited The Libertarian Forum, also initially with Hess (although Hess's involvement ended in 1971). Rothbard criticized the "frenzied nihilism" of left-wing libertarians but also criticized right-wing libertarians who were content to rely only on education to bring down the state; he believed that libertarians should adopt any non-immoral tactic available to them in order to bring about liberty. Lora, Ronald & Longton, Henry. 1999. The Conservative Press in Twentieth-Century America. Greenwood Press. p. 369 Burton Blumert, Lew Rockwell, David Gordon, and Rothbard. During the 1970s and 1980s, Rothbard was active in the Libertarian Party. He was frequently involved in the party's internal politics. From 1978 to 1983, he was associated with the Libertarian Party Radical Caucus, allying himself with Justin Raimondo, Eric Garris and Williamson Evers. He opposed the "low tax liberalism" espoused by 1980 Libertarian Party presidential candidate Ed Clark and Cato Institute president Edward H Crane III. Rothbard split with the Radical Caucus at the 1983 national convention over cultural issues, and aligned himself with what he called the "rightwing populist" wing of the party, notably Lew Rockwell and Ron Paul, who ran for President on the Libertarian Party ticket in 1988 and in the 2008 Republican Party Primaries. In 1989, Rothbard left the Libertarian Party and began building bridges to the post-Cold War anti-interventionist right, calling himself a paleolibertarian. Murrary Rothbard, "Big Government Libertarianism", Lew Rockwell.com, November 1994. He was the founding president of the conservative-libertarian John Randolph Club and supported the presidential campaign of Pat Buchanan in 1992, saying “with Pat Buchanan as our leader, we shall break the clock of social democracy.” Lee Edwards, The Conservative Revolution: The Movement That Remade America, Simon and Schuster, 1999, 329. However, later he became disillusioned and said Buchanan developed too much faith in economic planning and centralized state power. Lew Rockwell, What I Learned From Paleoism, LewRockwell.com, 2002. Books Cover from the first volume of the 2006 Ludwig Von Mises Institute edition of An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought Cover of the Ludwig Von Mises Institute's 2000 edition of America's Great Depression. Man, Economy, and State (Full Text; ISBN 0-945466-30-7) (1962) The Panic of 1819. 1962, 2006 edition: ISBN 1-933550-08-2. America's Great Depression. (Full Text) ([ISBN 0-945466-05-6. (1963, 1972, 1975, 1983, 2000) What Has Government Done to Our Money? (Full Text / Audio Book) ISBN 0-945466-44-7. (1963) Economic Depressions: Causes and Cures (1969) Power and Market. ISBN 1-933550-05-8. (1970) (restored to Man, Economy, and State ISBN 0-945466-30-7, 2004) Education: Free and Compulsory. ISBN 0-945466-22-6. (1972) Left and Right, Selected Essays 1954-65 (1972) For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto (Full text / Audio book) ISBN 0-945466-47-1. (1973, 1978) The Essential von Mises (1973) The Case for the 100 Percent Gold Dollar. ISBN 0-945466-34-X. (Full Text / Audio Book) (1974) Egalitarianism as a Revolt Against Nature and Other Essays ISBN 0-945466-23-4. (1974) Conceived in Liberty (4 vol.) ISBN 0-945466-26-9. (1975-79) Individualism and the Philosophy of the Social Sciences. ISBN 0-932790-03-8. (1979) The Ethics of Liberty (Full Text / Audio Book) ISBN 0-8147-7559-4. (1982) The Mystery of Banking (Full text). ISBN 0-943940-04-4. (1983) Ludwig von Mises: Scholar, Creator, Hero. . (1988) Freedom, Inequality, Primitivism, and the Division of Labor. Full text (included as Chapter 16 in Egalitarianism above) (1991) The Case Against the Fed (Full text). ISBN 0-945466-17-X. (1994) An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought (2 vol.) ISBN 0-945466-48-X. (1995) Wall Street, Banks, and American Foreign Policy. (Full Text) with an introduction by Justin Raimondo. (1995) Making Economic Sense. ISBN 0-945466-18-8. (1995, 2006) Logic of Action (2 vol.) ISBN 1-85898-015-1 and ISBN 1-85898-570-6. (1997) The Austrian Theory of the Trade Cycle and Other Essays. ISBN 0-945466-21-8. (also by Mises, Hayek, & Haberler) Irrepressible Rothbard: The Rothbard-Rockwell Report Essays of Murray N. Rothbard. (Full Text.) ISBN 1-883959-02-0. (2000) A History of Money and Banking in the United States. ISBN 0-945466-33-1. (2005) The Complete Libertarian Forum (2 vol.) (Full Text) ISBN 1-933550-02-3. (2006) The Betrayal of the American Right ISBN 978-1-933550-13-8 (2007) Economic Controversies (to be published 2009) Notes Further reading Gordon, David. The Essential Rothbard, Ludwig von Mises Institute, 1st edition. February 26, 2007. ISBN 1933550104 Raimondo, Justin. An Enemy of the State: The Life of Murray N. Rothbard. Prometheus Books. July 2000. ISBN 1-57392-809-7 External links "Murray N. Rothbard" by David Gordon, also includes links to audio clips of Rothbard and the complete text of several books. Ludwig Von Mises Youtube page including several Rothbard videos Murray N. Rothbard Library and Resources Murray N. Rothbard Media Archive at Mises.org BlackCrayon.com: People: Murray Rothbard Chronological Bibliography of Murray Rothbard The Complete Archives of The Libertarian Forum, written about twice a month between 1969 and 1984. New York Times obituary Sociology of the Ayn Rand Cult (pamphlet published by the Center for Libertarian Studies) "It Usually Ends With Ed Crane" - Rothbard's story of what happened with Ed Crane, the CATO institute and the Libertarian party A 1972 New Banner interview with Murray Rothbard A 1990 interview with Murray Rothbard Why Hans-Hermann Hoppe considers Rothbard the key Austro-libertarian intellectual Murray N. Rothbard, The Origins of the Federal Reserve, The Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics vol. 2, no. 3 (Fall 1999): 3 – 51 Murray Rothbard Institute, Belgium Murray N. 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2,295 | Carrier_battle_group | The USS Abraham Lincoln battle group during the 2000 RIMPAC exercises A carrier battle group (CVBG) consists of an aircraft carrier (CV) and its escorts. History The CVBG was first used in World War II, primarily in conflicts between the United States and Japan in the Pacific. CVBGs at the time consisted of a far larger number of ships than current CVBGs, and this marked the only time CVBGs have fought each other, notably at the Battle of Coral Sea for the first time and then at the epic Battle of Midway one month later. In the Pacific theater, the carrier replaced the battleship as the measure of power projection and relative strength. The U.S. eventually put over 100 carriers of varying sizes to sea and employed the carrier battle groups in large formations under its 3rd and 5th Fleets. During the Cold War, the main role of the CVBG in case of conflict with the Soviet Union would have been to protect Atlantic supply routes between the United States and Europe, while the role of the Soviet Navy would have been to interrupt these sea lanes, a fundamentally easier task. Because the Soviet Union had no large carriers of its own, a situation of dueling aircraft carriers would have been unlikely. However, a primary mission of the Soviet Navy's attack submarines was to shadow every CVBG and, on the outbreak of hostilities, sink the carriers. Understanding this threat, the CVBG expended enormous resources in its own anti-submarine warfare mission. Carrier battle groups in crises HMS Invincible, which took part in the Falklands War. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, most of the uses of CVBGs by the United States as well as that of other nations have been in situations in which their use has been uncontested by other comparable forces. Carriers in the 1956 Suez Crisis British and French carrier battle groups were involved in the 1956 Suez Crisis. Carriers in the Falklands War With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the main scenario of interest would be an attack against a CVBG using large number of anti-ship cruise missiles. The first attempted use of anti-ship missiles against a carrier group was part of Argentina's efforts against Britain in the Falklands War. Interestingly, this was the last conflict in which both sides possessed aircraft carriers, although Argentina would make little use of its sole carrier, ironically supplied originally by Britain. Lebanon The United States Sixth Fleet assembled a force of three carrier battle groups and a battleship during the Lebanese Civil War in 1983. Daily reconnaissance flights were flown over the Bekaa Valley and a strike was flown against targets in the area resulting in loss of an A-6 Intruder and an A-7 Corsair. Gulf of Sidra Carrier battle groups routinely operated in the Gulf of Sidra inside the "Line of Death" proclaimed by Libya resulting in aerial engagements in 1981, 1986 and 1989 between U.S. Navy Tomcats and Libyan Su-22 aircraft , SA-5 surface-to-air missiles and MiG-23 fighters. During the 1986 clashes, three carrier battle groups deployed to the Gulf of Sidra and ultimately two of them conducted strikes against Libya in Operation El Dorado Canyon. The U.S. Navy carrier strike group U.S. Navy ships assigned to the USS George Washington Carrier Strike Group sail in formation for a strike group photo in the Caribbean Sea April 29, 2006. Such a formation, referred to derisively as the "bullseye" formation, would not be used in combat. In modern US Navy carrier air operations, carrier strike group (CSG) has replaced the traditional term of carrier battle group (CVBG or CARBATGRU). The Navy maintains 11 carrier strike groups, 10 of which are based in the United States and one that is forward deployed in Japan. http://www.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=39259 ) The large number of CSGs used by the United States reflects, in part, a division of roles and missions allotted during the Cold War, in which the United States assumed primary responsibility for blue water operations and for safeguarding supply lines between the United States and Europe, while the NATO allies assumed responsibility for brown and green water operations. Their existence is an important part of the power projection capability of the United States in that they provide the ability to strike quickly almost anywhere in the world. Battleship battle group During the period when the American navy recommissioned all four of its Iowa class battleships, it sometimes used a similar formation centered around a battleship, referred to as a battleship battle group (BBG). Other carrier battle groups British carrier battle groups The Royal Navy maintains two task forces concurrently (one based around an aircraft carrier and one based around an Amphibious Command Ship). At least one task group is deployed at any one time. There are currently two Invincible class aircraft carriers in operation with the Royal Navy, with a further one in reserve. The Royal Navy also utilises the Ocean Class LPH as well as the two Albion Class LPDs as Amphibious Command Ships at the centre of a task group. The Queen Elizabeth class is currently planned to deliver two much larger carriers, operating the F-35, replacing the ageing Invincible class in 2014 and 2016 respectively. French carrier battle groups The only serving French carrier is the Charles de Gaulle, which also serves as the flagship of the Marine Nationale. The Carrier Battle Group (Groupe Aéronaval, GAN, in French) is usually composed, in addition to the aircraft carrier, of : a carrier air wing (Groupe Aérien Embarqué, GAE, in French), a complement composed of about 40 aircraft : Rafale (up to 12) Super Étendard (up to 36) E-2C Hawkeye (2) SA365 Dauphin (3 or more) one Rubis Class SSN two anti-submarine destroyers (currently F67 or F70 class) one or two anti-air destroyers (currently Cassard class destroyers, soon helped by Horizon class destroyers) one frigate in forward patrol (usually a La Fayette class) one supply ship This group is commanded by a rear admiral (contre-amiral, in French) onboard the aircraft carrier. The commanding officer of the air group (usually a capitaine de frégate—equivalent to commander) is subordinate to the commanding officer of the aircraft carrier, a senior captain. The escort destroyers (called frigates in the French denomination) are commanded by more junior captains. The Charles de Gaulle is likely to be joined by the future French aircraft carrier at some point in the future. Spanish carrier battle group The Spanish Navy currently operates one carrier, the Principe de Asturias. It will soon be joined by the Buque de Proyección Estratégica, designed as a multi-purpose warship that can be used as a second carrier. The group includes two escort squadrons: the 41st, with ASW Santa Maria class frigates, and the 31st, with AEGIS Álvaro de Bazán class AAW frigates. Italian carrier battle group The CVS–ASW (Aircraft Carrier with Anti-Submarine Warfare) Giuseppe Garibaldi is Italy's only carrier. The battle group based in Taranto called COMFORAL is formed by the carrier Garibaldi, two Durand de La Penne class destroyers, two support ships Etna and Elettra, and three amphibious/support ships, San Giusto, San Marco and San Giorgio. In the future the italian battle group will be formed by the carrier Cavour, 5-6 new warships (including destroyers Horizon and frigates FREMM), one new support ship, some minehunters and submarines. Indian carrier battle group The centrepiece of the Indian carrier battle group is currently the INS Viraat, an updated Centaur class light carrier originally built for the Royal Navy as HMS Hermes, which was laid down in 1944 and commissioned in 1959. It was purchased by India in 1986. India will commission a second aircraft carrier, INS Vikramaditya, in 2008 and will follow this with a third carrier, INS Vikrant, in 2012. Whilst INS Vikramaditya is a former Soviet Kiev class carrier, the Admiral Gorshkov, the Vikrant will be the first indigenous Indian aircraft carrier.India eventually will have 2 Carrier battle groups by 2017. The Indian Navy's CBG usually consists of two destroyers (usually of the P-15 Delhi Class, previously Kashins were used) and two or more frigates, (usually a combination of P-16 Brahmaputra and Krivak III or Talwar class) and one support ship. Soviet and Russian carrier battle groups The sole former Soviet and now Russian carrier, the Admiral Kuznetsov is rarely out to sea. Of the few sorties the carrier has conducted, most have been solo missions and without a large escort. However, the Kuznetsov has been observed sailing together with a Kirov class cruiser (CGN), Slava class CG, Sovremenny class DDG (ASuW), Udaloy class DDG (ASW) and Krivak I/II FFG (ASW). These escorts, especially the heavily armed Kirov class cruiser, use advanced sensors and carry a variety of weaponry. However, ships like the Kirov would likely be used in offensive operations rather than fleet escort in the event of war. Carrier escort would then be conducted by smaller vessels such as a Slava class accompanied by several Sovremenny, Udaloy and Krivak vessels. The Admiral Kuznetsov is designed specifically to sail alone and carries greater firepower than its U.S. counterparts. This includes 12x SS-N-19 'Shipwreck' (long range, high speed, sea-skimming) SSMs, 24x VLS units loaded with 192 SA-N-9 'Gauntlet' SAMs, and 8x Kashtan CIWS with dual 30 mm guns, and 8x AK-630 CIWS. Compared to the 4x Phalanx CIWS and 4x Sea Sparrow launchers, each with 6 missiles carried by the Nimitz class, the Kuznetsov is well armed for both air-defence and offensive operations against hostile shipping. Brazilian carrier battle group The NAe São Paulo forms Brazil's only carrier battle group. She was formerly Clemenceau class aircraft carrier Foch, a design used by the French Navy until 1997. Thai carrier battle group HTMS Chakri Naruebet is Thailand's only aircraft carrier, and is based upon the Principe de Asturias of the Spanish Navy. Underway replenishment Since its origins, the viability of the carrier battle group has been dependent on its ability to remain at sea for extended periods. Specialized ships were developed to provide underway replenishment of fuel (for the carrier and its aircraft), ordnance, and other supplies necessary to sustain operations. Carrier battle groups devote a great deal of planning to efficiently conduct underway replenishment to minimize the time spent conducting replenishment. The carrier can also provide replenishment on a limited basis to its escorts, but typically a replenishment ship such as a fast combat support ship (AOE) or replenishment oiler (AOR) pulls alongside a carrier and conducts simultaneous operations with the carrier on its port side and one of the escorts on its starboard side. The advent of the helicopter provides the ability to speed replenishment by lifting supplies at the same time that fuelling hoses and lines are delivering other goods. Debate on future viability There is debate in naval warfare circles as to the viability of carrier battle groups in 21st century naval warfare. Proponents of the CVBG argue that it provides unmatched fire power and force projection capabilities. Opponents argue that CVBGs are increasingly vulnerable to arsenal ships and cruise missiles, especially those with supersonic flight and the ability to perform radical trajectory changes to avoid anti-missile systems. It is also noted that that CVBGs were designed for Cold War scenarios, and are less useful in establishing control of areas close to shore. It is argued however that such missiles and arsenal ships pose no serious threat as they would be eliminated due to increasing improvement in ship defenses such as CEC (cooperative engagement capability), DEW technology and missile technology. However, carriers have been called upon to be first responders even when conventional land based aircraft were employed. During Desert Shield, the U.S. Navy sortied additional carriers to augment the on station assets eventually maintaining six carriers for Desert Storm. Although the U.S. Air Force sent fighters such as the F-16 to theater in Desert Shield, they had to carry bombs with them as no stores were in place for sustained operations whereas the carriers arrived on scene with full magazines and had support ships to allow them to conduct strikes indefinitely. The Global War on Terror (GWOT) has shown the flexibility and responsiveness of the carrier on multiple occasions when land based air was not feasible or able to respond in a timely fashion. After the September 11 terrorist attacks on the U.S., carriers immediately headed to the Arabian Sea to support Operation Enduring Freedom and took up station, building to a force of three carriers. Their steaming location was closer to the targets in Afghanistan than any land based assets and thereby more responsive. The USS Kitty Hawk was adapted to be a support base for special operations helicopters. Carriers were used again in Operation Iraqi Freedom and even provided aircraft to be based ashore on occasion and have done so periodically when special capabilities are needed. This precedent was established during World War II in the Battle of Guadalcanal and still remains viable today. Regardless of the debate over viability, the United States has made a major investment in the development of a new carrier class—the Ford-class carriers (formerly designated CVN-X, or the X Carrier)—to replace the existing Nimitz-class carriers. The new Ford-class carriers are designed to be modular and are easily adaptable as technology and equipment needed on board changes. GlobalSecurity.org - http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/cvx.htm See also Modern naval tactics U.S. Carrier Group tactics Expeditionary Strike Group Amphibious ready group References External links Colour footage of a Carrier Battle Group from WW2 | Carrier_battle_group |@lemmatized uss:2 abraham:1 lincoln:1 battle:33 group:44 rimpac:1 exercise:1 carrier:84 cvbg:8 consist:3 aircraft:19 cv:2 escort:9 history:1 first:5 use:14 world:3 war:11 ii:3 primarily:1 conflict:3 united:10 state:10 japan:2 pacific:2 cvbgs:6 time:6 far:1 large:7 number:3 ship:20 current:1 mark:1 fight:1 notably:1 coral:1 sea:9 epic:1 midway:1 one:15 month:1 later:1 theater:2 replace:4 battleship:6 measure:1 power:3 projection:3 relative:1 strength:1 u:10 eventually:3 put:1 vary:1 size:1 employ:2 formation:5 fleet:3 cold:3 main:2 role:3 case:1 soviet:8 union:3 would:9 protect:1 atlantic:1 supply:6 route:1 europe:2 navy:18 interrupt:1 lane:1 fundamentally:1 easy:1 task:4 situation:2 duel:1 unlikely:1 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2,296 | Men_at_Work | For the 1990 movie "Men at Work", see Men at Work (film). Men at Work were an Australian reggae-influenced rock band which achieved international success in the 1980s. They are the only Australian artists to have a #1 album and single simultaneously in the United States (with Business as Usual and "Down Under" respectively). Howlspace: Men at Work Retrieved on 9 July, 2007 At the same time, they also had a simultaneous #1 single and album in the United Kingdom. The group won the 1983 Grammy Award for Best New Artist and sold over 30 million albums worldwide. The band's sound is distinguished by its use of woodwind and brass instruments. History Origins of the group Colin Hay emigrated to Australia in 1967 from Scotland with his family. In 1978, he formed a duo with Ron Strykert, which expanded with the addition of drummer Jerry Speiser and Australian progressive rock keyboard player Greg Sneddon. http://www.80smusiclyrics.com/artists/menatwork.htm http://www.informationbrazil.com.au/diversao/musica/biografias/MEN%20AT%20WORK.doc They formed an unnamed four-piece group that would later morph into Men at Work. The band's first experience in the recording studio was recording the music to "Riff Raff," a low-budget stage musical Sneddon had worked on. http://www.countdown.com.au/the_music.asp?ArtistID=45 Sneddon soon left, to be replaced in late 1979 by saxophonist/flautist/keyboardist Greg Ham. As Men at Work By late 1979, the group took up residence at the Cricketer's Arms pub. Desperate for a name, they took the "Men at Work" moniker from a street sign denoting construction. Shortly thereafter, the band, who had been performing with Strykert on bass guitar, recruited bassist John Rees and the group was complete. The group played a regular residency at Melbourne's Cricketers Arms Hotel and built a strong local following. According to the liner notes in Contraband: the Best of Men at Work, the group did not have a name until, driving the group van one night and desperate for something to put on the chalk board outside the pub, Greg Ham spied a "Men at Work" construction sign, and decided to use that for the group's name. In 1980, they financed a single ("Keypunch Operator") backed by an early version of "Down Under". In 1981, Columbia Records signed Men at Work. Their first single, "Who Can It Be Now?", reached #1 on the Australian chart in August 1981. A subsequent single (a re-worked version of "Down Under") and their first album (Business as Usual) also went to #1. The album also debuted at #1 in New Zealand. International success Despite its strong Australian showing, and having an American producer (Peter McIan), Business as Usual was twice rejected by Columbia's parent company in the United States. Thanks to the persistence of the band's management, the album was eventually released in the USA and the UK six months after its Australian release. Men at Work toured the USA to promote the album, supporting Fleetwood Mac. In October 1982, "Who Can It Be Now?" hit #1 in the USA. Then, in November of that year, Business As Usual began a 12 week run at #1 on the US album chart. While "Who Can It Be Now?" was still in the top ten, the second single, "Down Under" was released. It entered the charts at #79; ten weeks later, it was #1. By January 1983, Men at Work had the top album and single in both the USA and the UK - a feat never achieved previously by an Australian act. Men at Work won a Grammy Award, winning Best New Artist for 1983 ahead of Asia, Jennifer Holliday, the Human League and Stray Cats. This was the first for an Australian recording act. That same year, Canada awarded them a Juno Award for "International LP of the Year." "Down Under" received renewed attention when it was used as the unofficial anthem for Australia's successful challenge for the 1983 America’s Cup. The band soon released their second album Cargo. It had been finished in the summer of 1982, but held for release due to the phenomenal success of the band's debut. The new album went to #1. The international market, where Business As Usual was still riding high, kept the album at #3 on the Billboard 200 album chart. The album produced three chart singles in the USA: "Overkill" [#3], "It's a Mistake" [#6], and "Dr. Heckyll and Mr. Jive" [#28]. The band toured the world extensively in 1983. Two Hearts; breakup In 1984, the band took a long break as members pursued other interests and recovered from the two years of constant touring they'd done in support of both albums. At the end of that period, Jerry Speiser and John Rees were advised by management that they were no longer members of the band. The remaining members (Hay, Ham and Strykert) recorded a third album Two Hearts which peaked at #50 on the chart. Although four songs were released as singles to promote the album (lead single "Everything I Need", "Man With Two Hearts", "Maria", and "Hard Luck Story"), only the first song charted in the U.S., and that only at #47. The record relied heavily on drum programming and synthesizers and reduced the presence of Ham's saxophone, giving it a different feel than the band's first two records. Strykert left the group during the album's production MySpace.com - MEN AT WORK - St. Kilda, AU - Reggae / New Wave / Pop - www.myspace.com/menatwork . Hay and Ham hired new bandmates to tour behind the record, including jazz/fusion bassist Jeremy Alsop, progressive rock drummer Mark Kennedy, and guitarist James Black, who respectively play on seven, eight and one of the ten tracks on Two Hearts. Soon after, third guitarist Colin Bayley was added to the band's touring lineup, and Kennedy was replaced by prodigious young drummer Chad Wackerman. Australian singers Kate Ceberano and Renee Geyer also worked and performed live with the group during this period as guests. Men at Work performed three songs for the 1985 Oz for Africa concert (part of the global Live Aid program) - "Maria", "Overkill", and an unreleased song called "The Longest Night". It was broadcast in Australia (on both Seven Network and Nine Network) and on MTV in the US. "Maria" and "Overkill" were also broadcast by American Broadcasting Company (ABC) during their Live Aid telecast. Ham left during the band's time touring behind the album. The final Men At Work performances in the 1980s found Australian jazz saxophonist Paul Williamson replacing Ham. By 1986, the band was defunct, and Hay was working on a solo album, which would feature participation from Alsop and Wackerman. 1996 Reunion In 1996, after a ten-year absence, Hay and Ham reunited under the Men at Work moniker to tour South America. They had enjoyed strong fan support in this continent during their heyday, and demands for Men at Work concerts persisted prior to Hay and Ham's decision to reform. The new lineup also featured guitarist Simon Hosford from Hay's solo band, along with bassist Stephen Hadley and drummer John Watson. This tour culminated in the Brazilian release of a live CD Brazil '96 in 1997. The album was subsequently released worldwide in 1998 as 'Brazil' with a bonus studio song "The Longest Night", the first Men at Work studio track since Two Hearts. The band toured various corners of the world throughout from 1998-2000. The lineup for these tours varied greatly, occasionally including Rick Grossman of the Hoodoo Gurus on bass, among numerous other touring musicians. Men at Work performed "Down Under" at the closing ceremony of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia, alongside Paul Hogan of Crocodile Dundee fame VH1.com : INXS : INXS, Midnight Oil, Men At Work Close Sydney Olympics - Rhapsody Music Downloads . The group has been mostly inactive in recent years, although Hay and Ham still perform sporadically as Men at Work with guest musicians. In February 2009, they performed "Down Under" at the Australia Unites Victorian Bushfire Appeal Telethon. Hay maintains a successful solo career. Strykert lives in Montana, continues to play music and has expressed some resentment towards Hay, MySpace Music: Ron Strykert Retrieved on 22 July, 2007 having been arrested February 13, 2009 for allegedly making death threats against Hay. http://www.digitalspy.com/music/a147205/men-at-work-star-arrested-for-threats.html Speiser, Ham and Rees still work in the music industry. Band Members Current Colin Hay – vocals, guitar (1978–1986, 1996–present) Greg Ham – keyboards, vocals, saxophone, harmonica, flute (1979–1985, 1996–present) Former Jeremy Alsop - bass, backing vocals (1985-1986) Rodrigo Aravena - bass, backing vocals (2000) Colin Bayley - guitar, backing vocals (1985-1986) James Black - guitar, keyboards, backing vocals (1985-1986) Tony Floyd - drums (1997-1998) Rick Grossman - bass, backing vocals (1998-2000) Stephen Hadley - bass, backing vocals (1996-1998, 2001) Simon Hosford - guitar, backing vocals (1996-1998, 1999-2001) Mark Kennedy - drums (1985) Peter Maslen — drums (1998) Heta Moses — drums (2000) John Rees – bass, backing vocals (1979–1984) James Ryan — guitar, backing vocals (1998) Jerry Speiser – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1979-1984) Ron Strykert – guitar, bass, vocals (1978–1985) Warren Trout - drums (2001) Chad Wackerman - drums, backing vocals (1985-1986) John Watson - drums (1996-1997) Paul Williamson - saxophone, keyboards, backing vocals (1985-1986) Discography Studio albums 1981 Business as Usual – (RIAA: 6x Platinum) 1983 Cargo – (RIAA: 3x Platinum) 1985 Two Hearts – (RIAA: Gold) Live albums 1998 Brazil Videos 1984 Live in San Francisco... Or Was It Berkeley? (VHS/BETA) Compilations 1987 The Works 1995 Puttin' in Overtime 1996 Contraband: The Best of Men at Work 1998 Simply The Best 2000 Definitive Collection 2000 Super Hits 2003 The Essential 2008 Essential Deluxe - Including Bonus DVD Singles "Keypunch Operator"/"Down Under" (self-produced single) (1979); YearTitleChart positionsAlbumU.S. PopU.S. RockU.S. ACAustraliaUK 1981 "Who Can It Be Now?" #1 #46 #2 #45Business as Usual "Down Under" #1 #1 #13 #1 #11983 "Be Good Johnny" #3 #8 "Underground" #20 "High Wire" #23 #89Cargo "Overkill" #3 #3 #6 #5 #21 "It's a Mistake" #6 #27 #10 #34 #33 "Dr. Heckyll and Mr. Jive" #28 #12 #311985 "Everything I Need" #47 #28 #34 #37Two Hearts "Maria" "Man with Two Hearts" Guest appearances Colin Hay made two guest appearances on Scrubs as 'Troubadour' on "My Overkill", season 2 episode 1, singing "Overkill" and on "My Hard Labor", season 7 episode 2, singing "Down Under". Colin Hay made a guest appearance on "the Larry Sanders Show" Greg Ham sang their hit Helpless Automaton on the Oprah series in 2002 Colin Hay performed "Down Under" on FOX News Channel for Fox & Friends' "80's Weekend". Colin Hay Performed "Overkill" on the Bob & Tom TV Show on April 28th 2009 See also Artists achieving simultaneous U.S. and UK number-one hits References 4. Liner notes from Contraband. 5. http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11:hifoxqe5ldfe~T51 External links Men at Work (Howlspace article) Men at Work official MySpace band site - three original band members help run the page Men at Work (Legacy Recordings) Brazilian Fan Site Where Are They Now - Men at Work | Men_at_Work |@lemmatized movie:1 men:29 work:33 see:2 film:1 australian:10 reggae:2 influenced:1 rock:3 band:19 achieve:3 international:4 success:3 artist:4 album:23 single:12 simultaneously:1 united:3 state:2 business:6 usual:7 respectively:2 howlspace:2 retrieve:2 july:2 time:2 also:7 simultaneous:2 kingdom:1 group:12 win:3 grammy:2 award:4 best:5 new:7 sell:1 million:1 worldwide:2 sound:1 distinguish:1 use:3 woodwind:1 brass:1 instrument:1 history:1 origin:1 colin:8 hay:16 emigrate:1 australia:5 scotland:1 family:1 form:2 duo:1 ron:3 strykert:7 expand:1 addition:1 drummer:4 jerry:3 speiser:4 progressive:2 keyboard:4 player:1 greg:5 sneddon:3 http:5 www:6 com:8 menatwork:2 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2,297 | Howland_Island | Howland Island seen from space Orthographic projection centered over Howland Island Howland Island () is an uninhabited coral island located just north of the equator in the central Pacific Ocean, about southwest of Honolulu. The island lies almost halfway between Hawaii and Australia and is an unincorporated, unorganized territory of the United States. Geographically, it is part of the Phoenix Islands. For statistical purposes, Howland is grouped as one of the United States Minor Outlying Islands. Howland is located at . It covers , with 6.4 km of coastline. The island has an elongated shape on a north-south axis, and is devoid of any lagoon. Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge consists of the island and the surrounding of submerged land. The island is managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as an insular area under the U.S. Department of the Interior and is part of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument. The atoll has no economic activity, and is perhaps best known as the island Amelia Earhart never reached. Airstrips built in the late 1930s to accommodate her planned stopover were never used, subsequently damaged, not maintained and gradually disappeared. There are no harbors or docks. The reefs may pose a hazard. There is one boat landing area along the middle of the sandy beach on the west coast together with a crumbling day beacon. Defense is the responsibility of the United States and the island is visited every two years by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge Flora and fauna Map of Howland Island The climate is equatorial, with little rainfall and a burning sun. Temperatures are moderated somewhat by a constant wind from the east. The terrain is low-lying and sandy: a coral island surrounded by a narrow fringing reef with a slightly raised central area. The highest point is about six meters above sea level. There are no natural fresh water resources. The landscape features scattered grasses along with prostrate vines and low-growing pisonia trees and shrubs. A 1942 eyewitness description spoke of "a low grove of dead and decaying kou trees" on a very shallow hill at the island's center, but 58 years later (2000) a visitor accompanying a scientific expedition reported seeing "a flat bulldozed plain of coral sand, without a single tree" and some traces of building ruins. Payne, Roger. "At Howland Island, 2000." Retrieved: 6 July 2008. Howland is primarily a nesting, roosting and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds and marine wildlife. The U.S. claims an exclusive economic zone of and a territorial sea of around the island. Since Howland island is uninhabited, no time zone is specified; but it lies within a nautical time zone which is 12 hours behind UTC. Map of the central Pacific Ocean showing Howland Island and nearby Baker Island just north of the Equator and east of Tarawa Atoll. History Prehistoric Settlement Evidence suggests that Howland Island was the site of prehistoric settlement, which may have extended down to Rawaki, Kanton, Manra and Orona of the Phoenix Islands 500 to 700 km southeast. This settlement might have taken the form of a single community utilising several adjacent islands, but the hard life on these isolated islands, together with the uncertainty of fresh water supplies, led to an extinction of or dereliction by the settled peoples, in much the way that other islands in the area (such as Kiritimati and Pitcairn) were abandoned. Irwin, pp. 176–179. Such settlements probably began around 1000 BC, when eastern Melanesians travelled north. Suárez 2004, p. 17. Sparse remnants of trails and other artifacts indicate a sporadic early Polynesian presence. A canoe, a blue head, pieces of bamboo, and other relics of early settlers have been discovered. Hague, James D. "Our Equatorial Islands with an Account of Some Personal Experiences." Century Magazine, Vol. LXIV, No. 5, September 1902, Web copy. Retrieved: 3 January 2008. Quote: "Howland's Island, although naturally uninhabitable, gave various indications of early visitors, probably natives drifting from windward islands, whose traces were still visible in the remains of a canoe, a blue head, pieces of bamboo, and other distinctly characteristic belongings." K.P. Emery, ethnologist for Honolulu's Bishop Museum, indicated that the settlers on Manra Island were apparently of two distinct groups, one Polynesian and the other Micronesian. Bryan, E.H. Sydney Island. Retrieved: 7 July 2008. If Howland and Manra formed a contiguous community, the same might have proven true on Howland Island, though no conclusive proof of this has yet been forthcoming. Sightings by whalers Captain George B. Worth of the Nantucket whaler Oeno sighted Howland around 1822 and called it "Worth Island". Sharp 1960, p. 210. See also Bryan 1942, pp. 38-41. Daniel MacKenzie of the American whaler Minerva Smith was unaware of Worth's sighting when he charted the island in 1828 and named it after his ship's owners Maude 1968, p. 130. on 1 December 1828. Howland Island was at last named after a lookout who sighted it from the whaleship Isabella of New Bedford on 9 September 1842. U.S. possession and guano mining Howland Island was uninhabited when the United States took possession of it in 1857 through claims under the Guano Islands Act of 1856. The island was known as a navigation hazard for many decades and several ships were wrecked there. Its guano deposits were mined by American companies until October, 1878. John T. Arundel and company, with laborers from the Cook Islands and Niue, occupied the island from 1886 to 1891. Bryan 1942 Itascatown (1935-1942) In 1935 a brief attempt at colonization was made, part of a larger project administered by the Department of Commerce to establish a permanent U.S. presence on the equatorial Line Islands. It began with a rotating group of four alumni and students from the Kamehameha School for Boys, a private school in Honolulu, Hawaii. Although the recruits had signed on as part of a scientific expedition and expected to spend their three month assignment collecting botanical and biological samples, once out to sea they were told, "Your names will go down in history" and that the islands would become "famous air bases in a route that will connect Australia with California." Their settlement, named Itascatown, was located near the beach on the island's western side. It was named after the USCGC Itasca, which brought the colonists to Howland (and made regular cruises between the other Line Islands during that era). The tiny settlement was a line of a half-dozen small wood-framed structures and tents. The fledgling colonists were given large stocks of canned food, water, and other supplies including a gasoline powered refrigerator, radio equipment, complete medical kits and (characteristic for that era) vast quantities of cigarettes. Fishing provided much-needed variety for their diet. Most of the colonists' endeavors involved making hourly weather observations and gradually developing a rudimentary infrastructure on the island, including the clearing of a landing strip for airplanes. During this period the island was on Hawaii time, which was then 10.5 hours behind UTC. Long 1999, p. 206. Quote: Thursday, July 1, 1937... Howland Island was using the 10+30 hour time zone — the same as Hawaii standard time..." Similar colonization projects were started on nearby Baker Island, Jarvis Island, and two other islands, though, like Howland, they were ultimately destined to fail. Kamakaiwi Field Ground for a rudimentary aircraft landing area was cleared during the mid-1930s, in anticipation that the island might eventually be used as a stop-over for a commercial trans-Pacific air route and also to further U.S. territorial claims in the region against rival claims from Great Britain. In keeping with its intended aviation role, Howland Island became a scheduled refueling stop for American pilot Amelia Earhart and navigator Fred Noonan on their round-the-world flight in 1937. WPA funds were used by the Bureau of Air Commerce to construct three graded, unpaved runways meant to accommodate Earhart's modern twin-engined Lockheed L-10E Electra. The facility was named Kamakaiwi Field after James Kamakaiwi, a young Hawaiian who had arrived with the first group of four colonists, was subsequently picked as leader and spent a total of over three years on Howland, far longer than the average recruit. It has also been referred to as WPA Howland Airport (the WPA contributed about 20% of the $12,000 cost). Earhart and Noonan took off from Lae, New Guinea and their radio transmissions were picked up on the island when their aircraft reached its vicinity but they were never seen again. Japanese attacks during World War II Earhart Light, pictured here showing damage it sustained during WWII, was named for Amelia Earhart during the late 1930s. A Japanese air attack on 8 December 1941 by 14 twin-engined bombers killed two of the Kamehameha School colonists: Richard "Dicky" Kanani Whaley, and Joseph Kealoha Keliʻhananui. The raid came one day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and damaged the three airstrips of Kamakaiwi Field. Two days later a Japanese submarine shelled what was left of the colony's few buildings into ruins. Butler 1999, p. 419. A single bomber returned twice during the following weeks and dropped more bombs on the rubble of tiny Itascatown. The two survivors were finally evacuated by a U.S. Navy destroyer on 31 January 1942. Howland was occupied by a battalion of United States Marines in September 1943 and known as Howland Naval Air Station until May 1944. All attempts at habitation were abandoned after 1944. Colonization projects on the other four islands were also disrupted by the war and ended at this time. Howland Island Kamakaiwi Field suffered additional damage during World War II and all but disappeared. Ironically, while Howland Island was colonized in 1935 as a future aviation facility and is known in popular culture mostly because of its association with the last flight of Earhart and Noonan, no aircraft is known to have ever landed there. On 10 June 1944, a U.S. Navy Martin PBM-3-D Mariner flying boat, BuNo 48199, had an engine fire and made a forced landing just offshore Howland. The pilot intentionally beached the aircraft and the crew escaped unharmed before the aircraft burned. The crew was rescued by the USCG Balsam (the same ship that later took Unit 92 to Gardner Island) and transferred to a sub chaser which took them to Canton Island. Report 48199 Building ruins near the site of Itascatown on Howland Island Wildlife refuge By the 1970s Howland Island was overrun by a population of feral cats, descendants of those brought by earlier colonists. The felines were gradually removed during the 1980s and the area was designated a bird and wildlife refuge. However, abandoned military debris continued to be a concern. Amateur radio enthusiasts made several authorized visits to the island during the 1990s and early 2000s. In 2006, trespassing by commercial fishing boats and their helicopters was cited as a serious problem. Public entry to the island is by special-use permit from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service only and is generally restricted to scientists and educators. Representatives from the agency visit the island on average once every two years, often coordinating transportation with amateur radio operators or the U.S. Coast Guard to defray the high expense of logistical support required to visit this remote atoll. Earhart Light Earhart Light is a day beacon or navigational landmark shaped somewhat like a short lighthouse (with no illumination), painted with wide stripes and meant to be seen from several miles out to sea during daylight hours. It is located near the boat landing at the middle of the west coast by the former site of Itascatown. It was partially destroyed during early World War II by the Japanese attacks, but was rebuilt in the early 1960s by the US Coast Guard. By 2000, the Earhart beacon was said to be crumbling and had not been painted in decades. Voyage to Howland Island of the USCGC Kukui Contains recent large, close-up color photos of the day beacon, and the rest of Howland Island. Howland Island was overflown in 1967 by Ann Dearing Holtgren Pellegreno and in 1997 by Linda Finch during memorial circumnavigation flights to commemorate Earhart's 1937 world flight. No landings were attempted but both Pellegreno and Finch flew low enough to drop a wreath on the island. Safford et al. 2003, pp. 76–77. Image gallery See also History of the Pacific Islands Phoenix Islands References Notes Bibliography Bryan, Edwin H., Jr. American Polynesia and the Hawaiian Chain. Honolulu, Hawaii: Tongg Publishing Company, 1942. Butler, Susan. East to the Dawn: The Life of Amelia Earhart. Cambridge, MA: Da Capa Press, 1999. ISBN 0-306-80887-0. Eyewitness account of the Japanese raids on Howland Island (includes a grainy photo of Itascatown) Long, Elgen M. and Marie K. Amelia Earhart: The Mystery Solved. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999. ISBN 0-684-86005-8. Maude, H.E..Of Islands and Men: Studies in Pacific History. Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press, 1968. Safford, Laurance F. with Cameron A. Warren and Robert R. Payne. Earhart's Flight into Yesterday: The Facts Without the Fiction. McLean, Virginia: Paladwr Press, 2003. ISBN 1-888962-20-8. Sharp, Andrew. The Discovery of the Pacific Islands. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960. Suárez, Thomas. Early Mapping of the Pacific. Singapore: Periplus Editions, 2004. ISBN 0-79460-092-1. External links Howland in Google Maps Geography, history and nature on Howland Island Howland Island day beacon Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge 'Voyage of the Odyssey' - pictures and travelogue Howland Island at Infoplease Howland Island - Small Island, Big History Pictures of the 1993 expedition to Howland island be-x-old:Гоўланд | Howland_Island |@lemmatized howland:43 island:79 see:6 space:1 orthographic:1 projection:1 center:2 uninhabited:3 coral:3 locate:4 north:4 equator:2 central:3 pacific:8 ocean:2 southwest:1 honolulu:4 lie:2 almost:1 halfway:1 hawaii:5 australia:3 unincorporated:1 unorganized:1 territory:1 united:5 state:5 geographically:1 part:4 phoenix:3 statistical:1 purpose:1 group:4 one:4 minor:1 outlying:1 cover:1 km:2 coastline:1 elongate:1 shape:2 south:1 axis:1 devoid:1 lagoon:1 national:4 wildlife:9 refuge:5 consist:1 surrounding:1 submerged:1 land:4 manage:1 u:12 fish:3 service:3 insular:1 area:6 department:2 interior:1 remote:2 marine:3 monument:1 atoll:3 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2,298 | Comprehensive_Nuclear-Test-Ban_Treaty | Participation in the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) bans all nuclear explosions in all environments, for military or civilian purposes. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996 but it has not yet entered into force. Status The Treaty was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996. It opened for signature in New York on 24 September 1996, when it was signed by 71 States, including five of the eight then nuclear-capable states. As of April 2009, 148 states have ratified the CTBT and another 32 states have signed but not yet ratified it. United Nations Treaty Collection (2009). "Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty". Accessed 4 April 2009. Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Orgainzation (2008). "Status of Signature and Ratification". Accessed 4 April 2009. The treaty will enter into force 180 days after the 44 states listed in Annex 2 of the treaty have ratified it. These "Annex 2 states" are states that participated in the CTBT’s negotiations between 1994 and 1996 and possessed nuclear power reactors or research reactors at that time. "CTBTO Preparatory Commission", CTBO Press Centre As of April 2009, nine Annex 2 states have not ratified the treaty: China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, North Korea, Pakistan and the United States. Obligations (Article I): COMPREHENSIVE NUCLEAR-TEST-BAN TREATY, CTBTO Each State Party undertakes not to carry out any nuclear weapon test explosion or any other nuclear explosion, and to prohibit and prevent any such nuclear explosion at any place under its jurisdiction or control. Each State Party undertakes, furthermore, to refrain from causing, encouraging, or in any way participating in the carrying out of any nuclear weapon test explosion or any other nuclear explosion. History Arms control advocates had campaigned for the adoption of a treaty banning all nuclear explosions since the early 1950s, when public concern was aroused as a result of radioactive fall-out from atmospheric nuclear tests and the escalating arms race. Over 50 nuclear explosions were registered between 16 July 1945, when the first nuclear explosive test was conducted by the United States at Alamogordo, New Mexico, and 31 December 1953. Prime Minister Nehru of India voiced the heightened international concern in 1954, when he proposed the elimination of all nuclear test explosions worldwide. However, within the context of the Cold War, skepticism about the capability to verify compliance with a comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty posed a major obstacle to any agreement. Partial Test Ban Treaty, 1963 Limited success was achieved with the signing of the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963, which banned nuclear tests in the atmosphere, underwater and in space. Neither France nor China signed the PTBT. However, the treaty was ratified 80 to 19. "1963 Year In Review" Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty, 1968 A major step towards non-proliferation of nuclear weapons came with the signing of the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1968. Under the NPT, non-nuclear weapon states were prohibited from, inter alia, possessing, manufacturing or acquiring nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. All signatories, including nuclear weapon states, were committed to the goal of total nuclear disarmament. Negotiations for the CTBT Given the political situation prevailing in the subsequent decades, little progress was made in nuclear disarmament until 1991. Parties to the PTBT held an amendment conference that year to discuss a proposal to convert the Treaty into an instrument banning all nuclear-weapon tests; with strong support from the UN General Assembly, negotiations for a comprehensive test-ban treaty began in 1993. Adoption of the CTBT, 1996 Intensive efforts were made over the next three years to draft the Treaty text and its two annexes. However, the Conference on Disarmament, in which negotiations were being held, did not succeed in reaching consensus on the adoption of the text. Australia then sent the text to the United Nations General Assembly in New York, where it was submitted as a draft resolution. http://unbisnet.un.org:8080/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session=X204697124L65.19785&profile=bibga&uri=full=3100001~!396802~!33&ri=1&aspect=power&menu=search&source=~!horizon#focus On 10 September 1996, the Comprehensive Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) was adopted by a large majority, exceeding two-thirds of the General Assembly's Membership. http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/50/ares50-245.htm US ratification of the CTBT The US has signed the CTBT, but not ratified it. There is ongoing debate whether or not the US should ratify the CTBT. Proponents of ratification claim that it would: Establish an international norm that would push other nuclear-capable countries like North Korea, Pakistan, and India to sign. Constrain worldwide nuclear proliferation by vastly limiting a country's ability to make nuclear advancements that only testing can ensure. Not compromise US national security because the Science Based Stockpile Stewardship Program serves as a means for maintaining current US nuclear capabilities without physical detonation. On 13 October 1999, the United States Senate rejected ratification of the CTBT. President Barack Obama stated during his 2008 election campaign that "As president, I will reach out to the Senate to secure the ratification of the CTBT at the earliest practical date." "Nuclear Testing Is an Acceptable Risk for Arms Control", Scientific American, March 2009. Monitoring of the CTBT Geophysical and other technologies are used to monitor for compliance with the Treaty: seismology, hydroacoustics, infrasound, and radionuclide monitoring. The technologies are used to monitor the underground, the waters and the atmosphere for any sign of a nuclear explosion. Statistical theories and methods are integral to CTBT monitoring providing confidence in verification analysis. Once the Treaty enters into force, on site inspection will be provided for where concerns about compliance arise. The Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO), an international organization headquartered in Vienna, Austria, was created to build the verification regime, including establishment and provisional operation of the network of monitoring stations, the creation of an international data centre, and development of the On Site Inspection capability. The monitoring network consists of 337 facilities located all over the globe. As of January 2008, nearly 70 percent of monitoring stations are operational. The monitoring stations register data that is transmitted to the international data centre in Vienna for processing and analysis. The data is sent to states that have signed the Treaty. See also National Technical Means Nuclear proliferation Nuclear disarmament Nuclear weapon Nuclear warfare Nuclear-free zone Global Security Institute References Full text of the treaty For official news releases and information on the treaty see - http://www.ctbto.org Two articles from the March/April Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists cover the state of play regarding the CTBT: Keith Hansen, "Forecasting the future" and Trevor Findlay & Andreas Persbo, "Watching the world." The Test Ban Test: U.S. Rejection has Scuttled the CTBT Nuclear Files.org Text of the CTBT US conducts subcritical nuclear test ABC News, February 24, 2006 International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, 1991 Daryl Kimball and Christine Kucia, Arms Control Association, 2002 "Low-Yield Earth Penetrating Nuclear Weapons" General John M. Shalikashvili, Special Advisor to the President and the Secretary of State for the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Christopher Paine, Senior Researcher with NRDC's Nuclear Program, 1999 Fact Sheet released by the Bureau of Arms Control Obama or McCain Can Finish Journey to Nuclear Test Ban Treaty | Comprehensive_Nuclear-Test-Ban_Treaty |@lemmatized participation:1 comprehensive:10 nuclear:47 test:24 ban:18 treaty:29 ctbt:16 explosion:10 environment:1 military:1 civilian:1 purpose:1 adopt:3 united:7 nation:4 general:6 assembly:5 september:4 yet:2 enter:2 force:3 status:2 open:1 signature:2 new:3 york:2 sign:7 state:19 include:3 five:1 eight:1 capable:2 april:5 ratify:7 another:1 collection:1 access:2 preparatory:3 commission:3 orgainzation:1 ratification:5 day:1 list:1 annex:4 participate:2 negotiation:4 possess:2 power:2 reactor:2 research:1 time:1 ctbto:4 ctbo:1 press:1 centre:3 nine:1 china:2 egypt:1 india:3 indonesia:1 iran:1 israel:1 north:2 korea:2 pakistan:2 obligation:1 article:2 party:3 undertakes:2 carry:2 weapon:9 prohibit:2 prevent:1 place:1 jurisdiction:1 control:5 furthermore:1 refrain:1 cause:1 encourage:1 way:1 history:1 arm:5 advocate:1 campaign:2 adoption:3 since:1 early:2 public:1 concern:3 arouse:1 result:1 radioactive:1 fall:1 atmospheric:1 escalating:1 race:1 register:2 july:1 first:1 explosive:2 conduct:2 alamogordo:1 mexico:1 december:1 prime:1 minister:1 nehru:1 voice:1 heighten:1 international:6 propose:1 elimination:1 worldwide:2 however:3 within:1 context:1 cold:1 war:2 skepticism:1 capability:3 verify:1 compliance:3 pose:1 major:2 obstacle:1 agreement:1 partial:2 limit:2 success:1 achieve:1 signing:2 atmosphere:2 underwater:1 space:1 neither:1 france:1 ptbt:2 year:3 review:1 non:4 proliferation:5 step:1 towards:1 come:1 npt:2 inter:1 alia:1 manufacturing:1 acquire:1 device:1 signatory:1 commit:1 goal:1 total:1 disarmament:4 give:1 political:1 situation:1 prevail:1 subsequent:1 decade:1 little:1 progress:1 make:3 hold:2 amendment:1 conference:2 discuss:1 proposal:1 convert:1 instrument:1 strong:1 support:1 un:3 begin:1 intensive:1 effort:1 next:1 three:1 draft:2 text:5 two:3 succeed:1 reach:2 consensus:1 australia:1 send:2 submit:1 resolution:1 http:3 unbisnet:1 org:4 ipac:1 jsp:1 session:1 profile:1 bibga:1 uri:1 full:2 ri:1 aspect:1 menu:1 search:1 source:1 horizon:1 focus:1 large:1 majority:1 exceed:1 third:1 membership:1 www:2 document:1 ga:1 res:1 htm:1 u:7 ongoing:1 debate:1 whether:1 proponent:1 claim:1 would:2 establish:1 norm:1 push:1 country:2 like:1 constrain:1 vastly:1 ability:1 advancement:1 ensure:1 compromise:1 national:2 security:2 science:1 base:1 stockpile:1 stewardship:1 program:2 serve:1 mean:2 maintain:1 current:1 without:1 physical:1 detonation:1 october:1 senate:2 reject:1 president:3 barack:1 obama:2 election:1 secure:1 practical:1 date:1 testing:1 acceptable:1 risk:1 scientific:1 american:1 march:2 monitoring:6 geophysical:1 technology:2 use:2 monitor:3 seismology:1 hydroacoustics:1 infrasound:1 radionuclide:1 underground:1 water:1 statistical:1 theory:1 method:1 integral:1 provide:2 confidence:1 verification:2 analysis:2 enters:1 site:2 inspection:2 arise:1 organization:2 headquarter:1 vienna:2 austria:1 create:1 build:1 regime:1 establishment:1 provisional:1 operation:1 network:2 station:3 creation:1 data:4 development:1 consist:1 facility:1 locate:1 globe:1 january:1 nearly:1 percent:1 operational:1 transmit:1 processing:1 see:2 also:1 technical:1 warfare:1 free:1 zone:1 global:1 institute:1 reference:1 official:1 news:2 release:2 information:1 bulletin:1 atomic:1 scientist:1 cover:1 play:1 regard:1 keith:1 hansen:1 forecast:1 future:1 trevor:1 findlay:1 andreas:1 persbo:1 watch:1 world:1 rejection:1 scuttle:1 file:1 subcritical:1 abc:1 february:1 physician:1 prevention:1 daryl:1 kimball:1 christine:1 kucia:1 association:1 low:1 yield:1 earth:1 penetrate:1 john:1 shalikashvili:1 special:1 advisor:1 secretary:1 christopher:1 paine:1 senior:1 researcher:1 nrdc:1 fact:1 sheet:1 bureau:1 mccain:1 finish:1 journey:1 |@bigram treaty_ctbt:2 nuclear_weapon:9 prime_minister:1 inter_alia:1 nuclear_disarmament:3 http_www:2 barack_obama:1 obama_mccain:1 |
2,299 | FBI_Most_Wanted_Terrorists | Banner used by the FBI since inception on October 10, 2001 as the main title for the web site pages of both the group of wanted terrorists, and also on the wanted poster of each terrorist fugitive. The three overlapping seals on the left are the seal of the U.S. Department of State (similar to the Great Seal of the United States), the seal of the U.S. Department of Justice, and the seal of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The Federal Bureau of Investigation's Most Wanted Terrorists is a list of fugitives who have been indicted by sitting Federal grand juries in the United States district courts, for alleged crimes of terrorism. The initial list was formed in late 2001 in the immediate aftermath of the 9/11 attacks and contained the names of 22 terrorists. It was the second major "wanted" list following the FBI's Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list. It now serves as a companion to that earlier list, which in years past, had listed several major terrorist fugitives. List of initial 22 wanted terrorist fugitives In response to the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States, former President Bush released to the public this initial list on October 10, 2001 of the FBI's top 22 Most Wanted Terrorists. The 22 terrorists chosen by the FBI to be profiled on the list had all been earlier indicted for acts of terrorism between the years 1985 and 1998. All 22 remained fugitives from justice as of October 2001. Of the 22 fugitives, only Osama bin Laden was by then already listed on the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list. On the fugitive group wanted poster, The FBI did not list the terrorist fugitives in any particular stated order, except perhaps for the consistent placing of bin Laden in the number one position of the top row. However, the 22 fugitives can easily fit into distinct categories of terrorist attacks over the two decades, based on each fugitive's indictment history. For organization and ease of reference here, the relevant major terrorist attacks are listed by date below, with a brief summary for each, identifying the terror cells most directly responsible for the attack. The 22 fugitives on the list are then grouped beneath the attack for which each terrorist was first indicted. Photo Name Terrorist Activity Date of Activity Imad Mughniyah TWA Flight 847 June 14, 1985Status: Assassinated in a car bombing on February 13, 2008 in Damascus. ; no longer listed as of April 24, 2008. Hassan Izz Al-Din Hassan Izz-Al-Din TWA Flight 847 June 14, 1985Status: At large. Ali Atwa Ali Atwa TWA Flight 847 June 14, 1985Status: At large. Abdul Rahman Yasin in 2002 Abdul Rahman Yasin 1993 World Trade Center bombing February 26, 1993Status: At large. Constructed bombs in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. Yasin was allegedly a prisoner of Saddam Hussein in 2002, but has since gone missing from Iraq. Khalid Shaikh Mohammed Bojinka plot 1994-1995Status: Captured in Pakistan on March 1, 2003; no longer listed as of February 23, 2006. Ahmed Ibrahim Al-Mughassil Ahmed Ibrahim Al-Mughassil Khobar Towers bombing June 25, 1996Status: At large Ali Saed Bin Ali El-Hoorie Ali Saed Bin Ali El-Hoorie Khobar Towers bombing June 25, 1996Status: At large Ibrahim Salih Mohammed Al-Yacoub Ibrahim Salih Mohammed Al-Yacoub Khobar Towers bombing June 25, 1996Status: At large Abdelkarim Hussein Mohamed Al-Nasser Abdelkarim Hussein Mohamed Al-Nasser Khobar Towers bombing June 25, 1996Status: At large Muhammad Atef Muhammad Atef 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998Status: Killed in Afghanistan on November 14, 2001 by a Predator missile attack on his home outside of Kabul; no longer listed as of February 23, 2006. Osama bin Laden Osama bin Laden 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998Status: At large Ayman Al-Zawahiri Ayman al-Zawahiri 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998Status: At large Fazul Abdullah Mohammed Fazul Abdullah Mohammed 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998Status: At large Mustafa Mohamed Fadhil Mustafa Mohamed Fadhil 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998Status: General consensus among terrorism experts is he was captured in Pakistan in 2004, although there has been no confirmation or denial; no longer listed as of February 23, 2006. Fahid Mohammed Ally Msalam Fahid Mohammed Ally Msalam 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998Status: Killed January 1, 2009, in an unmanned predator strike in Pakistan along with Sheikh Ahmed Salim Swedan. Ahmed Khalfan Ghailani Ahmed Khalfan Ghailani 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998Status: Captured in Pakistan on July 25, 2004; no longer listed as of February 23, 2006. Sheikh Ahmed Salim Swedan Sheikh Ahmed Salim Swedan 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998Status: Killed January 1, 2009, in an unmanned aerial strike in Pakistan along with Fahid Mohammed Ali Musallam. Abdullah Ahmed Abdullah Abdullah Ahmed Abdullah 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998Status: At large. Anas Al-Liby Anas Al-Liby 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998Status: At large. Saif Al-Adel Saif Al-Adel 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998Status: At large. Believed to be in Iran. Ahmed Mohammed Hamed Ali Ahmed Mohammed Hamed Ali 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998Status: At large. Mushin Musa Matwalli Atwah Mushin Musa Matwalli Atwah 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998Status: Killed April 12, 2006 along with 6 other militants by Pakistani forces in a helicopter gunship raid on the village of Naghar Kalai near the Afghan border. Villagers reported that armed men removed the bodies. Pakistan: Al-Qaeda militant killed near border, Associated Press, USA Today, Updated 4/13/2006 1:54 PM ET Was removed from the list by October 20, 2006; Atwah's death was confirmed by US officials on October 24, 2006, following DNA testing. One of FBI's 'Most Wanted Terrorists' confirmed dead, CNN.com, October 24, 2006 FBI Seeking Information – War on Terrorism list Whereas the Most Wanted Terrorists list is reserved for terrorist fugitives who have been indicted by federal grand juries, the FBI recognized a further need to achieve a much quicker response time in order to prevent any future attacks which may be in the current planning stages. To enlist the public's help in this effort, the FBI sought a way to deliver the early known suspected terror attack information, often very limited, out to the public as quickly as possible. So, on January 17, 2002, the third major FBI wanted list was first released, which has now become known as the FBI Seeking Information – War on Terrorism list. As the name of this list implies, the FBI's intent is to acquire any critical information from the public, as soon as possible, about the suspected terrorists, who may be in the planning stages of terror attacks against United States nationals at home and abroad. The first such list profiled five terrorists about whom little was known, but who were suspected of plotting terrorist attacks in martyrdom operations. The main evidence against the five was five videos they had produced, as found in the rubble of Muhammad Atef's destroyed home outside Kabul, Afghanistan. Additions to the list By 2006, more than four years had passed since the FBI had listed the original 22 terrorist fugitives on the Most Wanted Terrorist list. Of those 22, by then four had been qualified for removal from the list, due to death or capture. Also by then, some new high profile terrorists had qualified to be listed as Most Wanted Terrorists under FBI guidelines. Some of these new fugitives were wanted for indictments in attacks and plots that had taken place since the original list had been compiled. The original indictments had been for incidents only through 1998. But since then, the U.S. had become victim to at least two major terror attacks, which would generate some of the new indictments for the Most Wanted Terrorists, notably: USS Cole bombing in 2000, which killed 17 American sailors and wounded 40 on October 12, 2000 off the port coast of Aden, Yemen September 11, 2001 attacks in Manhattan, Washington D.C., and Pennsylvania In addition, after the original 2001 list had been compiled and released to the public, the U.S. had foiled and issued indictments for numerous other plots, involving some new listed Most Wanted Terrorists. Those notable other plots involved: Recent Escapees From Yemen Prison Added to Most Wanted Terrorists and Seeking Information - War on Terrorism Lists, FBI national Press Release, February 23, 2006 The Buffalo Six, a Buffalo, New York cell, or Lackawanna Cell, exposed September 2002 Palestinian Islamic Jihad, on RICO charges for plots based from Syria since 1995 Abu Sayyaf Group kidnappings and murders of foreign nationals in the Philippines So in February 2006, the FBI completed two groups of additions to the Most Wanted Terrorists list, the first such additions in over four years. Additions February 23, 2006 Photo Name Terrorist Activity Date of Activity Jamel Ahmed Mohammed Ali Al-Badawi Jamel Ahmed Mohammed Ali Al-Badawi USS Cole bombing October 12, 2000Status: Surrendered to authorities on October 16, 2007 Jaber A. Elbaneh Jaber A. Elbaneh Buffalo Six 2002Status: Captured in Yemen on May 20, 2007. Still listed as wanted as of January 9, 2008. Additions February 24, 2006 On February 24, 2006, the day after adding two name to the list, the FBI added an additional six fugitive terrorists, for various plots and attacks. One of the entries was for an indictment dating back to the June 14, 1985, hijacking of TWA flight 847 by Hezbollah (see above). In addition, the FBI also added to the Seeking Information – War on Terrorism list an additional three persons, most notably, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the notorious leader of Al-Qaeda in Iraq. FBI Updates Most Wanted Terrorists and Seeking Information – War on Terrorism Lists, FBI national Press Release, February 24, 2006 This marked the first time that al-Zarqawi had appeared on any of the three major FBI wanted lists. On June 8, 2006, ABC News reported that Abu Musab al-Zarqawi was confirmed to have been killed in Baghdad in a bombing raid by a United States task force. His death was confirmed by multiple sources in Iraq, including the United States government. Al-Zarqawi has often been confused with Ayman al-Zawahiri, who is one of the original FBI Most Wanted Terrorists on the list since 2001. The six fugitives added to the Most Wanted Terrorists list were: Photo Name Terrorist Activity Date of Activity Mohammed Ali Hamadei Mohammed Ali Hamadei TWA Flight 847 June 14, 1985Status: At large Ramadan Abdullah Mohammad Shallah Palestinian Islamic Jihad, on RICO Since 1995Status: At large. Abd Al Aziz Awda Abd Al Aziz Awda Palestinian Islamic Jihad, on RICO Since 1995Status: At large. Khadafi Abubakar Janjalani Khadafi Abubakar Janjalani Abu Sayyaf kidnaps & murders in the Philippines Early 1990s - 2000sStatus: Died of gunshot wounds on September 4, 2006. Philippine marines found the remains of his body on December 27, 2006. Death was confirmed by DNA testing on January 20, 2007 ABC News: ABC News Listed as deceased as of January 22, 2007. Removed from list as of February 21. Isnilon Totoni Hapilon Isnilon Totoni Hapilon Abu Sayyaf kidnaps & murders in the Philippines Early 1990s - 2000sStatus: At large Addition October 11, 2006 On October 11, 2006 Adam Gadahn was removed by the FBI from the Seeking Information - War on Terrorism list, and placed instead on the FBI Most Wanted Terrorists list. American Al-Qaeda Member Gadahn Charged With Treason by U.S., Bloomberg, By Robert Schmidt, Oct. 11, 2006 Also, on October 11, 2006, Gadahn was indicted on a treason charge by a federal grand jury in Santa Ana, California making him the first American charged with treason since 1952. American Al Qaeda Member to Be Indicted for Treason, Fox News, October 12, 2006 Photo Name Terrorist Activity Date of Activity Adam Yahiye Gadahn Adam Yahiye Gadahn Treason 2003-2008Status: At large. Addition April 21, 2009 On April 21, 2009 Daniel Andreas San Diego was added to the FBI Most Wanted Terrorists list in connection with two Animal Liberation Brigade bombings in Northern California in 2003. He is the second United States citizen, and the first domestic terrorist, to appear on the list. Photo Name Terrorist Activity Date of Activity Daniel Andreas San Diego Chiron and Shaklee bombings August 28, 2003 September 26, 2003Status: At large. Rewards Since 1984, the United States government has also used the Rewards for Justice Program, which pays monetary rewards of up to $5 million, or now, in some cases more, upon special authorization by the United States Secretary of State, to individuals who provide information which substantially leads to countering of terrorist attacks against United States persons. Through 2001, $62 million had been paid to over 40 people through this program. The Rewards for Justice Program was established by the 1984 Act to Combat International Terrorism, Public Law 98-533, and is administered by the Bureau of Diplomatic Security, within the U.S. Department of State. See also Terrorist incidents War on Terrorism Weapons of mass destruction Captured al-Qaeda Terrorists Abu Faraj al-Libbi Captured in Pakistan Abu Zubaydah Captured in Pakistan Mustafa Setmariam Nasar Captured in Pakistan References External links DSS Rewards for Justice FBI Most Wanted Terrorists currently listed page Report a Tip Capturing America's Fugitves AMW.com America's Most Wanted | FBI_Most_Wanted_Terrorists |@lemmatized banner:1 use:2 fbi:27 since:11 inception:1 october:13 main:2 title:1 web:1 site:1 page:2 group:5 wanted:20 terrorist:42 also:6 poster:2 fugitive:18 three:3 overlap:1 seal:5 left:1 u:7 department:3 state:26 similar:1 great:1 united:23 justice:5 federal:5 bureau:3 investigation:2 list:50 indict:6 sit:1 grand:3 jury:3 district:1 court:1 alleged:1 crime:1 terrorism:11 initial:3 form:1 late:1 immediate:1 aftermath:1 attack:16 contain:1 name:8 second:2 major:6 want:8 follow:2 ten:2 serve:1 companion:1 early:4 year:4 past:1 several:1 response:2 september:5 former:1 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